Data Act: OMB Needs to Formalize Data Governance for Reporting Federal Spending
Released: 2019-03-22T00:00:00

Letter

Background

Signed into law on May 9, 2014, the DATA Act expands on previous federal transparency legislation. It requires federal agency expenditures to be disclosed and agency spending information to be linked to federal program activities so that policymakers and the public can more effectively track federal spending. The DATA Act also requires government-wide reporting on a greater variety of data related to federal spending, such as budget and financial information, as well as tracking these data at multiple points in the federal spending life cycle.

To accomplish these goals, among others, the act gives OMB and Treasury responsibility for establishing government-wide financial data standards for any federal funds made available to or expended by federal agencies. These standards specify the data to be reported under the DATA Act and define and describe what is to be included in each data element with the aim of ensuring that information reported will be consistent and comparable. As Treasury and OMB implemented the DATA Act’s requirement to create and apply data standards, the overall data standardization effort has been divided into two distinct, but related, components: (1) establishing definitions which describe what is included in each data element with the aim of ensuring that information will be consistent and comparable, and (2) creating a data exchange standard with technical specifications which describe the format, structure, tagging, and transmission of each data element.

In the implementation of the DATA Act, OMB took principal responsibility for the definitions, while Treasury took principal responsibility for the technical standards that express these definitions, which federal agencies use to report spending data for publication on USAspending.gov. The act also holds agencies accountable for submitting complete and accurate data to USAspending.gov and requires that agency-reported award and financial information comply with the data standards established by OMB and Treasury.

The Importance of Data Governance for Ensuring Data Quality

One of the purposes of the DATA Act is to establish government-wide data standards to provide consistent, reliable, and searchable spending data that are displayed accurately for taxpayers and policymakers on USAspending.gov (or a successor website). As we have reported previously, establishing a data governance structure—an institutionalized set of policies and procedures for providing data governance throughout the life cycle of developing and implementing data standards—is critical for ensuring that the integrity of the standards is maintained over time. The need for a data governance structure is underscored by our previous analyses of the quality of the federal spending data available on USAspending.gov and inconsistencies we identified in how agencies report data according to data standards. A data governance structure could be useful for adjudicating revisions, monitoring, and ensuring compliance with the standards over time. As we have noted, such a structure, if properly implemented, would greatly increase the likelihood that the data made available to the public will be accurate.

A data governance structure can also provide consistent data management during times of change and transition. We have previously reported that gaps in leadership can occur as administrations change. This can impair the effectiveness and efficiency of complex government- wide efforts, potentially resulting in delays and missed deadlines.

Accordingly, in 2015, we recommended that OMB, in collaboration with Treasury, establish a set of clear policies and processes for developing and maintaining data standards that are consistent with leading practices. OMB and Treasury did not comment on our recommendation. We plan to conduct work intended to help inform OMB’s and Treasury’s efforts. This work may include the development of a maturity model that could provide a framework for assessing data governance activities related to federal spending data. This work may also have broader government-wide implications as agencies begin implementing the requirements of the Foundations for Evidence-Based Policymaking Act enacted on January 14, 2019, including designating Chief Data Officers with data governance and implementation responsibilities.

Although Some Governance Procedures Are in Place, a Formal Structure for Governing Data Standards Continues to Evolve

Roles of Data Governance Interagency Advisory Groups Have Shifted During DATA Act Implementation

In December 2018, OMB staff told us that they are transitioning from the governance structure used for initial DATA Act implementation to a new structure for managing data standards within the broader context of efforts to establish a federal data strategy. According to OMB staff, the initial data governance structure reflected OMB’s and Treasury’s focus on creating the design and build functions required to meet the statutory requirements of the DATA Act.

The President’s Management Agenda (PMA), released in March 2018, outlines a long-term vision for modernizing federal operations. To address the issues outlined in the PMA, the administration established a number of cross-agency priority (CAP) goals. These goals, required by the GPRA Modernization Act of 2010, are to address issues in a limited number of policy areas requiring action across multiple agencies, or management improvements that are needed across the government. According to OMB staff, several of the 2018 goals relate to data standardization, and a new governance structure is needed to achieve those goals.

OMB staff informed us in July 2018 that the governance structure used for initial implementation efforts, which included the DATA Act Interagency Advisory Committee and Data Standards Committee, had been disbanded, and that the advisory roles of these groups were assumed by the Chief Financial Officers Council’s DATA Act Working Group (CFOC Working Group). According to OMB staff, the working group includes four subgroups, which focus on Policy, Internal Controls and Data Quality, Audit Coordination, and the DATA Act Information Model Schema (DAIMS), respectively.

OMB staff also told us that by December 2018 an interagency board and council, both led by the General Services Administration (GSA), had begun to advise OMB on policy matters. According to an action plan that OMB and GSA released along with the March 2018 PMA, the new interagency Shared Solutions Governance Board (SSGB) and Business Standards Council (BSC) are responsible for setting goals and providing advice to promote a government-wide marketplace for shared services. Specifically, they cover mission-support services such as human resources and financial management that a small number of providers offer to many agencies. According to OMB staff, this oversight function involves creating and administering government-wide data standards, including data standards established to support the DATA Act. The SSGB includes executives from across the federal government and is responsible for making recommendations to OMB on shared services policy. The BSC provides expertise on various subject matter areas (e.g., procurement and financial assistance) to promote the development of common business capabilities and data standards.

The action plan does not discuss how the functions carried out by the SSGB and BSC apply specifically to the data standards established under the DATA Act. In commenting on a draft of this report, OMB staff told us that the “Governance Ecosystem” page on the website of Unified Shared Services Management (USSM) describes the SSGB and links functions of the SSGB and BSC to the DATA Act. They said it does this by showing that OMB and Treasury have key roles in all three entities. However, this common membership does not, in itself, provide the transparency and clarity of documented policies and procedures for governing DATA Act standards.

Treasury officials said that the CFOC Working Group is involved in aligning DATA Act data standards across various functional communities, including procurement and financial assistance. Further, the group is considering making recommendations to OMB regarding changes to data definitions and other policy matters. For example, Treasury officials told us that in fall 2018, the DAIMS Subgroup identified difficulties in aligning different definitions of Period of Performance Start Date used for procurement and in financial assistance awards, and plans to elevate this issue to the Policy Subgroup for review. Specifically, the DAIMS Subgroup found that it is not always clear whether the start date should be reported as the date when a specific transaction occurred or the date when the original underlying award was made. This choice about how to interpret the data element can have substantial consequences for the consistency of the data reported. For example, in some cases, the underlying awards for recent transactions were made in the 1960s or 1970s.

According to OMB staff and Treasury officials, at the center of this shifting array of advisory bodies, the DATA Act Executive Steering Committee (ESC) has continued to meet regularly and to serve as the top-level governance body for DATA Act implementation. OMB staff told us that the ESC is chiefly responsible for setting government-wide policy for the data standards based on the recommendations from various advisory bodies. In addition to the ESC, Treasury has continued to maintain and update the DAIMS and DATA Act Broker, following a set of change control procedures that involve consultation with stakeholders and public release of information about updates.

OMB and Treasury Have Instituted Some Data Governance Activities but Have Not Established a Set of Clear Policies and Processes

Although OMB has taken some steps to address our recommendation, efforts are still needed to establish a clear set of policies and procedures for governing the data standards established under the act. The key practices for data governance that we identified in our previous work are shown in table 1. In the specific context of the DATA Act standards, Treasury and OMB have taken steps to enforce the use of data standards by directing agencies to develop and maintain data quality plans and requiring agencies to submit data through the DATA Act Broker. The broker performs validations to improve data quality and ensure the consistent application of data standards. However, because the approach to governing DATA Act data standards has continued to evolve during the past few years, and because a set of data governance policies and procedures is not documented, we were unable to conduct a comprehensive assessment of OMB’s and Treasury’s data governance efforts against leading practices.

While some data governance activities have been undertaken within the specific context of DATA Act data standards, others are part of broader efforts under the PMA. In July 2018, OMB staff told us that governance over the DATA Act data standards would be accomplished within the broader context of the CAP goals established under the PMA. For example, OMB established a governance structure to achieve the objectives of CAP goals related to “Results-Oriented Accountability for Grants.” As part of this broader effort to standardize grants management business processes and data to increase efficiency and reduce reporting burden, OMB, the Department of Health and Human Services, and other federal agencies have published a list of draft grants management data standards for public comment.

However, published documents describing this effort do not explain how the process for developing grants management standards under this CAP goal would apply specifically to the data standards established under the DATA Act. Nor do they address if or how these new standards align with those established under the act. Further, none of the documentation on the PMA’s governance structure for grants management mentions the DATA Act. In commenting on a draft of this report, OMB staff told us that the staff members from OMB and Treasury who are responsible for the grants management standards are the same people involved in managing the DATA Act standards. While this connection between the two efforts may provide adequate communication in the short term, staffing is likely to change over time, and there is no assurance that the same people will always be involved. As we have reported previously, having documented policies in place that delineate clear roles and responsibilities for decision-making could help to ensure continuity into the future. As the Comptroller General testified in 2015, in the absence of a clear set of institutionalized policies and processes for developing standards and for adjudicating necessary changes, the ability to sustain progress and maintain the integrity of established data standards may be jeopardized as priorities and data standards shift over time.

OMB Does Not Have Procedures for Updating Data Definition Standards

OMB Has Not Established Procedures for Making Decisions about Changes to Existing Data Definitions

Managing and controlling changes to data standards is a key activity for data standardization and effective data governance. The DATA Act requires OMB and Treasury, in consultation with the heads of federal agencies, to establish government-wide financial data standards that include common data elements for financial and payment information required to be reported by federal agencies and entities receiving federal funds. Among other requirements, these standards, to the extent reasonable and practicable, must be capable of being continually upgraded as necessary. According to key practices for data governance that we identified in our previous work, organizations should have documented policies and procedures for making decisions about changes to existing data standards.

In June 2018, OMB staff changed certain data definitions in the publicly accessible website that serves as the official repository for the data definitions. However, OMB does not have a documented procedure for updating or making changes to these definitions. In commenting on a draft of this report, OMB staff stated that the DATA Act Information Model Schema (DAIMS) change control procedures were the method for updating data standards. However, OMB’s website for data definitions is maintained separately from the DAIMS, and the DAIMS procedures only address changes to the DAIMS, and do not address this separate repository of data definition standards.

OMB staff said that the June 2018 revisions were made in response to the findings of our November 2017 report. Specifically, OMB revised the Primary Place of Performance Address definition to no longer include a street address or county. OMB amended the definition of Record Type to clarify that it applies to financial assistance awards only. As shown in figure 1, OMB also amended the explanatory text preceding the definitions to revise and clarify its policy regarding agencies’ use of data definitions. OMB staff described the changes to definitions as minor technical corrections to align with the reporting instructions in the DAIMS.

In December 2018, OMB staff informed us that OMB’s procedure for making changes to the data definitions it maintains in the official repository can be found on the “Governance Ecosystem” page of the website of Unified Shared Services Management (USSM). However, our review of that page in January 2019, including the links it provides to other pages, found no evidence that the website provides any documentation related to the DATA Act. In particular, we found no evidence of a documented procedure for making changes to the data definitions in OMB’s official repository. The staff were unable to provide documentation to show that any standard procedure was followed in making the June 2018 changes, or that the DATA Act Executive Steering Committee approved the changes. As discussed earlier in this report, that committee is the top-level governing body for DATA Act implementation and is responsible for approving changes to data standards.

The evolution of OMB’s approach to developing a governance structure to maintain the integrity of the DATA Act data standards could in part explain the lack of a documented procedure for updating the definitions. As discussed above, OMB has created and disbanded various advisory bodies for DATA Act data standards and has only recently decided on an approach for formalizing governance over the standards, namely the decision to integrate governance of these standards with the governance processes administered by the SSGB. In 2015, we reported that establishing a formal framework for providing data governance throughout the life cycle of developing and implementing these standards is critical for ensuring that the integrity of the standards is maintained over time.

Without established written procedures for making revisions to data definitions, needed changes may not be made in a timely manner, which could impair data quality. For example, if the definitions in the DATA Act official repository and definitions in other sources are not aligned, then agency staff responsible for DATA Act compliance and reporting may make inconsistent choices about which definitions to apply when creating and submitting data. As we have previously reported, the current data governance structure did not prevent inconsistencies between the DAIMS and the official repository for data definitions.

OMB Revised Data Definition Standards without Transparently Communicating the Changes to Stakeholders

Changes to data standards for federal spending data should be transparently communicated to stakeholders, including the public. The DATA Act requires OMB and Treasury to consult with public and private stakeholders in establishing data standards. In addition, according to key practices for data governance that we identified in 2016, organizations should have documented policies and procedures for managing, controlling, monitoring, and enforcing consistent application of data standards and for obtaining input from stakeholders and involving them in key decisions, as appropriate. Standards for internal control in the federal government state that management should externally communicate the necessary quality information to achieve the entity’s objectives. These objectives can include those relating to the release of reliable information in accordance with appropriate standards, applicable laws and regulations, and expectations of stakeholders. In the context of standards for transparently reporting federal spending data, stakeholders include the general public as well as staff at federal agencies.

OMB did not transparently communicate the June 2018 revisions. OMB staff said that the changes were communicated in OMB Memorandum M- 18-16, which was issued on June 6, 2018. As shown in figure 2, a footnote in that memorandum contains a link to the official web page for OMB’s Office of Federal Financial Management. That page includes a link, labeled “DATA Act Data Standards,” to the public MAX.gov page that serves as the official repository for the data definition standards. However, neither this footnote nor other text in the memorandum makes reference to changes made to the definitions and policy. As of March 18, 2019, the official repository did not indicate that any changes have been made since the initial creation of the definitions in 2015.

OMB did not provide documentation showing that the revisions were communicated to the public or to specific categories of stakeholders, such as users of the data standards within the federal government. As described below, the procedures that Treasury has implemented for managing changes to technical guidance, including publishing revision histories for guidance documents, represent one potentially effective approach to informing stakeholders, including the public, about changes to data standards.

OMB staff viewed the revisions made in June 2018 as minor technical corrections that were needed to align the definitions with other OMB policies and with the consensus view of stakeholders at the time the data standards were first established. Consequently, they did not believe it was necessary to communicate these revisions publicly or indicate in the official repository that changes had been made. However, these revisions required significant changes in some federal agencies’ use of data definitions. As we reported in November 2017, some agencies applied DATA Act definitions directly when generating data to be reported to USAspending.gov. The new explanatory text added to the data definition repository instructs agencies not to apply these definitions directly, but instead to apply the more detailed definitions contained in regulations and policies governing the making and management of awards.

Without transparent communication of changes to data definition standards, stakeholders—including staff at federal agencies required to report data according to these definitions—may miss important information relating to changes in how, when, and by whom data definitions are to be applied. The staff may then report data that are not consistent and comparable across the federal government. Such inconsistent reporting can undermine the transparency goals of the DATA Act, particularly when it affects key data elements, such as those describing geographical information. For example, we found in November 2017 that inconsistent data were reported about the locations where the federal government spends money, because some agencies used OMB’s DATA Act definition of the Primary Place of Performance data element, while other agencies used definitions from other sources, such as the data dictionary for the Federal Procurement Data System – Next Generation (FPDS-NG). In addition, a revision history showing when clarifications of policy and corrections to data standards were made could assist users of federal spending data, including historical data, in interpreting those data and assessing their reliability and quality.

Treasury Has Procedures in Place for Communicating with Stakeholders Regarding Changes to Technical Guidance

Treasury has established procedures for consulting with and informing stakeholders, including the public, about changes to technical guidance and reporting processes. Treasury’s stakeholder engagement process includes regular review of and revisions to its technical guidance. Before revisions to guidance are put into effect, Treasury staff circulate proposed changes through an email list that any member of the public can subscribe to, discuss these changes at frequent meetings with federal agency staff responsible for DATA Act reporting, and provide opportunities for agencies to test reporting under the new rules and provide feedback from this testing to Treasury. In addition, the guidance documents provide logs of all changes that have been made since the documents were created.

According to Treasury staff, the most important tools for ensuring that agencies report consistent and comparable data are the DATA Act Information Model Schema (DAIMS) and the DATA Act Broker. Treasury’s documentation states that the DAIMS is “the data standard of the DATA Act” and contains standardized data elements that are complete and reflect the requirements of the act. The DAIMS includes reporting guidance that provides agencies with a complete listing of data elements they must report as well as a complete listing of data elements that will be extracted from government-wide systems, such as FPDS-NG. The DAIMS also includes a validation rules document that describes the business rules employed by the DATA Act Broker, which is Treasury’s system for collecting and validating agency data. Treasury provides federal agencies with detailed procedures for submitting DATA Act data to the broker.

Before making changes to the DAIMS and DATA Act Broker, Treasury provides stakeholders with information about the planned changes and an opportunity to comment on them. For example, in June 2018, Treasury released DAIMS 1.3, an updated version of the DAIMS to be implemented during fiscal year 2019. Before releasing the final version of DAIMS 1.3, on June 29, 2018, Treasury shared its plans for the release with stakeholders through the Chief Financial Officers Council’s DATA Act Working Group (CFOC Working Group) and office hours calls. Treasury also transmitted a notice of proposed changes to federal agencies, collected comments from agencies during a designated comment period, and included responses to these comments in the final version of the release. Before implementing any of the changes in DAIMS 1.3 in the DATA Act Broker, Treasury provided agencies with a testing environment that allowed agency staff to identify any issues with the changes before those changes were applied to data published on USAspending.gov.

Treasury’s documentation for the public and for federal agencies includes detailed information about the history of changes to the DAIMS. Each of the DAIMS guidance documents includes a change log that shows revisions made since the document was first created. The detailed information Treasury provides about changes to technical guidance can promote data quality and transparency by ensuring that federal staff are aware of reporting requirements, and that users of the data understand how those data are created and reported.

Conclusions

Since 2014, OMB and Treasury have made significant strides to address the DATA Act’s requirements for standardization of federal spending data. As they move forward, appropriately and effectively managing changes to data standards will be critical to ensuring the quality and comparability of the data across the federal government. Treasury has instituted regular procedures for making changes to technical data standards, including procedures for consulting with stakeholders and for recording and communicating changes.

OMB has taken responsibility for maintaining an official list of data definition standards separate from the technical data standards maintained by Treasury. However, OMB lacks comparable procedures for maintaining these data definition standards. OMB made changes to some of the definitions and clarified policies about how they are to be applied, but did not communicate those changes to stakeholders, including the public. Definitions of data elements and policies about how those definitions are to be applied are a key component of the management of federal spending data under the DATA Act.

Although OMB has completed the task of creating an initial set of definitions, it has not formally and explicitly documented a consistent approach for maintaining the integrity of the data definition standards over time as we previously recommended. Until OMB establishes procedures to ensure that changes are controlled, it will continue to be a challenge to apply and interpret these definitions consistently, presenting risks to data quality. In addition, clearly identifying the changes that have already been made in the official repository could aid agency officials in reporting data and users in understanding the context in which past data have been reported. These actions would be important steps toward improving control over the data standards, creating an effective governance structure, and ultimately improving the consistency and quality of federal spending data.

Recommendations for Executive Action

We are making two recommendations to the Office of Management and Budget: The Director of OMB should clarify and document OMB’s procedure for changing official data definition standards for DATA Act reporting, for example, by explicitly describing how change procedures developed for other government-wide initiatives apply to DATA Act definition standards in a public source of guidance or information. (Recommendation 1)

The Director of OMB should ensure that the June 2018 policy changes regarding DATA Act data definition standards are clearly identified and explained in the official repository or another authoritative public source of DATA Act standards and guidance, such as by including a revision history along with the current version of the definitions. (Recommendation 2)

Agency Comments and Our Evaluation

We provided a draft of this report to OMB and Treasury for review and comment. OMB neither agreed nor disagreed with our recommendations, and OMB staff from the Office of Federal Financial Management provided oral comments, which are summarized below and incorporated as appropriate in the report. Treasury informed us that they had no comments on the draft report.

In their oral comments, OMB staff stated that on the whole, the report correctly described the complex ecosystem of governance over data standards for federal spending data. However, OMB staff stated that in certain places the report did not fully capture the extent of OMB’s actions related to data governance for the DATA Act data standards.

According to OMB staff, the Shared Solutions Governance Board (SSGB), under OMB’s direction, plays an important role in governing DATA Act data standards. OMB staff said that this relationship exists because the same agencies and staff participate in both the SSGB and the governance of the DATA Act data standards.

In addition, OMB staff confirmed that descriptions of the specific roles and responsibilities of the SSGB, CFOC Working Group, and the Treasury office that manages the DAIMS have not been documented. OMB staff said that many of the same agency personnel participate in all of these groups, and therefore work closely together on a regular basis. OMB staff stated that this close involvement results in effective communication and a consistent approach to governance, and ensures an understanding of the procedures for changing data standards even though those procedures are not formally documented.

We acknowledge OMB’s assertion that the various groups for creating and administering government-wide data standards (including data standards established to support the DATA Act) share many of the same staff. However, OMB’s approach relies on the continued participation of the same staff in order to maintain continuity rather than relying on documented policies, procedures, roles, and responsibilities for data governance functions. A key benefit of having a robust, institutionalized data governance structure is to provide consistent data management during times of change and transition, such as during staffing transitions or administration changes. It is important for OMB to clearly delineate roles and responsibilities so stakeholders understand how governance of the DATA Act standards is accomplished within the broader context of the PMA and other efforts.

OMB staff also said they have communicated all changes to DATA Act data standards that have been made since the standards were created. OMB staff told us that the DAIMS is the official data standard for DATA Act reporting and, as such, includes logs that record all changes to the standards. According to OMB staff, OMB updated its public data standards web page on www.max.gov in June 2018 to fix an error and ensure that the page matched the DAIMS. Staff stated their belief that such a correction did not represent an actual change to a data standard and therefore did not need to be recorded in the DAIMS change log or communicated publicly.

However, guidance issued in June 2018, OMB Memorandum M-18-16, identifies the MAX.gov web page as the official repository of the data standards. Specifically, the guidance directs agencies to report data in accordance with the standards maintained by OMB and Treasury pursuant to FFATA, as amended by the DATA Act, and provides a link to the OFFM website’s listing of data standards definitions. If OMB chose to identify the DAIMS—instead of the MAX.gov page—as the official source of data standards, then the issue about changes not being identified on the MAX.gov page would not be important. Although OMB made conforming changes based on our input to align the definition of Primary Place of Performance on the MAX.gov web page, having clearly documented procedures for making changes to the data standards and for ensuring that changes are communicated widely is important for ensuring the consistent and comparable reporting envisioned under the act.

Additionally, in June 2018, OMB made an important change to the explanatory text that precedes these official data definitions as posted on the MAX.gov website, clarifying OMB’s policy regarding the use of the DATA Act data definitions. OMB staff acknowledged that that this clarification could have been publicized more effectively, which is why we continue to believe that our second recommendation—to include a revision history along with the current version of the DATA Act data definitions—remains valid.

We are sending copies of this report to the Secretary of the Treasury and the Acting Director of OMB, as well as interested congressional committees and other interested parties. This report will be available at no charge on our website at http://www.gao.gov.

If you or your staff have any questions about this report, please contact Michelle Sager at 202-512-6806 or SagerM@gao.gov. Contact points for our Offices of Congressional Relations and Public Affairs may be found on the last page of our report. Key contributors to this report are listed in appendix III.

Appendix I: Interagency Groups Responsible for DATA Act Governance

Appendix I: Interagency Groups Responsible for DATA Act Governance GitHub is a web-based software repository hosting service. The Federal Spending Transparency website can be found at: http://fedspendingtransparency.github.io/. JIRA is an online software development tool that Treasury uses to provide responses to stakeholder questions and comments related to the development of the broker.

Appendix II: Status of Open GAO Recommendations Related to the DATA Act

Appendix III: GAO Contact and Staff Acknowledgments

GAO Contact

Staff Acknowledgments

In addition to the contact named above, Peter Del Toro, Assistant Director, and Kathleen M. Drennan, Analyst-in-Charge, supervised the development of this report. Theodore Alexander and Sherrice Kerns made major contributions to this report. Also contributing to this report in their areas of expertise were David M. Ballard, Ann Czapiewski, Jenny Chanley, Robert Gebhart, Michael LaForge, Carl Ramirez, Andrew J. Stephens, and James Sweetman, Jr.

Related GAO Products

Open Data: Treasury Could Better Align USAspending.gov with Key Practices and Search Requirements. GAO-19-72. Washington, D.C.: December 13, 2018.

DATA Act: Reported Quality of Agencies’ Spending Data Reviewed by OIGs Varied Because of Government-wide and Agency Issues. GAO-18-546. Washington, D.C.: July 23, 2018.

DATA Act: OMB, Treasury, and Agencies Need to Improve Completeness and Accuracy of Spending Data and Disclose Limitations. GAO-18-138. Washington, D.C.: November 8, 2017.

DATA Act: As Reporting Deadline Nears, Challenges Remain That Will Affect Data Quality. GAO-17-496. Washington, D.C.: April 28, 2017.

DATA Act: Office of Inspector General Reports Help Identify Agencies’ Implementation Challenges. GAO-17-460. Washington, D.C.: April 26, 2017.

DATA Act: Implementation Progresses but Challenges Remain. GAO-17-282T. Washington, D.C.: December 8, 2016.

DATA Act: OMB and Treasury Have Issued Additional Guidance and Have Improved Pilot Design but Implementation Challenges Remain. GAO-17-156. Washington, D.C.: December 8, 2016.

DATA Act: Initial Observations on Technical Implementation. GAO-16-824R. Washington, D.C.: August 3, 2016.

DATA Act: Improvements Needed in Reviewing Agency Implementation Plans and Monitoring Progress. GAO-16-698. Washington, D.C.: July 29, 2016.

DATA Act: Section 5 Pilot Design Issues Need to Be Addressed to Meet Goal of Reducing Recipient Reporting Burden. GAO-16-438. Washington, D.C.: April 19, 2016.

DATA Act: Progress Made but Significant Challenges Must Be Addressed to Ensure Full and Effective Implementation. GAO-16-556T. Washington, D.C.: April 19, 2016.

DATA Act: Data Standards Established, but More Complete and Timely Guidance Is Needed to Ensure Effective Implementation. GAO-16-261. Washington, D.C.: January 29, 2016.

DATA Act: Progress Made in Initial Implementation but Challenges Must Be Addressed as Efforts Proceed. GAO-15-752T. Washington, D.C.: July 29, 2015.

Federal Data Transparency: Effective Implementation of the DATA Act Would Help Address Government-wide Management Challenges and Improve Oversight. GAO-15-241T. Washington, D.C.: December 3, 2014.

Government Efficiency and Effectiveness: Inconsistent Definitions and Information Limit the Usefulness of Federal Program Inventories. GAO-15-83. Washington, D.C.: October 31, 2014.

Data Transparency: Oversight Needed to Address Underreporting and Inconsistencies on Federal Award Website. GAO-14-476. Washington, D.C.: June 30, 2014.

Federal Data Transparency: Opportunities Remain to Incorporate Lessons Learned as Availability of Spending Data Increases. GAO-13-758. Washington, D.C.: September 12, 2013.

Government Transparency: Efforts to Improve Information on Federal Spending. GAO-12-913T. Washington, D.C.: July 18, 2012.

Electronic Government: Implementation of the Federal Funding Accountability and Transparency Act of 2006. GAO-10-365. Washington, D.C.: March 12, 2010.