Magnetometry is the technique of measuring and mapping patterns of magnetism in the soil. Ancient activity,
particularly burning, leaves magnetic traces that show up even today when detected with the right equipment.
Buried features such as ditches or pits, when they are filled with burnt or partly burnt materials, can show up
clearly and give us an image of sub-surface archaeology.
Soil is a complex build-up of material that is affected by many types of past activity. One of the most common is
burning: this can take place for a variety of reasons - deliberately or accidentally; in one location or spread
across an area of crop or woodland. Burning permanently changes the magnetic properties of the surrounding soil by
altering the magnetism of tiny iron particles. After this soil or stone has been moved, such as by ploughing,
earthwork construction or ditch infill, this activity can be traced by looking for variations in soil magnetism
against the general background of the earth's magnetic field. An area in which the soil has a slightly different
magnetic orientation to the surrounding earth can indicate the presence of sub-surface archaeology. Archaeological
features show up as higher or lower readings: deposits containing much burnt material (such as ditch fills) are
usually higher; stone walls usually lower. Magnetometry can normally penetrate up to one to two metres in depth.
In some cases, the magnetic properties of the soil can be altered by bacterial action. This is most common in wet
soil conditions, and therefore can also be useful archaeologically in locating old river channels, for example.
Magnetometry only works when past activity has produced a measurable pattern of magnetic contrast. Graves, for
example, rarely show up magnetically because they involve putting the same soil back into the hole very quickly
after it was dug out (but cremations are very magnetic). Magnetometry is also not possible where there is
non-archaeological magnetic contamination, such as metal fencing, iron refuse or traces of extensive modern burning.
An instrument known as a 'magnetometer' is required to measure and map traces of soil magnetism. There are various
types of magnetometer, 'proton' magnetometers were the first to be widely used, 'fluxgate gradiometers' are most
common at present; the latest 'caesium vapour' magnetometers are now making an impact.
The survey area is laid out in a regular grid, with each metre point marked on string lines. To avoid contaminating
the readings, surveyors must be free of magnetic materials, so watches, rings and credit cards must be left away
from the survey area. Their clothing must not contain metallic zips, buttons, studs or other such fastenings.
Readings are usually taken every metre or half-metre and then down-loaded from the magnetometer onto a computer
and plotted using a special graphics programme. The results are usually plotted in squares representing the
survey grid, with magnetic variations being represented by darker or lighter colours. When all the grid squares
are joined together, they give a full area picture of patterns of magnetism, which can then be interpreted
Return to Geophysics.


Significant portions of the greater San Francisco Bay region are comprised of sloping ground, and most of this land is subject to landslides and other types of slope failure. 75,000 landslides—ranging widely in age, size, and type and degree of activity—have been mapped within the ten county region. Depending on location, the number of landslides identified averages about ten per square mile and varies from zero to 40.
Google Earth File
This layer classifies the land as “Mostly Landslides”, “Few Landslides” and “Flat Land.”
Landslides (5 kB)
This layer is intended solely as an educational tool. The California Geological Survey produces State-mandated regulatory maps that show “Zones of Required Investigation” for landslide hazards. Google Earth software enables you to zoom in beyond the level of accuracy provided in these data layers.


Forest pests and diseases are a major challenge for U.S. forest sustainability in the 21st century
Guy Robertson, firstname.lastname@example.org
The National Report on Sustainable Forests—2010 identified forest disturbance processes, and insect infestations in particular, as the greatest single threat to the current sustainability of America’s forests and perhaps the greatest challenge for forest management in our generation. This is not news to many in the forestry profession nor to many other people who care about forests. The media is full of stories about the latest forest fire, the land it has destroyed and the lives it has disrupted. Less covered but still well understood by those paying attention are the deteriorating forest conditions that are driving major changes in our forests and, in fire prone areas, leading to bigger and more intense fires. Pathogens, drought, fire suppression, and a number of other factors all play their part, but it is the rapid increase in forest pests, diseases and invasive species in recent decades that is the clearest signal that forests as we have known them are under threat.
Forest pests and diseases are challenging traditional notions of sustainability
For much of the history of forestry the central question has been one of “harvest regulation”: when, where and how much timber can we harvest without depleting the forest resources upon which we rely? Those days are gone, at least in the United States. In fact, the total amount of U.S. land covered in forests has remained quite stable for close to a century, and the volume of wood growing in these forests is increasing. Now we face a much more complex problem involving the management of vast forest lands, some dedicated to timber production but most not, and all subject to both natural processes and human influences interacting over time and space. The forest pests and diseases that are the focus of this article are a perfect example of this management challenge. Whatever we do, these forces will substantially shape the forests of the future. Now, the key question for sustainability is not simply about how much wood we can take; it’s about how we can design our actions to limit damage to forest ecosystems and enhance the many different benefits we derive from them.
Data to inform discussions and decisions
A first step in responding to the problem is to develop the data needed to understand it. The Forest Service’s Forest Health Protection Unit [hot link] (FHP) has been working for over 60 years to inventory the various health threats confronting U.S. forests. The information they have developed was crucial to producing the forest health and disturbance indicators [hot link] in the National Report on Sustainable Forests. The key finding that pest-caused tree mortality had increased three-fold since the release of the previous Sustainability Report in 2003 emerged as the brightest red-flag in the 2010 Report. This finding masks considerable year-on-year variability, but the signal indicating substantial increases in insect activity is clear. We will be paying close attention to these statistics as we prepare for the publication of the next edition in 2015.
Figure 1 FHP surveyed acres of tree mortality due to insects and diseases 1998-2011.
Source: USDA Forest Service, Forest Health Protection. 2012. Major Forest Insect and Disease Conditions in the United States: 2011. United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service FS-1000. Washington D.C.
Dynamic and Complex Relationships
When interpreting aggregate national statistics it is important to remember that they represent a combination of many different insect and disease events, each with a unique set of characteristics and impacts, and each posing different levels of threat. The relationship of specific pests to other disturbance events and natural processes is also unique. Bark Beetles in the West, for example, attack drought weakened trees and alter fire behavior and risk. Gypsy Moth populations in the East are held in check by moist springs. While the Southern Pine Beetle is endemic and its numbers are declining, the Emerald Ash Borer was first discovered in America as recently as 2002 and is rapidly spreading through the upper Midwest. The future response of each of these pests (and those that are discovered in the coming years) to changing climate conditions can be predicted in theory, but the actual result on the ground is a substantial unknown.
Challenges for Management
Even without climate change, responding to the different pests, diseases and invasive species in our forests would present a major challenge for forest managers. Climate change increases the uncertainty, and the urgency with which we must develop appropriate responses. The U.S. Forest Service has identified the restoration of forest health and resiliency as a core element in its management of National Forest lands [hot link?], as have states, municipalities and other land managers across the nation. The problem of exactly how we do this, however, remains a central question. The answer to this question will emerge over time, but we can enumerate several “rules of thumb” to help guide us in the process:
Management has to adapt. In the face of change and uncertainty we cannot simply rely on business-as-usual approaches to forestry. Instead, we have to foster adaptive techniques for developing management actions that actually work in the specific settings where they are applied. This means a dedication to experimentation and a willingness to discard failed approaches.
Nature doesn’t always take care of itself. Through our impacts on climate, the introduction of invasive pathogens and species, fires suppression, and various other activities we have essentially altered every acre of forest in the United States. In many places, letting nature run its course is simply not an option. In others, we may rightly choose to let natural processes continue without management interventions, but we must anticipate the consequences and be willing to live with them.
Working with nature and people. Major ecosystem processes occurring over vast landscapes and long time-spans are not something we can tackle head on just with chainsaws and bulldozers, or with a single government initiative. But sustained collaborative efforts involving multiple levels of government, the private sector and individuals can yield positive results over the long run, especially if we work smart, channeling natural processes rather than simply trying to obstruct them.
Look beyond the usual boundaries (and suspects) of forestry. Pests and diseases affect trees everywhere, not just in our timberlands or national forests. Urban residents, farmers, and others benefit from the forests around them, they have a stake in the outcome, and they have energy, ideas and resources to bring to the table.
What’s natural? What’s sustainable?
As human influences and natural processes continue to shape and change the forests around us, the definition of what’s natural or sustainable will remain a moving target. In most cases, it will likely prove impossible to simply freeze forests in their current state, much less return them to how they were 100 or 200 years ago. As a result, questions about exactly which forest characteristics we want to sustain and which values we want our forests to produce will continue to engage forest professionals and interested publics for the foreseeable future. The options, however, will be limited and the outcomes, in many cases, largely beyond our immediate control. Forest pests and diseases will play a big part in determining the future evolution of forest ecosystems in our country and the options available to society to manage this evolution.


While it had a well entrenched upper middle class aristocracy of large and medium sized plantation owners, it had almost no one in an economic stratum above this level.
In a recent post at this blog, I summarized some of the key statistics, but didn't focus on it from an economic inequality perspective.
Economic Inequality In The South Before The Civil War
In 1860, there were about 22,100,000 people living in the Union states (400,000 of whom were slaves, about 2% of its overall population, of whom 340,000 were in Kentucky and Missouri) and 9,100,00 living in states that would become a part of the Confederate States of America (about 3,500,000 of whom were slaves, about 38% of its overall population). In the lowlands deep South including the Mississippi River valley, the percentage of the population that consisted of slaves was much greater.
There were about 394,000 slave holders in the United States in 1860. Only 8% of all US families owned slaves in 1860, but in the South, 33% of families owned slaves.
Only about 10% of the manufacturing capacity of the United States was in the South before the war. The Antebellum South was overwhelmingly an agrarian economy.The distribution of slaves among holders was very unequal: holders of 200 or more slaves, constituting less than 1% of all US slaveholders (fewer than 4,000 persons, 1 in 7,000 free persons, or 0.015% of the population) held an estimated 20–30% of all slaves (800,000 to 1,200,000 slaves). Nineteen holders of 500 or more slaves have been identified. The largest slaveholder was Joshua John Ward, of Georgetown, South Carolina, who in 1850 held 1,092 slaves, and whose heirs in 1860 held 1,130 or 1,131 slaves
These facts do not tell the story of a highly economically unequal society.
Plantations Were Not The Big
Let's start at the top.
Consider Joshua John Ward, the owner of the single largest plantation in the entire American South as measured by number of slaves owned. His plantation was in just one county. The total size of his operation was big, but not that big. He had about as many people working under him as:
* the general manager of a single location of a decent sized big city department store or Home Depot or grocery store;
* the CEO of Colorado's Broadmoor hotel;
* a modern U.S. Army Major (O-4) or Lieutenant Colonel (O-5) leading a battalion;
* the Ships Captain of a large cruise ship or Harrier Carrier small aircraft carrier;
* the chief of police in a city like Denver;
* the President of a medium sized U.S. university campus;
* the CEO of a medium sized, one location hospital;
* the owner of a small manufacturing company with a single plant (e.g. Boulder's Celestial Seasonings company that makes specialty teas) or general manager of a single factory in a larger manufacturing company;
* a superintendent of a medium sized school district;
* the City Manager or Mayor of a medium sized suburban city;
* the owner of a large construction company operating in just one city;
* the President of a small community bank or local credit union;
* the general manager of a single large hard rock mine at one location; or
* the owner of a cab company in a Denver sized city.
Was Joshua John Ward an economically successful man? Surely. But, his plantation would not have been a turnkey investment; he would have had to devote considerable time to actively managing it and by 21st century standards someone who actively runs an enterprise of that scale is right on the threshold between rich and merely upper middle class. Yet, he was the very epitome of the plantation owning aristocracy of the Antebellum South.
Only 19 families owning collectively 0.5% of the slaves in the American South, had enterprises even half the scale of Mr. Ward's plantation. Only a handful of plantation were in more than two or three counties and the vast majority were entirely within a single state. Not a single firm in the entire South had even 0.1% share of the entire cotton producing market in the American South.
The mean number of slaves per slaveholder in the American South was just under ten. About 70%-80% of slaves were at plantations with fewer than 200 slaves. The median slave was at a plantation with something on the order of 150 slaves give or take - an enterprise with a scale about 1/7th that size of Mr. Ward's plantation. One of the owners of one of the thousands of plantations of this size, again in a single county were comparable to:
* the general manager of a single location of a medium sized Big Box store like a Best Buy;
* the owner of a a handful of fast food franchises;
* a modern U.S. Army Captain (O-3) or Major (O-4) leading a company and some supporting units;
* the Ships Captain of a U.S. Navy Frigate;
* the head of the Parks and Recreation Department in a city like Denver;
* the President of a small liberal arts college;
* the CEO of a small community hospital;
* the owner of a dry cleaning chain in a single metropolitan area;
* a principal at a large urban high school;
* the City Manager or Mayor of a small city;
* the owner of a medium sized general contracting firm;
In short, firmly in the middle of the modern upper middle class, and not actually "rich."
The proportion of families that owned any slaves in the American South was similar to the proportion of families in modern American that have a college graduate.
Economic Inequality In The South After The Civil War
The . . . Confederacy fielded about 1,064,000 soldiers (about 19% of its free population and about 38% of its free male population of all ages). About half of the Confederate Army in Virginia in 1861 came from slave holding families and (per Wikipedia on Slavery in the United States) and more "enlistees rented land from, sold crops to, or worked for slaveholders." . . . Based on 1860 census figures, 8% of all white males aged 13 to 43 died in the war, including 6% in the North and 18% in the South. . . .
The war destroyed much of the wealth that had existed in the South. All accumulated investment in Confederate bonds was forfeit. Income per person in the South dropped to less than 40% than that of the North, a condition which lasted until well into the 20th century. Southern influence in the US federal government, previously considerable, was greatly diminished until the latter half of the 20th century.
An effective Union naval blockade captured about 95% of the exports from the Confederate states during the war. . . .
In the short run, the war destroyed almost all 8,800 miles of Confederate railroads while the Union added about 7,300 miles to its existing 21,800 miles of railroad. The war also destroyed almost all of the South's manufacturing plants, and almost all of its cotton production, and almost all of its exports (70% of the total for the nation before the war).The uncompensated loss of slaves due to the Emancipation Proclamation and the 13th Amendment, was in many cases (probably most) promptly followed by the loss of plantation land to carpet bagger lenders during Reconstruction.
Thus, in the Reconstruction and immediately post-Reconstruction South, the South saw a decline in economic inequality from what had already been a highly Jeffersonian economy, despite its stratification into quite rigid castes. The wealth of the South's historic upper middle class largely collapsed in favor of a new and far more complexly organized modern economic elite with a strong component of Northern financial and commercial interests.


The Braess Paradox
|What is the Braess Paradox?||The Original Braess Article and the Translation into English|
|Supernetworks Center Home||Braess Visit to UMass Amherst and the Center with Photos||Links|
|Removing Roads and Traffic Lights Speeds Urban Travel
Did you know that-
When 42nd street was closed in New
York City, instead of the predicted traffic gridlock, traffic flow actually
when a new road was constructed in Stuttgart, Germany, traffic flow worsened and only improved after the road was torn up?
These paradoxical phenomena are but two real examples of the Braess paradox, named after Dietrich Braess who, in 1968, noted that in a user-optimized network, when a new link is added, the change in equilibrium flows might result in a higher cost, implying that users were better off without that link.
The Braess paradox is as follows: Consider a simple
network with 4 nodes, a single origin node 1, and a single destination
node 4, as illustrated by the first network in the figure below. There
are 2 paths available to the travelers: path p1 consists of
links a and c, whereas path p2 consists of links b and d. Let
the user link cost functions for the links be given by:
|ca(fa)=10 fa||cb(fb) = fb+ 50|
|cc(fc) = fc+ 50||cd(fd) = 10 fd|
where fa denotes the flow on link a, fb denotes the flow on link b, and so on. If the travel demand for the origin/destination node pair of nodes (1,4) is 6, the equilibrium path flows are: xp1* = xp2* = 3, the equilibrium link flows are, hence, fa* = fb* = fc* = fd* = 3, and the incurred travel costs on the paths are: Cp1 = Cp2 = 83. Thus, no traveller/user has any incentive to alter his path since doing so would increase his travel cost.
Now, add a link e from node 2 to node 3 as shown in the second network above. Let the link cost function for link e be ce(fe) = fe + 10. The network is no longer in equilibrium with the original flow pattern, since a path p3 is now available consisting of links a, e, and d with a cost of Cp3 = 70. Since 70 is less than 83, the travellers would utilize the new path, resulting in a new equilibrium flow pattern. The equilibrium flow pattern for the new network is xp1* = xp2* = xp3* = 2. The link flows become fa* = fd* = 4 and fb* = fc* = fe* =2. The incurred travel costs on the used paths are: Cp1 = Cp2 = Cp3 = 92. Since the new equilibrium travel cost of 92 is greater that the original one of 83, the addition of the link makes every traveller worse off!
To learn more about Braess Paradox, see Professor
Braess' home page.
The Articles: Braess published his article in German, Über ein Paradoxon aus der Verkehrsplanung, in Unternehmensforschung (12, 258–268) in 1968. A Copy of the German Article is available on Professor Braess' homepage.
In 2005, Professor Braess asked Professor Anna Nagurney of UMass to assist him in preparing an English translation of the article. Ms. Tina Wakolbinger, then a Doctoral Student in Management Science at UMass (Dr. Tina Wakolbinger is currently an Assistant Professor at the University of Memphis) and a native of Austria, assisted in the translation. The translated article was published in the November 2005 issue of the journal Transportation Science. Click for a copy of the translation.
The Editor-in-Chief of Transportation Science at that time, Professor Hani S. Mahmassani, asked Professor Nagurney and Professor David Boyce of Northwestern University to write a Preface to the translation.
Homepage of Professor Dietrich Braess
Homepage of Professor Anna Nagurney
Homepage of Professor David E. Boyce
Last Update: February 28, 2009


Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is an anxiety disorder in which an individual suffers from unwanted repetitive thoughts and behaviors. These obsessive thoughts and compulsive behaviors are extremely difficult to overcome. If severe and untreated, OCD can destroy the ability to function at work, at school, or at home.
This part of the brain is believed to be the area of impulse control. People with OCD may have chemical imbalances in the brain that affect this area.
Copyright © 2005 Nucleus Communications, Inc. All rights reserved. www.nucleusinc.com
The cause of OCD is not known. It is believed to develop from neurobiological, environmental, and psychological factors. An imbalance of the brain chemical serotonin probably plays a significant role in the development of OCD.
OCD is associated with other neurological disorders, including:
A risk factor is something that increases your chance of getting a disease or condition. Risk factors for OCD include:
Symptoms of OCD are:
Although people with OCD know that their thoughts and behaviors are nonsensical and would like to avoid or stop them, they are frequently unable to block their obsessive thoughts or avoid acting on their compulsions.
Common obsessions include:
Common compulsions include:
OCD is usually diagnosed through a psychiatric assessment. OCD is often diagnosed when obsessions and/or compulsions cause an individual significant distress or interfere with the individual’s ability to properly perform at work, school, or in relationships.
Treatment reduces OCD thoughts and behaviors, but does not completely eliminate them.
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) reduce OCD symptoms by affecting the neurotransmitter serotonin. This function is independent of their antidepressant effects. Common SSRIs include:
Please Note: On March 22, 2004, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued a Public Health Advisory that cautions physicians, patients, families, and caregivers of patients with depression to closely monitor both adults and children receiving certain antidepressant medications. The FDA is concerned about the possibility of worsening depression and/or the emergence of suicidal thoughts, especially among children and adolescents at the beginning of treatment, or when there’s an increase or decrease in the dose. The medications of concern, mostly SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Re-uptake Inhibitors), are: Prozac (fluoxetine), Zoloft (sertraline), Paxil (paroxetine), Luvox (fluvoxamine), Celexa (citalopram), Lexapro (escitalopram), Wellbutrin (bupropion), Effexor (venlafaxine), Serzone (nefazodone), and Remeron (mirtazapine). Of these, only Prozac (fluoxetine) is approved for use in children and adolescents for the treatment of major depressive disorder. Prozac (fluoxetine), Zoloft (sertraline), and Luvox (fluvoxamine) are approved for use in children and adolescents for the treatment of obsessive compulsive disorder. For more information, please visit http://www.fda.gov/cder/drug/antidepressants.
Another medication often used is clomipramine (Anafranil). This is a tricyclic antidepressant drug that alters serotonin levels.
This helps you gradually confront the feared object or obsession without succumbing to the compulsive ritual associated with it.
There are no guidelines for preventing OCD because the cause is not known. However, early intervention may provide help before the disorder becomes severely disruptive.
Anxiety Disorders Association of Americahttp://www.adaa.org
Canadian Mental Health Centerhttp://www.cmha.ca
Canadian Psychological Associationhttp://www.cpa.ca
Fauci AS, Braunwald E, Isselbacher KJ, et al. Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine. 14th ed. New York, NY: The McGraw-Hill Companies; 2000.
National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health website. Available at: http://www.nimh.nih.gov/ . Accessed October 13, 2005.


How to dye cork
Whether using cork for craft projects, trying to create your own custom corkboard or making wine corks a little more colourful to display, dye the cork to give your project a fun, new look. Cork is a very porous material and can be easily dyed with some fabric acid dye.
Fabric acid dye can be found at any fabric shop or your local arts and crafts store.
Pour 1 packet of powder fabric dye into a small bowl. Add 2 cups of very hot water to the powder to dissolve it.
- Whether using cork for craft projects, trying to create your own custom corkboard or making wine corks a little more colourful to display, dye the cork to give your project a fun, new look.
- Pour 1 packet of powder fabric dye into a small bowl.
Fill a gallon bucket halfway up with hot water. Add the dissolved dye to the bucket. If you're dyeing corkboard, use a deep baking dish.
Drop your corks into the bucket. Stir the corks in the bucket with a stainless steel spoon for 15 minutes. Allow the corks to soak in the dye for an additional 45 minutes.
Pull out one cork after 45 minutes, and rinse it under cool water. If the cork has been dyed to your desired colour, remove any other corks you have soaking. If the colour is not as vibrant, drop the cork back into the water and let the cork soak for an additional 30 minutes.
Repeat Step 4 until your corks have reached the desired colour. Lighter colour wine corks may be dyed your desired colour after just one hour. Darker corkboard may take two or three hours.
- Drop your corks into the bucket.
- Lighter colour wine corks may be dyed your desired colour after just one hour.
Remove your corks when the desired colour has been reached. Rinse the cork under cool water until the dye no longer runs from the cork. Set the cork on paper towel to completely dry before using.
Andrea Griffith has been writing professionally since 2005. Her work has been published by the "Western Herald," Detroit WDIV, USAToday and other print, broadcast and online publications. Although she writes about a wide range of topics, her areas of expertise include fashion, beauty, technology and education. She holds a Bachelor of Arts in journalism and English from Western Michigan University.


30 Apr How Seasonal Allergies Affect Your Oral Health
Spring has sprung, but unfortunately, so have seasonal allergies. Congestion, sneezing and watery eyes can make it difficult to enjoy a beautiful spring day, but did you know your seasonal allergies might be impacting your oral health?
Allergies can be a catalyst for many dental issues, including dry mouth. In general, you are more inclined to breathe through your mouth when dealing with a stuffy, congested nose. Dry mouth can also occur as a side effect of many antihistamines. Not only is a dry mouth uncomfortable, it is the perfect environment for cavity-causing bacteria to multiply. This is because saliva plays a critical role in washing away bits of food and plaque from the teeth. A lack of saliva leaves the teeth susceptible to bad breath, cavities, and even gingivitis.
A sore throat is never fun. The irritation caused by post-nasal drip can result in noticeably bad breath. Unfortunately, if your bad breath is caused by a sore throat, brushing your teeth won’t help much at all.
Keeping your dental health in check during allergy season is important. Stay hydrated to combat the effects of dry mouth and assist the body in flushing away excess mucus.
Maintaining a regular brushing and flossing routine is especially important for preventing cavities for those dealing with dry mouth. Treat your allergies, as controlling them will reduce their impact on your oral health. Avoid known triggers and discuss long-term allergy solutions with your doctor. If you experience any unusual mouth pain or problems, address these issues with your dentist.
If you would like to book an appointment at your dentist in Widnes, please call us on 0151 424 2516.


The treaty was adopted after all-night negotiations that capped a week of talks in Geneva, U.N. environmental officials and diplomats said. A signing ceremony will be held later this year in Japan, and then 50 nations must ratify it before it comes into force, which officials said they would expect to happen within about three to four years.
"To agree on global targets is not easy to do," UNEP executive director Achim Steiner told a news conference. "There was no delegation here that wished to leave Geneva without drafting a treaty."
The treaty will for the first time set enforceable limits on emissions of mercury, which is widely used in chemical production and small-scale mining, and to exclude, phase out or restrict some products that contain mercury.
"We have closed a chapter on a journey that has taken four years of often intense, but ultimately successful negotiations and opened a new chapter towards a sustainable future," said Fernando Lugris, the Uruguayan diplomat who chaired the negotiations.
But some supporters of a new mercury treaty said they were not satisfied with the agreement.
Joe DiGangi, a science adviser with advocacy group IPEN, said that while the treaty is "a first step," it is not tough enough to achieve its aim of reducing overall emissions.
[to top of second column]
For example, he said, there is no requirement that each country create a national plan for how it will reduce mercury emissions.
But proponents of the treaty say it will set meaningful controls and reductions on a range of products, processes and industries where mercury is used, released or emitted.
These would include medical equipment like thermometers, energy-saving light bulbs, mining and cement and coal-fired power industries.
Swiss environmental ambassador Franz Perrez said the treaty "will help us to protect human health and the environment all over the world."
Press; By JOHN HEILPRIN]
Copyright 2013 The Associated
Press. All rights reserved. This material may not be published,
broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.


Enhancing intelligence comes with the notion that you need to study, study, and study even more.
People used to believe that you are born with a certain level of intelligence that you can work with later on, but thanks to science, we now know that there are some sure-shot ways to improve your brainpower while enjoying the process at the same time. Here are some fun activities that can make you smarter:
Just like when you were in school, reading is a crucial part of the learning process. However, this doesn’t mean that it will depend on the type of books you read.
It doesn’t matter if the book is as entertaining as the Harry Potter saga, Twilight, and Game of Thrones or as serious as journals and studies, as long as you are reading.
This is because the activity can help alleviate stress levels, thereby enhancing fluid, emotional, and crystallized intelligence.
Reading is essential in aiding you to navigate your everyday dealings, understand different processes, solve problems, and comprehend other people’s emotions effectively. It is also is beneficial for managers who must decipher how to gauge their relationship with employees.
While not everyone enjoys exercising, evidence suggests that it can help you sharpen your mind. Studies show that regular workouts are better than occasional, rigorous ones because if you perform them consistently, BDNF or brain-derived neurotrophic factor, increases in the cells.
This protein plays a key role in the growth, survival, and maintenance of the nerve cells. Science has found this to be useful for learning, concentrating, understanding, focusing, and memorizing.
Plus, exercising doesn’t just help you become more intelligent, it keeps your mental health in check as well. Whenever you move and sweat, your brain releases endorphins, serotonin, and dopamine – all the chemicals that make you feel good.
Exercising your brain will also do wonders. You can do this by playing Sudoku, board games, and anything that challenges the mind. This is crucial because it increases our brain’s neuroplasticity.
Play an Instrument
It doesn’t take a genius to know that playing musical instruments can help cultivate your creative side while putting you in a relaxed state. Science also found that the activity is useful for enhancing analytical skills, math, and motor skills.
Apart from this, it also strengthens the group of nerve fibers that connects the right and left brain hemispheres, which is also called the corpus callosum. With better corpus callosum, your brain function will generally improve. This is also helpful in problem-solving and memory improvement.


One of the most common questions I ask teachers and administrators attending my presentations and workshops now is:
Does your school district trust you as an educator on the Internet more than they trust kindergarten students?
For most educators I work with here in the southwestern United States, the answer is almost always “no.” The vast majority of public school districts in which I work and with which I am familiar provide a SINGLE LEVEL of content filtering for EVERYONE utilizing the network for Internet access. This is unfortunate, since teachers are PROFESSIONALS and deserve to be trusted much more than anyone does or should trust a five year old.
I know of only three Oklahoma public school districts (Tulsa, Enid, and Alva) which currently provide differentiated content filtering for teachers and students. I am planning to put together a whitepaper on this topic in the coming month, and (if possible) will share that document publicly. My perception at this point is that the schools have different network architectures and hardware/software configurations which make it possible to provide differentiated content filtering, but the basic idea can be summarized in the following Skitch diagram:
I hope to learn more about different configuration options available for differentiated content filtering at the educational technology conferences I’m attending later this spring. If school districts insist on blocking access to sites like YouTube, PBwiki, Wikispaces and Blogger, in my view they should NOT block that access for teachers. Differentiated content filtering is not the “endgame” when it comes to changes we need to see on IT networks in schools to help them better support instructional objectives and learning needs, but it certainly would be a step in the right direction for many of the schools I work in and around.
Is your school district providing differentiated content filtering yet? If so, do you know how they provide it? (What type of authentication scheme and content filtering system are they using?) If not, how are you going to get this conversation in front of policymakers?
If you enjoyed this post and found it useful, subscribe to Wes' free newsletter. Check out Wes' video tutorial library, "Playing with Media." Information about more ways to learn with Dr. Wesley Fryer are available on wesfryer.com/after.
On this day..
- Video Toolbox: A Good iPad App for Blurring Student Faces (when needed) - 2015
- Social Media Consulting Services - 2012
- Essential Media for Educators - 2012
- Surviving Dachau, Liberating Mauthausen - 2011
- Erewhon, Mt Sunday (Edoras) and the Rangitata Valley - 2009
- EETT Funding (Title IID) Updates - 2009
- Here come Star Trek communicators - 2007
- Self-promotional video is instructive on different levels - 2007
- Firewire over IP and Target Mode - 2004
- Eminem's lawsuit, intellectual property, and greed - 2004


Mineral rights are the rights to anything underground for a piece of land. Often the minerals are owned by someone other than the landowner. These underground minerals may be bought and sold in the same way as the surface of the property. To find the owner of a property's mineral rights, you may have to dig into the history of the property. Title companies only determine chain of ownership for the surface, so to find mineral rights, you'll need to visit the county archives or hire a company that specializes in such searches.
Study the property's legal description. Obtain the current deed of ownership. If minerals are not mentioned, that suggests that the rights to the minerals are not owned by the same entity as the land surface.
View the property in question. Oil pumping units or mining activity, even if it appears abandoned, suggest that the mineral rights have been actively purchased or sold. Rights can be passed on in wills or given to children. If the activity is ongoing, check with the production company for any information regarding mineral ownership. This may provide a starting point for research.
Seek out the property records from the county in which the property is located. With no mention of minerals in the current deed, a search must be conducted to determine when and to whom the mineral rights were sold or assigned.
Review the mineral deeds in the county archives. Mineral deeds in actively developed counties generally have indexes designated specifically for minerals. If no production or exploration has been done in the county, the mineral deeds may be combined with ownership records for surface rights.
Plot the ownership of the first mineral owner found, typically listed in the patent deed (the first deed of record). Write their name, the date of the deed and the percent of ownership at the top of a sheet of paper. Continue research to find who the mineral rights were sold or assigned to next. Continue in this manner until you find the current owner. Often there are multiple owners with varying percentages of interest.


Presentation on theme: "Pectoral Girdle A pectoral girdle is a skeletal complex in the body wall immediately behind the head that articulates with the anterior fins or limbs."— Presentation transcript:
Pectoral Girdle A pectoral girdle is a skeletal complex in the body wall immediately behind the head that articulates with the anterior fins or limbs. This is a picture of the ray-finned fish Polypterus, which exemplifies the basic pattern of all pectoral girdles. Components: Scapula & Coracoid: receives force generated by fins. Posttemporal: braces the girdle against the skull. Clavicle: braced against the opposite clavicle. Cleithrum: a major bone.
Pectoral Girdle In modern bony fishes the clavicle has been lost but the other bones remain. Cartilaginous fishes have only the endoskeletal components that do not ossify (shown in black) and have none of the dermal components (shown in red).
Pectoral Girdle Dermal bones predominate in the pectoral girdle of bony fishes, whereas replacement bones predominate in tetrapods. Tetrapods Early tetrapods are only different in that they gained the interclavicle and lost the posttemporal. Tetrapods either need clavicles, coracoids or both to brace the scapula against the sternum. Coracoid Develops from embryonic coracoid plate: anterior ossification centers give rise to procoracoids and posterior centers give rise to coracoids. Clavicle Absent: urodeles, apodans, and most nonavian reptiles. Present in most mammals.
Pectoral Girdle Scapula Present in all tetrapods with vestiges of anterior limbs. Contains the glenoid fossa for articulation with the humeral head.
Pectoral Girdle Mammalian scapula The scapular spine divides the scapula into supraspinous and infraspinous fossae, where arm muscles originate. Muscles also attach to the acromion process near the glenoid fossa. Mammalian clavicle Large in mammals with strong forelimbs used in digging, climbing, or flying. In cats the clavicle is a vestigial splinter. No connections between scapula and the sternum. Allows cats to withstand the shock of landing upright on forelimbs.
Test Questions 1.What is the purpose of the posttemporal bone in the Polypterus fish? 2.T/F Cartilaginous fish have both dermal and endoskeletal components to their pectoral girdle. 3._________ bones predominate in the pectoral girdle of bony fishes, whereas __________ bones predominate in tetrapods. 4.What is the purpose of the scapula in tetrapods with anterior limbs? 5.The _________ divides the scapula into the supraspinous and infraspinous fossae.
Answers 1.The posttemporal bone braces the pectoral girdle against the skull. 2. False, they lack dermal components. 3.Dermal; replacement 4.Contains the glenoid fossa for articulation with the humeral head. 5.Scapular spine
Pelvic Girdle (Fish) Consist of cartilaginous or bony pair pelvic Plates that meet in a midventral pelvic symphysis. No dermal bones in the pelvic girdle of fishes or tetrapods.
Pelvic Girdle (Tetrapods) Tetrapod embryos develop cartilginous pelvic plates. Each plate ossifies at two centers to form a pubis and a more posterior ischium. At the junction of the pubis, ischium, and ilium, a socket, the acetabulum, accomodates the head of the femur.
Pelvic Girdle (Tetrapods) Reptiles: – The structure of the pelvic girdles of reptiles is correlated with their diverse body structure and with their mode of locomotion. – In most reptiles, the pubis is directed away from the ischium, resulting in a triradiate girdle. – An epipubic and hypoischial bone frequently develops in association with the pelvic girdle of reptiles.
Pelvic Girdle (Birds) The ilia and ischia of modern birds are enormously expanded and united with the synsacrum. There is no ischial or pubic symphysis. Absence of these provide a wide outlet for laying eggs.
Pelvic Girdle (Mammals) Ilium, ischium, and pubis ankylose early in postnatal life to form a left and right innominate (coxal) bone. Sacroiliac joint Ischiopubic symphysis Since mammalian young are delivered through the pelvic outlet, the fibrocartilage is softened by ovarian hormone relaxin, which expands the pelvic outlet for delivery.
Questions There are dermal bones in the pelvic girdle of tetrapods and fish. -T or F (False) What is the junction of the pubis, ischium, and ilium in tetrapods called? (acetabulum) In reptiles, the pubis is directed away from the ischium. What does this create? (triradiate girdle) Why do birds not have an ischial or pubic symphysis? (Wide outlet for laying eggs) What is the ovarian hormone that promotes expansion of the pelvic outlet? (relaxin)
Girdles, Fins, Limbs & Locomotion Rays: located in dermis 2 varieties: lepidotrichia, in bony fish, jointed bony dermal scales, aligned end to end. Ceratotrichia, in cartilaginous fish, long horny rays.
Girdles, Fins, Limbs & Locomotion Fin rays generate from a row of cartilaginous or bony basalia and one or more rays of radialia. Striated muscle mass extends into the base of the fin and inserts onto available skeletal elements. Different taxa exhibit wide variety in morphology, making identification of ancestral fin type (archipterygium) highly unlikely.
Girdles, Fins, Limbs & Locomotion Fishes have 1, 2, or a series of dorsal fins, and may have an anal fin. Act as keels keeping fish from rolling left to right.
Girdles, Fins, Limbs & Locomotion Paired fins: Lobed-fleshy proximal lobe containing fin skeleton and muscles, membranous distal portion stiffened by rays Fin fold- broad base Ray fins- very flexible fins, lost components of basal skeleton, some have no pelvic fins. Spiny fins- all extinct.
Tetrapod Limbs Tetrapods typically have four limbs. Some limbs have been modified as wings or paddles while others have been lost all together. Early tetrapods had short limbs. In transition from water to land a shift from horizontal structure to vertical was seen. Later a shift from sprawling stance to upright occurred. Tetrapod limbs consist of three segments. Propdium Epipodium Autopodium
Propodium and Epipodium The epipodium (forearm) is composed of the ulna and radius. The radius bears most of the weight. The ulna is longer than the radius. The ulna sometimes fuses with the radius or may be vestigial. The humerus is the single bone located in the propodium (upper arm). The humerus of all tetrapods is very similar, any variations are adaptive modifications.
Thigh and Lower Leg Bones The thigh bone is the femur, the tibia and fibula are bones of the lower leg. There is little difference in these bones from one tetrapod to another (see picture). The patella (kneecap), which developed in birds and mammals, protects the joint from abrasive from the tendon. When the fibula unites with the tibia the tibiofibula is formed (frogs). In birds the tibia and the proximal row of tarsals fuse to form the tibiotarsus.
Manus: The Hand Made up of wrist, palm, and digits Very similar among species Digits range in number; dominant is pentadactyl (five-digit) limb Carpus (wrist): Three regular rows of carpal bones – Proximal row: radiale, ulnare, intermedium Ulnar end in most reptiles and mammals, sesamoid bone- pisiform – Middle row: centralia – Distal row: distal carpals 1-5 Metacarpals – Primitively, as many metacarpals as digits
Digits: Consist of phalanges – Early formula for pentadactyl hand: – Modern mammals almost universally Modifications of the manus – Reduction in number of bones by evolutionary loss or fusion Centralia commonly unite with proximal carpals or disappear; some reptiles and mammals have single centrale Fusion of distal carpals 4 & 5 = hamate bone Phalanges or entire digits may be lost (metacarpal becomes vestigial or lost) – Disproportionate lengthening or shortening (less common)
Amphibians – Most have 5 digits on hindlimb, 4 on forelimb, some have less – Number of wrist bones is smaller in modern than in labyrinthodonts – Line of descent is conjectural, so no way to tell homologies Nonavian reptiles and mammals – Generally pentadactyl, with five metacarpals – Crocodiles: wrist is five bones – Birds: entire manus is reduced – Modifications for various environments
QUIZ What is the formula for the phalanges of most modern mammals? – A) B) C) D) True or False: In birds, the proximal row of tarsals fuse to form the tibiofibula Name the three regions of tetrapod limbs Choose all the bones that are part of the manus: – Radius, phalanges, radiale, ulna, metacarpals, intermedium, ulnare The epipodium is composed of which two bones?: – A) Radius, humerus – B) Tibia, fibula – C) Ulna, radius – D) Ulna, femur
QUIZ Answers B False Propdium, Epipodium, Autopodium Phalanges, radiale, metacarpals, intermedium, ulnare C
Flight Carpometacarpus- fusion of 3 metacarpals and 3 distal carpals 3 fingers present…1 st finger called alula (elongated, prominent, independent) – Songbirds – broad short wings – Carnivorous – long, broad wings – Hummingbird – hand is longer than its arm Hands exert a strong breaking force for landing
Flight Unlike birds, the hand is the main part of the wings in bats Normal thumb w/ claw, but elongated fingers- both metacarpals and phalanges Movement of the hand responsible for takeoff and true flight
Girdles, Fins, Limbs & Locomotion The “hands” have become Paddlelike Flippers in well adapted marine amniotes Flippers are generally flattened and stout In several taxa, the number of phalanges has greatly increased In some Ichthyosaurs there were as many as 26 phalanges per digit and more than 100 in a single hand! Adaptations for Life in the Water
Girdles, Fins, Limbs & Locomotion Most other swimmers have skeletons that conform closely to the tetrapod pattern Some aquatic animals have lost their hind limbs… Use flipperlike “wings” for thrust, webbed feet for rudders (ie. Penguins) Others don’t use foreflippers for swimming….hind limbs
Questions: 1. Carpometacarpus is the fusion of ____ metacarpals and ____ carpals – A) 2, 6--B) 3, 3 – C) 4, 2--D) 2, 4 2. The first digit in birds that is elongated, prominent, and independently movable… A) ulnareB) radiale C) alulaD) manus
Questions continued 3. True or False: In the fingers of a bat, both the metacarpals and phalanges are elongated. True 4.What adaptation has been vital for aquatic marine amniotes, and what do they look like (shape)? Paddlelike flippers; flattened and stout 5.True or False: Penguins obtain thrust for swimming solely from their foreflippers? true
Running and Grasping Plantigrade- Digits, wrist, and ankle rest on ground. ie. Monotremes, marsupials, primates Digitigrade- Weight borne on digital arches with wrist and ankle elevated. ie. Rabbits, rodents and carnivores Unguligrade- Walk on four, three, two or one digit with wrist and ankle elevated on elongated metatarsals. ie. Ungulates
Running and Grasping Artiodactyles are paraxonic meaning their bodyweight is borne evenly on two parallel axes. Perissodactyles are mesaxonic meaning weight tends to be distributed to the middle digit
Running and Grasping Tibiotarsus- Found in birds; fused proximal tarsals and tibia. Tarsometatarsus- fused distal tarsals along with three fused metatarsals. Joint between tarsometatarsus and toes allows the bird to be poised for flight.
Running and Grasping In homonoids the metatarsal arch allows distribution of weight over four solid bases; the heel and the ball of each foot. Hallux- the great toe; opposable in most primates but not humans, aids in grasping.
Running and Grasping 1 - Perissodactyl 2 – Canine foot structure 3 – Opposable in primates 4 - Artiodactyl 5 – Human foot structure A plantigrade B digitigrade C paraxonic D mesaxonic E hallux
Hind Feet (Amphibians and Reptiles) Comparable with manus except for pisiform Basal amphibians display a prehallux Reptiles have fused tarsal bones known as the astragalocalcaneus
Hind Feet (Birds and Mammals) Bird feet are highly modified, with a tibiotarsus and fusion of the distal tarsals with the metatarsals Mammals have no intratarsal joint, but a hinge joint at the ankle.
Marine Movement Sculling – Anterior flippers only for maneuvering – Lateral undulations of posterior trunk and flippers key – Neck elongated Cetaceans thrust forward by dorsal and ventral undulations with stiff tail – “Legless gallop”
Terrestrial Trekking Hind flippers switch from swimming position into a tetrapod stance Flexible wrist joint further helps locomotion on land Wriggling seals’ hind limbs are permanently bound to the tail
Questions Name one similarity between reptile hind feet and bird feet Name one difference between amphibian feet and reptile feet Which group of animals lacks an intratarsal joint? What pedal feature is exclusively a hominoid characteristic? Name the primary difference in locomotion between wriggling and fur seals
Answers Intratarsal joint Fusion of the tarsal bones Mammals Metatarsal arch Wriggling seals have a hind limb permanently bound to the tail, while fur seals can switch their hind flippers into a tetrapod stance.
Origin of Tetrapod Limbs Two hypotheses: Modification of pre-existing structures or Formation of new features Common to both hypotheses are the origin of proximal elements of the limb Some necessary modifications for limb development are: Elongation of the two bones of the epodium (limb bones immediately above the hand or foot.). Rotation of long axes of humerus and femur to parallel the vertebral column. Formation of hinge joints Emergence of definitive manus (hand) and pes (foot). Fig comparison of Devonian rhipidistian fish’s pectoral fin and early tetrapod’s forelimb. Tetrapod forelimb Rhipidistian pectoral fin
Origin of Tetrapod Limbs It is possible that early Rhipidistian fins were used for resting on the water bottom. Minor modifications could have led to “walking” on the muddy floor; and later venturing onto land. Some type of pressure(s) drove craniates onto land – so it was inevitable that a more suitable limb would evolve. (Some fish today use pectoral fins to move on land, example: the Australian lungfish)
Locomotion with no Limbs Snakes often combine several methods of locomotion Limbless amphibians on land use lateral undulation of the body and tail (like a fish) to move. Marine sea snakes have a flattened tail that they use like an oar to propel them through the water. All movements are made possible by modifications in: - the skin - body wall musculature - ribs - the vertebral column
Locomotion with no Limbs The different types of locomotion used by snakes and other limbless tetrapods are: Serpentine – uses irregular loops propped against any stationary object that allow snake to push off from. Uses waves of muscle contraction from head to tail. – Also referred to as lateral undulation, but there are slight differences Rectilinear locomotion – the snake moves in a straight line. It relies on friction between the ventral skin and substrate. The ventral skin acts like a conveyor belt. Belly scutes alternate pressing and sliding forward on the substrate to create movement. Sidewinding – Enables snakes (like rattlesnakes) to inhabit sandy deserts. Useful when the other methods would be clumsy or ineffective. Snakes propel themselves with modified serpentine movements while thrusting their anterior portion forward. Concertina – Similar to sidewinding. Movement similar to an accordian. Serpentine is the most common method of locomotion used by snakes and lizards.
Review Questions 1.Match the following types of limbless locomotion to the diagram. Serpentine Rectilinear Locomotion Sidewinding Concertina 2.What is the most common method of locomotion used by limbless creatures? 3.True or False. It is believed that tetrapod limbs evolved from fins. 4.Limbless locomotion is made possible by modifications in: a.the skin b.body wall musculature c.Ribs d. the vertebral column e. all of the above
5.Which of the following is not necessary for limb development a.Elongation of the two bones of the epodium (limb bones immediately above the hand or foot.). b.Rotation of long axes of humerus and femur to parallel the vertebral column. c.Formation of hinge joints d.Emergence of definitive manus (hand) and pes (foot). e.All are necessary


The trans-Atlantic slave trade is one of the darkest periods in the history of humans. Starting as early as the mid-17th century, the slave trade grew into an extremely lucrative trade for the capitalists in the US and the UK.
It was a period marked by the cruelty of the highest level. Africans were dehumanized and subjected to torture, deplorable conditions on the plantations, brutality and were inhumanely exploited.
Slaves were uprooted from the comforts of the communities into an African land where they were not regarded as human beings but as tools of labor. Life on the plantations was designed to get the maximum output from a slave without giving that same slave an existence worthy of being called sane. When Africans were forced onto the plantations, they had to forget their identity and adopt a new one as provided by the slave master. This was meant to alienate them from their identity so that they would be subservient. Human beings were auctioned off like objects, paying zero attention to the miserable fate that these slaves had been conditioned into.
Life on the plantations was the ultimate worst one could go through. Olaudah Equiano wrote down what they went through as slaves: “When we arrived in Barbados [in the West Indies] many merchants and planters came on board and examined us. We were then taken to the merchant's yard, where we were all pent up together like sheep in a fold. On a signal, the buyers rushed forward and chose those slaves they liked best.”
When it came to the slave trade, it was a hustle for getting the “best” slaves. The slaves were prepared for sale as if they were farm produce or animals. The disrespect for human dignity was heightened by how these slaves were prepared for the market: They were washed, shaved and sometimes oil was applied to their skins to make them seem “healthy” and “fit”. This would increase the prices of the slaves. Slaves were sold through public auctions and it was a “scramble” to acquire these slaves. The demand for slave labor was astronomical.
Africans who had been enslaved were sold through agents and sales involved measuring, grading and invasive physical examination. The sale alone was torturous to the slaves, and worse awaited them when they started their work.
To make them loyal to the brutal conditions and to reduce chances of an uprising against the slave owners, names were stripped from those enslaved (replaced by the slave master’s own choices of names) and they were separated from others. They spent about 2-3 years of being compelled to obey orders – it was called seasoning. A slave had two conditions – obey or receive the lash. It was mental alienation that made them passive, docile and subservient. It was torture both physically and mentally.
Life for the enslaved was an unending, agonizing sequence of hard labor. It was as if they were expected to work non-stop like machines. Work was done 18 hours a day, but the work could even be prolonged in periods like harvest. Weekends and other rest days were a luxury that was denied to the slaves.
Capitalism had given rise to the fixation on commodities, and the major commodities that slaves excruciatingly toiled for were sugar and coffee. Other commodities such as tobacco, cotton, rice, and indigo took center stage. Those exempted from the hard and painful production of these commodities were children under 6 years, the elderly who were incapacitated and some people with disabilities. Jobs were mostly allocated according to gender, age, color, strength, and birthplace.
Age was mostly a determinant for when one could start working. Men were largely involved in skilled trades and women came to dominate field gangs. Children were made available for any sort of task, provided they were physically able. These included cleaning, water carrying, stone picking and collecting livestock feed. Women also carried out the duties of servants and childminders on top of their work in the fields. Children could be sold to different owners at any time, which made most mothers separated from their children.
The slave trade was an unrelenting venture to gain as many profits as possible. This continuous exploitation was hinged on the conduct of the slaves – they were supposed to be loyal all the time. But this was a difficult thing to sustain. Slaves, whenever there was a chance, would cause uprisings for their slave masters. Thus, any slave who was found to be “violence against the plantation owner or destroying property” was put to death. The commonest forms of punishment were beatings and whippings. These laws were bundled under the umbrella term “Black Codes”. Neck collars and leg irons were used for less serious offenses such as insubordination.
It only took the moral strength of abolitionists to put an end to the madness that was the slave trade. It was a period of horror in which life on the plantations for the enslaved was torturous. The capitalistic premise of the slave trade has not yet died completely, people continue being enslaved under the dictates of unfair trade, income inequality and other vices bequeathed by the legacies of the slave trade.


Beyond the Fold
Photos by Anthony Scoggins, Mingei International Museum
Satoshi Kamiyas wasp is so technically perfect it almost looks as if it could fly. Two sets of precisely formed wings sprout from a body whose sculptural detail might well suffice for an anatomy class. Delicately jointed legs end in tiny two-toed feet; its ridged abdomen arches in a curve, apparently poised for takeoff. That such a complex form could be folded from a single sheet of paper seems to defy belief. Kamiyas wasp and several equally astonishing beetles are part of the current exhibition of Origami Masterworks at the Mingei International Museum in San Diego, a show that demonstrates how far the ancient art of paper folding has come from its traditional focus on flowers and cranes and cute little boxes.
Although much of the Mingei show is devoted to an elaborate zoo of creatures, including an enormous elephant and a riotous clutch of centipedes, many of the pieces are purely abstract structures inspired not by nature but by the formalisms of geometry. Mathematician Tom Hulls model of five interpenetrating tetrahedrons calls to mind an alchemical symbol. Another, by French folder Vincent Floderer, provocatively titled Boom, consists of a single transparent sheet pleated into an insanely complex landscape of mountainous peaks arranged in a quasi-checkerboard pattern. Issey Miyake meets M.C. Escher. In a separate room at the back of the show are several enigmatic works by computer scientist Jeannine Mosely involving curved surfaces and circular folds, surreal variations on the classic platonic solids. Sharing the same display case is a geometric form known as a gyroscopic egg, a delicate hollow ellipsoid constructed out of origami latticework.
All these models, including Kamiyas insects, have been made possible by the marriage of origami and mathematics, a partnership that has given rise to the emerging field of origami sekkei, or technical folding. This new breed of computational origamists are also developing techniques that are taking the art in hitherto-unthinkable directions. In the process they are turning paper folding into a science as much as an art. Their explorations are giving rise to whole new dimensions of origami aesthetics. At the same time, their radical methodologies have application to a slew of scientific and engineering problems from deploying telescopes in space to folding air bags in cars and folding proteins in living cells.
Until recently, origami was an ad hoc art. Designers developed new models based purely on their intuitive understanding. But over the past decade, says master origamist Robert Lang, mathematicians and scientists have begun mapping the laws of nature that underlie origami, converting words, concepts and images into mathematical expressions. They are bringing with them insights from such fields as information theory, algebraic geometry and number theory. As Lang points out, many basic issues in origami are actually linked to deep mathematical questions.
Lang, who designed the elephant in the Mingei show, is one of the pioneers of computational origami. Recently retired from a career in laser physics, he now spends most of his time as a professional paper folder. He is the author of a dozen books on the subject, including his recently published magnum opus Origami Design Secrets: Mathematical Methods for an Ancient Art (A.K. Peters, 2003), a vast compendium of ancient and new techniques that explains the principles behind the recent origami revolution.
Lang is also famous in the origami world as the author of a computer program called TreeMaker, which automates the design process and enables the construction of extremely complicated creatures. Lets say you want to fold a scorpion. Traditional origami techniques are not well suited to many-limbed forms, with long, thin appendages posing particularly difficult challenges. With TreeMaker, the user simply inputs a stick-figure diagram of the desired model, and the program calculates the requisite crease pattern. TreeMaker has come up with designs that Lang says are radically different from anything used in traditional origami and may seem counterintuitive. Sometimes, he says, its designs only work when you scour all the creases, then fold the whole model up in unison. In these cases, there are only two stable states, the flat piece of paper and the finished model, nothing in between. That is quite different from traditional origami, where models have necessarily been constructed one fold at a time.
Lang developed TreeMaker because he wanted a tool to help him design elaborate animal models, particularly insects. The rules it applies when calculating crease patterns are based on techniques developed by Lang himself and a number of legendary Japanese folders, including Kamiya and Jun Maekawa. But TreeMaker can also solve more abstract problems. Lang has been hired as a consultant by a team of researchers at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory who are designing space-based telescopes.
Astronomers searching for extrasolar planets need very large telescopes to catch sufficient light from these extremely faint sources. The Livermore scientists are hoping eventually to build space-based telescopes with lenses up to 100 meters in diameter. Something this large will never fit into the cargo bay of the space shuttle, so the idea is to make lenses that can fold up and be opened out once theyre deployed in orbit. Fortunately, flat film lenses, known as Fresnel lenses, are highly effective they are used in overhead projectors but the challenge is how to fold one up so that creases dont interfere with the optics and spoil the resulting images. Lang used TreeMaker to come up with a viable crease pattern it resembles a gigantic spiders web and the Livermore team is currently constructing a 5-meter prototype of his design.
Origami techniques are applicable anytime you have an engineering problem in which something needs to change shape dramatically, Lang says particularly if it needs to start small and then get very big. Tents, deployable shelters and antennas are all potential applications. And the German company EASi Engineering has employed origami techniques to make three-dimensional models of folding patterns for air bags.
To make all this work, computational origamists have had to learn a great deal more about the formalities of folding. Tom Hull, a mathematician at Merrimack College in Andover, Massachusetts, and the organizer of an international conference on origami science, notes that when developing new models, one critical problem is How do you assign the paper space? Langs scorpion, for example, has more than a dozen parts, each of which the head, body, claws and so on has to be assigned space on the initial sheet of paper. It turns out that mathematically this is equivalent to the problem of efficiently packing a bunch of circles into a square. That might sound like a trivial question, but Hull points out that mathematicians have no idea how to solve the circle-packing problem for more than about two dozen circles.
Japanese folders like Kamiya and Maekawa also use circle packing and other mathematical techniques when designing their models, only without the aid of computers. The crease patterns for Kamiyas wasp or Maekawas famous demon are themselves works of art, Hull says admiringly. For me, the crease patterns are almost better than the finished models, for in these intricate geometric designs we witness the raw creative power of mathematics in action. The great American logician Charles Sanders Pierce believed that mathematics was the realm of pure potential anything that could be imagined, Pierce thought, could be expressed in mathematical form. Computational origami seems a slyly playful confirmation of this Piercean view. With the right folding algorithm, a simple flat sheet can be transmuted into a wasp, a demon or a unicorn even a window onto the universe.
Origami Masterworks continues through February 8 at the Mingei International Museum, located in Balboa Park, San Diego, (619) 239-0003 or www.mingei.org. You can visit Tom Hulls mathematical-origami Web site.
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This video from the US Coast Guard shows some of the wreckage along the coasts of New York and New Jersey left by Hurricane Sandy on October 29, 2012. New York Governor Andrew Cuomo estimated that damage in his state alone could total $33 billion.
While much of the damage is visible, Asbestos Disease Awareness Organization president Linda Reinstein believes that residents need to keep an unseen danger in mind as well. “People are out there now looking for wedding pictures and clothing to stay warm,” Linda Reinstein told the social networking website Gather.com. “Asbestos is not at the top of their mind.”
Construction materials strewn throughout areas include roofing, piping and insulation that may contain asbestos. Asbestos is a known carcinogen, and inhaling the mineral fibers can lead to respiratory issues and serious illnesses. The US Environmental Protection Agency says that almost all cases of mesothelioma are linked to asbestos exposure.
“As a cancer-causing agent, there is no safe level of exposure,” Dr. Arthur Frank, chairman of the department of environmental and occupational health at Drexel University School of Public Health, told the Huffington Post. “People putting asbestos into buildings died by droves. Putting the stuff in is not very different than taking it out. This is a significant risk.”
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Research conducted among pupils in three London schools has shown that male street gang affiliates who engage in angry rumination (i.e. think continuously about provoking or negative events and situations) have the greatest tendency towards displaced aggression against innocent others.
This is partly because angry rumination can provide an opportunity for revenge planning and fantasizing, as well as justifying the anger that a person feels, which can make provoked persons feel better. As a result, the desire and motivation for revenge is maintained, prolonged or exacerbated, and ruminating individuals are more likely to be primed with aggressive tendencies.
The research, which was conducted by psychologist Dr Eduardo Vasquez and colleagues at the University of Kent, also concluded that angry rumination could be the psychological path that links gang affiliation to displaced aggression. In other words, if rumination did not occur, displaced aggression might be reduced in gang affiliates. Furthermore, their study showed that rumination is an important predictor of displaced aggression above and beyond other personality characteristics such as trait aggression, anger, hostility, and irritability.
Dr Vasquez, an expert on aggressive behavior and inter-gang violence, explained that ruminating about provoking incidents 'can prime individuals for aggressive responding and facilitates not only direct retaliation against a provocateur, but also displaced aggression toward innocent targets. This is because aggressive priming makes individuals perceive more hostility from others and increases the motivation to lash out, especially if they encounter a safe target, such as a sibling or romantic partner, who might not retaliate in a severe manner.
'Therefore, gang-affiliated youth may be at an increased risk of engaging in displaced aggression as they are more likely to encounter provoking situations and spend more time thinking about aggression-related ideas, such as revenge and getting even.'
Dr Vasquez, who lectures in forensic psychology at the University's School of Psychology, also explained that the team's findings suggest that gang affiliated youth might not aggress simply as a function of highly aggressive personalities. 'Rather, they may be part of a population that is more likely to experience situations that produce a wide range of aggressive behaviors,' he said. 'For instance, their tendency to experience aversive events and to ruminate increases the likelihood that gang-affiliated youth will aggress, even in the absence of proper subsequent justification.'
This research by Dr Vasquez and colleagues is important in that it has also revealed that one promising route for reducing aggression and violence within male street gang affiliates involves developing interventions that focus on decreasing rumination. This may include 'distraction techniques' such as exercise or sporting activity and listening to music. Other types of activities that might prove useful against ruminating include meditation and relaxation techniques, hobbies or reading. 'Such distractions,' he said, 'regulate negative affect by keeping negative thought from being readily accessible and/or by drawing the focus of attention away from negative moods.'
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Thank you for viewing this resource. This colourful clothespin game was designed for French Second Language students to practice vowel sounds in an engaging and meaningful way. Students must simply look at the image, say the word represented by the image and attach a clothespin to the missing vowel sound. This activity can be used in learning centres or as a whole group pocket chart activity. Enjoy!


Victory day of Bangladesh
Victory Day Parade, 2012. National Parade ground, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
|Official name||Bengali: বিজয় দিবস (Bijôy Dibôs)|
|Also called||Vijay Diwas (India)|
|Celebrations||Flag hoisting, Parades, singing patriotic songs and the National anthem, Speeches by the President and Prime minister, entertainment and cultural programs.|
|Next time||16 December 2014|
Victory day (Bengali: বিজয় দিবস Bijôy Dibôs) is a national holiday in Bangladesh celebrated on December 16 to commemorate the victory of the Allied forces High Command over the Pakistani forces in the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971. The Commanding officer of the Pakistani Forces General AAK Niazi surrendered his forces to the Allied forces commander Lt. Gen. Jagjit Singh Aurora, which marked ending the 9 month-long1 Bangladesh Liberation War and 1971 Bangladesh genocide and officially secession of East Pakistan into Bangladesh.
The 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War (Bengali: মুক্তিযুদ্ধ Muktijuddho) was a war of independence,2 which resulted in the secession of East Pakistan from the Islamic Republic of Pakistan3 and established the sovereign nation of Bangladesh. The war pitted East Pakistan and India against West Pakistan, and lasted over a duration of nine months. One of the most violent wars of the 20th century, it witnessed large-scale atrocities, the exodus of 10 million refugees and the displacement of 30 million people.4
On 16 December 1971, Lieutenant General Amir Khan Niazi, CO of Pakistan Armed Forces located in East Pakistan signed the Instrument of Surrender. The Instrument of Surrender was a written agreement that enabled the surrender of the Pakistan Eastern Command in the Bangladesh Liberation War, and marked the end of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 in the Eastern Theater.
The surrender took place at the Ramna Race Course in Dacca on December 16, 1971. Lieutenant General Amir Khan Niazi and Lieutenant General Jagjit Singh Aurora, Joint Commander of Indian and Bangladesh Forces, signed the instrument amid thousands of cheering crowds at the race course. Air Commodore A. K. Khandker, Deputy Commander-in-Chief of the Bangladesh Armed Forces, and Lieutenant General J F R Jacob of the Indian Eastern Command, acted as witnesses to the surrender. Also present were Vice-Admiral Mohammad Shariff, commander of the Pakistani Naval Eastern Command and Air Vice-Marshal Patrick D. Callaghan of the Pakistan Air Force's Eastern Air Force Command, who signed the agreement. On behalf of Bangladesh, Air Commodore A. K. Khandker acted as witness to the surrender. Lieutenant General Jacob Rafael Jacob, Chief of Staff of the Indian Eastern Command, along with the other commanders of Indian naval and air forces, acted as witnesses on behalf of India. Aurora accepted the surrender without a word, while the crowd on the race course started shouting anti-Niazi and anti-Pakistan slogans.5
The Surrender of Pakistan Armed Forces marked the end of the Bangladesh Liberation War and the creation of Bangla Desh (later reduced to a single word). Most United Nations member nations were quick to recognise Bangladesh within months of its independence.6
The celebration of Victory Day has taken place since 1972. The Bangladesh Liberation War became a topic of great importance in cinema, literature, history lessons at school, the mass media, and the arts in Bangladesh. The ritual of the celebration gradually obtained a distinctive character with a number of similar elements: Military Parade by Bangladesh Armed Forces at the National Parade Ground, ceremonial meetings, speeches, lectures, receptions and fireworks. Victory Day in Bangladesh is a joyous celebration in which popular culture plays a great role. TV and radio stations broadcast special programs and patriotic songs. The main streets are decorated with national flags. Different political parties and socioeconomic organizations undertake programs to mark the day in a befitting manner, including the paying of respects at Jatiyo Smriti Soudho, the national memorial at Savar near Dhaka.
India also commemorates victory over Pakistan on the same day in 1971 on Vijay Diwas.
- 1971: State Bank of Pakistan became Bangladesh Bank .7
- 1972: The constitution of the People's Republic of Bangladesh was enacted on 16 December.8
- 1973: Gallantry awards of war were declared by Bangladesh Gazzett on 15 December.
- 1996: Silver jubilee of victory was celebrated.
- 2007: The remains of Bir Sreshtho Matiur Rahman were brought back to Bangladesh on 10 December.
- 2013: New world record of the largest human flag was set when 27,117 volunteers gathered at the National Parade Ground holding red and green blocks to form the national flag of Bangladesh.910
- Vijay Diwas (India)
- Bangladesh Liberation War
- Victory Day in other countries
- Instrument of Surrender (1971)
- Independence Day
- Library of Congress
- Islamic Republic of Pakistan - The 1962 Constitution. Retrieved on 09 March, 2013.
- en, Samuel; Paul Robert Bartrop, Steven L. Jacobs. Dictionary of Genocide: A-L. Volume 1: Greenwood. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-313-32967-8.
- Of betrayal and bungling by Kuldip Nayar (Google cache link) - Indian Express 3 February 1998
- "The Recognition Story". Bangladesh Strategic and Development Forum. Archived from the original on 25 July 2011. Retrieved 2011-08-17.
- Bangladesh Bank-BANGLAPEDIA
- "Bangladesh Faces Same Problems". Spartanburg, South Carolina, USA: Herald-Journal, via Google News. Associated Press.
- "B’desh hits Guinness Book record with forming largest human national flag". The Independent (Bangladesh). Retrieved December 16, 2013.
- "Bangladeshis form world’s largest human flag". The Daily Star (Bangladesh). Retrieved December 16, 2013.
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Why are the planets where they are instead of somewhere else?
The relatively small Earth, with its sizable moon, is the only planet we know of with life on it. Coincidence?
Where did the nine planets that orbit our sun come from?
Nowadays everybody knows there are nine planets in our solar system, but that information was hard won.
On last count, there were nine planets in our solar system: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. Soon, however, we might need to add a tenth planet to the solar lineup. Learn more on this Moment of Science.


With the recent controversy over Megyn Kelley’s remarks in which she questioned why wearing blackface on Halloween was offensive, “Sunday Morning” contributor and WCBS anchor Maurice DuBois looks at the long and complex history of white (and even black) performers painting their faces black. For more than 100 years, minstrel shows were a popular form of entertainment on stage and film, reducing an entire race of people to stereotypes. DuBois speaks with Pulitzer Prize-winning critic Margo Jefferson, and with Eric Lott, cultural historian and professor at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York, about the complicated history of a racist theatrical form.
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Insects on land have to deal with water, particularly when it rains. After seeing how deadly the surface tension of water is to insects, with the pond skater and water boatman living almost entirely on flying insects that get stuck at the surface of the pond, it might seem surprising that any insects can survive in the rain. Many insects hide at the first sign of rain, but some of the larger insects do not. They can do this because they are large enough to stay flying if hit by a single raindrop. Usually their surfaces are superhydrophobic so they do not retain water and become heavy. A recent study of butterflies shows that the scale structures (see the picture in the top right) that create their colours (click here for a New Scientist article) also generate superhydrophobicity and directional shedding of water (click here for more details). Removing the scales, by damage or mutation, reduces the lifespan of the insects. More about the principles of directional water shedding can be found here.


USDA, NRCS. 2018. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 28 March 2018). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.
Illustration courtesy of University of Florida/IFAS Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants. Used with permission.
What is Purple Loosestrife?
- No leaf stalk
- Rounded or heart-shaped at base
- Paired or whorled around stems
- Pink-purple colored
- 4-10 feet tall
Where Does it Grow?
Purple loosestrife can be found in meadows, prairies, marshes, ditches, and around ponds and lakes.
Is it Invasive?
Purple loosestrife is non-native to North America. It is an aggressive invader that out-competes the native vegetation for vital resources.
This is a non-native plant that should not be grown as it is invasive and illegal to possess or transport this species in Texas. Please report sightings to the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department at (512) 389-4800.


Consider The Columbian Orator, a copy of which Douglass describes as crucial to his own literacy. Also, here are other examples of 19th century schoolbooks. What do these texts suggest about the historical context around Douglass and other slaves? How might the language of The Columbian Orator have influenced Douglass? What would Greenblatt say about it?


Copyright © University of Cambridge. All rights reserved.
'Exploring Wild & Wonderful Number Patterns' printed from http://nrich.maths.org/
A group from St. Lukes School in Cambridge had a go. They were Saul, Tom, Kain, Emma, Stephanie, Sara, Sophie, Jennifer and Mariko, and here are some of their results, also showing the Digital Roots alongside.
Saul did this using 6 - 3 x 8;
and he noticed that the units went 6,4,8,0, and the DigitalRoots were 6
Emma did 2, firstly 9 x 3 + 1, then 10 x 2 - 3;
and noticed the repeats in the units columns.
Jennifer did this by using 6 x 4 - 4;
she noticed th 6,0, repeating in the units
Sophie did this using 4 x 3 + 8;
she noticed the DigitalRoots settled into all 5's, and there's a units pattern.
Mariko used 9 x 3 + 9;
She noticed that the units goes 9,6,7,0, also that all the numbers were divisible by the starting number, she noticed that all the numbers are divisible by 3, she thought that this is because 3 is divisble into 9 and 9 is a factor of all the numbers.
Tom explored 4 x 9 - 13
Sara looked at 3 x 5 - 2
she noted the units being 3's and the tens going 1,6, the hundreds going 3,5,8,0. I know that this is unusual so I looked at the thousands going further as 1,7,9,5,6,2,4,0 and repeats.
Stephanie used 4 x 7 - 10
she noticed that the units doubled from 4 to 8 to 6 to 2 then go back to 4
Thank you St. Lukes for this really good work, well done and keep on with your work sending in your solutions to the live problems.


Lesson, with information about rodeo: printable pdf
- large brown paper bag
- cardboard wrapping tube
- string or yarn
- Draw a simple horse head on one side of a large brown paper bag, or use the pattern provided in the lesson linked above.
- Cut through both sides of the paper bag.
- Decorate each side of the horse head with an eye, a nostril and a mouth.
- Cut an additional strip of the paper bag, and fringe it to look like the horse's maine.
- Staple the two sides of the head together, with the mane, and stuff it with tissue.
- Tape the head on a cardboard wrapping paper tube.
- Punch a hole under the mouth to add a string for the reins.
|large brown paper bag
- Cut the bag up the middle.
- Make arm holes so students can slip it on like a coat.
- Cut fringe on the bottom and decorate.
- Decide how wide you want the chaps by measuring across the front only of the child's waist.
- Cut partially down the middle to make the pant legs.
- Punch holes at either side of the waist and at either side of each leg just below the knees.
- Tie a piece of yarn to each hole.
- Tie the chaps around the child's waist, and tie each leg of the chaps around the legs.
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Oklahoma Ag in the Classroom
Oklahoma Ag in the Classroom is a program
of the Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service, Oklahoma Department of
Agriculture, Food and Forestry and the Oklahoma State Department of Education