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Oxygen isotopes provide fundamental evidence about the earths previous climates. They can be used to reconstruct past sea levels, ice quantity, and marine temperatures. Oxygen isotopes can vary substantially according to location due to a number of factors. This variation in the oxygen isotopes can be seen in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea which both illustrate two contrasting examples. The northern area of the Bay of Bengal has high influxes of freshwater and the result is a depleted 18O ratio and the southern region of the Arabian Sea is affected by poor circulation of the water body which results in more depleted 18O ratio. Interglacial events have also affected these isotopic ratios since long term variation of 16O and 18O are controlled by variations in ice sheet quantity.
My area of study will be the region of the Indian Ocean, in particular comparing and contrasting the oxygen compositions of two sub locations; the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.
The Arabian Sea is surrounded by India on the east, Pakistan and Iran on the north, the Arabian Peninsula on the west and on the south the north eastern part of Somalia. The surface area of the Arabian Sea is approximately 3,862,000Â km2. Indus River is the largest river flowing into the Arabian Sea. There are also two important branches visible on the map, the Gulf of Oman and the Gulf of Aden which connect the Persian Gulf and Red sea to the Arabian Sea. The Bay of Bengal spreads over an area of 2,172,000Â kmÂ² and is the largest bay in the world with a significant number of large rivers flowing into the bay. The bay is bordered by Bangladesh, India and Sri Lanka to the west and Burma and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands to the east.
Figure 2: Eurasian, Arabian, African & Indian plates
The Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal both share similar geological settings. The two locations both lie on the Indian plate. However the Arabian Sea does tip out towards the west onto the Arabian plate.
A significant quantity of stable isotopes of oxygen and hydrogen in the earth's atmosphere and hydrosphere is necessary for isotopic fractionation from physical and chemical processes. The evaporation and condensation of water triggers the fractionation process, which creates lighter and heavier isotopes. Fractionation tends to turn lighter isotopes into vapour and the heavier isotopes into liquid. Temperature is the key driver for fractionation, converting liquid to vapour and vapour to liquid.
Foraminifera also hold key information as they contain calcite shells which precipitate and fractionate oxygen isotopes in sea water. The 18O values in the calcite of the foraminifera can give us composition and temperature of the location at the time the shell was precipitated.
TemperatureFigure 3: Annual sea surface temperature and salinity in the Indian Ocean
Looking at figure 3 temperature graph we can see very little variation in sea surface temperature between the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. The temperature ranges around 25.67oC and 29.78oC. The low end of the range falls around the Arabian Sea region and the higher end of the temperature range seems to fall around the Bay of Bengal region.
Figure 3 salinity graph is a total contrast to the temperature graph with a distinct difference between the two regions. The Bay of Bengal shows the lowest salinity value of 27.33â€° and the Arabian Sea shows the highest salinity value of 39.65â€°.
Figure 4: Water salinity cycle
This figure shows that some locations increase salinity and others decrease salinity. Sea surface salinity is controlled by geographic differences. In general locations dominated by precipitation have low sea surface salinity and locations dominated by evaporation have high sea surface salinity. Ocean currents can also alter sea surface salinity.
Figure 4 portrays what is happening in the two locations. A large amount of evaporation is taking place in the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal is being inputted by a large quantity of freshwater. However on a million year scale, the data from both locations would show a reasonably constant level of salinity simply because salt has an approximate residence time of 130Ma in seawater.
Discussion: Bay of Bengal
Figure 5: Salinity Vs Latitude; Longitude 85.5E, 86.5E and 87.5E
Figure 5 shows a dictinct dramataic difference in the level of salinity between the north and the south region of the Bay of Bengal. The south has a high level of salinity and the north has a significantly low salinity level. This is a result of large amounts of fresh water inputed into the Ganges which then is mixed resulting in reduced salinity in the north. Sea water mixing with water from the indian ocean which is of normal salinity is the reason for the high salinity level in the south.
Figure 6: Temperature Vs Latitude; Longitude 82.5E, 83.5E and 84.5E
Figure 6 illustrates an overall linear trend line, increasing in temperature as the latitude increases towards the north. Therefore the left side of the graph must be where the Bay of Bengal meets the Indian Ocean as the temperature appears to be lower in consideration to the right side of the graph.
Figure 7: Î´ 18O Core-Top & Î´ 18O LGM Vs Latitude
Figure 7 clearly shows that Î´ 18O core-top values in the north of the Bay of Bengal are more depleted in Î´ 18O than the waters in the south of the Bay. The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) took place approximately 20,000 years ago. According to figure 7 plot the LGM was much depleted in the surface sea water in comparison with Î´ 18O values of today. This can be deduced from the close relationship in trend between the LGM and the more negative core-top values of Î´ 18O.
Discussion: Arabian Sea
Figure 8: Salinity Vs Latitude
Looking at figure 8 we can see that the Arabian Sea has the lowest salinity levels in the south and gradually increases towards the north. This may be a result of the high levels of evaporation in this region.
Figure 9: Sea Surface Temperature (Present) Vs Latitude
Figure 9 indicates overall temperature decreases towards the north of the Arabian Sea, which is in contrast to the temperatures in the Bay of Bengal. From latitude 20 there seems to be an irregular rise in sea surface temperature. The highest Temperature on the graph is in the south.
Figure 10: Î´ 18O Core-Top Vs latitude
Figure 10 emphasises the earlier differences we distinguished between Î´ 18O values in the Arabian Sea and the Î´ 18O values in the Bay of Bengal. The planktonic foraminifera in the Arabian Sea show further depletion of Î´ 18O as you move south and less depletion of Î´ 18O towards the northern region of the Arabian Sea.
The Î´ 18O data taken from the planktonic foraminifera in the Bay of Bengal suggest that Î´ 18O is more depleted in the northern regions than the southern regions. The salinity data clearly show that salinity levels are higher in the southern regions than the northern which is mainly a result of a significant level of freshwater being inputted by the Ganges and other major rivers. Isotopic fractionation causes Î´ 18O to become more depleted in freshwater as evaporation takes place, therefore to suggest that the low level of salinity in the Bay of Bengal is due to the freshwater input is perfectly reasonable.
What was very noticeable to me was that generally the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea seem to be doing the opposite to each other. The present day Î´ 18O values in the Arabian Sea show that the surface sea water is more depleted in the south than the north and salinity is higher in the north than the south which may have been caused by a higher evaporation rate in this region. I can also distinguish that Î´ 18O concentration were higher in the north than the south. This may be due to the north having shallower seas therefore being unable to circulate water as well as the open deeper seas.
Looking at the LGM and the Î´ 18O of planktonic foraminifera in the Bay of Bengal, it is clear that Î´18O of planktonic foraminifera is more depleted than the LGM which may be due to the vast amounts of ice during the LGM. Ice is highly depleted in Î´18O so during periods of interglacial periods this ice must have released Î´ 18O into the sea, causing the sea to have a higher concentration of Î´ 18O.
Sea water compositions can be effected by varying oxygen isotopes. This variation in the oxygen isotopes is dependent on a number of factors, one key factor being temperature. The influx of high levels of fresh water has caused the Bay of Bengal to become less depleted in Î´ 18O and to have a reduced salinity level. This was the case generally in the northern regions in the Bay of Bengal. The poor sea water circulation has caused the Arabian Sea to have higher concentrations of Î´ 18O and lower levels of Î´ 16O; whereas the high level of evaporation has caused a depleted Î´ 16O and the ice acts as a reservoir storing this Î´ 16O. The Î´ 18O isotopic values of the Planktonic foraminifera show evidence of interglacial periods which have effected isotopic composition of the seawater. There is clear evidence that Î´ 18O levels were higher during this period than today, as a result evaporation has taken place which has produced freshwater with depleted Î´ 18O ratios.


In a recent report from the World Wildlife Fund Mexico, scientists noted a 26% decrease in monarch butterfly overwintering population numbers in southern overwintering sites. It is estimated that 6 hectares of hibernating monarchs are required to maintain a sustainable eastern monarch population. This report revealed that monarchs occupied only 2.10 hectares, compared to 2019 data of 2.83 occupied hectares. Scientists attribute this to the degradation of habitat in the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve and monarch breeding grounds throughout the central United States.
This news comes soon after the announcement of devastatingly low western monarch numbers. Researchers, industry partners, and advocacy groups are calling for a coordinated transnational effort to protect and support the monarch butterfly migration. They assert that Canada, the United States, and Mexico must work together if we hope to slow the dramatic losses seen in recent years. Through habitat investment monarch advocates aim to engage everyone in conservation practices. From individuals with small residential outdoor spaces to large land management operations like those of farmers and ranchers, there exist a wide range of interventions available for habitat restoration.
Farmers for Monarchs works to provide tools and resources necessary for this “All hands on Deck” approach. Visit our State Resources page to get the information you need to establish habitat on your land.


Epithelial tissue is a type of animal tissue that line the cavities and surfaces of blood vessels and organs in the body. Epithelial tissue originates from the ectoderm. All glands in our body are made of epithelial cells. Epithelial tissue cells are tightly packed and form a continuous sheet. They have no intercellular spaces between them. The shape of the cells depends on the location and function of the tissue.
They are classified as- Simple squamous epithelium, Stratified squamous epithelium, Columnar epithelium, and Cubodial epithelium.
1. Simple squamous epithelium- They are a single layer of thin flat, plate like cells. This type of epithelium is permeable and occurs where molecules can cross the membrane either via filtration or diffusion. Tongue, esophagus and the lining of the mouth are made up of squamous epithelium. It protects the underlying parts of body from mechanical injury, germs, and from drying.
2. Stratified squamous epithelium- it consists of squamous epithelial cells arranged in layers that protect from wear and tear. They lack intercellular spaces and are found in areas in body that are subject to constant abrasion. It forms the outermost layer of the skin and the inner lining of the mouth, esophagus and vagina.
3. Columnar epithelium are of two types, ciliated and non-ciliated. They are uni-layered. They line organs of the digestive tract including the stomach, small and large intestine and also the uterus. Ciliated epithelium helps the movement of ova in the fallopian tubes and the movement of mucus in the respiratory tract.
4. Cuboidal epithelium- They consists of single layers of cells that are equally tall and wide. They perform secretion and absorption and are found in the small collecting ducts of the kidneys, pancreas, and salivary glands.
5. Glandular epithelium- Epithelial cells that acquire properties of gland cells to secrete substances at the surface of the epithelial tissues are known as glandular epithelium. These substances are water based fluids and contain proteins.
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by Staff Writers
Champaign, Ill. (UPI) Aug 21, 2012
An ancient skull discovered in a cave in northern Laos' mountains is the oldest modern human fossil found in Southeast Asia, researchers say.
The find in the Annamite Mountains means modern human migrations through the area occurred as much as 20,000 earlier than previously believed, they said.
The newly found skull, which dates to between 46,000 and 63,000 years old, is evidence ancient wanderers out of Africa left the coastal regions of Southeast Asia and inhabited diverse habitats much earlier than previously thought, University of Illinois anthropologist Laura Shackelford said.
"There are other modern human fossils in China or in Island Southeast Asia that may be around the same age but they either are not well dated or they do not show definitively modern human features," said Shackelford, who led the study with anthropologist Fabrice Demeter of the National Museum of Natural History in Paris.
"This skull is very well dated and shows very conclusive modern human features."
It reveals early modern humans did not confine their migrations to the coast and go directly south to the islands of Southeast Asia and Australia, as some scientists have surmised; they also traveled north into very different types of terrain, Shackelford said.
"Given its age, fossils in this vicinity could be direct ancestors of the first migrants to Australia," she said. "But it is also likely that mainland Southeast Asia was a crossroads leading to multiple migratory paths."
All About Human Beings and How We Got To Be Here
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Old skull bone rediscovered
Zurich, Switzerland (SPX) Aug 17, 2012
Although clearly discernible in the embryo, shortly afterwards it fuses with other bones beyond recognition. Consequently, researchers have often missed it. Now, however, paleontologists from the University of Zurich have rediscovered it: the "os interparietale", a skull bone also referred to as the interparietal. Using imaging methods, they were able to detect its presence in all mammals - incl ... read more
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Limousin Cattle: Identifying and Improving Carcase Traits in Limousin Cattle04 March 2014
A call has gone out to owners of commercial Limousin sires to partake in a ground breaking four year study looking at how genetics influences carcase traits and can be turned into more of an exact science.
In 2011, the British Limousin Cattle Society (BLCS) joined forces with ABP (Anglo Beef Processors) and SRUC (Scotland’s Rural College (formerly SAC)) to embark on a ground-breaking four-year project exploring the use of the latest genetic and imaging technologies to improve carcase traits in Limousin cattle.
It is a £1.5 million initiative, funded by the Government’s Technology Strategy Board (TSB), writes the BLCS.
The aim of the project is to understand the influence of genetics on carcase traits, to establish reliable methods of recording data and produce breeding values that identify breeding animals with superior genetic merit for up to nine new carcase traits.
To achieve this Video Imaging Analysis (VIA) results of carcases are combined with genomic information from DNA, says the BLCS.
This builds up a ‘SNP Key’ for the breed, which producers can compare their live animals’ DNA against and identify their breeding merit for the nine new traits.
This is the first use of this exciting new technology in the beef sector in the UK and means breeding merit for a range of carcase cuts can be identified at a very early stage in an animal’s life, with a far greater degree of accuracy than at present.
2014 – Progress to Date
Heritabilities have been estimated for the carcase traits for Limousin. These have been found to be moderate to strong, which means genetic selection is possible and will influence performance.
The first Limousin EBVs have been produced for the carcase traits. As more data accumulates these will be refined and published in 2015.
Progress Yielding Exciting Results
A study of the data collected by the project so far examined progeny results from 30 different Limousin sires. The difference in retail value between the best and the worst sire was £463 per calf. The new breeding values that result from this project will identify the animals that can produce this added value, which has clear benefit for all sectors in the supply chain.
To view this information in greater detail in a series of short factsheets, click here.
The larger part of 2014 is being devoted to obtaining DNA samples from live animals to ‘cross reference’ with the slaughter data as it accumulates and build the SNP key. Some animals we require samples from have previously been sold to commercial producers and we would like to know their whereabouts.
We also require to purchase semen from a range of AI bulls for higher-level sequencing analysis. The list can be viewed here. If you have straws to sell (or donate), please get in touch.
All contributing breeders will be kept informed of the project’s progress as it nears completion in 2015 and all sampled animals will be amongst the first in the UK to receive genomic breeding values for the new carcase traits.
Beyond DNA sampling, throughout the course of the year, more VIA machines are to be installed in abattoirs across the UK to increase the volume of data used to create the SNP key.
As we progress in to 2015, it is planned that the nine new EBVs will be integrated in to the Limousin evaluation for publication, with the first genomic breeding values (GEBVs) – those augmented by the addition of DNA information – becoming available towards the latter part of 2015. At this point, Limousin breeders will be able to genotype their animals at birth and receive the GEBV for each of the nine VIA carcase traits. Identifying the high performers so early in life with greater degrees of accuracy than before will be incredibly valuable to breeders and commercial Limousin buyers when making their breeding and management decisions.
For more information on the Limousin carcase traits project, please click here.


Tuesday is Election Day in the United States. Voters across the country will go to the polls for what are called “midterm elections,” and they’ll choose thousands of public officials from members of Congress all the way down to school board members and town councilors.
American elections are different from those in many other democracies, and their rules and customs are often baffling. Here are some answers to readers’ questions about how the 2018 midterms work.
What exactly are midterm elections?
In the most literal sense, midterm elections are exactly what their name suggests: the elections that take place halfway through a president’s four-year term. That covers a huge range of contests, from congressional seats all the way down to small-town mayoral races and county sheriffs.
U.S. congressional elections, which take place every two years, are the most high-profile contests. In the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, all 435 seats are contested every time. In the Senate, the upper chamber, senators’ six-year terms are staggered so that roughly one-third of them are up for election each time. This year, 35 of the 100 Senate seats are up for grabs. All of these term lengths and election dates are set by the U.S. Constitution.
When people refer to midterm elections, those congressional votes are usually what they’re thinking of. They offer voters their biggest opportunity in between presidential elections to weigh in on a president’s performance and shift the balance of power if they’re unsatisfied.
There are also thousands of other races taking place across the country. A majority of U.S. states — 36 of 50 — will hold elections for governor this year, and the vast majority of state legislatures have elections as well. In many places, voters will also choose judges, sheriffs, mayors and any number of other local officials. All of these elections are governed by state and local laws, not the U.S. Constitution.
State and local races often go relatively unnoticed, even within the United States itself. But governors and state lawmakers wield considerable power, as can big-city mayors. The laws they create for their residents can vary greatly from place to place and sometimes serve as test cases for various policies.
Perhaps even more critically, most states put their legislatures in charge of redrawing the boundaries of the state’s congressional districts (more on that later). This year’s elections will determine which party controls many of those legislatures — and the governors who can approve or veto them — when the process next takes place, in 2020. At every level of American government, the effects of midterm elections can last for years.
Which elections are the most important to watch? We’ll start with the House of Representatives.
While there are certainly some compelling individual races to watch, the easiest way to keep track of things is probably by looking at the “generic ballot.” This is when pollsters simply ask voters whether they prefer Democrats or Republicans to win control of Congress.
Unlike in many democracies, that number has no effect on any actual races in the United States. But it is an important indicator of which party is likely to come out on top: A party that leads the generic ballot by eight percentage points, as Democrats do at the moment, won’t get exactly 8 percent more seats, but it’s still probably going to win more than the other side overall.
If voters heavily favor Republicans, for example, many districts that normally have a small or moderate advantage for Democrats will suddenly be vulnerable or vice versa. If you hear people talk about a “wave election,” as they have this year, that’s what they’re talking about — the fact that many more elections are competitive than normal because of the political mood.
All of this means that Democrats are the large favorites to win back the House: The news website FiveThirtyEight estimates that they have a roughly 85 percent chance of having the majority of seats come November. But, as was the case in 2016, that still means Republicans have paths to victory as well.
What about the Senate?
Only a third of the Senate comes up for reelection at a time, which means that the major political swings that can cause big shifts in the House are rare in the upper chamber.
Instead, control of the Senate is usually determined simply by which states happen to be electing senators that year. If elections are up in more reliably Democratic states, Democrats will probably have a good year and vice versa. This year, the map favors Republicans by a large margin: Democrats must defend 26 of the 35 seats up for election, many of which are in states that voted for Donald Trump in 2016. Republicans can focus on winning back seats from Democrats in favorable places rather than trying to shore up their own senators.
So while Democrats would have to make a net gain of just two seats to control the Senate, which is split 51 to 49 in the Republicans’ favor, their path to do so is much harder. As Post political reporter Amber Phillips wrote in September, “Democrats will have to have a near-perfect run” of the toughest races. Here are her three most critical ones to watch:
North Dakota: Sen. Heidi Heitkamp is the most likely Democrat to fall. In a heavily Republican state, she is extremely vulnerable to losing her seat — perhaps especially after she voted against the confirmation of controversial Supreme Court nominee Brett M. Kavanaugh. Recent polls have shown Heitkamp trailing significantly. If she loses, it will be a big blow to Democrats’ chances of regaining the Senate.
Nevada: This is the Democrats’ best opportunity to take a seat from Republicans. Nevada has voted for Democrats in the past three presidential races, and a Democrat won the open Senate seat that was up for election in 2016. Nevada’s population is also more than a quarter Latino, and pro-Democratic labor unions play a major role in the state’s politics. Right now, the race is nearly an even toss-up, with Republican Sen. Dean Heller perhaps slightly favored.
Indiana: This is another place where Democrats need one of their senators to hang on in a Republican state. Sen. Joe Donnelly appears in better shape than his counterpart in North Dakota: Polls give him an advantage. If he loses, it could be a sign that Republicans are going to have a better night than forecasters anticipated.
How will the results of the midterms affect Trump?
When people ask this question, they’re probably really asking about one thing: impeachment. But while impeaching Trump is a rallying cry for his harshest critics — and, according to polling, is surprisingly popular in general — it’s unlikely to happen.
Impeachment is actually a two-step process, laid out in the U.S. Constitution. First, the House of Representatives considers the accusations against the president; if it votes in favor of impeachment (it requires just a simple majority), it means that the president has been formally charged. To actually remove him from office, the Senate must then vote to convict him on those charges, which requires a two-thirds majority. Presidents can be impeached without actually being kicked out of the White House, as happened to Bill Clinton in 1998.
All of this would be a possibility only if Democrats controlled both chambers of Congress, which is unlikely. Even if Democrats win both, their leaders seem lukewarm about impeachment; Nancy Pelosi, the top Democrat in the House, has said that impeaching Trump is “not a priority.”
What Democrats could do is launch more serious investigations into Trump’s conduct regarding Russia, his business dealings or any other matter that they believe Republicans have downplayed. That could turn up damaging new evidence, or it could simply dominate the news as Trump gears up for his reelection campaign. No matter what, though, expect gridlock. If a Democratic House and Republican Senate are battling each other, it’s hard to see any major legislation being passed.
For many people overseas, the U.S. electoral system appears strange — and seemingly unfair in how it represents the will of voters. Can that system be changed?
The question of changing the system usually comes up when people talk about presidential elections. U.S. presidents are elected by an indirect system called the electoral college, not by a simple popular vote. The person who gets the most total votes can still lose the presidency, as Hillary Clinton did.
The electoral college plays no role in any other elections, including the ones taking place Tuesday. But, like the rules that govern congressional elections, it’s part of the U.S. Constitution. Changing those rules requires amending the Constitution rather than just passing a new law, and the bar for amendments is high. They have to be approved by two-thirds majorities of both chambers of Congress, and then approved again by at least 38 states (there’s also another way, by calling a new constitutional convention, but it has never happened before).
With the country deeply divided, getting two-thirds of either house of Congress to agree on major changes would be virtually impossible. But it’s not just partisanship that makes changes unlikely.
The status quo gives smaller states a big advantage. Seats in the House of Representatives are determined by population — the more residents a state has, the larger its share of the 435 seats. But every state gets two Senate seats no matter what. Small states, regardless of partisanship, aren’t likely to back amendments that would reduce their power.
There’s more room for experimentation at the state level. States can’t change how they’re represented in Congress, but they can change how their own residents vote. Instead of using the first-past-the-post system — i.e., whoever gets the most votes wins, even if the top candidate doesn’t reach a majority — some states require top-two runoffs so that winners get more than 50 percent of the vote, and Maine uses a different system called instant-runoff voting. In reality, though, most states have laws and constitutions that mimic the national government.
What about those strangely shaped districts? Why do they exist?
Again, the answer is (at least partly) in the U.S. Constitution. The Constitution requires that the country take a census every 10 years and that seats in the House of Representatives be divided among the states in proportion to their population. So, once a decade, some states will either gain or lose seats depending on population shifts. The changes are determined automatically according to a mathematical formula.
But the Constitution doesn’t say how states should draw up the boundaries of those seats; each one is free to use its own method. Many states let their legislatures do it, which is how you get the infamous practice of “gerrymandering” — creating districts that make little geographical sense to give one party an advantage. The party in power at the start of a decade will obviously try to give itself more seats, either by connecting its own voters to one another in odd ways or by jamming as many opposing voters into the smallest number of seats as possible.
Those maps may later be challenged in court for being grossly unfair and even redrawn by judges. Partisanship and chaos are common.
Several states have taken steps to change this. California and Arizona have independent commissions that draw up their maps, and lawmakers and public officials are barred from taking part. Three other states have advisory commissions, which draw up recommendations for their legislatures to pass. Four more have appointed committees, where both parties can appoint members to take part. All of these are attempts to make redistricting a little less partisan and a little more fair.
Why is so much money spent on elections?
Federal law sets limits on how much people can donate per year to candidates for federal office (Congress or the presidency), political parties or political action committees — groups that use the money to support candidates. Here’s a list of those limits.
So if you want to give directly to the candidate or party of your choice, you can’t give that much. The catch is that there are virtually no restrictions if you want to support a candidate indirectly. The law allows certain kinds of outside groups to accept unlimited amounts of money and use it to advocate for or against a candidate. The most famous kind of those groups are “super PACs,” which have become a way for wealthy donors from both sides to dump money into elections.
Technically, those independent groups aren’t allowed to coordinate with the campaigns or parties they support. But the definition of “coordination” is narrow, and super PACs are closely tied to candidates and parties — they’re often run by close associates of candidates or party insiders. The groups find plenty of creative ways to work closely with the people they support
These groups are allowed because the Supreme Court considers giving money to political causes a form of speech, which is protected by the First Amendment. The court has loosened the rules on political donations over the years and basically scrapped any limits on those outside groups altogether in 2010.
But the amount of money in politics actually isn’t rising constantly. The most expensive election year to date was 2008, and things have declined slightly since then. What’s still on the rise is the amount of money spent by those outside groups and, presumably, the influence of the people who fund them.


Change is coming
Despite a wet January thus far for a majority of Kansas (Figure 1), that doesn’t exactly imply what is in the future. January typically averages the least amount of precipitation of any month. Therefore, it is easy for one or two storms to skew statistics. While there is also snow on the ground across much of the state as of this writing, the moisture content of the snow is rather low and will translate into only a few tenths of an inch when melted. Currently, forecasts after the first full week of February are suggesting a large pattern change will occur into March. This pattern will be more La Niña-like and conducive to dry frontal passages. In addition, precipitation trends are expected to swing below normal through most of spring, a time of more critical importance for annual moisture totals.
Figure 1. 30-day departure from normal precipitation. Data available here: mesonet.ksu.edu/precip/daily
The pattern transition to warmer and drier with increased frontal passages will coincide with what we typically consider the fire season in Kansas. An increase of fronts typically results in an uptick of Kansas wind events. Most historically large fires (and mega-fires) in the state have occurred with strong frontal systems. In combination with a higher-than-normal fuel load (which has already resulted in a few large fires this winter), this is likely to increase fire concerns through March. Another concern is the current ongoing drought in much of western Kansas. Recent moisture has not offset the current drought and has had little impact on heavier fuel models (timber, cedar, etc.). With forecast models still suggesting drier-than-normal conditions through the spring (Figure 2), these conditions are expected to expand eastward once again.
Figure 2. Precipitation rate anomalies for March (left) and April (right) via NOAA NMME (https://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/NMME/monanom.shtml).
Ending fire season
The duration of fire season is typically dictated by several factors consisting of precipitation, temperature, time of the year, and less wind events. This past year, the fire season never really stopped, with large fires reported every month during the winter. Spring, a time of transition between winter and summer, can almost guarantee strong frontal systems and (usually) the windiest time of the year. We usually focus on precipitation events enhancing grass green-up and preventing fire starts. It may seem promising that in La Niña, there is typically an increase in severe weather with both hail and tornadoes (Figure 3). While an increase in moisture usually occurs with severe weather - it also represents the strength of storm systems. A stronger storm system suggests increased wind potential and resulting wildfire potential enhanced to the west of the thunderstorms. Precipitation timing is critical and if consecutive storm systems can impact the region with widespread moisture mid-to-late March, it could drastically enhance green-up and aid in diminishing wildfire concerns. However, predicting that type of system this far in advance is a challenge. Currently, we are focusing on the increased potential of wind, dry conditions and warmer-than-normal temperatures that will result in increased wildfire potential (Figure 4). It is very likely that these conditions will occur before consecutive wetting rains can occur with green-up and time of the year (late March to early April).
Figure 3. Frequency of tornadoes (top) and hail (bottom) during El Niño (left) and La Niña (right) via NOAA (https://www.climate.gov/news-features/featured-images/el-ni%C3%B1o-and-la-ni%C3%B1a-affect-spring-tornadoes-and-hailstorms).
Figure 4. Significant wildland fire potential outlook from National Interagency Fire Center Predictive Services (https://www.predictiveservices.nifc.gov/outlooks).
Christopher “Chip” Redmond - Kansas Mesonet
Mary Knapp - Weather Data Library
Eric Ward - Kansas Forest Service


Example: "I'm visiting my mom who lives near research proposal dissertation structure beach that I went to a lot growing up, so I'm going to write about that. After introducing the idea, you should support your idea by giving relevant reflections.
How to Develop a Thesis Statement for a Reflective Paper
Spend a few minutes example of a thesis statement for a reflective essay thinking or re-experiencing your subject. How did this experience relate to my understanding of theology, God or religion?
A reflective paper, for example, asks the creative writing course requirements to work from a first-person point of view to chronicle the thoughts and feelings he experienced. Check out if you have followed the specific requirements to your reflection paper.
An outline of a great reflective essay is laid out for your use below. Was this a good or a bad thing for me?
What does this event mean to me? As an author there are some of the key points that you should have to yourself to come up with good content for your essay: You have to create a link between your writing, yourself and the surrounding.
How to Write a Reflective Essay
Afterward, you may rewrite all weak places and introduce something you might have missed previously. It can be tempting to just jump right into writing, but hold on!
- English creative writing gcse aqa letter of application as a class teacher
- The piece should be able to make the student develop psychologically, emotionally and socially.
- Name the resources you took to complete your task and organize them in accordance with your academic style.
- Reflective Essay Thesis Statement Examples
- How to Develop a Thesis Statement for a Reflective Paper | Synonym
Do not forget to reflect the main ideas of your essay in a thesis statement. I walked along swinging my sandals in one hand. You have to realize that an effective thesis statement is your key to writing a great essay because it will define what your paper is going to look like in general. Professional Teachers, doctors, and social workers often use this type of writing in their training.
Do not include vague statements. If you cannot write an essay on your own, you are always welcome to order essay writing service and have it written by those who know how to do it well.
Tips on how to start a reflective paper
Do not write generalizations or information that is already known to the reader. You can also give recommendations on how to handle different situations. Example: "I picked the questions: What did I notice? You should always strive to present your thesis statement in an understandable format without personal statement graduate school writing ambiguity. In what way did this expand my understanding of my own culture?
The introduction An introduction should be a brief description or background story about the topic under discussion.
How to Write a Thesis Statement ?
This is a reflective essay, which means you can speculate. Finishing a task. The good business plan writers chicago should: Retell the story in other words Highlight the main points Logically conclude the research The end of your reflective paper should be effective.
All internship students are required to write an internship example of a thesis statement for a reflective essay paper to make their conclusions about that experience. How to Make an Introduction to a Reflective Essay?
Reflective Essay Writing: Guide to Make a Successful Work Easily
You should write the text in first person narration because a reflective essay is more subjective to the writer and therefore the events should have happened in their lives in one way or another. How was my experience of this unique to me? When you answer the question, you will have started to bring out the reflection perspective.
Make your thesis clear for comprehension as much as you possibly can. Reflect the research proposal dissertation structure with a material that essays writing service have in your mind — a reflection essay is all about comparison of two similar ordeals, so as a writer you should be able to figure out a material that reflects on the topic under discussion.
What skills did I learn?
To know that there is always something to look forward to ahead. It could be hypothesis on volcanoes summary of the entire experience, followed by what you learned from it. Consequently, we propose to review the following link — to ease your academic duties; later on, those tips might come to you in handy.
The main objective of the topic sentence is to introduce the idea to the reader. Every student has to realize that reflective essay writing is all about personal experience and feelings.
- How to Write a Reflective Essay With Sample Essays | Owlcation
- Use This Reflective Essay Outline to Get Your Paper Started
Teachers benefit from writing about experiences in teaching, and doing case studies of difficult students. Example What did I notice? The main formats that one may be asked to write about are: A reflective essay for personal growth — this essay is usually aimed at assisting students to look into their lives and analyze experiences so that they can improve their future.
But those people—that madness—made me thankful for the peace and security of my own home and family and its rules. Why did I have the reaction I did example of a thesis statement for a reflective essay this?


Fifteen partners from eight European countries will work for 48 months to ensure technological improvements for better manufacturing and processing practices of plastic materials that currently are not adequately recycled.
UPLIFT has a dual strategy:
- manufacturing at pilot scale new renewable eco-polymers specifically designed to ensure easier end-of-life processing;
- developing industrial scalable enzymatic and microbial degradation processes to selectively depolymerize and upcycle plastic packaging waste materials that are currently considered unrecyclable.
Bio-based building blocks
Keeping plastic waste in the loop and integrating biobased building blocks, instead of virgin fossil-based monomers, UPLIFT will reduce plastic waste generation and greenhouse gas emissions associated with its production. The project will also look into social aspects, exploring the potential synergies between policymakers, industry, consumers, and recyclers, which are critical in order to change the plastic economy.
Led by Aalborg University, UPLIFT is formed by Forschungszentrum Julich, Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Technical University of Denmark, LundsUniversitet, TECNARO, Bio-M, Bio Base Europe Pilot Plant, Leibniz-InstitutfuerNaturstoff-Forschung und Infektionsbiologie – Hans KnoellInstitut, Plastics Technology Centre AIMPLAS, University College Dublin, Bioplastech, Sustainable Innovations, RWTH Aachen and I/S Vestforbrænding.
The project has received €7,5 million funding from European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme.


1. A theory that defines behavioral attributes as a relatively stable predisposition to behave in a certain way is called_________________ theory.
2. The goal of trait theorists is to describe a single set of trait dimensions that can describe all ______________.
3. Raymond Cattell's goal was to develop a system by which an infinite number of different personality types could be described by a finite set of traits. Cattell's theory that included source traits and surface traits was called Cattell's_____________ ________theory.
4. Hans Eysenck was a German born British psychologist who believed that differences among people in the basic traits depicted by his theory are determined by genetic or ______________ physiological characteristics of the nervous system.
5. Han's Eysenck extended psychological research so that it also included the study of
___________________ ______________ and antisocial behaviors such as_______________________ _________________ disorder.
6. Hans Eysenck divided personalities into four domains, stable and unstable, introverted and ________________.
7. Fred Gage at Salk Institute was a neuroscientist that discovered two processes that take place in the brain known as ____________________and____________________.
8. John Bowlby was a researcher that was concerned about what would happen to children if they failed to form a nurturing bond with their caretakers. This theory is referred to as_________________ theory.
This solution assists in choosing the best option through discussion and links for further investigation.


Technology Supporting Literacy
Below are some great academic websites that your child may choose to use to practice skills learned at school. Please be aware that we recommend parental supervision as the websites on the internet can change from time to time. Please remind your child NOT to give away any personal information on any of these or any other website.
this website has many opportunities to practice literacy skills
This is a great website to practice your child’s weekly spelling words through interactive games such as crossword puzzles, hangman, etc. The computer can even test your child’s spelling by saying the word aloud and having your child type it in.
Click on ALL games to bring up the game section. Select from language arts (spelling, word recognition, vocabulary, etc) , science, math, geography and history. Great for preschool through 2nd.
This site has links to favorite children’s authors.
This is a fabulous site for Kinder through second. The game speaks to you and skills such as alphabet, letter sounds, listening for sounds within words, putting words in order to make sentences, poetry, spelling high frequency words (with the computer modeling), etc . The site is color coded from beginner to more advanced.
Children’s picture dictionary- the amount of information on this site boggles the mind!
Website teaches about the solar system
National Geographic For Kids- video, activities, games and stories
Variety of games to teach language arts- more intermediate grades
Does your child struggle with handwriting? Make practice sheets for home on this site!
This site helps your child read stories that have 10 high frequency words in them. They can receive help reading stories with the help of their mouse.
Beginning letter sounds, short and long vowels
Word Wizard** A Making Words activity- use tiles to make words and build from one word to make another word.
Activities from Sadlier-Oxford
14. **Long Vowel Sounds**
15. **High Frequency Words**
16. **Rhyming Words Memory Game**
17. **Name the Pictures Short Vowels**
18. **Name the Pictures Long Vowel Sounds A, I, O**
19. **High Frequency Words** more difficult
20. **Long Vowels E and U**
21. **Name the Picture Long Vowel Sounds**
22. **R-Controlled Vowels**
23. **R-Controlled Words**
24. **Blends** Beginning and ending consonant blends
25. **Beginning Digraphs**
26. *Final Digraphs"
27. **Vowel Digraphs** Vowel digraphs such as oo, ea, au, aw, etc.
28. **Vowel Dipthongs ou and ow**
29. **Dipthongs oi, oy, and ew**
30. **Fly By Contractions**
31. Make rhyming words with a magnetic poetry board
Other educational websites you might be interested in to support math:
This website allows your child to practice basic math facts (which all children need to become efficient with), allows you to print off worksheets for your child to practice and it gives your child the opportunity to practice telling time.
This site allows your child to practice basic math facts (timed if you’d like them to race against the clock to practice getting them in 3 seconds or less) and practice counting money.
opportunities to practice math
A great site to practice math, art, science, fun and more (skip the registration and go right to the games)
An interactive site to practice math, logic and just have fun! (Anything from fractions, protractors, word problems, flashcards, etc.)
On this site your child can play math car racing. There are many math games including one that your child can make change with!! Be sure to click on the 2nd grade skills.
Interactive website that includes math flash cards, games and printable worksheets to practice math.
This site has great online games and puzzles
Math challenges for the whole family!


Livestock Industry and Global Warming
A UN report concludes that animal agriculture is responsible for 18% of total greenhouse gas emissions, more than all transportation in the world combined.
The most under reported cause of global warming is the livestock industry, which accounts for a minimum of 18 percent of global warming, and, according to more updated information, is possibly responsible for 50 percent or more of the current emissions in the atmosphere.
Lowering emissions by eliminating animal products from your life is one of the fastest, cheapest and most effective methods one can take to not only lower global emissions, but to bring abut rapid planetary cooling.
Easy to implement. Eating a plant-based diet to lower emissions requires no infrastructure investments, capital investment or government rebates.
Lowers monthly costs. Plant-based diets ends up reducing monthly costs for consumers immediately.
Improves health, lowers weight. A well planned vegan diet is likely to improve health and result in a reduction in weight.
Cools the planet faster. Reducing emissions through a shift from a meat- and dairy-laden diet will bring about more rapid cooling than a reduction of CO2 emissions through any other option.
Tastes great. As Oprah Winfrey attests, once you learn how to incorporate a vegan diet into your life, the food tastes great, leaving one satisfied and well-nourished.
“Wow, wow, wow! I never imagined meatless meals could be so satisfying. I had been focused on what I had to give up..."What's left?" I thought. Apparently a lot. I can honestly say every meal was a surprise and a delight...” Oprah Winfrey, commenting on her 21 day vegan 'cleanse'
Livestock’s Long Shadow
The livestock group within the United Nations’ Food and Agriculture Organization evaluated the comprehensive environmental damage resulting from raising animals for food and other purposes, concluding the livestock sector is one of the leading causes of environmental degradation on the planet. The report, Livestock’s Long Shadow, states:
“The livestock sector emerges as one of the top two or three most significant contributors to the most serious environmental problems, at every scale from local to global. The findings of [Livestock’s Long Shadow] suggest that it should be a major policy focus when dealing with problems of land degradation, climate change and air pollution, water shortage and water pollution and loss of biodiversity."
“Livestock’s contribution to environmental problems is on a massive scale...The impact is so significant that it needs to be addressed with urgency.”
By using a global warming potential estimate for methane of 23 times that of CO2, the UN concluded that livestock were responsible for 18 percent of total global emissions, more than all transportation in the world, which only produces an estimate of 13 percent of global emissions. However, because this global warming potential estimate is low (link to section below), it is believed that emissions from meat and dairy consumption are significantly higher than the 18 percent estimate of the UN FAO.
The researchers determined that livestock are responsible for the creation of 9 percent of human-caused CO2 emissions, 37 percent of human-caused methane emissions, and 67 percent of human-caused nitrous oxide emissions. Animals raised as livestock by humans are the single largest source of human-caused methane and nitrous oxide emissions on the planet.Methane: Hotter than they are leading us to believe.
The global warming potential estimate of 23 is misleading and significantly under-estimates the role livestock play in global warming. Methane has an atmospheric lifetime of nine to 15 years, meaning the methane has dissipated out of the atmosphere within that time, leaving behind a residual that still continues to warm the planet.
For example, twenty years after a cow belches methane into the atmosphere (and five to 11 years after it’s atmospheric lifetime has ended and the methane has dissipated out of the atmosphere) the methane has a global warming potential of 62 times that of CO2. A hundred years after that cow belched her methane into the atmosphere, that belch is still warming the planet, but its global warming potential has dropped to only 23 times that of CO2.
This raises a really powerful question. If the residual methane left in the atmosphere five or more years after the atmospheric lifetime of methane is passed, how hot is methane during its atmospheric lifetime? And what does that say about the need to lower emissions from livestock?
During a September 2008 panel discussion sponsored by Compassion in World Farming in London, Dr. Rajendra Pachauri, head of the UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, stated that prominent scientists were calling him up and telling him that the emissions from livestock were much, much higher than current estimates. During an interview with Supreme Master Television, Dr. T. Colin Campbell, the nutritional biochemist who led the China Project/Study, stated reputable scientists at the World Bank had indicated to him that livestock emissions make up 50 percent or more of the emissions currently in our atmosphere.The Fastest Way to Cool the Planet
With the Earth rapidly approaching and surpassing critical tipping points, halting global warming immediately has become urgent. Right now, government programs and public emissions reduction efforts are focused on lowering our CO2 emissions. This is great, however, because the atmospheric lifetime of CO2 is so much longer than methane, and because its residual global warming potential will still be felt 500 or a 1000 years later, reductions in CO2 emissions are not going to bring about rapid planetary cooling.
Scientists are increasingly telling us that because methane dissipates out of the atmosphere much more quickly than CO2, that lowering methane emissions are the fastest way to bring about planetary cooling. And because animals are the greatest source of methane emissions, the less meat- and dairy we consume, and the more plant-based foods we consume, the quicker the planet will begin to cool.
The following reports on the emissions from animals are based upon misleading methane global warming potential estimates around 23 times that of CO2. This means that these reports under estimate the role of meat and dairy consumption on global warming.Eating a plant-based diet reduces more emissions than buying a hybrid car.
Researchers at the University of Chicago evaluated the emissions throughout the food production chain if one were consuming the average diet and compared it to a diet of equal calories where all the calories were consumed in the form of plant-based foods. They determined that the average meat and dairy consumer was responsible for about 1.5 tonness of emissions per year than a person consuming a purely meat- and dairy-free diet. By comparison, they also calculated that switching from the average car to a Toyota Prius would save only 1 tonne of emissions per year, clearly indicating you will succeed in a significant reduction of your emissions if without spending the money on a new energy-efficient car by just eating more plant-based foods. Concluding that the average American was responsible for 1,485 kg in emissions over a person consuming a plant-based diet.
Plant-based eating reduces 7 times more emissions than eating local foods.
Most people promoting “locavore”or local eating evaluate only the transportation emissions. However, transportation emissions are actually only a small portion of the overall emissions created in the food production process. A study done at Carnegie Mellon University in Pennsylvania, USA evaluated the emissions produced throughout the production lifecycle of food in the US diet, concluding that only 11% of emissions come from transportation. Agricultural and industrial practices account for the remaining 83% of emissions from the American diet. The Carnegie Mellon Researchers found that emissions from animal products were responsible for 58% of the emissions in the American diet, and that by going vegan just one day per week, more emissions would be saved then by eating locally all year long.94 % of dietary emissions are reduced by switching to an organic, plant-based diet
Switching from a conventionally-raised, meat- and dairy-based diet to an organic plant-based diet reduces the emissions from your diet by 94 percent. Research by Foodwatch in Germany became the first to comprehensively measure greenhouse gas emissions from various dietary choices, including conventional vs. organic farming.
The average meat eater consuming traditionally-farmed foods with herbicides and pesticides is responsible for the carbon dioxide emissions-equivalent of driving 4,758 kilometers each year.
Eating organic, sustainably-raised meats, dairy and produce will reduce emissions 8 percent to 4,377 kilometers.
Eating a vegetarian diet, including dairy products, reduces emissions by about half, to the equivalent of driving 2,427 kilometers each year.
Eating an organic vegetarian diet reduces the emissions an additional 18.5 percent to the equivalent of driving 1,978 kilometers.
A conventionally-grown vegan diet (vegetarian with no dairy or eggs) reduces emissions to the equivalent of driving 629 kilometers each year.
An organic vegan diet, which creates the equivalent carbon footprint of driving 281 kilometers, or 6.4 percent of the emissions of an organic omnivore and 5.9 percent of the emissions created by an omnivore eating non-organic foods.
Click here to view
Price of Meat
Meat The Facts
Friends of the Earth
United Nations FAO
Diet, Energy, & Global Warming
Answering the sceptics
Sea Shepard Conservation Society
UN News Centre
Science Daily: Poison ice
Time: Health and Science
Green Peace Reports
Vegan: The New Ethics of Eating by Erik Marcus
The Food Revolution by John Robbins
Healthy at 100 by John Robbins
A Delicate Balance (film)
Meat The Truth (film)
The 11th Hour - Narrated by Leonardo DiCaprio (film)


Some research suggests that young children may be relatively more susceptible to noise induced hearing loss (NIHL) than adults, and that the unique noise footprint associated with military jet aircraft is particularly damaging to hearing. This pilot study looked for evidence of NIHL in adults who have been exposed to military jet noise in early childhood, while living in Married Quarters on active RAF fast jet stations. Many Married Quarters lie within 70 dB(A) Leq contours, fewer in 83 dB(A) Leq contours. A cross-sectional pilot study was undertaken to examine the hypothesis that military jet noise exposure early in life is associated with raised hearing thresholds.
Keywords: jet noise, military, hearing loss, childhood, environmental exposure
|How to cite this article:|
Ludlow B, Sixsmith K. Long term effects of military jet aircraft noise exposure during childhood on hearing threshold levels. Noise Health 1999;2:33-9
|How to cite this URL:|
Ludlow B, Sixsmith K. Long term effects of military jet aircraft noise exposure during childhood on hearing threshold levels. Noise Health [serial online] 1999 [cited 2017 Jan 19];2:33-9. Available from: http://www.noiseandhealth.org/text.asp?1999/2/5/33/31730
| Introduction|| |
It has been suggested that children, as a vulnerable group, are more susceptible to hearing damage in their childhood. In addition, military jet aircraft noise has been cited as a probable cause of hearing damage, in particular by its unique footprint, potentially a more damaging type of noise than other transport noise sources.
Clearly, these contentions beg the question:
'Is jet noise that different from other noise in its effects?'
Obviously there may be differences in effect linked to rise time, duration and total energy - all subjects of further research. However, if jet noise per-se is particularly harmful, one would expect to be able to find evidence of 'damage' - threshold shift - in identified adults who were known to be exposed to jet noise in childhood.
Thus the hypothesis that 'exposure to jet noise causes threshold shift' was considered. It was assumed that a significant proportion of RAF recruits would be the children of RAF staff, hence lived in RAF quarters near airfields during their childhood, hence been exposed to jet noise for some time whilst growing up. We accepted that the exact jet noise exposure dose for each subject would be difficult to quantify, and that the sound footprint would be more akin to 'airport' noise than 'overflight' noise. Some overflights may have been experienced by the subjects for from time to time military aircrew practice overshoots and display sequences at their parent airbase. Notwithstanding, it was likely that the children would have lived within a 70dB(A) Laeq contour, some may have lived within an 83dB(A) contour and we had access to archived noise footprints to confirm that some military quarters fell within these noise contours.
A pilot study was undertaken to compare a group of recruits who were the progeny of RAF staff and had probable childhood exposure to RAF jet noise with a larger control group of recruits who were not so exposed. This paper reviews the preliminary results.
Other field studies (Green et al, 1982; Wu et al, 1995) which do not suffer from the influence of extraneous variables find no significant threshold shifts in children living with airport noise. Fisch (1981) notes that although his study of children living around the UK's Heathrow airport found no evidence of NIHL, 5% of children display low levels of sensory-neural hearing loss at any one time, of which only a tiny proportion is likely to be noise induced. Classic NIHL is characterized by a dip at 4 kHz; any other pattern of hearing loss is likely to be congenital. However, we believe this to be the first study to look at the effects of MILITARY aircraft noise closest to air bases.
| Method|| |
The participants were 153 Royal Air Force noncommissioned air and ground crew aged between 16 and 25 years. All had less than 12 month's service and were posted to general service or specialist training wings at the time of the study. Forty-eight were the children of RAF personnel and had lived in married quarters or other residential areas on or very near to stations where fast jet squadrons were based. These participants formed the jet noise exposed group. The remaining 105 participants acted as controls.
A further 8 jet noise exposed and 18 control participants were identified, but did not complete the full procedure or were deemed unsuitable. [Table - 1] gives reasons for their exclusion.
The selection of participants was not randomized. Instead, all recruit intakes between mid April and late June 1997 were canvassed for suitable jet noise exposed participants.
Materials and Procedure
n enlistment into the RAF, all noncommissioned entrants undertake general service training. At the recruit training squadron, a full air-conduction audiogram is recorded in the frequency range 0.5 8 kHz and is noted on the recruit's medical file. Audiograms are recorded using a bank of ten Graystad Microlab 10 audiometers using TDH-39 type earphones, operated by RAF medical officers. These records formed the basis for the current study.
Participants read and signed an information sheet explaining the rationale and procedure of this study, as required by the RAF Clinical Research Committee (1995). They then completed a questionnaire asking for details of the participant's age on RAF entry, gender, level of education, parental occupation, places of residence before age 16 years, auditory health and regular exposure to leisure or industrial noise.
| Results|| |
The exposed and control groups were equivalent in age, participation in noisy activities, levels of education's, duration of service with the RAF and reported hearing disorders see [Table - 2].
The age of participants in both groups had a mean of 20 years. The exposed group was comprised of proportionally more female recruits (29.2%) than the control groups (19.0%), although this difference was not statistically significant as measured by a Chi squared (Chi 2 ) test. There was little variation in educational standards, as the majority of participants in both groups were educated to a least GCSE or A-level standard (exposed group 93.8%, control group 91.4%). The proportions of participants within this educational range did vary between groups, with relatively more control group trainees declaring A-level standard. All but two participants held the entry rank of Aircraftman/woman (AC) at the time they were surveyed.
On all five measures of participation in noisy activities, the control group were marginally more likely to have reported regular exposure to leisure or industrial noise. This may reflect the relatively higher proportion of male recruits in the control group over the exposed group, especially with reference to industrial noise. All differences were statistically non-significant as measured by Chi  tests.
[Table - 3] shows the medians, means and standard deviations of the left-right average hearing threshold levels for each group. At all frequencies the medians show that the exposed group had lower, or equivalent hearing thresholds to the control group. This may reflect the slightly higher proportion of males and more participation in noisy activities in the control group over the exposed group. When the mean is taken as the measure of central tendency, the pattern is maintained except at 1 kHz where the exposed group mean is slightly lower.
Wilcoxon rank sum tests revealed no significant differences in audiometric test results between the two groups at frequencies 2-8 kHz. The medians for test frequencies implicated in noiseinduced hearing loss (generally, 3-6 kHz) showed that the two groups were very similar, the only difference being at 4 kHz where the control group displayed a threshold 5 dB higher than the exposed group.
[Table - 4] presents audiogram data by group and gender. From this it can be seen that the general patterns of hearing threshold shifts described above are preserved. Both male and female control group participants tend towards slightly raised mean hearing threshold levels at higher frequencies compared to exposed group participants.
Spearman's rank-order correlation coefficient revealed no significant positive relationship between military jet noise exposure and raised hearing threshold levels at 4 kHz. The number of years each person spent living on or near flying stations up to the ages of 5 and 16 years respectively, and the number of years spent in schools on or near stations, are not significantly correlated with raised hearing threshold levels see [Table - 5].
We were aware that the RAF recruits may represent a survivor population hence not be representative. Therefore we reviewed the records of all recent applicants who had been unsuccessful in their attempt to enlist due to an unacceptable audiogram at the Careers Office examination. (Screening audiograms are conducted as a matter of routine) When compared to a sample of recent intakes into the RAF, children of RAF/Services personnel (who may have been exposed to jet noise as a result of a parent's posting) were represented equally in both groups. This indicates that the main analysis has not been biased by the "healthy worker" effect.
| Discussion|| |
When the data from the Service personnel groups are compared, there is no indication that increased childhood exposure to military jet noise is associated with raised hearing thresholds. The control group displayed slightly raised hearing threshold levels in comparison to the exposed group at all frequencies, possibly due to the larger proportion of male participants, and greater involvement in noisy activities. They hypothesized noise-induced hearing loss in jet noise exposed children has not been demonstrated.
There is a long-running debate on the accuracy of the standard zeroes for audiometric testing determined by ISO 389. Robinson et al (1981) produced evidence that the change from the use of the NBS 9A coupler to IEC 318 coupler using TDH-39 earphones caused systematic errors in the standard to appear. When this equipment is used on otologically normal samples, the standard zeroes defined by ISO 389 may be in error by +2.5 dB at 0.5 kHz and + 4 dB at 6 kHz. Similar conclusions have been drawn by other researchers (Fearn and Hanson, 1983). The audiogram data used in this project was recorded at No 1 Recruit Training School at RAF Halton. At the school a bank of Graystad Microlab 10 audiometers test 10 recruits simultaneously. Calibration of the machines is carried out using an NBS type 9A coupler. Due to difficulties in testing at 0.5 and 6 kHz using the equipment at No 2 Recruit Training Squadron, it can be argued that raised thresholds at these frequencies are unlikely to indicate noise-induced hearing loss. This is supported by the high prevalence of a 6 kHz notch in audiometric data from young otologically normal people in the MRC's epidemiological work (Davis, 1995).
A potential confounder in the difference in hearing thresholds at 0.5 and 1 kHz between the groups has not been controlled for. Although the questionnaire asked for details of parental occupation, the probing of the question led personnel to indicate either that parents were serving with HM Forces, or were civilian. This has meant that comparison of socio-economic status based on the main breadwinner of the household has not been possible, so has been omitted from the results section. It may have been possible to argue that the difference was due to relatively lower socio-economic status and so standards of health care. It could also be argued that the RAF provides a better standard of health care than the National Health Service, meaning that fewer conductive hearing disorders go untreated.
Calculation of participants actual noise dose has not been attempted. During the planning stages of this work it was felt that calculation of a figure would lend a spurious accuracy to measures of noise exposure reported by participants. In place of personal dose calculation, the questionnaire asked about general interests and activities which may have contributed to significant leisure or industrial noise exposure. This may be seen as a potential shortcoming of this study; it remains that the exposed group described her has experienced military jet noise associated with activity around fast jet stations, in excess of that likely to have been experienced by the control group (see [Table - 1] for a summary of rejected participants).
This study cannot refute all of the claims of alleged noise-induced hearing loss in children. The RAF does not routinely carry out air-conduction audiometry at frequencies higher than 8 kHz, for we believe that there is no clinical significance to audiometric thresholds in this range and considerable evidence of the spread of the "normal" range of high frequency thresholds.
There is currently very little data on how much military jet noise that any given population are likely to experience during childhood. Similarly, there is scant agreement on how much exposure to leisure noise the average young adult has, and how much PTS is likely to have resulted (Davis et al, 1985). There are problems in assessing noise exposure retrospectively, especially in early childhood exposure which may not be adequately remembered or reported. Any future work would need to consider these issues to be of further value in answering the question this study had addressed.
| Conclusions|| |
Firstly, this study has found no evidence that RAF personnel who have lived on or near fast jet stations while very young display raised hearing threshold levels associated with noise-induced hearing loss.
Secondly, there is no indication that applicants to the RAF who may have lived on active flying stations during childhood are less likely to be successful than applicants without any jet noise exposure.
| References|| |
|1.||Davis, A. (1995) Hearing in adults: the prevalence and distribution of hearing impairment and reported hearing disability in the MRC Institute of Hearing Research's National Study of Hearing. London: Whurr |
|2.||A. C. Davis, H. M. Fortnum, R. R. A. Coles, M.P. Haggard and M.E.Lutman (1985) Damage to hearing arising from leisure noise: a review of the literature. Prepared for the Health and Safety Executive, by MRC Institute of Hearing Research. From "A review of the literature pertaining to socioacusis, with bibliography", R.E.Walford, 126 May 1984. An unpublished review commissioned by the MRC Institute of Hearing Research. |
|3.||Fearn, RW and Hanson, DR. (1983) Audiometric zero for air conduction using manual audiometry. Br. J. Audiol; 17: p 87-89. |
|4.||Fisch, L. (1981) Aircraft noise and hearing impairment in children. Br. J. Audiol.; 15: 231-240. |
|5.||Green, KB, Pasternack, BS and Shore, RE. (1982) Effects of aircraft noise on hearing ability of school-age children. Arch. Environ. Health; 37, 5: 284-289. |
|6.||RAF Clinical Research Committee. (1995) Medical, Dental and Nursing Research in the Royal Air Force: Guidance Notes for Investigators. File reference IHMT/1645/3/CRC, revised April 1995. |
|7.||Robinson, DW, Shipton, MS and Hinchcliffe, R. (1981) Audiometric zero for air conduction. Audiology; 20: 409431. |
|8.||Wu, T-N, Lai, JS, Shen, C-Y, Yu, T-s and Chang, P-Y. (1995) Aircraft noise, hearing ability, and annoyance. Arch. Environ. Health, 50, 6: 452-456. |
RAF Institute of Health, Buckinghamshire HP22 5PG
Source of Support: None, Conflict of Interest: None
[Table - 1], [Table - 2], [Table - 3], [Table - 4], [Table - 5]


The National Convention (French:Convention nationale) was a single-chamber assembly in France from 20 September 1792 to 26 October 1795 (4 Brumaire IV under the Convention's adopted calendar) during the French Revolution. It succeeded the Legislative Assembly and founded the First Republic after the insurrection of 10 August 1792. The Legislative Assembly decreed the provisional suspension of King Louis XVI and the convocation of a National Convention which was to draw up a constitution. At the same time it was decided that deputies to that convention should be elected by all Frenchmen twenty-five years old or more, domiciled for a year and living by the product of their labor. The National Convention was therefore the first French assembly elected by universal male suffrage, without distinctions of class.
The election took place from 2 to 6 September 1792 after the election of the electoral colleges by primary assemblies on 26 August. Owing to the abstention of aristocrats and anti-republicans and the fear of victimization the voter turnout in the departments was low – 11.9% of the electorate, compared to 10.2% in the 1791 elections, in spite of the fact that that the number of eligible to vote had doubled. Therefore, universal suffrage had very little impact. On the whole, the electorate returned the same sort of men that the active citizens had chosen in 1791.
A national convention is an official assembly of delegates from the nationwide branches of an organization.
National convention may refer to:
National Convention (Convention nationale, often shortened 'the Convention'), a legislative body and constitutional convention during the early French Revolution (21 September 1792 to 26 October 1795) and that period
On the other side of the 2018 ledger, worship attendance and giving to the convention's national Cooperative Program budget were holding strong ... After all, back in 2012, the convention's national meeting approved the use of "Great Commission Baptists" as an unofficial name -- a ...
Its influence extends well back beyond the 1980s, when it became nationally noted for its conservative political positions ... Given American evangelicals’ long identification of America as a chosen nation, it is startling to hear the president of the Southern BaptistConvention declaring that it is not their job to save America.
Speaking at an annual convention of political leaders in Beijing, he said Inner Mongolia should "unwaveringly promote the use of national common textbooks", to correct "wrong ideas" on culture and nationality, according to a readout of the meeting in state media ...Officials should "do a good job in popularising the national common language", he said.
Speaking at an annual convention of political leaders in Beijing, he said Inner Mongolia should “unwaveringly promote the use of national common textbooks,” to correct “wrong ideas” on culture and nationality, according to a readout of the meeting in state media ...Officials should “do a good job in popularising the national common language,” he said.
As a result, many members of the CPPCCNational Committee said it was easier to submit proposals in the past year, and the mechanism was of higher efficiency and better quality ...Besides, it has been made into a convention that CPPCC National Committee chairpersons lead teams to supervise the handling of major proposals.


I’ve been going to a graduate class in science communication this semester. Doug taught us the rule that if you’re using a bar graph, the y axis must start at 0. Otherwise you end up with trickery like this:
Fox News continues charting excellence. From flowingdata.com
In bar graphs, area communicates magnitude. Change the lower limit of the y axis, and you change the relative area of your bars. If the graph above included 0, it would indicate a much smaller difference between the two tax rate scenarios of 34% and 39.6%. Pick a different lower limit and you distort the message, something that Fox News has figured out to great effect.
I don’t think I’ve made a bar graph since my undergraduate days. In most cases, I think dot plots or line plots are a better choice (though there are some exceptions! bar graphs can be good for percentages, for instance). There’s one case, though, that throws a wrench in the whole “start at 0” rule, and that is temperature:
Temperatures at the Marcell experimental forest in Minnesota, USA. USDA Forest Service.
The trouble is that for typical temperature units, the 0 mark is totally arbitrary. 0F does not equal 0C, for instance. This means that the difference in area communicated by the colored regions of this graph is arbitrary as well, no matter what the 0 mark. Here’s another example from the Washington Post:
You really can’t deny global warming after seeing this graph.
So never use a bar plot for temperatures. Use a dot or line plot instead! And include error bars, so the magnitude of the difference can be judged relative to the variation in the measurement.


Research on estuaries has increased in recent years, however, the effects of logging on estuaries and the effects of estuary habitat loss on Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) in the Pacific northwest is limited. To address habitat loss associated with logging, I used an extensive aerial photo record for Tranquil Creek estuary and an unlogged control to analyze changes in salt marsh area, elevation and volume, supplemented with a grain size distribution analysis.
While I failed to find evidence of a difference between a logged and an unlogged estuary, some negative trends in salt marsh area and elevation observed over the observational period were indicative of changes that are unfavorable for juvenile Chinook salmon. Analytical methods presented here to assess changes in two remote coastal estuaries has contributed to the current knowledge on the effects of logging on estuarine ecosystems in coastal BC and provide tools for innovative estuary habitat restoration., aerial photograph analysis, Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha), salt marsh, estuary restoration, logging, sediment
The purpose of this project is to develop an ecological restoration plan for degraded habitats on mid-channel islands in the lower Fraser River. The study focuses on Herrling, Carey, and Strawberry islands, large mid-channel islands located in the gravel reach between Mission and Hope, British Columbia. These islands are known to be critical off-channel rearing habitat for many fish species including the threatened White Sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus) and interior and lower Fraser watershed Chinook Salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) populations. These islands are also home to many riparian plant and animal species. The flood-pulse concept (FPC) states that seasonal fluctuations in water levels for streams such as the Fraser River contribute substantially to the ecological function of the floodplain ecosystem where this phenomenon occurs. This often results in improved growth and survival rates for fish species that rely on a laterally-moving littoral zone of inundation. This phenomenon is thought by many to be the key to a properly functioning ecosystem in the lower Fraser River. Using a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) for the Fraser River between Hope and Mission, British Columbia, freshet flows (high water elevations) are presented to define the spatial extent of over-bank watering of Strawberry, Carey and Herrling islands. This over-bank watering provides lateral connectivity to floodplain islands. Based on extensive sampling in other studies, this lateral movement results in the creation of high-quality juvenile fish rearing habitat. A restoration plan is presented for those areas of Strawberry, Carey and Herrling islands degraded by recent land clearing for agriculture where they overlap sections defined as fish habitat from the spatial analysis., gravel reach, mid-channel islands, floodplain fish habitat, flood pulse concept, juvenile Chinook Salmon, lower Fraser River, White Sturgeon


Motherhood Is About Guiding and Educating Our Children
If you are a mom, you are already aware that motherhood involves much more than just giving birth. One of our many jobs as mothers is guiding and educating our children.
After all, it is from us that our little ones normally learn their first words and how to put them together, which is why our first language is called our mother tongue.
In general, mothers spend more time with children than fathers, and tend to be their first teachers and figures of authority.
What does it mean to be a mother?
Being a mother is not something that requires qualifications or experience. Let’s be realistic: children don’t come with an instruction manual.
Nobody is truly prepared for motherhood. Does this mean you should be scared of the idea of being a mother? Of course not.
The experiences of every woman, of every mother, are personal and incomparable. But with or without a partner, biological or adoptive, a mother is a mother all the same.
A mother is capable of giving her all, without getting anything back. Of loving with all her heart, without asking for anything in return. Of investing everything she has in a project, with no thought about the returns. A mother has confidence in her children when everyone around them has lost it. Thank you for being my mother.
Being a mother means more than just giving birth to a child. It means sleepless nights and endless worries. Hours of running around after your children.
Days, months and years spent inventing new ways to camouflage vegetables. It means putting up with every fight, and taking all the infinite setbacks that life throws at you with the patience of a saint.
Guiding and educating our children is one of the most difficult tasks that mothers face. And, although there are no magic solutions, there is some key advice to take into account. It’s never too early to be an example to your child.
Guiding and educating your children
Here are a few useful tips:
- You should take care of yourself in order to take care of your child. If you are in a bad state, that will affect your mood, and can impact the wellbeing of your baby.
- Learn to manage your stress. Understand that you can’t do everything perfectly.
- Whether well-meaning or not, don’t let other people tell you how to live your life or raise your child.
- Learn to organize yourself to make the best use of the little time you have available.
- Children need to feel secure, whatever the circumstances. They need to know that, despite life’s challenges, their mother will always be there for them. Trust between a mother and her children is crucial. Having confidence in them will teach them to have productive and positive relationships with you and others around them.
- Be a good example as a mother, a woman and a friend to your child.
- From early on, teach them principles and moral values.
- Establish rules at home, and expect your children to follow them.
- On the practical side of things, try to get a life insurance policy naming your child as the beneficiary. Choose a person you trust to be their legal guardian should anything happen to you. Put everything down in writing, preferably in the presence of a notary or lawyer, to ensure that nobody can take advantage of your child.
- Above all, be patient.
Children learn from our example, so it is vital to practice what you preach, and behave as you expect them to. Mothers are a crucial influence in our children‘s lives.
The most important thing that mothers can do is to love our children unconditionally. It is not enough just to feel this. We have to express it with words, with deeds and with physical displays of affection.
A kiss, a hug and an “I love you” are much-needed tools to raise secure and compassionate human beings, who will one day be good mothers or fathers.
Finally, understand that being a mother and succeeding in the vital task of guiding and educating your child, you will need strength of character, authority, courage and responsibility.
Don’t see obstacles as problems, but challenges to be overcome.


Understanding Aircraft Structures , 4th Edition
February 2006, Wiley-Blackwell
It provides a brief historical background, and covers parts of
the aeroplane, loads, structural form, materials, processes, detail
design, quality control, stressing, and the documentation
associated with modification and repairs.
The Fourth Edition takes account of new materials and the new European regulatory system.
Chapter 1 Introduction;.
Chapter 2 History; 2.1 Outline; 2.2 Wire-braced structures; 2.3 Semi-monocoque structures; 2.4 Sandwich structures; 2.5 Review of the key points.
Chapter 3 Parts of the Aircraft; 3.1 Terms connected with flight; 3.2 Terms connected with control; 3.3 Terms connected with high-lift devices; 3.4 Terms associated with the shape and dimensions of the aircraft; 3.5 Review of the key points.
Chapter 4 Loads on the Aircraft; 4.1 General flight forces; 4.2 Acceleration loads 4.3 Further aerodynamic loads; 4.4 Other loads; 4.5 Further load factors; 4.6 Loads acting on the whole aircraft; 4.7 Review of the key points; 4.8 References.
Chapter 5 The form of structures; 5.1 Structure relative to aircraft design; 5.2 Historic form of structure; 5.3 General form of structure; 5.4 The basic load systems in structures; 5.5 The forms of stress in materials; 5.6 Bending and torsion; 5.7 Compression; 5.8 The whole structure; 5.9 Review of the key points; 5.10 References.
Chapter 6 Materials; 6.1 Choice of materials; 6.2 Material properties; 6.3 Smart structures (and materials); 6.4 Cost as a property of a material; 6.5 Heat treatment; 6.6 Reference numbers for materials; 6.7 Review of the key points; 6.8 References.
Chapter 7 Processes; 7.1 Introduction; 7.2 Manufacturing;7.3 Jointing; 7.4 Review of the key points; 7.5 References.
Chapter 8 Corrosion and protective treatments; 8.1 Nature of corrosion; 8.2 Causes of corrosion; 8.3 Protection against corrosion; 8.4 Review of the key points; 8.5 References.
Chapter 9 Detail design; 9.1 Sheet-metal components; 9.2 Machined components and large forgings; 9.3 Notching and stress raisers; 9.4 Rivets and bolts; 9.5 Joggling; 9.6 Clips or cleats; 9.7 Stringer/frame intersections; 9.8 Lugs; 9.9 The ‘stiff path’; 9.10 Review of the key points.
Chapter 10 Composite materials in aircraft structures; 10.1 What are composites?; 10.2 The strength of composite materials; 10.3 Types of structures; 10.4 Joining composites; 10.5 Fibres; 10.6 Resins; 10.7 Working safely with composites; 10.8 Review of the key points.
Chapter 11 Quality and airworthiness; 11.1 Quality assurance; 11.2 Control; 11.3 Procedures and systems; 11.4 Further notes on quality control functions; 11.5 Airworthiness engineering; 11.6 Maintenance schedule; 11.7 References; 11.8 Review of the key points.
Chapter 12 Stressing; 12.1 Introduction; 12.2 The stressman’s work; 12.3 Stressing methods; 12.4 Stress reports; 12.5 Review of the key points; 12.6 References.
Chapter 13 Presentation of modifications and repairs; 13.1 Definitions; 13.2 The essential paperwork associated with modifications; 13.3 Review of the key points; 13.4 Conclusion; 13.5 References.
Jeremy Liber, who has been responsible for revising the Fourth Edition, has worked in the fixed and rotary wing aircraft industry for a number of years as a stressman, structural test engineer and design engineer. He has degrees in both engineering and business plus a pilot’s licence. He is a Member of the Royal Aeronautical Society and is currently Technical Director at Britten-Norman Aircraft Ltd.
* new edition covers the latest regulatory changes
* also aids draughtsmen and licensed engineers designing air frame repairs or modifications
* 'one of the most useful reference books an airline engineer could have available' Aerospace
‘contains a wealth of examples of good practice in the design and repair of metal aircraft. It also provides a good basic understanding of materials’ – Journal of the General Aviation Safety Council