Environmental Protection: Information on Federal Agencies' Expenditures and Coordination Related to Harmful Algae
Released: 2016-10-14T00:00:00

Letter

Background

Algae are natural components of marine and freshwater flora, performing many roles that are vital for the health of ecosystems. Most algae are not harmful, and the proliferation of algae generally provides the energy source to fuel food webs. However, when certain conditions are favorable, algae can rapidly multiply, causing “blooms” and increasing the risk of toxin contamination of water. When algae bloom in significant numbers and produce toxic or harmful effects, such events are termed HABs. The risk is especially great for blooms caused by some species of cyanobacteria, historically known as blue-green algae, which typically occur in freshwater but may also appear in marine environments. Cyanobacterial HABs are of special concern because of their potential impacts on drinking and recreational waters. Toxins produced by cyanobacteria (cyanotoxins) can cause allergic and respiratory issues, attack the liver and kidneys, or affect the nervous system in mammals, including humans. Cyanobacterial HABs can also cause detrimental effects on aquatic ecosystems. High biomass blooms, whether of toxic or nontoxic species, can accumulate as thick scums and mats, which decompose, causing excessive oxygen consumption—which, in turn, leads to an increased mortality rate in local fish, shellfish, invertebrate, and plant populations because of hypoxia. Cyanobacterial HABs may also adversely affect some types of flora and fauna because they cause decreased light penetration. Figure 1 shows a satellite image of the then- record-setting cyanobacterial HAB in Lake Erie in September 2011 (an even larger Lake Erie HAB set a new algal biomass record in 2015), overlaid on a map of the lake’s tributaries. This image shows the algal bloom (in green) covering the entire western basin and beginning to expand into the central basin of Lake Erie, where it continued to grow until October 2011.

Marine HABs and Health Impacts

Coastal waters of the United States are subject to most of the major HAB impacts and poisoning syndromes. Marine HAB impacts on animals and plant life include fish kills, shellfish mortalities, widespread marine mammal mortalities, and loss of submerged vegetation. Specifically, some types of harmful algae produce potent toxins that cause illness or death in humans and marine organisms—fish, seabirds, manatees, sea lions, turtles, and dolphins are some commonly affected animals. Other types of harmful algae are nontoxic to humans but cause harm to fish and invertebrates by damaging or clogging their gills or by forming such large blooms that the death, and subsequent decay, of the algae lead to hypoxia in the bottom waters of marine environments, forcing animals to either leave the area or die. Birds can also get sick by eating algae, drinking contaminated water, or eating contaminated fish or shellfish.

Exposure to marine HAB toxins can occur through direct contact by swimming (dermal exposure); breathing in aerosolized toxins (toxins in water turned into tiny airborne droplets or mist); or eating toxin- contaminated seafood, including shellfish and finfish. Impacts on human health through contaminated seafood include amnesic shellfish poisoning, ciguatera fish poisoning, diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, neurotoxic shellfish poisoning, and paralytic shellfish poisoning—illnesses that have been reported in the United States. Two major groups of marine algae— diatoms and dinoflagellates—produce HAB toxins that cause these syndromes. According to NOAA’s website, the toxins that cause these syndromes have been found in U.S. marine waters, and these syndromes have adverse human health impacts, as follows:

Amnesic shellfish poisoning, which is caused by several species of Pseudo-nitzschia that produce the toxin domoic acid, produces gastrointestinal and neurological effects. Mild cases arise within 24 hours of consumption of contaminated shellfish. Symptoms include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal cramps. In more severe cases, neurological symptoms occur, which include headaches, hallucinations, confusion, short-term memory loss, respiratory difficulty, seizures, coma, and, in extreme cases, death. These toxic species have been found on the Pacific Northwest coast from Canada to mid-California and the Atlantic northeast coast of Canada, as well as the Gulf of Mexico.

Ciguatera fish poisoning is the most common seafood-toxin illness reported in the world, and certain algal species have caused this syndrome in many tropical and subtropical regions with coral reefs in the United States, including Caribbean and Pacific Islands, Florida, and the Gulf of Mexico. Ciguatoxins are transferred through the food chain from small toxic algae to large fish, such as grouper, and produce gastrointestinal, neurological, and cardiovascular symptoms that usually begin developing within 12 to 24 hours of eating contaminated fish. Gastrointestinal symptoms include diarrhea, abdominal pain, nausea, and vomiting occur, and neurological symptoms include numbness and tingling of hands and feet, dizziness, altered hot/cold perception, muscle aches, and low heart rates and blood pressure. In extreme cases, death occurs through respiratory failure.

Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning is a gastrointestinal illness that has been reported worldwide. Symptoms usually occur within 30 minutes to a few hours after consumption of contaminated shellfish. Symptoms include diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain. A full recovery is expected within 3 days, regardless of medical treatment, but long-term exposure may promote tumor growth in the digestive system. Various species of Dinophysis and their related toxins, which cause this syndrome, have been found along the Texas Gulf coast and the Chesapeake Bay.

Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning produces gastrointestinal and neurological symptoms within 3 to 6 hours of ingestion of contaminated shellfish. Milder cases may include symptoms of headaches, diarrhea, and muscle/joint pain and commonly occur when beachgoers are exposed to toxic aerosols produced by wave action. Symptoms include irritation of the throat and upper respiratory tract, causing asthma-like effects. More severe effects are altered perceptions of hot and cold, difficulty breathing, or double vision. Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning is caused by Karenia brevis, a toxic dinoflagellate found in the Gulf of Mexico and the east coast of Florida. Karenia brevis “red tides” are typically characterized by patches of discolored water, dead or dying fish, and toxic aerosols.

Paralytic shellfish poisoning symptoms include tingling sensations or numbness, headaches, fever, rash, dizziness, and gastrointestinal illness. In severe cases, symptoms include muscular paralysis, respiratory difficulty, and choking sensation. Despite the severity of this toxin, victims generally begin to recover within 12 to 24 hours of intoxication. In some severe cases, victims may die from paralysis and respiratory failure. A number of species of the dinoflagellate Alexandrium, which produce a group of toxins (called saxitoxins) responsible for paralytic shellfish poisoning, have been observed along the northeast and west coasts of North America, including Alaska. Another species associated with this syndrome, Pyrodinium bahamense, has also been found in Florida. The United States has reported persistent problems with cases of this syndrome since the mid-1960s.

Each of these syndromes is caused by different species of toxic algae that occur in various coastal waters of the United States and the world. According to the U.S. National Office for Harmful Algal Blooms’ website, there are virtually no human populations that are free of risk, in part because of an increase in interstate and international transport of seafood. CDC officials stated that records of these syndromes are incomplete because their diagnosis is difficult, physicians might not always report cases to their health departments, and reporting to CDC is voluntary; however, CDC estimates that 15,910 cases of ciguatera fish poisoning occur in the United States annually. According to NOAA officials, the recent emergence of diarrhetic shellfish poisoning in U.S. waters, the massive domoic acid-producing bloom on the West Coast in 2015, and the rapid expansion of cyanobacterial blooms in freshwater indicate that HABs are an increasing threat in the United States. However, FDA officials stated that controls are in place to prevent contaminated seafood from entering interstate commerce.

Beyond human health threats, NOAA officials noted, marine HABs can have other deleterious impacts. For example, massive fish kills drive away tourists, require costly beach cleanup, and impact fisheries management. Some HABs kill or weaken young stages of shellfish, damaging shellfish aquaculture and impairing shellfish restoration. Furthermore, NOAA officials stated, water discoloration and accumulation of algae on beaches affects tourism and property values. Many of these effects can have serious economic impacts on communities in coastal areas that depend on marine resources for their livelihoods.

HAB Occurrences in the United States

HABs have occurred in all 50 states in the past decade in marine waters, freshwaters, or both. According to the U.S. National Office for Harmful Algal Blooms’ website, all 50 states have been affected by cyanobacterial HABs, typically in many different lakes, rivers, streams, reservoirs, and other freshwater sources. In addition, 23 states have been affected by “golden algae” blooms caused by Prymnesium parvum. Furthermore, the dinoflagellate Karlodinium veneficum blooms along the mid-Atlantic coast; and brown tides caused by the rapid population growth of a minute alga, Aureococcus anophagefferens, have decimated multiple fisheries and seagrass beds in mid-Atlantic estuaries for three decades. A generalized map appears in figure 2, depicting marine and freshwater HAB occurrences—as well as locations where HAB poisoning syndromes affecting human health have been reported, or where the associated toxins have been detected in fish and shellfish tissue extracts or marine algae samples—in the United States from 2006 through 2015.

HAB Causes and Human Influence

HABs were recorded as early as the 16th century, according to NOAA’s website, but human activities seem to play a role in the increased occurrence of some blooms. In general, HAB growth is enhanced when environmental conditions are optimal for a given species. These conditions may include natural phenomena, such as unusually high water temperatures; extreme weather events, such as hurricanes, floods, or drought; or sluggish water circulation that allows biomass to accumulate. One way that human activities may contribute to HABs is by supplying nutrients to aquatic ecosystems at a rate that “overfeeds” the algae that exist naturally. These nutrients (mainly nitrogen, phosphorus, and carbon) can originate as runoff from lawns and farmland or wastewater discharges from municipalities and industry. Human activity may also influence HABs through ecosystem disturbances such as water flow modifications or the introduction of new species.

Twelve Federal Agencies Reported Expending Roughly $101 Million from Fiscal Years 2013 through 2015 on Various HAB-Related Activities

Twelve federal agencies expended an estimated total of roughly $101 million from fiscal years 2013 through 2015 to fund various HAB-related activities—such as research and analysis, forecasting, surveillance and monitoring, outreach, and response—according to data reported by the agencies. Based on the data, the 5 agencies with the largest HAB- related expenditures for this period—totaling roughly $86 million—were NOAA ($39.4 million), NSF ($15.4 million), EPA ($14.5 million), USGS ($9.0 million), and NIEHS ($8.0 million). According to agency officials, these 5 agencies provided internal and external funding for research on and analysis of HABs; forecasting, monitoring, outreach and response efforts; and investigations of human and ecological health effects, as follows:

NOAA developed and provided capabilities to predict, detect, monitor, and respond to marine and Great Lakes HAB events. NOAA competitively funded additional research on HAB ecology, monitoring, prediction, mitigation, and control.

NSF funded HAB-specific and broader research that contributed to the understanding of algal blooms. It also funded workshops and activities that built and facilitated international collaboration on HAB- related research.

EPA funded internal research on HABs and their toxins, focused on four main areas: water quality, human and ecological health effects, monitoring and analytical methods, and drinking water treatment. It performed outreach to other federal agencies, state agencies, and academia regarding HAB-related activities.

USGS developed laboratory analysis and field testing to detect and quantify HABs, researched causal factors, and developed early warning systems for HABs.

NIEHS supported peer-reviewed research grants to develop approaches to enhance prediction of HAB events and understand the effects of HAB toxins on human health.

In addition, other agencies—such as FDA, CDC, and NASA—expended millions of dollars funding activities to address HABs, associated with their respective missions. For example, from fiscal years 2013 through 2015, NASA reported expending nearly $2 million on basic and applied research to use satellite imagery to improve the detection of algal blooms.

Table 1 provides the estimated HAB-related expenditures for the 12 agencies that provided expenditure data for fiscal years 2013 through 2015. The agencies reported actual or estimated expenditure data, or a mix of both; and a few agencies also provided some obligated funding data. Four agencies—NASA, NIEHS, NSF, and USGS—provided actual expenditures. NIFA officials provided estimated expenditures and reported that the identified NIFA funding does not include multi-purpose capacity awards that relate, in part, to HABs. Other agencies, such as NOAA, Navy, USACE, CDC, FDA, NPS, and EPA, provided mostly actual expenditures but also included some estimated HAB-related expenditures. For example, the identified EPA funding does not include multi-purpose nutrient reduction projects, nutrient monitoring, phytoplankton community monitoring, or assessment of nutrient reduction projects intended, in part, to support reductions in HABs. A few other agencies—CDC, NIEHS, and NSF—also provided some obligated funding data for a portion of their HAB-related activities for fiscal years 2013 through 2015.

As previously discussed, we identified 17 agencies that have conducted research, monitoring, or other HAB-related activities in fiscal years 2013 through 2015. Table 2 provides 17 agencies’ key activities related to HABs, consistent with their missions and expertise, in fiscal years 2013 through 2015.

Appendix II provides more detailed information on federal agencies’ key HAB-related activities, expenditures, and specific statutory provisions authorizing such activities.

Federal Agencies Reported Coordinating HAB- Related Activities in a Variety of Ways

Federal officials reported that their agencies coordinate in a variety of ways with each other and with state, international, and academic stakeholders to share information, expertise, and opportunities for collaboration on HAB-related activities. Federal officials also reported that part of the purpose of this coordination is to reduce unnecessary duplication and to leverage resources. Since 2014, the IWG-HABHRCA has been the primary, government-wide mechanism though which federal agencies coordinate their activities, develop plans for future work, and identify remaining gaps related to federal HAB activities and capabilities. In addition, federal agencies participate in numerous groups, task forces, and other coordination efforts led by federal agencies, states, international organizations, or academics (see table 3 for examples of these efforts). Furthermore, federal officials reported a number of partnerships between two or more federal agencies (federal interagency partnerships) directly related to their HAB work in recent years. For example, NIEHS and NSF have collaborated and provided joint funding for some HAB-related research projects since 2005.

Appendix III provides more detailed information on federal agencies’ HAB-related coordination.

Most of the federal agencies within the scope of this review maintain information on their public websites regarding HABs and HAB-related research, monitoring, and other activities. Agency officials reported that they maintain such information on their websites to coordinate with each other and with nonfederal stakeholders on their HAB-related activities, reduce duplication, and raise public awareness, among other purposes. For example, EPA has compiled information on freshwater cyanobacterial HABs, including causes and prevention, detection, health and ecological effects, control and treatment, research by EPA and other federal agencies, new policies and regulations for toxins produced by cyanobacteria (cyanotoxins) at the state and international levels, and guidelines and recommendations.

Appendix IV provides more detailed information on federal agencies’ HAB-related websites.

Agency Comments

We provided a draft of this report to the Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, Defense, Health and Human Services, and the Interior; EPA; NASA; NSF; and the Executive Office of the President for review and comment. None of the agencies provided formal, written comments, but all except USDA and Navy provided technical comments, which we incorporated as appropriate.

We are sending copies of this report to the appropriate congressional committees; the Secretaries of Agriculture, Commerce, Defense, Health and Human Services, and the Interior; the Administrators of EPA and NASA; the Director of NSF; the Chief of Staff, Executive Office of the President; and other interested parties. In addition, the report is available at no charge on the GAO website at http://www.gao.gov.

If you or your staff have any questions about this report, please contact me at (202) 512-3841 or gomezj@gao.gov. Contact points for our Offices of Congressional Relations and Public Affairs may be found on the last page of this report. GAO staff who contributed to this report are listed in appendix V.

Appendix I: Objectives, Scope and Methodology

This report examines (1) how much federal agencies expended on activities related to marine and freshwater harmful algal blooms (HAB), and the types of activities funded, from fiscal years 2013 through 2015; and (2) how federal agencies have coordinated their HAB-related activities with each other and with nonfederal stakeholders.

For both objectives, we reviewed HAB-related laws; federal agencies’ reports on HABs; our prior work on ocean acidification, the Great Lakes, water quality, climate change, and interagency collaboration (a list of related products is included at the end of this report); and other relevant documents.

To identify how much federal agencies expended on activities related to marine and freshwater HABs, and the types of activities funded, for fiscal years 2013, 2014, and 2015, we conducted interviews with and requested data from officials from the 17 relevant agencies on their HAB-related expenditures for this period, and we found that 12 agencies’ expenditure data were relevant and sufficiently reliable for the purpose of producing a rough estimate of federal HAB-related expenditures. We started with National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) officials because of their lead roles, as designated by the Harmful Algal Bloom and Hypoxia Research and Control Act (HABHRCA), in administering a national HAB and hypoxia program for marine and freshwater bodies, respectively; and we interviewed and collected information from additional agencies as they were identified by other agencies. An interagency working group (IWG- HABHRCA), established to implement aspects of the law, consists of the following federal agencies:

EPA;

Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) National Institute of Food and Agriculture and Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS);

Department of the Interior’s Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM), National Park Service, and U.S. Geological Survey;

Department of Defense’s Department of the Navy (Navy) and U.S.

Army Corps of Engineers;

Department of Health and Human Services’ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Food and Drug Administration, and National Institutes of Health’s National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences;

National Science Foundation (NSF); and

National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

In addition to these 14 agencies that participate in the interagency working group, we identified 3 additional agencies, based on our interviews, as having HAB-related expenditures in fiscal years 2013 through 2015: the Department of the Interior’s Fish and Wildlife Service and the Executive Office of the President’s Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) and Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP). To gather expenditure data, we developed and distributed a questionnaire that asked the agencies to identify their HAB-related research, monitoring, or other activities. We asked the agencies to provide expenditure data for these activities at the program and project levels. To assess the accuracy and completeness of the expenditure data and to learn of the agencies’ definitions of HAB-related activities and any data limitations, we conducted a data reliability assessment through written questions and follow-up interviews, as necessary, with agency officials. Our questions asked officials to specify if the associated activities were single-purpose in addressing HABs only, or if they addressed multiple purposes including HABs. Of the 17 agencies we contacted, 12 provided HAB-related expenditure data for fiscal years 2013 through 2015, which we determined were sufficiently reliable for our purposes and are presented in this report. For informational purposes, we present more detailed tables in appendix II for each of the agencies’ HAB-related expenditures, but we did not independently verify these amounts.

Even with the efforts we made to ensure the reliability of the data, each of the agencies had its own method for collecting HAB-related expenditure data, and therefore the numbers presented for each agency may differ compared to a scenario in which a single, standardized method was used. For this reason, comparisons of HAB-related expenditures from one agency to another are inexact. For example, agencies such as NOAA and NSF each utilized a database to track actual expenditures or obligated funding for HAB-related activities, whereas agencies such as Navy relied on subject matter experts or staff estimates. Some agencies provided actual expenditure data, while other agencies provided estimated expenditure data or obligated funding data.

In addition, we asked agencies to identify whether their HAB-related activities were (1) single-purpose in addressing HABs only, (2) multi- purpose including HABs, or (3) a mixture of both. While we believe the data are sufficiently reliable for the purpose of producing a rough estimate of HAB-related expenditures, the lack of a standardized approach to collecting HAB-related expenditures means that any federal total should be regarded as a rough estimate, and any comparisons among agencies’ expenditures should be regarded as inexact. In addition, our questionnaire asked the agencies for information on (1) their agencies’ key activities regarding HABs; (2) the purposes of these activities; (3) the specific statutory provisions authorizing these activities; and (4) the funding mechanisms used, such as grants, contracts, or interagency agreements.

To determine how federal agencies coordinate their HAB-related activities with each other and with nonfederal stakeholders, we collected and analyzed information from the agencies through interviews and our questionnaire on (1) their participation with each other and nonfederal stakeholders in interagency working groups or other mechanisms to share information and coordinate on HABs research, monitoring, or other activities; (2) efforts taken by federal agencies to minimize duplication; and (3) gaps, if any, in federal HAB-related activities. As warranted, we sent the agencies follow-up requests for clarification or elaboration. We also received and reviewed the official notes from a nongeneralizable sample of 21 IWG-HABHRCA twice-monthly meetings, starting from the group’s creation in October 2014 through July 2016. In addition, we attended, in person or by phone, the following events to observe federal agencies’ efforts to coordinate HAB-related activities with each other and other stakeholders:

Biennial conference of HAB experts and researchers, “Eighth Symposium on Harmful Algae in the U.S.,” led by HAB researchers from the Southern California Coastal Water Research Project and University of Southern California; the conference was held in November 2015 and attended by more than 250 federal and state officials, academic researchers, non-profit organization representatives, and industry representatives;

A nongeneralizable sample of five IWG-HABHRCA twice-monthly meetings from February through July 2016, based on our availability; and

Three webinars focused on HABs and hypoxia in the Great Lakes, two of which were organized by the IWG-HABHRCA in February 2016 and one of which was organized by the Inland HAB Discussion Group in March 2016.

In addition, through our correspondence with federal agencies and our own web searches, we identified agencies’ publicly accessible websites describing HABs and HAB-related activities. We conducted a general web search, and searched each of the agencies’ websites, using the terms “algae blooms” and “algal blooms.” Based on the search results, we identified websites that were broad or national in scope and that appeared to be maintained by the agency on an ongoing basis (as opposed to being a one-time news release or document). We then asked each of the agencies to review our results for their particular agency, to verify that we had identified the appropriate websites and to refer us to any additional HAB-related websites (maintained by the agency) that met our criteria.

We conducted this performance audit from September 2015 to October 2016 in accordance with generally accepted government auditing standards. Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain sufficient, appropriate evidence to provide a reasonable basis for our findings and conclusions based on our audit objectives. We believe that the evidence obtained provides a reasonable basis for our findings and conclusions based on our audit objectives.

Appendix II: Federal Agencies’ Key Harmful Algal Bloom-Related Activities, Expenditures, and Authority

Appendix II includes additional information for federal agencies that reported expenditures for activities related to harmful algal blooms (HAB) from fiscal years 2013 through 2015 and specific statutory provisions authorizing such activities. We present detailed tables for each of the agencies’ HAB-related expenditures for informational purposes, but we did not independently verify these amounts.

(1) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

Agency’s Mission and Key HAB-Related Activities

According to agency officials, for more than 40 years, CDC has provided epidemiology and surveillance support to states and other partners, enabling them to take public health action to address non-infectious water-related concerns. In the late 1990s, CDC began to address public health issues associated with HABs. In the past several years, CDC has been involved with a number of HAB-related activities, including the following: collaborating with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to engage citizen scientists to identify and report freshwater HAB events; collaborating with NOAA to improve a module to forecast cyanobacterial blooms; providing technical assistance and expert guidance to states that convening a workgroup to identify surveillance indicators and measures for bloom events and public health consequences; developing health surveillance definitions for reporting HAB-related human cases of illnesses, animal cases of illness, and HAB events; creating the One Health Harmful Algal Bloom System, a nationally available, online system for health agencies and their animal and environmental health agency partners to report HAB-related illnesses in animals and people, and the environmental conditions associated with the HABs; providing resources to state health departments to build capacity for HAB-related illness surveillance; and creating a CDC website about HAB-associated illnesses (http://www.cdc.gov/habs/).

In addition, the agency’s Division of Laboratory Sciences provides laboratory support for public health responses to chemical threat agents. For example, this division provides assistance to state and local laboratories responding to regional events by identifying people exposed to certain toxins from marine and freshwater HABs.

HAB-Related Expenditures

According to agency-provided expenditures from fiscal years 2013 through 2015, CDC expended a total of roughly $1.7 million on public health surveillance, waterborne disease prevention, and health promotion, as follows: $566,828 in fiscal year 2013, $524,004 in fiscal year 2014, and $573,776 in fiscal year 2015.

For CDC’s expenditures, see table 4.

Legal Authority to Address HABs

According to agency officials, CDC’s authority to address HABs is provided under the Public Health Service Act (PHSA), and some activities receive funding from the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

Sections 301(a) and 317(k)(2) of the PHSA, as amended, authorize public health activities research and other activities and authorize grants to states and other entities for public health purposes.

EPA’s Great Lakes Restoration Initiative (GLRI) provides annual funding to CDC’s National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases through an interagency agreement. One purpose of the center is to build waterborne disease prevention capacity in the Great Lakes states to inform and evaluate GLRI activities. This includes systematic detection and descriptions of HABs and associated human and animal health effects and environmental impacts. The National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases works closely with subject matter experts in CDC’s National Center for Environmental Health to address three main efforts: (1) rebuilding and launching of public health surveillance for HABs, (2) state waterborne disease prevention capacity-building, and (3) health promotion. Through partnering with other federal agencies, CDC aims to connect these data to better describe the occurrence and health consequences of HABs.

(2) Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

Agency’s Mission and Key HAB-Related Activities

According to agency officials, EPA’s mission is to protect human health and the environment. To accomplish this mission, the agency develops relevant policy and guidelines, conducts research, provides assistance through grants and other agreements, educates the public, and creates partnerships. EPA’s Office of Water (OW), Office of Research and Development (ORD), and EPA regions, as well as the Gulf of Mexico Program Office and the Great Lakes National Program Office, have been working together to protect public health from HABs, including toxin- producing cyanobacteria. From fiscal years 2013 through 2015, EPA’s research on HABs and their toxins focused on four main areas:

Water quality research: Explores the interrelationships among nutrient inputs, temperature effects, land use, and runoff and how these parameters affect the timing, distribution, and magnitude of HABs and toxin production.

Human and ecological health effects research: Provides information on human exposure to HAB toxins (e.g., dermal vs. ingestion) and food-chain bioaccumulation and allergenic aspects of toxins produced by cyanobacteria (cyanotoxins). ORD continues to develop and optimize analytical procedures for measuring HAB toxins in drinking and source waters, including the qualitative and quantitative analysis of microcystin toxins, which are also being examined for toxicity levels.

Monitoring/analytical methods research: Includes small-scale monitoring, such as surface water and real-time water quality monitoring, to large-scale monitoring using satellite imagery. The ultimate objective for monitoring research is to provide communities and utilities with early warning detection methods to better manage consequences from HABs.

Drinking water treatment research: Provides results on optimizing drinking water treatment strategies and timely response to HAB events, such as the Toledo, Ohio, incident in August 2014 caused by a toxic bloom in Lake Erie.

HAB-Related Expenditures

According to agency-provided expenditure data from fiscal years 2013 through 2015, EPA expended a total of roughly $14.5 million on HAB- related activities across various research efforts, as follows: $3.2 million in fiscal year 2013, $5.6 million in fiscal year 2014, and $5.7 million in fiscal year 2015.

For specific HAB-related expenditures, see table 5, highlighting activities by OW, the regions, and ORD.

Legal Authority to Address HABs

According to agency officials, EPA’s authority to address HABs is provided by three statutes and as a part of annual appropriations for the Great Lakes Restoration Initiative (GLRI).

The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) has a goal of ensuring that public drinking water is safe and requires EPA to establish legally enforceable standards for public water systems to limit the levels of specific contaminants that can adversely affect public health. Under the SDWA, EPA is proposing in its 4th Candidate Contaminant List and its 4th Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule the evaluation and monitoring of several cyanotoxins that may be present in drinking water systems.

The Drinking Water Protection Act (Pub. L. No. 114-45), enacted on August 7, 2015, amended the SDWA in 2015 by adding Section 1459, which directs EPA to develop and submit a strategic plan for assessing and managing risks associated with algal toxins in drinking water provided by public water systems. The act requires the strategic plan to include steps and timelines to assess human health effects and to identify a list of algal toxins, health advisories, treatment options, analytical and monitoring approaches, causes of HABs, source water protection, and collaboration and outreach.

The Clean Water Act (CWA) establishes the basic structure for regulating discharges of pollutants into waters of the United States and for regulating quality standards for surface waters. Under the CWA, EPA has implemented pollution control programs and has reviewed, approved, or promulgated water quality standards to restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation’s waters. Section 303(d) of the CWA requires states to identify those waters that are not meeting applicable water quality standards (impaired waters or impairments) and for which the state must establish Total Maximum Daily Loads for pollutants.

Some states have identified algal toxins and cyanobacteria hepatotoxic microcystins as causing recreational use impairments for source water on the most recent 303(d) list, and Total Maximum Daily Loads have been approved to address impairments to aquatic life, recreation, and subsistence fishing uses caused by cyanotoxins. Section 426 of Pub. L. No. 114-113, enacted in December 2015, formally established the GLRI to carry out programs and projects for Great Lakes protection and restoration. GLRI action plans outline such activities for the GLRI, which include implementation of activities to reduce nutrient and sediment loadings such as voluntary agricultural practices; tracking; voluntary, incentive-based, and regulatory approaches to reduce nutrient losses; education; and other implementation of watershed management and green infrastructure projects. GLRI partners will also assess the extent to which HABs are affected by various factors and the relationship between algal blooms and hypoxia. In addition, in 1972, the United States and Canada signed the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement to restore, protect, and enhance the water quality of the Great Lakes to promote the ecological health of the Great Lakes Basin. The countries signed another Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement in 1978, which was amended several times. For example, most recently, in 2012, the nations added provisions to the agreement to address the effects of climate change, among other things.

(3) Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

Agency’s Mission and Key HAB-Related Activities

According to agency officials, FDA is responsible for protecting public health by ensuring that human and animal drugs are safe and effective; biological products do not threaten public health; there are reasonable assurances that medical devices are safe and effective; food is safe, wholesome, sanitary, and properly labeled; cosmetics are safe and properly labeled; and the public health and safety is protected from products that emit radiation. FDA’s Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, in conjunction with the agency’s field staff promotes and protects the public health by ensuring that the nation’s food supply is safe, sanitary, wholesome, and properly labeled, and that cosmetic products are safe and properly labeled. FDA’s role and expertise in conducting activities focused on toxin-producing cyanobacteria and algae and public health concerns related to HABs are mission relevant and focused on products regulated by the agency.

Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition regulates products that may be affected by harmful algae, their toxins, or both, including seafood, dietary supplements, and bottled water. Most of FDA’s HAB activities focus on seafood, with fewer dedicated efforts on dietary supplements. To date, there have been no specific HAB activities focused on bottled water. FDA HAB-related activities include research program management, project management, domestic and international compliance and enforcement, regulation development and policy, emergency response and recovery, risk assessment, education and outreach, consumer education, postmarket monitoring and surveillance, domestic regulatory partnerships, international standards development, trade and partnerships, industry and academic collaboration, international collaboration and outreach, recalls, administrative activities, economic adulteration, and employee training. FDA awards small contracts to external entities in cases where it would be more cost-effective than the agency performing the work, FDA does not have the expertise or capability to conduct the work needed, or FDA can achieve more through collaboration and contributions to other’s work.

HAB-Related Expenditures

According to agency-provided expenditures from fiscal years 2013 through 2015, FDA expended a total of roughly $7.4 million on internal and external activities, as follows: $2.1 million in fiscal year 2013, $2.7 million in fiscal year 2014, and $2.6 million in fiscal year 2015.

For FDA’s expenditures, see table 6.

Legal Authority to Address HABs

According to agency officials, FDA’s authority to address HABs and their toxins is provided under multiple statutes, including the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (21 U.S.C. 301 et seq.); the Public Health Service Act (PHSA) (42 U.S.C. 243); and 21 C.F.R. part 123 (Fish and Fishery Products), specifically 21 C.F.R. § 123.6 (Seafood Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point Plan) and 21 C.F.R. § 1240.60 (Molluscan Shellfish). Seafood Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point is a preventive system of hazard control implemented by processors to help ensure the safety of their products and reduce the risk of illness for consumers. Seafood Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point requires that processors identify and control for species- and process-specific hazards, which would include biotoxins produced by HABs.

FDA is designated by the Harmful Algal Bloom and Hypoxia Research and Control Act of 1998 (Pub. L. No. 105-383 § 603(a), 112 Stat. 3447, 3448) as one of the federal agencies that shall participate in an interagency task force on HABs and hypoxia to develop reports and assessments for Congress. The act was most recently amended in 2014 by Pub. L. No. 113-124, 128 Stat. 1379.

(4) National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

Agency’s Mission and Key HAB-Related Activities

According to agency officials, the purpose of NASA's Earth Science Division is to develop a scientific understanding of the Earth and its response to natural or human-induced changes, and to improve prediction of climate, weather, and natural hazards. A major component of NASA’s Earth Science Division is a coordinated series of satellite and airborne missions for long-term global observations of the land surface, biosphere, solid earth, atmosphere, and oceans. This coordinated approach enables an improved understanding of the Earth as an integrated system.

NASA also supports Executive Order 13547 that established the National Ocean Policy, a policy for the stewardship of the ocean, coasts, and Great Lakes. NASA participates in many interagency working groups, including the Interagency Working Group on the Harmful Algal Blooms and Hypoxia Research and Control Act. NASA research supports the working group’s scientific objectives when possible and relevant to the agency mission.

HAB-Related Expenditures

According to agency-provided expenditures from fiscal years 2013 through 2015, NASA expended a total of roughly $2.0 million on HAB- related activities across various monitoring efforts and research-related activities, as follows: $344,003 in fiscal year 2013, $230,545 in fiscal year 2014, and $1.4 million in fiscal year 2015.

For specific HAB-related program expenditures, see table 7.

Legal Authority to Address HABs

According to agency officials, NASA’s authority to address HABs is provided under the NASA Authorization Act, 51 U.S.C. §§ 20112 and 20113, which authorizes NASA’s Earth science research. Table 7 includes specific HAB-related expenditures organized by program and project: (1) NASA Ocean Biology and Biogeochemistry, (2) NASA Health and Air Quality Applications, (3) SERVIR (an acronym for the Spanish words meaning Mesoamerican Regional Visualization and Monitoring System), (4) Digital Earth Virtual Environment Learning Outreach Project, (5) Applied Remote Sensing Training, (6) Research and Analysis, and (7) Center for the Advancement of Science in Space HAB research grant project.

(5) Department of the Navy (Navy)

Agency’s Mission and Key HAB-Related Activities

According to agency officials, the Navy’s mission is to maintain, train, and equip combat-ready naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, and maintaining freedom of the seas. The Office of Naval Research coordinates, executes, and promotes the science and technology programs of both the Navy and the U.S. Marine Corps. The Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) is the corporate research laboratory for the Navy and Marine Corps and conducts a broad program of scientific research, technology, and advanced development. Some NRL research, capabilities, and techniques are useful when applied to other fields, including HAB and hypoxia research performed by other agencies, such as the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Environmental Protection Agency, and National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Thus, NRL provides expertise and experience to other agencies for a variety of research purposes, including HAB and hypoxia research.

HAB-Related Expenditures

According to agency-provided expenditures from fiscal years 2013 through 2015, Navy expended a total of roughly $1.0 million on HAB- related activities across various monitoring and research-related activities, as follows: $343,000 in fiscal year 2013, $353,000 in fiscal year 2014, and $353,000 in fiscal year 2015.

For specific HAB-related program expenditures, see table 8.

Legal Authority to Address HABs

According to agency officials, Navy’s authority to address HABs is provided under 10 U.S.C. § 5013, which authorizes the Secretary to be responsible for, and have the authority necessary to conduct, all affairs of the agency. In addition, 10 U.S.C. § 7921 authorizes the Secretary to maximize the safety and effectiveness of all maritime vessels, aircraft, and members of the armed forces by means of (1) marine data collection, (2) numerical weather and ocean predictions, and (3) forecasting of hazardous weather and ocean conditions.

(6) National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS)

Agency’s Mission and Key HAB-Related Activities

According to agency officials, HABs are a primary focus of NIEHS- supported research activities in marine and freshwater environments. There are two overarching themes associated with the NIEHS HAB grants portfolio: (1) supporting research on the health effects associated with exposure to HAB toxins; and (2) supporting research that reduces human exposure to HAB toxins.

To accomplish this mission, NIEHS has solicited and funded grant applications in collaboration with the National Science Foundation, with a specific focus on marine and freshwater HABs. NIEHS has also supported peer-reviewed, unsolicited research grant applications to develop novel approaches to enhance prediction of HAB events and to better understand the adverse impacts on human health associated with exposures to HAB toxins. Additionally, NIEHS has supported research conferences that allow investigators to share published and unpublished research results, and has provided training opportunities for pre- and post-doctoral investigators to help advance this scientific field and develop the next generation of HAB investigators.

HAB-Related Expenditures

According to agency-provided expenditure data, NIEHS expended a total of roughly $8 million from fiscal years 2013 through 2015 on HAB-related projects and activities, as follows: $1.9 million in fiscal year 2013, $3.3 million in fiscal year 2014, and $2.8 million in fiscal year 2015.

Table 9 identifies specific HAB-related expenditures, organized by (1) toxicity, (2) detection, and (3) communication.

Legal Authority to Address HABs

(7) National Institute of Food and Agriculture (NIFA)

Agency’s Mission and Key HAB-Related Activities

According to agency officials, NIFA is the extramural funding agency for the Department of Agriculture (USDA) and provides leadership and funding for programs that advance agriculture-related sciences. Since the Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008 directed its creation, NIFA has taken strides toward enhancing the impact of food, agriculture, natural resources, and human sciences on environment and human health. NIFA applies an integrated approach to ensure that groundbreaking discoveries in agriculture-related sciences and technologies reach the people who can put them into practice. NIFA invests in and supports initiatives that ensure the long-term viability of agriculture. The agency does not conduct research internally, but provides funding for research, extension, and education activities through competitive grants program and capacity programs.

In terms of human health and HABs, NIFA sponsors work that supports agriculturally relevant projects and the agency’s human health areas focus on food safety. Most of NIFA’s related work focuses on the impacts of HABs on aquaculture and ecology-related HABs research. NIFA provides funds to eligible institutions through competitive grants, capacity grants, and noncompetitive grants and agreements.

HAB-Related Expenditures

According to agency-provided expenditures from fiscal years 2013 through 2015, NIFA expended a total of roughly $393,968 on initiatives that focus on the impacts of HABs on aquaculture and ecology related research, as follows: $200,000 in fiscal year 2013, $144,000 in fiscal year 2014, and $49,968 in fiscal year 2015.

For NIFA’s expenditures, see table 10.

Legal Authority to Address HABs

According to agency officials, NIFA’s authority to address HABs is provided under a variety of statutes, as follows:

7 U.S.C. 301 authorizes tribal research grants that support agricultural research addressing high-priority concerns of tribal, national, or multistate significance. Grants support investigative and analytical studies in the food and agricultural sciences. Funds are awarded on a competitive basis.

Section 7406 of the Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008 (Pub. L. No. 110-246) amended section 2(b) of the Competitive, Special, and Facilities Research Grant Act as amended (7 U.S.C. 450i(b)) to authorize the Secretary of Agriculture to make competitive grants to promote research in food, agriculture, and related areas. Under that authority, USDA established the Agriculture and Food Research Initiative as a competitive grant program to provide funding for fundamental and applied research, education, and extension to address food and agricultural sciences.

Competitive, Special, and Facilities Research Grant Act, as amended and codified at 7 U.S.C. 450i(c), authorizes the Secretary of Agriculture to make grants, for periods not to exceed 3 years, for special emphasis awards to facilitate or expand promising food and agricultural research, extension, or education programs.

(8) National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

Agency Mission and Key HAB-Related Activities

According to agency officials, NOAA’s mission is to understand and predict climate, weather, oceans, and coasts, to share that knowledge and information with others, and to conserve and manage coastal and marine ecosystems and resources. The Harmful Algal Bloom and Hypoxia Research and Control Amendments Act of 2014 designates NOAA as the lead federal agency in addressing HABs occurring in ocean and coastal waters and the Great Lakes. NOAA programs improve the understanding of HABs and their impacts and develop tools for HAB and toxin detection, forecasting, and response. NOAA addresses the continuum from research to operations through a mix of in-house expertise and competitive awards to partners in academia, industry, and state and local governments.

HAB-Related Expenditures

According to agency officials, from fiscal years 2013 through 2015, NOAA expended a total of roughly $39.4 million on HAB-related activities across various extramural and intramural programs, as follows: $9.8 million in fiscal year 2013, $14.0 million in fiscal year 2014, and $15.7 million in fiscal year 2015.

For specific HAB-related program expenditures, see table 11.

Legal Authority to Address HABs

According to agency officials, NOAA’s authority to address HABs is provided under a variety of statutes, including HABHRCA, the National Sea Grant College Program Act, and the Integrated Coastal and Ocean Observation System Act of 2009. Table 11 includes NOAA HAB-related expenditures organized by (1) intramural HAB expenditures supporting HABHRCA for HAB forecasting, detection, and event response; (2) program management, coordination, and ship time; (3) HABHRCA-named competitive research on monitoring, response, prevention, control, and mitigation; and (4) other competitive research programs (e.g., those administered by the National Sea Grant College Program and the Integrated Coastal and Ocean Observation System Program). Additional information on these statutes follows.

HABHRCA recognizes NOAA as the lead federal agency on HABs occurring in ocean and coastal waters and the Great Lakes.

The National Sea Grant College Program Act specifically included “university research on the biology, prevention, and forecasting of harmful algal blooms” within its authorization of appropriations for NOAA competitive grants through fiscal year 2014. HAB-related research is conducted by Sea Grant College-funded scientists, as described in table 11.

The Integrated Coastal and Ocean Observation System Act of 2009 authorizes NOAA, other federal agencies, and nonfederal partners to provide coastal and ocean observations, technologies, and data management and communication systems. These can help address HABs.

(9) National Park Service (NPS)

Agency’s Mission and Key HAB-Related Activities

According to agency officials, NPS responds to HAB events that have an impact on human or animal health, at the request of park units. The agency’s response efforts are limited to identifying hazards; consulting on management strategies; arranging for diagnostic testing of specimens; and connecting the park unit with additional public health resources, such as state health departments and the Environmental Protection Agency. The agency’s response activities are intended to assist park managers in developing appropriate partnerships and effectively preventing and addressing HABs on-site; communicating agency-wide strategies; understanding the severity of the problem; and implementing management strategies that minimize the risk to aquatic life, the public, and employees. In addition, NPS is developing a website to assist parks with HAB response activities, update staff on the current scientific understanding of HABs, and allow the agency to track HABs within park units. NPS officials reported that the website should be completed and available to the public by the end of calendar year 2016.

HAB-Related Expenditures

According to agency-provided expenditures from fiscal years 2013 through 2015, NPS expended a total of roughly $112,945 on website development, identifying HAB concentrations, and performing disease outbreak investigations, as follows: $50,000 in fiscal year 2013, $50,000 in fiscal year 2014, and $12,945 in fiscal year 2015.

For NPS’ expenditures, see table 12.

Legal Authority to Address HABs

According to agency officials, NPS’ authority to address HABs is provided under the National Park Service Organic Act, as amended, 54 U.S.C. § 100101(a); Title II of the National Parks Omnibus Management Act of 1998, 54 U.S.C. §§ 100701-100706; and NPS Management Policies.

The National Park Service Organic Act, as amended, 54 U.S.C. § 100101(a), authorizes the agency to conserve and provide for the enjoyment of the scenery, natural and historical objects, and wildlife in national park system units in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations.

Title II of the National Parks Omnibus Management Act of 1998, 54 U.S.C. §§ 100701-100706, authorizes the agency to enter into cooperative agreements with colleges and universities, including land grant schools, in partnership with other federal and state agencies to conduct research, monitor and take inventory of long-term trends in the condition of national park resources, make parks available for scientific study, and integrate study results into management decisions.

NPS Management Policies (2006), section 4.6.3, states that the agency will “work with appropriate governmental bodies to obtain the highest possible standards available under the Clean Water Act for the protection for park waters; take all necessary actions to maintain or restore the quality of surface waters and ground waters within the parks, consistent with the Clean Water Act and all other applicable federal, state, and local laws and regulations; and enter into agreements with other agencies and governing bodies, as appropriate, to secure their cooperation in maintaining or restoring the quality of park water resources.”

(10) Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS)

Agency’s Mission and Key HAB-Related Activities

According to agency officials, NRCS is an agency within the Department of Agriculture with a mission of improving the health of our nation’s natural resources while sustaining and enhancing the productivity of American agriculture. The agency provides voluntary assistance through partnerships with private landowners, managers, and communities to protect, restore, and enhance the lands and waters upon which people and the environment depend. NRCS provides two broad categories of conservation assistance—financial and technical.

NRCS offers financial and technical assistance through several programs to help agricultural producers make and maintain conservation improvements on their land. The Conservation Stewardship Program encourages eligible agricultural producers to address natural resource concerns and improve and conserve the quality and condition of natural resources, such as soil and water. The Environmental Quality Incentives Program provides technical and financial assistance to help eligible agricultural producers implement conservation practices that sustain food production while addressing soil, water, and air quality natural resources concerns, among other things. NRCS also works with partners to leverage additional conservation assistance for agricultural producers and landowners in priority conservation areas.

Although NRCS does not directly track HABs as a resource concern or track HAB-related activities through its financial management systems, the agency does have specific, multi-purpose initiatives designed to improve the water quality of areas where HABs and hypoxia are of critical concern, such as within the Gulf of Mexico. These initiatives address other resource concerns such as improving wildlife habitats, soil health and erosion, air quality, and limited water availability. Thus, the expenditure amounts included in table 13 fund assistance programs to improve water quality, which includes but is not limited to HABs.

HAB-Related Expenditures

According to agency-provided expenditures from fiscal years 2013 through 2015, NRCS expended a total of roughly $208 million on various, multi-purpose conservation assistance programs to improve water quality, which includes but is not limited to HABs, as follows: $57 million in fiscal year 2013, $66 million in fiscal year 2014, and $85 million in fiscal year 2015.

For NRCS’ multi-purpose expenditures to improve water quality, see table 13.

Legal Authority to Address HABs

According to agency officials, NRCS’ authority to offer financial and technical assistance to producers to address water quality issues, such as HABs, is provided under the Food, Conservation, and Energy Act, which authorizes and reauthorizes NRCS’ voluntary conservation programs. Table 13 includes multi-purpose expenditures to improve water quality, including HABs, organized by the following agency initiatives: (1) Chesapeake Bay Watershed Initiative, (2) Gulf of Mexico Initiative, (3) National Water Quality Initiative, (4) Bay Delta Initiative, (5) Illinois River/Eucha-Spavinaw Watersheds Initiative, and (6) Mississippi River Basin Healthy Watersheds Initiative.

(11) National Science Foundation (NSF)

Agency’s Mission and Key HAB-Related Activities

According to agency officials, the NSF is responsible for advancing science and engineering in the United States across a broad and expanding spectrum of disciplines. NSF’s mission is to promote the progress of science; to advance the national health, prosperity and welfare; to secure the national defense; and other purposes. To achieve its mission, NSF funds discovery, learning, innovation, and research infrastructure to boost U.S. leadership in all aspects of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics research and education. NSF investments span all scientific and engineering disciplines. While NSF does not have a specifically mandated area of research, NSF-supported activities may include: research focused on HABs such as the Oceans and Human Health Initiative; research that may have a broader scope than HABs but contributes to the understanding of HABs; education and community planning activities (workshops) related to HABs; activities that build and facilitate international collaboration; and infrastructure that may have multiple uses, including supporting activities focused on HABs.

HAB-Related Expenditures

According to agency-provided expenditures from fiscal years 2013 through 2015, NSF expended a total of roughly $15.4 million on HAB- related activities across various monitoring and research-related activities, as follows: $4.7 million in fiscal year 2013, $5.0 million in fiscal year 2014, and $5.7 million in fiscal year 2015.

For specific HAB-related program expenditures, see table 14.

Legal Authority to Address HABs

According to agency officials, NSF’s authority to address HABs is provided under the National Science Foundation Act of 1950, as amended, 42 U.S.C. § 1861 et seq. Table 14 includes specific HAB- related expenditures organized by NSF organizations: (1) NSF-wide investments; (2) Directorate for Geosciences; (3) Directorate for Biological Sciences; (4) Directorate for Engineering; and (5) Office of International Science and Engineering.

(12) U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE)

Agency’s Mission and Key HAB-Related Activities

According to agency officials, USACE operates and manages more than 300 water projects, which include public recreation and environmental stewardship responsibilities on 12 million acres, including more than 4 million acres in aquatic systems. USACE conducts research on HABs and other aquatic invasive species under two, directly funded research programs: the Aquatic Plant Control Research Program and the Aquatic Nuisance Species Research Program. These research programs aim to (1) provide science-based guidance on developing or using new technologies for managing, preventing, and monitoring aquatic invasive species; (2) improve the efficacy and diversity of available management options; (3) reduce the impacts of aquatic invasive species on federally listed (threatened and endangered) species; (4) reduce operations and maintenance costs associated with aquatic invasive species management; and (5) develop solutions regarding these species based on field needs.

Additionally, USACE makes efforts to reduce negative impacts on wildlife resources, most notably bald eagles. The agency noted that the increase of hydrilla—an invasive plant—has been an ongoing issue for all aquatic habitat resource-based agencies. Avian vacuolar myelinopathy (AVM), a disease produced by a toxin that comes from cyanobacteria, attacks birds’ nervous system and has been linked to hydrilla. The highest concentrations of cyanobacteria that produce AVM are found on hydrilla, which is increasing in acres at lakes and reservoirs throughout the southeastern and south central United States, but the toxin-producing algae also persist on other native, submerged plants. This problem has been most evident to USACE at lakes and reservoirs in its Southeast and Southwest Divisions. Since 1998, 84 bald eagle deaths are suspected to have been caused by AVM at J. Strom Thurmond Lake bordering Georgia and South Carolina. Additional funds have been directed toward removing hydrilla at these USACE projects where AVM has been confirmed to reduce AVM-related mortalities.

HAB-Related Expenditures

According to agency officials, from fiscal years 2013 through 2015, USACE expended a total of roughly $1.7 million on HAB-related activities across various response efforts and research and technology-related activities, as follows: $300,000 in fiscal year 2013, $543,000 in fiscal year 2014, and $862,000 in fiscal year 2015.

For specific HAB-related program expenditures, see table 15.

Legal Authority to Address HABs

According to agency officials, the following statutes authorize USACE to address HABs:

The River and Harbor Act of 1958, section 104, as amended, authorized the Aquatic Plant Control Research Program, which is the research component of the Aquatic Plant Control program.

The Non-Indigenous Aquatic Nuisance Prevention & Control Act of 1990 authorized the Aquatic Nuisance Species Research Program, and the National Invasive Species Act of 1996 reauthorized the program.

(13) U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)

Agency Mission and Key HAB-Related Activities

According to agency officials, USGS HAB science is focused on (1) developing analytical laboratory and field methods to detect and quantify blooms and associated toxins and taste-and-odor compounds; (2) understanding causal factors, environmental fate and transport of cyanotoxins, and ecological processes; and (3) developing early warning systems for potentially harmful blooms. Studies range in scale from individual water bodies to those that are regional or national in scope, and are conducted in collaboration with a variety of local, state, federal, and tribal partners.

HAB-Related Expenditures

According to agency-provided expenditure data from fiscal years 2013 through 2015, USGS expended a total of roughly $9 million on HAB- related activities across various monitoring and research-related activities, as follows: $2.3 million in fiscal year 2013, $2.7 million in fiscal year 2014, and $4.1 million in fiscal year 2015.

For specific HAB-related program expenditures, organized by science centers, see table 16.

Legal Authority to Address HABs

According to agency officials, USGS’ authority to address HABs is provided under a variety of statutes. Additional information on these statutes follows.

USGS is directed to classify the public lands and examine the geological structure, mineral resources, and products within and outside the national domain under the Organic Act of March 3, 1879, as amended, 43 U.S.C. § 31 et seq. The statute establishes the Office of the Director of the United States Geological Survey under the Department of the Interior.

The Consolidated and Further Continuing Appropriations Act, 2015, provides the USGS water resources mission area with funding for use in matching states’, municipalities’, and tribes’ contributions to cooperative water efforts. The act authorizes USGS to use its appropriations “to perform surveys, investigations, and research covering topography, geology, hydrology, biology and mineral water resources of the United States, its territories and possessions.” Jointly funded programs (programs that may be matched up to 50 percent by federal dollars) are considered when the study is mutually advantageous to USGS and localities, states, and tribes. These cooperative, jointly funded programs are reviewed and renegotiated annually to ensure that they respond to the needs of localities, states, and tribes and to the USGS’ national priorities. This authority appears in USGS’ annual appropriations bill language, which states that “no part of this appropriation shall be used to pay more than one-half the cost of topographic mapping or water resources data collection and investigations carried on in cooperation with States and municipalities.”

Appendix III: Federal Agencies’ Harmful Algal Bloom-Related Coordination

Appendix III provides information on federal agencies’ reported coordination related to harmful algal blooms (HAB).

Federal Agencies Reported Coordinating HAB- Related Activities in a Variety of Ways

Federal officials we interviewed reported that their agencies coordinate in a variety of ways with each other and with nonfederal stakeholders to share information, expertise, and opportunities for collaboration on HAB- related activities. Specifically, federal agencies reported participating in numerous groups, task forces, and other coordination efforts led by federal agencies, states, international organizations, or academics, as described below. Since 2014, the Interagency Working Group on the Harmful Algal Bloom and Hypoxia Research and Control Act (IWG- HABHRCA) has been the primary, government-wide mechanism through which federal agencies coordinate their HAB-related activities, develop plans for future work, and identify remaining gaps related to federal HAB activities and capabilities. In addition, federal officials reported a number of partnerships between two or more federal agencies (federal interagency partnerships) directly related to their HAB work in recent years, of which we provide examples below.

Federal officials also reported that part of the purpose of this collaboration is to minimize duplication and to leverage resources in HAB research, monitoring, response, and other activities. For example, as part of their administrative reviews prior to awarding grants, the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) review grant proposals to ensure that there is no overlap or duplication of effort with other federally funded research. In addition, Food and Drug Administration (FDA) officials reported that their agency assisted the U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases by expanding the use of a validated analytical method for detecting saxitoxin in seafood to identify the toxin’s potential use as a threat agent. In this manner, FDA officials stated, the U.S. Army leveraged existing, federally funded resources to adapt a HAB toxin analytical method to enhance medical capabilities to detect such threat agents.

Groups, Task Forces, and Other HAB-Related Coordination Efforts

Federal-Led Efforts

Great Lakes Interagency Task Force Chaired by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Great Lakes Interagency Task Force brings together 11 cabinet and other federal agency heads to coordinate the restoration of the Great Lakes. Created by a May 18, 2004, executive order, the task force, among other things, coordinates the development of consistent federal policies, strategies, projects, and priorities pertaining to the restoration and protection of the Great Lakes. According to EPA officials, since 2009, the task force has overseen the implementation of the Great Lakes Restoration Initiative (GLRI), a federal-led effort to carry out programs and projects for Great Lakes protection and restoration. In particular, the task force has overseen the development of comprehensive, multi-year action plans that identify goals, objectives, measurable ecological targets, and specific actions for five GLRI focus areas. EPA officials also stated that hundreds of millions of dollars have been allocated since 2010 for a wide array of projects intended to reduce nutrient loads in the Great Lakes—nutrients that can fuel HABs. For example, EPA officials reported that in response to the 2014 drinking water incident in Toledo, Ohio, nearly $12 million in GLRI funds was provided to federal and state agencies for projects intended to reduce and monitor HABs in the western basin of Lake Erie.

Formed and facilitated by EPA, U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), and CDC, this informal discussion group shares information through free webinars (1 to 2 times per year) among federal, state, local, and industry stakeholders about HAB research, monitoring, human and ecological health risk assessment, education, and outreach. According to EPA’s website, the group was created out of an expressed need by federal researchers and state agencies to bridge a communication gap with respect to inland HABs, and the group has been meeting periodically by conference call since May 2011.The group had its genesis from earlier efforts such as the International Symposium on Cyanobacteria Harmful Algal Blooms meeting sponsored by EPA in 2005, the Harmful Algal Blooms-Related Illness Surveillance System sponsored by CDC, and USGS efforts assisting states with sample collection and study design guidance.

As the primary, government-wide mechanism for sharing information and coordinating HAB-related activities, this interagency working group was created after the 2014 reauthorization of the Harmful Algal Bloom and Hypoxia Research and Control Act (HABHRCA) to convene relevant federal agencies to discuss HAB and hypoxia events and to develop related reports and assessments for Congress. Co-chaired by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and EPA, the group meets twice per month to share information and coordinate HAB- related research, monitoring, and other activities. For example, the group convenes regularly scheduled briefings that aim to stimulate and enhance interagency collaboration on HABs, ranging from toxin testing to shellfish management. Between July 2015 and June 2016, several agencies (EPA, NOAA, FDA, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, USGS, and CDC) made presentations on their HAB-related activities to the group. Furthermore, the group held a half-day meeting in October 2015 that focused, in part, on reducing duplication across the federal government.

This interagency working group is also responsible for developing reports to Congress mandated by HABHRCA’s reauthorization in 2014 that collectively identify progress, plans for future work, and remaining gaps related to HABs and hypoxia. To develop the first such report—Harmful Algal Blooms and Hypoxia Comprehensive Research Plan and Action Strategy: An Interagency Report, released in February 2016—the IWG‐ HABHRCA coordinated with local, state, tribal, and federal government entities and consulted with stakeholders. As part of this effort, the IWG- HABHRCA held a series of webinars in April 2015 focused on different U.S. geographic regions, which were designed to initiate conversation between federal representatives and stakeholders on HABs and hypoxia. Agenda topics included regional priorities for HABs research, needs for handling HAB and hypoxia events, and communication methods used to educate the public. The group held a similar series of webinars in February 2016 that were tailored to the Great Lakes to promote discussion and solicit stakeholder feedback.

To operate more efficiently, NOAA officials stated, the group also organized four subgroups to provide focus and expertise on key aspects of the HABHRCA-required reports to address specific issues related to HABs, hypoxia, the Great Lakes, and “engagement” (strategies, webinars, and other materials, such as informational documents). The group is overseen by the National Science and Technology Council’s Subcommittee on Ocean Science and Technology, which is co-chaired by the Office of Science and Technology Policy, NOAA, and the National Science Foundation (NSF). The subcommittee is responsible for developing coordinated interagency strategies and advancing national ocean science and technology priorities, among other things.

Mississippi River/Gulf of Mexico Watershed Nutrient Task Force (Hypoxia Task Force)

Formally known as the Mississippi River/Gulf of Mexico Watershed Nutrient Task Force, the Hypoxia Task Force convenes federal agencies led by EPA, 12 states, and a national tribal representative to address hypoxia in the Mississippi River and the northern Gulf of Mexico. Specifically, a team of federal and university researchers and agricultural extension educators from the 12 states along the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers has partnered with the task force to increase efforts to manage complex natural resource management issues. The group is working to (1) expand and encourage the use of science-based nutrient management and other practices that help to reduce nutrient losses; (2) identify opportunities for states to share information; and (3) create a network of leaders, including farmers, who strategize about agricultural- based nutrient losses. According to EPA officials, in December 2014, the Hypoxia Task Force issued nutrient reduction strategies to target nutrients from all sources that flow into the Mississippi River and contribute to Gulf of Mexico hypoxia. EPA officials also stated that over 20 peer-reviewed publications describing the ecosystem mechanisms regulating nutrients and hypoxia in the northern Gulf of Mexico were published, and hypoxia modeling and monitoring workshops were conducted in 2011, 2012, and 2013. In August 2015, the Hypoxia Task Force released its first biennial report to Congress, as required by the HABHRCA amendments of 2014, to report on continued progress toward reducing nutrient loads to the northern Gulf of Mexico, summarize lessons learned in implementing nutrient reduction strategies, and describe any adjustments to its strategies for reducing Gulf hypoxia.

A cabinet-level body that oversees the implementation of the National Ocean Policy, the council was established as a result of an executive order. In April 2013, the council released the National Ocean Policy Implementation Plan, which described specific actions—including four related to HABs—for federal agencies to take. These actions are intended to translate policy goals into on-the-ground changes to address key challenges, streamline federal operations, save taxpayer dollars, and promote economic growth. According to Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) officials, the Water Quality and Sustainable Practices on Land subgroup of the council’s Interagency Policy Committees reports on the status of 36 implementation plan action items, including the 4 actions related to HABs:

2014 – Develop, working with the seafood industry, new rapid- assessment methods to detect HAB toxins, petrochemicals, industrial and residential chemical contaminants, microbial contamination, and spoilage in seafood. (NOAA, FDA, and EPA were the designated implementing agencies.)

2014 – Improve infrastructure, including availability of standards and probes, shared-use facilities, monitoring platforms, and training, to develop the expertise necessary for state-of-the-art national capabilities for HAB monitoring and detection and improving accuracy of HAB forecasting. (NOAA, FDA, National Institute of Standards and Technology, and USGS were the designated implementing agencies.)

2014 – Provide more reliable models for HAB forecasts and coordinated training for state and local officials to improve regional capabilities for HAB monitoring, assessment, forecasting, and response. (NOAA and CDC were the designated implementing agencies.)

2015 – Develop and deploy rapid, field-based detection systems for various HAB-causing species and their toxins. (NOAA, FDA, and USGS were the designated implementing agencies.)

One Health Harmful Algal Bloom System (OHHABS)

CDC collaborates with federal agencies, such as EPA, USGS, NOAA, and FDA, and many state governments on OHHABS, an electronic system for voluntary reporting of HAB-related illnesses and events. Launched in June 2016, this surveillance system is accessible to health departments and their designated animal health and environmental health partners and collects data on HAB events and associated cases of human and animal illness. OHHABS is an example of CDC’s “One Health” surveillance—an approach that recognizes that human, animal, and environmental health are interconnected, and that these three health communities can more effectively address many linked health challenges by working together.

State-Led Efforts

Interstate Shellfish Sanitation Conference (ISSC)

The ISSC was formed in 1982 to foster and promote shellfish sanitation through the cooperation of state and federal control agencies, the shellfish industry, and the academic community. According to FDA officials, cooperative partners in the ISSC include FDA, NOAA, EPA, CDC, state agencies, industry, tribes, and other nations. To ensure the safety and sanitation of bivalve mollusks (e.g., oysters, clams, mussels, and scallops) in interstate commerce, proposals are submitted to the ISSC for adoption into the National Shellfish Sanitation Program. For example, FDA officials stated that the agency submits proposals on validated detection methods from the agency’s HAB toxin projects for inclusion in the program; such methods must be adopted by the program in order for states to be allowed to use them for regulatory purposes. Additionally, this cooperative program adopted guidance levels for biotoxins that are acceptable in bivalve mollusks. FDA officials stated that having this arrangement enables the agency to expend its federal funds primarily on development and validation of methods for detecting HAB toxins in shellfish, while state programs focus on implementing those methods to monitor and make decisions about shellfish harvesting bans when necessary.

Ohio Lake Erie Phosphorus Task Force II In 2012, the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency, in partnership with the Ohio Lake Erie Commission, the Ohio Department of Agriculture, and the Ohio Department of Natural Resources, reconvened the Ohio Lake Erie Phosphorus Task Force as a Phase II effort. The purpose of this task force’s second phase was to reduce phosphorous loading and associated HABs in Lake Erie and surrounding watersheds by (1) developing reduction targets for total and dissolved reactive phosphorus that can be used to track future progress and (2) developing policy and management recommendations based upon new and emerging data and information. As members of this task force or its subcommittees, NOAA, EPA, and other federal agencies (Agricultural Research Service, NRCS, and USGS) contributed relevant information and expertise. For example, a NOAA model showing the relationship between nutrient loads and the size and duration of a bloom were central to the task force’s recommended nutrient load targets for the Maumee River watershed, a tributary to Lake Erie. Additionally, EPA officials stated that the agency provided $122,429 via a grant to the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency to reconvene this task force and build upon its 2010 report and to broaden participation to include agribusiness representatives and crop consultants.

International Efforts

Beginning in late 2015, the Great Lakes Commission and Great Lakes scientists from the United States and Canada (initially coordinated by USGS’ Great Lakes Science Center) launched a 2-year effort to create a HABs Collaboratory. The overall goal is to create a collective laboratory (“collaboratory”) to enable science-based information-sharing among scientists, as well as between scientists and federal, state, and local decision-makers working on HABs in the Great Lakes.

The HABs Collaboratory partnership model builds on similar coordination efforts to address certain invasive species in the Great Lakes. Initially, the effort will focus on the three GLRI priority watersheds (Saginaw River/Bay, Maumee River/western basin of Lake Erie, and Lower Fox/Green Bay). HABs Collaboratory efforts will include (1) establishing the HABs Collaboratory by identifying and engaging the appropriate scientists and managers, (2) developing a common knowledge basis of current science and science needs, and (3) developing strategies for transmitting key scientific information to managers and for getting management feedback to support science-based decisions.

Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization’s Intergovernmental Panel on Harmful Algal Blooms (IPHAB)

IPHAB aims to foster effective management of, and scientific research on, HABs to understand their causes, predict their occurrences, and mitigate their effects. In 2015, IPHAB reviewed progress on harmful algae priorities and initiatives in partnership with other international organizations, such as the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea and the International Maritime Organization, according to NOAA officials. IPHAB meets every other April and generates a 2-year work plan that must be endorsed by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission the following June, NOAA officials stated, and IPHAB typically addresses topics of broad interest where global coordination will accelerate the science needed to support the management of HABs. According to officials from NOAA—which chaired the panel from 2010 to 2014 and leads the U.S. delegation to IPHAB—these collaborative efforts include the following: rapid progress on HAB detection method development and technology transfer; synthesizing information on the likely impacts of climate change on HAB distributions and impacts; collaboration on improving HAB forecasting capabilities; identification of HAB threats to finfish aquaculture; coordination of international testing standards to support international commerce in fish and shellfish; documentation of HAB taxonomy online to serve as a global resource for identification of HAB species; and forging connections with health and food organizations (e.g., the World Health Organization and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) to better address the impacts of HABs on human health and food security.

International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES)

ICES is an intergovernmental organization whose main objective is to increase the scientific knowledge of the marine environment and its living resources and to use this knowledge to provide unbiased, non-political advice to authorities. According to NOAA officials, the United States has been a member of ICES since 1912 and, in recent years, has strengthened its leadership role, particularly in the advisory committees on marine pollution and on fisheries management, to direct the organization's work toward issues and concerns of U.S. interest. NOAA officials also reported that U.S. representatives participate in many of the ICES advisory and standing committees. Each ICES member country has two delegates, NOAA officials stated, and the current U.S. delegates are from NOAA’s Northeast Fisheries Science Center and from academia.

According to ICES’ website, the organization considers both how human activities affect marine ecosystems and how ecosystems affect human activities. In this manner, ICES aims to ensure that best-available science is accessible for decision-makers to make informed choices about the sustainable use of the marine environment and ecosystems. To achieve this objective, ICES prioritizes, organizes, delivers, and disseminates research needed to fill gaps in marine knowledge related to ecological, political, societal, and economic issues. ICES delivers scientific publications, information, and management advice requested by member countries and international organizations and commissions.

To address HABs specifically, the Working Group on HAB Dynamics serves as a forum for ICES and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission to review and discuss HAB events and to provide advice and updates on the state of HABs annually, according to NOAA officials. This working group also facilitates interaction among scientists working in diverse areas of HAB science and monitoring and provides a forum for discussing various approaches to HAB research. Serving as a liaison to the working group on behalf of NOAA, agency officials stated, the U.S. National Office for Harmful Algal Blooms interacts with federal and academic colleagues to compile annual reports of HAB events in the United States and to update decadal maps for all U.S. HAB events.

International Joint Commission (IJC)

The IJC is an international organization created by the Boundary Waters Treaty, signed by Canada and the United States in 1909. According to NOAA officials, the IJC has set up more than 20 boards, made up of experts from the United States and Canada, to help it carry out its responsibilities; the Great Lakes Water Quality Board, Great Lakes Science Advisory Board, and Health Professionals Advisory Board periodically address and coordinate research related to HABs in the Great Lakes. For example, NOAA serves on the Great Lakes Science Advisory Board and provides advice on HAB and hypoxia research, which the IJC uses to identify needs and recommendations for water quality work in the Great Lakes region. In turn, NOAA uses IJC recommendations to inform the agency’s goals, products, and services.

Academic-Led Effort

Established to provide a collective voice for the academic, management, and stakeholder communities, this committee’s mission is to facilitate coordination and communication of HAB activities at a national level. Its activities include: fostering communication between all components of the HAB community and communicate these activities through the U.S. National Office for Harmful Algal Blooms (located at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution), biennial National HAB Conferences (most recently held in November 2015), and listservs and websites; responding to requests from Congress or federal and state entities for information or guidance on HAB issues; and raising the visibility and understanding of HAB issues nationally.

Co-chaired by researchers from an academic institution and a non-profit marine research institution, the committee’s formal and ex-officio members include NOAA, EPA, CDC, FDA, NIEHS, NSF, and USGS. The committee was formed after the need for better coordination within the HAB research and management communities—and for enhanced communication with federal agencies—was identified in Harmful Algal Research and Response: A National Environmental Science Strategy 2005-2015, a report published in 2005 with support from NOAA’s National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science.

Federal Interagency Partnerships

Through our interviews with agency officials and their written responses to our questionnaire, we identified a number of partnerships between two or more federal agencies directly related to their HAB work in recent years. This list is not comprehensive but is intended to illustrate examples of federal interagency, HAB-related partnerships beyond the coordination efforts discussed above. Additional examples of such partnerships are identified in the IWG-HABHRCA report to Congress, Harmful Algal Blooms and Hypoxia Comprehensive Research Plan and Action Strategy: An Interagency Report.

Cyanobacteria Assessment Network (CyAN) Project

EPA leads this multi‐federal agency project with USGS, NASA, and NOAA to use remote-sensing ocean color satellite data to develop an early warning system to protect the environment and human health. A collaborative effort officially launched in October 2015, of CyAN’s is to support the environmental management and public use of U.S. lakes and estuaries by providing the ability to detect and quantify algal blooms and related water quality using satellite data records. Specifically, NOAA officials stated, NOAA currently uses remote sensing and modeling to monitor and forecast HABs in larger bodies of water, such as Lake Erie and along ocean coasts. CyAN aims to expand these monitoring and detection capabilities to provide data that the federal partners can use to improve HAB monitoring products and extend them to smaller lakes and reservoirs throughout the United States. In this manner, NOAA and EPA officials added, the partnership is building on, rather than reinventing, HAB detection techniques developed by NOAA and applying those techniques to other freshwater systems. In 2015, according to the CyAN Project’s website, the agencies began using ocean color satellite data to help develop an early warning indicator for algal blooms in freshwater systems and an information distribution system for expedient public health advisories. The project will initially focus on selected states—, including Ohio, Florida, California, Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island—for the first year, and then will expand to all 48 continental states.

According to NIEHS officials, the two agencies meet periodically to exchange information and coordinate research efforts on human health effects of cyanotoxins. Prior discussions have focused on toxicology research needs for microcystins, cylindrospermopsin, and anatoxins that could be addressed by the National Toxicology Program, an interagency program based at NIEHS.

Beyond their collaboration on the working group focused on OHHABS, FDA officials reported that these two agencies have a regularly scheduled conference call to discuss foodborne HAB surveillance, specifically. This collaboration is aimed at sharing information and reporting events, ensuring consistency in case definitions, and eliminating duplication of effort.

Interagency Group on HABs Research

According to EPA officials, EPA, CDC, USGS, NOAA, and FDA share expertise and develop methods to detect HAB-associated toxins in biological specimens.

These two agencies collaborate and provide joint funding for some HAB- related research projects. According to NIEHS officials, this active and ongoing collaboration has been in effect since 2005 between NIEHS’ Oceans and Human Health Program and NSF’s Division of Ocean Sciences. For example, NIEHS officials stated, the two agencies collaborated in supporting eight HAB-related projects whose grantees were conducting research on health effects of HABs as well as research on developing novel strategies for forecasting HAB events, as of March 2016. NIEHS officials also stated that there are clear boundaries in terms of what each agency supports in each grant that corresponds to the two agencies’ different missions. This collaboration, in NIEHS officials’ view, fosters the transdisciplinary approaches of these grants and addresses questions that cut across the specific areas of research that each agency typically supports.

USGS and National Park Service

USGS has assisted the National Park Service with collecting and testing water samples and ensuring that appropriate and necessary research is conducted within national park units to inform protection of wildlife and human health. For example, from 2012 to 2013, USGS collected samples from 4 Lake Michigan beach sites at Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore and from 16 inland lakes across three national park units in Michigan and detected microcystins at several sites. The results of this study provided baseline information to park managers and scientists about the occurrence, types, and levels of algal toxins that had not previously been observed.

Appendix IV: Federal Agencies’ Harmful Algal Bloom-Related Websites

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

HAB-Associated Illness (http://www.cdc.gov/habs/): Provides a brief description and links to frequently asked questions; illness and symptoms; sources of exposure and risk factors; factors that promote HAB growth; how to stay healthy and prevent illness; publications, data, and statistics; health promotion materials; and One Health Harmful Algal Bloom System (OHHABS), an electronic system for voluntary reporting of HAB events and associated cases of human and animal illness.

Technical Assistance in State and Local Response to HABs (http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/hsb/cwh/technical_hab.htm): Briefly describes that public health representatives may consult and receive technical assistance from CDC to develop their responses to HAB events, and provides recent examples of such assistance given to state and federal agencies.

Department of the Navy (Navy)

Commercial Space-Borne Hyperspectral HAB Products (http://www7333.nrlssc.navy.mil/view_project.php?project=ruhul_algal_bl oom): Briefly describes and provides images from the Naval Research Laboratory’s work using space-borne sensors to develop more reliable detection, quantification, and identification of HABs to help mitigate health risk and economic damages. Navy describes these sensors as ideal tools for HAB detection because of their spatial coverage and low cost.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

Cyanobacterial HABs (https://www.epa.gov/nutrient-policy-data/cyanohabs): Contains links to information on what freshwater cyanobacterial HABs are, causes and prevention, detection, health and ecological effects, control and treatment, research by EPA and other federal agencies, news, policies and regulations for toxins produced by cyanobacteria (cyanotoxins) at the state and international levels, and guidelines and recommendations.

Epidemiology & Health Effects of Cyanobacteria (https://www.epa.gov/water-research/epidemiology-health-effects-cyanob acteria): Briefly describes EPA research on (1) drinking water treatment safety; (2) characterizing cyanobacterial toxins; (3) determining toxigenic properties; (4) cyanobacteria, nutrients, and land use; (5) disease outbreaks related to toxic algal blooms; and (6) development and application of a fiber optic array system for detection and enumeration of potentially toxic cyanobacteria.

Inland HAB Discussion Group (https://www.epa.gov/nutrient-policy-data/inland-hab-discussion-group): Describes the group and provides links to webinars dating back to October 2012 and contact information for CDC, U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), and EPA.

Nutrient Pollution – HABs (https://www.epa.gov/nutrientpollution/harmful-algal-blooms): Contains links for more information on causes, effects, “what you can do to help” (volunteer to monitor waterbodies), preventing nutrient pollution (in your home, yard, community, and classroom), webinars, videos, and national and state resources.

Executive Office of the President

National Ocean Council (https://www.whitehouse.gov/administration/eop/oceans): Provides information on the council and the National Ocean Policy; the National Ocean Policy Implementation Plan to address challenges facing the ocean, our coasts, and the Great Lakes (including four action items related to HABs); the final recommendations of the Interagency Ocean Policy Task Force; and marine planning, a science-based tool that regions can use to address specific ocean management challenges and advance their economic development and conservation objectives.

Subcommittee on Ocean Science and Technology (https://www.whitehouse.gov/administration/eop/ostp/nstc/oceans): Briefly describes the subcommittee’s purpose and provides links to documents and reports, such as the Harmful Algal Blooms and Hypoxia Comprehensive Research Plan and Action Strategy: An Interagency Report to Congress in February 2016; a scientific assessment of hypoxia in U.S. coastal waters from 2010; older scientific assessments of marine and freshwater HABs from 2008; a HAB management and response assessment and plan from 2008; and a national assessment of efforts to predict and respond to HABs in U.S. waters from 2007. As previously stated, the subcommittee oversees the Interagency Working Group on the Harmful Algal Bloom and Hypoxia Research and Control Act (IWG- HABHRCA) and is co-chaired by the Office of Science and Technology Policy, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and the National Science Foundation (NSF).

Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

Bad Bug Book (http://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodborneIllnessContaminants/CausesOfIllnes sBadBugBook/): Provides current information about the major known agents, including HAB toxins, that cause foodborne illness. Each chapter in the book is about a pathogen—a bacterium, virus, or parasite—or a natural toxin that can contaminate food and cause illness. The book contains scientific and technical information about the major pathogens that cause these kinds of illnesses. A separate “consumer box” in each chapter provides non-technical information about what can make a person sick and, more important, how to prevent illness. The second edition of the Bad Bug Book was published in 2012 by FDA’s Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition.

Seafood (http://www.fda.gov/Food/PopularTopics/ucm341987.htm): Provides access to content about seafood, including fish and shellfish, from across the Food section of fda.gov. Grouped according to target audiences, these links include access to up-to-date consumer information and advice, guidance documents, regulation, and science and research content. Some information accessible on this page relates to, but may not be specific to, HAB toxins.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

Citizen Scientists Track Algal Blooms (https://re.grc.nasa.gov/citizen-scientists-track-algal-blooms/): Encourages general aviation pilots, functioning as citizen scientists, to help develop an early warning system to alert communities of ensuing algal blooms along the coastline. Provides an opportunity for pilots to obtain high-resolution aerial images and videos as they fly over potentially affected waterways.

National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS)

Database of Environmental Health Science Research Funded by NIEHS (http://tools.niehs.nih.gov/portfolio/index.cfm/): Allows users to search for research funded by NIEHS using key words (e.g., algal bloom). The site also lists some active HAB research grantees, and provides links to their published research findings, through the “Search By Topic” option under the “Oceans and Human Health Centers” row in the “Center And Center-Like Programs” table. Other HAB research grantees can be identified using a keyword search.

HABs (http://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/algal-blooms/index.cfm): Briefly describes what HABs are, why HABs occur, how people are exposed, health effects, and other impacts. Also provides information on NIEHS efforts to (1) study potential long-term health effects of low-dose exposure to HAB toxins, (2) develop rapid detection of HABs to help state officials protect public health with minimal economic impacts to fisheries and recreational areas, (3) improve prediction, and (4) study a compound produced by certain HABs that can help to remove mucus from the lungs and may have potential as a treatment for cystic fibrosis.

Oceans and Human Health (http://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/supported/centers/oceans/index.cfm): Briefly describes how oceans can affect human health in many ways, such as by eating toxin-contaminated seafood, swimming in or drinking toxin-contaminated water, and breathing airborne HAB toxins; NIEHS and NSF jointly funded research on marine-related health issues, including techniques for more accurate and earlier detection of HABs; and other relevant NIEHS efforts. The site also provides links to program highlights and publications.

National Park Service

Oceans – Water Quality (https://www.nps.gov/subjects/oceans/water-quality.htm): Briefly describes various threats to water quality, including plastics, solid waste, chemical waste, toxic waste, HABs, disease, oil spills, and noise.

Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS)

Great Lakes Restoration Initiative (http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/national/home/?cid=n rcsdev11_023903): Briefly describes, among other things, that (1) the Great Lakes Restoration Initiative (GLRI) was launched in 2010 with NRCS as one of a number of federal agency partners; (2) GLRI helps NRCS accelerate conservation efforts on private lands located in targeted watersheds throughout the Great Lakes region by working with farmers and landowners to combat invasive species, protect watersheds and shorelines from non-point source pollution, and restore wetlands and other habitat areas; (3) the lakes suffer from pollution—caused by urban runoff and sprawl, sewage disposal, agriculture, industry, and other sources—that damages the aquatic ecosystems and poses risks to human health; and (4) algal blooms in Lake Erie have underscored the importance of continued conservation efforts.

Great Lakes HABs and Hypoxia (http://www.glerl.noaa.gov/res/HABs_and_Hypoxia/): Allows access to NOAA’s Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory resources, such as Water Quality and Monitoring Data from field monitoring and continuous, real-time observations in western Lake Erie and two other lakes; Lake Erie HAB Bulletins—which provide biweekly forecasts— dating back to July 2009; near-real-time information on the presence of microcystin in western Lake Erie; hyperspectral and satellite images; and an experimental “Western Lake Erie HAB Tracker,” a tool that combines remote sensing, monitoring, and modeling to produce daily 5- day forecasts of bloom transport and concentration. The site also provides links to frequently asked questions, publications, a HAB photo gallery, and a Hypoxia Warning System that is under development to provide information to drinking water managers in the central Lake Erie basin.

Integrated Ocean Observing System (IOOS) – HABs and Hypoxia (https://ioos.noaa.gov/project/ott-habs-hypoxia/): Describes IOOS’ Ocean Technology Transition Project awards related to HABs and hypoxia. IOOS' Ocean Technology Transition Project works with scientists and industry to make operational technologies to monitor ocean conditions that can affect human health. IOOS has funded four such projects in support of HAB and hypoxia detection and monitoring.

National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science (NCCOS) – Harmful Algal Blooms (https://coastalscience.noaa.gov/research/habs/default): Provides an overview of HABs and links to NOAA’s NCCOS research programs (Ecology and Oceanography; Monitoring and Event Response; and Prevention, Control, and Mitigation), forecasting, HABHRCA, sensors, marine biotoxin impacts, rapid response, and other related topics.

National Ocean Service – Harmful Algal Blooms (http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/hazards/hab/): Provides links to NOAA’s forecast for red tide in Florida, a West Coast HAB update, HAB forecast bulletins, research, “ecoforecasting” services, and additional information.

NCCOS – Our Research Projects (https://coastalscience.noaa.gov/projects): Allows access to NCCOS’ research projects; users can search by title, a project’s primary contact(s), keyword or phrase in the project’s description, research area (including HABs), or regional area.

NCCOS – Phytoplankton Monitoring Network (https://products.coastalscience.noaa.gov/pmn/): Promotes a better understanding of HABs through volunteer monitoring, provides resources for current and prospective volunteers, and allows volunteers to submit new data and view historical data.

NOAA Harmful Algal Bloom Operational Forecast System (http://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/hab/overview.html): Houses NOAA’s HAB operational forecast system, which aims to assist HAB mitigation through early detection and forecasting in the Gulf of Mexico; and provides links to local beach condition reports in Florida and Texas, bulletins, health information, and other resources.

Northwest Fisheries Science Center – HAB Research Partnerships (https://www.nwfsc.noaa.gov/hab/research/research_partnerships/): Provides information on the SoundToxins partnership, a phytoplankton and toxin monitoring program that provides early warning for HABs in Puget Sound; a Pacific Northwest HAB forecasting bulletin; and the Olympic Region Harmful Algal Blooms Partnership.

Northwest Fisheries Science Center – Wildlife Algal-Toxin Research and Response Network for the U.S. West Coast (https://www.nwfsc.noaa.gov/research/divisions/efs/warrnwest/): Hosts a West Coast-wide surveillance program that monitors for domoic acid, saxitoxin, and the toxins responsible for diarrhetic shellfish poisoning. The sampling network consists of federal, state, public, private, and academic partners and the major marine mammal stranding networks.

Award Search Database (http://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/): Provides access to a searchable database of award abstracts for all NSF-funded research projects, dating back to 1989. The database is searchable using key terms (such as algal bloom), title, abstract, names, institutions, programs, and other information associated with an award.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE)

Aquatic Nuisance Species Research Program (https://el.erdc.dren.mil/ansrp/ansrp.html): Provides USACE managers and operational personnel with information on aquatic nuisance species, including basic life history and ecological information, risk assessment tools, preventative strategies, and cost-effective and environmentally sound management options. The program is an expansion of USACE’s Zebra Mussel Research Program and provides information not only on zebra mussels, but on all aquatic nuisance species fauna, including HAB species. The program’s main objective is to conduct interdisciplinary research on the prevention, control, and management of aquatic nuisance species that affect USACE projects and public facilities. Reports from research conducted on HAB species can be found in the website’s Technology Transfer section.

Louisville District (http://www.lrl.usace.army.mil/Missions/Civil-Works/Water-Information/HA Bs/): Provides contact information for reporting signs of a potential HAB in Kentucky, Indiana, Ohio, and the Ohio River; and information on HAB conditions, cyanobacteria threshold values, what HABs are, and what causes them to form.

BioData – Aquatic Bioassessment Data for the Nation (https://aquatic.biodata.usgs.gov/landing.action): Provides an online database of biological community and physical habitat (“bioassessment”) data, which includes information on the occurrence of algal species, collected by USGS scientists in stream ecosystems across the nation. The database contains data from over 15,000 fish, aquatic macroinvertebrate, and algae community samples as part of USGS’ mission to describe and understand the Earth.

Cyanobacterial Blooms: Tastes, Odors, and Toxins (http://ks.water.usgs.gov/cyanobacteria): Provides information from USGS’ Kansas Water Science Center on water-related research lecture series, current study areas, and relevant publications dating back to 2002.

Drinking Water Exposure to Chemical and Pathogenic Contaminants: Algal Toxins and Water Quality (http://health.usgs.gov/dw_contaminants/algal_toxins.html): Provides an overall description and links to algal toxin studies, fact sheets, USGS algal-related studies, methods, and protocols.

USGS Publications Warehouse (https://pubs.er.usgs.gov): Provides access to over 130,000 publications written by USGS scientists over the past century (including those on algal blooms and toxins), and is searchable using key terms.

Water Quality Portal (http://www.waterqualitydata.us/): Integrates data, including HAB and hypoxia data, collected by over 400 state, federal, tribal, and local agencies for this cooperative effort by USGS, EPA, and the National Water Quality Monitoring Council.

Appendix V: Contact and Staff Acknowledgments

GAO Contact

Staff Acknowledgments

In addition to the contact named above, Diane Raynes (Assistant Director), Josey Ballenger, Mark Braza, Leah English, and Richard Johnson made major contributions to this report. Ellen Fried, Carol Henn, Karen Howard, Mae Liles, and Sarah Veale also made contributions to this report.

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