Canadians are so polite, they physically erased this humiliating loss for the American Army from existence, except for this small monument and museum overlooking the St. Lawrence River.
Click to expand photos
The Battle of Crysler’s Farm was fought on November 11, 1813 between American forces under the command of Maj. Gen. James Wilkinson and British forces commanded by Lt. Col. Joseph Wanton Morrison near Morrisburg, Ontario during the War of 1812. It was a complete victory for the British, and this, alongside another defeat at the Battle of the Chateauguay, persuaded the Americans to abandon plans to march on Montreal.
The American effort to capture Montreal in 1813 was known as the St. Lawrence Campaign, since it focused on militarily dominating the St. Lawrence River, at the border of the United States and British Canada. In September, Maj. Gen. James Wilkinson and 8,000 men departed from Sackets Harbor, New York and advanced east along the river, while Maj. Gen. Wade Hampton and 4,000 men advanced north from Plattsburgh on Lake Champlain. Hampton was defeated at the Battle of the Chateauguay on October 26.
Lt. Col. Joseph Wanton Morrison’s much smaller force of 900 to 1,200 men had pursued the American expedition to Morrisburg, where the two sides made camp on November 10. The next morning, battle occurred almost by accident when scouts began firing at each other, making both armies believe an attack was imminent. Morrison had chosen Crysler’s Farm because of its open terrain, while the Americans had to slog through swampy ground to reach the British.
As luck would have it, Maj. Gen. Wilkinson was sick, so Brig. Gen. John Parker Boyd was left in command. He attacked piecemeal, and with only 2,500 men. The American attack quickly faltered over rough terrain and a British counterattack drove them back. The American expeditionary force withdrew, leaving 102 killed, 237 wounded, and 120 captured. The British lost 31 killed and 148 wounded. Maj. Gen. Wilkinson was later accused of negligence during the campaign but was exonerated in a court martial.
The War of 1812, fought between the United States and Great Britain between 1812 and 1815, arose from a dispute over maritime trade and U.S. territorial ambitions on British Canada. The war went badly for the U.S., with British troops burning Washington, DC in August 1814. A late victory by Andrew Jackson at New Orleans led to the perception the U.S won the war, despite the Treaty of Ghent establishing peace without any territory changing hands.
Canadian Parliament designated Crysler’s Farm a National Historic Site in 1920, but in 1958 it was destroyed to make way for the St. Lawrence Seaway (seaway expansion also submerged several historic farms, villages, and cemeteries). Dirt from the battlefield was piled up to create a man-made hill, on top of which was raised the 1895 obelisk that formerly marked the battle site.
There is a reconstructed British encampment and interpretive center nearby. Camp figures and tents are made of painted metal and provide a neat photo opportunity. The center, called the Battle Memorial Building, contains artifacts from the War of 1812, as well as two life-size dioramas depicting moments from the battle.
Battle of Crysler’s Farm National Historic Site is adjacent to Upper Canada Village, at 13740 County Road 2, Morrisburg, Ontario along the St. Lawrence River. Free parking is available at a gravel parking lot on site. The grounds are open 24-hours, but the Battle Memorial Building is only open July and August, 10:00 am to 12:30 pm and 1:30 pm to 4:00 pm. Admission is free. Call 1-800-437-2233 or email firstname.lastname@example.org for more information.


N* variation within the Eastern Tropical North Pacific
MacMillan, Abigal Victoria MacLaine
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[Author's Abstract] N* is a summary parameter used to describe areas of the ocean as either sources or sinks of fixed nitrogen, with positive values denoting nitrogen fixation (a source) and negative values signaling denitrification (a sink). Nitrogen is a major limiting nutrient of biological productivity, so this parameter is useful to differentiate productive regions from decaying regions in the global oceans. I used this parameter to trace water masses by suggesting that the N* signature is a result of the age and source location of different currents. I predict that currents with more productive source locations will have more negative N* values due to increased decomposition of fixed nitrogen caused by breakdown of organic matter by bacteria within the water column. I also predict that older water masses will have more negative N* because the organic matter within the water column would have had more time to be decomposed by these bacteria. By labeling different water masses with separate N* values then levels of mixing could also be identified as a middle number between these end member quantities. I answered these hypotheses using data collected on a cruise of the Eastern Tropical North Pacific (ETNP) in spring 2012 and used this data to provide a more detailed picture of fixed nitrogen breakdown within this region.


The appellation "Classical music" is a broad, somewhat imprecise term in referring to music produced in, or rooted in the traditions of, Western art, ecclesiastical and concert music, encompassing a broad period from roughly 1000 to the present day. The central norms of this tradition developed throughout this period but reached their heights of complexity and development in the period between 1550 and 1900 due to the dissemination of music theories from theorists such as Anton Reicha as well as the musical compositions from composers such as Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven in what is known as the common practice period. Beginning in the Baroque era (1600-1750) expressing moods and emotions (affectations) via tonal logic and organizational structure became important concerns for composers. In addition a belief in the moral and ethical aspects of music became a concept that many composers adhered to.
With the decline of Rome and the ascendancy of Christianity in Europe during the third and fourth centuries, the seeds that would blossom into the great art of the Western world were planted deeply into the fertile soil of religious faith and practice. Arnold Toynbee's assessment that the Christian church was "the chrysalis out of which our Western society emerged," attests to the role that Christian thought played in the development of Western culture, musical theory, aesthetics, and axiology.
Genesis and early history
The early Christian church was a small, thus vulnerable group with the "mission" of converting Europe and thus endeavored to resist any association and influence of the surrounding pagan cultures. Early Christians felt this to be absolutely crucial to their cause and deemed it necessary to subordinate all earthy things, including music, to the ultimate goal of protecting the eternal condition of one’s soul.
The Greek philosophy (which came to the early Christian Church via Rome that music was a medium that had a cosmic connection to the forces of nature and thus possessed the power to affect human thought and conduct, was assimilated into early church culture and reiterated in the writings of several Christian philosophers, most notably Severinus Boethius (ca. A.D. 480-524) and St. Augustine (354-430 C.E.). Boethius' treatise, De Institutione musica, stood as an authoritative source of understanding for musicians of medieval times through the Renaissance with regard to the harmonization the physical world (musica mundana), the mind and body (musica humana) and tones/music musica instrumentalis).
The evolution of music and its integration into liturgical practice throughout the Middle Ages gave rise to new attitudes about music and its purpose and function; most notably the idea that music was to be the "servant" of religion. For the Church elders of the Middle Ages, music was deemed good only when it "opens the mind to Christian teachings and disposes the soul to holy thoughts." The church in the Middle Ages was highly concerned with the potentially “corrupting” elements of music and as a result certain factions within Church hierarchy felt that art in general, and music in particular, was inimical to religion.
Yet the aesthetic beauty and emotional power of music could not be denied. The medieval Christian concept that spiritual fulfillment and redemption was somehow hindered or obstructed by pleasurable things like music is one that troubled even the most enlightened practitioners of the faith. Consider Saint Augustine's observations on this dilemma: "When I call to mind the tears I shed at the songs of my church … I then acknowledge the great utility of this custom. Thus vacillate I between dangerous pleasure and tried soundness; being inclined rather to approve of the use of singing in the church, that so by delights the ear the weaker minds may be stimulated to a devotional frame. Yet when it happens to me to be more moved by the singing than by what is sung, I confess myself to have sinned criminally, and then would rather not have heard the singing."
As musicologist Daniel J. Grout observed, there is music in every Age that is not suitable for religious or devotional purposes and thus one should not be too quick to condemn the Church for its seemingly narrow and "timorous distrust of the sensual and emotional qualities of music." The Christian church, like the ancient cultures of Ages past, was merely making a distinction between sacred and secular art which it thought necessary to the process of inculcating its early converts with an ascetic principle that could endure and survive any corrupting influences.
There existed a prevailing thought that instrumental music could not elicit the spirit of divinity as well as vocal music, therefore instrumental music was, for the most part, excluded in liturgical services in the early church. This preference for vocal music was a significant factor as to why Gregorian Chant and plainsong became the predominant mediums for liturgical music for hundreds of years.
Like the philosophers in ancient China and Greece, many church composers believed that the act of creating music had innate divinity and that the assembling (ordering) of pitches, rhythms and structures could manifest “heavenly” properties.
Baroque composers and philosophers became increasing interested in the idea that music, mathematics and science possessed cosmic relationships. Pythagoras' discovery of the overtone series, with its mathematical explanation of sound production, was perhaps the most influential discovery in defining the theoretical aspects of Western music. These cosmic principles were thought to have emanated from God and as such had deep religious and spiritual connotations. For Johann Sebastian Bach, the greatest church composer, "The sole and end aim of figured-bass should be nothing else than God's glory and the recreation of the mind. Where this object is not kept in view, there can be no true music but only infernal scraping and bawling."
Baroque composers also became increasingly concerned with human emotions (passions and affections) and created music to "imitate" these emotions through tonal organization. Looking to the writings of Descartes and Sauveur who, in their investigation of man's psychological makeup, began to "objectify" certain emotions, Baroque composers initiated the practice of expressing specific emotions through musical means.
The Enlightenment, with its predilection for "natural law" and "practical morality" over supernatural religion and metaphysics, constituted a major shift in attitudes about music and the arts. The spirit of the Enlightenment was clearly secular with an eye for the egalitarian in all things. Public concerts, as opposed to private concert events (often sponsored by wealthy benefactors and patrons) were becoming more prevalent and as a result, music itself began to change. Music was to aspire to simplicity and avoid the complexity of contrapuntal devises and the excessive elaboration and ornamentation that was characteristic of the music in the Baroque period.
The social upheaval of the French Revolution in 1789 and the attitudes it engendered, specifically the primacy of individual rights, signified another important cultural change for music and musicians. Ludwig van Beethoven, who was literally a child of the French Revolution, asserted that as an artist he possessed the same basic rights of kings, the clergy and nobles. This attitude, coupled with anti-social behavior and self-absorbed turbidity, would become a defining trait among many artists of the Romantic era.
This attitude also requires the listener of music to be a more significant partner in the appreciation of music. Author Charles Williams states: "The word Romanticism...defines an attitude, a manner of receiving experience." Nietzsche echoed this stating: "In order for an event to have greatness two things must come together: The immense understanding of those who cause it to happen, and the immense understanding of those who experience it." As Grout suggests: "In a very general sense, all art may be said to be Romantic; for, though it may take its materials from everyday life, it transforms them and thus creates a new world which is necessarily, to a greater or lesser degree, remote from the every day world."
Beethoven personified the attitude that music was "a direct outpouring" of a composer's personality, his individual triumphs and tragedies. This became a prevalent Romantic notion among many artists of the late nineteenth century. The music of Gustav Mahler, perhaps the “most confessional” of composers, is highly representative of this particular Romantic ideal. The irony here is that as the egalitarian attitudes of Romanticism (its Zeitgeist) would give rise to the aforementioned anti-social attitudes among artists; a condition diametrically opposed to the philosophical tenets of antiquity. That said, certain aspects of Romanticism are akin to the ancient concept of "microcosmic relatedness," for Romantic art as Grout suggests, "aspires to immediate times or occasions, to seize eternity, to reach back into the past or forward into the future, to range over the expanse of the world and outward through the cosmos." Romanticism celebrates metaphor, ambiguity, suggestion, allusion and symbol and as a result, instrumental music, which was shunned by the early Church, is now favored over music with words due to its "incomparable power of suggestion" and mystery. It could be said that he invisible, vibratory world of instrumental music corresponds to the unseen, vibratory incorporeal world.
Schopenhauer believed that music was "the very image and incarnation of the innermost reality of the world, the immediate expression of the universal feelings and impulsions of life in concrete, definite form." Goethe's observation that "…the head is only able to grasp a work of art in the company of the heart," could stand as defining axiom for the cultural attitudes of the nineteenth century.
Musicologist Richard Norton notes that a prevalent theory has emerged among modern musicologists and theorists, which suggests that the "era of classic tonality" in the West was something "that had to happen." He points out that this concept, with its very definite ideological underpinnings, is a form of historical determinism and as such ignores the fact "that tonality appeared as and how it did through economic, social, political, philosophical, cognitive and aesthetic, as well as 'natural' means." It was neither accidentalism nor "natural law" that spawned tonality and its wider usage, but rather the synthesis of law (adherence to acoustic principles) and reason (the desire to find greater means of expression).
Twentieth Century Perspectives
It is evident that in the twentieth century the condition of art in Western culture has undergone a transformation that few could have envisaged one hundred years ago. The reasons for this transformation are many and varied including the influence of globalization, technology, media, multiculturalism, commercialism, the increased emphasis on visual media and various philosophical, ideological and sociological developments.
Perhaps the most significant philosophical change regarding attitudes about art, is that religion, for so long the "moral compass" of society, is no longer the potent force that it once was in guiding society in the matters of morality and ethics. This has resulted in what Allan Bloom referred to as a condition of "moral and cultural relativism." One result of an increasingly secular society has been that artists are seemingly less aware or unconcerned with the moral and ethical power of art and in many cases have slipped into a relativist mindset regarding their creative endeavors. The formulaic and serial modes of composing introduced by Arnold Schoenberg and the Second Viennese School introduced a decidedly intellectual rationale to composing in which science and mathematics were deemed progressive and preferable to the anachronistic methods of tonality and the philosophical attitudes it engendered. Coupled with the deconstructionist attitudes that came to dominate the philosophical landscape of the West, art music became increasingly marginalized as the perceptually opaque nature of the music found no large audiences and relatively few advocates. By the late 1970s, Pierre Boulez, perhaps the leading exponent of Post World War II modernism, declared that any attempt to make the legacies of past seem important was nothing more than a ruse. A hostility to all past traditions and rationale had become the raison d'etre of modern composition in the "Ivory Tower."
Schoenberg's prediction in 1948 that the public's resistance to atonality and "the emancipation of dissonance" would eventually diminish with repeated exposure proved false. Richard Turuskin's observation that the lack of an underlying "deep structure" born out of the subconscious (as with natural languages) led to a condition where the disconnect between the "content of the utterance" and the "manner of its delivery" becomes a constant irritant to those seeking to find meaning and pleasure in their encounter with music.
This view is reinforced by Leonard Bernstein in his music/language analogy in the Harvard Lectures. Alluding to Schoenberg's serial methods, Bernstein states: "The trouble is that the new musical 'rules' of Schoenberg are not apparently based on innate awareness, on the intuition of tonal relationships. They are like rules of an artificial language, and therefore must be learned. This would seem to lead to what used to be called 'form without content,' or form at the expense of content—structuralism for its own sake." For some musicians the "new ojectivity" that spawned atonal and hyper-intellectualized methods of composing with their emotionally arid characteristics, was antithetical to the philosophical legacy of their art form.
Consider the views of early twentieth-century German composer, Paul Hindemith, regarding the state of modern music in the first half of the century: There are composers "… who flatly deny the ethic power of music, nor do they admit any moral obligation on the part of those writing. For them, music is essentially a play with tones, and although they spend a considerable amount of intelligence and craftsmanship to make it look important, their composition can be of no greater value, as a sociological factor, than bowling or skating." Hindemith's concern was echoed by other prominent composers who shared his lack of enthusiasm for the dissonant utterances of atonal music.
Musicologist Leonard B. Meyer presciently predicted in 1967 that by the turn of the century there would be a plethora of musical styles co-existing with no "triumphant" style holding sway. Globalization, technology and increased cultural interfacing have proved Meyer's prediction of cultural cross-pollination and the resulting musical diversity correct.
By the early 1980s composers were turning to more "accessible" and ingratiating styles. Minimalism (Riley, Reich. Glass) Neo-Romanticism (Liebermann, Hoiby, Rochberg) and Neo-mysticism (Gorecki, Paert, Tavener) had supplanted the crabbed mannerisms of serialism and were finding favor with audiences. This diversity is a result of a cultural cross-pollination. Other prominent composers, such as Tan Dun, Roberto Sierra and Osvaldo Golijov, have incorporated their native folkloric elements into their music thereby contributing to the great pluralism that now exists in art music.
Definitions, styles and forms
Classical music is a term with three distinct meanings:
- The European tradition of music which is associated with high culture, as distinct from popular or folk forms (including works in this tradition in non-European countries).
- That tradition as well as similar non-European traditions.
- A particular stage in the development of the European art music tradition, centered in the late eighteenth century.
Background of Classical Music
This music evokes classical traditions, focuses on formal styles, invites technical and detailed deconstruction and criticism, and demands focused attention from the listener. It is written down using a formal notation and a work of classical music is usually defined by the notated version, rather than a particular performance of it. This music is associated with, and often compared to, fine art and high culture, sometimes leading to accusations of haughtiness and exclusivity being leveled at its enthusiasts. Nevertheless, many "classical" pieces were the popular music of their time, and have remained popular to this day. The public taste for and appreciation of formal music of this type is often described as having waned through the later part of the twentieth century and into the present millennium, particularly in the USA and UK, although it continues to thrive elsewhere in the world. Certainly, this period has seen classical music falling well behind the immense commercial success of popular music.
The term classical music did not appear until the early nineteenth century, in an attempt to "canonize" the period from Bach to Beethoven as an era in music parallel to the golden age of sculpture, architecture and art of classical antiquity (from which no music has directly survived). The earliest reference to "classical music" recorded by the Oxford English Dictionary is from about 1836. Since that time the term has come in common parlance to mean the opposite of popular music.
According to one school of thought, musical works are best understood in the context of their place in musical history; for adherents to this approach, this is essential to full enjoyment of these works. There is a widely accepted system of dividing the history of classical music composition into stylistic periods. According to this system, the major time divisions are:
- Ancient music - the music generally before the year 476, the approximate time of the fall of the Roman Empire. Most of the extant music from this period is from ancient Greece.
- Medieval, generally before 1450. Monophonic chant, also called plainsong or Gregorian Chant, was the dominant form until about 1100. Polyphonic (multi-voiced) music developed from monophonic chant throughout the late Middle Ages and into the Renaissance.
- Renaissance, about 1450 – 1600, characterized by greater use of instrumentation, multiple melodic lines and by the use of the first bass instruments.
- Baroque, about 1600 – 1750, characterized by the use of complex tonal, rather than modal, counterpoint, and growing popularity of keyboard music (harpsichord and pipe organ).
- Classical, about 1750 – 1820, an important era which established many of the norms of composition, presentation and style. Also, the classical era is marked by the disappearance of the harpsichord and the clavichord in favor of the piano, which from then on would become the predominant instrument for keyboard performance and composition.
- Romantic, 1820 – 1910, a period which codified practice, expanded the role of music in cultural life and created institutions for the teaching, performance and preservation of works of music. Characterized by increased attention to melody and rhythm, as well as expressive and emotional elements, paralleling romanticism in other art forms.
- Impressionist music, 1910-1920, a period in which French composers as well as artists produced art that went against the traditional German ways of art and music. Characterized by arrhythmia, the pentatonic scale, long, flowing phrases and a use of brass instruments as the main parts in creating the texture, rather than stringed instruments.
- Modern, 1905-1985, a period which represented a crisis in the values of classical music and its role within intellectual life, and the extension of theory and technique. Some theorists, such as Arnold Schoenberg in his essay "Brahms the Progressive," insist that Modernism represents a logical progression from nineteenth century trends in composition; others hold the opposing point of view, that Modernism represents the rejection or negation of the method of Classical composition.
- twentieth century, usually used to describe the wide variety of post-Romantic styles composed through the year 1999, which includes late Romantic, Modern and Postmodern styles of composition.
- The term contemporary music is sometimes used to describe music composed in the late twentieth century through present day.
- The prefix neo is usually used to describe a twentieth century or contemporary composition written in the style of an earlier period, such as classical, romantic, or modern. Stravinsky's Pulcinella, for example, is a neoclassical composition.
The dates are generalizations, since the periods overlapped. Some authorities subdivide the periods further by date or style. However, it should be noted that these categories are somewhat arbitrary; the use of counterpoint and fugue, which is considered characteristic of the baroque era, was continued by Mozart, who is generally classified as typical of the classical period, by Beethoven who is often described as straddling the classical and romantic periods, and Brahms, who is classified as romantic.
Classical music as "music of the classical era"
In music history, a different meaning of the term classical music is often used: it designates music from a period in musical history covering approximately Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach to Beethoven — roughly, 1730 – 1820. When used in this sense, the term is usually capitalized to avoid confusion.
The Nature of classical music
Classical music is considered primarily a written musical tradition, preserved in music notation, as opposed to being transmitted orally, by rote, or in recordings of particular performances. While there are differences between particular performances of a classical work, a piece of classical music is generally held to transcend any interpretation of it. The use of musical notation is an effective method for transmitting classical music, since the written music contains the technical instructions for performing the work. The written score, however, does not usually contain explicit instructions as to how to interpret the piece in terms of production or performance, apart from directions for dynamics, tempo and expression (to a certain extent); this is left to the discretion of the performers, who are guided by their personal experience and musical education, their knowledge of the work's idiom, and the accumulated body of historic performance practices. However, improvisation once played an important role in classical music. A remnant of this improvisatory tradition in classical music can be heard in the cadenza, a passage found mostly in concertos and solo works, designed to allow skilled performers to exhibit some of their skill. Traditionally this was improvised by the performer; however more often than not, it is written for (or occasionally by) the performer beforehand.
Classical music concerts often take place in a relatively solemn atmosphere, and the audience is usually expected to stay quiet and still to avoid distracting the concentration of other audience members. The performers often dress formally, a practice which is taken as a gesture of respect for the music and the audience, and performers do not normally engage in direct involvement or casual banter with the audience. Private readings of chamber music may take place at more informal domestic occasions.
Its written transmission, along with the veneration bestowed on certain classical works, has led to the expectation that performers will play a work in a way that realizes in detail the original intentions of the composer. Indeed, deviations from the composer's instructions are sometimes condemned as outright ethical lapses. During the nineteenth century the details that composers put in their scores generally increased. Yet the opposite trend — admiration of performers for new "interpretations" of the composer's work — can be seen, and it is not unknown for a composer to praise a performer for achieving a better realization of the composer's original intent than the composer was able to imagine. Thus, classical music performers often achieve very high reputations for their musicianship, even if they do not compose themselves.
Classical composers often aspire to imbue their music with a very complex relationship between its affective (emotional) content, and the intellectual means by which it is achieved. Many of the most esteemed works of classical music make use of musical development, the process by which a musical germ, idea or motif is repeated in different contexts, or in altered form, so that the mind of the listener consciously or unconsciously compares the different versions. The classical genres of sonata form and fugue employ rigorous forms of musical development.
Another consequence of the primacy of the composer's written score is that improvisation plays a relatively minor role in classical music, in sharp contrast to traditions like jazz, where improvisation is central. Improvisation in classical music performance was far more common during the Baroque era than in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, and recently the performance of such music by modern classical musicians has been enriched by a revival of the old improvisational practices. During the Classical period, Mozart and Beethoven sometimes improvised the cadenzas to their piano concertos (and thereby encouraged others to do so), but they also provided written cadenzas for use by other soloists.
Western Art Music is a term used synonymously with classical music.
Classical works often display great musical complexity through the composer's use of development, modulation (changing of keys), variation rather than exact repetition, musical phrases that are not of even length, counterpoint, polyphony and sophisticated harmony.
Also, many long classical works (from 30 minutes to three hours) are built up from a hierarchy of smaller units: namely phrases, periods, sections, and movements. Musical analysis often seeks to distinguish and explain these structural levels.
As with many forms of fine art, classical music often aspires to communicate a transcendent quality of emotion, which expresses something universal about the human condition. While emotional expression is not a property exclusive to classical music, this deeper exploration of emotion arguably allows the best classical music to reach what has been called the "sublime" in art. Many examples often cited in support of this, for instance Beethoven's setting of Friedrich Schiller's poem, Ode to Joy in his 9th symphony, which is often performed at occasions of national liberation or celebration, as in Leonard Bernstein's famously performing the work to mark the tearing down of the Berlin Wall, and the Japanese practice of performing it to observe the New Year.
However, some composers, such as Iannis Xenakis, argue that the emotional effect of music on the listeners is arbitrary and therefore the objective complexity or informational content of the piece is paramount.
Classical and popular music are often distinguished by their choice of instruments. The instruments used in common practice classical music were mostly invented before the mid-nineteenth century (often, much earlier), and codified in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. They consist of the instruments found in an orchestra, together with a few other solo instruments (such as the piano, harpsichord, and organ). Electric instruments such as the electric guitar and electric violin play a prominent role in popular music, but of course play no role in classical music before the twentieth century, and only appear occasionally in the classical music of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Both classical and popular musicians have experimented in recent decades with electronic instruments such as the synthesizer, electric and digital techniques such as the use of sampled or computer-generated sounds, and the sounds of instruments from other cultures such as the gamelan.
None of the bass instruments existed until the Renaissance. In Medieval Music, instruments are divided in two categories: loud instruments for use outdoors or in church, and quieter instruments for indoor use.
Many instruments which are associated today with popular music used to have important roles in early classical music, such as bagpipes, vihuelas, hurdy-gurdies and some woodwind instruments. On the other hand, the acoustic guitar, for example, which used to be associated mainly with popular music, has gained prominence in classical music through the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
Finally, while equal temperament became gradually accepted as the dominant musical temperament during the 19th century, different historical temperaments are often used for music from earlier periods. For instance, music of the English Renaissance is often performed in mean tone temperament.
One criterion used to distinguish works of the classical musical canon is that of cultural durability. However, this is not a distinguishing mark of all classical music: while works by J. S. Bach (1685 – 1750) continue to be widely performed and highly regarded, music by many of Bach's contemporaries is deemed mediocre, and is rarely performed, even though it is squarely in the "classical" realm. To some extent, the notion of such durability is a self-fulfilling prophecy (and therefore a fallacy), simply by virtue of the fact that classical music is studied and preserved at much higher levels than other music.
Influences between classical and popular music
Classical music has often incorporated elements or even taken material from popular music. Examples include occasional music such as Brahms' use of student drinking songs in his Academic Festival Overture, genres exemplified by Kurt Weill's The Threepenny Opera, and the influence of jazz on early- and mid-twentieth century composers including Maurice Ravel, as exemplified by the movement entitled "Blues" in his sonata for violin and piano. Certain postmodern and postminimalist classical composers acknowledge a debt to popular music.
There are also many examples of influence flowing the other way, including popular songs based on classical music, the use to which Pachelbel's Canon in popular culture has been put since the 1970s, and the musical crossover phenomenon, where classical musicians have achieved success in the popular music arena (one notable example is the "Hooked on Classics" series of recordings made by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra in the early 1980s). In fact, it could be argued that the entire genre of film music could be considered part of this influence as well, since it brings orchestral music to vast audiences of movie-goers who might otherwise never choose to listen to such music (albeit for the most part unconsciously).
Classical music and folk music
Composers of classical music have often made use of folk music (music created by untutored musicians, often from a purely oral tradition). Some have done so with an explicit nationalist ideology, others have simply mined folk music for thematic material.
Commercial Uses of Classical Music
Certain staples of classical music are often used commercially (that is, either in advertising or in the soundtracks of movies made for entertainment). In television commercials, several loud, bombastically rhythmic orchestral passages have become clichés, particularly the opening O Fortuna of Carl Orff's Carmina Burana; other examples in the same vein are the Dies Irae from the Verdi Requiem, and excerpts of Aaron Copland's Rodeo.
Similarly, movies often revert to standard, clichéd snatches of classical music to represent refinement or opulence: some of the most-often heard pieces in this category include Mozart's Eine kleine Nachtmusik and Vivaldi's The Four Seasons.
Classical music in education
Throughout history, parents have often made sure that their children receive classical music training from a young age. Early experience with music provides the basis for more serious study later. It is extremely rare for performers to reach a professional standard on a classical instrument if they did not begin to study it, or at least a similar instrument, from childhood. Some parents pursue music lessons for their children for social reasons or in an effort to instill a useful sense of self-discipline. Some consider that a degree of knowledge of important works of classical music is part of a good general education. The 1990s marked the emergence in the United States of research papers and popular books on the so-called 'Mozart effect': a temporary, small elevation of scores on certain tests as a result of listening to Mozart. The popularized version of the controversial theory was expressed succinctly by a New York Times music columnist: "researchers have determined that listening to Mozart actually makes you smarter." Promoters marketed CDs claimed to induce the effect. Florida passed a law requiring toddlers in state-run schools to listen to classical music every day, and in 1998 the governor of Georgia budgeted $105,000 a year to provide every child born in Georgia with a tape or CD of classical music. One of the original researchers commented "I don't think it can hurt. I'm all for exposing children to wonderful cultural experiences. But I do think the money could be better spent on music education programs."
Some of the Master Composers in the Classical Era
- Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach (1714-1788)
- Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750)
- Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827)
- Vincenzo Bellini (1801-1835)
- Luigi Boccherini (1743-1805)
- John Field (1782-1837)
- Christoph Willibald Gluck (1714-1787)
- Joseph Haydn (1732-1809)
- Johann Hummel (1778-1837)
- Saverio Mercadante (1795-1870)
- Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791)
- Gioacchino Antonio Rossini (1792-1868)
- Carl Stamitz (1745-1801)
- ↑ Julian Lloyd Webber's speech to the World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland stated that "Declining audiences, government cuts, disastrous CD sales, sponsors pulling out of the arts, fewer children learning musical instruments, and a total lack of interest from the general media, unless semi-naked bimbo violinists… are involved…. It is in stark contrast to music-making in the Far East, where there are still huge numbers of children learning instruments, healthy classical CD sales, media that take a real interest in classical music and, above all, concert halls that are packed with young people as a direct result of that media interest."
- ↑ David Laing, Soundscapes.info volume 2 (July 1999) The economic importance of music in the European Union includes comparison of the number of concerts, venues and musicians employed in classical and popular music. Retrieved May 26, 2008.
- Bernstein, Leonard. The Unanswered Question: Six Talks at Harvard Cambridge. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981. ISBN 978-0674920019
- Bloom, Allan. The Closing of the American Mind. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988. ISBN 978-0671657154
- Boulez, Pierre. IRCAM United States Tour Program, 1986.
- Boyd, Malcolm. The Master Musicians: Bach. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0195307719
- Burrows, John. Classical music. London; NY: DK Publications, 2005. ISBN 0756609585
- Forbes, Elliot (ed.). Thayer's Life of Beethoven. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991. ISBN 978-0691027173
- Fuld, James J. and William Lichtenwanger. The Book of World-famous Music: Classical, Popular and Folk. New York, NY: Dover Publications, 2012. ISBN 978-0486414751
- Gaines, James R. Evening in the Palace of Reason. New York, NY: Harper-Collins, 2005. ISBN 978-0007156610
- Grout, Donald J. A History of Western Music. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company, 2009. ISBN 978-0393931259
- Hindemith, Paul. A Composer's World: Horizons and Limitations. New York, NY: Schott, 2000. ISBN 978-3795700249
- Horowitz, Joseph. Classical Music in America: A History of its Rise and Fall. NY: W.W. Norton, 2005. ISBN 0393057178
- Jones, E. Michael. Dionysos Rising. San Francisco, CA: Ignatius Press, 1994. ISBN 978-0898704846
- Lebrecht, Norman. When the Music Stops: Managers, Maestros and the Corporate Murder of Classical Music. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996. ISBN 0684816814
- Lee, Sung Han. Explaining Unification Thought. New York, NY: Unification Thought Institute, 1981. ISBN 978-0960648009
- Libbey, Theodore. The NPR Listener's Encyclopedia of Classical Music. New York, NY: Workman Publications, 2006. ISBN 0761120726
- Meyer, Leonard B. Music, The Arts, And Ideas. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1994. ISBN 978-0226521435
- Nietzsche, Freidrich. Werke in Drei Banden. Munich: Carl Hasner Verlag, 1954.
- Norton, Richard. Tonality in Western Culture. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1984. ISBN 978-0271003597
- Taruskin, Richard. "Does Nature Call The Tune?" New York Times, September 18, 1994.
- Weiss, Piero, and Richard Taruskin. Music in the Western World. New York, NY: Schirmer, 2007. ISBN 978-0534585990
All links retrieved May 24, 2013.
- Classic Cat – download database for classical music
- ArkivMusic.com – find every classical CD and DVD in print.
- Classical.net – review, database and mailing-list resource
- Classical Archives – music, artists, composers, MIDI files
- Musikethos.org – project collecting free, legal MP3s of performances (licensed under CC) and promoting young classical musicians
- MusicWeb International – CD reviews, composer articles, timelines, concert and book reviews
- Music and Vision magazine – daily magazine about European classical music, illustrated with photos, sound and video
- Classical Music Forums and Information – articles, blogs and discussions on classical music
- Classical music in movies, listed by composer
- Classy Classical - a personal look at classical music by John Evans and Steve Newman
- Naxos Glossary of Music
- All Classical Online Radio - Listen to classical music online.
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The Pollution Prevention Program reports the environmental results of grants. These grants produce annual environmental results in pounds of hazardous materials reduced, BTUs of energy, water and dollars saved.
Source Reduction Assistance (SRA) awards support pollution prevention through source reduction and resource conservation work. SRA awards are issued to fund projects that support one or more of the P2 Program’s National Emphasis Areas – 1) Climate Change Mitigation/Prevention of Greenhouse Gas Emissions, 2) Food Manufacturing and Processing and 3) State or Community Approaches to Hazardous Materials Source Reduction. These areas will promote national environmental themes and strategies reflected within EPA’s P2 Program.
As authorized under the statutory authorities for this grant program, proposals must carry out project activities using one or more of the following methods – surveys, studies, research, investigation, experimentation, education, training and/or demonstrations.You may need a PDF reader to view some of the files on this page. See EPA’s About PDF page to learn more.


MSU researchers discover how deadly mites infiltrate honeybee hives
New research has revealed that Varroa mites, the most-serious threat to honeybees worldwide, are infiltrating hives by smelling like bees.
The Michigan State University-led study, appearing in the current issue of Biology Letters, shows that being able to smell like their hostess reduces the chance that the parasite is found and killed.
The parasites were originally found on Asian honeybees. The invasive species, however, revealed their versatility when they began infesting and killing European honeybees.
“The mites from Asian honeybees, or the original host, are more efficient in mimicking both Asian and European honeybees,” said Zachary Huang, MSU entomologist and one of the papers’ lead authors. “This remarkable adaptability may explain their relatively recent host shift from Asian to European honeybees.”
For the full story, please visit MSU Today.
Click to subscribe to our e-publications:Subscribe


A study on the relationship between the hydraulic conductivity and fines content of a liner material.
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Waste generation in Uganda is on a rise due to the increase in the population in the cities and stepping up of manufacturing especially with the production of oil and gas in the pursuit to achieve middle income status by 2040. Waste handling and disposal is therefore a growing concern in order to reduce on the pollution of the environment (air, water and soil) as Uganda and other countries in the world are parties to ensuring development takes place sustainably. Hydraulic containment is one of the methods used to handle the wastes to prevent contact between the wastes and water or soil. Compacted clays are commonly used on the bottom of landfills to act as sealants to stop migration of wastes to the underground water and soil. In a natural state, soil exists as a mixture of different soil types in different proportions. soil to be used a liner material it must have a good proportion of fines to give the desired value of hydraulic conductivity. In this study, the fines soil sample was mixed with sand in different proportions. Then the void ratios at MDD for the resulting mixtures were evaluated the using the standard proctor test. The oedometer consolidation test was then used to determine the hydraulic conductivities of the samples at different fines contents. The values obtained ranged between 4.6 x 10-11 m/s and 1.14x10-10 m/s.


Water Quantity and Quality
The way water moves in cities has large effects on both water quantity and water quality.
Urbanization can result both in too much water and too little water reaching streams.
In many cities, subsurface flow has nearly been eliminated as a result of so many paved or other impervious surfaces. So, instead of water gradually entering streams through subsurface flow, much more water from a storm enters streams quickly through overland flow.
Water flowing off streets directly into streams causes water levels to rise quickly, making streams much more likely to flood during heavy rains. In periods without rain, in contrast, streams have a tendency to fall below normal levels because of reduced subsurface, or soil, flow. This type of behavior results in streams being described as “flashy”—meaning their water levels rise and fall quickly.
Below are some of the negative impacts flooding can have on both people and wildlife.
Economic costs to communities and individuals from flooding can be high. Floods may risk human life, damage property, and wreak havoc on daily routines in urban areas—causing additional economic costs to people and businesses. Flooding in the United States alone costs about $2 billion per year. In a 2002 report, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency estimated that stormwater controls would save $14 million dollars annually.
Increased sedimentation carried by floodwaters leads to shallower streams that are more prone to flooding.
Stress to wildlife caused by changing stream dynamics reduces biodiversity in streams. In the figure at right (Source: Klein, R.D, 1979), an increasing percentage of impervious area due to urbanization correlates with reduced biodiversity in streams. Sedimentation, for example, results in shallower, warmer water with less available oxygen, which in turn creates a stressful environment for aquatic life. Sediments may also carry contaminants, including metals and organic chemicals, that are harmful to fish and other organisms.
Stream shape changes caused by flooding make streams more prone to flooding in the future.
Water washing off city streets, rooftops, eroded hillsides, and other urban surfaces will carry all sorts of things with it, including metals, dirt, and debris. Collectively termed contaminants, these materials are either dissolved in water or more commonly are attached to particles in water. Water-borne contaminants can be divided into a few basic categories.
- Plant nutrients, particularly nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P)
- Metals, most commonly copper (Cu), zinc (Zn) and lead (Pb)
- Organic chemicals primarily related to gasoline products, but also pesticides and industrial products used in manufacturing and construction
- Pathogens from animal feces
- Trash and debris, especially plastics
A quick way to assess how contaminated water may be is by measuring the amount of total suspended solids (TSS). TSS is a measurement of how many particles are floating around in water. A turbidity meter is used to quantify the amount of particles in a water sample, based on how much light passes through the sample. Whether these contaminants are “bioavailable” (can be taken up by plants and animals) depends on the chemistry of the water and how the contaminants are attached to other particles.
Contaminants can have a negative impact on both humans and wildlife including:
Beach closures caused by contamination, particularly from pathogens, can result in loss of recreational opportunities and economic costs to businesses that depend on tourism.
Behavioral changes in fish and other harmful impacts on wildlife have been connected to metal exposure. For example, researchers in Washington have observed that metals are particularly harmful to spawning Coho salmon, and copper has been shown to inhibit salmons’ ability to detect predators.
Built up trash and debris can clog drains, threaten wildlife, and be aesthetically displeasing.
Eutrophication of water because of excess nutrients may lead to suffocation of fish and other aquatic biota, as well as water unfit for recreation.
How soil can help
Soil can play an important role in removing suspended solids and dissolved contaminants before they reach natural waters. By slowing the movement of water down, soil gives sediments time to settle out and allows chemicals to adsorb to soil surfaces.
The amount of contamination in stormwater will depend on surrounding land uses as well as the frequency and duration of storm events. Runoff from an industrial site, for example, may carry more metals, whereas runoff from a golf course or residential area may contain more pathogens and pesticides.
Contaminants, their sources, and potential concentrations in runoff are described in Table 1 below.
So the question is...
How do we get our cityscapes to manage water more like a forest?


Milk is a nutritious food that is very good for the human body. Drinking milk before sleeping should or not? Perhaps this is one of the frequently asked questions by many people. In this article, agri will find the answer to this question.
Drinking milk before bed helps some people fall asleep faster
Milk is one of the foods that plays an important role in the diet of every person. Even for non-vegans. Drinking a glass of warm milk before going to bed enters the perception of many people with the notion that drinking milk helps to sleep well. Although this is an ancient tradition and is recognized by some. But we still need to look at it scientifically to understand the benefits or harms of this.
There have been studies in humans and animals that confirm that drinking milk or cheese products before bed can help some people sleep better. Milk’s sleep-promoting most likely comes from the psychological effects and effects of the chemical compound.
Drinking milk before bed promotes a healthy sleep cycle
Tryptophan and melatonin found in milk help you fall asleep more easily. tryptophan is an amino acid found in many protein-containing foods. It plays an important role in the production of neurotransmitters (6Trusted Source). Serotonin promotes relaxation and acts as a precursor in the production of sleep hormones. These substances help regulate circadian rhythms to prepare the body for a good night’s sleep.
The role of tryptophan and melatonin in sleep disorders has been well studied, and studies have found that supplementing with these compounds can improve sleep and reduce symptoms of anxiety and depression. may occur at bedtime (6Trusted Source7Trusted Source). However, there is no evidence yet that a glass of milk containing enough tryptophan or melatonin has a significant effect on your body’s natural production of melatonin.
Psychological effects of drinking milk
Many nutritionists believe that drinking milk helps to sleep well has nothing to do with the nutrition it provides. This is the psychological effect when you use milk.
Another theory is that the habit of breastfeeding before going to bed from an early age affects human psychology. These calming sensations signal to the brain that it’s time for bed, making it easier to fall asleep.
Milk contains several compounds known to support healthy sleep cycles. Plus, the psychological effects of a bedtime routine that includes milk can improve your ability to fall asleep. Drinking milk before bed is very beneficial. Therefore, you should add a glass of warm milk to your body before going to bed.


The Singapore River is a river in Singapore that flows from the Central Area, which lies in the Central Region in the southern part of Singapore before emptying into the ocean. The immediate upper watershed of the Singapore River is known as the Singapore River Planning Area, although the northernmost part of the watershed becomes River Valley. As the Central Area is treated as a central business district, nearly all land surrounding it is commercial. It is one of about 40 rivers in Singapore and its islands.
The Singapore River is approximately three kilometers long from its source at Kim Seng Bridge to where it empties into Marina Bay and finally the Singapore Strait; the river extends more than two kilometers beyond its original source at Kim Seng Bridge as Alexandra Canal, as far as the junction of Commonwealth Avenue. Here there is a break with Buona Vista Road where Sungei Ulu Pandan starts and flows into Sungei Pandan which in turn flows into the sea at West Coast Park. Thus, the source of both these waterways is in the [Queenstown, Singapore|Queenstown], Ridout Road Estate and Tanglin Halt area near Margaret Drive.
The mouth of the Singapore River was the old Port of Singapore, being naturally sheltered by the southern islands. Historically, the city of Singapore initially grew around the port so the river mouth became the centre of trade, commerce and finance. To this day, area around the old Singapore River mouth, the Downtown Core, remains the most expensive and economically important piece of land in Singapore.
Some of the temples, shrines and other places of worship still stand in the vicinity of the river. Bridges such as Anderson Bridge, Elgin Bridge and Cavenagh Bridge still remain, the Merlion, the shophouses, and the large trees such as Banyan and Madras Thorn. Some parts of this area include quays such as Clarke Quay, Boat Quay and Robertson Quay, which generated trade and extensive demand for services with the boats that landed at the quays. Boat Quay itself was handling three quarters of the shipping service in the 1860s. Shophouses and warehouses flourished around the quays due to their proximity to trade during the colonial era, but presently house various bars, pubs and restaurants, as well as antique shops.
When Sir Stamford Raffles landed in Singapore in 1819, he realised the importance of the river for, in the same year of 1819, the north bank was drained for government buildings and, in 1822, the south bank was reclaimed and a retaining wall and steps were built.
Through lack of knowledge or foresight, the bridges were constructed too low and the river was too shallow for the demands that were to be made on its use. This historic river, which Raffles had fashioned from salt marshes, sand bars and mangrove swamps, has witnessed the British rule and the Japanese occupation, and has supported years of economic activity by the Chinese, Malays, Indians and others.
Old maps of the river state that it actually originates from Bukit Larangan (currently Fort Canning Hill).
Pollution and cleanup
Starting in the 1819s, there was heavy traffic on the Singapore River due to rapid urbanization and expanding trade. At the same time, it brought in water pollution caused by the disposal of garbage, sewage and other by-products of industries located along the river's banks. The sources of water pollution into the Singapore River and Kallang Basin included pig wastes from pig and duck farms, unsewered premises, street hawkers and vegetable wholesaling. Riverine activities such as transport, boat building and repairs were also found along the Singapore River. Some 750 lighters plied along the Singapore River and Kallang Basin in 1977. Waste, oil spills and wastewater from these boats and lighters added to the pollution of the rivers.
Singapore River today
Whereas the original mouth of the Singapore River emptied into Singapore Straits and its southern islands before major land reclamation took place, the Singapore River now empties into Marina Bay - an area of water partially enclosed by the reclamation work. The Port of Singapore is now located to the west of the island, using most of the south-west coast, and passenger ships to Singapore now typically berth at the Singapore Cruise Centre at Harbourfront. Thus the Singapore River's economic role has shifted away from one that of trade, towards more a role accommodated for tourism and aesthetics for the commercial zone which encloses it.
Notable statues include:
- First Generation, made by Chong Fah Cheong
- Fishing at Singapore River, made by Chern Lian Shan
- The River Merchants, made by Aw Tee Hong
- A Great Emporium, made by Malcolm Koh
- From Chettiars to Financiers, made by Chern Lian Shan
- Singapura Cats, made by various artists
|Library resources about
- "Singapore River". Heritage Trails. Retrieved 2010-04-01.


Contingency is a concept which points out that something could be this way, but also another way. Something is contingent, when it is neither certain or excluded. As, in the world, most things could also be different than they are (i.e. different people or the weather), all systems (psyche, groups, organisations) require the ability to choose, to focus, to ignore, to organise, to develop expectations and to allow oneself to be disappointed and much more. Systems shape the world by deciding what differences they make and maintain (I am a manager and not a farmer, we are a business and not a golf club, we produce glass for windows, not laxatives). Systems can only alter the world to a limited degree, but they can alter which environment they choose and how they react to it. Thus, contingency enables possibilities of choice in the world, and through this it creates responsibility and freedom. However, what is also linked to the contingency of the world is that insecurity is an avoidable phenomenon for all systems. Insecurity must, therefore, be transformed, to a degree, into security, if systems wish to endure.


Study: ADHD is Second Most Impactful Health Condition for U.S. Children
The diagnosis rate for childhood ADHD rose 31 percent between 2010 and 2017, according to a new Blue Cross Blue Shield Association study that also revealed an alarming trend: incomplete treatment for half of all children with ADHD.
April 1, 2019
Pediatric attention deficit disorder (ADHD or ADD) diagnosis rates continue to climb — up 31% from 2010 to 2017 among Americans aged 2 to 18 years old, according to a recently published study by the Blue Cross Blue Shield Association.1 In its eight-year study, the company covering one in three insured Americans found that age, gender, and geography all influence the likelihood of an ADHD diagnosis. Middle school students have the highest diagnosis rate (9.0%) and boys are twice as likely as girls to be diagnosed. The highest diagnosis rates were found in the South (7.3 to 11%) and the lowest were in the West (3.1 to 5.1%).
The study found that nearly four out of every ten children with ADHD also have an additional behavioral health condition. Nearly 10 percent of middle-school students and 25% of high-school students with ADHD also had depression. For anxiety, these numbers were 23% and 31%, respectively. Learning disorders (26%) were the most common among preschool students with ADHD; LDs were just as prevalent as disruptive behavior disorders (12%) among elementary school students.
In 2017, approximately half of all children with ADHD received treatment comprising medication only. Only 27% were treated with both medication and behavioral therapy, the recommended first-line treatment for young patients and recommended complement to medication, according to the American Academy of Pediatrics.2 The largest population of children receiving only medication resides in the South.
According to the Blue Cross Blue Shield researchers, “(ADHD) accounts for 16 percent of the impact all health conditions have on Generation Z (0-19 years old).”
1 The Impact of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder on the Health of America’s Children. Blue Cross Blue Shield. (Mar. 2019) https://www.bcbs.com/the-health-of-america/reports/impact-of-adhd-attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-on-health-of-americas-children
2 Subcommittee on Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, Steering Committee on Quality Improvement and Management. “ADHD: Clinical Practice Guideline for the Diagnosis, Evaluation, and Treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Children and Adolescents.” American Academy of Pediatrics Clinical Practice Guideline. Vol. 128. https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/128/5/1007 and
ADHD Treatment Recommendations. Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (Sep. 2018) https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/adhd/guidelines.html
Updated on May 16, 2019


Gender Stereotypes in "Pride and Prejudice"
$19.95 Buy and instantly download this paper now
The paper discusses how the novel "Pride and Prejudice" was a commentary of its time, and although by today's standards the women seem old-fashioned and suppressed, there is evidence to support claims that Austen broke free of some gender stereotypes in her work. The paper relates that the fact that Austen wrote at all was a breach of convention and furthermore, she stepped into the territory of satire that was considered the exclusive domain of male writers. The paper looks at the characters of Mr. and Mrs. Bennett and addresses Mrs. Bennett's hope that her daughters marry well. The paper also looks at the character of Elizabeth, or Lizzie, who is the most spirited of the Bennett daughters and most favored by her father. The paper points out that Austen's use of laughter so frequently throughout her novel speaks to the author's desire to break free from stereotypical constraints dictating what a woman could and could not write.
From the Paper:"The fact that Austen wrote at all was a breach of convention. She wrote at a time "when English society associated a female's entrance into the public sphere with a reprehensible loss of femininity" (SparkNotes). During her lifetime, only Austen's family was aware that she was a writer; writing for publication was something that ladies did not do. Not only did Austen write, she stepped into territory that was considered the exclusive domain of male writers: satire. Wylie writes "The overt lesson of Austen's satire is that male supremacy is no joke but rather a force to be reckoned with..." (62)
"Interpreted at face value, the character of Mrs. Bennett is foolish and shallow. When the reader meets her on the first page of the novel, she eagerly tells her husband about a well-to-do new neighbor whom she hopes will marry one of their daughters. Mrs. Bennett is keen to pay a visit on Bingley. Mr. Bennett dismisses her bemusedly by telling her "You and the girls may go..." (2). He is both granting his permission and absolving himself of any responsibility for helping his daughters fulfill society's expectation that they find husbands. He tells Mrs. Bennett he gives his consent to Bingley for marrying "whichever he chooses of the girls" (n.p.). It does not matter; the girls are easily interchangeable, though Bennett concedes Elizabeth "has something more of quickness than her sisters" (n.p.)."
Sample of Sources Used:
- Austen, Jane. Pride and Prejudice. Amazon: Kindle Edition. n.d.
- Carr, Jean Ferguson. "The Polemics of Incomprehension: Mother and Daughter in Pride andPrejudice. Nineteenth-Century Literature Criticism. Ed. Russel Whitaker Vol. 150. Detroit: Gale, 2005.
- Casal, Elvira. "Laughing at Mr. Darcy: Wit and Sexuality in Pride and Prejudice." Persuasions: The Jane Austen Journal 22.1 (2001). Web. 13 Apr. 2011.
- Salbert, Cecilia. "'Excuse My Interference': Meddling in Pride and Prejudice. Persuasions: The Jane Austen Journal 21.2 (2000). Web. 13 Apr. 2011.
- SparkNotes Editors. "SparkNote on Pride and Prejudice." SparkNotes.com. SparkNotes LLC. 2007. Web. 13 Apr. 2011.
Cite this Analytical Essay:
Gender Stereotypes in "Pride and Prejudice" (2013, May 29) Retrieved October 22, 2019, from https://www.academon.com/analytical-essay/gender-stereotypes-in-pride-and-prejudice-153412/
"Gender Stereotypes in "Pride and Prejudice"" 29 May 2013. Web. 22 October. 2019. <https://www.academon.com/analytical-essay/gender-stereotypes-in-pride-and-prejudice-153412/>


October is Breast Cancer Awareness month. This means the debate over mammograms is ushered in for a brutal 30-days while the NFL wears pink shoes. But oddly, breast cancer death rates have declined sharply in recent years, according to a new report. Chemotherapy is being given the greatest portion of the credit. As well, so have mammograms.
According to the Washington Post.
Breast cancer death rates increased by 0.4 percent per year from 1975 to 1989, according to the study. After that, mortality rates decreased rapidly, for a 39 percent drop overall through 2015. The report, the latest to document a long-term reduction in breast-cancer mortality, attributed the declines to both improvements in treatments and to early detection by mammography.
Deanna Attai, a breast cancer surgeon at the University of California at Los Angeles who was not involved in the study, said the advances in treatment included much better chemotherapy regimens — developed in the 1980s and refined ever since — that are administered post-surgery to reduce the risk of recurrence. Other improvements have included tamoxifen, an anti-estrogen agent that was approved in the late 1970s; Herceptin, a drug used to treat tumors with a higher-than-normal level of a protein called HER2 and drugs called aromatase inhibitors.
Breast cancer remains the most diagnosed cancer on earth. And that continues to make it the target of pharmaceutical campaigns that are at times, considered controversial. Many feel that the Susan G. Komen Foundation is a scam. While the charity does have a high rating on Charity Navigator, many other sources condemn the charity as being more nefarious than meets the eye. The website thinkbeforepink.com outlines what they feel are reasons to avoid the charity.
So what do you think is the reason for breast cancer death rates declining?


A hands-on guide to design patterns for Java platform developers.
Increasingly, developers are recognizing the value of design patterns in helping to create more robust, scalable, reliable, and maintainable applications. Now there's a book that can help you bring the power of patterns to your Java-based projects.
Sun Microsystems experts Steve Stelting and Olav Maassen bring together today's best pattern-based techniques and demonstrate pattern use for a variety of business systems. This practical guide features proven techniques for all types of patterns, from system architecture to single classes
After briefly reviewing the fundamentals of design patterns, the authors describe how these patterns can be applied effectively to the Java platform. Next, they provide a pattern catalog, organized into four major categoriesthe creational, behavioral, structural, and system patterns. In addition, they identify patterns and present techniques for pattern use in the core Java APIs as well as the APIs for distributed development.
APIs covered include:
Applied Java Patterns also features a section on pattern use in systems built with J2EE and JINI technologies, and coverage of the servlet, JSP, EJB, and JavaSpaces APIs.
Without a doubt, this accessible and up-to-date guide can help you enhance your Java platform programming skills.
As an aid to your work with Applied Java Patterns, we are making available for download the book's source code and figures.
For your convenience, you can download the complete set of code examples from the book in a compressed archive. The code is available in three compression formats:
You can download .zip archives of images related to the code examples in the book via the links below.
Why We Wrote This Book. What This Book Is About. Who Should Read This Book? Conventions Used. How This Book Is Organized. How to Use This Book. Companion Web Site. Acknowledgments.
Why Patterns? History of the Patterns Movement. Basic Concepts in Patterns. Software Abstraction and Reuse. Summary.
COMMONLY USED PATTERNS.1. Creational Patterns.
Introduction to Creational Patterns. Abstract Factory. Builder. Factory Method. Prototype. Singleton.2. Behavioral Patterns.
Introduction to Behavioral Patterns. Chain of Responsibility. Command. Interpreter. Iterator. Mediator. Memento. Observer. State. Strategy. Visitor. Template Method.3. Structural Patterns.
Introduction to Structural Patterns. Adapter. Bridge. Composite. Decorator. Façade. Flyweight. Half-Object Plus Protocol (HOPP). Proxy.4. System Patterns.
Introduction to System Patterns. Model-View-Controller (MVC). Session. Worker Thread. Callback. Successive Update. Router. Transaction.
II. PATTERNS IN THE JAVA PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE.5. Introduction to Java Programming Language Patterns.
Event Handling. JavaBeans. AWT and Swing — The Graphical User Interface APIs. Collections Framework. Input-Output (I/O). Reflection.7. Distributed Technologies.
Java Naming and Directory Interface (JNDI). JDBC. RMI. CORBA.8. Jini and J2EE Architectures.
Jini. Java 2, Enterprise Edition (J2EE). Servlets and JSPs. Enterprise JavaBeans.Appendix A: Full Code Examples.
System Requirements. Creational Pattern Code Examples. Abstract Factory. Builder. Factory Method. Prototype. Singleton. Chain of Responsibility. Command. Interpreter. Iterator. Mediator. Memento. Observer. State. Strategy. Visitor. Template Method. Adapter. Bridge. Composite. Decorator. Façade. Flyweight. Half-Object Plus Protocol (HOPP). Proxy. Model-View-Controller (MVC). Session. Worker Thread. Callback. Successive Update. Router. Transaction.Appendix B: Bibliography.
During the many Java programming language courses we teach, we have found that only a few programmers know what design patterns are when asked. About one in ten is able to name a few patterns off the top of his or her head. Of course, the concepts behind the patterns are familiar to many programmers. When we demonstrate patterns in the classroom, developers know and recognize them.
We decided to create a pattern catalog for the Java programming language developers who understand at a basic level why patterns are a good idea, and are interested in applying them, but want a practical, hands-on guide to just how and why to use each individual pattern. We've kept the book casual and frank in tone, and included full working Java code examples for each.
We will have succeeded when you complete this book having not only learned about design patterns and the Java programming language, but having had fun reading it, as well.What This Book Is About
This book will teach you the essential design patterns and how you can use them in your Java application. Furthermore, this book will show you where patterns are used in Java technology APIs and why they were used.Who Should Read This Book
This book is intended for experienced Java programmers who want to build better applications. You should be comfortable with the Java programming language and be familiar with most of the basic Java APIs. Some knowledge of UML is useful, but not required. We recommend UML Distilled by Martin Fowler as a UML reference.How This Book Is Organized
This book is divided into two parts. Part I, "Commonly Used Patterns," is organized like a pattern catalogue, reference-style.
Chapter 1: "Creational Patterns" on page 3 discusses patterns that create objects: Abstract Factory, Builder, Factory Method, Prototype, and Singleton.
Chapter 2: "Behavioral Patterns" on page 39 is focussed on the patterns that can determine the behavior of your object model: Chain of Responsibility, Command, Interpreter, Iterator, Mediator, Memento, Observer, State, Strategy, Template Method, and Visitor.
Chapter 3: "Structural Patterns" on page 139 describes patterns that can bring structure to your application and has the following patterns: Adapter, Bridge, Composite, Decorator, Facade, Flyweight, HOPP, and Proxy.
Chapter 4: "System Patterns" on page 205 describes the patterns that help you build better architectures: Callback, Router, MVC, Session, Successive Update, Transaction, and Worker Thread.
Part II, "Patterns in the Java Programming Language," presents many of the Java APIs and shows the use of patterns in those API and their benefit.
Chapter 6: "Java Core APIs" on page 279 provides an overview in the familiar core APIs like Event Handling, JavaBeansTM, AWT and Swing, Collections, Input/Output, and Reflection.
Chapter 7: "Distributed Technologies" on page 303 describes selected distributed APIs and how patterns are used: JNDI, JDBC, RMI, and CORBA.
Chapter 8: "Jini and J2EE Architectures" on page 317 focuses on the two complementary frameworks Jini and J2EE. J2EE is further divided into Servlets, JSP and EJB technologies.How to Use This Book
There are several ways to read this book. You could start at page one and read from cover to cover. However, we recommend you start with some of the easier patterns: Factory Method, Singleton, Observer, and Composite. Work your way through the book using those as starting points for your exploration. Alternatively, you might want to turn to sections in Part II first. Find an API you are familiar with and start looking for patterns there.
You can read the patterns in any order you feel most comfortable with. Later, you can use this book as a reference to refresh your memory when you want to put your knowledge of patterns into practice.Companion Web Site
This book has a companion Web site to provide you with updates and other material: it is located at
Below you will find the current errata list pertaining to the code examples in the book. You can download all of the code updates in a .zip archive.
p. 163, Example 3.10: Deliverable.java required (Composite)
p. 164, Example 3.12: Project.java incorrectly repeated. DELETE THIS.
p. 363, Example A.31: RunPattern.java required.
p. 439, Example A.127: DataRetriever.java required.
p. 439, Example A.128: RunPattern.java required.
p. 447, Example A.137: RunPattern.java required.
p. 453, Example A.145: Deliverable.java required.
p. 454, Example A.147: Project.java.
p. 506, Example A.204: RunPattern.java required.


All great beer begins with the mash. So what actually happens when we’re mashing grain? In a nutshell, the mash is a process in which malted grains are mixed with water at a specific ratio, temperatures, and pH in order to activate the enzymes in the malt and convert the starches in the grain into fermentable sugars. If grain goes unmalted, then the starches bound in the grain are inaccessible to yeast due to the size of the molecule. This can sometimes be desirable, however, as those unfermentable compounds add body and such.
For the beginning brewer, a single infusion is the easiest mash profile to start with. A Single Infusion Mash describes mashes in which you bring a single volume of strike water to a single desired temperature and you hold the mash within these parameters for at least one hour. After your mash has finished, then you will drain the mash and either sparge or begin your boil. This is by far the easiest and most common mash profile used. The Single Infusion refers to the fact that you are working with one single addition (infusion) of water for the entire mash process.
A Step Mash is differentiated from a Single Infusion Mash in that a step mash will require multiple water additions and/or multiple temperature ranges. There are several reasons to perform a step mash. One of these is the fact that there are certain grains that require a more robust treatment in order to yield fermentable sugars, break down compounds, or otherwise address some aspect of the grain’s properties. Some say that a step mash isn’t necessary any more with the well-modified malts that we have now, but I feel I have more control over the body of a beer using a step mash. The reason for this is that between 130-150˚ F beta amylase is produced. This enzyme is responsible for creating non-fermentable sugars. At 140-160˚ F alpha amylase is produced. This enzyme is responsible for creating fermentable sugars. What this means is during the step mash you can have a rest at 130-139° F and produce more non-fermentable sugars to help create more body in your beer.
After brewing for several years and trying both methods, it’s my opinion that I have more control on the final output of a beer using a step mash. Although it takes almost twice as long using a step mash than a single infusion, the quality is better. There have been a number of recently released products in the Brewing World that make both single infusion and step mashes easier than ever to perform! Check out the Brewer’s Edge Mash and Boil Unit and The Grainfather for more info!


Slides in this set
Most chemical reactions are considered irreversible
the products that are made cannot readily be changed
back into their reactants.
For example, when wood burns
it is impossible to turn it back
into unburnt wood again!
Similarly, when magnesium
reacts with hydrochloric acid to
form magnesium chloride and
hydrogen, it is not easy to
reverse the reaction and obtain
the magnesium.…read more
What are reversible reactions?
Reversible reactions occur when the backwards reaction
(products reactants) takes place relatively easily under
certain conditions. The products turn back into the reactants.
A + B C + D
For example, during a reversible reaction reactants A and B
react to make products C and D.
However, products C and D can also undergo the reverse
reaction, and react together to form reactants A and B.…read more
Heating ammonium chloride
An ammonium salt can be made by reacting ammonia with
an acid. Some of the salt will decompose back into the
reactants when heated.
ammonia + chloride chloride
NH3 (g) + HCl (g) NH4Cl (s)
NH4Cl reforms in
NH4Cl decomposes the cooler part of
back into NH3 and the test tube
HCl gases when
Reversible reactions and dynamic equilibrium
A reversible chemical reaction is a dynamic process.
For a reversible reaction,
a state of dynamic equilibrium is said to be established when
rate of forward rxn = rate of backward rxn
Apparently, there is no change in the concentrations of
reactants and products.…read more
Concept of Dynamic Equilibrium
If conditions on either side of the fence are equally pleasant, an equal
number of sheep will be on either side of the fence, despite the fact that
sheep are constantly jumping over the fence. If one side is preferable
(sunny rather than rainy), there will be more sheep on the nicer side.…read more


In 2014, many of the world’s major companies buying, trading or producing palm oil and pulp and paper made a joint commitment to stop clearing natural forests by 2020. As the deadline draws near, how are these ‘no deforestation’ commitments progressing, and what effect are they having on forests?
Using LANDSAT satellite data to observe annual changes in forest area and annual expansion of industrial plantations, scientists at the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), including from the CGIAR Research Program on Forests, Trees and Agroforestry (FTA), are assessing the impact of corporate commitments to stop deforestation on the island of Borneo.
Borneo, a landmass shared by Indonesia, Malaysia and Brunei Darussalam, is home to some of the most diverse ecosystems on Earth. But forest fires and land conversion for logging, plantations and infrastructure development have reduced the island’s old-growth forest area by 30 percent since 1973.
Expansion of plantations for palm oil and pulp and paper has been associated with significant forest loss in Borneo, especially in Indonesia and Malaysia as the world’s leading producers of palm oil.
The ongoing research is looking at how pledges to stop this trend are having an effect, both inside and outside of plantation concession areas.
David Gaveau, co-creator of the newly updated Atlas of Deforestation and Industrial Plantations in Borneo, has been working on developing tools for buyers, traders, producers, governments and consumers to track industrial agriculture supply chains in Borneo, and monitor their impact on forests. He sat down with Forests News this week to discuss ongoing research, and what he and his partners have found so far.
What does it mean for a company to make a ‘No deforestation’ commitment?
When we talk about deforestation-free palm oil or paper, we are talking about products that have not been extracted from plantations established in place of forests. That is, where no forests have been cleared and converted to plantations. What this means in practice is that the products should come from plantations established on lands that have been cleared for other reasons, for example by wildfire, such as degraded shrublands.
A large number of palm oil and paper buyers and traders have already pledged to source only deforestation-free palm oil or paper, and in turn, the largest palm oil and pulp and paper producers have promised to stop clearing forests to expand plantations. Some made this pledge in 2013, with immediate effect. So in our research, we have sought to analyze whether those pledges, made with immediate effect, reduced overall rates of forest loss in Borneo.
Why are companies making ‘No deforestation’ commitments? Does it have any effect on profits?
Companies are making these commitments under pressure from consumer groups, environmental NGOs, and now even financial markets. For far too long, extractive industries made profit without respecting the environment. Times are changing.
How is a commitment monitored, and by whom?
Ideally, commitments should be monitored by tracking the palm oil back to the plantation where it was produced, and by verifying whether this plantation has been established at the expense of a forest, or whether it has replaced degraded, non-forested lands.
Have these pledges had an observable impact on deforestation rates in your research area in recent years?
Borneo is a major center for palm oil production. The area of industrial oil palm plantations in 2016 reached 8.3 million hectares — about half of the estimated global planted area of 18 million hectares. Old-growth forest area losses averaged 350,000 hectares annually from 2001 to 2016. By old-growth, we mean ancient forests that have never been impacted by humans, or forests impacted by timber extraction, but which have not been totally been cleared, and where the structure of a forest remains.
We showed in a paper published last year that the expansion of industrial oil palm plantations was responsible for 50 percent of all of Borneo’s old-growth forest area lost between 2005 to 2015. This number rises to 56 percent if we include pulpwood plantations. So, if producing companies stop clearing forests to expand plantations, deforestation should drop dramatically.
Our preliminary results from ongoing research suggest that recent corporate commitments to stop clearing forests in concessions of oil palm and pulpwood are associated with less conversion of forests to industrial plantations in Borneo, at least for oil palm and pulpwood.
We find that this company-driven deforestation peaked in concessions in 2009 and again in 2012, and has since been decreasing since 2012. In 2016, it had decelerated to 14-year low. This decreasing trend appears in Indonesian and Malaysian Borneo, and suggests that ‘No Deforestation’ commitments have slowed forest conversion within concessions in both countries. But that is not the whole story.
Despite this positive finding, the area of forest cleared since 2013 has in fact increased in Borneo. In Kalimantan — Indonesian Borneo — in particular, forests in 2016 were cleared at the fastest rate since 1997, with nearly 400,000 hectares lost that year. Much of this deforestation was caused by uncontrolled El Niño fires during late 2015, but appeared in 2016 satellite data because of cloud cover.
We find that much of this deforestation occurred outside concessions, and on peatlands, highlighting the urgent need to prevent peatland fires in the future, and to find solutions to deforestation outside concessions, where companies do not have jurisdiction. We also see a troubling trend in concessions where a lot of forest remains. In those forest-rich concessions, company-driven deforestation has not slowed, suggesting that ‘business as usual’ has continued in undeveloped concessions.
How do you measure or observe the impact of commitments on forests?
We have mapped then analyzed the area of forest converted each year to industrial oil palm and pulpwood plantations from 2001 to 2016, looking mainly at land under company management – that is, concessions. We use LANDSAT satellite imagery to monitor the annual expansion of plantations.
We combine this information with annual maps of forest loss also derived using LANDSAT satellites by Matthew Hansen’s research group at the University of Maryland. The Hansen dataset, as we call it, produces very accurate tree loss maps over the humid tropics, and combined with a good forest mask, reveals where old-growth forests have been cleared. However, this dataset does not tell us why forest has been cleared, or who cleared it.
By combining our annual maps of plantations with this forest loss dataset, we can extract the area of forest converted each year to industrial plantations by producing companies. This is what we call company-driven deforestation.
What about the effect outside of concession areas, or in nearby forests?
Deforestation caused by fire is even more dramatic in Borneo outside concessions, where it recently jumped by 400 percent to a 16-year high in 2016.
What plans do you have for researching this further, and drawing recommendations for action?
We now aim to understand other drivers of deforestation in the Borneo landscape. For example, we are quantifying the impacts of forest fires, and smallholder and mining activity. We aim to equip governments, NGOS and companies with the capacity to see the full impact of the human enterprise on Borneo forests, and to act accordingly to bring the rate of forest loss down to zero.
By Catriona Croft-Cusworth, originally published at CIFOR’s Forests News.
For more information on this topic, please contact David Gaveau at firstname.lastname@example.org.
This research forms part of the CGIAR Research Program on Forests, Trees and Agroforestry, which is supported by CGIAR Fund Donors.
This research was supported by UK aid from the UK government and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID).


If there’s a science fair coming up, this trumps just about any 2D poster. It’s a 3D topographical map of an inactive Slovakian volcano, Poľana. [Peter Vojtek] came up an easy way to generate SVG topo patterns using Ruby.
Topographical data is available through the MapQuest API. You should be able to model just about any part of the world, but areas with the greatest elevation difference are going to yield the most interesting results. The work starts by defining a rectangular area using map coordinates and deciding the number of steps (sheets of paper representing this rectangle). The data are then chopped up into tables for each slice, converted to SVG points, and a file is spit out for the blade cutting machine. Of course you could up the game and laser cut these from more substantial stock. If you have tips for laser-cutting paper without singing the edges let us know. We’ve mostly seen failure when trying that.
The red model explained in [Peter’s] writeup uses small cross-pieces to hold the slices. We like the look of the Blue model which incorporates those crosses in the elevation representation. He doesn’t explain that specifically but it should be easy to figure out — rotate the rectangle and perform the slicing a second time, right?
If you’re looking for more fun with topography we’ve always been fond of [Caroline’s] bathymetric book.


Blue bins and aluminum tins are two crucial components to MC’s recycling program conducted by the Critical Skills classroom in the H-building. Each Tuesday during fourth and fifth period, students from the class visit over 70 rooms on campus to collect plastic, glass, and aluminum from classroom bins. On average, five big trash bags full of recycling are collected on a weekly basis, with the funds going directly back to the Critical Skills classroom.
“The recycling program has been a staple of our classroom even before I was the teacher here,” Critical Skills teacher Sara Okleshen said. “It’s been a program that has been in place so that our classroom can earn money. It’s allowed us to be able to cook on Fridays, buy new things for our garden – we need vegetables, plants, fertilizer.”
This program not only contributes to the Critical Skills curriculum, but also provides MC’s only recyclable receptacles. This classroom on campus has joined with the AP Environmental Science Class to put into motion a paper recycling program that will commence in a few months.
“The idea behind the paper recycling is the same thing – we’re getting a lot of trash in our blue recycling bins,” Okleshen said. “A lot of people are throwing out their paper as well, so it’s pretty wasteful. Mt. Carmel actually does have a paper recycling bin in the back of the school by the cafeteria so we’re now going to start collecting that to help the environment. We’re not going to get any money from it but it’s a good thing to help the environment and keep MC looking great.”
However, for those unaware of the impact of the recycling program, Okleshen would like to provide a reminder on the proper usage of the recycling receptacles around campus.
“Please make sure that you’re just throwing aluminum, glass, or plastic,” Okleshen said. “Please don’t throw your trash in those bins, especially food because it really does smell and our kids are the ones that are sorting it. Although we use gloves and hand sanitizer and trash pickers, I’m also sorting it, everybody in the classroom is sorting it and it can be really gross so we just encourage everyone to remember to please recycle plastic, aluminum, and glass. It makes it a little bit easier.”
Ultimately, the program serves as a benefit to the Critical Skills classroom itself, the environment, and the students who collect the bottles and cans.
“It’s just a nice time to pop in; see different areas of campus,” Okleshen said. “It also works with making sure that we know where all the rooms on campus are and which teacher is in which classroom. All of the funds go straight to our critical skills classroom because we cook or we go out every Friday […]. On average, when we cook, it costs about $50 to $60 every time, so all of the funds go straight back to our students.”