Presidential Appointments to Full-Time Positions on Regulatory and Other Collegial Boards and Commissions, 111th Congress
Released: 2013-09-02T00:00:00

Introduction

This report provides an overview of the process for filling positions to which the President makes appointments with the advice and consent of the Senate (PAS positions). It also specifies, for the 111 th Congress (January 2009-January 2011), all nominations to full-time PAS positions on 33 regulatory and other collegial boards and commissions that have such positions (e.g., the Consumer Product Safety Commission, the Federal Reserve Board, and the Election Assistance Commission). A profile of each board and commission provides information on its organizational structure, membership as of the end of the 111 th Congress, and appointment activity during that Congress.

The Appointment Process for PAS Positions

High-ranking appointed leadership positions in the federal government are filled through a process that involves both the President and the Senate. The Constitution empowers the President to nominate and, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to appoint the principal officers of the United States, such as Secretaries and agency heads. Secondary leadership positions—those of so-called "inferior officers"—also may be filled in this manner, where so provided by Congress through law. The term "officer of the United States" encompasses "any appointee exercising significant authority pursuant to the laws of the United States."

Three distinct stages mark the appointment process: selection, clearance, and nomination by the President; consideration by the Senate; and appointment by the President.

Selection, Clearance, and Nomination4

In this stage, the White House selects and clears a candidate for a position before sending the formal nomination to the Senate. There are a number of steps in this stage of the process for most Senate-confirmed positions. First, with the assistance of, and preliminary vetting by, the White House Office of Presidential Personnel, the President selects a candidate for the position. Members of Congress and other interested parties have sometimes recommended candidates for specific positions. They have offered their suggestions by letter, for example, or by contact with a White House liaison. In general, the White House is under no obligation to follow such recommendations. Some have argued, however, that Senators are constitutionally entitled, by virtue of the advice and consent requirements of the appointments clause, to provide advice to the President regarding his selection. The scope of this entitlement is a matter of some debate. As a practical matter, in instances in which Senators have perceived that insufficient pre-nomination consultation has occurred, they have sometimes exercised their procedural prerogatives to delay or, effectively, block consideration of a nomination.

Most boards and commissions are required, by statute, to have a political balance among their members (i.e., no more than a simple majority may be from the same political party), so the White House has often negotiated over nominations to these positions with leaders of the opposition party in Congress. These negotiations involve questions not only of patronage but of policy, especially when the board or commission is involved in areas that, at the time, may be particularly sensitive. This has sometimes resulted in a packaging process in which the President has submitted several nominations together for positions on a particular board or commission, and the Senate has then considered and confirmed them as a group.

During the White House clearance process, candidates for nomination to the positions discussed in this report usually are required to prepare and submit several forms: the Public Financial Disclosure Report (Standard Form (SF) 278), the Questionnaire for National Security Positions (SF 86), the supplement to SF 86 (SF 86 Supplement), and sometimes a White House Personal Data Statement. The vetting process often includes a background investigation conducted by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), which prepares a report that is delivered to the White House. It also includes a review of financial disclosure materials by the Office of Government Ethics (OGE) and an ethics official for the agency to which the candidate is to be appointed. If conflicts are found during the financial disclosure process, OGE and the agency ethics officer may work with the candidate to mitigate the conflicts. At the completion of the vetting process, the nomination is ready to be submitted to the Senate.

The selection and clearance stage has often been the longest part of the appointment process. There have been, at times, lengthy delays, particularly when many candidates have been processed simultaneously, such as at the beginning of an Administration, or if conflicts needed to be resolved. Candidates for higher-level positions are often accorded priority in this process. In an effort to reduce the elapsed time between a new President's inauguration and the appointment of his or her national security team, provisions added in 2004 to the Presidential Transition Act of 1963 encourage Presidents-elect to submit, for security clearance, potential nominees to high-level national security positions as soon as possible after the election. A separate provision of law, enacted as part of the Federal Vacancies Reform Act of 1998, lengthens, during presidential transitions, the potential duration of a temporary appointment by 90 days. This provision does not apply to members of collegial boards and commissions, however.

Inasmuch as many board and commission members often serve across presidential terms and administrations, provisions intended to speed the appointment process during transitions might not do so for the positions listed in this report, as a whole. The chairmanships of these bodies often do turn over at these times, however.

A nominee has no legal authority to assume the duties and responsibilities of the position; the authority comes with Senate confirmation and presidential appointment. A nominee who is hired by the agency as a consultant while awaiting confirmation may serve only in an advisory capacity. If circumstances permit and conditions are met, the President may give the nominee a recess appointment to the position (see below). Recess appointments may have political consequences, however, particularly if Senators perceive that an appointment is an effort to circumvent their constitutional role. Some Senate-confirmed positions, such as many of those in the executive departments, may also be temporarily filled under the Federal Vacancies Reform Act of 1998. As just noted, however, positions on most boards and commissions are not covered by this act.

Senate Consideration

During the second stage, the Senate alone determines whether or not to confirm a nomination. The way the Senate acts on a nomination depends largely on the importance of the position involved, existing political circumstances, and policy implications. Generally, the Senate has shown particular interest in the nominee's views and how they are likely to affect public policy. Two other factors have sometimes affected the examination with which a nominee's personal and professional qualities are examined: whether or not the President's party controls the Senate and the degree to which the President becomes involved in supporting the nomination.

Much of the Senate confirmation process occurs at the committee level. Administratively, nominations are received by the Senate executive clerk, who arranges for the referral of the nominations to committee, according to the Senate rules and precedents. Committee nomination activity has generally included investigation, hearing, and reporting stages. As part of investigatory work, committees have drawn on information provided by the White House, as well as information they themselves have collected. Hearings provide a public forum to discuss a nomination and any issues related to the program or agency for which the nominee would be responsible. Even where confirmation has been thought by most to be a virtual certainty, hearings have provided Senators and the nominee with opportunities to go on the record with particular views or commitments. Senators have used hearings to explore nominees' qualifications, articulate policy perspectives, or raise related oversight issues. Some committees hold hearings on nearly all nominations that are referred to them; others hold hearings for only some.

A committee may decline to act on a nomination at any point—upon referral, after investigation, or after a hearing. If the committee votes to report a nomination to the full Senate, it has three options: it may report the nomination favorably, unfavorably, or without recommendation. A failure to obtain a majority on the motion to report means the nomination will not be reported to the Senate. If the committee declines to report a nomination, the Senate may, under certain circumstances, discharge the committee from further consideration of the nomination in order to bring it to the floor.

The Senate historically has confirmed most, but not all, executive nominations. Rarely, however, has a vote to confirm a nomination failed on the Senate floor. Usually, unsuccessful nominations fail to be reported or discharged from committee. Failure of a nomination to make it out of committee has occurred for a variety of reasons, including opposition to the nomination, inadequate amount of time for consideration of the nomination, or factors that may not be directly related to the merits of the nomination.

Senate rules provide that "[n]ominations neither confirmed nor rejected during the session at which they are made shall not be acted upon at any succeeding session without being again made to the Senate by the President." In practice, such pending nominations have been returned to the President at the end of the session or Congress. Pending nominations also may be returned automatically to the President at the beginning of a recess of more than 30 days, but the Senate rule providing for this return is often waived.

Appointment

In the final stage, the confirmed nominee is given a commission, which bears the Great Seal of the United States and is signed by the President, and is sworn into office. The President may sign the commission at any time after confirmation, at which point the appointment becomes official. Once the appointee is given the commission and sworn in, he or she has full authority to carry out the responsibilities of the office.

Recess Appointments

The Constitution also empowers the President to make limited-term appointments without Senate confirmation when the Senate is in recess. Such recess appointments expire at the end of the next full session of the Senate. Seven recess appointments were made to positions on regulatory or other collegial boards or commissions during the 111 th Congress.

Presidents have occasionally used the recess appointment power to circumvent the confirmation process. In response, Congress has enacted provisions that restrict the pay of recess appointees under certain circumstances. Because most prospective appointees to full-time positions cannot serve without a salary, the President has an incentive to use his recess appointment authority in ways that permit them to be paid. Under one such statute, if the position to which the President makes a recess appointment falls vacant while the Senate is in session, the recess appointee may not be paid from the Treasury until he or she is confirmed by the Senate. However, the salary prohibition does not apply if

(1) the vacancy arose within 30 days before the end of the session of the Senate;

(2) a nomination for the office, other than the nomination of an individual given a recess appointment during the preceding recess of the Senate, was pending when the Senate recessed; or

(3) if a nomination to the office was rejected by the Senate within 30 days of the end of the session and another individual was given the recess appointment.

A recess appointment falling under any one of these three exceptions must be followed by a nomination to the position not later than 40 days after the beginning of the next session of the Senate. For this reason, when a recess appointment is made, the President generally submits a new nomination for the appointee even when an earlier nomination is still pending. This statute has been interpreted by the Department of Justice to preclude payment of an appointee who is given successive recess appointments to the same position.

In addition, although a recess appointee whose nomination to a full term is subsequently rejected by the Senate may continue to serve until the end of his or her recess appointment, a provision of the FY2008 Financial Services and General Government Appropriations Act might prevent an appointee from being paid after his or her rejection.

From the 110 th Congress on, Congress has periodically used specific scheduling practices in an attempt to prevent the President from making recess appointments. The evolution of these practices, the President's response to them, and associated controversies are beyond the scope of this report. Detailed information may be found in other CRS reports. Notably, these practices were used only once during the 111 th Congress.

Characterization of Regulatory and Other Collegial Bodies

The boards and commissions discussed in this report share, among other characteristics, the following: (1) with the exception of one agency—the United States Sentencing Commission—they are executive branch bodies; (2) they are located, with four exceptions, outside executive departments; (3) several members head each entity, and at least one member serves full time; (4) the members are appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate; and (5) the members serve fixed terms of office, and, except in a few bodies, the President's power to remove them is restricted.

For most of the boards included in this report, the fixed terms of office for the member positions have set beginning and end dates, irrespective of whether the posts are filled or when appointments are made. The end dates of the fixed terms of a board's members are staggered, so that the terms do not expire all at once. The use of terms with fixed beginning and end dates is intended to minimize the occurrence of simultaneous board member departures and thereby increase leadership continuity.

Under such an arrangement, an individual is nominated to a particular position and a particular term of office. An individual may be nominated and confirmed for a position for the remainder of an unexpired term in order to replace an appointee who has resigned (or died). Alternatively, an individual might be nominated for an upcoming term with the expectation that the new term will be underway by the time of confirmation. Occasionally, where the unexpired term has been for a very short period, the President has submitted two nominations of the same person simultaneously—the first to complete the unexpired term and the second to complete the entire succeeding term of office.

On some commissions, the chair is subject to Senate confirmation and must be appointed from among the incumbent commissioners. If the President wishes to appoint, as chair, someone who is not on the commission, two nominations are submitted simultaneously for the nominee—one for member and the other for chair.

As independent entities with staggered membership, executive branch boards and commissions typically have more political independence from the President than do executive departments. Nonetheless, the President can sometimes exercise significant influence over the composition of the membership when he designates the chair or has the opportunity to fill a number of vacancies at once. For example, President George W. Bush had the opportunity to shape the Securities and Exchange Commission during the first two years of his presidency because of existing vacancies, resignations, and the death of a member. Likewise, during the same time period, President Bush was able to submit nominations for all of the positions on the National Labor Relations Board because of existing vacancies, expiring recess appointments, and resignations. Simultaneous turnover of board or commission membership may result from coincidence, but it may also be the result of a buildup of vacancies after extended periods during which the President fails to nominate, or the Senate fails to confirm, members. Even where the President has the opportunity to make appointments to all positions on a board, however, where statute or custom requires politically balanced membership, his ability to shape the board might be tempered.

Two other notable characteristics apply to appointments to some of the boards and commissions. First, for 25 of the boards and commissions in this report, the law limits the number of appointed members who may belong to the same political party, usually to no more than a simple majority of the appointed members (e.g., two of three, or three of five). Second, advice and consent requirements also apply to inspector general appointments in four of these organizations and general counsel appointments in three.

Appointments During the 111th Congress

During the 111 th Congress, President Barack Obama submitted nominations to the Senate for 77 of the 148 full-time positions on 33 regulatory and other boards and commissions. (Most of the remaining positions were not vacant during that time.) A total of 99 nominations were submitted for these positions, of which 76 were confirmed, 4 were withdrawn, and 19 were returned to the President. The number of nominations exceeded the number of positions being filled because the President submitted multiple nominations for some positions. In some cases, for example, the President submitted one nomination for the end of a term in progress and a second nomination of the same person to the same position for the succeeding term. In other cases, the President submitted a second nomination after his first choice failed to be confirmed. The President also submitted an "extra" nomination of the one individual to whom he had given a recess appointment in order to comply with a law affecting the payment of that appointee (see " Recess Appointments ," above). Table 1 summarizes the appointment activity for the 111 th Congress. At the end of the Congress, 24 incumbents were serving past the expiration of their terms. In addition, there were 10 vacancies among the 148 positions.

Length of Time to Confirm a Nomination

The length of time a given nomination may be pending in the Senate has varied widely. Some nominations have been confirmed within a few days; others have been confirmed within several months; and some have never been confirmed. In the board and commission profiles following this opening narrative, this report provides, for each board or commission nomination that was confirmed in the 111 th Congress, the number of days between nomination and confirmation ("days to confirm"). For those nominations that were confirmed, an average of 128.5 days elapsed between nomination and confirmation. The median number of days elapsed was 97.0. The difference between these two numbers suggests that the average was pulled upward by a small number of unusually high numbers.

The calculations of nomination-to-confirmation intervals provided in this report counted all the days within such intervals, including those during summer recesses and between sessions of the Senate. The inclusion of all days differs from the methodology used in CRS reports similar to this one that covered Congresses prior to the 110 th . In these earlier reports, days during August and intersession recesses were not included in calculations of nomination-to-confirmation intervals. These changes may reduce the comparability of statistics provided in this report with those provided in those earlier reports.

Organization of the Report

Board and Commission Profiles

Each of the 33 board or commission profiles following the narrative portion of this report is organized into three parts: a paragraph discussing the body's organizational structure, a table identifying its membership as of the end of the 111 th Congress, and a table listing nominations and appointments to its positions during the 111 th Congress. The organizational sections discuss the statutory requirements for the appointed positions, including the number of members on each board or commission, their terms of office, whether or not they may continue in their positions after their terms expire, whether or not political balance is required, and the method for selection of the chair.

Data on appointment actions during the 111 th Congress appear under both the sections entitled "Membership as of the End of the 111 th Congress" and those entitled "Appointment Action in the 111 th Congress." The former identify the agencies' positions requiring Senate confirmation and the incumbents in those positions as of that time. Incumbents whose terms have expired are italicized. Most of the incumbents serve fixed terms of office and are removable only for specified causes. They generally remain in office when a new administration assumes office following a presidential election. For those agencies requiring political balance among their members, the party affiliation of an incumbent is listed as Democrat (D), Republican (R), or Independent (I). The section also includes the pay levels of the positions. For presidentially appointed positions requiring Senate confirmation, the pay levels fall under the Executive Schedule, which ranges from level I, for Cabinet-level offices, to level V, for the lowest-ranked positions. Most of the chair positions are at level III, and most of the other positions are at level IV.

The "Appointment Action" section provides information about each nomination, in chronological order, including the name of the nominee, the position to which he or she was nominated, the date of submission, the date of confirmation (if any), and the number of days that elapsed between submission and confirmation. Actions other than confirmation (i.e., nominations rejected by the Senate, nominations returned to or withdrawn by the President, and recess appointments) are also noted. Occasionally, where a position was vacant and the unexpired term of office was to end within a number of weeks or months, two nominations for the same nominee were submitted: the first to complete the unexpired term, and the second for a full term following completion of the expired term. Also, where the President gave a recess appointment to a nominee for a position covered by this report while the nomination was awaiting Senate action, a second, follow-up nomination was submitted to comply with the requirements of 5 U.S.C. § 5503(b).

In tables that show more than one value in the "Days to confirm" column, the mean number of days to confirm a nomination is provided. This figure was determined by calculating the number of days between the nomination and confirmation dates, adding these numbers for all confirmed nominations, and dividing the result by the number of nominations confirmed. For tables in which one individual was confirmed more than once (to be a chair and a member, for example), the mean was calculated by averaging all values in the "Days to confirm" column, including the values for both confirmations.

Additional Appointment Information

Appendix A provides two tables. Table A-1 includes information on each of the nominations and appointments to regulatory and other collegial boards and commissions during the 111 th Congress, alphabetically organized, and following a similar format to that of the "Appointment Action" sections just discussed. It identifies the board or commission involved and the dates of nomination and confirmation. The appendix also indicates if a nomination was withdrawn, returned, or rejected, or if a recess appointment was made. The mean and median number of days taken to confirm a nomination are also provided.

Table A-2 provides summary information on appointments and nominations by organization. For each of the 33 independent boards and commissions discussed in this report, the appendix provides the number of positions, vacancies, incumbents whose term has expired, nominations, individual nominees, positions to which nominations were made, confirmations, nominations returned to the President, nominations withdrawn, and recess appointments.

A list of organization abbreviations can be found in Appendix B .

Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board (CSB)

The CSB is an independent agency consisting of five members (no political balance is required), including a chair, who serve five-year terms. The President appoints the members, including the chair, with the advice and consent of the Senate. When a term expires, the incumbent must leave office. (42 U.S.C. § 7412(r)(6))

Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC)

The CFTC consists of five members (no more than three may be from the same political party) who serve five-year terms. At the end of a term, a member may remain in office, unless replaced, until the end of the next session of Congress. The chair is also appointed by the President, with the advice and consent of the Senate. (7 U.S.C. § 2(a)(2))

Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC)

The statute establishing the CPSC calls for five members, who serve seven-year terms. No more than three of the members may be from the same political party. A member may remain in office for one year at the end of a term, unless replaced. The chair is also appointed by the President, with the advice and consent of the Senate. (15 U.S.C. § 2053)

Defense Nuclear Facilities Safety Board (DNFSB)

The DNFSB consists of five members (no more than three may be from the same political party), who serve five-year terms. After a term expires, a member may continue to serve until a successor takes office. The President designates the chair and vice chair. (42 U.S.C. § 2286)

Election Assistance Commission (EAC)

The EAC consists of four members (no more than two may be from the same political party), who serve four-year terms. After a term expires, a member may continue to serve until a successor takes office. The chair and vice chair, from different political parties and designated by the commission, change each year. (42 U.S.C. § 15323)

Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)

The EEOC consists of five members (no more than three may be from the same political party), who serve five-year terms. An incumbent whose term has expired may continue to serve until a successor is appointed, except that no such member may continue to serve (1) for more than 60 days when Congress is in session, unless a successor has been nominated; or (2) after the adjournment of the session of the Senate in which the successor's nomination was submitted. The President designates the chair and the vice chair. The President also appoints the general counsel, with the advice and consent of the Senate. (42 U.S.C. § 2000e-4)

Export-Import Bank Board of Directors (EXIMBANK)

The Export-Import Bank Board of Directors comprises the bank president, who serves as chair; the bank first vice president, who serves as vice chair; and three other members (no more than three of these five may be from the same political party). All five members are appointed by the President, with the advice and consent of the Senate, and serve for terms of up to four years. An incumbent whose term has expired may continue to serve until a successor is qualified, or until six months after the term expires—whichever occurs earlier (12 U.S.C. § 635a). The President also appoints an inspector general, with the advice and consent of the Senate. (5 U.S.C. App., Inspector General Act of 1978, § 3, 12)

Farm Credit Administration Board (FCA)

The FCA consists of three members (no more than two may be from the same political party), who serve six-year terms. A member may not succeed himself or herself unless he or she was first appointed to complete an unexpired term of three years or less. A member whose term expires may continue to serve until a successor takes office. One member is designated to serve as chair for the duration of the member's term. (12 U.S.C. § 2242)

Federal Communications Commission (FCC)

The FCC consists of five members (no more than three may be from the same political party), who serve five-year terms. When a term expires, a member may continue to serve until the end of the next session of Congress, unless a successor is appointed before that time. The President designates the chair. (47 U.S.C. § 154)

Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation Board of Directors (FDIC)

The FDIC board of directors consists of five members, of whom two—the comptroller of the currency and the director of the Office of Thrift Supervision (OTS)—are ex officio . The three appointed members serve six-year terms. An appointed member may continue to serve after the expiration of a term until a successor is appointed. Not more than three of the members of the board of directors may be from the same political party. The President appoints the chair and the vice chair, with the advice and consent of the Senate, from among the appointed members. The chair is appointed for a term of five years. (12 U.S.C. § 1812) The President also appoints the inspector general, with the advice and consent of the Senate. (5 U.S.C. App., Inspector General Act of 1978, §§ 3, 12)

Federal Election Commission (FEC)

The FEC consists of six members (no more than three may be from the same political party), who may serve for a single term of six years. When a term expires, a member may continue to serve until a successor takes office. The chair and vice chair, from different political parties and elected by the commission, change each year. Generally, the vice chair succeeds the chair. (2 U.S.C. § 437c)

Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC)

The FERC, an independent agency within the Department of Energy, consists of five members (no more than three may be from the same political party), who serve five-year terms. When a term expires, a member may continue to serve until a successor takes office, except that such commissioner may not serve beyond the end of the session of the Congress in which his or her term expires. The President designates the chair. (42 U.S.C. § 7171)

Federal Labor Relations Authority (FLRA)

The FLRA consists of three members (no more than two may be from the same political party), who serve five-year terms. After the date on which a five-year term would expire, a member may continue to serve until the end of the next Congress, unless a successor is appointed before that time. The President designates the chair. The general counsel is also appointed by the President, with the advice and consent of the Senate. (5 U.S.C. § 7104)

Federal Maritime Commission (FMC)

The FMC consists of five members (no more than three may be from the same political party), who serve five-year terms. When a term expires, a member may continue to serve until a successor takes office. The President designates the chair. (46 U.S.C. § 301)

Federal Mine Safety and Health Review Commission (FMSHRC)

The FMSHRC consists of five members (no political balance is required), who serve six-year terms. When a term expires, the member must leave office. The President designates the chair. (30 U.S.C. § 823)

Federal Reserve System Board of Governors (FRS)

The FRS consists of seven members (no political balance is required), who serve 14-year terms. When a term expires, a member may continue to serve until a successor takes office. The President appoints the chair and vice chair, who are separately appointed as members, for four-year terms, with the advice and consent of the Senate. (12 U.S.C. §§ 241, 242)

Federal Trade Commission (FTC)

The FTC consists of five members (no more than three may be from the same political party), who serve seven-year terms. When a term expires, the member may continue to serve until a successor takes office. The President designates the chair. (15 U.S.C. § 41)

Foreign Claims Settlement Commission (FCSC)

The FCSC, located in the Department of Justice, consists of three members (political balance is not required), who serve three-year terms. When a term expires, the member may continue to serve until a successor takes office. Only the chair, who also is appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate, serves full-time. (22 U.S.C. §§ 1622, 1622c)

Merit Systems Protection Board (MSPB)

The MSPB consists of three members (no more than two may be from the same political party), who serve seven-year terms. A member who has been appointed to a full seven-year term may not be reappointed to any following term. When a term expires, the member may continue to serve for one year, unless a successor is appointed before that time. The President appoints the chair, with the advice and consent of the Senate, and designates the vice chair. (5 U.S.C. §§ 1201-1203)

National Credit Union Administration Board of Directors (NCUA)

The NCUA consists of three members (no more than two members may be from the same political party), who serve six-year terms. When a term expires, a member may continue to serve until a successor takes office. The President designates the chair. (12 U.S.C. § 1752a)

National Labor Relations Board (NLRB)

The NLRB consists of five members, who serve five-year terms. Political balance is not required, but, by tradition, no more than three members are from the same political party. When a term expires, the member must leave office. The President designates the chair. The President also appoints the general counsel, with the advice and consent of the Senate. (29 U.S.C. § 153)

National Mediation Board (NMB)

The board consists of three members (no more than two may be from the same political party), who serve three-year terms. When a term expires, the member may continue to serve until a successor takes office. The board annually designates a chair. (45 U.S.C. § 154)

National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB)

The NTSB consists of five members (no more than three may be from the same political party), who serve five-year terms. When a term expires, a member may continue to serve until a successor takes office. The President appoints the chair, from among the members, for a two-year term, with the advice and consent of the Senate, and designates the vice chair. (49 U.S.C. § 1111)

Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)

The NRC consists of five members (no more than three may be from the same political party), who serve five-year terms. When a term expires, the member must leave office. The President designates the chair. The President also appoints the inspector general, with the advice and consent of the Senate. (42 U.S.C. § 5841 and 5 U.S.C. App., Inspector General Act of 1978, §§ 3, 12)

Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission (OSHRC)

The OSHRC consists of three members (political balance is not required), who serve six-year terms. When a term expires, the member must leave office. The President designates the chair. (29 U.S.C. § 661)

Postal Regulatory Commission (PRC)

The PRC consists of five members (no more than three may be from the same political party), who serve six-year terms. After a term expires, a member may continue to serve until his successor takes office, but the member may not continue to serve for more than one year after the date upon which his term otherwise would expire. The President designates the chair, and the members select the vice chair. (39 U.S.C. § 502)

Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board (PCLOB)

The board consists of five members (no more than three members of the board may be from the same political party), who serve six-year terms. When a term expires, the member may continue to serve until a successor takes office. Only the chair, who also is appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate, serves full-time. (42 U.S.C. § 2000ee)

The Implementing Recommendations of the 9/11 Commission Act of 2007, P.L. 110-53 , Title VIII, § 801 (121 Stat. 352) established the Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board as an independent agency, and the first new nominations to the board were made in the 110 th Congress. Previously the Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board had functioned as part of the White House Office in the Executive Office of the President. That board ceased functioning on January 30, 2008. As of the end of the 111 th Congress, the new board had not been constituted.

Railroad Retirement Board (RRB)

The board consists of three members (political balance is not required), who serve five-year terms. When a term expires, the member may continue to serve until a successor takes office. The President appoints the chair, and an inspector general, with the advice and consent of the Senate. (45 U.S.C. § 231f and 5 U.S.C. App., Inspector General Act of 1978, §§ 3, 12)

Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)

The commission consists of five members (no more than three may be from the same political party), who serve five-year terms. When a term expires, the member may continue to serve until the end of the next session of Congress, unless a successor is appointed before that time. The President designates the chair. (15 U.S.C. § 78d)

Surface Transportation Board (STB)

The STB, located within the Department of Transportation, consists of three members (no more than two may be from the same political party), who serve five-year terms. When a term expires, the member may continue to serve until a successor takes office, but not for more than one year after expiration. The President designates the chair. (49 U.S.C. § 701)

United States International Trade Commission (USITC)

The USITC consists of six members (no more than three may be from the same political party), who serve nine-year terms. A member of the commission who has served for more than five years is ineligible for reappointment. When a term expires, a member may continue to serve until a successor takes office. The President designates the chair and vice chair for two-year terms of office, but they may not belong to the same political party. The President may not designate a chair with less than one year of continuous service as a member. This restriction does not apply to the vice chair. (19 U.S.C. § 1330)

United States Parole Commission (USPC)

The USPC is an independent agency in the Department of Justice. The commission consists of five commissioners (political balance is not required), who serve for six-year terms. When a term expires, a member may continue to serve until a successor takes office. In most cases, a commissioner may serve no more than 12 years. However, Section 11017(c) of P.L. 110-273 , enacted on November 2, 2002, provides that this limitation does not "apply to a person serving as Commissioner" when the act took effect. The President designates the chair (18 U.S.C. § 4202). The commission was previously scheduled to be phased out, but its life has been extended several times by Congress. Under P.L. 110-312 , § 2 (122 Stat. 3013), it was extended until November 2011. Under P.L. 112-44 , §2 (125 Stat. 533), it was extended to November 2013. (18 U.S.C. § 3551)

United States Sentencing Commission (USSC)

The USSC is a judicial branch agency that consists of seven voting members, who are appointed to six-year terms, and two non-voting members. The seven voting members are appointed by the President, with the advice and consent of the Senate. Only the chair and three vice chairs, selected from among the members, serve full-time. The President appoints the chair, with the advice and consent of the Senate, and designates the vice chairs. At least three members must be federal judges. Not more than four members may be of the same political party. No more than two vice chairs may be of the same political party. No voting member may serve more than two full terms. When a term expires, an incumbent may continue to serve until he or she is reappointed, a successor takes office, or Congress adjourns sine die at the end of the session that commences after the expiration of the term, whichever is earliest. The Attorney General (or designee) serves ex officio as a non-voting member. (28 U.S.C. § 991-992) The chair of the United State Parole Commission is also an ex officio non-voting member of the commission. (18 U.S.C. § 3551 note)

Appendix A. Summary of All Nominations and Appointments to Collegial Boards and Commissions

Appendix B. Board/Commission Abbreviations