Childhood Amnesia Essay, Research Paper
A fundamental aspect of human memory is that the more time elapsed since an event, the fainter the memory becomes. This has been shown to be true on a relatively linear scale with the exception of our first three to four years of life (Fitzgerald, 1991). It is even common for adults not to have any memory before the age of six or seven. The absence of memory in these first years has sparked much interest as to how and why it happens. Ever since Freud (1916/1963) first popularized the phenomenon there have been many questions and few robust empirical studies. Childhood amnesia is defined as the period of life from which no events are remembered (Usher & Neisser, 1993) beginning at birth and ending at the onset of your first memories. The implications of why this occurs are important for the understanding of how our memory system develops and the memory formation process.
There have been many hypothesized causes for childhood amnesia but very little strong evidence to support them. This problem arises out of the difficulty of obtaining reliable information pertaining to this area of study. Research is only as good as the information used. Most studies have used adult participants who are asked to report their earliest memories and the date. There are several factors contributing to the unreliability of this data. In a self-report method, people often have difficulty pinpointing what their earliest memory is and even more difficulty getting an accurate date. Verification of the memories is also a problem since it is nearly impossible to design and conduct a study that observes the initial experience to compare with the subsequent recall. The experience reported by a participant can often be checked with another family member but their memories are also prone to errors.
In this field there are also many other confounding variables that experimenters must try minimize. One such variable is the family specific knowledge that a volunteer has accumulated over the course of their life. Loftus, (1993) suggested that early childhood memories are greatly influenced by one’s amassed, family knowledge. For example, a participant who knows that his or her cousin was closely involved in their upbringing is likely to guess that he or she was present at an important event without any actual memory of the fact. Contributing factors to this are family stories, photographs, home movies, etc.
The variance of memories between participants also makes it hard to convert what is reported into significant terms. For example, my earliest memory is from when I was about four years old and my grandmother gave me a piece of amethyst in a wooden quart basket similar to one you buy berries in. This information given its degree of accuracy is quite difficult to generalize since every other person will recount a unique story. A method used by experimenters to compensate for this is the targeting of a specific, datable event common to many individuals. In the 1993 experiment by Usher and Neisser, these ‘target events’ consisted of the birth of a younger sibling, a hospitalization, the death of a family member and a family move. The use of targeted recall has helped solve one problem with infantile amnesic research but as we will see there are still many problems with the experimental evidence that has been gathered.
Usher and Neisser conducted one of the most influential studies in the field of childhood amnesia in 1993. The purpose of this experiment was to improve on the self-report studies done in the past and to examine the relationship between the nature of the events and the age at which they can be remembered. They used a specific questioning method in a between-groups study of adults’ memories relating to each of the four aforementioned ‘target’ events. They found that the earliest age that these events could be recalled was two for the sibling birth and hospitalization and three for the death and move. They also found no sex differences for the data as proposed by some earlier experiments (Dudycha & Dudycha, 1941). The memories were verified by the participants’ mothers and judged as mostly accurate. These results suggest that the earliest memory recalled in adulthood will vary depending on the significance and or understanding of the event. The birth of a sibling is especially relevant for a young child because of all the discussion and anticipation preceding the birth. This event usually includes many changes in the everyday life for the child and is therefore more likely to be remembered. In comparison, a death is not well understood by a young child and usually will not be as easy to remember. The high levels of emotion (and pain) are said to account for the preservation of the hospitalization memories.
This study has been cited as showing evidence for adult memory for events that occurred at the age of two, which is earlier than previous studies suggested. The evidence presented in this study must be carefully considered before making any conclusions. The number of participants who responded positively to the sibling birth questions was few and many were unverified. It has been suggested that they also may have used family knowledge to aid their recall as well as the limited range of possible answers to the questions. For example, a question asked what the baby was doing when you first saw him or her and most people know that newborns spend most of their time sleeping, eating or crying.
Eacott and Crawley (1998) implemented a study that improves on some of the weaknesses from Usher and Neisser’s experiment. They felt it was important to factor out the family knowledge and use a larger number of respondents in order to get a better representation of the age at which we retain our first memories. To account for the family knowledge, Eacott and Crawley questioned both the older and younger sibling. The older sibling was asked “Who looked after you when your mother was in the hospital (giving birth to the younger sibling)?” The younger brother or sister was then asked, “Who looked after your older sibling when your mother was in the hospital”? The comparison of these two answers can give us an assessment as to the degree that family knowledge is playing in the former response. A larger group of participants who were between the ages of two and three at the time of their siblings’ birth was used to improve the significance of the results (n=700). Two groups of participants made up of elder and younger siblings were compared with a questionnaire similar to the one used by Usher and Neisser (1993). One group was asked to use their memories as well as their family knowledge to answer the questions (called the report group), whereas the other was instructed to only use actual memories in their responses (recall group).
The results of this study suggest several relevant findings. The first is that the pattern of data collected was mostly in line with Usher and Neisser’s (1993) findings. Approximately 75% of the participants who could recall something about their sibling’s birth were between the ages of 28 and 35 at that time. The candidates who were between the ages of 24 and 27 months at the time of their sibling’s birth remembered significantly less than those in the 28 to 35 month range. The data obtained from this procedure led the experimenters to believe the recall group used actual memories as opposed to a combination of knowledge and memory. The degree of error determined by the subject’s mother was greater for the report group than for recall, 20% and 13% respectively. The greatest weakness of this experiment was the lack of randomness in choosing the participants. They were all college or university students and likely were above the average intelligence. This could have contributed to the early age at which events were remembered. If a sample from the general population were used, the mean age would conceivably go up. In reference to these two experiments, we can conclude that an event, which occurs when you are under three years old, can be recalled in adulthood. More interestingly though, was the display of substantial memory from two and a half years of age while memory from the first quarter of the second year is quite scarce. While these experiments provide no explanation for the occurrence of childhood amnesia, they do provide some illustration about the nature of the phenomenon itself.
Mechanisms Contributing to Childhood Amnesia:
The explanations for why childhood amnesia occurs are many. They range from a physiological basis to a lack of self-concept. The fact that human memory has many aspects, localized in different areas of the brain is well documented. The following information, combined with the empirical evidence related to the phenomenon leads me to believe that there are multiple systems responsible for its occurrence.
Some early theories proposed that the failure to remember anything before the age of three was due to an immature nervous system and subsequently, the underdeveloped hippocampus. This theory cites a storage failure for the memory deficiencies including perceptual or neurological immaturity and inadequate encoding. The hippocampus has been shown to play an important part in the storage of long-term memories and it is not fully developed before age three. Nelson (1995) has studied the development of several structures in the brain and linked them with specific classifications of memory. The developmental approach to the emergence of memory systems states that a form of preexplicit memory dependant on the hippocampus is developed in the first few months of life. At the age of eight to twelve months, when the limbic and cortical structures mature a little more, explicit memory begins to evolve. Procedural learning and conditioned learning emerge very early and can be seen in newborn babies. The prefrontal lobe of the brain starts to become more adultlike in the second year of life and this is when we see the commencement of working memory. Nelson (1995 & 1993) suggested that working memory must have been functioning for long term memories to be stored accurately.
However if the cause of childhood amnesia is the underdevelopment of the brain, then we would expect that a three-year-old child would not remember anything from six months to one year prior. Howe and Courage (1993 & 1997) collected evidence to the contrary. They found that children of this age could consistently and accurately remember events that had occurred for up to one year in the past. These findings are also consistent with the data from the Fivush and Schwarzmueller 1998 study that illustrates that children remember childhood events better than when they are adults even when a normal forgetting curve is used to compensate for the extended time interval. In response to this and other evidence some psychologists have proposed that childhood amnesia is effected more by retrieval failure than by storage failure.
Howe and Courage (1997) suggest one possible explanation for the failure to retrieve childhood memories. It states that the schemata used to evaluate a situation and thus what you will remember about it, changes so drastically from childhood into adulthood, that the earlier memories no longer fit with one’s present knowledge. In other words, what you may remember does not fit your adult schema thus does not make sense and so it is not integrated with what you now call memory. We can deduce much of this logically. Children remember differently than adults. For example, a child may remember the spicy onion on his or her hotdog at a baseball game rather than the game winning, grand slam homerun. Eventually, these process changes and the taste of an onion is fairly common and does not merit any long-term memory.
Another interesting, though essentially untestable, (except for coorelational studies) explanation for childhood amnesia is the development of the ‘cognitive-self’ (Howe & Courage, 1997; McKee & Squire, 1993). The emergence of the cognitive-self just so happens to develop at the same time that most people have their first childhood memories. The theory basically states that humans cannot have memories about one-self until the stage in their development when they recognize that they are separate and distinct from their environment. This usually happens at around the age of two and is evaluated by the ‘Rouge test’. The rouge test is when a child is placed in front of a mirror with a red dot on their nose. If the child recognizes him/herself, he/she will reach for their nose. If, however, the child has not developed to the point of self-recognition, he or she will likely reach for the image of the red dot in the mirror. Most of our memories involve the presence of something that happens to ‘me’ and if we do not have a sense of ‘me’ yet, then it is unlikely to remember such events. The events remembered before the recognition of the cognitive self will be so vastly different than our other memories that they probably will not be recalled. The recognition of one self does not suddenly appear at 18-24 months of age but rather it gradually begins organizing itself from birth but does not become fully active until this time. This helps explain why there are some memories for very young children for events that occur before the critical age of two to three years. The autobiographical aspect of memory seems to be vital for information stored for long periods of time. This touches on humans’ egocentricity that an event is not important unless it happens to ‘me’.
There is also another important aspect of human memory that develops at approximately the same time as the offset of childhood amnesia. The development of language and specifically inner speech is hypothesized to play an important role in the development of autobiographical memory (Howe & Courage, 1993). The association is made because of the synchronization of the timing of the two events and the logical fact that participants must make use of language to communicate memories. The action of inner speech is necessary for rehearsal strategies. The use of language undoubtedly helps organize past events into terms comprehensible to many. The study by Fivush, Haden and Adam (1995) illustrates how children’s narratives about the same event become more elaborate and more complex over time, especially between the ages of four and five years. This lends evidence to the idea that more elaborate encoding of memories is only present in the years after three. This also fits with the concept that; the more encoding associated with a memory, the greater chance that it can be recalled during adulthood. It seems that only those memories that can be discussed with others will become part of the autobiographical life story. The findings in this study (Fivush, Haden & Adam, 1995) indicate that memory of events occurring before children are able to relate these memories verbally will be extremely vulnerable to loss.
There are many confounding factors contributing to the limited empirical evidence relating to the causes of childhood amnesia. In fact, there is far more evidence against each causation theory in comparison to the supporting evidence. Presently we have to settle for information concerning the nature of the phenomenon itself instead of explanations of exactly why it happens. It is through these behavioral observations and the continued study that we will gain insight and new hypotheses concerning this topic.
I personally believe that it is a good thing we no not remember our earliest years. Memories of crying, not being able to communicate well, the birthing process, immunization, circumcision (for some unlucky children) and not having any control over your environment are probably best forgotten. Perhaps Freud was right in saying that these memories are suppressed because of the extreme unpleasantness of many events surrounding these years.
My theory on childhood amnesia is that it is a possible adaptive function stemming from evolution. Although, I have not found any formal research on this view (or empirical evidence to support my claim), it is plausible that not having explicit memory of the first years is helpful to human development. Other than the blocking of unpleasantness, childhood amnesia may be helpful such that all of the brain’s resources are devoted to growth and adaptation to the new environment. The long-term memory process may draw on the brain’s limited resources during these critical years and the absence of this allows the brain to progress more quickly in vitally important areas such as communication skills and locomotion.
It is important to note that the differing views with respect to the cause of childhood amnesia are not mutually exclusive. The evidence that I have studied in this field points to a composite origin of childhood amnesia. Dualistic theories have dominated many areas of modern psychology. The extremist views of psychologists are usually combined (eventually) into some middle ground with everyone agreeing that many factors contribute to any psychological phenomenon. This topic proves to be no different. The role of language development in autobiographical memory is well documented and certainly contributes to childhood memories. It is also believed that humans must learn to have a sense of one-self before memory related to themselves can be retained. The development of the brain is also important because of at least two factors. The first is that the perception of events that occur in childhood are different from those in adulthood because of the dramatic changes in structure, connections and maturity of the brain. The second regards the lack of functional capabilities present during this time period. We do have evidence that suggests infants do retain information for long periods of time so we can conclude that some mechanisms for storage of memory exist in the first few months of life.
The only solid evidence regarding this phenomenon is the age at which adults can recall their first experiences (approximately three years old). There is no dispute that the first three years of life are essential to the development and growth throughout the rest of childhood and adolescence. In reference to this fact, it is quite odd that we can remember very few specific events from this time frame. Perhaps the only the most important knowledge is retained; the implicit, procedural and motor knowledge that will aid us for the rest of our lives.


Willett explores the ways in which Hinduism uniquely deals with ideas related to evil and theodicy. First, Willett describes the context behind the two terms “evil” and “theodicy.” He explains that because of its ambiguous definitions, the term religion complicates our understanding of the term evil. Likewise, the Christian perception of evil creates significant problems when trying to consider the way that evil is a part of or related to other religions. Willet describes theodicy as the attempt to answer questions concerning the overwhelming amount of evil in the world and how one can “reconcile the belief of a good god with the existence of evil.” He notes that these questions of theodicy have been unique to the notion of a Christian God. Thus, all discussions of evil in which evil is diametrically opposed to goodness involve a Christian understanding. Hinduism, however, challenges these perceptions of evil, for this religion fails to dichotomize the polarities of good and evil. Hindu deities are not classified according to goodness; rather questions of goodness are addressed by karma. Next, the essay moves to a discussion of Karma as theodicy. Karma is defined as “a combination of the principles of cause-and-effect with the South Asian belief in rebirth or reincarnation.” Willet argues that Karma is not a systematic answer to the question of theodicy, meaning that “karma only seeks to explain the existence of evil and suffering,” not to reconcile how a good god and evil can simultaneously exist. Thus, this cause-and-effect approach cannot answer questions of punishment or the divine authorization of evil that Christian theodicy asks. Willet also notes the limitations of karma, such as its ability to undermine deities and interfere with free will. Finally, the essay discusses the way Hinduism deals with the conceptualizations of good and evil, choosing not to polarize these concepts as Christianity does. Instead, Willet explores various interpretations of good and evil within Hindu mythology. He notes that some myths claim that the creator deliberately fashioned a world with both good and evil, while other myths tell of religious figures whose level of good is ambiguous. Willet also points out that myths offer different explanations for why evil may exist and what purpose it serves. In sum, by setting aside Christian absolutes and polarities, this essay reveals the more nuanced, unique understandings of evil and theodicy that appear within the Hindu traditions.
"Evil and Theodicy in Hinduism,"
Denison Journal of Religion: Vol. 14
, Article 5.
Available at: https://digitalcommons.denison.edu/religion/vol14/iss1/5


Pages That Mention mountains
The geographical and historical dictionary of America and the West Indies [volume 1]
ABACU, a point of land on the S coast of the island of St. Domingo.
ABADES, a settlement of the province and government of Popayan, in the district and jurisdiction of San Juan de Pasto.
ABANCAY, a province and corregimiento of Peru, bounded on the E by the large city of Cuzco, (its jurisdiction beginning at the parish of Santa Ana of that city), and on the W by the province of Andahuailas; N by that of Calcaylares, forming, in this part, an extended chain of snowcovered mountains ; S by the provinces of Cotabamba and Aimaraez; S W by Chilques and Masques. It extends 26 leagues from E to W and is 14 broad. Its most considerable river is the Apurimac, which is separated from it at the N W and bends its course, united with other streams, towards the mountains of the Andes. This river is crossed by a wooden bridge of 80 yards long and 3 broad, which is in the high road from Lima to Cuzco, and other provinces of the sierra. The toll collected here is four rials of silver for every load of goods of the produce of the country, and twelve for those of the produce of Europe. The temperature of this province is mild, and for the most part salubrious, with the exception of a few vallies, where, on account of the excessive heat and humidity, tertian agues are not uncommon. It produces wheat, maize, and other grain in great abundance, and its breed of horned cattle is by no means inconsiderable; but its principal production is sugar, which they refine so well, that it may challenge the finest European sugars for whiteness : this is carried for sale to Cuzco and other provinces, and is held in great estimation. It also produces hemp, cloth manufactures of the country ; and in its territories mines of silver are not wanting, especially in the mountain which they call Jalcanta, although the natives avail themselves not of the advantages so liberally held out to them. Its jurisdiction comprehends 17 settlements. The repartimento, quota of tribute, amounted to 108,750 dollars, and it rendered yearly 870 for the alcabala. The following are the 17 settlements : The capital, Limatambo, Huanicapa, Mollepata, Curahuasi, Pantipata, Cachora, Pibil, Antilla, Chonta, Anta, Pocquiura, Ibin, Surite, Chachaypucquio, Huaracondo. Sumata,
Abancay, the capital of the above province, founded in a spacious valley, which gives it its title: it is also so called from a river, over which has been thrown one of the largest bridges in the kingdom, being the first that was built there, and looked upon as a monument of skill. In the above valley the jurisdiction of this province, and that of Andahuailas, becomes divided. It is also memorable for the victories gained in its vicinity by the king's troops against Gonzalo Pizarro, in the years 1542 and 1548. It has a convent of the religious order of St. Dominic ; this order being the first of those which established themselves in Peru. 20 leagues distant from the city of Cuzco. Lat. 13° 31' 30" S Long. 72° 26' W.7
Abancay, a settlement of the province and corregimiento of Cuenca, in the kingdom of Quito, situate on the shore of the river Paute.
ABANES, a barbarous nation of Indians, of the Nuevo Reyno de Granada, in the plains of San Juan, to the N of the Orinoco. They inhabit the woods on the shores of this river, as well as other small woods ; and are bounded, E by the Salivas, and W by the Caberres and Andaquies. They are docile, of good dispositions, and are easily converted to the Catholic faith.
ABANGOUI, a large settlement of the province and government of Paraguay. It is composed of Indians of the Guarani nation, and situate on the shore of the river Taquani. It was discovered by Alvar Nuñez Cabezade Vaca, in 1541.
ABARANQUEN, a small river of the province and government of Guayana, or Nueva Andalusia. It rises in the country of the Quiriquipas Indians, runs from S to N and enters the Aruy.
ABARY, a small river of Guayana, between the Berbice and the Demerary. See Mahaica.
ABBEVILLE County, in Ninetysix district, S. Carolina, bounded on the N E by the Saluda, and on the SW by the Savannah, is 35 miles in length and 21 in breadth ; contains 9197 inhabitants, including 1665 slaves.
ABBOTS, a small river of N. Carolina, which runs S W and enters the Pedi, at a little distance from the source of this river, in the territory of the Granville limits.
ABECOCHI, a settlement of Indians of S. Carolina, situate on the shore of the river Cousa. The English have a settlement here, with a fort for its defence.
ABEICAS, a nation of Indians of New France, bounded on the N by the Alibamis, and E by the Cheraquis. They live at a distance from the large rivers, and the only produce of their territory is some canes, which are not thicker than a finger, but of so hard a texture, that, when split, they cut exactly like a knife. These Indians speak the Tchicachan language, and with the other nations are in alliance against the Iroquees.
finger, but of so hard a texture, that, when split, they cut exactly like a knife. These Indians speak the Tchicachan language, and with the other nations are in alliance against the Iroquees.
ABERCORN, a town of the province and colony of New Georgia, on the shore of the river Savannah, near where it enters the sea, and at a league's distance from the city of this name. [It is about 30 miles from the sea, 5 miles from Ebenezer, and 13 N W of Savannah.]
ABIDE, mountains, or serrania, of the province and government of Cartagena. They run from W to N E from near the large river of Magdalena to the province of Chocó, and the S. Sea. Their limits and extent are not known, but they are 20 leagues wide, and were discovered by Capt. Francisco Cesar in 1536; he being the first who penetrated into them, after a labour of 10 months, in which time he had to undergo the most extreme privations and excessive perils ; not that these exceeded the hardships which were endured by the licentiate Badillo, who entered upon its conquest with a fine army.
ABIGIRAS, a settlement of Indians, one of the missions, or a reduction, which belonged to the regular order of the Jesuits, in the province and government of Mainas, of the kingdom of Quito ; founded in the year 1665, by the father Lorenzo Lucero, on the shore of the river Curarari, 30 leagues from its mouth, and 240 from Quito.
[Abineau Port, on the N side of lake Erie, is about 13 miles W S W from fort Erie. Lat. 42° 6' N Long. 79° 15' W. ]
[ABINGDON, a town at the head of the tide waters of Bush river, Harford county, Maryland, 12 miles SW from Havre-de-Grace, and 20 NE from Baltimore. Cokesbury college, instituted by the methodists in 1785, is in this town. Lat. 39° 27' 30" N Long. 76° 20' 35" W.]
[another, the chief town of Washington county, Virginia, contained but about 20 houses in 1788, and in 1796 upwards of 150. It is about 145 miles from Campbell's station, near Holston; 260 from Richmond in Virginia, in a direct line, and 310 as the road runs, bearing a little to the S of W Lat. 36° 41' 30" N Long. 81° 59' W.]
[ABINGTON, a township in Plymouth county, Massachusetts; 22 miles SE from Boston, and contains 1453 inhabitants. Lat. 42° 4' 30". ]
[another, a parish in the town of Pomfret in Connecticut. Lat. 42° 4' 30". Long. 70° 51' 30".]
[another, a village in Pennsylvania, 32 miles N of Philadelphia.]
Abipi, a small settlement of the jurisdiction of Muzo, and corregimiento of Tunja, in the Nuevo Reyno de Granada. It is of a hot temperature, producing some wheat, maize, yucas, plantains, and canes ; it has been celebrated for its rich mines of emeralds, which are, however, at present abandoned from want of water; it is nearly three leagues distant from the large mine of Itoco.
ABIPONES, a nation of barbarous Indians, of the province and government of Tucuman, inhabiting the S shores of the river Bermejo. Their number once exceeded 100000; but they are certainly at present much reduced. They go naked, except that the women cover themselves with little skins, prettily ornamented, which they call queyapi. They are very good swimmers, of a lofty and robust stature, and well featured: but they paint their faces and the rest of their body, and are very much given to war, which they carry on chiefly against such as come either to hunt or to fish upon their territory. Their victims they have a custom of sticking upon lofty poles, as a landmark, or by way of intimidation to their enemies. From their infancy they cut and scarify their bodies, to make themselves hardy. When their country is inundated, which happens in the five winter months, they retire to live in the islands, or upon the tops of trees: they have some slight notion of agriculture, but they live by fishing, and the produce of the chase, holding in the highest estimation the flesh of tigers, which they divide among their relations, as a sort of precious relic or dainty ; also asserting that it has the properties of infusing strength and valour. They have no knowledge either of God, of law, or of policy; but they believe in the immortality of the soul, and that there is a land of consummate bliss, where they shall dance and divert themselves after their death. When a man dies, his widow observes a state of celibacy, and fasts a year, which consists in an abstinence from fish: this period being fulfilled, an assembly run out to meet her, and inform her that her husband has given her leave to marry. The women occupy themselves in spinning and sewing hides; the men are idlers, and the boys run about the whole day in exercising their strength. The men are much addicted to drunkenness, and then the women are accustomed to conceal their husband's weapons, for fear of being killed. They do not rear more than two or three children, killing all above this number.
Abisca, an extensive province of the kingdom of Peru, to the E of the Cordillera of the Andes, between the rivers Yetau and Amarumago, and to the S of Cuzco. It is little known, consisting entirely of woods, rivers, and lakes; and hither many barbarous nations of Indians have retired, selecting for their dwelling places the few plains which belong to the province. The Emperor Yupanqui endeavoured to make it subservient to his controul, but without success: the same disappointment awaited Pedro de Andia in his attempt to subjugate it in the year 1538.
hither many barbarous nations of Indians have retired, selecting for their dwelling places the few plains which belong to the province. The Emperor Yupanqui endeavoured to make it subservient to his controul, but without success : the same disappointment awaited Pedro de Andia in his attempt to subjugate it in the year 1538.
ABISMES, Quartel des, that part or division of the island of Guadaloupe which looks to the NE. It takes its name from its having some creeks, or inlets, which serve as places of shelter for vessels, in case of invasion either from enemies or from hurricanes. Here they ride quite safe, for the bottom is very good ; and being made fast to the strong palm-trees which abound here, they stand in no need of being anchored, which would be inconvenient, and attended with risk, on account of the thick roots thrown out by the above trees. Further on is a small island called Des Cochons, where an engineer, of the name of Renau, endeavoured, without success, in 1700, to build a fort, for the sake of securing the harbour, which is a good one.
ABITANIS, a mountain of the province and corregimiento of Lipes in Peru. In the Quechuan tongue it signifies the ore of gold, from a celebrated mine which is at present nearly abandoned, from the want of workmen. It is nearly contiguous to the settlement of Colcha.
ABITIBBI, a small lake in Upper Canada, on the S side of which is a settlement called Frederick, which last lies in N lat. 48° 35'. W long. 82°. Also the name of a river which runs N and joins Moose river near its mouth at James's bay.
ABITIBIS, a lake of the country of Hudson, in the territory of the Indians of this name. This lake is N of Nipissing lake, the NE boundary of Canada, in New South Wales: it has communication with James's bay, near Moose fort. Lat. 48° 39' N Long. 79° 2' W.
ABITIGAS, a nation of barbarous Indians, of the province and corregimiento of Tarma in Peru. It is very numerous and warlike ; and they live a wandering life in the woods. It is 60 leagues to the E of the mountains of the Andes; bounded on the S, by the Ipillos Indians.
ABORROEN, a port of the coast of Brasil, in the province and capitainship of Seara, between the river Escorgogive and the bay of Inobu.
ABRA, an island of the straits of Magellan, at the entrance of the third and last narrow pass, called the Passage.
[ABRAM'S CREEK, falls into Hudson's river, near the city of Hudson.]
ABREOLHOS, on the coast of Brasil, and of the province and capitainship of Espiritu Santo, between the rivers Percipe and Quororupa, in S lat. 18° 19' 30". W long. 39° 5 1° 30". Here are some hidden rocks, or sandbanks, extremely dangerous ; and although there are various navigable channels, it requires the utmost caution to avoid shipwreck, this having been the lot of an infinite number of vessels. These sandbanks are more than 20 leagues distant from the continent, and extend themselves upwards of five leagues to the E of the Island of Tuego. Their situation, taken in the the centre, is in 170° 51' 20" S lat. W long. 39° 18'.
[ABROJOS, a bank, with several small rocks and isles, E of Turk's island, in N lat. 21° 5'. W long. 70° 40'. Between this bank and Turk's Island is a deep channel, for ships of any burden, three leagues wide.]
Abrojos, a shoal of the N. sea. See the article Panuela Quadrado.
ABSECON, Beach, on the coast of New Jersey, 16 miles SW from Little Egg harbour.
ABUCARA, a settlement of the province and corregimiento of Lucanas in Peru, in a valley of the same name. It was anciently the capital of this province, and had the same denomination. At present it is much reduced, the corregidor having left it to establish himself in Lucanas. Lat. 15° 33' S Long. 73° 28' W
ABUCEES, S. Joseph de los, a settlement of the missions of the Sucumbios Indians, who were founded by, and maintained at the expence of, the abolished order of the Jesuits, in the province and government of Quixos and Macas, of the kingdom of Quito ; situate on the shore of a small river, which enters the Putumayo. Lat. 0° 36' N Long. 75° 22' W.
ABURRA, S. Bartolomé de, a town of the province and government of Antioquia, in the Nuevo Reyno de Granada, founded in 1542, by the Marshal George Robledo, in a fertile and extensive valley of the same name, which was discovered in 1540 by Captain Geronimo Luis Texelo. It abounds in all kinds of fruits, seeds, and vegetables, and is of a hot temperature. In its district are found many huacas, or sepulchres of the Indians, in which great riches are deposited. It has now so much fallen to decay, that it is no more than a miserable hamlet. In its vicinity are some streams of salt water, from which the Indians procure salt for their use. Lat. 5° 51' 30" N Long. 75° 17' W ACA, a settlement of the alcaldía mayor of Tlaxclala, in Nueva España.
[ACAAY, a parish in Paraguay, situate on a small river which runs into the Río Paraguay. It is about 14 leagues SE of Asuncion. Lat. 25° 54' 7" S Long. 57° 25' W.]
ACACUNA, a mountain of Peru, in the province and corregimiento of Arica in Peru. It is very lofty, and is four leagues distant from the S. sea; is very barren, and situate between the promontory of Ilo and the river Sama. Lat. 70° 29' S [Long. 18° 35' W.]
ACADIA, a province and peninsula of N. America, on the E coast of Canada, between the island or bank of Newfoundland and New England, by which it is bounded on the w. It is more than 100 leagues in length from N W S E and nearly 80 in width, from NE to SW from the gulph of St. Lawrence to the river Santa Cruz. It was discovered in 1497 by Sebastian Cabot, sent thither from England by Henry VII. The French, under the command of Jacob Cartier, of St. Maloes, established themselves here in 1534, in order to carry on a codfishery on the bank of Newfoundland; and in 1604, Peter Guest, a gentleman of the household of Henry IV of France, was sent by that king to establish a colony, which he founded at Port Royal. The English entered it under Gilbert Humphry, in consequence of a grant which had been made to this person by Queen Elizabeth, and gave it the title of Nova Scotia. In 1621 King James I made a donation of it to the Earl of Stirling; and in 1627 the French, commanded by Kirk de la Rochelle, made themselves masters of it, destroying all the establishments of the English, who were obliged to surrender it up, in 1629, by the treaty of St. Germains. The French shortly afterwards lost it; a Governor Philip having taken possession of it; but they, however, regained it in 1691, through the conduct of Mr. De Villebon. In order to settle the pretensions of the rival courts, commissioners were, by mutual consent, appointed in the peace of Riswick, in 1697, to consider which should be the limits of Nova Scotia and New England; and in the peace of Utrecht, it was entirely ceded to the English, who afterwards returned to it. This beautiful country contains many rivers and lakes; the principal of these is the Rosignol, well stocked with fish: there are also many woods, full of excellent timber, and thronged with very singular birds; as, for instance, the Colibri, or hummingbird, and various others. The same woods abound in many kinds of fruits and medicinal herbs. It is very fertile in wheat, maize, pulse of all sorts, and also produces cattle of various kinds, animals of the chase, and abundance of fine fish. Its principal commerce is in skins and salt fish. The winter is longer and colder than in Europe. The capital is Port Royal.— [The name of Acadia was first applied to a tract from the 40th to the 46th degree of N lat. granted to De Mons, Nov. 8, 1603, by Henry IV of France. For the present state of this country, see NOVA SCOTIA.]
ACAGUATO, a settlement of the head settlement of the district and alcaldía mayor of Tancitaro. It is so reduced as to consist of no more than 15 families of Indians, who maintain themselves by sowing some maize, and other vegetable productions. — Eight leagues S of the capital.
ACAHILA, a settlement of the province and corregimiento of Yamparaes in Peru, dependent on the archibishopric of Charcas, and annexed to the curacy of S. Christobal de Pilcomayo.
ACAIA, a settlement of the province and corregimiento of Caxatambo in Peru, annexed to the curacy of Churin.
ACAMBARO, the head settlement of the district of the alcaldía mayor of Zelaya, in the province and bishopric of Mechoacán. It contains 490 families of Indians, 80 of Mustees and Mulattoes, and a convent of the order of St. Francis. In its district there are other small settlements or wards.— Seven leagues S of its capital.
ACAMISTLAHUAC, the head settlement of the district of the alcaldía mayor of Tasco, annexed to the curacy of its capital, from whence it is distant two leagues to the E N E. It contains 30 Indian families.
ACAMUCHITLAN, a settlement of the head settlement of the district of Texopilco, and alcaldía mayor of Zultepec. It contains 60 Indian families, whose commerce is in sugar and honey. It produces also maize, and cultivates many vegetable productions. — Five leagues N of its head settlement.
ACAMON, a river of the province and government of Guayana, or Nueva Andalucia. It arises in the serranias of Usupama; runs W N W and enters the Caroni.
ACANTEPEC, the head settlement of the alcaldía mayor of Tlapa. It is of a cold and moist temperature, contains 92 Indian families, among which are included those of another settlement in its vicinity, all of whom maintain themselves by manufacturing cotton stuffs.
ACANTI, a river of the province and government of Darien, in the kingdom of Tierra Firme. It rises in the mountains which lie towards the N and empties itself into the sea between Cape Tiburon and the bay of Calidonia.
ACAPALA, a settlement of the province and alcaldía mayor of Chiapa, in the kingdom of Guatemala. Lat. 16° 53' N Long. 93° 52' W [It is situate on the Tobasco river, near the city of Chiapa, and not far from a bay in the S. sea, called Teguantipac.]
ACARAI, a settlement of the province and government of Paraguay, founded near the river Paraná, and rather towards the W by the missionary Jesuits, in 1624, where they also built a fort to protect it against the incursions of the infidel Indians.
ACARAI, a river of the province and government of Paraguay. It runs S S E and enters the Paraná opposite the settlement of La Poblacion Nueva.
ACARAPU, a small river of the province and colony of Surinam, in the part of Guayana belonging to the Dutch. It is one of those which enter the Cuyuni.
ACARI, a settlement of the province and corregimiento of Camaná, in Perú, situate in a beautiful and extensive valley, in which there is a very lofty mountain, which they call Sahuacario, composed of misshapen stones and sand, in which, at certain times of the year, especially in the months of December and January, is heard a loud and continued murmuring, which excites universal astonishment, and which, no doubt, is to be attributed to the air in some of its cavities. On its skirts are two fortresses, which were built in the time of the gentilism of the Indians. There is a port halfway between the town of St. Juan and the city of Arequipa, which is 8 leagues distant from the latter, and 11 from the former. It is very convenient, and has an excellent bottom, but is frequented only by small vessels. It is in lat. 15° 15'. S Long. 75° 8' 30" W
ACARI, a point or cape of the coast of the S. sea, of the same province, and of the corregimiento of Camaná.
ACARI, a river of the above province, which runs to the S E.
another river, of the province and capitainship of Pará in the kingdom of Brasil. It is small, runs N afterwards inclines to the N N W and enters the river of Las Amazonas, just where this empties itself into the sea.
ACARIGUA, a settlement of the province and government of Venezuela, situate on the shore of the river of its name, and close upon the E side of the town of Ararul.
ACARIGUA, a river of the above province and government, which rises near the town of Araure, and runs S to enter the river of La Portuguesa.
ACARRETO, a port of the coast of Tierra Firme, in the province and government of Darien, near cape Tiburon. [Lat. 8° 39' N Long. 77° 24' SO" W.]
ACARUACA, a small river of the province and country of the Amazonas, in the part belonging to the Portuguese. It runs from N to S forming a bow, and enters the Matari.
[ACASABASTIAN, a river in the province of Vera Paz in Mexico. It runs into the Golfo Dulce, and has a town situated on its banks of the same name. The source of this river is not far from the S. sea.]
ACASABASTLAN, a settlement of the kingdom of Guatemala, in the province and alcaldía mayor of Chiapa.
[ACASATHULA, a sea-port, situated on a point of land, in the province of Guatemala Proper, in Mexico, on a bay of the S. sea, about four leagues from Trinidad. It receives the greatest part of the treasures from Perú and Mexico. In its neighbourhood are three volcanoes.]
ACASSA, a river of the province and government of Guayana, in the part possessed by the French. It enters the sea between the Ayapoco and Cape Orange.
ACATEPEC, a settlement of the head settlement and alcaldía mayor of Thehuacan, where there is a convent or vicarage of the order of St. Francis. It contains 860 Indian families (including those of the wards of its district) in a spacious valley, which begins at the end of the settlement and extends itself above a league. In this valley are 12 cultivated estates, on which live 40 Indian families. It is four leagues S S W of its capital.
another settlement in the head settlement and district of Chinantla, of the alcaldía mayor of Cozamaloapan. It is situate in a very pleasant plain, and surrounded by three lofty mountains. The number of its inhabitants is reduced. A very rapid and broad river passes near this settlement; and as this is the direct way to the city of Oaxaca and other jurisdictions, and as the travellers, who come here in great numbers, must necessarily cross the river in barks or canoes, the Indians, who are very expert in this sort of navigation, contrive by these means to procure themselves a decent livelihood. 10 leagues W of its head settlement.
another settlement of the alcaldía mayor of the same kingdom, situate between two high ridges. It contains 100 Indian families, and is annexed to the curacy of


If you saw the trigger warning and proceeded anyway, congratulations. Let’s discuss the use of words like trigger warning, micro-aggression, and offensive.
A radio host I follow comments that we are training young people to not be judgmental. The idea being that to be judgmental suggests some sort of oppression or superiority, and in some cases would be considered racist. He presents the following story: University of Wisconsin students to undergo mandatory ‘cultural competency training’. He continues to say, (I’m paraphrasing here) The world of the academy is not only failing miserably, but is now getting closer and closer to not allowing the students to talk to each other. If you see micro-aggressions as a real problem, the what could you not see as offensive? Schools are encouraging people of color to be even more sensitive. On the west cost, a female student accused a white student of a micro-agression because he had dreadlocks. She said that it was an appropriation of her culture. Students are also getting worked up by dishes served in the cafeteria: “Spanish rice” or “Taco Tuesday”. And now, at the University of Madison, even more effort will be spent on educating the kids to be more alert to offense.
Do you agree that students should undergo “cultural competency training”?
While you’re waiting for more thoughts from me on this subject, check out this article by The Atlantic, “The Coddling of the American Mind“.
Further Reading & Idea Exploration:
- Is it Cultural Mis-Appropriation? A Handy Guide
- Offensive Halloween Costumes.
- Safe spaces.
Image source: Bob Vonderau


Open source hardware, also called open hardware, is electronic or computer hardware built from design information that could be copyrighted or licensed but has instead been made available for public use at no charge. Such information can include documentation, schematic diagrams, construction details, parts lists and logic designs.
In a literal sense, physical objects do not lend themselves to the open source paradigm in the same way as does software (with the possible exception of self-replicating robots). The term open source can, however, be applied directly to information that allows people to build, modify and update specific hardware items such as personal computers, computer peripherals, telecommunicationss.
In recent years, specialized software known as hardware description language (HDL) has become available for the design and engineering of hardware. Programs written in HDL can be copyrighted, just as can any other type of software. When HDL programs are made freely available, they can be considered open source hardware.


The Hrauneyjafoss Station is Iceland’s third largest power plant, producing 210 MW. It is located near the Sprengisandur Route on the edge of the highlands; southwest of the Sigalda Station, and utilises the same water as Sigalda Station. Hrauneyjafoss Station came on-line in 1981.
The Tungnaá River is dammed on rather flat land approximately 1.5 km above the Hrauneyjafoss Waterfall and 7 km below the Sigalda Station. The difference in altitude is approximately 15 m. Hrauneyjalón, an 8.8 km² reservoir, was formed by the dam. A low soil wall dam stretches along the lava flatlands on the south bank of the river. A headrace channel runs 1 km northwards from the reservoir through a dip in the Fossalda Hill to an intake point at its northern edge. Three steel penstocks (4.8 m in diameter) run 272 m down the hill to the powerhouse. The tailrace canal, just over one kilometre in length, enters the Spordöldukvísl waterway, which runs into the Tungnaá River.
There are six hydropower stations in the catchment area of Rivers Thjórsá and Tungnaá: Búrfell, Sultartangi, Hrauneyjafoss, Vatnsfell, Sigalda and Búdarháls, with combined energy of 935 MW. Water for all the power stations is provided by three main reservoirs, Thórisvatn, Hágöngulón and Kvíslarveita, along with smaller reservoirs connected with each station.
Lake Thórisvatn, Iceland’s largest lake, is the largest reservoir and an important part of Landsvirkjun’s utility system. All water accumulated in Kvíslarveita and Hágöngulón reservoirs runs through Lake Thórisvatn.
Lake Thórisvatn became a reservoir with the harnessing of River Thjórsá at Búrfell Mountain in 1970-1972. River Kaldakvísl was diverted into the lake at the northern edge of the lake and a controlled outflow constructed at the southern edge.
A canal was dug from the lake and a concrete gate structure built in the canal to manage the flow rate. The canal is named the Vatnsfell Canal, and carries water from Lake Thórisvatn through the Vatnsfell Station into the Krókslón Reservoir above the Sigalda Station, and from there to other stations further down in the catchment area.
Work on the Kvíslaveita Reservoir began in 1980 and was completed in 1997. Kvíslaveita is the collective name for the dams, canals, bottom outlets and gate structures that manage the flow rate from the River Thjórsá and its tributaries into Lake Thórisvatn.
The Háganga Reservoir was constructed in 1997–1999 and covers an area of 27 km2. Its purpose is to increase the efficiency of the catchment area of River Kaldakvísl. During the summer months, water accumulates in the Hágöngulón Reservoir, with very little water flowing down the Kaldakvísl riverbed.
|Fyrsta vél gangsett:||1981|
|Vatnasvið virkjunar:||4.272 km2|
|Meðalrennsli til virkjunar:||155 m3/s|
|Virkjað rennsli:||280 m3/s|
|Afl Francis hverfla:||3 x 70 MW|
|Við lónhæð:||425 m y.s.|
|Hönnun:||Verkfræðistofa Sigurðar Thoroddsen hf. og Harza Engineering Company International, Bandaríkjunum|
|Arkitektar:||Guðmundur Kr. Kristinsson og Gunnlaugur Halldórsson|
|Vélar og rafbúnaður:||ASEA, Svíþjóð|
|Lokur og þrýstivatnspípur:||Magrini Galileo, Ítalíu.|


Epistle to the Hebrews, or “Letter to the Hebrews” is the traditional name of a text that the Greek manuscripts of the New Testament simply called “To the Hebrews” (ΠΡΟΣ ΕΒΡΑΙΟΥΣ).
Scholars of Greek consider its writing to be more polished and eloquent than any other book of the New Testament. Since the earliest days of the Church, the authorship and canonicity have been debated. Presumably once known and respected by the epistle's readers, the author became unknown and today is often described as unknowable. The book has earned the reputation of being a "masterpiece". It also has been described as an "intricate" New Testament book.
Jewish history (or the history of the Jewish people) is the history of the Jews, and their religion and culture, as it developed and interacted with other peoples, religions and cultures. According to Jewish tradition, Jewish ancestry is traced back to the Biblical patriarchs Abraham, Isaac and Jacob who lived in Canaan around the 18th century BCE. Historically, Jews had evolved mostly from the Tribe of Judah and Simeon, and partially from the other Israelite tribes, especially of Binyamin and Levi, who had all together formed the ancient Kingdom of Judah and the ancient Kingdom of Israel. The earliest mention of Israel as a people was found inscribed on the Merneptah Stele dating back to 1213-1203 BCE.
The Gospel of the Hebrews (Greek: τὸ καθ' Ἑβραίους εὐαγγέλιον), or Gospel according to the Hebrews, was a syncretic Jewish–Christian gospel which survives only as brief quotations by the early Church Fathers which preserve fragments of the original text. The fragments contain traditions of Jesus' pre-existence, incarnation, baptism, and probable temptation, along with some of his sayings. Distinctive features include a Christology characterized by the belief that the Holy Spirit is Jesus' Divine Mother and a first resurrection appearance to James, the brother of Jesus, showing a high regard for James as the head of the Jewish Christian church in Jerusalem. It was probably composed in Greek in the first decades of the 2nd century, and is believed to have been used by Greek-speaking Jewish Christians in Egypt during that century.
It is the only Jewish–Christian gospel which the Church Fathers referred to by name, believing there was only one Hebrew Gospel, perhaps in different versions. Passages from the gospel were quoted or summarized by three Alexandrian Fathers – Clement, Origen and Didymus the Blind; it was also quoted by Jerome, either directly or through the commentaries of Origen. The gospel was used as a supplement to the canonical gospels to provide source material for their commentaries based on scripture. Eusebius of Caesarea included it in his list of disputed writings known as the Antilegomena, noting that it was used by "Hebrews" within the Church; it fell out of use when the New Testament canon was codified at the end of the 4th century.
Black Hebrews proper


Many First Nations used the wood from lodgepole pine for lodges, homes or buildings. In the spring, the cambium layer of the inner bark was stripped off trees and eaten. In addition, the pitch was used as a base for many medicines, and was chewed to relieve sore throats.
Today, lodgepole pine is marketed domestically as part of the single species spruce-pine-fir (SPF) group. SPF lumber is used across North America and Asia for a variety of purposes including structural framing, paneling, shelving, millwork, furniture, doors and trim. NorthPac Forestry Group Ltd. sells pine sawlogs and pulp domestically and overseas.


Category: Salt Water
Facts about the Oriole Angelfish, they are marine Angelfish which are also known as Bicolor Angelfish or Oriole Dwarf Angelfish. The Oriole Angelfish are found in Indo-Pacific East Africa. Surprisingly, the Oriole Angelfish have a wide range distribution throughout the word. Mostly the Oriole Angelfish are harvested for pet industry but they cannot be named as endangered.
The Oriole Angelfish are recognizable due to their bright colors which range from bluish, black, and gold. This has led people to define them as Black and Gold Angelfish, two colored Angelfish and Bluish and gold Angelfish.
Oriole Angelfish are distinguishable from other Angelfish dwarfs because they have an over shape that is slightly longer. The Oriole Angelfish grow up to 15 cm and this is also bigger than others by 2 cm. The front of their bodyis yellow to gold while the back is dark to royal blue. At the top of each eye, the Oriole Angelfish have a blue mask like which runs over their forehead. The anal and dorsal fins are blue in color. The pelvic, tail fins, and pectoral are yellow. It is hard to differentiate the juvenile Oriole Angelfish because they look similar, but at a closer look they have darker bars.
The Oriole Angelfish have a lifespan of 12 years when kept in the aquarium but if they are well taken care of they can live up to 15 years.
Among all the Oriole Angelfish, this one is considered to be the most aggressive. Keeping them in pairs is recommended but the tank must be spacious. This allows each Oriole Angelfish to keep distance while guiding their territory. It is not recommended to keep them with other peaceful fish unless again you keep them in a large tank or aquarium.
These Oriole Angelfish are omnivores though they feed more on meaty foods which is not common on other dwarfs. When they are younger, they feed on algae and as they grow older, they feed on worms, corals or sponges. The Oriole Angelfish also feed on mysis, frozen shrimp, and formula foods. If held in captive the feeding should be done severally per day.
These Oriole Angelfish are moderately difficult to care for when in aquariums. The Oriole Angelfish need plenty of water which should be changed at an interval of three to four weeks. This is for the bigger gallons of around 100. If the gallon is smaller, then the water should be changed weekly. The pH level should not exceed 8.0.
The Oriole Angelfish have not bred in captivity yet. In the wild, the Oriole Angelfish reach sexual maturity at 60 to 69 mm. The Oriole Angelfish have an interesting courtship before they mate. The male makes loud voices and when they meet the female they make the first move. He swims upwards to her, tilts his body to an angle of 90 degrees. If the female is ready to spawn they will soar together and the male will nuzzle the female’s body for around 18seconds. After that, they release gametes while producing fertilized eggs. The eggs are left to hatch on their own.
The Oriole Angelfish are prone to parasites like white spot diseases.


Still, when I’m at a star party or observing on my own, I often track down a couple of these defunct patterns because it’s fun. And I have the best time when friends join in. If you’d like to try your hand at this, too, read on.
The first star maps and globes had fewer than 50 constellations, yet despite that relatively small number, some of those have not survived. The most notable is the truly massive former constellation Argo Navis, the legendary ship that carried Jason and the Argonauts in search of the Golden Fleece.
Argo Navis is the only example of a star pattern that fell into disuse for purely practical reasons: It was simply too big. So, around 1750, French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille divided it into the constellations Carina, Puppis, and Vela. Sometimes the constellation Pyxis the Compass also gets lumped into this grouping as well, but this is incorrect. In fact, Lacaille himself pictured Argo Navis as a complete ship with Pyxis just to its north on a celestial map he produced in 1752.
The use of designations for Argo Navis’ stars was so ingrained that, when it was rent asunder, the original set of Greek letters was retained, with no additional ones added. As a result, Puppis and Vela have no Alpha or Beta stars. Those letters stayed with stars that now form Carina.
Almost every other constellation that’s gone the way of Argo Navis has vanished because of non-acceptance by the community of astronomers at large. Many of those star groups were meant to honor the patron or monarch of the astronomer who named them. Needless to say, outside the boundaries of the relevant country, those tributes were not well received. A similar situation occurred in 1781, when a row developed after Sir William Herschel attempted to name his newly discovered planet “Georgium Sidus,” or “George’s Star,” after George III of England. That British-leaning name didn’t stick, so it was Uranus ever after.
But just because we categorize a constellation as extinct doesn’t mean we have no record of it. Star maps exist that show these figures. We know which stars formed them. And, most importantly to observers, you can still go outside and find them. I’ve listed 12 of my favorites here (in alphabetical order), but there are at least a hundred others a little research will lead you to. Have fun!
The great German-Flemish mapmaker Gerardus Mercator placed this figure on a celestial globe he created in 1551. He formed it from the stars Eta (η), Theta (θ), Sigma (σ), Delta (δ), Nu (ν), Lambda (λ), Kappa (κ), and Iota (ι) Aquilae. The stars range in brightness from magnitude 3.2 (Theta) to magnitude 5.2 (Sigma), so spotting them requires a reasonably dark site.
The figure represented the servant/lover of the Roman Emperor Hadrian. According to one account, Antinoüs drowned himself in the Nile River, believing that, with this sacrifice, he would prolong his master’s life. After his death, he was worshipped as both a god and a hero.
Three constellations, all extinct, have occupied the same tiny area in the northern part of Aries the Ram. You can find — pick a name — by locating 33 Arietis, 35 Ari, 39 Ari, and 41 Ari. They range in magnitude from 3.6 to 5.3.
The Dutch-Flemish mapmaker Petrus Plancius got the ball rolling by putting Apes the Bee on his 1612 star chart. In 1679, French architect Augustin Royer used the same stars for Lilium the Fleur-de-lis. About a decade later, Polish astronomer Johannes Hevelius re-christened that area Musca, although later mapmakers who used the figure called it Musca Borealis to distinguish it from the far-southern constellation Musca the Fly.
The Battery of Volta
British physician and Egyptologist Thomas Young designated this constellation in 1806 to honor an important invention by Alessandro Volta: the electric battery. There’s not much to it, however. It’s just two stars: 1 Pegasi, which glows at magnitude 4.1, and 9 Pegasi, which is ever so slightly fainter at magnitude 4.3. Maybe Young decided to represent just the battery’s terminals?
In Greek mythology, Cerberus was the three-headed hound that guarded the gates of Hades, but not against intruders. Instead, he was there to prevent the dead from leaving. Hevelius included Cerberus as part of Firmamentum Sobiescianum, sive Uranographia, totum Coelum Stellatum, a collection of star maps he created in 1687.
You can find Cerberus midway between the head of Hercules and the head of Cygnus, made primarily of the stars 93, 95, 96, 102, and 109 Herculis. Do note that the brightest of these stars, 109 Her, glows at magnitude 3.9. I’ve found that the best way to see this group is to use tripod-mounted binoculars. You don’t need much magnification, but choose binoculars with a field of view at least 7.5° wide (the distance between 93 Her and 109 Her).
French astronomer Jérôme Lalande suggested this constellation in 1799 because there was no cat in the sky. Apparently, he was thinking house cat, because three constellations — two lions and a lynx — already represented the feline family. It made its initial appearance in the star atlas Uranographia sive Astrorum Descriptio, created by German astronomer Johann Elert Bode in 1801.
You can find Felis — and I warn you, its stars are faint — by heading 30° due south of Regulus (Alpha [α] Leonis), and trying to make a cat out of magnitude 3.8 Mu (μ) Hydrae and a few similarly dim stars nearby. You’ll see the constellations Corvus and Crater. Get a sense of their similar sizes. Felis lies on the western side of Crater opposite Corvus.
Gladii Electorales Saxonici
German astronomer Gottfried Kirch introduced this constellation — a pair of crossed swords — in 1684 as a political move. He hoped to win the patronage of Johann Georg III, Elector of Saxony.
The star pattern consists of nine stars between magnitudes 3.7 and 5.2. The area they’re in is bounded by Arcturus (Alpha Boötis), Unuk al Hai (Alpha Serpentis), Zubeneschamali (Beta [β] Librae), Mu Virginis, and Tau (τ) Virginis. Finding this location is easy. Making Gladii Electorales Saxonici out of its stars is not.
I wanted to include a few defunct constellations from the Southern Hemisphere; my first is a figure that represents the bust of Christopher Columbus. American mapmaker William Croswell placed this star pattern on A Mercator Map of the Starry Heavens, which he produced in 1810. To form Marmor Sculptile, Croswell simply used the existing constellation Reticulum with a few stars from neighboring Horologium.
In 1822, Scottish writer Alexander Jamieson introduced this constellation in A Celestial Atlas. To create it, he used stars in far-eastern Hydra and western Libra. But he wasn’t the first to appropriate the stars in this area.
In 1776, French astronomer Pierre Charles Le Monnier created Turdus Solitarius, the Solitary Thrush, using no less than 41 stars between 3rd and 9th magnitude. You can find either of these birds of yesteryear by locating a curved line of five stars: 4 Librae and 54, 55, 56, and 57 Hydrae. Binoculars will make your task much easier because the brightest of these luminaries glows at only magnitude 5.2.
French astronomer Jérôme Lalande invented this constellation in 1795 to commemorate the wall-mounted quadrant at l’École Militaire Observatory in Paris. It appeared that year (as “Le Mural”) in Atlas Céleste by Jean Fortin. Johann Bode changed the constellation’s name to Quadrans Muralis when he included it in his 1801 star atlas.
In the sky, locate the area that starts midway between magnitude 3.5 Nekkar (Beta Boötis) and magnitude 4.6 Chi (χ) Herculis and extends about 10° to the north. If this constellation’s name rings a bell, you probably have heard it before. The radiant of the Quadrantid meteor shower, which peaks around January 4 each year, lies within its (former) boundaries.
None other than the great Edmund Halley created my second extinct southern-sky constellation. In 1679, he used some seriously bright stars in Argo Navis (now also gone) to commemorate the Royal Oak where the King of England, Charles II, supposedly hid from the army of Oliver Cromwell after the Battle of Worcester in 1651. The brightest star of Robur Carolinum was magnitude 1.7 Miaplacidus (Beta Carinae).
Tubus Herschelii Major and Tubus Herschelii Minor
My final entry is a pair of defunct constellations. Hungarian astronomer and Jesuit priest Maximilian Hell formed both in 1789 to honor Sir William Herschel’s discovery of Uranus. Tubus Herschelii Major commemorated Herschel’s 20-foot telescope, while Minor represented his 7-foot telescope.
Hell placed the larger constellation in Auriga and the smaller between Taurus and Orion. He did this so they would lie on either side of the point in Gemini where Herschel found the planet. Later maps combined the two into Telescopium Herschellii. To find it, head outdoors and locate Castor (Alpha Geminorum). Telescopium Herschelii occupies a large region north of that star in Lynx and Auriga.
The ancient sky awaits
In Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan, Dr. Leonard McCoy eulogizes Mr. Spock in a way that can apply here: “He’s not really dead as long as we remember him.” So, these constellations really aren’t extinct as long as we observe them. I encourage you to head out on the next clear night and see if you can locate one of these obscure star figures that meant so much to so few.


Quality Teaching Rounds, developed by Jenny Gore and Julie Bowe, involves teachers working in professional learning communities (PLCs) of four or more to observe and analyse each other’s teaching (Bowe & Gore, 2017) a. The QTR is a protocol using a set of “good teaching practice” criteria with which a lesson is “coded” and then discussed by a group of three or four teachers. The three dimensions and 18 elements are grouped in three domains of good pedagogy: Intellectual Quality, Quality Learning Environment and Significance.
How it works:
A group of four teachers (three could work, but four is optimal) observe a lesson by one of the group. The three observers “code” the lesson using the Quality Teaching criteria. After the lesson, the group of four get together and discuss the lesson. The discussion is not an appraisal of the teacher; it is about discussing the elements of good teaching.
Below are my notes of an excellent two day PD I was lucky enough to attend b, guided by Professor Jenny Gore. She was insightful, interesting and showed us how the QTR model is one of the few ways in which teachers can have safe and constructive discussions based on lesson observations.
I have blogged about Jenny Gore’s QTR before, but at that time, I didn’t fully get how useful and great this protocol actually is. Now I do, and I can’t wait to start working with it at my school. Here is the blog post from June 2016.
What are Quality Teaching Rounds?
- It’s a positive, respectful experience
- It’s a framework with which to affirm teachers
- It’s about the teaching, not about the person
- It’s about the practice of teaching.
- It’s about the principles that guide teaching.
- It’s been around for 15 years.
- It’s about the conversations you have afterwards.
- It’s the thinking afterwards which changes people.
- You are not rating your colleague, you are having a conversation about teaching.
- You use description, not judgement.
- It’s about a sense of community and commitment
- focused on the impact of teaching on student learning
- a respectful, safe forum for discussing practice
- an opportunity to build professional relationships, trust, and respect
- an approach to facilitation collegial and inclusive, with all PLC members contributing
informed by rigorous research
- an opportunity to enhance our teaching
- deep discussions built on the Quality Teaching mode impactful, improving teaching quality and teacher morale
Quality teaching rounds, what it isn’t:
- It’s not about the coding or the numbers
- It’s not a teacher appraisal system
- It’s not about critiquing a lesson, it’s talking about teaching
- an inspection focused on the teacher
- a scoring exercise focused on numbers
- a performance appraisal dominated by one member of the PLC
- a fad or gimmick
- expensive, especially given their demonstrated impact
The Themes of QTR:
- Safety, Trust
- Value of being in each other’s classrooms
- Value of common language about good teaching.
“Coding” a lesson
This is what a ‘Coding sheet’ looks like. The numbers in green are what the researchers in the room gave the lesson, the other numbers are what I scored it. In a way it doesn’t matter what the scores are. QTR is about quantifying and codifying good practice and then having in-depth conversations afterwards.
My general notes from the sessions with Jenny Gore:
- Groups of four works well.
- Protocol: Each person takes the lead on one of the elements. Take it in turns. Wait your turn.
- Teachers are often harsher on themselves than academics are on the teachers.
- Just the fact that something was coded a 5 does not mean it’s perfect.
- Order rests on activities rather than rules
- Metalanguage in the QTis language about language.
- Writing rubrics is really difficult, there is a science to it. Teachers play linguistic and semantic gymnastics.
- Knowledge is open to questioning. Sometimes teaching can oversimplify knowledge.
- The three dimensions are what matters.
- You don’t expect to see every element.
- What is the diff between deep knowledge and deep understanding? You can bring deep knowledge to a lesson but students can walk out with a shallow understanding. TWO are students addressing key concepts and key ideas. Can we draw out the big ideas?
- Deep knowledge: What do you want them to learn? Often it is just “content”, but is that what you want them to learn? What are the big ideas?
- Getting to deeper knowledge: Ask “What do you want them to learn?” several times: “I am teaching about the Rain forest” > Deeper > structure of the rain forest > Deeper> ecology of the rain forest > Deeper > having respect for ecology. (Or ask: So what?)
- Problematic knowledge = TOK, there are multiple answers
- Most PLCs take 18 months to mature.
- Minimum of three in a QTR group. 8 days of QTR days a year.
- You either tell or show.
- If you don’t show them what a good one looks like #WAGOLL, the ones who will succeed are the ones who are already succeeding.
- Jeff Layton: The kids sink to the occasion (but they can also rise to the occasion)
- Teaching is sooo complex, there is no one way to do it.
- Engagement = a serious investment in classwork.
- We need to have high expectations for student learning. It needs to be challenging for them.
- Social support: a class has to be a safe space, where students treat each other respectfully, where contributions are valued.
- Most teachers don’t know how good they are.
- It’s not about changing a whole lesson, it is about tweaking it.
- There’s very little PD which fundamentally changes or impacts on the WAY we teach.
- Experienced teachers may get better at a whole lot of stuff, but do they get better at teaching itself? Not necessarily.
Interesting links for me to read and consider:
- Here are all the links below one one page, by “OneTab“: https://www.one-tab.com/page/ufIbLBTkR1C_tq-3WgWQHA
- “A classroom Practice Guide” http://mscplc.weebly.com/uploads/4/8/0/8/4808031/quality_teaching_guide.pdf
- Jim Beane: http://mtpyph.weebly.com/uploads/9/0/6/9/9069240/beane_-_towards_coherent_curriculum.pdf
- Pedagogy of poverty https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1570/2df70734cb15a165c988db86c68d9759528a.pdf
- https://research.acer.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1336&context=research_conference (back)
- On the 25th and 26th of February 2020, at Lauriston Girls’ School (back)


Found 3 items, similar to error.
English → Indonesian
gawal, kekeliruan, kesalahan, kesilapan, silap
English → English
n 1: a wrong action attributable to bad judgment or ignorance or
inattention; “he made a bad mistake”
; “she was quick to
point out my errors”
; “I could understand his English in
spite of his grammatical faults”
2: inadvertent incorrectness [syn: erroneousness
3: a misconception resulting from incorrect information [syn: erroneous belief
4: (baseball) a failure of a defensive player to make an out
when normal play would have sufficed [syn: misplay
5: departure from what is ethically acceptable [syn: wrongdoing
6: (computer science) the occurrence of an incorrect result
produced by a computer [syn: computer error
7: part of a statement that is not correct; “the book was full
English → English
, n. [OF. error, errur, F. erreur, L. error, fr.
errare to err. See Err
1. A wandering; a roving or irregular course. [Obs.]
The rest of his journey, his error by sea. --B.
2. A wandering or deviation from the right course or
standard; irregularity; mistake; inaccuracy; something
made wrong or left wrong; as, an error in writing or in
printing; a clerical error.
3. A departing or deviation from the truth; falsity; false
notion; wrong opinion; mistake; misapprehension.
His judgment was often in error, though his candor
remained unimpaired. --Bancroft.
4. A moral offense; violation of duty; a sin or
transgression; iniquity; fault. --Ps. xix. 12.
5. (Math.) The difference between the approximate result and
the true result; -- used particularly in the rule of
(a) The difference between an observed value and the true
value of a quantity.
(b) The difference between the observed value of a
quantity and that which is taken or computed to be the
true value; -- sometimes called residual error
7. (Law.) A mistake in the proceedings of a court of record
in matters of law or of fact.
8. (Baseball) A fault of a player of the side in the field
which results in failure to put out a player on the other
side, or gives him an unearned base.
Law of error
, or Law of frequency of error
the law which expresses the relation between the magnitude
of an error and the frequency with which that error will
be committed in making a large number of careful
measurements of a quantity.
. (Mensuration) See under Probable
Writ of error
(Law), an original writ, which lies after
judgment in an action at law, in a court of record, to
correct some alleged error in the proceedings, or in the
judgment of the court. --Bouvier. Burrill.
Syn: Mistake; fault; blunder; failure; fallacy; delusion;
hallucination; sin. See Blunder


Last Updated on
Recently “Lead” has been on the headlines of all leading newspapers and channels. Maggi, uncontested choice of national food for engineers, has been taking off the shelves in our country. Reason – Lead content higher than prescribed limits found in samples of Maggi. But is it only “Maggi” that has unacceptable lead?
Heavy metal Lead is considered toxic as increased levels of lead in the body interferes with a variety of body processes and development of the nervous system particularly in children.Route of exposure to lead is contaminated air, soil, food, and consumer products and is taken up by us through ingestion and inhalation.
Lead was used as pigments in paints earlier. However, lead-based paints have disappeared from consumer sales for residential use in developed countries because of toxicity concerns. Lead pigments have been replaced by titanium pigments and others, in oil based paints and enamels. In general, water based paints or emulsions do not contain lead pigments.
Widespread revolution all over the world has brought in regulations for controlling use of lead in paints. In the US and other developed nations, maximum allowable content is 90 ppm or 0.009%.
In India, the Bureau of Indian Standards has revised the voluntary lead standards in paints to 90 ppm (parts per million), which until 2004, was 1000 ppm or (0.1%)
Organized paint sector in India, with major players like Asian Paints, Kansai nerolac have been continuously striving to keep lead to the minimum and have even introduced products with lead free guarantee and ECO-Mark. The BIS states that “ Eco-mark product shall be packed in such packages which shall be recyclable/reusable or biodegradable. It shall be accompanied with instructions for proper use so as to maximize product performance and minimize wastage. In case of products certified for ECO-Mark the major ingredients and hazardous chemicals shall be marked on the container. The criteria for which the product has been labelled as ECO-Mark may also be marked on the container. “ Unorganized sector which constitutes about 25 – 30%, still produce products that do not comply to the standards.
Hence, it is always advisable to use paint products from well known brands. Also, water based paints, emulsions and enamels are pretty much safer than oil based ones.


- Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg is now the namesake of a praying mantis species -- llomantis ginsburgae
Researchers at The Cleveland Museum of Natural History on Wednesday said
they were deeming a new species as the llomantis ginsburgae,
named after Ginsburg because of her "relentless fight for gender equality" and out of "appreciation" of her jabots, the neck accessories that she frequently dons.
The insects' neck plates are similar to them, the authors said.
Ginsburg was the second ever women nominated to the court, and she is one of three serving today.
The new species was identified primarily by comparing distinctive qualities of female genitalia, which is largely uncommon, Sydney Brannoch, one of the researchers, said in a video explaining the discovery.
"As a feminist biologist, I often questioned why female specimens weren't used to diagnose most species," Brannoch said in a statement. "It is my hope that our work not only sets a precedent in taxonomy but also underscores the need for scientists to investigate and equally consider both sexes in other scientific investigations."


Other common names: Col Noir de Valais, Valaisan a col noir, Walliser Schwarzhals, Schwarzweisse Walliser Sattelziege, Vallesana del collo nero, Vallese, Chevre des Glaciers, Valais Blackthroat.
The origins are uncertain. Today it is considered native to the border between South Novarese (Piedmont) and the Swiss canton of Valais, where the race is very raised. In Italy it is grown in mountainous areas of the province of Verbania and Vercelli (Piedmont).
Height at the withers:
- Male: 75-85 cm
- Female: 70-80 cm
- Male: 75 kg
- Female: 55 kg
They have long, wavy hair and arched, medium length horns. The Valais Blackneck gets its name from its striking coloration. While the goat's body is white from the shoulders back, the head and neck and occasionally the front legs are solid black. The line between the two colors is well defined and impressive. Although Valais Blackneck Goats will produce about 500 kilograms of milk in a 210-day lactation, they are more often used for meat production. The carcass is nicely lean and the muscling is moderately thick.
Male of Vallesana (photo Licia Rotondi)


Last but not least, the figure for ‘Capacity [kWh]’ must be interpreted as the practically usable capacity, which is not necessarily the same as the purchased capacity.
Traditional storage technologies do generally not allow full charge/discharge between 0% and 100% without compromising the system’s lifetime. In other words, if a traditional battery would be used between 0% and 100%, then its lifetime will be dramatically shortened.
In battery specifications, this phenomenon is referred to as ‘Depth of Discharge’ or DoD [%], describing the maximum allowed charge and discharge level. Following graph shows the relation between DoD and Lifetime of traditional storage systems.
Source: Levelised cost of storage: A better way to compare battery value by JOHN RODRIGUEZ on MAY 23, 2017, in USEFUL SOLAR TOOLS AND RESOURCES, BATTERIES & ENERGY STORAGE


Calibrating images is essential to make sense of measurements in an image. This article takes the user through the process of applying spatial and temporal calibrations to an image set.
Calibrations in image analysis come in two forms: Spatial and Temporal.
Spatial calibrations are needed to know how large things are in X,Y and Z, and Temporal calibrations are needed to know how fast things move through time.
To set the Pixel calibration we go to Data> Pixel Size
Here the user can set the width of pixels in each of the X ,Y and Z dimensions independently.
Remember to put in units or the offending field will be highlighted in red to show that it is missing information.
Note that, as of arivis Vision4D 3.3, it is possible to add calibrations to every set in a batch simultaneously by selecting them from the Image Set drop-down list.
Setting the temporal calibration is done through the Info Viewer.
In the Info Viewer, click on Edit at the end of the Number of Sets field.
Right-click on any time point and select the option to Set Time Interval...
Enter the desired time interval.
Note that the time interval is assumed to be the same for every time point. Also, if the specific time is important (e.g. FRAP experiments), it can be set for any of the time points by right-clicking on that time point and setting the date and time.


An ambitious European research project funded through the European Union H2020 scheme and aimed at finding a new treatment for ALS (motor neurone disease, MND) is testing a molecule that occurs naturally in our bodies and helps to regulate our immune system.
In May, MIROCALS -MODIFYING THE IMMUNE RESPONSE AND OUTCOMS IN ALS- was awarded €5.98 million by the European Commission Directorate-General for Research and Innovation, under the EU Horizon 2020 Scheme. Additional support for the Clinical Centres has been awarded by the French Health Ministry Programme de Recherche Clinique (PHRC) in France and is under consideration by the MND Association in the UK.
Currently, a low dose of the molecule, interleukin-2 (IL-2), is being developed for the treatment of conditions affecting the immune system, including diabetes, arthritis, liver disease, and the complications of treating leukaemia and other cancers with stem cells. While IL-2 has been used for many years at high dose to treat cancer, it is much safer – but still effective – when used at low doses in these immune disorders, as it can damp down harmful immune responses.“Our main objective is to achieve a breakthrough in the treatment of MND by significantly slowing the progress of the disease through a low dose of IL-2,” says Dr Gilbert Bensimon, University Hospital, Nimes, France, who is Coordinator and project leader of MIROCALS.To date, only one drug – riluzole – has been shown to slow the advance of MND, but its impact on the quality of life of people with the illness is marginal. Many other drugs have been tested but have failed.
Professor Nigel Leigh, co-lead and chief investigator for the clinical trial, of Brighton and Sussex Medical School, says: “We are delighted to be collaborating with world-leading research groups in biomarker development, immunology, genetics and gene expression on this project. This collaboration will allow us to research a number of factors that may affect MND. Taken together, these analyses should allow us to ‘individualise’ responses to treatment that may be revealed during the study.”The research is being undertaken by a partnership between leading medical researchers in France, UK, Italy, and Sweden, the Motor Neurone Disease Association of England Wales and Northern Ireland, and the pharmaceutical industry.
Other novel features of the MIROCALS study include:
- incorporation of ‘biomarkers’ to monitor the activity of the disease, the state of the immune system, and their responses to low-dose IL-2
- inclusion of people newly diagnosed with MND. This means that researchers can monitor treatment from an early stage in the evolution of the disease and maximise the potential to detect benefit from low dose IL-2
- study of complex genetic factors that may contribute to the response to treatment with riluzole and/or low dose IL-2.
Project planning will start in September this year and researchers intend to recruit the first patients into the trial by September 2016. They aim to complete the study in 2019. In the meantime, the team is working on the essential groundwork for MIROCALS, including a small pilot study in France. Professor Leigh adds: “In addition to developing a new treatment for MND, MIROCALS aims to provide a new approach to clinical trials to break the impasse in developing new treatments for progressive disorders that include MND, dementia and Parkinson’s disease.
About The MIROCALS Consortium
- The MIROCALS Consortium is led by Dr Gilbert Bensimon (project coordinator) of The Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nîmes, France (trial sponsor) and Professor Nigel Leigh (Chief Investigator of the clinical trial) of Brighton and Sussex Medical School, Universities of Brighton and Sussex, Brighton, UK.
- The strong partnership brings together a France-based technology transfer company, Inserm-Transfert, for the management of the project, with an Irish-based Clinical Research Organisation, ICON plc, which has wide experience in international clinical trials. ICON plc will be responsible for monitoring of the trial to the high standards required by the regulatory agencies in Europe.
- The MND Association will have a vitally important role in communicating with people affected by MND/ALS, disseminating information about the trial, and advising on ethical aspects of the study.
- The scientific contributors include leading scientists and clinicians from six cutting-edge European laboratories. Dr Cecilia Garlanda, Dr Massimo Locati (Humanitas Clinical and Research Hospital, Italy) and Dr Timothy Tree (King’s College London, UK) will lead investigations into immunological aspects of the project, while work on brain biomarkers for monitoring disease progression will be headed by Professor Henrik Zetterberg (Goeteborgs Universitet, Sweden) and Dr Andrea Malaspina (Queen Mary University of London). The investigation of gene expression is coordinated by Professor Dame Pamela Shaw and Dr Janine Kirby (University Of Sheffield, UK) and gene sequencing studies by Professor Ammar Al-Chalabi (King’s College London, UK). Dr Safaa Saker (Généthon, Paris) will oversee the biobank for MIROCALS.


|on the spur of the moment||If you do something on the spur of the moment, you do it as soon as you think of it, spontaneously, without any planning.
He decided on the spur of the moment to buy flowers for his wife.
|square deal||A transaction that is fair and honest, or an equitable arrangement, is called a square deal.
We've used the same supplier for years and we always get a square deal.
|square meal||When people talk about a square meal, they mean a substantial and satisfying meal.
I don't need a fancy restaurant, just a place where I can get a square meal.
|square peg in a round hole||To say that a person is a square peg in a round hole means that they are not suitable for the job they are doing or the situation they are in.
He was a bad choice for the job - a square peg in a round hole.
|stab in the back||If someone stabs you in the back, they betray you by doing something harmful to you when you thought you could trust them.
His best friend stabbed him in the back by voting against him.
|at stake||Someone who has a lot at stake is in a risky situation, with a lot to be won or lost.
He was nervous about signing the agreement because there was a lot at stake.
|stand on ceremony||When people stand on ceremony, they behave in a very formal way.
We'd be delighted to come and see you but please don't stand on ceremony.
|stand on own two feet||If you stand on your own two feet, you are independent and need no help from anyone.
When young people leave home, they learn to stand on their own two feet.
|stand one's ground||If you stand your ground you maintain your position and refuse to yield or give way.
He claimed innocence and stood his ground in spite of the repeated accusations.
|stand in good stead||To say that a skill, an ability or previous experience will stand you in good stead means that it will be beneficial to you iin the future.
Being able to speak another language will stand you in good stead when looking for a job.
|stand the test of time||If something stands the test of time, people continue to find it valuable or useful after many years.
The teaching method has stood the test of time. It is still used in schools today.
|stand up for||When you defend or support a person, a belief or an idea, you stand up for them.
A growing number of citizens are standing up for the victims of discrimination.
|stark raving mad||To say that someone is stark raving mad means that they are completely crazy.
You're stark raving mad to go sailing in this weather.
|stars in one's eyes||If someone has stars in their eyes, they are looking extremely happy.
She had stars in her eyes when she saw the car she had won.
|starter marriage||A starter marriage is a short-lived first marriage that ends in divorce with no kids, no property and no regrets.|
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