Each brotherhood elects two delegates who take part in the National Ecclesiastical Assembly .
The brotherhood makes decisions concerning the inner affairs of the monastery .
Each Armenian celibate priest becomes a member of the brotherhood in which he has studied and ordained in or under the jurisdiction of which he has served .
The Monastic Brotherhood consists of the celibate clergy of the monastery who are led by an abbot .
As of 2010, there were three brotherhoods in the Armenian Church – the brotherhood of the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin, the brotherhood of St. James at the Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem and the brotherhood of the See of Cilicia .
The history of the Great House of Cilicia as an autocephalous church is as follows: after the fall of Ani and the Armenian Kingdom of the Bagradits in 1045, masses of Armenians migrated to Cilicia and the Catholicossate settled there .
The seat of the church (now known as the Catholicossate of the Great House of Cilicia) was first established in Sivas (AD 1058) moving to Tavbloor (1062), then to Dzamendav (1066), Dzovk (1116), Hromgla (1149), and finally to Sis (1293), then-capital of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia.
Beginning in 1293 and continuing for more than six centuries, the city of Sis (mode rn-day Kozan, Adana, Turkey) was the center of the Catholicossate of the Great House of Cilicia.
The seat of the church (now known as the Catholicossate of the Great House of Cilicia) was first established in Sivas (AD 1058) moving to Tavbloor (1062), then to Dzamendav (1066), Dzovk (1116), Hromgla (1149), and finally to Sis (1293), then-capital of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia. Beginning in 1293 and continuing for more than six centuries , the city of Sis (modern-day Kozan, Adana, Turkey) was the center of the Catholicossate of the Great House of Cilicia.
Beginning in 1293 and continuing for more than six centuries, the city of Sis (modern-day Kozan, Adana, Turkey) was the center of the Catholicossate of the Great House of Cilicia.
The division between the two sees intensified during the Soviet period and to some extent reflected the politics of the Cold War .
 The Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF) Dashnaktsutyun social democratic political party that had dominated the independent Republic of Armenia from 1918 to 1920 and was active in the diaspora, saw the Church and clergy, with its worldwide headquarters at the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin in the Soviet Republic of Armenia, as a captive Communist puppet, and accused its clergy in the US as unduly influenced by Communists, particularly as the clergy were reluctant to participate in nationalist events and memorials that could be perceived as anti-Soviet .
On December 24, 1933, a group of assassins attacked Eastern Diocese Archbishop Levon Tourian as he walked down the aisle of Holy Cross Armenian Church in the Washington Heights neighborhood of New York City during the Divine Liturgy, and killed him with a butcher's knife.
 The incident divided the Armenian community, as ARF sympathizers established congregations independent of the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin , declaring loyalty instead to the See based in Antelias in Lebanon.
 The division was formalized in 1956 when the Antelias (Cilisian) See broke away from the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin See.
Liturgically speaking, the Church has much in common both with the Latin Rite in its externals, especially as it was at the time of separation, as well as with the Eastern Orthodox Church.
For example, Armenian bishops wear mitres almost identical to those of Western bishops. They usually do not use a full iconostasis, but rather a sanctuary veil (a curtain usually with a cross or divine image in the center, used also by the Syriac Churches).
They usually do not use a full iconostasis, but rather a sanctuary veil (a curtain usually with a cross or divine image in the center, used also by the Syriac Churches).
The liturgical music is Armenian chant .
Many of the Armenian churches also have pipe organs to accompany their chant .
The status of the Armenian Apostolic Church within the Republic of Armenia is defined in the country's constitution .
Article 8.1 of the Constitution of Armenia states: "The Republic of Armenia recognizes the exclusive historical mission of the Armenian Apostolic Holy Church as a national church, in the spiritual life, development of the national culture and preservation of the national identity of the people of Armenia."
Article 8.1 of the Constitution of Armenia states: "The Republic of Armenia recognizes the exclusive historical mission of the Armenian Apostolic Holy Church as a national church , in the spiritual life, development of the national culture and preservation of the national identity of the people of Armenia."
Article 8.1 of the Constitution of Armenia states: "The Republic of Armenia recognizes the exclusive historical mission of the Armenian Apostolic Holy Church as a national church, in the spiritual life, development of the national culture and preservation of the national identity of the people of Armenia. " Among others, ethnographer Hranush Kharatyan has questioned the constitutionality of the phrase "national church".
Article 8.1 of the Constitution of Armenia states: "The Republic of Armenia recognizes the exclusive historical mission of the Armenian Apostolic Holy Church as a national church, in the spiritual life, development of the national culture and preservation of the national identity of the people of Armenia." Among others, ethnographer Hranush Kharatyan has questioned the constitutionality of the phrase "national church".
At the First Council of Dvin in 506 the synod of the Armenian, Georgian, and Caucasian Albanian bishops were assembled during the reign of Catholicos Babken I.
At the First Council of Dvin in 506 the synod of the Armenian, Georgian, and Caucasian Albanian bishops were assembled during the reign of Catholicos Babken I.
The participation of the Catholicoi of Georgia and Albania were set to make clear the position of the churches concerning the Council of Chalcedon. The "Book of Epistles" mentions that 20 bishops, 14 laymen, and many nakharars (rulers of Armenia) participated in the council.
The "Book of Epistles" mentions that 20 bishops, 14 laymen, and many nakharars (rulers of Armenia) participated in the council.
Almost a century later ( 609–610 ) the 3rd Council of Dvin was convened during the reign of Catholicos Abraham I of Aghbatank and Prince Smbat Bagratuni, with clergymen and laymen participating.
Almost a century later (609–610) the 3rd Council of Dvin was convened during the reign of Catholicos Abraham I of Aghbatank and Prince Smbat Bagratuni, with clergymen and laymen participating.
The Georgian Church disagreed with the Armenian Church having approved the christology of Chalcedon. This council was convened to clarify the relationship between the Armenian and Georgian churches.
The Georgian Church disagreed with the Armenian Church having approved the christology of Chalcedon.
This council was convened to clarify the relationship between the Armenian and Georgian churches .
However, again like other Oriental Orthodox Churches, the Armenian Orthodox Church argues that the identification as "monophysitism" is an incorrect description of its position. It considers Monophysitism, as taught by Eutyches and condemned at Chalcedon, a heresy and only disagrees with the formula defined by the Council of Chalcedon.
It considers Monophysitism, as taught by Eutyches and condemned at Chalcedon, a heresy and only disagrees with the formula defined by the Council of Chalcedon .
The Armenian Church instead adheres to the doctrine defined by Cyril of Alexandria , considered as a saint by the Chalcedonian Churches as well, who described Christ as being of one incarnate nature, where both divine and human nature are united (miaphysis).
To distinguish this from Eutychian and other versions of Monophysitism this position is called miaphysitism .
It is headed by a Catholicos (the plural is Catholicoi ).
Although it is traditional in Eastern churches for the supreme head of the church to be named 'Patriarch ', in the Armenian Apostolic Church hierarchy, the position of the Catholicos is higher than that of the Patriarch.
Although it is traditional in Eastern churches for the supreme head of the church to be named 'Patriarch', in the Armenian Apostolic Church hierarchy, the position of the Catholicos is higher than that of the Patriarch. The Armenian Apostolic Church presently has two catholicoi (Karekin II, Supreme Patriarch and Catholicos of All Armenians, and Aram I, Catholicos of the Great House of Cilicia), and two patriarchs, plus primates, archbishops and bishops, lower clergy and laity serving the Church.
The Armenian Apostolic Church presently has two catholicoi (Karekin II, Supreme Patriarch and Catholicos of All Armenians, and Aram I, Catholicos of the Great House of Cilicia), and two patriarchs, plus primates, archbishops and bishops, lower clergy and laity serving the Church.
The Armenian Apostolic Church presently has two catholicoi (Karekin II, Supreme Patriarch and Catholicos of All Armenians, and Aram I, Catholicos of the Great House of Cilicia), and two patriarchs, plus primates, archbishops and bishops, lower clergy and laity serving the Church.
The Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin operates two seminaries, the Gevorkian Theological Seminary at the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin, and the Vaskenian Theological Academy at Lake Sevan .
Over a 6-year course of simultaneous study, students receive both a bachelor's degree and a master's degree in Theology.
Over a 6-year course of simultaneous study, students receive both a bachelor's degree and a master's degree in Theology .
The Great House of Cilicia operates one seminary, the Seminary of Antelias at Bikfaya , Lebanon.
Armenian. religious minorities and human rights groups also expressed serious concern over the amendments, with human rights activist Stepan Danielian stating "the Armenian Apostolic Church today wants to have a monopoly on religion".
In 2009 , further constitutional amendments were drafted that would make it a crime for non-traditional religious groups to proselytize on adherents of the Apostolic Church.
Armenian.religious minorities and human rights groups also expressed serious concern over the amendments, with human rights activist Stepan Danielian stating "the Armenian Apostolic Church today wants to have a monopoly on religion".
Armenian.religious minorities and human rights groups also expressed serious concern over the amendments, with human rights activist Stepan Danielian stating "the Armenian Apostolic Church today wants to have a monopoly on religion". The Armenian Church defines religious groups operating outside its domain as "sects" and, in the words of spokesman Bishop Arshak Khachatrian, considers that "their activities in Armenia are nothing but a denial of the creed of the Armenian Apostolic Church, which is considered the national religion of the Armenian people".
Armenian.religious minorities and human rights groups also expressed serious concern over the amendments, with human rights activist Stepan Danielian stating "the Armenian Apostolic Church today wants to have a monopoly on religion".
Due to the Bolshevik revolution and the subsequent annexation of Armenia by the U.S.S.R ., all functioning religious institutions in Armenia and NKAO were closed down, and their clergymen either exiled or shot.
Due to the Bolshevik revolution and the subsequent annexation of Armenia by the U.S.S.R., all functioning religious institutions in Armenia and NKAO were closed down, and their clergymen either exiled or shot.
Due to the Bolshevik revolution and the subsequent annexation of Armenia by the U.S.S.R., all functioning religious institutions in Armenia and NKAO were closed down, and their clergymen either exiled or shot.
The Armenian Apostolic Church since 1989 restored or constructed more than 30 churches.
The Armenian Apostolic Church since 1989 restored or constructed more than 30 churches. In 2009 the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic government introduced a law entitled "Freedom of Conscience and Religious Organisations", article 8 of which provided that only the Armenian Apostolic Orthodox Church is allowed to preach on the territory of the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic.
In independent Armenia, the Armenian Apostolic Church has often been criticized for its perceived support of the government despite the formal separation of church and state in Armenia.
Large-scale construction of new churches in the independence period and the negligence of endangered historic churches by the Apostolic church (and the government) have also been criticized.
According to former Prime Minister Hrant Bagratyan religion and state management "have completely gotten mixed up".
Large-scale construction of new churches in the independence period and the negligence of endangered historic churches by the Apostolic church (and the government) have also been criticized.
According to former Prime Minister Hrant Bagratyan religion and state management "have completely gotten mixed up".
In recent years, several high-profile leaders of the church have been involved in controversies.
Pointing out to the 34% poverty rate in Armenia, Asbarez editor Ara Khachatourian called it "nothing but blasphemy".
In 2013 Navasard Ktchoyan, the Archbishop of the Araratian Diocese and Prime Minister Tigran Sargsyan were alleged to have been partners with a businessman charged with laundering US$10.7 million bank loan and then depositing most of it in accounts he controlled in Cyprus.
In 2011 it was revealed that Ktchoyan drives a Bentley (valued at $180,000-$280,000).
In 2013 Navasard Ktchoyan, the Archbishop of the Araratian Diocese and Prime Minister Tigran Sargsyan were alleged to have been partners with a businessman charged with laundering US$10.7 million bank loan and then depositing most of it in accounts he controlled in Cyprus.
In October 2013 Father Asoghik Karapetyan , the director of the Museum of the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin, stated on television that an atheist Armenian is not a "true Armenian".
In October 2013 Father Asoghik Karapetyan , the director of the Museum of the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin, stated on television that an atheist Armenian is not a "true Armenian".
In an editorial in the liberal Aravot daily Aram Abrahamyan suggested that religious identity should not be equated with national (ethnic) identity and it is up to every individual to decide whether they are Armenian or not, regardless of religion.
In October 2013 Father Asoghik Karapetyan , the director of the Museum of the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin, stated on television that an atheist Armenian is not a "true Armenian".
In an editorial in the liberal Aravot daily Aram Abrahamyan suggested that religious identity should not be equated with national (ethnic) identity and it is up to every individual to decide whether they are Armenian or not, regardless of religion.
The Armenian Apostolic Church ([Հայ Առաքելական Եկեղեցի, Hay Aṙak’elakan Yekeghetsi] error: {{lang-xx}}: text has italic markup (help))[a] is the national church of the Armenian people.
It is part of Oriental Orthodoxy and is one of the most ancient Christian communities.
Armenia is an early center of Christianity, and it was the first country to adopt Christianity as its official religion in the early 4th century (traditionally in 301 AD), by establishing this church.
Armenia is an early center of Christianity, and it was the first country to adopt Christianity as its official religion in the early 4th century (traditionally in 301 AD), by establishing this church.
The Armenian Apostolic Church ([Հայ Առաքելական Եկեղեցի, Hay Aṙak’elakan Yekeghetsi] error: {{lang-xx}}: text has italic markup (help))[a] is the national church of the Armenian people.
The Armenian Church claims apostolic succession through the apostles Bartholomew and Thaddeus.  According to legend, the latter of the two apostles is said to have cured Abgar V of Edessa of leprosy with the Image of Edessa, leading to his conversion in 30 AD.
 According to legend, the latter of the two apostles is said to have cured Abgar V of Edessa of leprosy with the Image of Edessa, leading to his conversion in 30 AD.
 According to legend, the latter of the two apostles is said to have cured Abgar V of Edessa of leprosy with the Image of Edessa, leading to his conversion in 30 AD.
 According to legend, the latter of the two apostles is said to have cured Abgar V of Edessa of leprosy with the Image of Edessa, leading to his conversion in 30 AD .
The Armenian Church claims apostolic succession through the apostles Bartholomew and Thaddeus.
According to and, Armenian Christians were persecuted by kings Axidares, Khosrov I, and Tiridates III , the last of whom was converted to Christianity by Gregory the Illuminator.
Ancient Armenia's adoption of Christianity as a state religion (the first state to do so) has been referred to Nina Garsoïan as "probably the most crucial step in its history."
Ancient Armenia's adoption of Christianity as a state religion (the first state to do so) has been referred to Nina Garsoïan as "probably the most crucial step in its history."
Other scholars as well have stated that the acceptance of Christianity by the Arsacid-Armenian rulers was partly, in defiance of the Sassanids .
According to and, Armenian Christians were persecuted by kings Axidares, Khosrov I, and Tiridates III , the last of whom was converted to Christianity by Gregory the Illuminator.
Tiridates declared Gregory to be the first Catholicos of the Armenian Church and sent him to Caesarea to be consecrated.
Tiridates declared Gregory to be the first Catholicos of the Armenian Church and sent him to Caesarea to be consecrated.
Tiridates declared Gregory to be the first Catholicos of the Armenian Church and sent him to Caesarea to be consecrated.
With the king 's help, he did so, along the lines of his vision.
While meditating in the old capital city of Vagharshapat, Gregory had a vision of Christ's coming to the earth to strike it with a hammer .
The Armenian Church began to distance itself from the Roman concept of the Universal Church when, in 373 , King Papas (Pap) appointed Catholicos Husik without first sending him to Caesarea for commissioning.
Christianity was strengthened in Armenia in the 5th century by the translation of the Bible into the Armenian language by the native theologian, monk, and scholar St. Mesrob Mashtots.
Christianity was strengthened in Armenia in the 5th century by the translation of the Bible into the Armenian language by the native theologian, monk, and scholar St. Mesrob Mashtots.
The Catholicos Sahak commissioned Mesrob to create an Armenian alphabet, which he completed in 406 .
Thus, the Bible and Liturgy were written in Greek or Syriac rather than Armenian.
Some macronyms can be multiply nested: the second-order acronym points to another one further down a hierarchy .
Fully expanded, "RARS" thus becomes: "Regional Advanced Television Infrared Observational Satellite Operational Vertical Sounder Retransmission Service" .
In an informal competition run by the magazine New Scientist, a fully documented specimen was discovered that may be the most deeply nested of all: RARS is the "Regional ATOVS Retransmission Service", ATOVS is "Advanced TOVS", TOVS is "TIROS operational vertical sounder" and TIROS is "Television infrared observational satellite".
Some macronyms can be multiply nested: the second-order acronym points to another one further down a hierarchy.
In an informal competition run by the magazine New Scientist, a fully documented specimen was discovered that may be the most deeply nested of all: RARS is the "Regional ATOVS Retransmission Service", ATOVS is "Advanced TOVS", TOVS is "TIROS operational vertical sounder" and TIROS is "Television infrared observational satellite".
The word is colinderies or colinda, an acronym for the Colonial and Indian Exposition held in London in that year."
In English, acronyms pronounced as words may be a 20th-century phenomenon.
There is only one known pre-twentieth-century [English] word with an acronymic origin and it was in vogue for only a short time in 1886 .
The word is colinderies or colinda, an acronym for the Colonial and Indian Exposition held in London in that year."
Linguist David Wilton in Word Myths:
The armed forces and government agencies frequently employ acronyms; some well-known examples from the United States are among the "alphabet agencies" (also jokingly referred to as "alphabet soup") created by Franklin D. Roosevelt (also of course known as FDR) under the New Deal.
The rapid advance of science and technology in recent centuries seems to be an underlying force driving the usage, as new inventions and concepts with multiword names create a demand for shorter, more manageable names.[citation needed] One representative example, from the U.S. Navy , is COMCRUDESPAC, which stands for commander, cruisers destroyers Pacific; it's also seen as "ComCruDesPac".
"YABA-compatible" (where YABA stands for " yet another bloody acronym ") is used to mean that a term's acronym can be pronounced but is not an offensive word, e.g., "When choosing a new name, be sure it is 'YABA-compatible'."
The armed forces and government agencies frequently employ acronyms; some well-known examples from the United States are among the "alphabet agencies" (also jokingly referred to as " alphabet soup ") created by Franklin D. Roosevelt (also of course known as FDR) under the New Deal.
The rapid advance of science and technology in recent centuries seems to be an underlying force driving the usage, as new inventions and concepts with multiword names create a demand for shorter, more manageable names.[citation needed] One representative example, from the U.S. Navy, is COMCRUDESPAC, which stands for commander , cruisers destroyers Pacific; it's also seen as "ComCruDesPac".
In addition, the College Scholastic Ability Test (대학수학능력시험, Daehak Suhang Neungryeok Siheom) is shortened to Suneung (수능, "S.A.").
Other acronyms can refer to the university's main subject, e.g. Korea National University of Education (한국교원대학교, Hanguk Gyowon Daehakgyo) is shortened to Gyowondae (교원대, "Big Ed." or "Ed.-U").
The Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (한국과학기술원, Hanguk Gwahak Gisulwon) is referred to as KAIST (카이스트, Kaiseuteu) in both English and Korean.
The 3 most prestigious schools in Korea are known as SKY (스카이, seukai), combining the first letter of their English names ( Seoul National, Korea, and Yonsei Universities ).
The 3 most prestigious schools in Korea are known as SKY (스카이, seukai), combining the first letter of their English names (Seoul National, Korea, and Yonsei Universities).
The use of acronyms has been further popularized with the emergence of Short Message Systems (SMS).
To fit messages into the 160 -character limit of SMS, acronyms such as "GF" (girlfriend), "LOL" (laughing out loud), and "DL" (download or down low) have been popularized into the mainstream.
To fit messages into the 160-character limit of SMS, acronyms such as " GF " (girlfriend), "LOL" (laughing out loud), and "DL" (download or down low) have been popularized into the mainstream.
To fit messages into the 160-character limit of SMS, acronyms such as "GF" (girlfriend), "LOL" ( laughing out loud ),
To fit messages into the 160-character limit of SMS, acronyms such as "GF" (girlfriend), "LOL" (laughing out loud), and " DL " (download or down low) have been popularized into the mainstream.
The PSC's members full designations are " Member of the Standing Committee of the Central Political Bureau of the Communist Party of China " (中国共产党中央政治局常务委员会委员); this was eventually drastically reduced to simply Changwei (常委), with the term Ruchang (入常) used increasingly for officials destined for a future seat on the PSC.
There are also cases where some longer phrases are abbreviated drastically, especially in Chinese politics, where proper nouns were initially translated from Soviet Leninist terms.
In another example, the word "全国人民代表大会" (National People's Congress) can be broken into four parts : "全国" =
For instance, the full name of China's highest ruling council, the Politburo Standing Committee (PSC), is " Standing Committee of the Central Political Bureau of the Communist Party of China " (中国共产党中央政治局常务委员会).
Having a key at the start or end of the publication obviates skimming over the text searching for an earlier use to find the expansion.
In addition, this feature enables readers possessing knowledge of the abbreviations not to have to encounter expansions ( redundant to such readers )
The first is that if they are not reading the entire publication sequentially (which is a common mode of reading), then they may encounter an acronym without having seen its expansion.
(This is especially important in the print medium, where no search utility is available.)
It is not uncommon for acronyms to be cited in a kind of false etymology, called a folk etymology , for a word.
For example, cop is commonly cited as being derived, it is presumed, from " constable on patrol ," and posh from "port out, starboard home".
Taboo words in particular commonly have such false etymologies: shit from "ship/store high in transit" or "special high-intensity training" and fuck from "for unlawful carnal knowledge", or "fornication under consent/command of the king".
With some of these specious expansions, the "belief" that the etymology is acronymic has clearly been tongue-in-cheek among many citers, as with "gentlemen only, ladies forbidden" for golf , although many other (more credulous) people have uncritically taken it for fact.
Some examples of the syllabic type are Gestapo rather than GSP (for Geheime Staatspolizei , 'secret state police'); Flak rather than FAK (for Fliegerabwehrkanone, anti-aircraft gun); Kripo rather than KP (for Kriminalpolizei, detective division police).
The extension of such contraction to a pervasive or whimsical degree has been mockingly labeled Aküfi (for Abkürzungsfimmel , strange habit of abbreviating).
Some examples of the syllabic type are Gestapo rather than GSP (for Geheime Staatspolizei, 'secret state police'); Flak rather than FAK (for Fliegerabwehrkanone, anti-aircraft gun); Kripo rather than KP (for Kriminalpolizei, detective division police).
To a greater degree than English does, German tends toward acronyms that use initial syllables rather than initial single letters, although it uses many of the latter type as well.
In some languages, especially those that use certain alphabets, many acronyms come from the governmental use, particularly in the military and law enforcement services .
The Indonesian military (TNI—Tentara Nasional Indonesia) and Indonesian police (POLRI—Kepolisian Republik Indonesia) are infamous for heavy acronyms use.
Examples include the Kopassus (Komando Pasukan Khusus; Special Forces Command), Kopaska (Komando Pasukan Katak; Frogmen Command), Kodim (Komando Distrik Militer; Military District Command—one of the Indonesian army's administrative divisions), Serka (Sersan Kepala; Head Sergeant), Akmil (Akademi Militer; Military Academy—in Magelang) and many other terms regarding ranks, units, divisions, procedures , etc.
Examples include the Kopassus (Komando Pasukan Khusus; Special Forces Command), Kopaska (Komando Pasukan Katak; Frogmen Command), Kodim (Komando Distrik Militer; Military District Command—one of the Indonesian army's administrative divisions), Serka (Sersan Kepala; Head Sergeant), Akmil (Akademi Militer; Military Academy—in Magelang) and many other terms regarding ranks, units, divisions, procedures, etc.
Another common example is RAM memory, which is redundant because RAM ( random-access memory ) includes the initial of the word memory.
PIN stands for personal identification number , obviating the second word in PIN number; in this case its retention may be motivated to avoid ambiguity with the homophonous word "pin".
Other examples include ATM machine ( automated teller machine machine), EAB bank (European American Bank bank), CableACE Award (cable award for cable excellence award), DC Comics (Detective Comics Comics), HIV virus (human immunodeficiency virus virus), Microsoft's NT Technology (New Technology Technology) and the formerly redundant SAT test (Scholastic Achievement/Aptitude/Assessment Test test, now simply SAT Reasoning Test).
Other examples include ATM machine (automated teller machine machine), EAB bank (European American Bank bank), CableACE Award (cable award for cable excellence award), DC Comics (Detective Comics Comics), HIV virus ( human immunodeficiency virus virus), Microsoft's NT Technology (New Technology Technology) and the formerly redundant SAT test (Scholastic Achievement/Aptitude/Assessment Test test, now simply SAT Reasoning Test)
In English, abbreviations have traditionally been written with a full stop/period/point in place of the deleted part to show the ellipsis of letters – although the colon and apostrophe have also had this role – and with a space after full stops (e.g. "A. D.").
In English, abbreviations have traditionally been written with a full stop/period/point in place of the deleted part to show the ellipsis of letters – although the colon and apostrophe have also had this role – and with a space after full stops (e.g. "A. D.").
Such punctuation is diminishing with the belief that the presence of all-capital letters is sufficient to indicate that the word is an abbreviation.
In the case of most acronyms, each letter is an abbreviation of a separate word and, in theory, should get its own termination mark.
In English, abbreviations have traditionally been written with a full stop/period/point in place of the deleted part to show the ellipsis of letters – although the colon and apostrophe have also had this role – and with a space after full stops (e.g. "A. D.").
A backronym (or bacronym) is a phrase that is constructed "after the fact" from a previously existing word .
For example, the novelist and critic Anthony Burgess once proposed that the word "book" ought to stand for " Box Of Organized Knowledge ."
A classic real-world example of this is the name of the predecessor to the Apple Macintosh, The Apple Lisa, which was said to refer to " Local Integrated Software Architecture ", but was actually named after Steve Jobs' daughter, born in 1978.
A classic real-world example of this is the name of the predecessor to the Apple Macintosh, The Apple Lisa, which was said to refer to "Local Integrated Software Architecture", but was actually named after Steve Jobs' daughter , born in 1978.
For example, i18n abbreviates internationalization, a computer-science term for adapting software for worldwide use.
The 18 represents the 18 letters that come between the first and the last in internationalization .
Localization can be abbreviated l10n, multilingualization m17n, and accessibility a11y.
Inconveniently long words used frequently in related conte x ts can be represented according to their letter count.
Examples include Crxn for crystallization and the series familiar to physicians for history, diagnosis, and treatment (hx, dx, tx).
Acronyms are sometimes contrived, that is, deliberately designed to be especially apt for the thing being named (by having a dual meaning or by borrowing the positive connotations of an existing word).
The clothing company French Connection began referring to itself as fcuk, standing for "French Connection United Kingdom."
The clothing company French Connection began referring to itself as fcuk , standing for "French Connection United Kingdom."
The clothing company French Connection began referring to itself as fcuk, standing for " French Connection United Kingdom. " The company then created T-shirts and several advertising campaigns that exploit the acronym's similarity to the taboo word "fuck."
will add an 's' following an apostrophe , as in "PC's".
However, Kate Turabian, writing about style in academic writings, allows for an apostrophe to form plural acronyms " only when an abbreviation contains internal periods or both capital and lowercase letters ".
Turabian would therefore prefer "DVDs" and "URLs" and " Ph.D.'s ", while the Modern Language Association explicitly says, "do not use an apostrophe to form the plural of an abbreviation".
Turabian would therefore prefer " DVDs " and "URLs" and "Ph.D.'s", while the Modern Language Association explicitly says, "do not use an apostrophe to form the plural of an abbreviation".
Turabian would therefore prefer "DVDs" and "URLs" and "Ph.D.'s", while the Modern Language Association explicitly says, " do not use an apostrophe to form the plural of an abbreviation ".
The US Department of Defense's Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is known for developing contrived acronyms to name projects, including RESURRECT, NIRVANA, and DUDE.
In July 2010 , Wired Magazine reported that DARPA announced programs to "..transform biology from a descriptive to a predictive field of science" named BATMAN and ROBIN for Biochronicity and Temporal Mechanisms Arising in Nature and Robustness of Biologically-Inspired Networks, a reference to the Batman and Robin comic-book superheroes.
transform biology from a descriptive to a predictive field of science " named BATMAN and ROBIN for Biochronicity and Temporal Mechanisms Arising in Nature and Robustness of Biologically-Inspired Networks, a reference to the Batman and Robin comic-book superheroes.
In July 2010, Wired Magazine reported that DARPA announced programs to "..transform biology from a descriptive to a predictive field of science" named BATMAN and ROBIN for Biochronicity and Temporal Mechanisms Arising in Nature and Robustness of Biologically-Inspired Networks, a reference to the Batman and Robin comic-book superheroes.
The US Department of Defense's Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is known for developing contrived acronyms to name projects , including RESURRECT, NIRVANA, and DUDE.
Although many users of natural language, when engaging in expository writing, show a predisposition to capitalizing the initials of the expansion for pedagogical emphasis (trying to thrust the reader's attention toward where the letters are coming from ), this has no basis in standard English orthography, which reserves capitals for maintaining the common-versus-proper distinction.
Although many users of natural language, when engaging in expository writing, show a predisposition to capitalizing the initials of the expansion for pedagogical emphasis (trying to thrust the reader's attention toward where the letters are coming from), this has no basis in standard English orthography, which reserves capitals for maintaining the common-versus-proper distinction .
Enforcing the latter, most professional editors case-fold such expansions to their standard orthography when editing manuscripts for publication. The justification is that (1) readers are smart enough to figure out where the letters came from, even without their being capitalized for emphasis, and that (2) common nouns do not take capital initials in standard English orthography.
that (2) common nouns do not take capital initials in standard English orthography .
Some acronyms are chosen deliberately to avoid a name considered undesirable : For example, Verliebt in Berlin (ViB), a German telenovela, was first intended to be Alles nur aus Liebe (All for Love), but was changed to avoid the resultant acronym ANAL.
Some acronyms are chosen deliberately to avoid a name considered undesirable: For example, Verliebt in Berlin (ViB), a German telenovela, was first intended to be Alles nur aus Liebe (All for Love), but was changed to avoid the resultant acronym ANAL.
Some acronyms are chosen deliberately to avoid a name considered undesirable: For example, Verliebt in Berlin (ViB), a German telenovela, was first intended to be Alles nur aus Liebe (All for Love), but was changed to avoid the resultant acronym ANAL .
Likewise, the Computer Literacy and Internet Technology qualification is known as CLaIT , rather than CLIT.
The argument that acronyms should have no different plural form (for example, "If D can stand for disc, it can also stand for discs") is in general disregarded because of the practicality in distinguishing singulars and plurals .
In this case, the options for making a possessive form of an abbreviation that is already in its plural form without a final s may seem awkward: for example, U.S., U.S.'s , etc.
In such instances, possessive abbreviations are often foregone in favor of simple attributive usage (for example, the U.S. economy) or expanding the abbreviation to its full form and then making the possessive (for example, the United States' economy).
This is not the case , however, when the abbreviation is understood to describe a plural noun already: For example, U.S. is short for United States, but not United State.
Multiple options arise when acronyms are spelled with periods and are pluralized: for example, whether compact discs may become C.D.'s, C.D.s, or CDs .
Possessive plurals that also include apostrophes for mere pluralization and periods appear especially complex: for example, the C.D.'s' labels (the labels of the compact discs).
SOSes ), or when pluralizing an abbreviation that has periods.
However, the style guide for the New York Times states that the addition of an apostrophe is necessary when pluralizing all abbreviations , preferring "PC's, TV's and VCR's".
At the copyediting end of the publishing industry, where the aforementioned distinction between acronyms (pronounced as a word) and initialisms (pronounced as a series of letters) is usually maintained,[citation needed] some publishers choose to use cap/lowercase (c/lc) styling for acronyms, reserving all-caps styling for initialisms.
its official style guide , dating from 2003, still recommends all-caps).
At the copyediting end of the publishing industry, where the aforementioned distinction between acronyms (pronounced as a word) and initialisms (pronounced as a series of letters) is usually maintained,[citation needed] some publishers choose to use cap/lowercase (c/lc) styling for acronyms , reserving all-caps styling for initialisms.
The logic of this style is that the pronunciation is reflected graphically by the capitalization scheme .
Although the word acronym is often used to refer to any abbreviation formed from initial letters , many dictionaries and usage commentators define acronym to mean an abbreviation that is pronounced as a word, in contradistinction to an initialism (or alphabetism)‍—‌an abbreviation formed from a string of initials (and possibly pronounced as individual letters).
Examples in reference works that make the distinction include NATO /ˈneɪtoʊ/, scuba /ˈskuːbə/, and radar /ˈreɪdɑːr/ for acronyms - and FBI /ˌɛfˌbiːˈaɪ/, CRT /ˌˈsiːˌɑːrˌtiː/, and HTML /ˌeɪtʃˌtiːˌɛmˈɛl/ for initialisms .
Although the word acronym is often used to refer to any abbreviation formed from initial letters, many dictionaries and usage commentators define acronym to mean an abbreviation that is pronounced as a word , in contradistinction to an initialism (or alphabetism)‍—‌an abbreviation formed from a string of initials (and possibly pronounced as individual letters).
Although the word acronym is often used to refer to any abbreviation formed from initial letters, many dictionaries and usage commentators define acronym to mean an abbreviation that is pronounced as a word , in contradistinction to an initialism (or alphabetism)‍—‌an abbreviation formed from a string of initials (and possibly pronounced as individual letters).
Although the word acronym is often used to refer to any abbreviation formed from initial letters, many dictionaries and usage commentators define acronym to mean an abbreviation that is pronounced as a word, in contradistinction to an initialism (or alphabetism)‍—‌an abbreviation formed from a string of initials (and possibly pronounced as individual letters ).
Numbers (both cardinal and ordinal ) in names are often represented by digits rather than initial letters: as in 4GL (Fourth generation language) or G77 (Group of 77).
Numbers (both cardinal and ordinal) in names are often represented by digits rather than initial letters : as in 4GL (Fourth generation language) or G77 (Group of 77).
Abbreviations using numbers for other purposes include repetitions , such as W3C ("World Wide Web Consortium") and T3 (Trends, Tips & Tools for Everyday Living); pronunciation, such as B2B ("business to business"); and numeronyms, such as i18n ("internationalization"; 18 represents the 18 letters between the initial i and the final n).
Large numbers may use metric prefixes, as with Y2K for "Year 2000" (sometimes written Y2k, because the SI symbol for 1000 is k—not K, which stands for kelvin).
It is possible then to abbreviate this as M's P .
It is possible then to abbreviate this as M's P. (or similar), as used by former Australian Prime Minister Ben Chifley .
It is possible then to abbreviate this as M's P. (or similar), as used by former Australian Prime Minister Ben Chifley.
A particularly rich s ource of options arises when the plural of an acronym would normally be indicated in a word other than the final word if spelled out in full.
can lead to redundant acronym syndrome , as when Trustee Savings Bank became TSB Bank, or when Railway Express Agency became REA Express.
A few high-tech companies have taken the redundant acronym to the extreme: for example, ISM Information Systems Management Corp. and SHL Systemhouse Ltd.
An example in entertainment is the television shows CSI: Crime Scene Investigation and Navy: NCIS (Navy was dropped in the second season), where the redundancy was likely designed to educate new viewers as to what the initials stood for.
An example in entertainment is the television shows CSI: Crime Scene Investigation and Navy: NCIS (Navy was dropped in the second season), where the redundancy was likely designed to educate new viewers as to what the initials stood for .
There is no rule on what to call abbreviations whose pronunciation involves the combination of letter names and words, such as JPEG /ˈdʒeɪpɛɡ/
 There is also some disagreement as to what to call abbreviations that some speakers pronounce as letters and others pronounce as a word .
There is no rule on what to call abbreviations whose pronunciation involves the combination of letter names and words, such as JPEG /ˈdʒeɪpɛɡ/ and MS-DOS /ˌɛmɛsˈdɒs/ .
For example, the terms URL and IRA can be pronounced as individual letters: /ˌjuːˌɑːrˈɛl/ and /ˌaɪˌɑːrˈeɪ/, respectively; or as a single word: /ˈɜːrl/ and /ˈaɪərə/ , respectively.[citation needed]
During the mid- to late-19th century, an acronym-disseminating trend spread through the American and European business communities: abbreviating corporation names in places where space was limited for writing —such as on the sides of railroad cars (e.g., Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac Railroad → RF&P); on the sides of barrels and crates; and on ticker tape and in the small-print newspaper stock listings that got their data from it (e.g., American Telephone and Telegraph Company → AT&T).
During the mid- to late-19th century, an acronym-disseminating trend spread through the American and European business communities: abbreviating corporation names in places where space was limited for writing—such as on the sides of railroad cars (e.g., Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac Railroad → RF&P); on the sides of barrels and crates; and on ticker tape and in the small-print newspaper stock listings that got their data from it (e.g., American Telephone and Telegraph Company → AT&T).
During the mid- to late-19th century, an acronym-disseminating trend spread through the American and European business communities: abbreviating corporation names in places where space was limited for writing—such as on the sides of railroad cars (e.g., Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac Railroad → RF&P); on the sides of barrels and crates; and on ticker tape and in the small-print newspaper stock listings that got their data from it (e.g., American Telephone and Telegraph Company → AT&T ).
During the mid- to late-19th century, an acronym-disseminating trend spread through the American and European business communities: abbreviating corporation names in places where space was limited for writing —such as on the sides of railroad cars (e.g., Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac Railroad → RF&P); on the sides of barrels and crates; and on ticker tape and in the small-print newspaper stock listings that got their data from it (e.g., American Telephone and Telegraph Company → AT&T).
Some well-known commercial examples dating from the 1890s through 1920s include Nabisco (National Biscuit Company), Esso (from S.O., from Standard Oil), and Sunoco (Sun Oil Company).
The widespread, frequent use of acronyms across the whole range of registers is a relatively new linguistic phenomenon in most languages, becoming increasingly evident since the mid-20th century.
The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) records the first printed use of the word initialism as occurring in 1899 , but it did not come into general use until 1965, well after acronym had become common.
As literacy rates rose, and as advances in science and technology brought with them a constant stream of new (and sometimes more complex) terms and concepts, the practice of abbreviating terms became increasingly convenient .
The Oxford English Dictionary ( OED ) records the first printed use of the word initialism as occurring in 1899, but it did not come into general use until 1965, well after acronym had become common.
The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) records the first printed use of the word initialism as occurring in 1899, but it did not come into general use until 1965 , well after acronym had become common.
For example, the army offense of being absent without official leave was abbreviated to "A.W.O.L." in reports, but when pronounced as a word ( awol ), it became an acronym.
By 1943, the term acronym had been used in English to recognize abbreviations (and contractions of phrases) that were pronounced as words.
(It was formed from the Greek words ἄκρος, akros, "topmost, extreme" and ὄνομα, onoma, "name.")
While initial letters are commonly used to form an acronym, the original definition was " a word made from the initial letters or syllables of other words ", for example UNIVAC from UNIVersal Automatic Computer.
While initial letters are commonly used to form an acronym, the original definition was "a word made from the initial letters or syllables of other words", for example UNIVAC from UNIVersal Automatic Computer.
Though precipitation increases with the height, there are semiarid conditions in the nearly 7000 m towering highest mountains of the Andes.
This dry steppe climate is considered to be typical of the subtropical position at 32-34° S. The valley bottoms have no woods, just dwarf scrub.
This dry steppe climate is considered to be typical of the subtropical position at 32-34° S. The valley bottoms have no woods , just dwarf scrub.
the Plomo glacier and the Horcones glaciers do not even reach 10 km in length and have an only insignificant ice thickness.
The Andean region cuts across several natural and floristic regions due to its extension from Caribbean Venezuela to cold, windy and wet Cape Horn passing through the hyperarid Atacama Desert.
Along with several Interandean Valles, they are typically dominated by deciduous woodland , shrub and xeric vegetation, reaching the extreme in the slopes near the virtually lifeless Atacama Desert.
The Andean region cuts across several natural and floristic regions due to its extension from Caribbean Venezuela to cold, windy and wet Cape Horn passing through the hyperarid Atacama Desert.
Along with several Interandean Valles, they are typically dominated by deciduous woodland, shrub and xeric vegetation, reaching the extreme in the slopes near the virtually lifeless Atacama Desert.
About 30,000 species of vascular plants live in the Andes, with roughly half being endemic to the region, surpassing the diversity of any other hotspot.
Regardless, in modern times the clearance has accelerated , and the trees are now considered to be highly endangered, with some believing that as little as 10% of the original woodland remains.
The small tree Cinchona pubescens , a source of quinine which is used to treat malaria, is found widely in the Andes as far south as Bolivia.
Other important crops that originated from the Andes are tobacco and potatoes .
These trees, by locals referred to as Queñua , Yagual and other names, can be found at altitudes of 4,500 m (14,760 ft) above sea level.
The vicuña and guanaco can be found living in the Altiplano , while the closely related domesticated llama and alpaca are widely kept by locals as pack animals and for their meat and wool.
The crepuscular (active during dawn and dusk) chinchillas , two threatened members of the rodent order, inhabit the Andes' alpine regions.
The Andean condor, the largest bird of its kind in the Western Hemisphere, occurs throughout much of the Andes but generally in very low densities.
The Andean condor , the largest bird of its kind in the Western Hemisphere, occurs throughout much of the Andes but generally in very low densities.
A few species of hummingbirds, notably some hillstars , can be seen at altitudes above 4,000 m (13,100 ft), but far higher diversities can be found at lower altitudes, especially in the humid Andean forests ("cloud forests") growing on slopes in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and far northwestern Argentina.
Lake Titicaca hosts several endemics, among them the highly endangered Titicaca flightless grebe and Titicaca water frog .
These forest-types, which includes the Yungas and parts of the Chocó, are very rich in flora and fauna, although few large mammals exist, exceptions being the threatened mountain tapir, spectacled bear and yellow-tailed woolly monkey.
A few species of hummingbirds, notably some hillstars, can be seen at altitudes above 4,000 m (13,100 ft), but far higher diversities can be found at lower altitudes, especially in the humid Andean forests (" cloud forests ") growing on slopes in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and far northwestern Argentina.
The highest mountain outside Asia, Mount Aconcagua, rises to an elevation of about 6,961 m (22,838 ft) above sea level.
The peak of Chimborazo in the Ecuadorean Andes is farther from the Earth's center than any other location on the Earth's surface, due to the equatorial bulge resulting from the Earth's rotation.
The world's highest volcanoes are in the Andes , including Ojos del Salado on the Chile-Argentina border, which rises to 6,893 m (22,615 ft).
The Andes are the world's highest mountain range outside of Asia.
The world's highest volcanoes are in the Andes, including Ojos del Salado on the Chile-Argentina border, which rises to 6,893 m (22,615 ft).
In the northern part of the Andes , the isolated Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta range is often considered to be part of the Andes.
The term cordillera comes from the Spanish word "cordel" , meaning "rope".
The term cordillera comes from the Spanish word "cordel", meaning "rope" .
The Andes range is about 200 km (124 mi) wide throughout its length, except in the Bolivian flexure where it is about 640 kilometres (398 mi) wide.
The Andes range is about 200 km (124 mi) wide throughout its length, except in the Bolivian flexure where it is about 640 kilometres (398 mi) wide.
The Andes are a Mesozoic–Tertiary orogenic belt of mountains along the Pacific Ring of Fire, a zone of volcanic activity that encompasses the Pacific rim of the Americas as well as the Asia-Pacific region. The Andes are the result of plate tectonics processes, caused by the subduction of oceanic crust beneath the South American plate.
The main cause of the rise of the Andes is the compression of the western rim of the South American Plate due to the subduction of the Nazca Plate and the Antarctic Plate .
To the west, the Andes end at the Pacific Ocean , although the Peru-Chile trench can be considered their ultimate western limit.
The Andes Mountains also contain large quantities of iron ore located in many mountains within the range.
To the east, the Andes range is bounded by several sedimentary basins, such as Orinoco, Amazon Basin, Madre de Dios and Gran Chaco, that separate the Andes from the ancient cratons in eastern South America.
The Bolivian Orocline area overlaps with the area of maximum width of the Altiplano Plateau and according to Isacks (1988) the orocline is related to crustal shortening.
The specific point at 18° S where the coastline bends is known as the "Arica Elbow". Further south lies the Maipo Orocline or Maipo Transition Zone located between 30° S and 38°S in the with a break in trend at 33° S. Near the southern tip of the Andes lies the Patagonian orocline.
Further south lies the Maipo Orocline or Maipo Transition Zone located between 30° S and 38°S in the with a break in trend at 33° S. Near the southern tip of the Andes lies the Patagonian orocline.
The Bolivian Orocline area overlaps with the area of maximum width of the Altiplano Plateau and according to Isacks (1988) the orocline is related to crustal shortening. The specific point at 18° S where the coastline bends is known as the "Arica Elbow".
The Andean segment north and south of the orocline have been rotated 15° to 20° counter clockwise and clockwise respectively .
The Bolivian Orocline area overlaps with the area of maximum width of the Altiplano Plateau and according to Isacks (1988) the orocline is related to crustal shortening.
The specific point at 18° S where the coastline bends is known as the "Arica Elbow". Further south lies the Maipo Orocline or Maipo Transition Zone located between 30° S and 38°S in the with a break in trend at 33° S. Near the southern tip of the Andes lies the Patagonian orocline.
Further south lies the Maipo Orocline or Maipo Transition Zone located between 30° S and 38°S in the with a break in trend at 33° S. Near the southern tip of the Andes lies the Patagonian orocline.
The Bolivian Orocline area overlaps with the area of maximum width of the Altiplano Plateau and according to Isacks (1988) the orocline is related to crustal shortening. The specific point at 18° S where the coastline bends is known as the "Arica Elbow".
The Andean segment north and south of the orocline have been rotated 15° to 20° counter clockwise and clockwise respectively .
The formation of the modern Andes began with the events of the Triassic when Pangaea began to break up and several rifts developed.
The formation of the modern Andes began with the events of the Triassic when Pangaea began to break up and several rifts developed. It continued through the Jurassic Period.
It was during the Cretaceous Period that the Andes began to take their present form, by the uplifting, faulting and folding of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks of the ancient cratons to the east. The rise of the Andes has not been constant and different regions have had different degrees of tectonic stress, uplift, and erosion.
The rise of the Andes has not been constant and different regions have had different degrees of tectonic stress, uplift, and erosion.
The formation of the modern Andes began with the events of the Triassic when Pangaea began to break up and several rifts developed.
The government sponsored the construction of aqueducts and roads in addition to preexisting installations.
A long series of cultural development culminated in the expansion of the Inca civilization and Inca Empire in the central Andes during the 15th century .
The Andes Mountains form a north-south axis of cultural influences.
The Andes Mountains form a north-south axis of cultural influences.
The government sponsored the construction of aqueducts and roads in addition to preexisting installations.
Devastated by European diseases to which they had no immunity and civil wars, in 1532 the Incas were defeated by an alliance composed of tens of thousands of allies from nations they had subjugated (e.g. Huancas, Chachapoyas, Cañaris) and a small army of 180 Spaniards led by Francisco Pizarro.
Devastated by European diseases to which they had no immunity and civil wars, in 1532 the Incas were defeated by an alliance composed of tens of thousands of allies from nations they had subjugated (e.g. Huancas, Chachapoyas, Cañaris) and a small army of 180 Spaniards led by Francisco Pizarro .
One of the few Inca sites the Spanish never found in their conquest was Machu Picchu , which lay hidden on a peak on the eastern edge of the Andes where they descend to the Amazon.
The main surviving languages of the Andean peoples are those of the Quechua and Aymara language families.
Woodbine Parish and Joseph Barclay Pentland surveyed a large part of the Bolivian Andes from 1826 to 1827 .
For example, the main crossover of the Andes between Argentina and Chile is still accomplished through the Paso Internacional Los Libertadores .
The rough terrain has historically put the costs of building highways and railroads that cross the Andes out of reach of most neighboring countries, even with modern civil engineering practices.
Much of the transportation of passengers is done via aircraft .
For example, the main crossover of the Andes between Argentina and Chile is still accomplished through the Paso Internacional Los Libertadores.
Only recently the ends of some highways that came rather close to one another from the east and the west have been connected.
For decades, Chile claimed ownership of land on the eastern side of the Andes.
The Chilean Army and Chilean Navy defeated the combined forces of Bolivia and Peru, and Chile took over Bolivia's only province on the Pacific Coast, some land from Peru that was returned to Peru decades later.
However, these claims were given up in about 1870 during the War of the Pacific between Chile, the allied Bolivia and Peru, in a diplomatic deal to keep Argentina out of the war.
It mostly uses seaports in eastern Argentina and Uruguay for international trade because its diplomatic relations with Chile have been suspended since 1978 .
For decades, Chile claimed ownership of land on the eastern side of the Andes.
The ancient peoples of the Andes such as the Incas have practiced irrigation techniques for over 6,000 years.
The ancient peoples of the Andes such as the Incas have practiced irrigation techniques for over 6,000 years .
The potato holds a very important role as an internally consumed staple crop.
Maize was also an important crop for these people, and was used for the production of chicha, important to Andean native people.
Maize was also an important crop for these people, and was used for the production of chicha , important to Andean native people.
Tectonic forces above the subduction zone along the entire west coast of South America where the Nazca Plate and a part of the Antarctic Plate are sliding beneath the South American Plate continue to produce an ongoing orogenic event resulting in minor to major earthquakes and volcanic eruptions to this day.
Tectonic forces above the subduction zone along the entire west coast of South America where the Nazca Plate and a part of the Antarctic Plate are sliding beneath the South American Plate continue to produce an ongoing orogenic event resulting in minor to major earthquakes and volcanic eruptions to this day.
In the extreme south a major transform fault separates Tierra del Fuego from the small Scotia Plate.
Across the 1,000 km (620 mi) wide Drake Passage lie the mountains of the Antarctic Peninsula south of the Scotia Plate which appear to be a continuation of the Andes chain.[citation needed]
Across the 1,000 km (620 mi) wide Drake Passage lie the mountains of the Antarctic Peninsula south of the Scotia Plate which appear to be a continuation of the Andes chain.[citation needed]
Parts of the Sunsás Orogen in Amazonian craton disappeared from the surface of earth being overrided by the Andes.
Parts of the Sunsás Orogen in Amazonian craton disappeared from the surface of earth being overrided by the Andes.. The Sierras de Córdoba , where the effects of the ancient Pampean orogeny can be observed, owe their modern uplift and relief to the Andean orogeny in the Tertiary.
Parts of the Sunsás Orogen in Amazonian craton disappeared from the surface of earth being overrided by the Andes.
Further south in southern Patagonia the onset of the Andean orogeny caused the Magallanes Basin to evolve from being an extensional back-arc basin in the Mesozoic to being a compressional foreland basin in the Cenozoic.
Further south in southern Patagonia the onset of the Andean orogeny caused the Magallanes Basin to evolve from being an extensional back-arc basin in the Mesozoic to being a compressional foreland basin in the Cenozoic.
The Andes range has many active volcanoes, which are distributed in four volcanic zones separated by areas of inactivity.
The Andean volcanism is a result of subduction of the Nazca Plate and Antarctic Plate underneath the South American Plate.
The belt is subdivided into four main volcanic zones that are separated from each other by volcanic gaps .
While some differences can be explained by which volcanic zone a volcano belongs to, there are significant differences inside volcanic zones and even between neighbouring volcanoes.
Despite being a type location for calc-alkalic and subduction volcanism, the Andean Volcanic Belt has a large range of volcano-tectonic settings, such as rift systems and extensional zones, transpersonal faults, subduction of mid-ocean ridges and seamount chains apart from a large range of crustal thicknesses and magma ascent paths, and different amount of crustal assimilations.
The Andes Mountains host large ore and salt deposits and some of their eastern fold and thrust belt acts as traps for commercially exploitable amounts of hydrocarbons.
The porphyry mineralization further benefited from the dry climate that let them largely out of the disturbing actions of meteoric water.
In the forelands of the Atacama desert some of the largest porphyry copper mineralizations occurs making Chile and Peru the first and second largest exporters of copper in the world.
The porphyry mineralization further benefited from the dry climate that let them largely out of the disturbing actions of meteoric water .
The dry climate in the central western Andes has also led to the creation of extensive saltpeter deposits which were extensively mined until the invention of synthetic nitrates.
The climate in the Andes varies greatly depending on latitude, altitude, and proximity to the sea.
The climate in the Andes varies greatly depending on latitude, altitude, and proximity to the sea .
The northern Andes are typically rainy and warm , with an average temperature of 18 °C (64 °F) in Colombia.
Rainforests exist just miles away from the snow-covered peak Cotopaxi.
Temperature, atmospheric pressure and humidity decrease in higher elevations .
The Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade took place across the Atlantic Ocean from the 15th through to the 19th centuries.
The vast majority of those enslaved that were transported to the New World, many on the triangular trade route and its Middle Passage, were West Africans from the central and western parts of the continent sold by other western Africans to western European slave traders, with a small minority being captured directly by the slave traders in coastal raids, and brought to the Americas.
The Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade took place across the Atlantic Ocean from the 15th through to the 19th centuries .
The vast majority of those enslaved that were transported to the New World, many on the triangular trade route and its Middle Passage, were West Africans from the central and western parts of the continent sold by other western Africans to western European slave traders, with a small minority being captured directly by the slave traders in coastal raids, and brought to the Americas.
The vast majority of those enslaved that were transported to the New World, many on the triangular trade route and its Middle Passage, were West Africans from the central and western parts of the continent sold by other western Africans to western European slave traders , with a small minority being captured directly by the slave traders in coastal raids, and brought to the Americas.
The Portuguese were the first to engage in the New World slave trade in the 16th century.
In 1526 , the Portuguese completed the first transatlantic slave voyage from Africa to the Americas, and other countries soon followed.
 The first Africans imported to the English colonies were classified as " indentured servants ", like workers coming from England, and also as "apprentices for life".
As property, the people were considered merchandise or units of labour, and were sold at markets with other goods and services.
As property, the people were considered merchandise or units of labour, and were sold at markets with other goods and services.
Several had established outposts on the African coast where they purchased slaves from local African leaders.
Several had established outposts on the African coast where they purchased slaves from local African leaders .
These slaves were managed by a factor who was established on or near the coast to expedite the shipping of slaves to the New World .
These slaves were kept in a factory while awaiting shipment.
Current estimates are that about 12 million Africans were shipped across the Atlantic, although the number purchased by the traders is considerably higher.
For centuries, tidal currents had made ocean travel particularly difficult and risky for the ships that were then available, and as such there had been very little, if any, naval contact between the peoples living in these continents.
In the 15th century , however, new European developments in seafaring technologies meant that ships were better equipped to deal with the problem of tidal currents, and could begin traversing the Atlantic Ocean.
Between 1600 and 1800, approximately 300,000 sailors engaged in the slave trade visited West Africa.
Historian Pierre Chaunu termed the consequences of European navigation "disenclavement", with it marking an end of isolation for some societies and an increase in inter-societal contact for most others.
Historian Pierre Chaunu termed the consequences of European navigation "disenclavement", with it marking an end of isolation for some societies and an increase in inter-societal contact for most others.
Historian John Thornton noted, "A number of technical and geographical factors combined to make Europeans the most likely people to explore the Atlantic and develop its commerce".
Historian John Thornton noted, "A number of technical and geographical factors combined to make Europeans the most likely people to explore the Atlantic and develop its commerce".
In particular, European traders wanted to trade for gold , which could be found in western Africa, and also to find a naval route to "the Indies" (India), where they could trade for luxury goods such as spices without having to obtain these items from Middle Eastern Islamic traders.
He identified these as being the drive to find new and profitable commercial opportunities outside Europe as well as the desire to create an alternative trade network to that controlled by the Muslim Empire of the Middle East , which was viewed as a commercial, political and religious threat to European Christendom.
Historian John Thornton noted, "A number of technical and geographical factors combined to make Europeans the most likely people to explore the Atlantic and develop its commerce".
Meltzer's research puts this phase of the slave trade's overall mortality at 12.5% .
Around 2.2 million Africans died during these voyages where they were packed into tight, unsanitary spaces on ships for months at a time.
Meltzer 's
The slave traders would try to fit anywhere from 350 to 600 slaves on one ship.
The slave traders would try to fit anywhere from 350 to 600 slaves on one ship.
Raymond L. Cohn, an economics professor whose research has focused on economic history and international migration, has researched the mortality rates among Africans during the voyages of the Atlantic slave trade.
Raymond L. Cohn, an economics professor whose research has focused on economic history and international migration, has researched the mortality rates among Africans during the voyages of the Atlantic slave trade .
He found that mortality rates decreased over the history of the slave trade, primarily because the length of time necessary for the voyage was declining.
"In the eighteenth century many slave voyages took at least 2½ months.
In the nineteenth century , 2 months appears to have been the maximum length of the voyage, and many voyages were far shorter.
The trade of enslaved Africans in the Atlantic has its origins in the explorations of Portuguese mariners down the coast of West Africa in the 15th century.
The trade of enslaved Africans in the Atlantic has its origins in the explorations of Portuguese mariners down the coast of West Africa in the 15th century.
The first Europeans to use enslaved Africans in the New World were the Spaniards , who sought auxiliaries for their conquest expeditions and labourers on islands such as Cuba and Hispaniola.
The first enslaved Africans arrived in Hispaniola in 1501 .
By 1630 , Africans had replaced the Tupani as the largest contingent of labour on Brazilian sugar plantations.
As Britain rose in naval power and settled continental North America and some islands of the West Indies, they became the leading slave traders.
At one stage the trade was the monopoly of the Royal Africa Company, operating out of London .
But, following the loss of the company's monopoly in 1689 , Bristol and Liverpool merchants became increasingly involved in the trade.
Birmingham , the largest gun-producing town in Britain at the time, supplied guns to be traded for slaves.
Birmingham, the largest gun-producing town in Britain at the time, supplied guns to be traded for slaves .
The first enslaved Africans to reach what would become the United States arrived in January 1526 as part of a Spanish attempt to colonize South Carolina near Jamestown.
Colombia received its first enslaved people in 1533 .
By November the 300 Spanish colonists were reduced to 100, and their slaves from 100 to 70[why?].
El Salvador, Costa Rica and Florida began their stints in the slave trade in 1541, 1563 and 1581, respectively.
El Salvador , Costa Rica and Florida began their stints in the slave trade in 1541, 1563 and 1581, respectively.
For the rest of his life, William Wilberforce dedicated his life as a Member of the British Parliament to opposing the slave trade and working for the abolition of slavery throughout the British Empire .
By an overwhelming 283 votes for to 16 against , the motion to abolish the Atlantic slave trade was carried in the House of Commons.
On 22 February 1807 , twenty years after he first began his crusade, and in the middle of Britain's war with France, Wilberforce and his team's labours were rewarded with victory.
On 22 February 1807 , twenty years after he first began his crusade, and in the middle of Britain's war with France, Wilberforce and his team's labours were rewarded with victory.
The United States acted to abolish the slave trade the same year, but not its internal slave trade which became the dominant character in American slavery until the 1860s .
The Guyanese historian Walter Rodney (1972) has argued that it was an unequal relationship, with Africans being forced into a "colonial" trade with the more economically developed Europeans, exchanging raw materials and human resources (i.e. slaves) for manufactured goods.
This idea of an unequal relationship was contested by John Thornton (1998), who argued that "the Atlantic slave trade was not nearly as critical to the African economy as these scholars believed" and that "African manufacturing [at this period] was more than capable of handling competition from preindustrial Europe".
He argued that it was this economic trade agreement dating back to the 16th century that led to Africa being underdeveloped in his own time.
However, Anne Bailey, commenting on Thornton's suggestion that Africans and Europeans were equal partners in the Atlantic slave trade , wrote:
The Guyanese historian Walter Rodney (1972) has argued that it was an unequal relationship, with Africans being forced into a "colonial" trade with the more economically developed Europeans, exchanging raw materials and human resources (i.e. slaves) for manufactured goods .
The First Atlantic system was the trade of enslaved Africans to, primarily, South American colonies of the Portuguese and Spanish empires; it accounted for slightly more than 3% of all Atlantic slave trade.
While the Portuguese were directly involved in trading enslaved peoples, the Spanish empire relied on the asiento system, awarding merchants (mostly from other countries) the license to trade enslaved people to their colonies .
It started (on a significant scale) in about 1502 and lasted until 1580 when Portugal was temporarily united with Spain.
The First Atlantic system was the trade of enslaved Africans to, primarily, South American colonies of the Portuguese and Spanish empire s; it accounted for slightly more than 3% of all Atlantic slave trade.
The First Atlantic system was the trade of enslaved Africans to, primarily, South American colonies of the Portuguese and Spanish empires; it accounted for slightly more than 3% of all Atlantic slave trade.
With peace in Europe from 1815, and British supremacy at sea secured, the Royal Navy turned its attention back to the challenge and established the West Africa Squadron in 1808, known as the "preventative squadron", which for the next 50 years operated against the slavers.
By the 1850s, around 25 vessels and 2,000 officers and men were on the station, supported by some ships from the small United States Navy, and nearly 1,000 "Kroomen"—experienced fishermen recruited as sailors from what is now the coast of modern Liberia.
Anti-slavery treaties were signed with over 50 African rulers .
Between 1807 and 1860, the Royal Navy's Squadron seized approximately 1,600 ships involved in the slave trade and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard these vessels.
Between 1807 and 1860, the Royal Navy's Squadron seized approximately 1,600 ships involved in the slave trade and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard these vessels.
For each captive, the African rulers would receive a variety of goods from Europe .
 Sir John Hawkins , considered the pioneer of the British slave trade, was the first to run the Triangular trade, making a profit at every stop.
The second leg of the triangle exported enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas and the Caribbean Islands .
The goods were the products of slave-labour plantations and included cotton, sugar, tobacco, molasses and rum .
A number of African kings and merchants took part in the trading of enslaved people from 1440 to about 1833 .
The Atlantic Slave Trade was the result of, among other things, labour shortage , itself in turn created by the desire of European colonists to exploit New World land and resources for capital profits.
Native peoples were at first utilized as slave labour by Europeans, until a large number died from overwork and Old World diseases.
Western Africa (part of which became known as " the Slave Coast "), and later Central Africa, became the source for enslaved people to meet the demand for labour.
Alternative sources of labour, such as indentured servitude, failed to provide a sufficient workforce .
The Atlantic Slave Trade was the result of, among other things, labour shortage, itself in turn created by the desire of European colonists to exploit New World land and resources for capital profits.
The last recorded slave ship to land on American soil was the Clotilde, which in 1859 illegally smuggled a number of Africans into the town of Mobile, Alabama.
The last survivor of the voyage was Cudjoe Lewis, who died in 1935 .
.The last country to ban the Atlantic slave trade was Brazil in 1831 .
In Brazil slavery itself however did not end until 1888 , which was the last country in the Americas to end involuntary servitude.
However, a vibrant illegal trade continued to ship large numbers of enslaved people to Brazil and also to Cuba until the 1860s, when British enforcement and further diplomacy finally ended the Atlantic trade. In 1870 Portugal ended the last trade route with the Americas where the last country to import slaves was Brazil.
Africans played a direct role in the slave trade, selling their captives or prisoners of war to European buyers.
Sometimes criminals would be sold so that they could no longer commit crimes in that area .
King Jaja of Opobo , a former slave, refused to do business with the slavers completely.[citation needed]
Most other slaves were obtained from kidnappings , or through raids that occurred at gunpoint through joint ventures with the Europeans.
The prisoners and captives who were sold were usually from neighbouring or enemy ethnic groups .[citation needed] These captive slaves were considered "other", not part of the people of the ethnic group or "tribe" ;
The historian Walter Rodney contends that it was a decline in the profitability of the triangular trades that made it possible for certain basic human sentiments to be asserted at the decision-making level in a number of European countries- Britain being the most crucial because it was the greatest carrier of African captives across the Atlantic.
In 1809 President James Madison outlawed the slave trade with the United States.
The historian Walter Rodney contends that it was a decline in the profitability of the triangular trades that made it possible for certain basic human sentiments to be asserted at the decision-making level in a number of European countries-
Rodney states that changes in productivity, technology and patterns of exchange in Europe and the Americas informed the decision by the British to end their participation in the trade in 1807.
In 1809 President James Madison outlawed the slave trade with the United States.
Nevertheless, Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri argue that it was neither a matter of strictly economics nor of morals. First, because slavery was (in practice) still beneficial to capitalism, providing not only influx of capital, but also disciplining hardship into workers (a form of "apprenticeship" to the capitalist industrial plant).
Although moral arguments did play a secondary role , it usually had major resonance when used as a strategy to undercut competitors' profits.
The most important of those being the Haitian Revolution. The shock of this revolution in 1804, certainly introduces an essential political argument into the end of slavery trade, which happen only three years later.
The more "recent" argument of a "moral shift" (the basis of the previous lines of this article) is described by Hardt and Negri as an "ideological" apparatus in order to eliminate the sentiment of guilt in western society. Although moral arguments did play a secondary role, it usually had major resonance when used as a strategy to undercut competitors' profits.
First, because slavery was (in practice) still beneficial to capitalism, providing not only influx of capital, but also disciplining hardship into workers (a form of "apprenticeship" to the capitalist industrial plant). The more "recent" argument of a "moral shift" (the basis of the previous lines of this article) is described by Hardt and Negri as an "ideological" apparatus in order to eliminate the sentiment of guilt in western society.
Because the negative effects of slavery on the economies of Africa have been well documented, namely the significant decline in population , some African rulers likely saw an economic benefit from trading their subjects with European slave traders.
With the exception of Portuguese controlled Angola , coastal African leaders "generally controlled access to their coasts, and were able to prevent direct enslavement of their subjects and citizens."
Such benefits included military technology (specifically guns and gunpowder), gold, or simply maintaining amicable trade relationships with European nations. The slave trade was therefore a means for some African elite to gain economic advantages.
 Thus, as African scholar John Thornton argues, African leaders who allowed the continuation of the slave trade likely derived an economic benefit from selling their subjects to Europeans.
The benefit derived from trading slaves for European goods was enough to make the Kingdom of Benin rejoin the trans-Atlantic slave trade after centuries of non-participation.
With the exception of Portuguese controlled Angola, coastal African leaders "generally controlled access to their coasts, and were able to prevent direct enslavement of their subjects and citizens."
Because the negative effects of slavery on the economies of Africa have been well documented, namely the significant decline in population, some African rulers likely saw an economic benefit from trading their subjects with European slave traders. With the exception of Portuguese controlled Angola, coastal African leaders "generally controlled access to their coasts, and were able to prevent direct enslavement of their subjects and citizens."
Because the negative effects of slavery on the economies of Africa have been well documented, namely the significant decline in population, some African rulers likely saw an economic benefit from trading their subjects with European slave traders.
The benefit derived from trading slaves for European goods was enough to make the Kingdom of Benin rejoin the trans-Atlantic slave trade after centuries of non-participation.
Historian Walter Rodney estimates that by c.1770, the King of Dahomey was earning an estimated £250,000 per year by selling captive African soldiers and enslaved people to the European slave-traders.
As of 1778, Thomas Kitchin estimated that Europeans were bringing an estimated 52,000 slaves to the Caribbean yearly, with the French bringing the most Africans to the French West Indies (13,000 out of the yearly estimate).
The Atlantic slave trade peaked in the last two decades of the 18th century , during and following the Kongo Civil War.
The Atlantic slave trade peaked in the last two decades of the 18th century, during and following the Kongo Civil War .
As of 1778, Thomas Kitchin estimated that Europeans were bringing an estimated 52,000 slaves to the Caribbean yearly, with the French bringing the most Africans to the French West Indies (13,000 out of the yearly estimate).
Forms of slavery varied both in Africa and in the New World .
Forms of slavery varied both in Africa and in the New World.
This was connected to another distinction: slavery in West Africa was not reserved for racial or religious minorities, as it was in European colonies, although the case was otherwise in places such as Somalia, where Bantus were taken as slaves for the ethnic Somalis.
This was connected to another distinction: slavery in West Africa was not reserved for racial or religious minorities, as it was in European colonies , although the case was otherwise in places such as Somalia, where Bantus were taken as slaves for the ethnic Somalis.
A database compiled in the late 1990s put the figure for the transatlantic slave trade at more than 11 million people .
Estimates by Patrick Manning are that about 12 million slaves entered the Atlantic trade between the 16th and 19th century, but about 1.5 million died on board ship.
Manning estimates that 4 million died inside Africa after capture, and many more died young.
About 10.5 million slaves arrived in the Americas.
According to Dr Kimani Nehusi, the presence of European slavers affected the way in which the legal code in African societies responded to offenders.
Crimes traditionally punishable by some other form of punishment became punishable by enslavement and sale to slave traders.[citation needed] According to David Stannard's American Holocaust, 50% of African deaths occurred in Africa as a result of wars between native kingdoms, which produced the majority of slaves.
The slave trade was largely a by-product of tribal and state warfare as a way of removing potential dissidents after victory, or financing future wars.
The practice of enslaving enemy combatants and their villages was widespread throughout Western and West Central Africa , although wars were rarely started to procure slaves.
The kings of Dahomey sold war captives into transatlantic slavery; they would otherwise have been killed in a ceremony known as the Annual Customs.
Benin grew increasingly rich during the 16th and 17th centuries on the slave trade with Europe; slaves from enemy states of the interior were sold, and carried to the Americas in Dutch and Portuguese ships.
Like the Bambara Empire to the east, the Khasso kingdoms depended heavily on the slave trade for their economy.
The Bight of Benin's shore soon came to be known as the " Slave Coast ".
The 17th century saw an increase in shipments , with Africans arriving in the English colony of Jamestown, Virginia in 1619.
These first kidnapped Africans were classed as indentured servants and freed after seven years .
Irish immigrants took slaves to Montserrat in 1651, and in 1655, slaves were shipped to Belize .
Irish immigrants took slaves to Montserrat in 1651, and in 1655, slaves were shipped to Belize.
Chattel slavery was codified in Virginia law in 1656, and in 1662 , the colony adopted the principle of partus sequitur ventrem, by which children of slave mothers were slaves, regardless of paternity.
Chattel slavery was codified in Virginia law in 1656 , and in 1662, the colony adopted the principle of partus sequitur ventrem, by which children of slave mothers were slaves, regardless of paternity.
Chattel slavery was codified in Virginia law in 1656, and in 1662, the colony adopted the principle of partus sequitur ventrem , by which children of slave mothers were slaves, regardless of paternity.
These first kidnapped Africans were classed as indentured servants and freed after seven years.
These first kidnapped Africans were classed as indentured servants and freed after seven years.
Irish immigrants took slaves to Montserrat in 1651, and in 1655, slaves were shipped to Belize.
By far the most financially profitable West Indian colonies in 1800 belonged to the United Kingdom .
This advantage was reinforced when France lost its most important colony, St. Domingue (western Hispaniola, now Haiti), to a slave revolt in 1791 and supported revolts against its rival Britain, after the 1793 French revolution in the name of liberty.
This advantage was reinforced when France lost its most important colony, St. Domingue (western Hispaniola, now Haiti), to a slave revolt in 1791 and supported revolts against its rival Britain, after the 1793 French revolution in the name of liberty.
Before 1791, British sugar had to be protected to compete against cheaper French sugar.
The major advantage that Europe had was in ship building .
Rodney contended that the profits from slavery were used to fund economic growth and technological advancement in Europe and the Americas.
Based on earlier theories by Eric Williams, he asserted that the industrial revolution was at least in part funded by agricultural profits from the Americas.
He cited examples such as the invention of the steam engine by James Watt, which was funded by plantation owners from the Caribbean.
Based on earlier theories by Eric Williams , he asserted that the industrial revolution was at least in part funded by agricultural profits from the Americas.
Joseph C. Miller has argued that the social change and demographic stagnation (which he researched on the example of West Central Africa) was caused primarily by domestic factors.
Joseph C. Miller has argued that the social change and demographic stagnation (which he researched on the example of West Central Africa ) was caused primarily by domestic factors.
Joseph Inikori provided a new line of argument, estimating counterfactual demographic developments in case the Atlantic slave trade had not existed. Patrick Manning has shown that the slave trade did have profound impact on African demographics and social institutions, but criticized Inikori's approach for not taking other factors (such as famine and drought) into account, and thus being highly speculative.
Joseph Inikori provided a new line of argument, estimating counterfactual demographic developments in case the Atlantic slave trade had not existed.
Other historians have attacked both Rodney 's methodology and accuracy.
Proponents of the slave trade, such as Archibald Dalzel , argued that African societies were robust and not much affected by the trade.
No scholars dispute the harm done to the enslaved people but the effect of the trade on African societies is much debated, due to the apparent influx of goods to Africans.
David Livingstone , took the opposite view, arguing that the fragile local economy and societies were being severely harmed by the trade.
Proponents of the slave trade , such as Archibald Dalzel, argued that African societies were robust and not much affected by the trade.
In the United States, the success of Alex Haley's book Roots: The Saga of an American Family , published in 1976, and the subsequent television miniseries based upon it Roots, broadcast on the ABC network in January 1977, led to an increased interest and appreciation of African heritage amongst the African-American community.
In the United States, the success of Alex Haley's book Roots: The Saga of an American Family, published in 1976 , and the subsequent television miniseries based upon it Roots, broadcast on the ABC network in January 1977, led to an increased interest and appreciation of African heritage amongst the African-American community.
In the United States, the success of Alex Haley's book Roots: The Saga of an American Family, published in 1976, and the subsequent television miniseries based upon it Roots, broadcast on the ABC network in January 1977 , led to an increased interest and appreciation of African heritage amongst the African-American community.
In the United States, the success of Alex Haley's book Roots: The Saga of an American Family, published in 1976, and the subsequent television miniseries based upon it Roots, broadcast on the ABC network in January 1977, led to an increased interest and appreciation of African heritage amongst the African-American community.
One notable example of this is through the Roots Homecoming Festival held annually in the Gambia, in which rituals are held through which African Americans can symbolically "come home" to Africa.
In 1816 , a group of wealthy European-Americans, some of whom were abolitionists and others who were racial segregationists, founded the American Colonization Society with the express desire of returning African Americans who were in the United States to West Africa.
Such re-settlement continued throughout the 19th century, increasing following the deterioration of race relations in the southern states of the US following Reconstruction in 1877 .
In 1820 , they sent their first ship to Liberia, and within a decade around two thousand African Americans had been settled in the west African country.
In 1820, they sent their first ship to Liberia, and within a decade around two thousand African Americans had been settled in the west African country.
At the 2001 World Conference Against Racism in Durban, South Africa , African nations demanded a clear apology for slavery from the former slave-trading countries.
A fear of monetary compensation might have been one of the reasons for the opposition.
At the 2001 World Conference Against Racism in Durban, South Africa, African nations demanded a clear apology for slavery from the former slave-trading countries .
Some nations were ready to express an apology, but the opposition, mainly from the United Kingdom, Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, and the United States blocked attempts to do so.
On 24 February 2007 the Virginia General Assembly passed House Joint Resolution Number 728 acknowledging "with profound regret the involuntary servitude of Africans and the exploitation of Native Americans, and call for reconciliation among all Virginians."
On 31 May 2007, the Governor of Alabama , Bob Riley, signed a resolution expressing "profound regret" for Alabama's role in slavery and apologizing for slavery's wrongs and lingering effects.
On 24 February 2007 the Virginia General Assembly passed House Joint Resolution Number 728 acknowledging "with profound regret the involuntary servitude of Africans and the exploitation of Native Americans, and call for reconciliation among all Virginians."
On 31 May 2007 , the Governor of Alabama, Bob Riley, signed a resolution expressing "profound regret" for Alabama's role in slavery and apologizing for slavery's wrongs and lingering effects.
In 2009, the Civil Rights Congress of Nigeria has written an open letter to all African chieftains who participated in trade calling for an apology for their role in the Atlantic slave trade: "We cannot continue to blame the white men, as Africans, particularly the traditional rulers, are not blameless.
In 2009 , the Civil Rights Congress of Nigeria has written an open letter to all African chieftains who participated in trade calling for an apology for their role in the Atlantic slave trade: "We cannot continue to blame the white men, as Africans, particularly the traditional rulers, are not blameless.
In view of the fact that the Americans and Europe have accepted the cruelty of their roles and have forcefully apologized, it would be logical, reasonable and humbling if African traditional rulers ... [can] accept blame and formally apologize to the descendants of the victims of their collaborative and exploitative slave trade."
In 2009, the Civil Rights Congress of Nigeria has written an open letter to all African chieftains who participated in trade calling for an apology for their role in the Atlantic slave trade: "We cannot continue to blame the white men , as Africans, particularly the traditional rulers, are not blameless.
Although the initial Atlantic naval explorations were performed purely by Europeans , members of many European nationalities were involved, including sailors from Portugal, Spain, the Italian kingdoms, England, France and the Netherlands.
This diversity led Thornton to describe the initial "exploration of the Atlantic" as "a truly international exercise , even if many of the dramatic discoveries [such as those by Christopher Columbus and Ferdinand Magellan] were made under the sponsorship of the Iberian monarchs."
This diversity led Thornton to describe the initial "exploration of the Atlantic" as "a truly international exercise, even if many of the dramatic discoveries [such as those by Christopher Columbus and Ferdinand Magellan] were made under the sponsorship of the Iberian monarchs. " That leadership later gave rise to the myth that "the Iberians were the sole leaders of the exploration".
That leadership later gave rise to the myth that "the Iberians were the sole leaders of the exploration".
Although the initial Atlantic naval explorations were performed purely by Europeans, members of many European nationalities were involved, including sailors from Portugal, Spain, the Italian kingdoms, England, France and the Netherlands. This diversity led Thornton to describe the initial "exploration of the Atlantic" as "a truly international exercise, even if many of the dramatic discoveries [such as those by Christopher Columbus and Ferdinand Magellan] were made under the sponsorship of the Iberian monarchs."
According to John K. Thornton, Europeans usually bought enslaved people who were captured in endemic warfare between African states .
Some Africans had made a business out of capturing Africans from neighboring ethnic groups or war captives and selling them. A reminder of this practice is documented in the Slave Trade Debates of England in the early 19th century: "All the old writers... concur in stating not only that wars are entered into for the sole purpose of making slaves, but that they are fomented by Europeans, with a view to that object."
However, the European demand for slaves provided a large new market for the already existing trade.
While those held in slavery in their own region of Africa might hope to escape, those shipped away had little chance of returning to Africa.
A reminder of this practice is documented in the Slave Trade Debates of England in the early 19th century: "All the old writers... concur in stating not only that wars are entered into for the sole purpose of making slaves, but that they are fomented by Europeans , with a view to that object."
Upon discovering new lands through their naval explorations , European colonisers soon began to migrate to and settle in lands outside their native continent.
Off the coast of Africa, European migrants, under the directions of the Kingdom of Castile, invaded and colonised the Canary Islands during the 15th century, where they converted much of the land to the production of wine and sugar.
Off the coast of Africa, European migrants, under the directions of the Kingdom of Castile, invaded and colonised the Canary Islands during the 15th century , where they converted much of the land to the production of wine and sugar.
Along with this, they also captured native Canary Islanders, the Guanches, to use as slaves both on the Islands and across the Christian Mediterranean.
Off the coast of Africa, European migrants, under the directions of the Kingdom of Castile, invaded and colonised the Canary Islands during the 15th century, where they converted much of the land to the production of wine and sugar. Along with this, they also captured native Canary Islanders, the Guanches, to use as slaves both on the Islands and across the Christian Mediterranean.
As historian John Thornton remarked, "the actual motivation for European expansion and for navigational breakthroughs was little more than to exploit the opportunity for immediate profits made by raiding and the seizure or purchase of trade commodities" .
Using the Canary Islands as a naval base, European, at the time primarily Portuguese traders , began to move their activities down the western coast of Africa, performing raids in which slaves would be captured to be later sold in the Mediterranean.
Using the Canary Islands as a naval base , European, at the time primarily Portuguese traders, began to move their activities down the western coast of Africa, performing raids in which slaves would be captured to be later sold in the Mediterranean.
Although initially successful in this venture, "it was not long before African naval forces were alerted to the new dangers , and the Portuguese [raiding] ships began to meet strong and effective resistance", with the crews of several of them being killed by African sailors, whose boats were better equipped at traversing the west African coasts and river systems.
Although initially successful in this venture, "it was not long before African naval forces were alerted to the new dangers, and the Portuguese [raiding] ships began to meet strong and effective resistance", with the crews of several of them being killed by African sailors, whose boats were better equipped at traversing the west African coasts and river systems .
By 1494 , the Portuguese king had entered agreements with the rulers of several West African states that would allow trade between their respective peoples, enabling the Portuguese to "tap into" the "well-developed commercial economy in Africa... without engaging in hostilities".
In 1571 Portugal, supported by the Kingdom of Kongo , took control of the south-western region of Angola in order to secure its threatened economic interest in the area.
For instance Portuguese traders attempted to conquer the Bissagos Islands in 1535.
In 1525, the Kongolese king, Afonso I , seized a French vessel and its crew for illegally trading on his coast.
In 1571 Portugal, supported by the Kingdom of Kongo, took control of the south-western region of Angola in order to secure its threatened economic interest in the area.
Other researchers and historians have strongly contested what has come to be referred to as the “Williams thesis” in academia.
David Richardson has concluded that the profits from the slave trade amounted to less than 1% of domestic investment in Britain.
Economic historian Stanley Engerman finds that even without subtracting the associated costs of the slave trade (e.g., shipping costs, slave mortality, mortality of British people in Africa, defense costs) or reinvestment of profits back into the slave trade, the total profits from the slave trade and of West Indian plantations amounted to less than 5% of the British economy during any year of the Industrial Revolution.
Historian Richard Pares, in an article written before Williams’ book, dismisses the influence of wealth generated from the West Indian plantations upon the financing of the Industrial Revolution, stating that whatever substantial flow of investment from West Indian profits into industry there was occurred after emancipation, not before.
Economic historian Stanley Engerman finds that even without subtracting the associated costs of the slave trade (e.g., shipping costs, slave mortality, mortality of British people in Africa, defense costs ) or reinvestment of profits back into the slave trade, the total profits from the slave trade and of West Indian plantations amounted to less than 5% of the British economy during any year of the Industrial Revolution.
Walter Rodney argued that the export of so many people had been a demographic disaster and had left Africa permanently disadvantaged when compared to other parts of the world, and largely explains the continent's continued poverty.
Walter Rodney argued that the export of so many people had been a demographic disaster and had left Africa permanently disadvantaged when compared to other parts of the world, and largely explains the continent's continued poverty.
He presented numbers showing that Africa's population stagnated during this period , while that of Europe and Asia grew dramatically.
According to Rodney, all other areas of the economy were disrupted by the slave trade as the top merchants abandoned traditional industries to pursue slaving, and the lower levels of the population were disrupted by the slaving itself.
According to Rodney, all other areas of the economy were disrupted by the slave trade as the top merchants abandoned traditional industries to pursue slaving, and the lower levels of the population were disrupted by the slaving itself.
As Joseph E. Inikori argues, the history of the region shows that the effects were still quite deleterious.
He argues that the African economic model of the period was very different from the European, and could not sustain such population losses .
Inikori also notes that after the suppression of the slave trade Africa's population almost immediately began to rapidly increase, even prior to the introduction of modern medicines.
Inikori also notes that after the suppression of the slave trade Africa's population almost immediately began to rapidly increase, even prior to the introduction of modern medicines .
Population reductions in certain areas also led to widespread problems .
Opposition to the trade was led by the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) and establishment Evangelicals such as William Wilberforce.
Denmark , which had been active in the slave trade, was the first country to ban the trade through legislation in 1792, which took effect in 1803.
Britain banned the slave trade in 1807, imposing stiff fines for any slave found aboard a British ship (see Slave Trade Act 1807).
The United States Congress passed the Slave Trade Act of 1794 , which prohibited the building or outfitting of ships in the U.S. for use in the slave trade.
Britain banned the slave trade in 1807 , imposing stiff fines for any slave found aboard a British ship (see Slave Trade Act 1807).
In the very elderly, age-related large artery pulsatility and stiffness is more pronounced among women than men. This may be caused by the women's smaller body size and arterial dimensions which are independent of menopause.
This may be caused by the women's smaller body size and arterial dimensions which are independent of menopause.
Among men and women, there are notable differences in body weight, height, body fat distribution, heart rate, stroke volume, and arterial compliance .
In the very elderly , age-related large artery pulsatility and stiffness is more pronounced among women than men.
This may be caused by the women's smaller body size and arterial dimensions which are independent of menopause .
Cigarettes are the major form of smoked tobacco.
Risks to health from tobacco use result not only from direct consumption of tobacco, but also from exposure to second-hand smoke. Approximately 10% of cardiovascular disease is attributed to smoking; however, people who quit smoking by age 30 have almost as low a risk of death as never smokers.
Approximately 10% of cardiovascular disease is attributed to smoking; however, people who quit smoking by age 30 have almost as low a risk of death as never smokers.
Approximately 10% of cardiovascular disease is attributed to smoking; however, people who quit smoking by age 30 have almost as low a risk of death as never smokers.
Risks to health from tobacco use result not only from direct consumption of tobacco , but also from exposure to second-hand smoke.
A diet high in fruits and vegetables decreases the risk of cardiovascular disease and death.
The DASH diet (high in nuts, fish, fruits and vegetables, and low in sweets, red meat and fat) has been shown to reduce blood pressure, lower total and low density lipoprotein cholesterol  and improve metabolic syndrome; but the long-term benefits outside the context of a clinical trial have been questioned.
A high fiber diet appears to lower the risk.
There is also evidence that a Mediterranean diet may be more effective than a low-fat diet in bringing about long-term changes to cardiovascular risk factors (e.g., lower cholesterol level and blood pressure).
The DASH diet (high in nuts, fish, fruits and vegetables, and low in sweets, red meat and fat) has been shown to reduce blood pressure, lower total and low density lipoprotein cholesterol  and improve metabolic syndrome ; but the long-term benefits outside the context of a clinical trial have been questioned.
Insufficient physical activity ( defined as less than 5 x 30 minutes of moderate activity per week, or less than 3 x 20 minutes of vigorous activity per week ) is currently the fourth leading risk factor for mortality worldwide.
Insufficient physical activity (defined as less than 5 x 30 minutes of moderate activity per week, or less than 3 x 20 minutes of vigorous activity per week) is currently the fourth leading risk factor for mortality worldwide.
 In 2008, 31.3% of adults aged 15 or older (28.2% men and 34.4% women) were insufficiently physically active.
 .The risk of ischemic heart disease and diabetes mellitus is reduced by almost a third in adults who participate in 150 minutes of moderate physical activity each week (or equivalent).
In addition, physical activity assists weight loss and improves blood glucose control, blood pressure, lipid profile and insulin sensitivity .
High dietary intakes of saturated fat, trans-fats and salt, and low intake of fruits, vegetables and fish are linked to cardiovascular risk, although whether all these associations are a cause is disputed.
The World Health Organization attributes approximately 1.7 million deaths worldwide to low fruit and vegetable consumption.
Frequent consumption of high-energy foods, such as processed foods that are high in fats and sugars, promotes obesity and may increase cardiovascular risk.
. There is evidence that higher consumption of sugar is associated with higher blood pressure and unfavorable blood lipids , and sugar intake also increases the risk of diabetes mellitus.
High consumption of processed meats is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, possibly in part due to increased dietary salt intake.
Total fat intake does not appear to be an important risk factor .
Worldwide, dietary guidelines recommend a reduction in saturated fat .
A 2013 meta analysis concludes that substitution with omega 6 linoleic acid (a type of unsaturated fat) may increase cardiovascular risk.
Benefits from replacement with polyunsaturated fat appears greatest; however, supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids (a type of polysaturated fat) does not appear to have an effect .
Replacement of saturated fats with carbohydrates does not change or may increase risk. Benefits from replacement with polyunsaturated fat appears greatest; however, supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids (a type of polysaturated fat) does not appear to have an effect.
The relationship between alcohol consumption and cardiovascular disease is complex, and may depend on the amount of alcohol consumed .
 Drinking at low levels without episodes of heavy drinking may be associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease .
. Overall alcohol consumption at the population level is associated with multiple health risks that exceed any potential benefits.
There is a direct relationship between high levels of alcohol consumption and risk of cardiovascular disease.  Drinking at low levels without episodes of heavy drinking may be associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease.
The relationship between alcohol consumption and cardiovascular disease is complex , and may depend on the amount of alcohol consumed.
In addition, the review suggested that a low-salt diet may be harmful in those with congestive heart failure .
However, the review was criticized in particular for not excluding a trial in heart failure where people had low-salt and -water levels due to diuretics. When this study is left out, the rest of the trials show a trend to benefit.
Moderate evidence was found that high salt intake increases cardiovascular mortality ; and some evidence was found for an increase in overall mortality, strokes, and left ventricular hypertrophy.
Another review of dietary salt concluded that there is strong evidence that high dietary salt intake increases blood pressure and worsens hypertension , and that it increases the number of cardiovascular disease events; the latter happen both through the increased blood pressure and, quite likely, through other mechanisms.
Aspirin has been found to be of only modest benefit in those at low risk of heart disease as the risk of serious bleeding is almost equal to the benefit with respect to cardiovascular problems.
In those at really low risk it is not recommended .
Aspirin has been found to be of only modest benefit in those at low risk of heart disease as the risk of serious bleeding is almost equal to the benefit with respect to cardiovascular problems.
Statins are effective in preventing further cardiovascular disease in people with a history of cardiovascular disease .
As the event rate is higher in men than in women , the decrease in events is more easily seen in men than women.
In those without cardiovascular disease but risk factors statins appear to also be beneficial with a decrease in the risk of death and further heart disease .
A United States guideline recommends statins in those who have a 12% or greater risk of cardiovascular disease over the next ten years.
Age is by far the most important risk factor in developing cardiovascular or heart diseases, with approximately a tripling of risk with each decade of life.
It is estimated that 82 percent of people who die of coronary heart disease are 65 and older.
Age is by far the most important risk factor in developing cardiovascular or heart diseases, with approximately a tripling of risk with each decade of life.
 Coronary fatty streaks can begin to form in adolescence.
At the same time, the risk of stroke doubles every decade after age 55 .
Multiple explanations have been proposed to explain why age increases the risk of cardiovascular/heart diseases .
Multiple explanations have been proposed to explain why age increases the risk of cardiovascular/heart diseases.
In men, this increase levels off around age 45 to 50 years.
In women, the increase continues sharply until age 60 to 65 years.
In most populations, the serum total cholesterol level increases as age increases.
Aging is also associated with changes in the mechanical and structural properties of the vascular wall, which leads to the loss of arterial elasticity and reduced arterial compliance and may subsequently lead to coronary artery disease.
Aging is also associated with changes in the mechanical and structural properties of the vascular wall, which leads to the loss of arterial elasticity and reduced arterial compliance and may subsequently lead to coronary artery disease.
Aging is also associated with changes in the mechanical and structural properties of the vascular wall, which leads to the loss of arterial elasticity and reduced arterial compliance and may subsequently lead to coronary artery disease.
Aging is also associated with changes in the mechanical and structural properties of the vascular wall, which leads to the loss of arterial elasticity and reduced arterial compliance and may subsequently lead to coronary artery disease.
Aging is also associated with changes in the mechanical and structural properties of the vascular wall, which leads to the loss of arterial elasticity and reduced arterial compliance and may subsequently lead to coronary artery disease .
Men are at greater risk of heart disease than pre-menopausal women.
Men are at greater risk of heart disease than pre-menopausal women .
Once past menopause , it has been argued that a woman's risk is similar to a man's although more recent data from the WHO and UN disputes this.
If a female has diabetes, she is more likely to develop heart disease than a male with diabetes.
If a fe male has diabetes, she is more likely to develop heart disease than a male with diabetes.
Cardiovascular disease affects low- and middle-income countries even more than high-income countries.
Policies that have resulted in increased socio-economic inequalities have been associated with greater subsequent socio-economic differences in cardiovascular disease implying a cause and effect relationship .
There is relatively little information regarding social patterns of cardiovascular disease within low- and middle-income countries, but within high-income countries low income and low educational status are consistently associated with greater risk of cardiovascular disease.
. The Commission on Social Determinants of Health recommended that more equal distributions of power, wealth, education, housing, environmental factors, nutrition, and health care were needed to address inequalities in cardiovascular disease and non-communicable diseases.
. The Commission on Social Determinants of Health recommended that more equal distributions of power, wealth, education, housing, environmental factors, nutrition, and health care were needed to address inequalities in cardiovascular disease and non-communicable diseases.
Cardiovascular disease affects low- and middle-income countries even more than high-income countries.
There is relatively little information regarding social patterns of cardiovascular disease within low- and middle-income countries, but within high-income countries low income and low educational status are consistently associated with greater risk of cardiovascular disease.
Policies that have resulted in increased socio-economic inequalities have been associated with greater subsequent socio-economic differences in cardiovascular disease implying a cause and effect relationship .
. The Commission on Social Determinants of Health recommended that more equal distributions of power, wealth, education, housing, environmental factors, nutrition, and health care were needed to address inequalities in cardiovascular disease and non-communicable diseases.
. The Commission on Social Determinants of Health recommended that more equal distributions of power, wealth, education, housing, environmental factors, nutrition, and health care were needed to address inequalities in cardiovascular disease and non-communicable diseases.
Coronary heart diseases are 2 to 5 times more common among middle-aged men than women.
Coronary heart diseases are 2 to 5 times more common among middle-aged men than women.
Estrogen may have protective effects through glucose metabolism and hemostatic system, and may have direct effect in improving endothelial cell function.
 The production of estrogen decreases after menopause, and this may change the female lipid metabolism toward a more atherogenic form by decreasing the HDL cholesterol level while increasing LDL and total cholesterol levels.
 Among women, estrogen is the predominant sex hormone.
Particulate matter has been studied for its short- and long-term exposure effects on cardiovascular disease.
Currently, PM2.5 is the major focus, in which gradients are used to determine CVD risk .
Women had a higher relative risk (RR) (1.42) for PM2.5 induced coronary artery disease than men (0.90) did.
Currently, PM2.5 is the major focus, in which gradients are used to determine CVD risk.
 Overall, long-term PM exposure increased rate of atherosclerosis and inflammation .
Particulate matter has been studied for its short- and long-term exposure effects on cardiovascular disease.
Currently, PM2.5 is the major focus, in which gradients are used to determine CVD risk .
Women had a higher relative risk (RR) (1.42) for PM2.5 induced coronary artery disease than men (0.90) did.
Currently, PM2.5 is the major focus, in which gradients are used to determine CVD risk.
 Overall, long-term PM exposure increased rate of atherosclerosis and inflammation .
Population-based studies show that atherosclerosis, the major precursor of cardiovascular disease, begins in childhood .
Population-based studies show that atherosclerosis, the major precursor of cardiovascular disease , begins in childhood.
The Pathobiological Determinants of Atherosclerosis in Youth Study demonstrated that intimal lesions appear in all the aortas and more than half of the right coronary arteries of youths aged 7–9 years.
The Pathobiological Determinants of Atherosclerosis in Youth Study demonstrated that intimal lesions appear in all the aortas and more than half of the right coronary arteries of youths aged 7–9 years .
Population -based studies show that atherosclerosis, the major precursor of cardiovascular disease, begins in childhood.
This is extremely important considering that 1 in 3 people die from complications attributable to atherosclerosis.
In order to stem the tide, education and awareness that cardiovascular disease poses the greatest threat, and measures to prevent or reverse this disease must be taken.
In order to stem the tide, education and awareness that cardiovascular disease poses the greatest threat, and measures to prevent or reverse this disease must be taken.
This is extremely important considering that 1 in 3 people die from complications attributable to atherosclerosis.
In order to stem the tide, education and awareness that cardiovascular disease poses the greatest threat, and measures to prevent or reverse this disease must be taken.
Existing cardiovascular disease or a previous cardiovascular event , such as a heart attack or stroke, is the strongest predictor of a future cardiovascular event.
Numerous risk scores exist although their respective merits are debated .
Age, sex, smoking, blood pressure, blood lipids and diabetes are important predictors of future cardiovascular disease in people who are not known to have cardiovascular disease.
Other diagnostic tests and biomarkers remain under evaluation but currently these lack clear-cut evidence to support their routine use.
Cardiovascular disease includes coronary artery diseases (CAD) such as angina and myocardial infarction (commonly known as a heart attack). Other CVDs are stroke, hypertensive heart disease, rheumatic heart disease, cardiomyopathy, heart arrhythmia, congenital heart disease, endocarditis, aortic aneurysms, peripheral artery disease and venous thrombosis.
Cardiovascular disease includes coronary artery diseases (CAD) such as angina and myocardial infarction (commonly known as a heart attack).
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a class of diseases that involve the heart or blood vessels.
Cardiovascular disease includes coronary artery diseases (CAD) such as angina and myocardial infarction (commonly known as a heart attack).
Cardiovascular disease includes coronary artery diseases (CAD) such as angina and myocardial infarction (commonly known as a heart attack).
 In fact, cardiovascular disease is the most life-threatening of the diabetic complications and diabetics are two- to four-fold more likely to die of cardiovascular-related causes than nondiabetics.
Obesity and diabetes mellitus are often linked to cardiovascular disease , as are a history of chronic kidney disease and hypercholesterolaemia.
Obesity and diabetes mellitus are often linked to cardiovascular disease, as are a history of chronic kidney disease and hypercholesterolaemia.
Obesity and diabetes mellitus are often linked to cardiovascular disease, as are a history of chronic kidney disease and hypercholesterolaemia .
High blood pressure results in 13% of CVD deaths , while tobacco results in 9%, diabetes 6%, lack of exercise 6% and obesity 5%.
Coronary artery disease, stroke, and peripheral artery disease involve atherosclerosis .
Rheumatic heart disease may follow untreated strep throat.
High blood pressure results in 13% of CVD deaths, while tobacco results in 9%, diabetes 6%, lack of exercise 6% and obesity 5% .
High blood pressure results in 13% of CVD deaths, while tobacco results in 9% , diabetes 6%, lack of exercise 6% and obesity 5%.
Screening ECGs (either at rest or with exercise) are not recommended in those without symptoms who are at low risk.
Screening ECGs (either at rest or with exercise) are not recommended in those without symptoms who are at low risk.
In those at higher risk the evidence for screening with ECGs is inconclusive .
Screening ECGs ( either at rest or with exercise ) are not recommended in those without symptoms who are at low risk.
Additionally echocardiography, myocardial perfusion imaging, and cardiac stress testing is not recommended in those at low risk who do not have symptoms .
Additionally echocardiography, myocardial perfusion imaging, and cardiac stress testing is not recommended in those at low risk who do not have symptoms .
Additionally echocardiography, myocardial perfusion imaging, and cardiac stress testing is not recommended in those at low risk who do not have symptoms .
Additionally echocardiography, myocardial perfusion imaging, and cardiac stress testing is not recommended in those at low risk who do not have symptoms.
It is estimated that 90% of CVD is preventable.
Treating people who have strep throat with antibiotics can decrease the risk of rheumatic heart disease .
The United States Preventive Services Task Force recommends against its use for prevention in women less than 55 and men less than 45 years old; however, in those who are older it is recommends in some individuals.
The United States Preventive Services Task Force recommends against its use for prevention in women less than 55 and men less than 45 years old; however, in those who are older it is recommends in some individuals.
The United States Preventive Services Task Force recommends against its use for prevention in women less than 55 and men less than 45 years old; however, in those who are older it is recommends in some individuals.
Some biomarkers may add to conventional cardiovascular risk factors in predicting the risk of future cardiovascular disease; however, the clinical value of some biomarkers is questionable .
Some biomarkers may add to conventional cardiovascular risk factors in predicting the risk of future cardiovascular disease ; however, the clinical value of some biomarkers is questionable.
Some biomarkers may add to conventional cardiovascular risk factors in predicting the risk of future cardiovascular disease; however, the clinical value of some biomarkers is questionable.
Some biomarkers may add to conventional cardiovascular risk factors in predicting the risk of future cardiovascular disease; however, the clinical value of some biomarkers is questionable .
Exercise in those who are at high risk of heart disease has not been well studied as of 2014.
For adults without a known diagnosis of hypertension, diabetes, hyperlipidemia, or cardiovascular disease, routine counseling to advise them to improve their diet and increase their physical activity has not been found to significantly alter behavior , and thus is not recommended.
For adults without a known diagnosis of hypertension, diabetes, hyperlipidemia , or cardiovascular disease, routine counseling to advise them to improve their diet and increase their physical activity has not been found to significantly alter behavior, and thus is not recommended.
It is unclear whether or not dental care in those with periodontitis affects the risk of cardiovascular disease.
This is true in all areas of the world except Africa .
Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death globally.
In the United States 11% of people between 20 and 40 have CVD, while 37% between 40 and 60, 71% of people between 60 and 80, and 85% of people over 80 have CVD.
Most cardiovascular disease affects older adults .
Disease onset is typically seven to ten years earlier in men as compared to women.
There are several risk factors for heart diseases: age, gender, tobacco use, physical inactivity, excessive alcohol consumption, unhealthy diet, obesity, family history of cardiovascular disease, raised blood pressure (hypertension), raised blood sugar (diabetes mellitus), raised blood cholesterol (hyperlipidemia), psychosocial factors, poverty and low educational status, and air pollution.
There are several risk factors for heart diseases: age, gender, tobacco use, physical inactivity, excessive alcohol consumption, unhealthy diet, obesity, family history of cardiovascular disease, raised blood pressure (hypertension), raised blood sugar (diabetes mellitus), raised blood cholesterol (hyperlipidemia), psychosocial factors, poverty and low educational status, and air pollution.
Some of these risk factors, such as age, gender or family history , are immutable; however, many important cardiovascular risk factors are modifiable by lifestyle change, social change, drug treatment and prevention of hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and diabetes.
There are several risk factors for heart diseases: age, gender, tobacco use, physical inactivity, excessive alcohol consumption, unhealthy diet, obesity, family history of cardiovascular disease, raised blood pressure (hypertension), raised blood sugar (diabetes mellitus), raised blood cholesterol (hyperlipidemia), psychosocial factors, poverty and low educational status, and air pollution.
The medications niacin, fibrates and CETP Inhibitors, while they may increase HDL cholesterol do not affect the risk of cardiovascular disease in those who are already on statins.
The medications niacin, fibrates and CETP Inhibitors, while they may increase HDL cholesterol do not affect the risk of cardiovascular disease in those who are already on statins.
The time course over which statins provide prevention against death appears to be long, of the order of one year , which is much longer than the duration of their effect on lipids.
The time course over which statins provide prevention against death appears to be long, of the order of one year, which is much longer than the duration of their effect on lipids.
The time course over which statins provide prevention against death appears to be long, of the order of one year, which is much longer than the duration of their effect on lipids .
The medications niacin, fibrates and CETP Inhibitors, while they may increase HDL cholesterol do not affect the risk of cardiovascular disease in those who are already on statins.
The time course over which statins provide prevention against death appears to be long, of the order of one year , which is much longer than the duration of their effect on lipids.
The medications niacin, fibrates and CETP Inhibitors, while they may increase HDL cholesterol do not affect the risk of cardiovascular disease in those who are already on statins.
The time course over which statins provide prevention against death appears to be long, of the order of one year, which is much longer than the duration of their effect on lipids.
The time course over which statins provide prevention against death appears to be long, of the order of one year, which is much longer than the duration of their effect on lipids .
The medications niacin, fibrates and CETP Inhibitors , while they may increase HDL cholesterol do not affect the risk of cardiovascular disease in those who are already on statins.
The medications niacin, fibrates and CETP Inhibitors, while they may increase HDL cholesterol do not affect the risk of cardiovascular disease in those who are already on statins.
The time course over which statins provide prevention against death appears to be long, of the order of one year , which is much longer than the duration of their effect on lipids.
The time course over which statins provide prevention against death appears to be long , of the order of one year, which is much longer than the duration of their effect on lipids.
The first studies on cardiovascular health were performed in year 1949 by Jerry Morris using occupational health data and were published in year 1958.
The first studies on cardiovascular health were performed in year 1949 by Jerry Morris using occupational health data and were published in year 1958.
The first studies on cardiovascular health were performed in year 1949 by Jerry Morris using occupational health data and were published in year 1958 .
The causes, prevention, and/or treatment of all forms of cardiovascular disease remain active fields of biomedical research, with hundreds of scientific studies being published on a weekly basis.
The causes, prevention, and/or treatment of all forms of cardiovascular disease remain active fields of biomedical research, with hundreds of scientific studies being published on a weekly basis.
The first studies on cardiovascular health were performed in year 1949 by Jerry Morris using occupational health data and were published in year 1958.
The first studies on cardiovascular health were performed in year 1949 by Jerry Morris using occupational health data and were published in year 1958.
The first studies on cardiovascular health were performed in year 1949 by Jerry Morris using occupational health data and were published in year 1958.
The first studies on cardiovascular health were performed in year 1949 by Jerry Morris using occupational health data and were published in year 1958 .
The causes, prevention, and/or treatment of all forms of cardiovascular disease remain active fields of biomedical research, with hundreds of scientific studies being published on a weekly basis .
C-reactive protein is a common inflammatory marker that has been found to be present in increased levels in patients who are at risk for cardiovascular disease.
C-reactive protein is a common inflammatory marker that has been found to be present in increased levels in patients who are at risk for cardiovascular disease .
a key inflammatory transcription factor called NF-κB, has been found to be a risk factor of cardiovascular disease and mortality.
 Also osteoprotegerin, which is involved with regulation of a key inflammatory transcription factor called NF-κB, has been found to be a risk factor of cardiovascular disease and mortality.
Some areas currently being researched include the possible links between infection with Chlamydophila pneumoniae ( a major cause of pneumonia )
Some areas currently being researched include the possible links between infection with Chlamydophila pneumoniae (a major cause of pneumonia) and coronary artery disease .
The Chlamydia link has become less plausible with the absence of improvement after antibiotic use .
The Chlamydia link has become less plausible with the absence of improvement after antibiotic use.
Melatonin is a pineal gland secretion and it is shown to be able to lower total cholesterol, very-low-density and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in the blood plasma of rats.
Melatonin is a pineal gland secretion and it is shown to be able to lower total cholesterol, very-low-density and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in the blood plasma of rats.
Reduction of blood pressure is also observed when pharmacological doses are applied .
to lower total cholesterol , very-low-density and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in the blood plasma of rats.
The use of vasoactive agents for people with pulmonary hypertension with left heart disease or hypoxemic lung diseases may cause harm and unnecessary expense.
The use of vasoactive agents for people with pulmonary hypertension with left heart disease or hypoxemic lung diseases may cause harm and unnecessary expense.
The use of vasoactive agents for people with pulmonary hypertension with left heart disease or hypoxemic lung diseases may cause harm and unnecessary expense.
The use of vasoactive agents for people with pulmonary hypertension with left heart disease or hypoxemic lung diseases may cause harm and unnecessary expense .
While a healthy diet is beneficial, in general the effect of antioxidant supplementation ( vitamin E, vitamin C , etc.)
Mineral supplements have also not been found to be useful .
While a healthy diet is beneficial, in general the effect of antioxidant supplementation (vitamin E, vitamin C, etc.) or vitamins has not been shown to protection against cardiovascular disease and in some cases may possibly result in harm.
Niacin, a type of vitamin B3 , may be an exception with a modest decrease in the risk of cardiovascular events in those at high risk.
Magnesium supplementation lowers high blood pressure in a dose dependent manner.
Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death.
In 2008, 30% of all global death is attributed to cardiovascular diseases.
It is also estimated that by 2030, over 23 million people will die from cardiovascular diseases each year.
Death caused by cardiovascular diseases are also higher in low- and middle-income countries as over 80% of all global death caused by cardiovascular diseases occurred in those countries.
It is estimated that 60% of the world's cardiovascular disease burden will occur in the South Asian subcontinent despite only accounting for 20% of the world's population.
Organizations such as the Indian Heart Association are working with the World Heart Federation to raise awareness about this issue.
Organizations such as the Indian Heart Association are working with the World Heart Federation to raise awareness about this issue.
This may be secondary to a combination of genetic predisposition and environmental factors .
The first recorded use of fringe on a flag dates from 1835, and the Army used it officially in 1895 .
No specific law governs the legality of fringe, but a 1925 opinion of the attorney general addresses the use of fringe (and the number of stars) "... is at the discretion of the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy ..." as quoted from footnote in previous volumes of Title 4 of the United States Code law books and is a source for claims that such a flag is a military ensign not civilian.
However, according to the Army Institute of Heraldry , which has official custody of the flag designs and makes any change ordered, there are no implications of symbolism in the use of fringe.
However, according to the Army Institute of Heraldry, which has official custody of the flag designs and makes any change ordered, there are no implications of symbolism in the use of fringe .
The first recorded use of fringe on a flag dates from 1835 , and the Army used it officially in 1895.
The flag is customarily flown  year-round at most public buildings, and it is not unusual to find private houses flying full-size (3 by 5 feet (0.91 by 1.52 m)) flags.
Some private use is year-round, but becomes widespread on civic holidays like Memorial Day , Veterans Day, Presidents' Day, Flag Day, and on Independence Day.
On Memorial Day it is common to place small flags by war memorials and next to the graves of U.S. war veterans.
The flag is customarily flown  year-round at most public buildings, and it is not unusual to find private houses flying full-size ( 3 by 5 feet (0.91 by 1.52 m)) flags.
Some private use is year-round, but becomes widespread on civic holidays like Memorial Day, Veterans Day, Presidents' Day, Flag Day, and on Independence Day.
The United States Flag Code outlines certain guidelines for the use, display, and disposal of the flag.
Team captain Martin Sheridan is famously quoted as saying "this flag dips to no earthly king", though the true provenance of this quotation is unclear.
This tradition may come from the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, where countries were asked to dip their flag to King Edward VII: the American flag bearer did not.
This tradition may come from the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, where countries were asked to dip their flag to King Edward VII: the American flag bearer did not.
If the edges become tattered through wear, the flag should be repaired or replaced .
When a flag is so tattered that it can no longer serve as a symbol of the United States, it should be destroyed in a dignified manner, preferably by burning .
The American Legion and other organizations regularly conduct flag retirement ceremonies, often on Flag Day, June 14.
The American Legion and other organizations regularly conduct flag retirement ceremonies, often on Flag Day, June 14 .
(The Boy Scouts of America recommends that modern nylon or polyester flags be recycled instead of burned, due to hazardous gases being produced when such materials are burned.)
But since Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo were launched and landed vertically and were not capable of horizontal atmospheric flight as the Space Shuttle did on its landing approach, the "streaming" convention was not followed and these flags were oriented with the stripes running horizontally, perpendicular to the direction of flight.
But since Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo were launched and landed vertically and were not capable of horizontal atmospheric flight as the Space Shuttle did on its landing approach, the "streaming" convention was not followed and these flags were oriented with the stripes running horizontally , perpendicular to the direction of flight.
The flag has been displayed on every U.S. spacecraft designed for manned flight, including Mercury, Gemini, Apollo Command/Service Module, Apollo Lunar Module, and the Space Shuttle.
But since Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo were launched and landed vertically and were not capable of horizontal atmospheric flight as the Space Shuttle did on its landing approach, the "streaming" convention was not followed and these flags were oriented with the stripes running horizontally, perpendicular to the direction of flight.
This rule dates back to the Army's early history, when both mounted cavalry and infantry units would designate a standard bearer, who carried the Colors into battle.
On some U.S. military uniforms, flag patches are worn on the right shoulder , following the vehicle convention with the union toward the front.
Since the Stars and Stripes are mounted with the canton closest to the pole, that section stayed to the right, while the stripes flew to the left .
Several US military uniforms, such as flight suits worn by members of the United States Navy, have the flag patch on the left shoulder.
Following the reopening of the National Museum of American History on November 21, 2008 , the flag is now on display in a special exhibition, "The Star-Spangled Banner: The Flag That Inspired the National Anthem," where it rests at a 10 degree angle in dim light for conservation purposes.
In 1907 Eben Appleton , New York stockbroker and grandson of Lieutenant Colonel George Armistead.(the commander of Fort McHenry during the 1814 bombardment) lent the Star Spangled Banner Flag to the Smithsonian Institution, and in 1912 he converted the loan to a gift.
Following the reopening of the National Museum of American History on November 21, 2008, the flag is now on display in a special exhibition, "The Star-Spangled Banner: The Flag That Inspired the National Anthem," where it rests at a 10 degree angle in dim light for conservation purposes .
a 10 degree angle in dim light for conservation purposes.
In 1907 Eben Appleton, New York stockbroker and grandson of Lieutenant Colonel George Armistead.(the commander of Fort McHenry during the 1814 bombardment) lent the Star Spangled Banner Flag to the Smithsonian Institution, and in 1912 he converted the loan to a gift.
The flag is displayed at half-staff (half-mast in naval usage) as a sign of respect or mourning .
President Dwight D. Eisenhower issued the first proclamation on March 1, 1954 , standardizing the dates and time periods for flying the flag at half-staff from all federal buildings, grounds, and naval vessels; other congressional resolutions and presidential proclamations ensued.
President Dwight D. Eisenhower issued the first proclamation on March 1, 1954, standardizing the dates and time periods for flying the flag at half-staff from all federal buildings, grounds, and naval vessels; other congressional resolutions and presidential proclamations ensued.
Nationwide, this action is proclaimed by the president; statewide or territory-wide, the proclamation is made by the governor .
Nationwide, this action is proclaimed by the president; statewide or territory-wide, the proclamation is made by the governor .
It  consists of thirteen equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white, with a blue rectangle in the canton (referred to specifically as the "union" ) bearing fifty small, white, five-pointed stars arranged in nine offset horizontal rows of six stars (top and bottom) alternating with rows of five stars.
It  consists of thirteen equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white, with a blue rectangle in the canton (referred to specifically as the "union") bearing fifty small, white, five-pointed stars arranged in nine offset horizontal rows of six stars (top and bottom) alternating with rows of five stars.
It  consists of thirteen equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white, with a blue rectangle in the canton (referred to specifically as the "union") bearing fifty small, white, five-pointed stars arranged in nine offset horizontal rows of six stars (top and bottom) alternating with rows of five stars.
The 50 stars on the flag represent the 50 states of the United States of America, and the 13 stripes represent the thirteen British colonies that declared independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain, and became the first states in the Union.
The 50 stars on the flag represent the 50 states of the United States of America, and the 13 stripes represent the thirteen British colonies that declared independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain, and became the first states in the Union.
The first official U.S. flag flown during battle was on August 3, 1777 at Fort Schuyler (Fort Stanwix) during the Siege of Fort Stanwix.
 Soldiers cut up their shirts to make the white stripes; scarlet material to form the red was secured from red flannel petticoats of officers' wives, while material for the blue union was secured from Capt. Abraham Swartwout 's
The first official U.S. flag flown during battle was on August 3, 1777 at Fort Schuyler (Fort Stanwix) during the Siege of Fort Stanwix.
Massachusetts reinforcements brought news of the adoption by Congress of the official flag to Fort Schuyler.
 Soldiers cut up their shirts to make the white stripes; scarlet material to form the red was secured from red flannel petticoats of officers' wives, while material for the blue union was secured from Capt.
The 1777 resolution was most probably meant to define a naval ensign .
The flag resolution appears between other resolutions from the Marine Committee .
Each regiment was to carry the national standard in addition to its regimental standard .
On May 10, 1779, Secretary of the Board of War Richard Peters expressed concern "it is not yet settled what is the Standard of the United States."
The appearance was up to the maker of the flag .
Experts have dated the earliest known example of this flag to be 1792 in a painting by John Trumbull .
Experts have dated the earliest known example of this flag to be 1792 in a painting by John Trumbull.
The Flag Resolution did not specify any particular arrangement, number of points, nor orientation for the stars and the arrangement or whether the flag had to have seven red stripes and six white ones or vice versa.
Some flag makers arranged the stars into one big star, in a circle or in rows and some replaced a state's star with its initial .
Most were individually crafted rather than mass-produced.
While there are many examples of 13-star arrangements, some of those flags included blue stripes as well as red and white.
Benjamin Franklin and John Adams, in a letter dated October 3, 1778, to the King of the Two Sicilies, described the American flag as consisting of "13 stripes, alternately red, white, and blue, a small square in the upper angle, next the flag staff, is a blue field, with 13 white stars, denoting a new Constellation." John Paul Jones used a variety of 13-star flags on his U.S. Navy ships including the well-documented 1779 flags of the Serapis and the Alliance.
These claims are documented in the Journals of the Continental Congress and George Hasting 's
Francis Hopkinson of New Jersey, a naval flag designer, and a signer of the Declaration of Independence, designed the 1777 flag while he was the Chairman of the Continental Navy Board's Middle Department, sometime between his appointment to that position in November 1776 and the time that the flag resolution was adopted in June 1777.
Francis Hopkinson of New Jersey , a naval flag designer, and a signer of the Declaration of Independence, designed the 1777 flag while he was the Chairman of the Continental Navy Board's Middle Department, sometime between his appointment to that position in November 1776 and the time that the flag resolution was adopted in June 1777.
Francis Hopkinson of New Jersey, a naval flag designer, and a signer of the Declaration of Independence, designed the 1777 flag while he was the Chairman of the Continental Navy Board's Middle Department, sometime between his appointment to that position in November 1776 and the time that the flag resolution was adopted in June 1777.
In this letter, he asked for a " Quarter Cask of the Public Wine " as payment for designing the U.S. flag, the seal for the Admiralty Board, the seal for the Treasury Board, Continental currency, the Great Seal of the United States, and other devices.
The origin of the stars and stripes design has been muddled by a story disseminated by the descendants of Betsy Ross .
Indeed, nearly a century passed before Ross' grandson, William Canby , first publicly suggested the story in 1870.
Indeed, nearly a century passed before Ross' grandson, William Canby, first publicly suggested the story in 1870 .
By her family's own admission, Ross ran an upholstery business, and she had never made a flag as of the supposed visit in June 1776 .
By her family's own admission, Ross ran an upholstery business , and she had never made a flag as of the supposed visit in June 1776.
In 1795 , the number of stars and stripes was increased from 13 to 15 (to reflect the entry of Vermont and Kentucky as states of the Union).
In 1795, the number of stars and stripes was increased from 13 to 15 (to reflect the entry of Vermont and Kentucky as states of the Union).
It was the 15-star, 15-stripe flag that inspired Francis Scott Key to write "Defence of Fort M'Henry", later known as "The Star Spangled Banner", which is now the American national anthem.
The flag is currently on display in the exhibition, " The Star-Spangled Banner: The Flag That Inspired the National Anthem " at the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of American History in a two-story display chamber that protects the flag while it is on view.
The flag is currently on display in the exhibition, "The Star-Spangled Banner: The Flag That Inspired the National Anthem" at the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of American History in a two-story display chamber that protects the flag while it is on view.
On April 4, 1818, a plan was passed by Congress at the suggestion of U.S. Naval Captain Samuel C. Reid in which the flag was changed to have 20 stars, with a new star to be added when each new state was admitted, but the number of stripes would be reduced to 13 so as to honor the original colonies .
The act specified that new flag designs should become official on the first July 4 (Independence Day) following admission of one or more new states.
The most recent change, from 49 stars to 50, occurred in 1960 when the present design was chosen, after Hawaii gained statehood in August 1959.
The most recent change, from 49 stars to 50, occurred in 1960 when the present design was chosen, after Hawaii gained statehood in August 1959 .
The most recent change, from 49 stars to 50, occurred in 1960 when the present design was chosen, after Hawaii gained statehood in August 1959 .
Other Asian nations have equivalent terms for America, for example Vietnamese: Hoa Kỳ ("Flower Flag").
However, the "flower flag" terminology persists in some places today: for example, American Ginseng is called simplified Chinese: 花旗参; traditional Chinese: 花旗參; literally: 'flower flag ginseng' in Chinese, and Citibank, which opened a branch in China in 1902 , is known as 花旗银行; 'Flower Flag Bank'.
Hoa Kỳ (" Flower Flag ").
However, the "flower flag" terminology persists in some places today: for example, American Ginseng is called simplified Chinese: 花旗参; traditional Chinese: 花旗參; literally: ' flower flag ginseng ' in Chinese, and Citibank, which opened a branch in China in 1902, is known as 花旗银行; 'Flower Flag Bank'.
Chinese now refer to the United States as simplified Chinese: 美国; traditional Chinese: 美國; pinyin: Měi guó .
Flags that are made to the prescribed 1.9 ratio are often referred to as "G-spec" (for "government specification") flags .
Even flags flown over the U.S. Capitol for sale to the public through Representatives or Senators are provided in these sizes.
In practice, most U.S. national flags available for sale to the public have a different width-to-height ratio; common sizes are 2 × 3 ft. or 4 × 6 ft. (flag ratio 1.5), 2.5 × 4 ft. or 5 × 8 ft. (1.6), or 3 × 5 ft. or 6 × 10 ft. (1.667) .
These specifications are contained in an executive order which, strictly speaking, governs only flags made for or by the U.S. federal government .
Flags that are made to the prescribed 1.9 ratio are often referred to as "G-spec" (for " government specification ") flags.
Specifically, the colors are "White",  "Old Glory Red", and "Old Glory Blue" .
The CIE coordinates for the colors of the 9th edition of the Standard Color Card were formally specified in JOSA in 1946 .
These colors form the standard for cloth, and there is no perfect way to convert them to RGB for display on screen or CMYK for printing.
The "relative" coordinates in the following table were found by scaling the luminous reflectance relative to the flag's "white" .
As with the design, the official colors are only officially required for flags produced for the U.S. federal government , and other colors are often used for mass-market flags, printed reproductions, and other products intended to evoke flag colors.
The practice of using more saturated colors than the official cloth is not new .
As with the design, the official colors are only officially required for flags produced for the U.S. federal government, and other colors are often used for mass-market flags, printed reproductions, and other products intended to evoke flag colors.
As Taylor, Knoche, and Granville wrote in 1950 : "The color of the official wool bunting [of the blue field] is a very dark blue, but printed reproductions of the flag, as well as merchandise supposed to match the flag, present the color as a deep blue much brighter than the official wool."
Sometimes, Pantone Matching System (PMS) approximations to the flag colors are used.
One set was given on the website of the U.S. embassy in London as early as 1998 ; the website of the U.S. embassy in Stockholm claimed in 2001 that those had been suggested by Pantone, and that the U.S. Government Printing Office preferred a different set.
In 2001, the Texas legislature specified that the colors of the Texas flag should be "(1)  the same colors used in the United States flag; and (2)  defined as numbers 193 (red) and 281 (dark blue) of the Pantone Matching System."
In 2001 , the Texas legislature specified that the colors of the Texas flag should be "(1)  the same colors used in the United States flag; and (2)  defined as numbers 193 (red) and 281 (dark blue) of the Pantone Matching System."
One set was given on the website of the U.S. embassy in London as early as 1998; the website of the U.S. embassy in Stockholm claimed in 2001 that those had been suggested by Pantone, and that the U.S. Government Printing Office preferred a different set.
Of these proposals, one created by 17-year-old Robert G. Heft in 1958 as a school project received the most publicity.
Of these proposals, one created by 17-year-old Robert G. Heft in 1958 as a school project received the most publicity.
He originally received a B– for the project.
According to Heft, his teacher did keep to their agreement and changed his grade to an A for the project .
Both the 49- and 50-star flags were each flown for the first time ever at Fort McHenry on Independence Day one year apart, 1959 and 1960 respectively.
By the middle of the 18th century, New England's way of life was threatened by overpopulation, going from about 100,000 people in 1700 to 250,000 in 1725 and 375,000 in 1750 thanks to high birth rates and relatively high overall life expectancy (a 15-year-old boy in 1700 could expect to live to about 63).
By the middle of the 18th century, New England's way of life was threatened by overpopulation, going from about 100,000 people in 1700 to 250,000 in 1725 and 375,000 in 1750 thanks to high birth rates and relatively high overall life expectancy (a 15-year-old boy in 1700 could expect to live to about 63 )
By the middle of the 18th century, New England's way of life was threatened by overpopulation , going from about 100,000 people in 1700 to 250,000 in 1725 and 375,000 in 1750 thanks to high birth rates and relatively high overall life expectancy (a 15-year-old boy in 1700 could expect to live to about 63).
As colonists in Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island continued to subdivide their land between farmers, the farms became too small to support single families.
As colonists in Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island continued to subdivide their land between farmers, the farms became too small to support single families.
By the middle of the 18th century, New England's way of life was threatened by overpopulation, going from about 100,000 people in 1700 to 250,000 in 1725 and 375,000 in 1750 thanks to high birth rates and relatively high overall life expectancy (a 15-year-old boy in 1700 could expect to live to about 63).
By the middle of the 18th century, New England's way of life was threatened by overpopulation, going from about 100,000 people in 1700 to 250,000 in 1725 and 375,000 in 1750 thanks to high birth rates and relatively high overall life expectancy (a 15-year-old boy in 1700 could expect to live to about 63).
By the middle of the 18th century, New England's way of life was threatened by overpopulation, going from about 100,000 people in 1700 to 250,000 in 1725 and 375,000 in 1750 thanks to high birth rates and relatively high overall life expectancy (a 15-year-old boy in 1700 could expect to live to about 63 )
By the middle of the 18th century, New England's way of life was threatened by overpopulation , going from about 100,000 people in 1700 to 250,000 in 1725 and 375,000 in 1750 thanks to high birth rates and relatively high overall life expectancy (a 15-year-old boy in 1700 could expect to live to about 63).
As colonists in Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island continued to subdivide their land between farmers, the farms became too small to support single families.
By the middle of the 18th century, New England's way of life was threatened by overpopulation, going from about 100,000 people in 1700 to 250,000 in 1725 and 375,000 in 1750 thanks to high birth rates and relatively high overall life expectancy (a 15-year-old boy in 1700 could expect to live to about 63).
By the middle of the 18th century, New England's way of life was threatened by overpopulation, going from about 100,000 people in 1700 to 250,000 in 1725 and 375,000 in 1750 thanks to high birth rates and relatively high overall life expectancy (a 15-year-old boy in 1700 could expect to live to about 63).
By the middle of the 18th century, New England's way of life was threatened by overpopulation , going from about 100,000 people in 1700 to 250,000 in 1725 and 375,000 in 1750 thanks to high birth rates and relatively high overall life expectancy (a 15-year-old boy in 1700 could expect to live to about 63).
As colonists in Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island continued to subdivide their land between farmers , the farms became too small to support single families.
By the middle of the 18th century, New England's way of life was threatened by overpopulation, going from about 100,000 people in 1700 to 250,000 in 1725 and 375,000 in 1750 thanks to high birth rates and relatively high overall life expectancy (a 15-year-old boy in 1700 could expect to live to about 63 )
Some farmers obtained land grants to create farms in undeveloped land in Massachusetts and Connecticut or bought plots of land from speculators in New Hampshire and what later became Vermont.
Some farmers obtained land grants to create farms in undeveloped land in Massachusetts and Connecticut or bought plots of land from speculators in New Hampshire and what later became Vermont.
Some farmers obtained land grants to create farms in undeveloped land in Massachusetts and Connecticut or bought plots of land from speculators in New Hampshire and what later became Vermont.
They planted nutritious English grass such as red clover and timothy-grass, which provided more feed for livestock, and potatoes, which provided a high production rate that was an advantage for small farms.
They planted nutritious English grass such as red clover and timothy-grass , which provided more feed for livestock, and potatoes, which provided a high production rate that was an advantage for small farms.
By 1750, a variety of artisans, shopkeepers, and merchants provided services to the growing farming population.
Blacksmiths, wheelwrights, and furniture makers set up shops in rural villages.
Stores selling English manufactures such as cloth, iron utensils, and window glass as well as West Indian products like sugar and molasses were set up by traders.
The storekeepers of these shops sold their imported goods in exchange for crops and other local products including roof shingles, potash, and barrel staves.
After these products had been delivered to port towns such as Boston and Salem in Massachusetts, New Haven in Connecticut, and Newport and Providence in Rhode Island, merchants then exported them to the West Indies where they were traded for molasses, sugar, gold coins, and bills of exchange (credit slips).
After these products had been delivered to port towns such as Boston and Salem in Massachusetts, New Haven in Connecticut, and Newport and Providence in Rhode Island, merchants then exported them to the West Indies where they were traded for molasses, sugar, gold coins, and bills of exchange (credit slips) .
After these products had been delivered to port towns such as Boston and Salem in Massachusetts, New Haven in Connecticut, and Newport and Providence in Rhode Island, merchants then exported them to the West Indies where they were traded for molasses, sugar, gold coins, and bills of exchange (credit slips).
They carried the West Indian products to New England factories where the raw sugar was turned into granulated sugar and the molasses distilled into rum .
The gold and credit slips were sent to England where they were exchanged for manufactures, which were shipped back to the colonies and sold along with the sugar and rum to farmers.
Many merchants became very wealthy by providing their goods to the agricultural population and ended up dominating the society of sea port cities.
Unlike yeoman farmhouses, these merchants resembled the lifestyle of that of the upper class of England living in elegant ​2 1⁄2-story houses designed the new Georgian style.
These Georgian houses had a symmetrical façade with equal numbers of windows on both sides of the central door.
The interior consisted of a passageway down the middle of the house with specialized rooms such as a library , dining room, formal parlor, and master bedroom off the sides.
Unlike the multi-purpose space of the yeoman houses , each of these rooms served a separate purpose.
In 1763 , Spain traded Florida to Great Britain in exchange for control of Havana, Cuba, which had been captured by the British during the Seven Years' War.
In 1763, Spain traded Florida to Great Britain in exchange for control of Havana, Cuba , which had been captured by the British during the Seven Years' War.
In 1763, Spain traded Florida to Great Britain in exchange for control of Havana, Cuba, which had been captured by the British during the Seven Years' War .
Britain occupied Florida, but did not send many settlers to the area, and control was restored to Spain in 1783 by the Peace of Paris, which ended the American Revolutionary War.
The inhabitants of West Florida revolted against the Spanish in 1810 and formed the Republic of West Florida, which was quickly annexed by the United States.
Throughout the 16th century, Spain explored the southwest from Mexico with the most notable explorer being Francisco Coronado whose expedition rode throughout modern New Mexico and Arizona.
Local Indians expelled the Spanish for 12 years following the Pueblo Revolt of 1680 ; they returned in 1692 in the "bloodless" reoccupation of Santa Fe.
Local Indians expelled the Spanish for 12 years following the Pueblo Revolt of 1680; they returned in 1692 in the "bloodless" reoccupation of Santa Fe.
Control was by Spain ( 223 years )
About of a third of the population in the 21st century descends from the Spanish settlers.
Father Junípero Serra , founded the first missions in Spanish upper Las Californias, starting with Mission San Diego de Alcalá in 1769.
The  indigenous Native American population was around 150,000 ; the Californios (Mexican era Californians) around 10,000; with the rest immigrant Americans and other nationalities involved in trade and business in California.
In the 1830s the missions were disbanded and the lands sold to Californios.
The missions introduced European technology, livestock, and crops .
Through the Spanish and Mexican eras they eventually comprised a series of 21 missions to spread Christianity among the local Native Americans, linked by El Camino Real (" The Royal Road ").
By 1660, French fur trappers, missionaries, and military detachments based in Montreal pushed west along the Great Lakes upriver into the Pays d'en Haut and founded outposts at Green Bay, Fort de Buade and Saint Ignace (both at Michilimackinac), Sault Sainte Marie, Vincennes, and Detroit in 1701.
At the end of the War for Independence in 1783 , the region south of the Great Lakes formally became part of the United States.
By 1773, the population of Detroit was 1,400 .
By 1660, French fur trappers, missionaries, and military detachments based in Montreal pushed west along the Great Lakes upriver into the Pays d'en Haut and founded outposts at Green Bay, Fort de Buade and Saint Ignace (both at Michilimackinac), Sault Sainte Marie, Vincennes, and Detroit in 1701 .
This vast tract was first settled at Mobile and Biloxi around 1700 , and continued to grow when 7,000 French immigrants founded New Orleans in 1718.
This vast tract was first settled at Mobile and Biloxi around 1700, and continued to grow when 7,000 French immigrants founded New Orleans in 1718.
This vast tract was first settled at Mobile and Biloxi around 1700, and continued to grow when 7,000 French immigrants founded New Orleans in 1718 .
when 7,000 French immigrants founded New Orleans in 1718.
Settlement proceeded very slowly, and though New Orleans became an important port as the gateway to the Mississippi River , there was little other economic development because the city lacked a prosperous hinterland.
In 1763 , Louisiana around New Orleans and west of the Mississippi River was ceded to Spain.
In 1763, Louisiana around New Orleans and west of the Mississippi River was ceded to Spain.
In 1763, Louisiana around New Orleans and west of the Mississippi River was ceded to Spain .
The situation changed when Napoleon forced Spain to return Louisiana to France in 1802 and threatened to close the river to American vessels.
The United States completed the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 , doubling the size of the nation.
Nieuw-Nederland , or New Netherland, chartered in 1614, was a colonial province of the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands in what became New York State, New Jersey, and parts of other neighboring states.
The city was captured by the English in 1664 ; they took complete control of the colony in 1674 and renamed it New York.
Nieuw-Nederland, or New Netherland, chartered in 1614, was a colonial province of the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands in what became New York State, New Jersey, and parts of other neighboring states.
The colony's capital, New Amsterdam, founded in 1625 and located at the southern tip of the island of Manhattan, would grow to become a major world city.
The colony's capital, New Amsterdam, founded in 1625 and located at the southern tip of the island of Manhattan , would grow to become a major world city.
New Sweden (Swedish: Nya Sverige ) was a Swedish colony that existed along the Delaware River Valley from 1638 to 1655 and encompassed land in present-day Delaware, southern New Jersey, and southeastern Pennsylvania.
New Sweden (Swedish: Nya Sverige) was a Swedish colony that existed along the Delaware River Valley from 1638 to 1655 and encompassed land in present-day Delaware, southern New Jersey, and southeastern Pennsylvania.
The several hundred settlers were centered around the capital of Fort Christina , at the location of what is today the city of Wilmington, Delaware.
New Sweden (Swedish: Nya Sverige) was a Swedish colony that existed along the Delaware River Valley from 1638 to 1655 and encompassed land in present-day Delaware, southern New Jersey, and southeastern Pennsylvania.
The several hundred settlers were centered around the capital of Fort Christina, at the location of what is today the city of Wilmington, Delaware .
The colony of New Sweden introduced Lutheranism to America in the form of some of the continent's oldest European churches.
The Nothnagle Log House in present-day Gibbstown, New Jersey was constructed in the late 1630s during the time of the New Sweden colony.
The Nothnagle Log House in present-day Gibbstown, New Jersey was constructed in the late 1630s during the time of the New Sweden colony.
The Nothnagle Log House in present-day Gibbstown, New Jersey was constructed in the late 1630s during the time of the New Sweden colony.
The colonists also introduced the log cabin to America, and numerous rivers, towns, and families in the lower Delaware River Valley region derive their names from the Swedes.
The Russian-American Company was formed in 1799 with the influence of Nikolay Rezanov for the purpose of buying sea otters for their fur from native hunters.
Russia explored the area that became Alaska starting with the Second Kamchatka expedition in the 1730s and early 1740s.
In 1867 the U.S. purchased Alaska and nearly all Russians abandoned the area except a few missionaries of the Russian Orthodox Church working among the natives.
The Russian-American Company was formed in 1799 with the influence of Nikolay Rezanov for the purpose of buying sea otters for their fur from native hunters.
Their first settlement was founded in 1784 by Grigory Shelikhov .
The first attempted English settlement south of Virginia was the Province of Carolina .
It was a private venture, financed by a group of English Lords Proprietors , who obtained a Royal Charter to the Carolinas in 1663, hoping that a new colony in the south would become profitable like Jamestown.
Carolina was not settled until 1670 , and even then the first attempt failed because there was no incentive for emigration to that area.
The original settlers in South Carolina established a lucrative trade in food for the slave plantations in the Caribbean.
The cultivation of rice was introduced during the 1690s and became an important export crop.
Its ethnic makeup included the original settlers, a group of rich, slave-owning English settlers from the island of Barbados; and Huguenots, a French-speaking community of Protestants.
Nearly continuous frontier warfare during the era of King William's War and Queen Anne's War drove economic and political wedges between merchants and planters.
Its ethnic makeup included the original settlers, a group of rich, slave-owning English settlers from the island of Barbados; and Huguenots, a French -speaking community of Protestants.
The disaster of the 1715 Yamasee War , which threatened the colony's viability, set off a decade of political turmoil.
By 1729 , the proprietary government had collapsed, and the Proprietors sold both colonies back to the British crown.
James Oglethorpe, an 18th-century British Member of Parliament, established the Georgia Colony in 1733 as a common solution to two problems.
Oglethorpe decided to establish a colony in the contested border region of Georgia and populate it with debtors who would otherwise have been imprisoned according to standard British practice.
James Oglethorpe, an 18th-century British Member of Parliament, established the Georgia Colony in 1733 as a common solution to two problems.
At that time, tension between Spain and Great Britain was high, and the British feared that Spanish Florida was threatening the British Carolinas.
This plan would both rid Great Britain of its undesirable elements and provide her with a base from which to attack Florida .
Slavery was officially forbidden , as were alcohol and other forms of immorality.
The colonists rejected a puritanical lifestyle and complained that their colony could not compete economically with the Carolina rice plantations .
Georgia initially failed to prosper, but eventually the restrictions were lifted, slavery was allowed , and it became as prosperous as the Carolinas.
The colony of Georgia never had an established religion. It consisted of people of various faiths.
Georgia was established on strict moralistic principles .
The provincial government was governed by commissions created at pleasure by the monarch .
The governor was invested with general executive powers, and authorized to call a locally elected assembly.
Assemblies were made up of representatives elected by the freeholders and planters (landowners) of the province.
The governor's council would sit as an upper house when the assembly was in session in addition to its role in advising the governor.
The governor was invested with general executive powers, and authorized to call a locally elected assembly.
During the 1750s, these agricultural innovators replaced the hand sickles and scythes used to harvest hay, wheat, and barley with the cradle scythe , a tool with wooden fingers that arranged the stalks of grain for easy collection.
Virginia and Maryland came to be almost totally dependent on tobacco, which would ultimately prove fatal at the end of the 18th century thanks to exhausted soil and collapsing prices, but for most of the century, the soil remained good and a single-crop economy profitable.
Eventually cows were brought with the horses.
South Carolina produced rice and indigo .
In the American colonies, settlers from northern Ireland focused on mixed-farming.
In New York, a fur-pelt export trade to Europe flourished adding additional wealth to the region.
After 1720, mid-Atlantic farming stimulated with the international demand for wheat .
Farmers also expanded their production of flax seed and corn since flax was a high demand in the Irish linen industry and a demand for corn existed in the West Indies.
Before 1720, most colonists in the mid-Atlantic region worked with small-scale farming and paid for imported manufactures by supplying the West Indies with corn and flour.
By 1770, a bushel of wheat cost twice as much as it did in 1720 .
The Mid-Atlantic region, by 1750, was divided by both ethnic background and wealth .
Merchants often bought wool and flax from farmers and employed newly arrived immigrants, who had been textile workers in Ireland and Germany, to work in their homes spinning the materials into yarn and cloth.
Some immigrants who just arrived purchased farms and shared in this export wealth, but many poor German and Irish immigrants were forced to work as agricultural wage laborers.
Merchants often bought wool and flax from farmers and employed newly arrived immigrants, who had been textile workers in Ireland and Germany, to work in their homes spinning the materials into yarn and cloth .
Large farmers and merchants became wealthy, while farmers with smaller farms and artisans only made enough for subsistence.
Of the 650,000 inhabitants of the South in 1750, about 250,000 or 40 percent , were slaves.
The Southern Colonies were mainly dominated by the wealthy planters in Maryland, Virginia, and South Carolina .
They owned increasingly large plantations that were worked by African slaves .
The plantations grew tobacco, indigo and rice for export, and raised most of their own food supplies.
Most white men owned some land, and therefore could vote .
Much of the population consisted of young, single, white indentured servants , and as such the colonies, to a large degree, lacked any social cohesiveness.
These factors, along with dispersed settlements and a reluctance to live in villages, together with a growing immigration of white indentured servants and black slaves made families and communities in the Virginia-Maryland region before 1700 fundamentally different from their counterparts in Europe and New England.
African women entered the colony as early as 1619 , although their status: free, slave or indentured servant remains a historical debate.
In the 17th century high mortality rates for newcomers and a very high ratio of men to women made family life either impossible or unstable for most colonists.
Lacking male protectors, women, especially teenage girls who were indentured servants , often were vulnerable to exploitation and abuse.
Economically, Puritan New England fulfilled the expectations of its founders.
Unlike the cash crop-oriented plantations of the Chesapeake region , the Puritan economy was based on the efforts of self-supporting farmsteads who traded only for goods they could not produce themselves.
Economically, Puritan New England fulfilled the expectations of its founders.
Economically, Puritan New England fulfilled the expectations of its founders.
Economically, Puritan New England fulfilled the expectations of its founders.
One group sailed on the Mayflower and settled in Plymouth, Massachusetts in 1620.
After drawing up the Mayflower Compact by which they gave themselves broad powers of self-governance, they established the small Plymouth Colony .
Providence Plantation was founded in 1636 by Rev. Roger Williams on land provided by the Narragansett sachem, Canonicus .
Williams, fleeing from religious persecution in the Massachusetts Bay Colony, agreed with his fellow settlers on an egalitarian constitution providing for majority rule "in civil things" and "liberty of conscience".
The Pilgrims were a small Protestant sect based in England and the Netherlands.
However, the Massachusetts charter had been revoked in 1684, and a new one was issued in 1691 that combined Massachusetts and Plymouth into the Province of Massachusetts Bay .
The 1689 Boston revolt, inspired by England's Glorious Revolution against James II, caused Andros, Boston Anglicans, and senior dominion officials to be arrested by the Massachusetts militia.
However, the Massachusetts charter had been revoked in 1684 , and a new one was issued in 1691 that combined Massachusetts and Plymouth into the Province of Massachusetts Bay.
However, the Massachusetts charter had been revoked in 1684, and a new one was issued in 1691 that combined Massachusetts and Plymouth into the Province of Massachusetts Bay.
However, the Massachusetts charter had been revoked in 1684, and a new one was issued in 1691 that combined Massachusetts and Plymouth into the Province of Massachusetts Bay.
In terms of the white population of Virginia and Maryland in the mid-18th century, the top five percent or so were planters who possessed growing wealth and increasing political power and social prestige.
In the frontier districts, large numbers of Irish and German Protestants had settled, often moving down from Pennsylvania .
 About 60 percent of white Virginians were part of a broad middle class that owns substantial farms; By the second generation, death rates from malaria and other local diseases had declined so much that a stable family structure was possible.
Entrepreneurs had begun to mine and smelt the local iron ores .
In terms of the white population of Virginia and Maryland in the mid-18th century, the top five percent or so were planters who possessed growing wealth and increasing political power and social prestige.
 Horse racing was the main event.
When they publicly bet a large sum on their favorite horse, it told the world that competitiveness, individualism, and materialism where the core elements of gentry values.
 Historian Timothy Breen explains that horse racing and high-stakes gambling were essential to maintaining the status of the gentry.
 In England hunting was sharply restricted to landowners, and enforced by armed gameskeepers .
Everyone —including servants and slaves—could and did hunt.
During this era, English proto-nationalism and national assertiveness blossomed under the threat of Spanish invasion , assisted by a degree of Protestant militarism and the energy of Queen Elizabeth.
During this era, English proto-nationalism and national assertiveness blossomed under the threat of Spanish invasion, assisted by a degree of Protestant militarism and the energy of Queen Elizabeth .
After 1700 most immigrants to Colonial America arrived as indentured servants —young unmarried men and women seeking a new life in a much richer environment.
Between the late 1610s and the American Revolution, the British shipped an estimated 50,000 convicts to its American colonies.
England made its first successful efforts at the start of the 17th century for several reasons.
Throughout the course of the war, British officers trained American ones (most notably George Washington ) for battle—which would later benefit the American Revolution.
The war also increased a sense of American unity in other ways.
During the war, the position of the British colonies as part of the British Empire was made truly apparent, as British military and civilian officials took on an increased presence in the lives of Americans.
Throughout the course of the war, British officers trained American ones (most notably George Washington) for battle—which would later benefit the American Revolution .
The French and Indian War took on a new significance for the British North American colonists when William Pitt the Elder decided that, in order to win the war against France, major military resources needed to be devoted to North America .
After Bacon's Rebellion, African slaves rapidly replaced indentured servants as Virginia's main labor force.
By the late 17th century, Virginia's export economy was largely based on tobacco, and new, richer settlers came in to take up large portions of land, build large plantations and import indentured servants and slaves.
In 1676 , Bacon's Rebellion occurred, but was suppressed by royal officials.
The colony survived and flourished by turning to tobacco as a cash crop.
The first successful English colony was Jamestown, established May 14, 1607 near Chesapeake Bay.
Following the war, Britain gained all French territory east of the Mississippi River, including Quebec , the Great Lakes, and the Ohio River valley.
In the Treaty of Paris (1763), France formally ceded the eastern part of its vast North American empire to Britain (having secretly given the territory of Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to Spain the previous year).
Britain also gained Spanish Florida , from which it formed the colonies of East and West Florida.
In the Treaty of Paris (1763), France formally ceded the eastern part of its vast North American empire to Britain (having secretly given the territory of Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to Spain the previous year)
In removing a major foreign threat to the thirteen colonies, the war also largely removed the colonists' need of colonial protection.
High death rates and a very young population profile characterized the colony during its first years.
High death rates and a very young population profile characterized the colony during its first years.
As cash crop producers, Chesapeake plantations were heavily dependent on trade with England .
As cash crop producers, Chesapeake plantations were heavily dependent on trade with England.
The colonial assembly shared power with a royally appointed governor .
The Massachusetts settlement spawned other Puritan colonies in New England, including the New Haven, Saybrook, and Connecticut colonies.
The Puritans, a much larger group than the Pilgrims, established the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1629 with 400 settlers.
The Puritans, a much larger group than the Pilgrims, established the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1629 with 400 settlers.
They sought to reform the Church of England by creating a new, pure church in the New World.
By 1640, 20,000 had arrived; many died soon after arrival, but the others found a healthy climate and an ample food supply.
British Prime Minister William Pitt the Elder had decided to wage the war in the colonies with the use of troops from the colonies and tax funds from Britain itself.
The British elite , the most heavily taxed of any in Europe, pointed out angrily that the colonists paid little to the royal coffers.
This dispute was a link in the chain of events that soon brought about the American Revolution .
This was a successful wartime strategy, but after the war was over, each side believed that it had borne a greater burden than the other .
The colonists replied that their sons had fought and died in a war that served European interests more than their own.
Roger Williams, who preached religious toleration, separation of Church and State, and a complete break with the Church of England , was banished and founded Rhode Island Colony, which became a haven for other refugees from the Puritan community, such as Anne Hutchinson.
The Puritans created a deeply religious, socially tight-knit, and politically innovative culture that still influences the modern United States.
Roger Williams, who preached religious toleration, separation of Church and State, and a complete break with the Church of England, was banished and founded Rhode Island Colony , which became a haven for other refugees from the Puritan community, such as Anne Hutchinson.
They fled England and in America attempted to create a "nation of saints" or a "City upon a Hill": an intensely religious, thoroughly righteous community designed to be an example for all of Europe .
They fled England and in America attempted to create a "nation of saints" or a "City upon a Hill": an intensely religious, thoroughly righteous community designed to be an example for all of Europe.
While fewer than 1% of British men could vote, a majority of white American men were eligible.
While fewer than 1% of British men could vote, a majority of white American men were eligible.
First, suffrage was the most widespread in the world, with every man who owned a certain amount of property allowed to vote.
As Bonomi (1971) shows, the most distinctive feature of colonial society was the vibrant political culture , which attracted the most talented and ambitious young men into politics.
As Bonomi (1971) shows, the most distinctive feature of colonial society was the vibrant political culture, which attracted the most talented and ambitious young men into politics .
First, suffrage was the most widespread in the world, with every man who owned a certain amount of property allowed to vote.
While fewer than 1% of British men could vote, a majority of white American men were eligible.
As Bonomi (1971) shows, the most distinctive feature of colonial society was the vibrant political culture , which attracted the most talented and ambitious young men into politics.
The roots of democracy were present, although deference was typically shown to social elites in colonial elections.
First, suffrage was the most widespread in the world, with every man who owned a certain amount of property allowed to vote.
This social upper echelon built its mansions in the Georgian style, copied the furniture designs of Thomas Chippendale, and participated in the intellectual currents of Europe, such as the Enlightenment .
This social upper echelon built its mansions in the Georgian style, copied the furniture designs of Thomas Chippendale, and participated in the intellectual currents of Europe, such as the Enlightenment.
Socially, the colonial elite of Boston, New York, Charleston , and Philadelphia saw their identity as British.
To many of their inhabitants, the seaport cities of colonial America were truly British cities.
Although many had never been to Britain, they imitated British styles of dress, dance, and etiquette .
This promoted the rapid expansion of the legal profession, so that the intense involvement of lawyers in politics became an American characteristic by the 1770s .
Americans sued each other at a very high rate, with binding decisions made not by a great lord but by local judges and juries.
Americans sued each other at a very high rate, with binding decisions made not by a great lord but by local judges and juries .
Second, in the colonies a very wide range of public and private business was decided by elected bodies, especially the assemblies and county governments in each colony.
Second, in the colonies a very wide range of public and private business was decided by elected bodies, especially the assemblies and county governments in each colony.
Americans sued each other at a very high rate, with binding decisions made not by a great lord but by local judges and juries.
Americans sued each other at a very high rate, with binding decisions made not by a great lord but by local judges and juries .
This promoted the rapid expansion of the legal profession, so that the intense involvement of lawyers in politics became an American characteristic by the 1770s.
This promoted the rapid expansion of the legal profession, so that the intense involvement of lawyers in politics became an American characteristic by the 1770s.
Thirdly, the American colonies were exceptional in the world because of the representation of many different interest groups in political decision-making.
Elected representatives learned to listen to these interests because 90 % of the men in the lower houses lived in their districts, unlike England where it was common to have an absentee member of Parliament.
Elected representatives learned to listen to these interests because 90% of the men in the lower houses lived in their districts, unlike England where it was common to have an absentee member of Parliament.
Unlike Europe, where aristocratic families and the established church were in control, the American political culture was open to economic, social, religious, ethnic and geographical interests, with merchants, landlords, petty farmers, artisans, Anglicans, Presbyterians, Quakers, Germans, Scotch Irish, Yankees, Yorkers, and many other identifiable groups taking part.
Thirdly, the American colonies were exceptional in the world because of the representation of many different interest groups in political decision-making.
Unlike Europe, where aristocratic families and the established church were in control, the American political culture was open to economic, social, religious, ethnic and geographical interests, with merchants, landlords, petty farmers, artisans, Anglicans, Presbyterians, Quakers, Germans, Scotch Irish, Yankees, Yorkers, and many other identifiable groups taking part.
Unlike Europe, where aristocratic families and the established church were in control, the American political culture was open to economic, social, religious , ethnic and geographical interests, with merchants, landlords, petty farmers, artisans, Anglicans, Presbyterians, Quakers, Germans, Scotch Irish, Yankees, Yorkers, and many other identifiable groups taking part.
Unlike Europe, where aristocratic families and the established church were in control, the American political culture was open to economic, social , religious, ethnic and geographical interests, with merchants, landlords, petty farmers, artisans, Anglicans, Presbyterians, Quakers, Germans, Scotch Irish, Yankees, Yorkers, and many other identifiable groups taking part.
Elected representatives learned to listen to these interests because 90% of the men in the lower houses lived in their districts, unlike England where it was common to have an absentee member of Parliament.
The codes of law of the colonies were often drawn directly from English law ; indeed, English common law survives not only in Canada, but also throughout the United States.
Eventually, it was a dispute over the meaning of some of these political ideals, especially political representation , and republicanism that led to the American Revolution.
Many Americans at the time saw the colonies' systems of governance as modeled after the British constitution of the time, with the king corresponding to the governor, the House of Commons to the colonial assembly, and the House of Lords to the governor's council.
Many of the political structures of the colonies drew upon the republicanism expressed by opposition leaders in Britain, most notably the Commonwealth men and the Whig traditions.
The codes of law of the colonies were often drawn directly from English law; indeed, English common law survives not only in Canada, but also throughout the United States.
American scientific activity was symbolized by David Rittenhouse , who constructed the first planetarium in the Western Hemisphere, New York lieutenant governor Cadwallader Colden, botanist and anthropologist, and Dr. Benjamin Rush, the celebrated physician and social reformer and member of the American Philosophical Society founded by Benjamin Franklin, who had contributed important discoveries to physics such as electricity, but was more successful in his practical inventions such as stoves and lightning rods.
American scientific activity was symbolized by David Rittenhouse, who constructed the first planetarium in the Western Hemisphere, New York lieutenant governor Cadwallader Colden, botanist and anthropologist, and Dr. Benjamin Rush, the celebrated physician and social reformer and member of the American Philosophical Society founded by Benjamin Franklin , who had contributed important discoveries to physics such as electricity, but was more successful in his practical inventions such as stoves and lightning rods.
American scientific activity was symbolized by David Rittenhouse, who constructed the first planetarium in the Western Hemisphere, New York lieutenant governor Cadwallader Colden, botanist and anthropologist, and Dr. Benjamin Rush, the celebrated physician and social reformer and member of the American Philosophical Society founded by Benjamin Franklin, who had contributed important discoveries to physics such as electricity, but was more successful in his practical inventions such as stoves and lightning rods.
The practical sciences were of great interest to colonial Americans , who were engaged in the process of taming and settling a wild frontier country.
American scientific activity was symbolized by David Rittenhouse, who constructed the first planetarium in the Western Hemisphere, New York lieutenant governor Cadwallader Colden, botanist and anthropologist, and Dr. Benjamin Rush, the celebrated physician and social reformer and member of the American Philosophical Society founded by Benjamin Franklin , who had contributed important discoveries to physics such as electricity, but was more successful in his practical inventions such as stoves and lightning rods.
The arts in colonial America were not as successful as the sciences.
Literature in the European sense was nearly nonexistent, with histories being far more noteworthy.
Since printing was expensive, most publications focused on purely practical matters such as major news, advertisements, and business reports .
Literary magazines appeared at mid-century , but few were profitable and most went out of business after only a few years.
These included The History and present State of Virginia (1705) by Robert Beverly and History of the Dividing Line (1728–29) by William Byrd , which however was not published until a century later.
New Englanders wrote journals, pamphlets, books and especially sermons—more than all of the other colonies combined.
Most music had a religious theme as well and was mainly the singing of Psalms.
Cotton Mather, a Boston minister published Magnalia Christi Americana (The Great Works of Christ in America, 1702), while revivalist Jonathan Edwards wrote his philosophical work,
The leading theologian and philosopher of the colonial era was Jonathan Edwards of Massachusetts, an interpreter of Calvinism, and the leader of the First Great Awakening .
Cotton Mather, a Boston minister published Magnalia Christi Americana (The Great Works of Christ in America, 1702), while revivalist Jonathan Edwards wrote his philosophical work,
Art and drama were somewhat more successful than literature.
Benjamin West was a noteworthy painter of historical subjects and two first-rate portrait painters emerged in John Copley and Gilbert Stuart, yet all three men spent much of their lives in London .
Puritans in New England and Quakers in Pennsylvania opposed theatrical performances as immoral and ungodly.
Puritans in New England and Quakers in Pennsylvania opposed theatrical performances as immoral and ungodly.
Theater was more developed in the Southern colonies, especially South Carolina , but nowhere did stage works attain the level of Europe.
Diversity was an American characteristic as the Dutch of New Netherland, the Swedes and Finns of New Sweden, the English Quakers of Pennsylvania , the English Puritans of New England, the English settlers of Jamestown, and the "worthy poor" of Georgia, came to the new continent and built colonies with distinctive social, religious, political and economic styles.
Small early attempts—such as the English Lost Colony of Roanoke—often disappeared; everywhere the death rate of the first arrivals was very high.
Diversity was an American characteristic as the Dutch of New Netherland, the Swedes and Finns of New Sweden, the English Quakers of Pennsylvania, the English Puritans of New England , the English settlers of Jamestown, and the "worthy poor" of Georgia, came to the new continent and built colonies with distinctive social, religious, political and economic styles.
Non-British colonies were taken over and the inhabitants were all assimilated, unlike in Nova Scotia, where the British expelled the French Acadian inhabitants.
Diversity was an American characteristic as the Dutch of New Netherland, the Swedes and Finns of New Sweden, the English Quakers of Pennsylvania, the English Puritans of New England, the English settlers of Jamestown, and the "worthy poor" of Georgia , came to the new continent and built colonies with distinctive social, religious, political and economic styles.
Some historians add a fifth region, the Frontier , which was never separately organized.
On the eastern seaboard of what would become the United States, the four distinct British regions were: New England, the Middle Colonies, the Chesapeake Bay Colonies (Upper South) and the Lower South.
By the time European settlers arrived around 1600–1650, the majority of the Native Americans living in the eastern United States had been ravaged by new diseases , introduced to them decades before by explorers and sailors.
By the time European settlers arrived around 1600–1650 , the majority of the Native Americans living in the eastern United States had been ravaged by new diseases, introduced to them decades before by explorers and sailors.
By the time European settlers arrived around 1600–1650, the majority of the Native Americans living in the eastern United States had been ravaged by new diseases, introduced to them decades before by explorers and sailors .
However, English entrepreneurs gave their colonies a base of merchant-based investment that seemed to need much less government support.
The first special body convened to advise on colonial (plantation) questions was the Commission of Trade set up in 1625 .
the Commission of Trade set up in 1625.
They had the ability to build ocean-worthy ships, but did not have as strong a history of colonization in foreign lands as did Portugal and Spain .
 From 1696 until the end of the revolution, colonial affairs were the responsibility of the Board of Trade in partnership with the relevant secretaries of state, which changed from the Secretary of State for the Southern Department to the Secretary of State for the Colonies in 1768 .
Mercantilism was the basic policy imposed by Britain on its colonies from the 1660s.
The government had to fight smuggling , especially by American merchants, some of whose activities (which included direct trade with the French, Spanish, Dutch, and Portuguese) were classified as such by the Navigation Acts.
The government protected its London-based merchants —and kept others out—by trade barriers, regulations, and subsidies to domestic industries in order to maximize exports from and minimize imports to the realm.
Thus the British Navy captured New Amsterdam (New York) in 1664.
About 600,000 slaves were imported into what is now the U.S., or 5% of the 12 million slaves brought from Africa.
The great majority went to sugarcane-growing colonies in the Caribbean and to Brazil , where life expectancy was short and the numbers had to be continually replenished.
Life expectancy was much greater in the North American colonies ( because of better food, less disease, lighter work loads, and better medical care ) so the numbers grew rapidly by excesses of births over deaths, reaching 4 million by the 1860 Census.
so the numbers grew rapidly by excesses of births over deaths, reaching 4 million by the 1860 Census.
From 1770 until 1860, the rate of natural growth of North American slaves was much greater than for the population of any nation in Europe, and was nearly twice as rapid as that of England.
In 1700, there were about 9,600 slaves in the Chesapeake region and a few hundred in the Carolinas.
In 1700, there were about 9,600 slaves in the Chesapeake region and a few hundred in the Carolinas.
About 170,000 more Africans were forcibly brought over during the next five decades.
In 1700, there were about 9,600 slaves in the Chesapeake region and a few hundred in the Carolinas .
Most slaves in South Carolina were born in Africa, while half the slaves in Virginia and Maryland were born in the colonies.[citation needed]
In New England, the Puritans created self-governing communities of religious congregations of farmers, or yeomen, and their families .
Large portions were usually given to men of higher social standing, but every white man—who wasn't indentured or criminally bonded —had enough land to support a family.
Large portions were usually given to men of higher social standing, but every white man—who wasn't indentured or criminally bonded —had enough land to support a family.
Every male citizen had a voice in the town meeting.
The town meeting levied taxes, built roads, and elected officials who managed town affairs .
Within these small farm families, and English families as well, a man had complete power over the property and his wife .
Within these small farm families, and English families as well, a man had complete power over the property and his wife .
When married, an English woman lost her maiden name and personal identity, meaning she could not own property, file lawsuits, or participate in political life , even when widowed.
During the 18th century, couples usually married between the ages of 20-24 and 6-8 children were typical of a family, with three on average surviving to adulthood.
Farm women provided most of the materials needed by the rest of the family by spinning yarn from wool and knitting sweaters and stockings, making candles and soap from ashes, and churning milk into butter .
New England farming families generally lived in wooden houses because of the abundance of trees .
A large chimney stood in the middle of the house that provided cooking facilities and warmth during the winter .
A typical New England farmhouse was one-and-a-half stories tall and had a strong frame (usually made of large square timbers) that was covered by wooden clapboard siding .
One side of the ground floor contained a hall, a general-purpose room where the family worked and ate meals .
Adjacent to the hall was the parlor, a room used to entertain guests that contained the family's best furnishings and the parent's bed .
The Great Awakening was a major religious revival movement that took place in most colonies in the 1730s and 1740s.
Followers of Edwards and other preachers of similar religiosity called themselves the " New Lights ", as contrasted with the "Old Lights", who disapproved of their movement.
The movement began with Jonathan Edwards , a Massachusetts preacher who sought to return to the Pilgrims' strict Calvinist roots and to reawaken the "Fear of God."
Followers of Edwards and other preachers of similar religiosity called themselves the "New Lights", as contrasted with the " Old Lights ", who disapproved of their movement.
To promote their viewpoints, the two sides established academies and colleges, including Princeton and Williams College.
Unlike New England, the Mid-Atlantic Region gained much of its population from new immigration, and by 1750, the combined populations of New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania had reached nearly 300,000 people.
By 1750, about 60,000 Irish and 50,000 Germans came to live in British North America, many of them settling in the Mid-Atlantic Region.
William Penn , the man who founded the colony of Pennsylvania in 1682, attracted an influx of British Quakers with his policies of religious liberty and freehold ownership.
The first major influx of settlers were the Scotch Irish , who headed to the frontier.
William Penn, the man who founded the colony of Pennsylvania in 1682, attracted an influx of British Quakers with his policies of religious liberty and freehold ownership.
In Albany and New York City, a majority of the buildings were Dutch style with brick exteriors and high gables at each end while many Dutch churches were shaped liked an octagon.
Using cut stone to build their houses, German and Welsh settlers in Pennsylvania followed the way of their homeland and completely ignored the plethora of timber in the area.
an octagon .
Using cut stone to build their houses, German and Welsh settlers in Pennsylvania followed the way of their homeland and completely ignored the plethora of timber in the area.
On the other hand, settlers from Ireland took advantage of America's ample supply of timber and constructed sturdy log cabins .
Rural Quakers preferred simple designs in furnishings such as tables, chairs, chests and shunned elaborate decorations.
German artisans created intricate carved designs on their chests and other furniture with painted scenes of flowers and birds.
The city of Philadelphia became a major center of furniture-making because of its massive wealth from Quaker and British merchants.
The city of Philadelphia became a major center of furniture-making because of its massive wealth from Quaker and British merchants.
From the 1670s several royal governors , notably Sir Edmund Andros (who at various times governed New York, New England, and Virginia) and Francis Nicholson (governed Maryland, Virginia, Nova Scotia, and Carolina) proposed or attempted to implement means to coordinate defensive and offensive military matters.
From the 1670s several royal governors, notably Sir Edmund Andros (who at various times governed New York, New England, and Virginia) and Francis Nicholson (governed Maryland, Virginia, Nova Scotia, and Carolina) proposed or attempted to implement means to coordinate defensive and offensive military matters.
From the 1670s several royal governors, notably Sir Edmund Andros (who at various times governed New York, New England, and Virginia) and Francis Nicholson (governed Maryland, Virginia, Nova Scotia, and Carolina) proposed or attempted to implement means to coordinate defensive and offensive military matters.
Efforts at common defense of the colonies (principally against shared threats from Indians, the French, and the Dutch) began as early as the 1640s, when the Puritan colonies of New England formed a confederation to coordinate military and judicial matters.
Efforts at common defense of the colonies (principally against shared threats from Indians, the French, and the Dutch ) began as early as the 1640s, when the Puritan colonies of New England formed a confederation to coordinate military and judicial matters.
There were often "country" and "court" factions, representing those opposed to and in favor of, respectively, of the governor's actions and agenda.
Massachusetts , which from its 1691 charter had particularly low requirements for voting eligibility and strong rural representation in its assembly, also had a strong populist faction that represented the province's lower classes.
None of the colonies had stable political parties of the sort that formed in the 1790s, but each had shifting factions that vied for power, especially in the perennial battles between the appointed governor and the elected assembly.
None of the colonies had stable political parties of the sort that formed in the 1790s, but each had shifting factions that vied for power, especially in the perennial battles between the appointed governor and the elected assembly.
None of the colonies had stable political parties of the sort that formed in the 1790s, but each had shifting factions that vied for power, especially in the perennial battles between the appointed governor and the elected assembly .
Most of the settlers came from Protestant backgrounds in Britain and the Continent, with a small proportion of Catholics (chiefly in Maryland) and a few Jews in port cities.
Most of the settlers came from Protestant backgrounds in Britain and the Continent, with a small proportion of Catholics (chiefly in Maryland ) and a few Jews in port cities.
Most of the settlers came from Protestant backgrounds in Britain and the Continent, with a small proportion of Catholics (chiefly in Maryland) and a few Jews in port cities .
Freedom of religion became a basic American principle, and numerous new movements emerged, many of which became established denominations in their own right.
Most of the settlers came from Protestant backgrounds in Britain and the Continent , with a small proportion of Catholics (chiefly in Maryland) and a few Jews in port cities.
In German communities in Pennsylvania, however, many women worked in fields and stables.
German and Dutch immigrants granted women more control over property, which was not permitted in the local English law .
German and Dutch immigrants granted women more control over property, which was not permitted in the local English law.
Among Puritan settlers in New England, wives almost never worked in the fields with their husbands.
The First Great Awakening , the nation's first major religious revival in the middle of the 18th century injected new vigor into Christian faith.
Jonathan Edwards , perhaps most powerful intellectual in colonial America, was a key leader.
It was a wave of religious enthusiasm among Protestants that swept the colonies in the 1730s and 1740s , leaving a permanent impact on American religion.
 The Great Awakening emphasized the traditional Reformed virtues of Godly preaching, rudimentary liturgy, and a deep sense of personal guilt and redemption by Christ Jesus.
George Whitefield came over from England and made many converts.
It brought Christianity to the slaves and was an apocalyptic event in New England that challenged established authority.
The Awakening had a major impact in reshaping the Congregational, Presbyterian, Dutch Reformed, and German Reformed denominations, and it strengthened the small Baptist and Methodist denominations.
The Awakening had little impact on Anglicans and Quakers .
The Awakening had a major impact in reshaping the Congregational, Presbyterian, Dutch Reformed, and German Reformed denominations, and it strengthened the small Baptist and Methodist denominations.
Ministers who used this new style of preaching were generally called " new lights ", while the preachers of old were called "old lights".
Unlike the Second Great Awakening that began about 1800 and which reached out to the unchurched , the First Great Awakening focused on people who were already church members.
People began to study the Bible at home , which effectively decentralized the means of informing the public on religious manners and was akin to the individualistic trends present in Europe during the Protestant Reformation.
Ministers who used this new style of preaching were generally called "new lights", while the preachers of old were called " old lights ".
Unlike the Second Great Awakening that began about 1800 and which reached out to the unchurched, the First Great Awakening focused on people who were already church members .
the late eighteenth century .
Much later on in the colonial experience, as the values of the American Enlightenment were imported from Britain, the philosophies of such thinkers as John Locke weakened the view that husbands were natural "rulers" over their wives and replacing it with a (slightly) more liberal conception of marriage.
Among Puritan settlers in New England , wives almost never worked in the fields with their husbands.
Women also lost most control of their property when marrying.
German and Dutch immigrants granted women more control over property, which was not permitted in the local English law.
Finding a market for their goods in the British colonies of North America, Britain increased her exports to that region by 360% between 1740 and 1770.
Because British merchants offered generous credit to their customers,[citation needed] Americans began buying staggering amounts of British goods.
The British economy had begun to grow rapidly at the end of the 17th century, and by the mid-18th century, small factories in Britain were producing much more than the nation could consume.
The British economy had begun to grow rapidly at the end of the 17th century, and by the mid- 18th century, small factories in Britain were producing much more than the nation could consume.
The British economy had begun to grow rapidly at the end of the 17th century, and by the mid-18th century, small factories in Britain were producing much more than the nation could consume.
Warfare was critical, for as Furstenberg, (2008) explains, from 1754 to 1815, the major imperial players – Britain, the American colonies, Spain, France, the First Nations ( Indians )
Warfare was critical, for as Furstenberg , (2008) explains, from 1754 to 1815, the major imperial players – Britain, the American colonies, Spain, France, the First Nations (Indians) and the United States fought a series of conflicts that can be called a "Long War for the West" over control of the region.
It was the Age of the Enlightenment, and ideas flowed back and forth across the Atlantic, with Philadelphian Benjamin Franklin playing a major role.
It was the Age of the Enlightenment, and ideas flowed back and forth across the Atlantic, with Philadelphian Benjamin Franklin playing a major role.
It was the Age of the Enlightenment, and ideas flowed back and forth across the Atlantic, with Philadelphian Benjamin Franklin playing a major role.
Beginning in 1765 the British Parliament asserted its supreme authority to lay taxes, and a series of American protests began that led directly to the American Revolution.
The British responded by trying to crush traditional liberties in Massachusetts, leading to the American revolution starting in 1775 .
Beginning in 1765 the British Parliament asserted its supreme authority to lay taxes, and a series of American protests began that led directly to the American Revolution.
The Boston Tea Party of 1773 dumped British tea into Boston Harbor because it contained a hidden tax Americans refused to pay.
The first wave of protests attacked the Stamp Act of 1765, and marked the first time Americans from each of the 13 colonies met together and planned a common front against British taxation.
In response to the Boston Tea Party Parliament passed the Intolerable Acts: Second Quartering Act (1774); Quebec Act (1774); Massachusetts Government Act (1774); Administration of Justice Act (1774); Boston Port Act (1774); Prohibitory Act ( 1775 ).
By this point the 13 colonies had organized themselves into the Continental Congress and began setting up shadow governments and drilling their militia in preparation for war.
By this point the 13 colonies had organized themselves into the Continental Congress and began setting up shadow governments and drilling their militia in preparation for war.
In response to the Boston Tea Party Parliament passed the Intolerable Acts : Second Quartering Act (1774); Quebec Act (1774); Massachusetts Government Act (1774); Administration of Justice Act (1774); Boston Port Act (1774); Prohibitory Act (1775).
First Quartering Act (1765); Declaratory Act (1766); Townshend Revenue Act (1767); and Tea Act ( 1773 ).
By the 18th century, Colonial physicians, following the models in England and Scotland, introduced modern medicine to the cities in the 18th century, and made some advances in vaccination, pathology, anatomy and pharmacology.
Malaria was deadly to many new arrivals, especially in the Southern colonies.
For an example of newly arrived able-bodied young men, over one-fourth of the Anglican missionaries died within five years of their arrival in the Carolinas.
Mortality was high for infants and small children, especially from diphtheria , yellow fever, and malaria.
Most sick people turn to local healers , and used folk remedies.
Europeans used Constantinople to refer to the whole of the city, but used the name Stamboul—as the Turks also did—to describe the walled peninsula between the Golden Horn and the Sea of Marmara.
By the 19th century, the city had acquired other names used by either foreigners or Turks .
Pera (from the Greek word for "across") was used to describe the area between the Golden Horn and the Bosphorus, but Turks also used the name Beyoğlu (today the official name for one of the city's constituent districts).
Pera (from the Greek word for " across ") was used to describe the area between the Golden Horn and the Bosphorus, but Turks also used the name Beyoğlu (today the official name for one of the city's constituent districts).
Pera (from the Greek word for "across") was used to describe the area between the Golden Horn and the Bosphorus, but Turks also used the name Beyoğlu (today the official name for one of the city's constituent districts).
The name İstanbul (Turkish pronunciation: [isˈtanbuɫ] (listen), colloquially [ɯsˈtambuɫ]) is commonly held to derive from the Medieval Greek phrase "εἰς τὴν Πόλιν" (pronounced [is tim ˈbolin]), which means "to the city" and is how Constantinople was referred to by the local Greeks.
The name İstanbul (Turkish pronunciation: [isˈtanbuɫ] (listen), colloquially [ɯsˈtambuɫ]) is commonly held to derive from the Medieval Greek phrase "εἰς τὴν Πόλιν" (pronounced [is tim ˈbolin]), which means "to the city" and is how Constantinople was referred to by the local Greeks.
An alternative view is that the name evolved directly from the name Constantinople, with the first and third syllables dropped.
A Turkish folk etymology traces the name to Islam bol "plenty of Islam" because the city was called Islambol ("plenty of Islam") or Islambul ("find Islam") as the capital of the Islamic Ottoman Empire.
Some Ottoman sources of the 17th century, such as Evliya Çelebi, describe it as the common Turkish name of the time; between the late 17th and late 18th centuries, it was also in official use.
Neolithic artifacts, uncovered by archeologists at the beginning of the 21st century, indicate that Istanbul's historic peninsula was settled as far back as the 7th millennium BCE .
 The first human settlement on the Asian side, the Fikirtepe mound, is from the Copper Age period, with artifacts dating from 5500 to 3500 BCE , On the European side, near the point of the peninsula (Sarayburnu), there was a Thracian settlement during the early 1st millennium BCE.
 The first human settlement on the Asian side, the Fikirtepe mound , is from the Copper Age period, with artifacts dating from 5500 to 3500 BCE, On the European side, near the point of the peninsula (Sarayburnu), there was a Thracian settlement during the early 1st millennium
 The first human settlement on the Asian side, the Fikirtepe mound, is from the Copper Age period, with artifacts dating from 5500 to 3500 BCE, On the European side, near the point of the peninsula (Sarayburnu), there was a Thracian settlement during the early 1st millennium BCE.
 The first human settlement on the Asian side, the Fikirtepe mound, is from the Copper Age period, with artifacts dating from 5500 to 3500 BCE, On the European side, near the point of the peninsula (Sarayburnu), there was a Thracian settlement during the early 1st millennium BCE.
The history of the city proper begins around 660 BCE ,[a] when Greek settlers from Megara established Byzantium on the European side of the Bosphorus.
The history of the city proper begins around 660 BCE,[a] when Greek settlers from Megara established Byzantium on the European side of the Bosphorus.
The history of the city proper begins around 660 BCE,[a] when Greek settlers from Megara established Byzantium on the European side of the Bosphorus .
Long allied with the Romans, Byzantium officially became a part of the Roman Empire in 73 CE .
The history of the city proper begins around 660 BCE,[a] when Greek settlers from Megara established Byzantium on the European side of the Bosphorus.
The establishment of Constantinople served as one of Constantine's most lasting accomplishments, shifting Roman power eastward as the city became a center of Greek culture and Christianity.
The establishment of Constantinople served as one of Constantine's most lasting accomplishments, shifting Roman power eastward as the city became a center of Greek culture and Christianity .
During most of the Middle Ages, the latter part of the Byzantine era, Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city on the European continent and at times the largest in the world.
Constantine also undertook a major renovation and expansion of the Hippodrome of Constantinople; accommodating tens of thousands of spectators, the hippodrome became central to civic life and, in the 5th and 6th centuries, the epicenter of episodes of unrest, including the Nika riots.
Numerous churches were built across the city, including the Hagia Sophia which was built during the reign of Justinian the Great and remained the world's largest cathedral for a thousand years.
From the late 1940s and early 1950s, Istanbul underwent great structural change , as new public squares, boulevards, and avenues were constructed throughout the city, sometimes at the expense of historical buildings.
From the late 1940s and early 1950s , Istanbul underwent great structural change, as new public squares, boulevards, and avenues were constructed throughout the city, sometimes at the expense of historical buildings.
In the early years of the republic, Istanbul was overlooked in favor of Ankara , selected as Turkey's capital to distance the new, secular country from its Ottoman history.
The population of Istanbul began to rapidly increase in the 1970s , as people from Anatolia migrated to the city to find employment in the many new factories that were built on the outskirts of the sprawling metropolis.
This sudden, sharp rise in the city's population caused a large demand for housing, and many previously outlying villages and forests became engulfed into the metropolitan area of Istanbul.
Istanbul is located in north-western Turkey within the Marmara Region on a total area of 5,343 square kilometers (2,063 sq mi).[c] The Bosphorus, which connects the Sea of Marmara to the Black Sea, divides the city into a European, Thracian side—comprising the historic and economic centers—and an Asian, Anatolian side.
Istanbul is located in north-western Turkey within the Marmara Region on a total area of 5,343 square kilometers (2,063 sq mi).[c] The Bosphorus , which connects the Sea of Marmara to the Black Sea, divides the city into a European, Thracian side—comprising the historic and economic centers—and an Asian, Anatolian side.
The confluence of the Sea of Marmara, the Bosphorus, and the Golden Horn at the heart of present-day Istanbul has deterred attacking forces for thousands of years and remains a prominent feature of the city's landscape.
Istanbul is located in north-western Turkey within the Marmara Region on a total area of 5,343 square kilometers (2,063 sq mi).[c] The Bosphorus, which connects the Sea of Marmara to the Black Sea, divides the city into a European, Thracian side—comprising the historic and economic centers—and an Asian, Anatolian side.
Istanbul is located in north-western Turkey within the Marmara Region on a total area of 5,343 square kilometers (2,063 sq mi).[c] The Bosphorus, which connects the Sea of Marmara to the Black Sea , divides the city into a European, Thracian side—comprising the historic and economic centers—and an Asian, Anatolian side.
The Armenian population of the city was also affected by the deportation of Armenian intellectuals on 24 April 1915 , in which leaders of the Armenian community were arrested and mostly killed as part of the Armenian Genocide.
The final Ottoman sultan, Mehmed VI , was exiled in November 1922; the following year, the occupation of Constantinople ended with the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne and the recognition of the Republic of Turkey, declared by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.
The final Ottoman sultan, Mehmed VI, was exiled in November 1922 ; the following year, the occupation of Constantinople ended with the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne and the recognition of the Republic of Turkey, declared by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.
The last of these, World War I, resulted in the British, French, and Italian occupation of Constantinople.
The final Ottoman sultan, Mehmed VI, was exiled in November 1922; the following year, the occupation of Constantinople ended with the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne and the recognition of the Republic of Turkey, declared by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.
Following the model of Rome, the historic peninsula is said to be characterized by seven hills, each topped by imperial mosques .
The northern half of Istanbul has a higher mean elevation compared to the south coast, with locations surpassing 200 meters (660 ft), and some coasts with steep cliffs resembling fjords, especially around the northern end of the Bosporus, where it opens up to the Black Sea .
The highest point in Istanbul is Çamlıca Hill , with an altitude of 288 meters (945 ft).
Because of the topography, buildings in Beyoğlu were once constructed with the help of terraced retaining walls, and roads were laid out in the form of steps .
The easternmost of these hills is the site of Topkapı Palace on the Sarayburnu.
Istanbul is situated near the North Anatolian Fault, close to the boundary between the African and Eurasian Plates .
Among the most devastating of these seismic events was the 1509 earthquake, which caused a tsunami that broke over the walls of the city and killed more than 10,000 people.
Among the most devastating of these seismic events was the 1509 earthquake, which caused a tsunami that broke over the walls of the city and killed more than 10,000 people.
More recently, in 1999, an earthquake with its epicenter in nearby İzmit left 18,000 people dead, including 1,000 people in Istanbul's suburbs.
Istanbul is situated near the North Anatolian Fault , close to the boundary between the African and Eurasian Plates.
Istanbul is a transcontinental city in Eurasia, straddling the Bosphorus strait between the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea .
Istanbul is one of the world's most populous cities and ranks as world's 6th-largest city proper and the largest European city.
Its commercial and historical center lies on the European side and about a third of its population lives on the Asian side .
Istanbul (/ˌɪstænˈbuːl/ or /ˌiːstɑːnˈbuːl/; Turkish: İstanbul [isˈtanbuɫ] (listen)), historically also known as Constantinople and Byzantium , is the most populous city in Turkey and the country's economic, cultural, and historic center.
Istanbul is a transcontinental city in Eurasia, straddling the Bosphorus strait between the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea .
Its commercial and historical center lies on the European side and about a third of its population lives on the Asian side .
Istanbul is one of the world's most populous cities and ranks as world's 6th-largest city proper and the largest European city.
Its commercial and historical center lies on the European side and about a third of its population lives on the Asian side.. The city is the administrative center of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality (coterminous with Istanbul Province) , both hosting a population of around 14 million residents.
Founded under the name of Byzantium on the Sarayburnu promontory around 660 BCE, the city developed to become one of the most significant in history.
After its reestablishment as Constantinople in 330 CE , it served as an imperial capital for almost 16 centuries, during the Roman and Byzantine (330–1204 and 1261–1453), the Latin (1204–1261), and the Ottoman (1453–1922) empires.
After its reestablishment as Constantinople in 330 CE, it served as an imperial capital for almost 16 centuries, during the Roman and Byzantine (330–1204 and 1261–1453), the Latin (1204–1261), and the Ottoman (1453–1922) empires.
It was instrumental in the advancement of Christianity during Roman and Byzantine times, before the Ottomans conquered the city in 1453 and transformed it into an Islamic stronghold and the seat of the Ottoman Caliphate.
Founded under the name of Byzantium on the Sarayburnu promontory around 660 BCE, the city developed to become one of the most significant in history.
After its reestablishment as Constantinople in 330 CE , it served as an imperial capital for almost 16 centuries, during the Roman and Byzantine (330–1204 and 1261–1453), the Latin (1204–1261), and the Ottoman (1453–1922) empires.
After its reestablishment as Constantinople in 330 CE, it served as an imperial capital for almost 16 centuries, during the Roman and Byzantine (330–1204 and 1261–1453), the Latin (1204–1261), and the Ottoman (1453–1922) empires.
It was instrumental in the advancement of Christianity during Roman and Byzantine times , before the Ottomans conquered the city in 1453 and transformed it into an Islamic stronghold and the seat of the Ottoman Caliphate.
Along the European side, and closer to the Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge, is Emirgan Park ; originally a private estate belonging to Ottoman leaders, the 47-hectare (120-acre) park is known for its diversity of plants and an annual tulip festival held since 2005.
Gülhane Park and Yıldız Park were originally included within the grounds of two of Istanbul's palaces— Topkapı Palace and Yıldız Palace —but they were repurposed as public parks in the early decades of the Turkish Republic.
Gülhane Park and Yıldız Park were originally included within the grounds of two of Istanbul's palaces—Topkapı Palace and Yıldız Palace —but they were repurposed as public parks in the early decades of the Turkish Republic.
Along the European side, and closer to the Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge, is Emirgan Park; originally a private estate belonging to Ottoman leaders , the 47-hectare (120-acre) park is known for its diversity of plants and an annual tulip festival held since 2005.
Popular during the summer among Istanbulites is Belgrad Forest , spreading across 5,500 hectares (14,000 acres) at the northern edge of the city.
Another park, Fethi Paşa Korusu , is situated on a hillside adjacent to the Bosphorus Bridge in Anatolia, opposite Yıldız Palace.
Along the European side, and closer to the Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge, is Emirgan Park ; originally a private estate belonging to Ottoman leaders, the 47-hectare (120-acre) park is known for its diversity of plants and an annual tulip festival held since 2005.
Along the European side, and closer to the Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge, is Emirgan Park; originally a private estate belonging to Ottoman leaders, the 47-hectare (120-acre) park is known for its diversity of plants and an annual tulip festival held since 2005.
Gülhane Park and Yıldız Park were originally included within the grounds of two of Istanbul's palaces—Topkapı Palace and Yıldız Palace—but they were repurposed as public parks in the early decades of the Turkish Republic .
Along the European side, and closer to the Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge, is Emirgan Park; originally a private estate belonging to Ottoman leaders, the 47-hectare (120-acre) park is known for its diversity of plants and an annual tulip festival held since 2005.
Istanbul is primarily known for its Byzantine and Ottoman architecture, but its buildings reflect the various peoples and empires that have previously ruled the city.
The obelisk erected by Theodosius in the Hippodrome of Constantinople is still visible in Sultanahmet Square, and a section of the Valens Aqueduct, constructed in the late 4th century, stands relatively intact at the western edge of the Fatih district.
The obelisk erected by Theodosius in the Hippodrome of Constantinople is still visible in Sultanahmet Square, and a section of the Valens Aqueduct, constructed in the late 4th century, stands relatively intact at the western edge of the Fatih district.
The obelisk erected by Theodosius in the Hippodrome of Constantinople is still visible in Sultanahmet Square, and a section of the Valens Aqueduct , constructed in the late 4th century, stands relatively intact at the western edge of the Fatih district.
The Column of Constantine, erected in 330 CE to mark the new Roman capital , stands not far from the Hippodrome.
The obelisk erected by Theodosius in the Hippodrome of Constantinople is still visible in Sultanahmet Square, and a section of the Valens Aqueduct, constructed in the late 4th century , stands relatively intact at the western edge of the Fatih district.
The obelisk erected by Theodosius in the Hippodrome of Constantinople is still visible in Sultanahmet Square, and a section of the Valens Aqueduct, constructed in the late 4th century, stands relatively intact at the western edge of the Fatih district .
Nothing of the architecture of the classical Greek period has survived, but Roman architecture has proved to be more durable.
Istanbul is primarily known for its Byzantine and Ottoman architecture, but its buildings reflect the various peoples and empires that have previously ruled the city.
The obelisk erected by Theodosius in the Hippodrome of Constantinople is still visible in Sultanahmet Square , and a section of the Valens Aqueduct, constructed in the late 4th century, stands relatively intact at the western edge of the Fatih district.
Istanbul's strategic position on the historic Silk Road , rail networks to Europe and the Middle East, and the only sea route between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean have produced a cosmopolitan populace, although less so since the establishment of the Turkish Republic in 1923.
Istanbul's strategic position on the historic Silk Road, rail networks to Europe and the Middle East, and the only sea route between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean have produced a cosmopolitan populace, although less so since the establishment of the Turkish Republic in 1923 .
The population of the city has increased tenfold since the 1950s, as migrants from across Anatolia have moved in and city limits have expanded to accommodate them .
Arts, Music, Film and Cultural festivals were established at the end of the 20th century and continue to be hosted by the city today, and infrastructure improvements have produced a complex transportation network.
After Constantine the Great made it the new eastern capital of the Roman Empire in 330 CE , the city became widely known as "Constantinopolis" (Constantinople), which, as the Latinized form of "Κωνσταντινούπολις" (Konstantinoúpolis), means the "City of Constantine".
After Constantine the Great made it the new eastern capital of the Roman Empire in 330 CE, the city became widely known as " Constantinopolis" (Constantinople), which, as the Latinized form of "Κωνσταντινούπολις" (Konstantinoúpolis), means the "City of Constantine". He also attempted to promote the name "Nova Roma" and its Greek version "Νέα Ῥώμη" Nea Romē (New Rome), but this did not enter  widespread usage.
He also attempted to promote the name " Nova Roma" and its Greek version "Νέα Ῥώμη" Nea Romē (New Rome), but this did not enter  widespread usage.
The use of Constantinople to refer to the city during the Ottoman period (from the mid-15th century) is now considered politically incorrect , even if not historically inaccurate, by Turks.
Constantinople began to decline continuously after the end of the reign of Basil II in 1025.
Constantinople began to decline continuously after the end of the reign of Basil II in 1025 .
The final blow was given by the conquest of Villardouin and Enrico Dandolo in 1204 during the Fourth Crusade,  where the City was sacked and pillaged.
The city subsequently became the center of the Latin Empire, created by Catholic crusaders to replace the Orthodox Byzantine Empire.
Aghia Sophia was converted to a catholic church in 1204.
In the mid- 14th-century , the Ottoman Turks began a strategy of gradually taking smaller towns and cities, cutting off Constantinople's supply routes and strangling it slowly.
On 29 May 1453, after an eight-week siege (during which the last Roman emperor, Constantine XI, was killed), Sultan Mehmed II "the Conqueror" captured Constantinople and declared it the new capital of the Ottoman Empire.
On 29 May 1453, after an eight-week siege (during which the last Roman emperor, Constantine XI , was killed), Sultan Mehmed II "the Conqueror" captured Constantinople and declared it the new capital of the Ottoman Empire.
On 29 May 1453, after an eight-week siege (during which the last Roman emperor, Constantine XI, was killed), Sultan Mehmed II "the Conqueror" captured Constantinople and declared it the new capital of the Ottoman Empire.
Mehmed declared himself as the new " Kaysar-i Rûm " (the Ottoman Turkish equivalent of Caesar of Rome) and the Ottoman state was reorganized into an empire.
Following the conquest of Constantinople, Mehmed II immediately set out to revitalize the city, by then also known as Istanbul .
He urged the return of those who had fled the city during the siege, and resettled Muslims, Jews, and Christians from other parts of Anatolia .
He demanded that five thousand households needed to be transferred to Constantinople by September.
From all over the Islamic empire, prisoners of war and deported people were sent to the city: these people were called " Sürgün " in Turkish (Greek: σουργουνιδες).
However, many people escaped again from the city, and there were several outbreaks of plague, so that in 1459 Mehmet allowed the deported Greeks to come back to the city.
The Ottoman Dynasty claimed the status of caliphate in 1517 , with Istanbul remaining the capital of this last caliphate for four centuries.
The Ottoman Dynasty claimed the status of caliphate in 1517, with Istanbul remaining the capital of this last caliphate for four centuries.
Suleiman the Magnificent's reign from 1520 to 1566 was a period of especially great artistic and architectural achievement; chief architect Mimar Sinan designed several iconic buildings in the city, while Ottoman arts of ceramics, stained glass, calligraphy, and miniature flourished.
The population of Istanbul was 570,000 by the end of the 18th century.
Suleiman the Magnificent's reign from 1520 to 1566 was a period of especially great artistic and architectural achievement; chief architect Mimar Sinan designed several iconic buildings in the city, while Ottoman arts of ceramics, stained glass, calligraphy, and miniature flourished.
A period of rebellion at the start of the 19th century led to the rise of the progressive Sultan Mahmud II and eventually to the Tanzimat period, which produced political reforms and allowed new technology to be introduced to the city.
Bridges across the Golden Horn were constructed during this period, and Istanbul was connected to the rest of the European railway network in the 1880s.
A period of rebellion at the start of the 19th century led to the rise of the progressive Sultan Mahmud II and eventually to the Tanzimat period , which produced political reforms and allowed new technology to be introduced to the city.
Bridges across the Golden Horn were constructed during this period, and Istanbul was connected to the rest of the European railway network in the 1880s .
A period of rebellion at the start of the 19th century led to the rise of the progressive Sultan Mahmud II and eventually to the Tanzimat period, which produced political reforms and allowed new technology to be introduced to the city.
The oldest surviving Byzantine church in Istanbul—albeit in ruins—is the Monastery of Stoudios (later converted into the Imrahor Mosque), which was built in 454.
The oldest surviving Byzantine church in Istanbul—albeit in ruins—is the Monastery of Stoudios (later converted into the Imrahor Mosque ), which was built in 454.
After the recapture of Constantinople in 1261, the Byzantines enlarged two of the most important churches extant, Chora Church and Pammakaristos Church .
The pinnacle of Byzantine architecture, and one of Istanbul's most iconic structures, is the Hagia Sophia .
Topped by a dome 31 meters (102 ft) in diameter , the Hagia Sophia stood as the world's largest cathedral for centuries, and was later converted into a mosque and, as it stands now, a museum.
After the recapture of Constantinople in 1261 , the Byzantines enlarged two of the most important churches extant, Chora Church and Pammakaristos Church.
Early Byzantine architecture followed the classical Roman model of domes and arches, but improved upon these elements, as in the Church of the Saints Sergius and Bacchus.
Topped by a dome 31 meters (102 ft) in diameter, the Hagia Sophia stood as the world's largest cathedral for centuries, and was later converted into a mosque and, as it stands now, a museum .
The oldest surviving Byzantine church in Istanbul—albeit in ruins—is the Monastery of Stoudios (later converted into the Imrahor Mosque), which was built in 454.
The pinnacle of Byzantine architecture, and one of Istanbul's most iconic structures, is the Hagia Sophia .
Since the government operates under a " powerful mayor, weak council " approach, the council's leader—the metropolitan mayor—has the authority to make swift decisions, often at the expense of transparency.
Since the government operates under a " powerful mayor, weak council " approach, the council's leader—the metropolitan mayor—has the authority to make swift decisions, often at the expense of transparency.
The Municipal Council is advised by the Metropolitan Executive Committee , although the Committee also has limited power to make decisions of its own.
All representatives on the Committee are appointed by the metropolitan mayor and the Council , with the mayor—or someone of his or her choosing—serving as head.
All representatives on the Committee are appointed by the metropolitan mayor and the Council, with the mayor—or someone of his or her choosing—serving as head .
Among the oldest surviving examples of Ottoman architecture in Istanbul are the Anadoluhisarı and Rumelihisarı fortresses , which assisted the Ottomans during their siege of the city.
The largest palace, Topkapı, includes a diverse array of architectural styles, from Baroque inside the Harem, to its Neoclassical style Enderûn Library.
In the following centuries, and especially after the Tanzimat reforms, Ottoman architecture was supplanted by European styles .
Areas around İstiklal Avenue were filled with grand European embassies and rows of buildings in Neoclassical, Renaissance Revival and Art Nouveau styles , which went on to influence the architecture of a variety of structures in Beyoğlu—including churches, stores, and theaters—and official buildings such as Dolmabahçe Palace.
Areas around İstiklal Avenue were filled with grand European embassies and rows of buildings in Neoclassical, Renaissance Revival and Art Nouveau styles, which went on to influence the architecture of a variety of structures in Beyoğlu—including churches, stores, and theaters—and official buildings such as Dolmabahçe Palace .
The largest palace, Topkapı , includes a diverse array of architectural styles, from Baroque inside the Harem, to its Neoclassical style Enderûn Library.
The imperial mosques include Fatih Mosque, Bayezid Mosque, Yavuz Selim Mosque, Süleymaniye Mosque, Sultan Ahmed Mosque (the Blue Mosque),  and Yeni Mosque, all of which were built at the peak of the Ottoman Empire, in the 16th and 17th centuries.
The imperial mosques include Fatih Mosque, Bayezid Mosque, Yavuz Selim Mosque, Süleymaniye Mosque, Sultan Ahmed Mosque (the Blue Mosque),  and Yeni Mosque, all of which were built at the peak of the Ottoman Empire, in the 16th and 17th centuries .
In the following centuries, and especially after the Tanzimat reforms , Ottoman architecture was supplanted by European styles.
An example of which is the imperial Nuruosmaniye Mosque .
District councils are chiefly responsible for waste management and construction projects within their respective districts.
They each maintain their own budgets, although the metropolitan mayor reserves the right to review district decisions.
One-fifth of all district council members, including the district mayors, also represent their districts in the Municipal Council.
All members of the district councils and the Municipal Council, including the metropolitan mayor, are elected to five-year terms .
Representing the Justice and Development Party, Kadir Topbaş has been Mayor of Istanbul since March 2004.
The Grand Bazaar, in operation since 1461 , is among the world's oldest and largest covered markets.
Galleria Ataköy ushered in the age of modern shopping malls in Turkey when it opened in 1987.
Akmerkez was awarded the titles of "Europe's best" and "World's best" shopping mall by the International Council of Shopping Centers in 1995 and 1996; Istanbul Cevahir has been one of the continent's largest since opening in 2005; Kanyon won the Cityscape Architectural Review Award in the Commercial Built category in 2006.
Akmerkez was awarded the titles of "Europe's best" and "World's best" shopping mall by the International Council of Shopping Centers in 1995 and 1996; Istanbul Cevahir has been one of the continent's largest since opening in 2005; Kanyon won the Cityscape Architectural Review Award in the Commercial Built category in 2006.
Abdi İpekçi Street in Nişantaşı and Bağdat Avenue on the Anatolian side of the city have evolved into high-end shopping districts.
The current city structure can be traced back to the Tanzimat period of reform in the 19th century, before which Islamic judges and imams led the city under the auspices of the Grand Vizier.
Following the model of French cities , this religious system was replaced by a mayor and a citywide council composed of representatives of the confessional groups (millet) across Istanbul.
Beyoğlu was the first area of the city to have its own director and council, with members instead being longtime residents of the neighborhood.
Laws enacted after the Ottoman constitution of 1876 aimed to expand this structure across the city, imitating the twenty arrondissements of Paris, but they were not fully implemented until 1908 , when Istanbul was declared a province with nine constituent districts.
This system continued beyond the founding of the Turkish Republic, with the province renamed a belediye (municipality), but the municipality was disbanded in 1957 .
Laws enacted after the Ottoman constitution of 1876 aimed to expand this structure across the city, imitating the twenty arrondissements of Paris , but they were not fully implemented until 1908, when Istanbul was declared a province with nine constituent districts.
Beyoğlu was the first area of the city to have its own director and council, with members instead being longtime residents of the neighborhood.
Laws enacted after the Ottoman constitution of 1876 aimed to expand this structure across the city, imitating the twenty arrondissements of Paris, but they were not fully implemented until 1908, when Istanbul was declared a province with nine constituent districts.
Laws enacted after the Ottoman constitution of 1876 aimed to expand this structure across the city, imitating the twenty arrondissements of Paris, but they were not fully implemented until 1908, when Istanbul was declared a province with nine constituent districts.
The current city structure can be traced back to the Tanzimat period of reform in the 19th century, before which Islamic judges and imams led the city under the auspices of the Grand Vizier .
With the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality and Istanbul Province having equivalent jurisdictions, few responsibilities remain for the provincial government.
Similar to the MMI , the Istanbul Special Provincial Administration has a governor, a democratically elected decision-making body—the Provincial Parliament—and an appointed Executive Committee.
Similar to the MMI, the Istanbul Special Provincial Administration has a governor, a democratically elected decision-making body—the Provincial Parliament—and an appointed Executive Committee.
The Provincial Administration's duties are largely limited to the building and maintenance of schools , residences, government buildings, and roads, and the promotion of arts, culture, and nature conservation.
Hüseyin Avni Mutlu has been Governor of Istanbul Province since May 2010.
By 500 CE , Constantinople had somewhere between 400,000 and 500,000 people, edging out its predecessor, Rome, for world's largest city.
Constantinople jostled with other major historical cities, such as Baghdad , Chang'an, Kaifeng and Merv  for the position of world's most populous city until the 12th century.
It never returned to being the world's largest, but remained Europe's largest city from 1500 to 1750 , when it was surpassed by London.
It never returned to being the world's largest, but remained Europe's largest city from 1500 to 1750, when it was surpassed by London .
Aside from typical Turkish cuisine like kebab, Istanbul is also famous for its historic seafood restaurants .
The Princes' Islands , 15 kilometers (9 mi) from the city center, are also popular for their seafood restaurants.
Aside from typical Turkish cuisine like kebab , Istanbul is also famous for its historic seafood restaurants.
Because of their restaurants, historic summer mansions, and tranquil, car-free streets, the Princes' Islands are a popular vacation destination among Istanbulites and foreign tourists .
Many of the city's most popular and upscale seafood restaurants line the shores of the Bosphorus (particularly in neighborhoods like Ortaköy, Bebek, Arnavutköy, Yeniköy, Beylerbeyi and Çengelköy).
The Turkish Statistical Institute estimates that the population of Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality was 14,377,019 at the end of 2014, hosting 19 percent of the country's population.
Other estimate that at the same time the population within city limits was 14,025,646 .
Then about 97–98% of the inhabitants of the metropolitan municipality were within city limits, up from 89% in 2007 and 61% in 1980.
While the city ranks as world's 5th -largest city proper, it drops the rank to the 24th place as an urban area and to the 18th place as a metro area because the city limits are roughly equivalent to the agglomeration.
The city's annual population growth of 3.45 percent ranks as the highest among the seventy-eight largest metropolises in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.
Some other neighborhoods around İstiklal Avenue have recently been revamped to cater to Beyoğlu's nightlife, with formerly commercial streets now lined with pubs, cafes, and restaurants playing live music.
Along İstiklal Avenue is the Çiçek Pasajı, now home to winehouses (known as meyhanes), pubs, and restaurants.
Some other neighborhoods around İstiklal Avenue have recently been revamped to cater to Beyoğlu's nightlife, with formerly commercial streets now lined with pubs, cafes, and restaurants playing live music .
Restaurants featuring foreign cuisines are mainly concentrated in the Beyoğlu, Beşiktaş, Şişli and Kadıköy districts .
The incumbent mayor of the city is Kadir Topbaş of the AKP, who was first elected in the 2004 local elections and succeeded Ali Müfit Gürtuna of the closed down Welfare Party.
Between 2007 and 2014, Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan was also an MP for İstanbul.
In 2013 and 2014, large-scale anti-AKP government protests began in İstanbul and spread throughout the nation.
For general elections, the city is divided into 3 electoral districts and returns 85 MPs to the Turkish parliament.
The leader of the CHP and parliamentary opposition, Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu , ran against Topbaş in the 2009 local elections.
With a PPP-adjusted gross domestic product of US$301.1 billion, Istanbul ranked 29th among the world's urban areas in 2011.
Since the mid-1990s , Istanbul's economy has been one of the fastest-growing among OECD metro-regions.
With its high population and significant contribution to the Turkish economy, Istanbul is responsible for two-fifths of the nation's tax revenue.
That includes the taxes of 37 billionaires based in Istanbul, the fifth-highest number among cities around the world.
Beşiktaş J.K. , established in 1903, is considered the oldest of these sports clubs; because of its initial status as Turkey's only club, it occasionally played as the national team.
Istanbul's Galatasaray S.K. and Fenerbahçe S.K. have fared better in international competition and share the honor of winning the most Süper Lig championships.
Istanbul has seven basketball teams—Anadolu Efes S.K., Beşiktaş, Darüşşafaka Doğuş, Fenerbahçe Ülker, Galatasaray Liv Hospital, İstanbul Büyükşehir Belediyespor and Tüyap Büyükçekmece—that play in the premier-level Turkish Basketball League.
Galatasaray and Fenerbahçe have a long-standing rivalry, with Galatasaray based in European Istanbul and Fenerbahçe based in the Anatolian part of the city.
Istanbul's Galatasaray S.K. and Fenerbahçe S.K. have fared better in international competition and share the honor of winning the most Süper Lig championships.
As expected for a city of its size, Istanbul has a diverse industrial economy, producing commodities as varied as olive oil, tobacco, vehicles, and electronics. Despite having a focus on high-value-added work, its low-value-added manufacturing sector is substantial, representing just 26 percent of Istanbul's GDP, but four-fifths of the city's total exports.
Despite having a focus on high-value-added work , its low-value-added manufacturing sector is substantial, representing just 26 percent of Istanbul's GDP, but four-fifths of the city's total exports.
In 2005, companies based in Istanbul produced exports worth $41.4 billion and received imports totaling $69.9 billion ; these figures were equivalent to 57 percent and 60 percent, respectively, of the national totals.
In 2005, companies based in Istanbul produced exports worth $41.4 billion and received imports totaling $69.9 billion; these figures were equivalent to 57 percent and 60 percent, respectively, of the national totals.
The former Istanbul Stock Exchange  was originally established as the Ottoman Stock Exchange in 1866.
The former Istanbul Stock Exchange  was originally established as the Ottoman Stock Exchange in 1866 .
During the 19th and early 20th centuries, Bankalar Caddesi (Banks Street) in Galata was the financial center of the Ottoman Empire, where the Ottoman Stock Exchange was located.
In 1995 , the Istanbul Stock Exchange (now Borsa Istanbul)  moved to its current building in the İstinye quarter of the Sarıyer district.
Istanbul is home to Borsa Istanbul , the sole exchange entity of Turkey, which combined the former Istanbul Stock Exchange, the Istanbul Gold Exchange, and the Derivatives Exchange of Turkey.
Many of Istanbul's sports facilities have been built or upgraded since 2000 to bolster the city's bids for the Summer Olympic Games.
Atatürk Olympic Stadium , the largest multi-purpose stadium in Turkey, was completed in 2002 as an IAAF first-class venue for track and field.
The stadium hosted the 2005 UEFA Champions League Final and remains the home field of İstanbul Büyükşehir Belediyespor.
Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium, Fenerbahçe's home field, hosted the 2009 UEFA Cup Final three years after its completion, and Türk Telekom Arena opened in 2011 to replace Ali Sami Yen Stadium as Galatasaray's home turf.
As the only sea route between the oil-rich Black Sea and the Mediterranean, the Bosphorus is one of the busiest waterways in the world; more than 200 million tonnes of oil pass through the strait each year, and the traffic on the Bosphorus is three times that on the Suez Canal.
As the only sea route between the oil-rich Black Sea and the Mediterranean, the Bosphorus is one of the busiest waterways in the world; more than 200 million tonnes of oil pass through the strait each year, and the traffic on the Bosphorus is three times that on the Suez Canal.
Istanbul has three major shipping ports— the Port of Haydarpaşa, the Port of Ambarlı, and the Port of Zeytinburnu —as well as several smaller ports and oil terminals along the Bosphorus and the Sea of Marmara.
Istanbul has three major shipping ports—the Port of Haydarpaşa , the Port of Ambarlı, and the Port of Zeytinburnu—as well as several smaller ports and oil terminals along the Bosphorus and the Sea of Marmara.
Istanbul has three major shipping ports—the Port of Haydarpaşa, the Port of Ambarlı , and the Port of Zeytinburnu—as well as several smaller ports and oil terminals along the Bosphorus and the Sea of Marmara.
Istanbul is an increasingly popular tourist destination; whereas just 2.4 million foreigners visited the city in 2000, it welcomed 12.56 million foreign tourists in 2015, making it the world's fifth most-visited city.
Istanbul is an increasingly popular tourist destination; whereas just 2.4 million foreigners visited the city in 2000, it welcomed 12.56 million foreign tourists in 2015, making it the world's fifth most-visited city.
Low- and mid-range hotels tend to be located on the Sarayburnu ; higher-end hotels are primarily located in the entertainment and financial centers north of the Golden Horn.
Istanbul's seventy museums, the most visited of which are the Topkapı Palace Museum and the Hagia Sophia, bring in $30 million in revenue each year.
The city's environmental master plan also notes that there are 17 palaces, 64 mosques, and 49 churches of historical significance in Istanbul.
Istanbul was historically known as a cultural hub, but its cultural scene stagnated after the Turkish Republic shifted its focus toward Ankara .
The new national government established programs that served to orient Turks toward musical traditions , especially those originating in Europe, but musical institutions and visits by foreign classical artists were primarily centered in the new capital.
The new national government established programs that served to orient Turks toward musical traditions, especially those originating in Europe, but musical institutions and visits by foreign classical artists were primarily centered in the new capital .
Istanbul was historically known as a cultural hub, but its cultural scene stagnated after the Turkish Republic shifted its focus toward Ankara.
The Silahtarağa Power Station, a coal-fired power plant along the Golden Horn, was the sole source of Istanbul's electricity between 1914, when its first engine room was completed, and 1952.
The Silahtarağa Power Station, a coal-fired power plant along the Golden Horn, was the sole source of Istanbul's electricity between 1914 , when its first engine room was completed, and 1952.
The Silahtarağa Power Station, a coal-fired power plant along the Golden Horn, was the sole source of Istanbul's electricity between 1914, when its first engine room was completed, and 1952 .
Following the founding of the Turkish Republic, the plant underwent renovations to accommodate the city's increasing demand; its capacity grew from 23 megawatts in 1923 to a peak of 120 megawatts in 1956.
Capacity declined until the power station reached the end of its economic life and shut down in 1983 .
Istanbul University, founded in 1453 , is the oldest Turkish educational institution in the city.
Although originally an Islamic school, the university established law, medicine, and science departments in the 19th century and was secularized after the founding of the Turkish Republic.
Although originally an Islamic school, the university established law, medicine, and science departments in the 19th century and was secularized after the founding of the Turkish Republic .
Istanbul Technical University, founded in 1773 as the Royal School of Naval Engineering, is the world's third-oldest university dedicated entirely to engineering sciences.
These public universities are two of just eight across the city; other prominent state universities in Istanbul include the Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University, which served as Turkey's primary institution of art until the 1970s, and Marmara University, the country's third-largest institution of higher learning.
Most established universities in Istanbul are backed by the government ; the city also has several prominent private institutions.
Private universities were officially outlawed in Turkey before the Constitution of 1982 , but there were already fifteen private "higher schools", which were effectively universities, in Istanbul by 1970.
A new biomedical research and development hub, called Bio Istanbul , is under construction in Başakşehir, and will host 15,000 residents, 20,000 working commuters, and a university upon completion.
The first modern private university in Istanbul, also the oldest American school in existence in its original location outside the United States, was Robert College , founded by Christopher Robert, an American philanthropist, and Cyrus Hamlin, a missionary devoted to education, in 1863.
The first modern private university in Istanbul, also the oldest American school in existence in its original location outside the United States, was Robert College, founded by Christopher Robert , an American philanthropist, and Cyrus Hamlin, a missionary devoted to education, in 1863.
In 2007, there were about 4,350 schools, about half of which were primary schools; on average, each school had 688 students.
It is one of Turkey's Anatolian High Schools, elite public high schools that place a stronger emphasis on instruction in foreign languages .
In 2007, there were about 4,350 schools, about half of which were primary schools; on average, each school had 688 students.
Galatasaray High School, established in 1481 as the Galata Palace Imperial School, is the oldest high school in Istanbul and the second-oldest educational institution in the city.
The city also has foreign high schools, such as Liceo Italiano , that were established in the 19th century to educate foreigners.
Kuleli Military High School, along the shores of the Bosphorus in Çengelköy , and Turkish Naval High School, located on one of the Princes' Islands, are military high schools, complemented by three military academies—the Turkish Air Force, Turkish Military, and Turkish Naval Academies.
Kuleli Military High School, along the shores of the Bosphorus in Çengelköy, and Turkish Naval High School, located on one of the Princes' Islands, are military high schools, complemented by three military academies —the Turkish Air Force, Turkish Military, and Turkish Naval Academies.
Darüşşafaka High School provides free education to children across the country missing at least one parent.
Darüşşafaka begins instruction with the fourth grade , providing instruction in English and, starting in sixth grade, a second foreign language—German or French.
Darüşşafaka begins instruction with the fourth grade, providing instruction in English and, starting in sixth grade , a second foreign language—German or French.
At the behest of Suleiman the Magnificent, the Kırkçeşme water supply network was constructed; by 1563, the network provided 4,200 cubic meters (150,000 cu ft) of water to 158 sites each day.
At the behest of Suleiman the Magnificent, the Kırkçeşme water supply network was constructed; by 1563, the network provided 4,200 cubic meters (150,000 cu ft) of water to 158 sites each day.
In later years, in response to increasing public demand , water from various springs was channeled to public fountains, like the Fountain of Ahmed III, by means of supply lines.
Today, Istanbul has a chlorinated and filtered water supply and a sewage treatment system managed by the Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration (İSKİ).
The Ottoman Ministry of Post and Telegraph was established in 1840 and the first post office, the Imperial Post Office, opened near the courtyard of Yeni Mosque.
By 1876 , the first international mailing network between Istanbul and the lands beyond the Ottoman Empire had been established.
GSM cellular networks arrived in Turkey in 1994 , with Istanbul among the first cities to receive the service.
A nascent telephone system began to emerge in Istanbul in 1881 and after the first manual telephone exchange became operational in Istanbul in 1909 , the Ministry of Post and Telegraph became the Ministry of Post, Telegraph, and Telephone.
Today, mobile and landline service is provided by private companies, after Türk Telekom, which split from the Ministry of Post, Telegraph, and Telephone in 1995 , was privatized in 2005.
By the end of the 19th century , Istanbul had established itself as a regional artistic center, with Turkish, European, and Middle Eastern artists flocking to the city.
When additional universities and art journals were founded in Istanbul during the 1980s , artists formerly based in Ankara moved in.
Beyoğlu has been transformed into the artistic center of the city, with young artists and older Turkish artists formerly residing abroad finding footing there.
Beyoğlu has been transformed into the artistic center of the city, with young artists and older Turkish artists formerly residing abroad finding footing there.
Modern art museums, including İstanbul Modern, the Pera Museum, Sakıp Sabancı Museum and SantralIstanbul, opened in the 2000s to complement the exhibition spaces and auction houses that have already contributed to the cosmopolitan nature of the city.
In 2000, Istanbul had 137 hospitals, of which 100 were private. Turkish citizens are entitled to subsidized healthcare in the nation's state-run hospitals.
As public hospitals tend to be overcrowded or otherwise slow, private hospitals are preferable for those who can afford them.
Turkish citizens are entitled to subsidized healthcare in the nation's state-run hospitals .
Turkey has more hospitals accredited by the U.S.-based Joint Commission than any other country in the world , with most concentrated in its big cities.
The high quality of healthcare, especially in private hospitals, has contributed to a recent upsurge in medical tourism to Turkey (with a 40 percent increase between 2007 and 2008).
The first film screening in Turkey was at Yıldız Palace in 1896, a year after the technology publicly debuted in Paris.
Movie theaters rapidly cropped up in Beyoğlu, with the greatest concentration of theaters being along the street now known as İstiklal Avenue .
Istanbul and its picturesque skyline have also served as a backdrop for several foreign films, including Topkapi (1964), The World Is Not Enough (1999), and Mission Istaanbul (2008).
Istanbul also became the heart of Turkey's nascent film industry, although Turkish films were not consistently developed until the 1950s .
Istanbul and its picturesque skyline have also served as a backdrop for several foreign films, including Topkapi (1964), The World Is Not Enough (1999), and Mission Istaanbul (2008).
Istanbul's primary motorways are the O-1, O-2, O-3 and O-4 .
The two Bosphorus Bridges are currently the only road crossings between the Asian and European sides of Turkey, together carrying 400,000 vehicles each day .
The dual-deck, 14.6-kilometer (9.1 mi) Eurasia Tunnel is currently under construction beneath the Bosphorus, between Fatih and Üsküdar.
A third Bosphorus bridge, first considered in the 1990s, may also finally be coming to fruition, as construction of the Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge was officially launched in 2013 .
Both projects may be completed as early as 2015 , although environmentalist groups worry that the third bridge will endanger the remaining green areas to the north of Istanbul.
Coinciding with this cultural reemergence was the establishment of the Istanbul Festival , which began showcasing a variety of art from Turkey and around the world in 1973.
Coinciding with this cultural reemergence was the establishment of the Istanbul Festival, which began showcasing a variety of art from Turkey and around the world in 1973 .
With its focus now solely on music and dance , the Istanbul Festival has been known as the Istanbul International Music Festival since 1994.
The most prominent of the festivals that evolved from the original Istanbul Festival is the Istanbul Biennial , held every two years since 1987.
The most prominent of the festivals that evolved from the original Istanbul Festival is the Istanbul Biennial, held every two years since 1987 .
Fares across modes are integrated, using the contactless Istanbulkart , introduced in 2009, or the older Akbil electronic ticket device.
Fares across modes are integrated, using the contactless Istanbulkart, introduced in 2009 , or the older Akbil electronic ticket device.
Operated by Istanbul Electricity, Tramway, and Tunnel General Management (İETT), trams slowly returned to the city in the 1990s with the introduction of a nostalgic route and a faster modern tram line, which now carries 265,000 passengers each day .
The Tünel opened in 1875 as the world's second-oldest subterranean rail line (after London's Metropolitan Railway).
Trams in Istanbul date back to 1872 , when they were horse-drawn, but even the first electrified trams were decommissioned in the 1960s.
The Istanbul Metro comprises three lines (the M1 and M2 on the European side, and the M4 on the Asian side) with several other lines (such as the M3, M5, M7, and M6 Mini-Metro) and extensions under construction.
The two sides of Istanbul's metro are connected under the Bosphorus by the Marmaray tunnel , inaugurated in 2013 as the first rail connection between Thrace and Anatolia.
The Istanbul Metro comprises three lines (the M1 and M2 on the European side , and the M4 on the Asian side) with several other lines (such as the M3, M5, M7, and M6 Mini-Metro) and extensions under construction.
The city's main cruise ship terminal is the Port of Istanbul in Karaköy , with a capacity of 10,000 passengers per hour.
Most visitors enter Istanbul by air, but about half a million foreign tourists enter the city by sea each year.
The Sinan Erdem Dome , among the largest indoor arenas in Europe, hosted the final of the 2010 FIBA World Championship, the 2012 IAAF World Indoor Championships, and the 2011–12 Euroleague Final Four.
Prior to the completion of the Sinan Erdem Dome in 2010, Abdi İpekçi Arena was Istanbul's primary indoor arena, having hosted the finals of EuroBasket 2001.
The most recent of these is the 13,800-seat Ülker Sports Arena , which opened in 2012 as the home court of Fenerbahçe's basketball teams.
The most recent of these is the 13,800 -seat Ülker Sports Arena, which opened in 2012 as the home court of Fenerbahçe's basketball teams.
Despite the construction boom, five bids for the Summer Olympics—in 2000, 2004, 2008, 2012, and 2020—and national bids for UEFA Euro 2012 and UEFA Euro 2016 have ended unsuccessfully.
International rail service from Istanbul launched in 1889 , with a line between Bucharest and Istanbul's Sirkeci Terminal, which ultimately became famous as the eastern terminus of the Orient Express from Paris.
Regular service to Bucharest and Thessaloniki continued until the early 2010s, when the former was interrupted for Marmaray construction and the latter was halted due to economic problems in Greece .
After Istanbul's Haydarpaşa Terminal opened in 1908 , it served as the western terminus of the Baghdad Railway and an extension of the Hejaz Railway; today, neither service is offered directly from Istanbul.
Service to Ankara and other points across Turkey is normally offered by Turkish State Railways, but the construction of Marmaray and the Ankara-Istanbul high-speed line forced the station to close in 2012.
Istanbul's main bus station is the largest in Europe, with a daily capacity of 15,000 buses and 600,000 passengers , serving destinations as distant as Frankfurt.
Between its opening in 2005 and 2011, Istanbul Park also hosted the annual Turkish Grand Prix ; its future remains uncertain due to financial troubles.
The Istanbul Sailing Club, established in 1952 , hosts races, showcases, and events on the waterways in and around Istanbul each year.
The Turkish Offshore Racing Club also hosts major races, with its most prestigious being its race for the Marine Forces Trophy.
The Turkish Offshore Racing Club also hosts major races, with its most prestigious being its race for the Marine Forces Trophy .
Istanbul was also an occasional stop on the F1 Powerboat World Championship circuit, although its last appearance on the Bosphorus was in 2000 .
Most nationwide newspapers are based in Istanbul, with simultaneous Ankara and İzmir editions.
Hürriyet's English-language edition, The Hürriyet Daily News, has been printed since 1961 , but the English-language Today's Zaman, first published by Zaman in 2007, has overtaken it in circulation.
Istanbul-based Zaman, although only founded in 1986 , is Turkey's most widely circulated paper, with a weekly distribution of more than one million, twice that of its nearest competitor.
Istanbul-based Zaman , although only founded in 1986, is Turkey's most widely circulated paper, with a weekly distribution of more than one million, twice that of its nearest competitor.
Istanbul-based Zaman, although only founded in 1986, is Turkey's most widely circulated paper, with a weekly distribution of more than one million, twice that of its nearest competitor.
Radio broadcasts in Istanbul date back to 1927 , when Turkey's first radio transmission came from atop the Central Post Office in Eminönü.
Control of this transmission, and other radio stations established in the following decades, ultimately came under the state-run Turkish Radio and Television Corporation (TRT), which held a monopoly on radio and television broadcasts between its founding in 1964 and 1990.
Radio broadcasts in Istanbul date back to 1927, when Turkey's first radio transmission came from atop the Central Post Office in Eminönü .
Today, TRT runs four national radio stations; these stations have transmitters across the country so each can reach over 90 percent of the country's population, but only Radio 2 is based in Istanbul.
Today, TRT runs four national radio stations; these stations have transmitters across the country so each can reach over 90 percent of the country's population, but only Radio 2 is based in Istanbul.
Istanbul-based Star TV was the first private television network to be established following the end of the TRT monopoly; Star TV and Show TV (also based in Istanbul) remain highly popular throughout the country, airing Turkish and American series.
Samanyolu TV, Kanal D, and ATV are other stations in Istanbul that offer a mix of news and series; NTV (partnered with U.S. media outlet MSNBC) and Sky Turk—both based in the city—are mainly just known for their news coverage in Turkish.
Samanyolu TV, Kanal D, and ATV are other stations in Istanbul that offer a mix of news and series ; NTV (partnered with U.S. media outlet MSNBC) and Sky Turk—both based in the city—are mainly just known for their news coverage in Turkish.
Samanyolu TV, Kanal D, and ATV are other stations in Istanbul that offer a mix of news and series; NTV (partnered with U.S. media outlet MSNBC )
The BBC has a regional office in Istanbul, assisting its Turkish-language news operations, and the American news channel CNN established the Turkish-language CNN Türk there in 1999 .
The larger is Istanbul Atatürk, 24 kilometers (15 mi) west of the city center.
Sabiha Gökçen International, 45 kilometers (28 mi) southeast of the city center, opened in 2001 to relieve Atatürk.
It handled 51.2 million passengers in 2013, making it the fifth-busiest airport in Europe and the eighteenth-busiest in the world.
Dominated by low-cost carriers, Istanbul's second airport has rapidly become popular, especially since the opening of a new international terminal in 2009 ; the airport handled 14.7 million passengers in 2012, a year after Airports Council International named it the world's fastest-growing airport.
Currently under construction, the new international airport will become the largest airport in the world upon the completion of all four stages of the project, with a capacity to serve 150 million passengers per year.
Istanbul experienced especially rapid growth during the second half of the 20th century, with its population increasing tenfold between 1950 and 2000 .
This growth in population comes, in part, from an expansion of city limits—particularly between 1980 and 1985 , when the number of Istanbulites nearly doubled.
The remarkable growth was, and still is, largely fueled by migrants from eastern Turkey seeking employment and improved living conditions .
Only 28 percent of the city's residents are originally from Istanbul.
The most densely populated areas tend to lie to the northwest, west, and southwest of the city center, on the European side; the most densely populated district on the Asian side is Üsküdar .
Istanbul has been a cosmopolitan city throughout much of its history, but it has become more homogenized since the end of the Ottoman Empire .
The vast majority of people across Turkey, and in Istanbul, consider themselves Muslim, and more specifically members of the Sunni branch of Islam .
Most Sunnis follow the Hanafi school of Islamic thought , although approximately 10 percent of Sunnis follow the Shafi'i school.
Most Sunnis follow the Hanafi school of Islamic thought, although approximately 10 percent of Sunnis follow the Shafi'i school.
The largest non-Sunni Muslim sect, accounting for 4.5 million Turks, is the Alevis ; a third of all Alevis in the country live in Istanbul.
The Patriarch of Constantinople has been designated Ecumenical Patriarch since the sixth century, and has subsequently come to be widely regarded as the leader of the world's 300 million Orthodox Christians.
Since 1601, the Patriarchate has been based in Istanbul's Church of St. George .
The headquarters of the Turkish Orthodox Church are located in the city .
Because of events during the 20th century—including the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey, a 1942 wealth tax, and the 1955 Istanbul riots—the Greek population, originally centered in Fener and Samatya, has decreased substantially .
The Patriarch of Constantinople has been designated Ecumenical Patriarch since the sixth century, and has subsequently come to be widely regarded as the leader of the world's 300 million Orthodox Christians .
The largest ethnic minority in Istanbul is the Kurdish community , originating from eastern and southeastern Turkey.
About two to three million residents of Istanbul are Kurdish, meaning there are more Kurds in Istanbul than in any other city in the world.
There are other significant ethnic minorities as well, the Bosniaks are the main people of an entire district – Bayrampaşa .
The neighborhood of Balat used to be home to a sizable Sephardi Jewish community, first formed during the period of the Spanish Inquisition.
Romaniotes and Ashkenazi Jews resided in Istanbul even before the Sephardim, but their proportion has since dwindled; today, 1 percent of Istanbul's Jews are Ashkenazi.
Since 2002, the right-wing Justice and Development Party (AKP) has won pluralities in every general and local election.
Turkish President and former AKP Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan was elected Mayor of İstanbul in the 1994 local elections as the Islamist Welfare Party candidate with 25.1% of the vote, winning due to a vote split between the mainstream centrist parties.
The opposition Kemalist center-left Republican People's Party (CHP) , currently the second major political force in both İstanbul and the country, gets most of its support from more rural districts such as Silivri, Çatalca and Sarıyer.
The CHP are generally strongest in the west , where newer residential developments are taking place.
İstanbul has 39 districts , more than any other province in Turkey.
In the Köppen–Geiger classification system, Istanbul has a borderline Mediterranean climate (Csa), humid subtropical climate (Cfa) and oceanic climate (Cfb), due to its location in a transitional climatic zone .
In the Köppen–Geiger classification system, Istanbul has a borderline Mediterranean climate (Csa), humid subtropical climate (Cfa) and oceanic climate (Cfb) , due to its location in a transitional climatic zone.
Since precipitation in summer months, ranges from 20 to 65 mm (1 to 3 in) , depending on location, the city cannot be classified as solely Mediterranean or humid subtropical.
The climate in the populated areas of the city to the south, located on the Sea of Marmara, is warmer, drier and less affected by humidity .
Istanbul's persistently high humidity reaches 80 percent most mornings .
During these summer months, high temperatures average around 29 °C (84 °F) and rainfall is uncommon; there are only about fifteen days with measurable precipitation between June and August.
During these summer months, high temperatures average around 29 °C (84 °F) and rainfall is uncommon; there are only about fifteen days with measurable precipitation between June and August.
During these summer months, high temperatures average around 29 °C (84 °F) and rainfall is uncommon; there are only about fifteen days with measurable precipitation between June and August .
Winter is colder in Istanbul than in most other cities around the Mediterranean Basin, with low temperatures averaging 1–4 °C (34–39 °F) .
Overall, Istanbul has an annual average of 130 days with significant precipitation, which amounts to 810 millimeters (31.9 in) per year.
Spring and autumn are mild, but often wet and unpredictable; chilly winds from the northwest and warm gusts from the south —sometimes in the same day—tend to cause fluctuations in temperature.
Overall, Istanbul has an annual average of 130 days with significant precipitation, which amounts to 810 millimeters (31.9 in) per year .
Dolmabahçe Palace, the seat of government during the late Ottoman period, is located in Beşiktaş, just south of Beyoğlu, across from BJK İnönü Stadium, home to Turkey's oldest sports club.
Dolmabahçe Palace, the seat of government during the late Ottoman period, is located in Beşiktaş, just south of Beyoğlu, across from BJK İnönü Stadium , home to Turkey's oldest sports club.
The main administration building of the Ottoman Empire was the "Sublime Porte" or BaabiAli a huge building in the old City.
Lining the shores of the Bosphorus north of there are yalıs, luxurious chalet mansions originally built by 19th-century aristocrats and elites as summer homes.
Much of the Asian side of the Bosphorus functions as a suburb of the economic and commercial centers in European Istanbul , accounting for a third of the city's population but only a quarter of its employment.
Much of the Asian side of the Bosphorus functions as a suburb of the economic and commercial centers in European Istanbul, accounting for a third of the city's population but only a quarter of its employment.
As a result of Istanbul's exponential growth during the 20th century, a significant portion of the city is composed of gecekondus (literally " built overnight "), referring to illegally constructed squatter buildings.
The Turkish government also has ambitious plans for an expansion of the city west and northwards on the European side in conjunction with plans for a third airport and the city's Olympic bid; the new parts of the city will include four different settlements with specified urban functions, housing 1.5 million people .
But it also is done through deregulation, the abolition of restrictions on businesses competing with government services, for example, postal services, schools, garbage collection .
Economic decentralization can be done through privatization of public owned functions and businesses , as described briefly above.
Even as private companies and corporations have worked to have such services contracted out to or privatized by them, others have worked to have these turned over to non-profit organizations or associations,
Even as private companies and corporations have worked to have such services contracted out to or privatized by them, others have worked to have these turned over to non-profit organizations or associations ,
Since the 1970s there has been deregulation of some industries, like banking, trucking, airlines and telecommunications which resulted generally in more competition and lower prices.[citation needed]  According to Cato Institute, an American libertarian think-tank, some industries deregulation of aspects of an industry were offset by more ambitious regulations elsewhere that hurt consumers, the electricity industry being a prime example.
Since the 1970s there has been deregulation of some industries, like banking, trucking, airlines and telecommunications which resulted generally in more competition and lower prices .[citation needed]  According to Cato Institute, an American libertarian think-tank, some industries deregulation of aspects of an industry were offset by more ambitious regulations elsewhere that hurt consumers, the electricity industry being a prime example.
Since the 1970s there has been deregulation of some industries, like banking, trucking, airlines and telecommunications which resulted generally in more competition and lower prices.[citation needed]  According to Cato Institute , an American libertarian think-tank, some industries deregulation of aspects of an industry were offset by more ambitious regulations elsewhere that hurt consumers, the electricity industry being a prime example.
Since the 1970s there has been deregulation of some industries, like banking, trucking, airlines and telecommunications which resulted generally in more competition and lower prices.[citation needed]  According to Cato Institute, an American libertarian think-tank, some industries deregulation of aspects of an industry were offset by more ambitious regulations elsewhere that hurt consumers, the electricity industry being a prime example.
For example, in banking, Cato Institute believes some deregulation allowed banks to compete across state lines, increasing consumer choice, while an actual increase in regulators and regulations forced banks to do business the way central government regulators commanded, including making loans to individuals incapable of repaying them, leading eventually to the financial crisis of 2007–2008 .[unreliable source?]
Some argue that government standardisation in areas from  commodity market,  inspection and testing procurement bidding, Building codes, professional and vocational education, trade certification, safety, etc. are necessary.[citation needed]  Emmanuelle Auriol and Michel Benaim write about the "comparative.benefits" of decentralization versus government regulation in the setting of standards.
They find that while there may be a need for public regulation if public safety is at stake , private creation of standards usually is better because "regulators or 'experts' might misrepresent consumers' tastes and needs."
They find that while there may be a need for public regulation if public safety is at stake, private creation of standards usually is better because "regulators or 'experts' might misrepresent consumers' tastes and needs." As long as companies are averse to incompatible standards, standards will be created that satisfy needs of a modern economy.
They find that while there may be a need for public regulation if public safety is at stake, private creation of standards usually is better because "regulators or 'experts' might misrepresent consumers' tastes and needs." As long as companies are averse to incompatible standards , standards will be created that satisfy needs of a modern economy.
Central governments themselves may own large tracts of land and control the forest, water, mineral, wildlife and other resources they contain.
They may manage them through government operations or leasing them to private businesses ; or they may neglect them to be exploited by individuals or groups who defy non-enforced laws against exploitation.
It also may control most private land through land-use, zoning, environmental and other regulations .
 Selling off or leasing lands can be profitable for governments willing to relinquish control, but such programs can face public scrutiny because of fear of a loss of heritage or of environmental damage.
Devolution of control to regional or local governments has been found to be an effective way of dealing with these concerns.
Libertarian socialism is a group of political philosophies that promote a non-hierarchical, non-bureaucratic society without private property in the means of production.
 Libertarian socialists believe in converting present-day private productive property into common or public goods .
Libertarian socialism is opposed to coercive forms of social organization.
The term libertarian socialism is used by some socialists to differentiate their philosophy from state socialism, and by some as a synonym for left anarchism .
It promotes free association in place of government and opposes the social relations of capitalism, such as wage labor.
The internet is an example of an extremely decentralized network, having no owners at all (although some have argued that this is less the case in recent years). " No one is in charge of internet, and everyone is. " As long as they follow a certain minimal number of rules, anyone can be a service provider or a user.
Voluntary boards establish protocols, but cannot stop anyone from developing new ones.
The internet is an example of an extremely decentralized network, having no owners at all (although some have argued that this is less the case in recent years). " No one is in charge of internet, and everyone is. " As long as they follow a certain minimal number of rules, anyone can be a service provider or a user.
Other examples of open source or decentralized movements are Wikis which allow users to add, modify, or delete content via the internet.
Smartphones have greatly increased the role of decentralized social network services in daily lives worldwide.
Inspired by system and cybernetics theorists like Norbert Wiener, Marshall McLuhan and Buckminster Fuller , in the 1960s Stewart Brand started the Whole Earth Catalog and later computer networking efforts to bring Silicon Valley computer technologists and entrepreneurs together with countercultural ideas.
This resulted in ideas like personal computing, virtual communities and the vision of an "electronic frontier" which would be a more decentralized, egalitarian and free-market libertarian society.
Related ideas coming out of Silicon Valley included the free software and creative commons movements which produced visions of a "networked information economy"
This resulted in ideas like personal computing, virtual communities and the vision of an "electronic frontier" which would be a more decentralized, egalitarian and free-market libertarian society.
Inspired by system and cybernetics theorists like Norbert Wiener, Marshall McLuhan and Buckminster Fuller, in the 1960s Stewart Brand started the Whole Earth Catalog and later computer networking efforts to bring Silicon Valley computer technologists and entrepreneurs together with countercultural ideas.
According to Bruce M. Owen , this does not mean that all firms themselves have to be equally decentralized.
Hence, goods and services are produced and sold by firms with various degrees of horizontal and vertical integration."
Much of the time, markets work very efficiently , but there is a variety of conditions under which firms do better.
When it does not, he writes regulation may be necessary.
Additionally, he writes that the "economic incentive to expand horizontally or vertically is usually, but not always , compatible with the social interest in maximizing long-run consumer welfare."
Accordingly, libertarian socialists believe that " the exercise of power in any institutionalized form—whether economic, political, religious, or sexual—brutalizes both the wielder of power and the one over whom it is exercised".
Libertarian socialism tends to deny the legitimacy of most forms of economically significant private property , viewing capitalist property relations as forms of domination that are antagonistic to individual freedom.
Libertarian socialists generally place their hopes in decentralized means of direct democracy such as libertarian municipalism, citizens' assemblies, or workers' councils.
Libertarian socialism tends to deny the legitimacy of most forms of economically significant private property, viewing capitalist property relations as forms of domination that are antagonistic to individual freedom.
Libertarian socialists are strongly critical of coercive institutions, which often leads them to reject the legitimacy of the state in favor of anarchism .
"Appropriate technology", originally described as "intermediate technology" by economist E. F. Schumacher in  Small is Beautiful, is generally recognized as encompassing technologies that are small-scale, decentralized, labor-intensive, energy-efficient, environmentally sound, and locally controlled.
A related concept is "design for the other 90 percent" - low-cost solutions for the great majority of the world's low income people.
Even developed countries developed appropriate technologies, as did the United States in 1977 when it created the National Center for Appropriate Technology (NCAT), though funding later dropped off.
It is most commonly discussed as an alternative to transfers of capital-intensive technology from industrialized nations to developing countries.
"Appropriate technology", originally described as "intermediate technology" by economist E. F. Schumacher in  Small is Beautiful, is generally recognized as encompassing technologies that are small-scale, decentralized, labor-intensive, energy-efficient, environmentally sound, and locally controlled.
Political philosophies commonly described as libertarian socialist include most varieties of anarchism (especially anarchist communism, anarchist collectivism, anarcho-syndicalism, and mutualism) as well as autonomism, communalism, participism, libertarian Marxist philosophies such as council communism and Luxemburgism, and some versions of "utopian socialism" and individualist anarchism.
For Murray Bookchin "In the modern world, anarchism first appeared as a movement of the peasantry and yeomanry against declining feudal institutions.
In Germany its foremost spokesman during the Peasant Wars was Thomas Muenzer ; in England, Gerrard Winstanley, a leading participant in the Digger movement.
In Germany its foremost spokesman during the Peasant Wars was Thomas Muenzer; in England, Gerrard Winstanley , a leading participant in the Digger movement.
The term "anarchist" first entered the English language in 1642 , during the English Civil War, as a term of abuse, used by Royalists against their Roundhead opponents.
For Proudhon, mutualism involved creating "industrial democracy," a system where workplaces would be "handed over to democratically organised workers' associations . . .
For Proudhon, mutualism involved creating "industrial democracy," a system where workplaces would be "handed over to democratically organised workers' associations .
Peter Kropotkin thus suggested that "Representative government has accomplished its historical mission; it has given a mortal blow to court-rule; and by its debates it has awakened public interest in public questions.
When the First Spanish Republic was established in 1873 after the abdication of King Amadeo, the first president, Estanislao Figueras , named Francesc Pi i Margall Minister of the Interior.
When the First Spanish Republic was established in 1873 after the abdication of King Amadeo, the first president, Estanislao Figueras, named Francesc Pi i Margall Minister of the Interior.
Historian Gabriel Kolko in his book The Triumph of Conservatism argued that in the first decade of the 20th century businesses were highly decentralized and competitive, with new businesses constantly entering existing industries.
The largest firms turned to the power of the state and working with leaders like United States Presidents Theodore Roosevelt, William H. Taft and Woodrow Wilson passed as "progressive reforms" centralizing laws like The Federal Reserve Act of 1913 that gave control of the monetary system to the wealthiest bankers; the formation of monopoly "public utilities" that made competition with those monopolies illegal; federal inspection of meat packers biased against small companies; extending Interstate Commerce Commission to regulating telephone companies and keeping rates high to benefit AT&T; and using the Sherman Anti-trust Act against companies which might combine to threaten larger or monopoly companies.
This also was true in banking and finance, which saw decentralization as leading to instability as state and local banks competed with the big New York City firms .
The largest firms turned to the power of the state and working with leaders like United States Presidents Theodore Roosevelt , William H. Taft and Woodrow Wilson passed as "progressive reforms" centralizing laws like The Federal Reserve Act of 1913 that gave control of the monetary system to the wealthiest bankers; the formation of monopoly "public utilities" that made competition with those monopolies illegal; federal inspection of meat packers biased against small companies; extending Interstate Commerce Commission to regulating telephone companies and keeping rates high to benefit AT&T; and using the Sherman Anti-trust Act against companies which might combine to threaten larger or monopoly companies.
The largest firms turned to the power of the state and working with leaders like United States Presidents Theodore Roosevelt, William H. Taft and Woodrow Wilson passed as "progressive reforms" centralizing laws like The Federal Reserve Act of 1913 that gave control of the monetary system to the wealthiest bankers; the formation of monopoly "public utilities" that made competition with those monopolies illegal; federal inspection of meat packers biased against small companies; extending Interstate Commerce Commission to regulating telephone companies and keeping rates high to benefit AT&T; and using the Sherman Anti-trust Act against companies which might combine to threaten larger or monopoly companies.
Factors hindering decentralization include weak local administrative or technical capacity, which may result in inefficient or ineffective services; inadequate financial resources available to perform new local responsibilities, especially in the start-up phase when they are most needed; or inequitable distribution of resources.
Decentralization can make national policy coordination too complex ; it may allow local elites to capture functions; local cooperation maybe undermined by any distrust between private and public sectors; decentralization may result in higher enforcement costs and conflict for resources if there is no higher level of authority.
Decentralization can make national policy coordination too complex; it may allow local elites to capture functions; local cooperation maybe undermined by any distrust between private and public sectors; decentralization may result in higher enforcement costs and conflict for resources if there is no higher level of authority.
Additionally, decentralization may not be as efficient for standardized, routine , network-based services, as opposed to those that need more complicated inputs.
If there is a loss of economies of scale in procurement of labor or resources, the expense of decentralization can rise, even as central governments lose control over financial resources.
Author and activist Jane Jacobs's influential 1961 book The Death and Life of American Cities criticized large-scale redevelopment projects which were part of government-planned decentralization of population and businesses to suburbs.
Her 1984 book Cities and the Wealth of Nations proposed a solution to the various ills plaguing cities whose economies were being ruined by centralized national governments: decentralization through the "multiplication of sovereignties", i.e., acceptance of the right of cities to secede from the larger nation states that were squelching their ability to produce wealth.
Her 1984 book Cities and the Wealth of Nations proposed a solution to the various ills plaguing cities whose economies were being ruined by centralized national governments: decentralization through the "multiplication of sovereignties", i.e., acceptance of the right of cities to secede from the larger nation states that were squelching their ability to produce wealth.
Her 1980 book The Question of Separatism: Quebec and the Struggle over Sovereignty supported secession of Quebec from Canada.
Author and activist Jane Jacobs's influential 1961 book The Death and Life of American Cities criticized large-scale redevelopment projects which were part of government-planned decentralization of population and businesses to suburbs.
Through the efforts and influence of the Spanish Anarchists during the Spanish Revolution within the Spanish Civil War, starting in 1936 anarchist communism existed in most of Aragon, parts of the Levante and Andalusia, as well as in the stronghold of Anarchist Catalonia before being crushed by the combined forces of the regime that won the war, Hitler, Mussolini, Spanish Communist Party repression (backed by the USSR) as well as economic and armaments blockades from the capitalist countries and the Second Spanish Republic itself.
To date, the best-known examples of an anarchist communist society (i.e., established around the ideas as they exist today and achieving worldwide attention and knowledge in the historical canon), are the anarchist territories during the Spanish Revolution and the Free Territory during the Russian Revolution .
During the Russian Revolution, anarchists such as Nestor Makhno worked to create and defend—through the Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine—anarchist communism in the Free Territory of Ukraine from 1919 before being conquered by the Bolsheviks in 1921.
Through the efforts and influence of the Spanish Anarchists during the Spanish Revolution within the Spanish Civil War, starting in 1936 anarchist communism existed in most of Aragon, parts of the Levante and Andalusia, as well as in the stronghold of Anarchist Catalonia before being crushed by the combined forces of the regime that won the war, Hitler, Mussolini, Spanish Communist Party repression (backed by the USSR) as well as economic and armaments blockades from the capitalist countries and the Second Spanish Republic itself.
It reflects the belief that democracy is severely limited when the industrial system is controlled by any form of autocratic elite , whether of owners, managers, and technocrats, a 'vanguard' party, or a State bureaucracy."
Other challenges, and even dangers, include the possibility that corrupt local elites can capture regional or local power centers, while constituents lose representation; patronage politics will become rampant and civil servants feel compromised; further necessary decentralization can be stymied; incomplete information and hidden decision-making can occur up and down the hierarchies; centralized power centers can find reasons to frustrate decentralization and bring power back to themselves.[citation needed]
Other challenges, and even dangers, include the possibility that corrupt local elites can capture regional or local power centers, while constituents lose representation; patronage politics will become rampant and civil servants feel compromised; further necessary decentralization can be stymied; incomplete information and hidden decision-making can occur up and down the hierarchies; centralized power centers can find reasons to frustrate decentralization and bring power back to themselves.[citation needed]
Other challenges, and even dangers, include the possibility that corrupt local elites can capture regional or local power centers, while constituents lose representation; patronage politics will become rampant and civil servants feel compromised; further necessary decentralization can be stymied; incomplete information and hidden decision-making can occur up and down the hierarchies; centralized power centers can find reasons to frustrate decentralization and bring power back to themselves.[citation needed]
Other challenges, and even dangers, include the possibility that corrupt local elites can capture regional or local power centers, while constituents lose representation; patronage politics will become rampant and civil servants feel compromised; further necessary decentralization can be stymied; incomplete information and hidden decision-making can occur up and down the hierarchies; centralized power centers can find reasons to frustrate decentralization and bring power back to themselves.[citation needed]
Other challenges, and even dangers, include the possibility that corrupt local elites can capture regional or local power centers, while constituents lose representation; patronage politics will become rampant and civil servants feel compromised; further necessary decentralization can be stymied; incomplete information and hidden decision-making can occur up and down the hierarchies; centralized power centers can find reasons to frustrate decentralization and bring power back to themselves.[citation needed]
Free market ideas popular in the 19th century , such as those of Adam Smith  returned to prominence in the 1970s and 1980s.
Nobel Prize–winning economist Friedrich von Hayek emphasized that free markets themselves are decentralized systems where outcomes are produced without explicit agreement or coordination by individuals who use prices as their guide.
Free market ideas popular in the 19th century, such as those of Adam Smith  returned to prominence in the 1970s and 1980s.
Nobel Prize–winning economist Friedrich von Hayek emphasized that free markets themselves are decentralized systems where outcomes are produced without explicit agreement or coordination by individuals who use prices as their guide .
As Eleanor Doyle writes: "Economic decision-making in free markets is decentralized across all the individuals dispersed in each market and is synchronized or coordinated by the price system." The individual right to property is part of this decentralized system.
Technologies often mentioned as best implemented in a decentralized manner, include: water purification, delivery and waste water disposal, agricultural technology and energy technology.
Advancing technology may allow decentralized, privatized and free market solutions for what have been public services, such utilities producing and/or delivering power, water, mail, telecommunications and services like consumer product safety, money and banking, medical licensing and detection and metering technologies for highways, parking, and auto emissions.[clarification needed] However, in terms of technology, a clear distinction between fully centralized or decentralized technical solutions is often not possible and therefore finding an optimal degree of centralization difficult from an infrastructure planning perspective.
Advancing technology may allow decentralized, privatized and free market solutions for what have been public services, such utilities producing and/or delivering power, water, mail, telecommunications and services like consumer product safety, money and banking, medical licensing and detection and metering technologies for highways, parking, and auto emissions.[clarification needed] However, in terms of technology, a clear distinction between fully centralized or decentralized technical solutions is often not possible and therefore finding an optimal degree of centralization difficult from an infrastructure planning perspective.
an infrastructure planning perspective.
Advancing technology may allow decentralized, privatized and free market solutions for what have been public services, such utilities producing and/or delivering power, water, mail, telecommunications and services like consumer product safety, money and banking, medical licensing and detection and metering technologies for highways, parking, and auto emissions.[clarification needed] However, in terms of technology, a clear distinction between fully centralized or decentralized technical solutions is often not possible and therefore finding an optimal degree of centralization difficult from an infrastructure planning perspective.
Executives and managers face a constant tension between centralizing and decentralizing information technology for their organizations.
Executives and managers face a constant tension between centralizing and decentralizing information technology for their organizations.
Executives and managers face a constant tension between centralizing and decentralizing information technology for their organizations.
Executives and managers face a constant tension between centralizing and decentralizing information technology for their organizations.
This will depend on analysis of the specific situation .
Stephen Cummings wrote that decentralization became a "revolutionary megatrend" in the 1980s.
 In 1983 Diana Conyers asked if decentralization was the "latest fashion" in development administration.
Cornell University 's
Cornell University's project on Restructuring Local Government states that decentralization refers to the "global trend" of devolving responsibilities to regional or local governments .
Towards a Post-Welfare Agenda describes how after World War II governments pursued a centralized "welfarist" policy of entitlements which now has become a "post-welfare" policy of intergovernmental and market-based decentralization.
Those studying the goals and processes of implementing decentralization often use a systems theory approach.
The United Nations Development Programme report applies to the topic of decentralization "a whole systems perspective, including levels, spheres, sectors and functions and seeing the community level as the entry point at which holistic definitions of development goals are most likely to emerge from the people themselves and where it is most practical to support them.
The United Nations Development Programme report applies to the topic of decentralization "a whole systems perspective, including levels, spheres, sectors and functions and seeing the community level as the entry point at which holistic definitions of development goals are most likely to emerge from the people themselves and where it is most practical to support them.
It involves seeing multi-level frameworks and continuous, synergistic processes of interaction and iteration of cycles as critical for achieving wholeness in a decentralized system and for sustaining its development.”
Norman Johnson of Los Alamos National Laboratory wrote in a 1999 paper: "A decentralized system is where some decisions by the agents are made without centralized control or processing.
Norman Johnson of Los Alamos National Laboratory wrote in a 1999 paper: "A decentralized system is where some decisions by the agents are made without centralized control or processing.
An important property of agent systems is the degree of connectivity or connectedness between the agents, a measure global flow of information or influence.
Norman Johnson of Los Alamos National Laboratory wrote in a 1999 paper: "A decentralized system is where some decisions by the agents are made without centralized control or processing.
If each agent is connected (exchange states or influence) to all other agents, then the system is highly connected."
Decentralization in any area is a response to the problems of centralized systems .
Decentralization in government, the topic most studied, has been seen as a solution to problems like economic decline, government inability to fund services and their general decline in performance of overloaded services, the demands of minorities for a greater say in local governance, the general weakening legitimacy of the public sector and global and international pressure on countries with inefficient, undemocratic, overly centralized systems.
Decentralization in government, the topic most studied, has been seen as a solution to problems like economic decline , government inability to fund services and their general decline in performance of overloaded services, the demands of minorities for a greater say in local governance, the general weakening legitimacy of the public sector and global and international pressure on countries with inefficient, undemocratic, overly centralized systems.
Decentralization in government, the topic most studied, has been seen as a solution to problems like economic decline, government inability to fund services and their general decline in performance of overloaded services, the demands of minorities for a greater say in local governance, the general weakening legitimacy of the public sector and global and international pressure on countries with inefficient, undemocratic, overly centralized systems.
Decentralization in government, the topic most studied, has been seen as a solution to problems like economic decline, government inability to fund services and their general decline in performance of overloaded services, the demands of minorities for a greater say in local governance, the general weakening legitimacy of the public sector and global and international pressure on countries with inefficient, undemocratic, overly centralized systems.
In decentralization the principle of subsidiarity is often invoked.
It holds that the lowest or least centralized authority which is capable of addressing an issue effectively should do so.
According to one definition: "Decentralization, or decentralizing governance, refers to the restructuring or reorganization of authority so that there is a system of co-responsibility between institutions of governance at the central, regional and local levels according to the principle of subsidiarity, thus increasing the overall quality and effectiveness of the system of governance, while increasing the authority and capacities of sub-national levels."
According to one definition: "Decentralization, or decentralizing governance, refers to the restructuring or reorganization of authority so that there is a system of co-responsibility between institutions of governance at the central, regional and local levels according to the principle of subsidiarity, thus increasing the overall quality and effectiveness of the system of governance, while increasing the authority and capacities of sub-national levels."
 Decentralization enhances the democratic voice .
Theorists believe that local representative authorities with actual discretionary powers are the basis of decentralization that can lead to local efficiency, equity and development.”
Theorists believe that local representative authorities with actual discretionary powers are the basis of decentralization that can lead to local efficiency, equity and development .”
Columbia University's Earth Institute identified one of three major trends relating to decentralization as: "increased involvement of local jurisdictions and civil society in the management of their affairs, with new forms of participation, consultation, and partnerships."
Columbia University's Earth Institute identified one of three major trends relating to decentralization as: "increased involvement of local jurisdictions and civil society in the management of their affairs, with new forms of participation, consultation, and partnerships ."
Diversity.Norman L. Johnson writes that diversity plays an important role in decentralized systems like ecosystems, social groups, large organizations, political systems.
Diversity. Norman L. Johnson writes that diversity plays an important role in decentralized systems like ecosystems, social groups, large organizations, political systems.
Diversity.Norman L. Johnson writes that diversity plays an important role in decentralized systems like ecosystems, social groups, large organizations, political systems.
Diversity .Norman L. Johnson writes that diversity plays an important role in decentralized systems like ecosystems, social groups, large organizations, political systems.
Decentralized is defined as a property of a system where the agents have some ability to operate "locally.”
An OECD study quotes Chanchal Kumar Sharma as stating: "a true assessment of the degree of decentralization in a country can be made only if a comprehensive approach is adopted and rather than trying to simplify the syndrome of characteristics into the single dimension of autonomy, interrelationships of various dimensions of decentralization are taken into account."
Measuring the amount of decentralization, especially politically, is difficult because different studies of it use different definitions and measurements .
Measuring the amount of decentralization, especially politically , is difficult because different studies of it use different definitions and measurements.
An OECD study quotes Chanchal Kumar Sharma as stating: "a true assessment of the degree of decentralization in a country can be made only if a comprehensive approach is adopted and rather than trying to simplify the syndrome of characteristics into the single dimension of autonomy, interrelationships of various dimensions of decentralization are taken into account."
Firms may prefer decentralization because it ensures efficiency by making sure that managers closest to the local information make decisions and in a more timely fashion; that their taking responsibility frees upper management for long term strategics rather than day-to-day decision-making; that managers have hands on training to prepare them to move up the management hierarchy; that managers are motivated by having the freedom to exercise their own initiative and creativity; that managers and divisions are encouraged to prove that they are profitable, instead of allowing their failures to be masked by the overall profitability of the company.
Firms may prefer decentralization because it ensures efficiency by making sure that managers closest to the local information make decisions and in a more timely fashion; that their taking responsibility frees upper management for long term strategics rather than day-to-day decision-making; that managers have hands on training to prepare them to move up the management hierarchy; that managers are motivated by having the freedom to exercise their own initiative and creativity; that managers and divisions are encouraged to prove that they are profitable, instead of allowing their failures to be masked by the overall profitability of the company.
Firms may prefer decentralization because it ensures efficiency by making sure that managers closest to the local information make decisions and in a more timely fashion; that their taking responsibility frees upper management for long term strategics rather than day-to-day decision-making; that managers have hands on training to prepare them to move up the management hierarchy; that managers are motivated by having the freedom to exercise their own initiative and creativity; that managers and divisions are encouraged to prove that they are profitable, instead of allowing their failures to be masked by the overall profitability of the company.
Firms may prefer decentralization because it ensures efficiency by making sure that managers closest to the local information make decisions and in a more timely fashion; that their taking responsibility frees upper management for long term strategics rather than day-to-day decision-making; that managers have hands on training to prepare them to move up the management hierarchy; that managers are motivated by having the freedom to exercise their own initiative and creativity ; that managers and divisions are encouraged to prove that they are profitable, instead of allowing their failures to be masked by the overall profitability of the company.
Firms may prefer decentralization because it ensures efficiency by making sure that managers closest to the local information make decisions and in a more timely fashion; that their taking responsibility frees upper management for long term strategics rather than day-to-day decision-making; that managers have hands on training to prepare them to move up the management hierarchy; that managers are motivated by having the freedom to exercise their own initiative and creativity; that managers and divisions are encouraged to prove that they are profitable , instead of allowing their failures to be masked by the overall profitability of the company.
Historians have described the history of governments and empires in terms of centralization and decentralization .
In his 1910 The History of Nations Henry Cabot Lodge wrote that Persian king Darius I (550-486 BCE) was a master of organization and “for the first time in history centralization becomes a political fact.”
Yildiz Atasoy writes this process has been going on “since the Stone Age” through not just chiefdoms and states, but empires and today’s “hegemonic core states”.
In his 1910 The History of Nations Henry Cabot Lodge wrote that Persian king Darius I (550-486 BCE) was a master of organization and “for the first time in history centralization becomes a political fact.”
Christopher K. Chase-Dunn and Thomas D. Hall review other works that detail these cycles, including works which analyze the concept of core elites which compete with state accumulation of wealth and how their "intra-ruling-class competition accounts for the rise and fall of states" and of their phases of centralization and decentralization.
Conflict resolution. Economic and/or political decentralization can help prevent or reduce conflict because they reduce actual or perceived inequities between various regions or between a region and the central government.
Conflict resolution.Economic and/or political decentralization can help prevent or reduce conflict because they reduce actual or perceived inequities between various regions or between a region and the central government.
Dawn Brancati finds that political decentralization reduces intrastate conflict unless politicians create political parties that mobilize minority and even extremist groups to demand more resources and power within national governments.
Brancati holds that decentralization can promote peace if it encourages statewide parties to incorporate regional demands and limit the power of regional parties.
.It has been called the "new public management" which has been described as decentralization, management by objectives, contracting out, competition within government and consumer orientation.
Government decentralization has both political and administrative aspects.
 Its decentralization may be territorial , moving power from a central city to other localities, and it may be functional, moving decision-making from the top administrator of any branch of government to lower level officials, or divesting of the function entirely through privatization.
 Its decentralization may be territorial, moving power from a central city to other localities, and it may be functional, moving decision-making from the top administrator of any branch of government to lower level officials, or divesting of the function entirely through privatization. .It has been called the "new public management" which has been described as decentralization, management by objectives, contracting out, competition within government and consumer orientation.
It may be associated with pluralistic politics and representative government , but it also means giving citizens, or their representatives, more influence in the formulation and implementation of laws and policies.
It may be associated with pluralistic politics and representative government, but it also means giving citizens, or their representatives, more influence in the formulation and implementation of laws and policies .
Depending on the country, this may require constitutional or statutory reforms , the development of new political parties, increased power for legislatures, the creation of local political units, and encouragement of advocacy groups.
Political decentralization aims to give citizens or their elected representatives more power. It may be associated with pluralistic politics and representative government, but it also means giving citizens, or their representatives, more influence in the formulation and implementation of laws and policies.
Fiscal decentralization means decentralizing revenue raising and/or expenditure of moneys to a lower level of government while maintaining financial responsibility .
 While this process usually is called fiscal federalism it may be relevant to unitary, federal and confederal governments.
 While this process usually is called fiscal federalism it may be relevant to unitary, federal and confederal governments .
Fiscal federalism also concerns the "vertical imbalances" where the central government gives too much or too little money to the lower levels .
The processes of decentralization redefines structures, procedures and practices of governance to be closer to the citizenry and to make them more aware of the costs and benefits; it is not merely a movement of power from the central to the local government.
The processes of decentralization redefines structures, procedures and practices of governance to be closer to the citizenry and to make them more aware of the costs and benefits ; it is not merely a movement of power from the central to the local government.
According to the United Nations Development Programme , it is "more than a process, it is a way of life and a state of mind."
The processes of decentralization redefines structures, procedures and practices of governance to be closer to the citizenry and to make them more aware of the costs and benefits; it is not merely a movement of power from the central to the local government.
The report provides a chart-formatted framework for defining the application of the concept ‘decentralization’ describing and elaborating on the "who, what, when, where, why and how" factors in any process of decentralization.
They can be initiated from the centers of authority (" top-down ") or from individuals, localities or regions ("bottom-up"), or from a "mutually desired" combination of authorities and localities working together.
They can be initiated from the centers of authority ("top-down") or from individuals, localities or regions (" bottom-up "), or from a "mutually desired" combination of authorities and localities working together.
Bottom-up decentralization usually stresses political values like local responsiveness and increased participation and tends to increase political stability.
Top-down decentralization may be motivated by the desire to “ shift deficits downwards ” and find more resources to pay for services or pay off government debt.
They can be initiated from the centers of authority (" top-down ") or from individuals, localities or regions ("bottom-up"), or from a "mutually desired" combination of authorities and localities working together.
They can be initiated from the centers of authority ("top-down") or from individuals, localities or regions (" bottom-up "), or from a "mutually desired" combination of authorities and localities working together.
Bottom-up decentralization usually stresses political values like local responsiveness and increase d participation and tends to increase political stability.
They can be initiated from the centers of authority ("top-down") or from individuals, localities or regions ("bottom-up"), or from a " mutually desired " combination of authorities and localities working together.
They can be initiated from the centers of authority ("top-down") or from individuals, localities or regions ("bottom-up"), or from a " mutually desired " combination of authorities and localities working together.
Decentralization or  decentralisation is the process of redistributing or dispersing functions, powers, people or things away from a central location or authority .
While centralization, especially in the governmental sphere, is widely studied and practiced, there is no common definition or understanding of decentralization.
The meaning of decentralization may vary in part because of the different ways it is applied. Concepts of decentralization have been applied to group dynamics and management science in private businesses and organizations, political science, law and public administration, economics and technology.
Concepts of decentralization have been applied to group dynamics and management science in private businesses and organizations, political science, law and public administration, economics and technology .
The word "centralization" came into use in France in 1794 as the post-French Revolution French Directory leadership created a new government structure.
The word "decentralization" came into usage in the 1820s. "Centralization" entered written English in the first third of the 1800s;.mentions of decentralization also first appear during those years.
"Centralization" entered written English in the first third of the 1800s ;.mentions of decentralization also first appear during those years.
In the mid-1800s Alexis de Tocqueville wrote that the French Revolution began with " a push towards decentralization...[but became,]in the end, an extension of centralization. " In 1863 retired French bureaucrat Maurice Block wrote an article called “Decentralization” for a French journal which reviewed the dynamics of government and bureaucratic centralization and recent French efforts at decentralization of government functions.
[but became,]in the end, an extension of centralization." In 1863 retired French bureaucrat Maurice Block wrote an article called “Decentralization” for a French journal which reviewed the dynamics of government and bureaucratic centralization and recent French efforts at decentralization of government functions.
Ideas of liberty and decentralization were carried to their logical conclusions during the 19th and 20th centuries by anti-state political activists calling themselves "anarchists", "libertarians," and even decentralists .
Ideas of liberty and decentralization were carried to their logical conclusions during the 19th and 20th centuries by anti-state political activists calling themselves "anarchists", "libertarians," and even decentralists.
 Alexis de Tocqueville was an advocate , writing: "Decentralization has, not only an administrative value, but also a civic dimension, since it increases the opportunities for citizens to take interest in public affairs; it makes them get accustomed to using freedom.
 Alexis de Tocqueville was an advocate, writing: "Decentralization has, not only an administrative value, but also a civic dimension, since it increases the opportunities for citizens to take interest in public affairs ; it makes them get accustomed to using freedom.
 Alexis de Tocqueville was an advocate, writing: " Decentralization has, not only an administrative value, but also a civic dimension, since it increases the opportunities for citizens to take interest in public affairs; it makes them get accustomed to using freedom.
It blamed large-scale industrial production for destroying middle class shop keepers and small manufacturers and promoted increased property ownership and a return to small scale living.
The decentralist movement attracted Southern Agrarians like Robert Penn Warren, as well as journalist Herbert Agar .
New Left and libertarian individuals who identified with social, economic, and often political decentralism through the ensuing years included Ralph Borsodi, Wendell Berry, Paul Goodman, Carl Oglesby, Karl Hess, Donald Livingston, Kirkpatrick Sale (author of Human Scale), Murray Bookchin, Dorothy Day, Senator Mark O. Hatfield, Mildred J. Loomis and Bill Kauffman.
It blamed large-scale industrial production for destroying middle class shop keepers and small manufacturers and promoted increased property ownership and a return to small scale living .
Leopold Kohr, author of the 1957 book The Breakdown of Nations —known for its statement “Whenever something is wrong, something is too big”—was a major influence on E.F. Schumacher, author of the 1973 bestseller Small is Beautiful:Economics As If People Mattered .
Leopold Kohr, author of the 1957 book The Breakdown of Nations—known for its statement “Whenever something is wrong, something is too big” —was a major influence on E.F. Schumacher, author of the 1973 bestseller
Discussing the books in a later interview, Toffler said that industrial-style, centralized, top-down bureaucratic planning would be replaced by a more open, democratic, decentralized style which he called “anticipatory democracy.” Futurist John Naisbitt's 1982 book “Megatrends” was on The New York Times Best Seller list for more than two years and sold 14 million copies.
Daniel Bell's The Coming of Post-Industrial Society discussed the need for decentralization and a “comprehensive overhaul of government structure to find the appropriate size and scope of units”, as well as the need to detach functions from current state boundaries, creating regions based on functions like water, transport, education and economics which might have “different ‘overlays’ on the map.” Alvin Toffler published Future Shock (1970) and The Third Wave (1980) .
Futurist John Naisbitt's 1982 book “Megatrends” was on The New York Times Best Seller list for more than two years and sold 14 million copies. Naisbitt’s book outlines 10 “megatrends”, the fifth of which is from centralization to decentralization.
Analysis of operations. Project and program planners must assess the lowest organizational level at which functions can be carried out efficiently and effectively.
Training for both national and local managers and officials is necessary, as well as technical assistance in the planning, financing, and management of decentralized functions.
Training for both national and local managers and officials is necessary, as well as technical assistance in the planning, financing, and management of decentralized functions.
The appropriate balance of centralization and decentralization should be studied.
There is no one blueprint for decentralization since it depends on the initial state of a country and the power and views of political interests and whether they support or oppose decentralization.
Decentralization ideally happens as a careful, rational, and orderly process, but it often takes place during times of economic and political crisis, the fall of a regime and the resultant power struggles.
There is no one blueprint for decentralization since it depends on the initial state of a country and the power and views of political interests and whether they support or oppose decentralization .
Decentralization ideally happens as a careful, rational, and orderly process, but it often takes place during times of economic and political crisis , the fall of a regime and the resultant power struggles.
Decentralization usually is conscious process based on explicit policies.
However, it may occur as " silent decentralization " in the absence of reforms as changes in networks, policy emphasize and resource availability lead inevitably to a more decentralized system.
.A variation on this is "inadvertent decentralization", when other policy innovations produce an unintended decentralization of power and resources.
In both China and Russia , lower level authorities attained greater powers than intended by central authorities.
Decentralization may be uneven and " asymmetric " given any one country's population, political, ethnic and other forms of diversity.
In many countries, political, economic and administrative responsibilities may be decentralized to the larger urban areas, while rural areas are administered by the central government.
Decentralization of responsibilities to provinces may be limited only to those provinces or states which want or are capable of handling responsibility.
Decentralization may be uneven and "asymmetric" given any one country's population, political, ethnic and other forms of diversity.
The Australian Senate is the upper house of the bicameral Parliament of Australia, the lower house being the House of Representatives.
The composition and powers of the Senate are established in Chapter I, Part II of the Australian Constitution.
The Australian Senate is the upper house of the bicameral Parliament of Australia, the lower house being the House of Representatives.
There is no constitutional requirement for the election of senators to take place at the same time as those for members of the House of Representatives , though the government usually synchronises election dates.
There is no constitutional requirement for the election of senators to take place at the same time as those for members of the House of Representatives, though the government usually synchronises election dates.
In the current Senate, the Liberal/National Coalition government holds 33 seats and the Australian Labor Party opposition has 25 seats.
In the current Senate, the Liberal/National Coalition government holds 33 seats and the Australian Labor Party opposition has 25 seats .
The Coalition requires votes of at least six non-government Senators to pass legislation.
The crossbench of 18 consists of ten Greens seats, as well as one seat each for the Palmer United Party, the Australian Motoring Enthusiast Party, the Liberal Democrats, the Family First Party , and four independents, Nick Xenophon, John Madigan, Jacqui Lambie and Glenn Lazarus.
The crossbench of 18 consists of ten Greens seats, as well as one seat each for the Palmer United Party, the Australian Motoring Enthusiast Party, the Liberal Democrats, the Family First Party, and four independents, Nick Xenophon, John Madigan, Jacqui Lambie and Glenn Lazarus.
Following the 2013 election, the Abbott Liberal government announced it would investigate changing the electoral system for the Senate.
On 22 February 2016, the Turnbull Liberal government announced several proposed changes.
The changes had the support of the Liberal/National Coalition, the Australian Greens, and Nick Xenophon − a three-vote majority.
The Senate reform legislation passed both houses of the Parliament of Australia on 18 March 2016 after the Senate sat all night debating the bill.
Following the 2013 election, the Abbott Liberal government announced it would investigate changing the electoral system for the Senate .
The changes abolished group voting tickets and introduced optional preferential voting, along with party logos on the ballot paper.
The changes abolished group voting tickets and introduced optional preferential voting, along with party logos on the ballot paper .
For below the line, voters will be required to write at least their first 12 preferences.
As a result, fewer votes are expected to be classed as informal , however, more ballots will "exhaust" as a result (i.e. some votes are not counted towards electing any candidate).
As a result of the changes, voters may assign their preferences for parties above the line (numbering as many boxes as they wish ), or individual candidates below the line, and are not required to fill all of the boxes.
The Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act (Imp.) of 1900 established the Senate as part of the new system of dominion government in newly federated Australia.
The Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act (Imp.) of 1900 established the Senate as part of the new system of dominion government in newly federated Australia.
The Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act (Imp.) of 1900 established the Senate as part of the new system of dominion government in newly federated Australia.
The Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act (Imp.) of 1900 established the Senate as part of the new system of dominion government in newly federated Australia.
Although the Prime Minister, by convention, serves as a member of the House of Representatives, other ministers may come from either house, and the two houses have almost equal legislative power.
That degree of equality between the Senate and House of Representatives reflects the desire of the Constitution's authors to address smaller states' desire for strong powers for the Senate as a way of ensuring that the interests of more populous states as represented in the House of Representatives did not totally dominate the government.
This situation was also partly due to the age of the Australian constitution – it was enacted before the confrontation in 1909 in Britain between the House of Commons and the House of Lords, which ultimately resulted in the restrictions placed on the powers of the House of Lords by the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949 .
This situation was also partly due to the age of the Australian constitution – it was enacted before the confrontation in 1909 in Britain between the House of Commons and the House of Lords, which ultimately resulted in the restrictions placed on the powers of the House of Lords by the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949.
This situation was also partly due to the age of the Australian constitution – it was enacted before the confrontation in 1909 in Britain between the House of Commons and the House of Lords, which ultimately resulted in the restrictions placed on the powers of the House of Lords by the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949.
If the Senate twice in a three-month period refuses to pass the same piece of legislation that was initiated in the lower house, the government may either abandon the bill or continue to revise it , or, in certain circumstances outlined in section 57 of the Constitution, the Prime Minister can advise the Governor-General to dissolve the entire parliament in a double dissolution.
If the Senate twice in a three-month period refuses to pass the same piece of legislation that was initiated in the lower house, the government may either abandon the bill or continue to revise it, or, in certain circumstances outlined in section 57 of the Constitution, the Prime Minister can advise the Governor-General to dissolve the entire parliament in a double dissolution.
In such an event, the entirety of the Senate faces re-election, as does the House of Representatives, rather than only about half the chamber as is normally the case.
In such an event, the entirety of the Senate faces re-election, as does the House of Representatives, rather than only about half the chamber as is normally the case.
Such a sitting has only occurred once, in 1974 .
The arrangement as expressed in the Australian Constitution , however, still leaves the Senate with the power to reject supply bills or defer their passage – undoubtedly one of the Senate's most contentious and powerful abilities.
The arrangement as expressed in the Australian Constitution, however, still leaves the Senate with the power to reject supply bills or defer their passage – undoubtedly one of the Senate's most contentious and powerful abilities.
The arrangement as expressed in the Australian Constitution, however, still leaves the Senate with the power to reject supply bills or defer their passage – undoubtedly one of the Senate's most contentious and powerful abilities.
The arrangement as expressed in the Australian Constitution , however, still leaves the Senate with the power to reject supply bills or defer their passage – undoubtedly one of the Senate's most contentious and powerful abilities.
revenue appropriated through taxation .
The ability to block supply was the origin of the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis.
The ability to block supply was the origin of the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis.
The Prime Minister of the day, Gough Whitlam , contested the legitimacy of the blocking and refused to resign.
The crisis was resolved in November 1975 when Governor-General Sir John Kerr dismissed Whitlam's government and appointed a caretaker government on condition that elections for both houses of parliament be held.
The crisis was resolved in November 1975 when Governor-General Sir John Kerr dismissed Whitlam's government and appointed a caretaker government on condition that elections for both houses of parliament be held.
Some states may have over 80 candidates on their ballot papers, and voters must individually number every single candidate for a "below the line" vote to count.
 Above the line voting greatly speeds up counting which is now done by computer .
 Above the line voting greatly speeds up counting which is now done by computer.
 There may be up to three registered tickets for each party.
About 98% of electors vote "above the line".
One of the functions of the Senate, both directly and through its committees, is to scrutinise government activity .
When the Howard government won control of the Senate in 2005 , it sparked a debate about the effectiveness of the Senate in holding the government of the day accountable for its actions.
The vigour of this scrutiny has been fuelled for many years by the fact that the party in government has seldom had a majority in the Senate.
When the Howard government won control of the Senate in 2005, it sparked a debate about the effectiveness of the Senate in holding the government of the day accountable for its actions.
The Australian Democrats, a minor party which has frequently played mediating and negotiating roles in the Senate, expressed concern about a diminished role for the Senate's committees.
When a division is to be held, bells ring throughout the parliament building for four minutes , during which time senators must go to the chamber.
At the end of that period the doors are locked and a vote is taken, by identifying and counting senators according to the side of the chamber on which they sit (ayes to the right of the chair, noes to the left).
At the end of that period the doors are locked and a vote is taken, by identifying and counting senators according to the side of the chamber on which they sit (ayes to the right of the chair, noes to the left).
The whole procedure takes around eight minutes .
Senators with commitments that keep them from the chamber may make arrangements in advance to be 'paired' with a senator of the opposite political party, so that their absence does not affect the outcome of the vote.
The senate contains an even number of senators, so a tied vote is a real prospect (which regularly occurs when the party numbers in the chamber are finely balanced).
Section 23 of the Constitution requires that in the event of a tied division, the question is resolved in the negative .
If such a ballot is tied, the Clerk of the Senate decides the outcome by the drawing of lots .
Section 23 of the Constitution requires that in the event of a tied division, the question is resolved in the negative.
In reality, conventions govern most ballots, so this situation does not arise.
The extent to which party discipline determines the outcome of parliamentary votes is highlighted by the rarity with which members of the same political party will find themselves on opposing sides of a vote.
The exceptions are where a conscience vote is allowed by one or more of the political parties; and occasions where a member of a political party crosses the floor of the chamber to vote against the instructions of their party whip.
The extent to which party discipline determines the outcome of parliamentary votes is highlighted by the rarity with which members of the same political party will find themselves on opposing sides of a vote.
The exceptions are where a conscience vote is allowed by one or more of the political parties; and occasions where a member of a political party crosses the floor of the chamber to vote against the instructions of their party whip .
Crossing the floor very rarely occurs, but is more likely in the Senate than in the House of Representatives .
This period saw the first instances of crossing the floor by senators since the conservative government took office in 1996 : Gary Humphries on civil unions in the Australian Capital Territory, and Barnaby Joyce on voluntary student unionism.
The controversy that surrounded these examples demonstrated both the importance of backbenchers in party policy deliberations and the limitations to their power to influence outcomes in the Senate chamber.
A more significant potential instance of floor crossing was averted when the government withdrew its Migration Amendment (Designated Unauthorised Arrivals) Bill, of which several government senators had been critical, and which would have been defeated had it proceeded to the vote.
A more significant potential instance of floor crossing was averted when the government withdrew its Migration Amendment (Designated Unauthorised Arrivals) Bill, of which several government senators had been critical , and which would have been defeated had it proceeded to the vote.
One feature of the government having a majority in both chambers between 1 July 2005 and the 2007 elections was the potential for an increased emphasis on internal differences between members of the government parties.
 However, most Senate votes cast in Western Australia were subject to a formal recount .
On 28 February 2014 it was announced that the half-Senate election in Western Australia would take place on 5 April , which returned 3 Liberal, 1 Labor, 1 Green, 1 Palmer.
On 28 February 2014 it was announced that the half-Senate election in Western Australia would take place on 5 April, which returned 3 Liberal, 1 Labor, 1 Green, 1 Palmer .
On 28 February 2014 it was announced that the half-Senate election in Western Australia would take place on 5 April, which returned 3 Liberal, 1 Labor, 1 Green, 1 Palmer.
After the final recount the result was duly declared which changed the last two predicted WA Senate spots from Palmer and Labor back to Sports and Green.
Section 15 of the Constitution provides that a casual vacancy of a State senator shall be filled by the State Parliament .
If the previous senator was a member of a particular political party the replacement must come from the same party , but the State Parliament may choose not to fill the vacancy, in which case Section 11 requires the Senate to proceed regardless.
If the previous senator was a member of a particular political party the replacement must come from the same party, but the State Parliament may choose not to fill the vacancy, in which case Section 11 requires the Senate to proceed regardless.
If the State Parliament happens to be in recess when the vacancy occurs, the Constitution provides that the State Governor can appoint someone to fill the place until fourteen days after the State Parliament resumes sitting.
If the State Parliament happens to be in recess when the vacancy occurs, the Constitution provides that the State Governor can appoint someone to fill the place until fourteen days after the State Parliament resumes sitting.
Each state elects the same number of senators, meaning there is equal representation for each of the Australian states, regardless of population, so the Senate, like many upper houses, does not adhere to the principle of "one vote one value".
Each state elects the same number of senators, meaning there is equal representation for each of the Australian states, regardless of population, so the Senate, like many upper houses, does not adhere to the principle of "one vote one value" .
the smaller states have in the Senate, to the degree that former Prime Minister Paul Keating famously referred to the Senate's members as "unrepresentative swill".
Because of this imbalance, governments favoured by the more populous states are occasionally frustrated by the extra power the smaller states have in the Senate, to the degree that former Prime Minister Paul Keating famously referred to the Senate's members as "unrepresentative swill".
Each state elects the same number of senators, meaning there is equal representation for each of the Australian states, regardless of population, so the Senate , like many upper houses, does not adhere to the principle of "one vote one value".
With proportional representation, and the small majorities in the Senate compared to the generally larger majorities in the House of Representatives, and the requirement that the number of members of the House be "nearly as practible" twice that of the Senate, a joint sitting after a double dissolution is more likely than not to lead to a victory for the House over the Senate.
When the Senate had an odd number of Senators retiring at an election (3 or 5), 51% of the vote would lead to a clear majority of 3 out of 5 per state.
With an even number of Senators retiring at an election, it takes 57% of the vote to win 4 out of 6 seats, which may be insurmountable.
With proportional representation, and the small majorities in the Senate compared to the generally larger majorities in the House of Representatives, and the requirement that the number of members of the House be "nearly as practible" twice that of the Senate, a joint sitting after a double dissolution is more likely than not to lead to a victory for the House over the Senate.
With proportional representation, and the small majorities in the Senate compared to the generally larger majorities in the House of Representatives, and the requirement that the number of members of the House be "nearly as practible" twice that of the Senate, a joint sitting after a double dissolution is more likely than not to lead to a victory for the House over the Senate.
The Australian Senate typically sits for 50 to 60 days a year.[a] Most of those days are grouped into 'sitting fortnights' of two four-day weeks.
The Australian Senate typically sits for 50 to 60 days a year.[a] Most of those days are grouped into ' sitting fortnights ' of two four-day weeks.
These are in turn arranged in three periods: the autumn sittings, from February to April; the winter sittings, which commence with the delivery of the budget in the House of Representatives on the first sitting day of May and run through to June or July; and the spring sittings, which commence around August and continue until December, and which typically contain the largest number of the year's sitting days.
the winter sittings, which commence with the delivery of the budget in the House of Representatives on the first sitting day of May and run through to June or July; and the spring sittings, which commence around August and continue until December, and which typically contain the largest number of the year's sitting days.
These are in turn arranged in three periods: the autumn sittings, from February to April; the winter sittings, which commence with the delivery of the budget in the House of Representatives on the first sitting day of May and run through to June or July; and the spring sittings, which commence around August and continue until December, and which typically contain the largest number of the year's sitting days.
These committees also conduct hearings three times a year in which the government's budget and operations are examined.
These committees also conduct hearings three times a year in which the government's budget and operations are examined.
Traditionally dominated by scrutiny of government activities by non-government senators, they provide the opportunity for all senators to ask questions of ministers and public officials.
There is however a convention that senators do not have access to the files and records of previous governments when there has been an election resulting in a change in the party in government.
In addition to the work of the main chamber, the Senate also has a large number of committees which deal with matters referred to them by the Senate.
Geological surveys show that before the Pleistocene, instead of the Baltic Sea, there was a wide plain around a great river paleontologists call the Eridanos.
Geological surveys show that before the Pleistocene, instead of the Baltic Sea, there was a wide plain around a great river paleontologists call the Eridanos .
Several Pleistocene glacial episodes scooped out the river bed into the sea basin .
By the time of the last, or Eemian Stage (MIS 5e), the Eemian Sea was in place.
The land is still emerging isostatically from its depressed state, which was caused by the weight of ice during the last glaciation.
The uplift is about eight millimetres per year on the Finnish coast of the northernmost Gulf of Bothnia.
Consequently, the surface area and the depth of the sea are diminishing .
In the area, the former seabed is only gently sloping , leading to large areas of land being reclaimed in what are, geologically speaking, relatively short periods (decades and centuries).
The phenomenon is known as post-glacial rebound .
Cetaceans in Baltic Sea have been monitored by the ASCOBANS .
Critically endangered populations of Atlantic white-sided dolphins and harbor porpoises inhabit the sea where white-colored porpoises have been recorded, and occasionally oceanic species such as bottlenose dolphins, orcas, and beaked whales visit the waters.
Critically endangered populations of Atlantic white-sided dolphins and harbor porpoises inhabit the sea where white-colored porpoises have been recorded, and occasionally oceanic species such as bottlenose dolphins, orcas, and beaked whales visit the waters.
In recent years, very small, but with an increasing rate, humpback whales migrate into Baltic sea including mother and calf pair.
Now extinct Atlantic grey whales and eastern population of North Atlantic right whales that is facing functional extinction once migrated into Baltic Sea.
Approximately 100,000 km2 (38,610 sq mi ) of the Baltic's seafloor (a quarter of its total area) is a variable dead zone.
The more saline (and therefore denser) water remains on the bottom , isolating it from surface waters and the atmosphere.
This leads to decreased oxygen concentrations within the zone.
It is mainly bacteria that grow in it , digesting organic material and releasing hydrogen sulfide.
It is mainly bacteria that grow in it, digesting organic material and releasing hydrogen sulfide .
Construction of the Great Belt Bridge in Denmark (completed 1997) and the Øresund Bridge-Tunnel (completed 1999), linking Denmark with Sweden, provided a highway and railroad connection between Sweden and the Danish mainland (the Jutland Peninsula).
The undersea tunnel of the Øresund Bridge-Tunnel provides for navigation of large ships into and out of the Baltic Sea.
The Baltic Sea is the main trade route for export of Russian petroleum. Many of the countries neighboring the Baltic Sea have been concerned about this, since a major oil leak in a seagoing tanker would be disastrous for the Baltic—given the slow exchange of water.
Many of the countries neighboring the Baltic Sea have been concerned about this, since a major oil leak in a seagoing tanker would be disastrous for the Baltic—given the slow exchange of water .
In the light of political changes and developments in international environmental and maritime law , a new convention was signed in 1992 by all the states bordering on the Baltic Sea, and the European Community.
In the light of political changes and developments in international environmental and maritime law, a new convention was signed in 1992 by all the states bordering on the Baltic Sea, and the European Community.
After ratification the Convention entered into force on 17 January 2000 .
In the light of political changes and developments in international environmental and maritime law, a new convention was signed in 1992 by all the states bordering on the Baltic Sea, and the European Community .
Measures are also taken in the whole catchment area of the Baltic Sea to reduce land-based pollution .
Historic flood events were the All Saints' Flood of 1304 and other floods in the years 1320, 1449, 1625, 1694, 1784 and 1825.
From 1872, there exist regular and reliable records of water levels in the Baltic Sea .
The highest was the flood of 1872 when the water was an average of 2.43 m (8 ft 0 in) above sea level at Warnemünde and a maximum of 2.83 m (9 ft 3 in) above sea level in Warnemünde.
In the last very heavy floods the average water levels reached 1.88 m (6 ft 2 in) above sea level in 1904, 1.89 m (6 ft 2 in) in 1913, 1.73 m (5 ft 8 in) in January 1954, 1.68 m (5 ft 6 in) on 2–4 November 1995 and 1.65 m (5 ft 5 in) on 21 February 2002 .
From 1872 , there exist regular and reliable records of water levels in the Baltic Sea.
During winter, fast ice , which is attached to the shoreline, develops first, rendering ports unusable without the services of icebreakers.
During winter, fast ice, which is attached to the shoreline, develops first, rendering ports unusable without the services of icebreakers .
The gleaming expanse of ice is similar to the Arctic, with wind-driven pack ice and ridges up to 15 m (49 ft).
Offshore of the landfast ice , the ice remains very dynamic all year, and it is relatively easily moved around by winds and therefore forms pack ice, made up of large piles and ridges pushed against the landfast ice and shores.
During winter, fast ice , which is attached to the shoreline, develops first, rendering ports unusable without the services of icebreakers.
In the south, the Bay of Gdańsk lies east of the Hel Peninsula on the Polish coast and west of the Sambia Peninsula in Kaliningrad Oblast .
The Bay of Pomerania lies north of the islands of Usedom and Wolin, east of Rügen.
Between Falster and the German coast lie the Bay of Mecklenburg and Bay of Lübeck.
The three Danish straits, the Great Belt, the Little Belt and The Sound (Öresund/Øresund), connect the Baltic Sea with the Kattegat  and Skagerrak strait in the North Sea .
The ice cover is the main habitat for two large mammals, the grey seal (Halichoerus grypus) and the Baltic ringed seal (Pusa hispida botnica), both of which feed underneath the ice and breed on its surface.
The ice cover is the main habitat for two large mammals, the grey seal (Halichoerus grypus) and the Baltic ringed seal (Pusa hispida botnica) , both of which feed underneath the ice and breed on its surface.
The sea ice also harbours several species of algae that live in the bottom and inside unfrozen brine pockets in the ice.
The ice cover is the main habitat for two large mammals, the grey seal (Halichoerus grypus) and the Baltic ringed seal (Pusa hispida botnica), both of which feed underneath the ice and breed on its surface.
The grey seal is adapted to reproducing also with no ice in the sea.
The Baltic Sea flows out through the Danish straits ; however, the flow is complex.
A surface layer of brackish water discharges 940 km3 (230 cu mi) per year into the North Sea.
Due to the difference in salinity, by salinity permeation principle , a sub-surface layer of more saline water moving in the opposite direction brings in 475 km3 (114 cu mi) per year.
The general circulation is anti-clockwise : northwards along its eastern boundary, and south along the western one .
It mixes very slowly with the upper waters, resulting in a salinity gradient from top to bottom, with most of the salt water remaining below 40 to 70 m (130 to 230 ft) deep.
According to the 18th-century natural historian William Derham , during the severe winters of 1703 and 1708, the ice cover reached as far as the Danish straits.
This description meant that the whole of the Baltic Sea was covered with ice.
Severe winters can lead to ice formation around southern Sweden and even in the Danish straits .
Frequently, parts of the Gulf of Bothnia and Gulf of Finland are frozen, in addition to coastal fringes in more southerly locations such as the Gulf of Riga .
According to the 18th-century natural historian William Derham, during the severe winters of 1703 and 1708, the ice cover reached as far as the Danish straits.
On the long-term average, the Baltic Sea is ice-covered at the annual maximum for about 45% of its surface area .
The ice reaches its maximum extent in February or March; typical ice thickness in the northernmost areas in the Bothnian Bay, the northern basin of the Gulf of Bothnia, is about 70 cm (28 in) for landfast sea ice. The thickness decreases farther south.
The ice reaches its maximum extent in February or March ; typical ice thickness in the northernmost areas in the Bothnian Bay, the northern basin of the Gulf of Bothnia, is about 70 cm (28 in) for landfast sea ice.
The remainder of the Baltic does not freeze during a normal winter, with the exception of sheltered bays and shallow lagoons such as the Curonian Lagoon. The ice reaches its maximum extent in February or March; typical ice thickness in the northernmost areas in the Bothnian Bay, the northern basin of the Gulf of Bothnia, is about 70 cm (28 in) for landfast sea ice.
The Baltic Sea's salinity is much lower than that of ocean water (which averages 3.5% ), as a result of abundant freshwater runoff from the surrounding land, combined with the shallowness of the sea itself; indeed, runoff contributes roughly one-fortieth its total volume per year, as the volume of the basin is about 21,000 km3 (5,000 cu mi) and yearly runoff is about 500 km3 (120 cu mi).
The Baltic Sea's salinity is much lower than that of ocean water (which averages 3.5%) , as a result of abundant freshwater runoff from the surrounding land, combined with the shallowness of the sea itself; indeed, runoff contributes roughly one-fortieth its total volume per year, as the volume of the basin is about 21,000 km3 (5,000 cu mi) and yearly runoff is about 500 km3 (120 cu mi).
The Baltic Sea's salinity is much lower than that of ocean water (which averages 3.5%), as a result of abundant freshwater runoff from the surrounding land, combined with the shallowness of the sea itself; indeed, runoff contributes roughly one-fortieth its total volume per year, as the volume of the basin is about 21,000 km3 (5,000 cu mi) and yearly runoff is about 500 km3 (120 cu mi).
Drinking the water as a means of survival would actually hydrate the body instead of dehydrating, like that of ocean water.
Below 40 to 70 m (130 to 230 ft), the salinity is between 1.0% and 1.5% in the open Baltic Sea, and more than this near Danish Straits, but this is still less than half that of ocean water.
However, floating ice was additionally observed near Świnoujście harbour in January 2010.
During the winter of 2010–11, which was quite severe compared to those of the last decades, the maximum ice cover was 315,000 km2 (122,000 sq mi) , which was reached on 25 February 2011.
It is known that since 17 20 , the Baltic Sea has frozen over entirely a total of 20 times.
The most recent case was in early 1987 , which was the most severe winter in Scandinavia since that date.
The ice then covered 400,000 km2 (150,000 sq mi) .
The flow of fresh water into the sea from approximately two-hundred rivers and the introduction of salt from the South builds up a gradient of salinity in the Baltic Sea.
The flow of fresh water into the sea from approximately two-hundred rivers and the introduction of salt from the South builds up a gradient of salinity in the Baltic Sea.
The salinity steadily decreases towards North and East.
At the northern part of the Gulf of Bothnia the water is no longer salty and many fresh water species live in the sea.
a temperature gradient .
In the eighteenth century , Russia and Prussia became the leading powers over the sea.
Sweden's defeat in the Great Northern War brought Russia to the eastern coast.
Sweden's defeat in the Great Northern War brought Russia to the eastern coast.
Russia became and remained a dominating power in the Baltic .
Russia's Peter the Great saw the strategic importance of the Baltic and decided to found his new capital, Saint Petersburg, at the mouth of the Neva river at the east end of the Gulf of Finland.
During the Crimean War , a joint British and French fleet attacked the Russian fortresses in the Baltic.
They bombarded Sveaborg, which guards Helsinki; and Kronstadt, which guards Saint Petersburg ; and they destroyed Bomarsund in the Åland Islands.
They bombarded Sveaborg, which guards Helsinki ;
They bombarded Sveaborg, which guards Helsinki; and Kronstadt, which guards Saint Petersburg; and they destroyed Bomarsund in the Åland Islands .
After the unification of Germany in 1871 , the whole southern coast became German.
In 1945 , the Baltic Sea became a mass grave for retreating soldiers and refugees on torpedoed troop transports.
The sinking of the Wilhelm Gustloff remains the worst maritime disaster in history, killing (very roughly) 9,000 people.
In 1945, the Baltic Sea became a mass grave for retreating soldiers and refugees on torpedoed troop transports.
The sinking of the Wilhelm Gustloff remains the worst maritime disaster in history, killing (very roughly) 9,000 people.
In 2005, a Russian group of scientists found over five thousand airplane wrecks, sunken warships, and other material , mainly from World War II, on the bottom of the sea.
Since the end of World War II, various nations, including the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States, have disposed of chemical weapons in the Baltic Sea, raising concerns of environmental contamination.
Even now fishermen accidentally retrieve some of these materials: the most recent available report from the Helsinki Commission notes that four small scale catches of chemical munitions representing approximately 105 kg (231 lb) of material were reported in 2005.
Even now fishermen accidentally retrieve some of these materials: the most recent available report from the Helsinki Commission notes that four small scale catches of chemical munitions representing approximately 105 kg ( 231 lb ) of material were reported in 2005.
Even now fishermen accidentally retrieve some of these materials: the most recent available report from the Helsinki Commission notes that four small scale catches of chemical munitions representing approximately 105 kg (231 lb) of material were reported in 2005.
This is a reduction from the 25 incidents representing 1,110 kg ( 2,450 lb ) of material in 2003.
After 1945 , the German population was expelled from all areas east of the Oder-Neisse line, making room for displaced Poles and Russians.
It ended only after the collapse of the Communist regimes in Central and Eastern Europe in the late 1980s .
Had war broken out, the Polish navy was prepared to invade the Danish isles .
After 1945, the German population was expelled from all areas east of the Oder-Neisse line, making room for displaced Poles and Russians .
The Baltic states on the eastern shore were annexed by the Soviet Union.
The Baltic Sea (German: Ostsee ; Polish: Morze Bałtyckie; Russian: Балтийское море; Danish: Østersøen; Swedish: Östersjön; Lithuanian: Baltijos jūra; Latvian: Baltijas jūra; Estonian: Läänemeri; Finnish: Itämeri) is a sea of the Atlantic Ocean, enclosed by Scandinavia, Finland, the Baltic countries, and the North European Plain.
Danish: Østersøen; Swedish: Östersjön; Lithuanian: Baltijos jūra; Latvian: Baltijas jūra; Estonian: Läänemeri; Finnish: Itämeri) is a sea of the Atlantic Ocean, enclosed by Scandinavia, Finland, the Baltic countries, and the North European Plain.
The sea stretches from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from 10°E to 30°E longitude.
The sea stretches from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from 10°E to 30°E longitude.
A mediterranean sea of the Atlantic, with limited water exchange between the two bodies, the Baltic Sea drains through the Danish islands into the Kattegat by way of the straits of Øresund, the Great Belt, and the Little Belt.
While Tacitus called it Mare Suebicum after the Germanic people called the Suebi, the first to name it the Baltic Sea (Mare Balticum) was the eleventh-century German chronicler Adam of Bremen .
Adam of Bremen himself compared the sea with a belt , stating that it is so named because it stretches through the land as a belt (Balticus, eo quod in modum baltei longo tractu per Scithicas regiones tendatur usque in Greciam).
On this basis, a related hypothesis holds that the name originated from this Indo-European root via a Baltic language such as Lithuanian.
.Some Swedish historians believe the name derives from the god Balder of Nordic mythology.
It is possible that Pliny refers to an island named Basilia ("kingdom" or "royal") in On the Ocean by Pytheas.
At the time of the Roman Empire, the Baltic Sea was known as the Mare Suebicum or Mare Sarmaticum.
Tacitus in his AD 98 Agricola and Germania described the Mare Suebicum, named for the Suebi tribe, during the spring months, as a brackish sea where the ice broke apart and chunks floated about.
Tacitus in his AD 98 Agricola and Germania described the Mare Suebicum, named for the Suebi tribe , during the spring months, as a brackish sea where the ice broke apart and chunks floated about.
The Suebi eventually migrated south west to reside for a while in the Rhineland area of modern Germany, where their name survives in the historic region known as Swabia.
Tacitus in his AD 98 Agricola and Germania described the Mare Suebicum, named for the Suebi tribe, during the spring months, as a brackish sea where the ice broke apart and chunks floated about.
The lands on the Baltic's eastern shore were among the last in Europe to be converted to Christianity.
This finally happened during the Northern Crusades : Finland in the twelfth century by Swedes, and what are now Estonia and Latvia in the early thirteenth century by Danes and Germans (Livonian Brothers of the Sword).
The Teutonic Order gained control over parts of the southern and eastern shore of the Baltic Sea, where they set up their monastic state.
Lithuania was the last European state to convert to Christianity.
This finally happened during the Northern Crusades: Finland in the twelfth century by Swedes , and what are now Estonia and Latvia in the early thirteenth century by Danes and Germans (Livonian Brothers of the Sword).
The lands on the Baltic's eastern shore were among the last in Europe to be converted to Christianity.
This finally happened during the Northern Crusades : Finland in the twelfth century by Swedes, and what are now Estonia and Latvia in the early thirteenth century by Danes and Germans (Livonian Brothers of the Sword).
The Teutonic Order gained control over parts of the southern and eastern shore of the Baltic Sea, where they set up their monastic state.
Lithuania was the last European state to convert to Christianity.
This finally happened during the Northern Crusades: Finland in the twelfth century by Swedes , and what are now Estonia and Latvia in the early thirteenth century by Danes and Germans (Livonian Brothers of the Sword).
In the 13th to 17th centuries, the strongest economic force in Northern Europe was the Hanseatic League , a federation of merchant cities around the Baltic Sea and the North Sea.
In the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, Poland, Denmark, and Sweden fought wars for Dominium maris baltici (" Lordship over the Baltic Sea ").
In the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, Poland, Denmark, and Sweden fought wars for Dominium maris baltici ("Lordship over the Baltic Sea").
In the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, Poland, Denmark, and Sweden fought wars for Dominium maris baltici ("Lordship over the Baltic Sea").
Something that was accomplishes except the rout between Riga in Latvia and Szczecin in Poland.
Various associations, government agencies, and companies serve the insurance industry in the United States.
The National Association of Insurance Commissioners provides models for standard state insurance law, and provides services for its members, which are the state insurance divisions.
Many insurance providers use the Insurance Services Office, which produces standard policy forms and rating loss costs and then submits these documents on the behalf of member insurers to the state insurance divisions.
Many insurance providers use the Insurance Services Office, which produces standard policy forms and rating loss costs and then submits these documents on the behalf of member insurers to the state insurance divisions.
Many insurance providers use the Insurance Services Office , which produces standard policy forms and rating loss costs and then submits these documents on the behalf of member insurers to the state insurance divisions.
In recent years the operational definition of insurance presented at the beginning of this article proved inadequate as a result of contracts that had the form but not the substance of insurance.
 How much risk a contract actually transfers proved to be at the heart of the controversy.
This issue arose most clearly in reinsurance , where the use of Financial Reinsurance to reengineer insurer balance sheets under US GAAP became fashionable during the 1980s.
This issue arose most clearly in reinsurance, where the use of Financial Reinsurance to reengineer insurer balance sheets under US GAAP became fashionable during the 1980s.
 The accounting profession raised serious concerns about the use of reinsurance in which little if any actual risk was transferred, and went on to address the issue in FAS 113 , cited above.
Statement of Statutory Accounting Principles ("SSAP") 62, issued by the National Association of Insurance Commissioners , applies to so-called 'statutory accounting' – the accounting for insurance enterprises to conform with regulation.
Statement of Statutory Accounting Principles ("SSAP") 62, issued by the National Association of Insurance Commissioners, applies to so-called ' statutory accounting' – the accounting for insurance enterprises to conform with regulation.
 Paragraph 12 of SSAP 62 is nearly identical to the FAS 113 test, while paragraph 14, which is otherwise very similar to paragraph 10 of FAS 113, additionally contains a justification for the use of a single fixed rate for discounting purposes.
 Paragraph 12 of SSAP 62 is nearly identical to the FAS 113 test, while paragraph 14, which is otherwise very similar to paragraph 10 of FAS 113, additionally contains a justification for the use of a single fixed rate for discounting purposes.
 The choice of an "reasonable and appropriate" discount rate is left as a matter of judgment.
Neither FAS 113 nor SAP 62 defines the terms reasonable or significant .
 Such tests have been proposed, including one famously attributed to an SEC official who is said to have opined in an after lunch talk that at least a 10 percent chance of at least a 10 percent loss was sufficient to establish both reasonableness and significance.
 Such tests have been proposed, including one famously attributed to an SEC official who is said to have opined in an after lunch talk that at least a 10 percent chance of at least a 10 percent loss was sufficient to establish both reasonableness and significance.
 Such tests have been proposed, including one famously attributed to an SEC official who is said to have opined in an after lunch talk that at least a 10 percent chance of at least a 10 percent loss was sufficient to establish both reasonableness and significance.
 Indeed, many insurers and reinsurers still apply this " 10/10 " test as a benchmark for risk transfer testing.
Excess of loss contracts, like those commonly used for umbrella and general liability insurance, or to insure against property losses, will typically have a low ratio  of premium paid to maximum loss recoverable.
Excess of loss contracts, like those commonly used for umbrella and general liability insurance, or to insure against property losses, will typically have a low ratio  of premium paid to maximum loss recoverable.
  This ratio (expressed as a percentage ), commonly called the "rate on line" for historical reasons related to underwriting practices at Lloyd's of London, will typically be low for contracts that contain reasonably self-evident risk transfer.
  This ratio (expressed as a percentage), commonly called the " rate on line " for historical reasons related to underwriting practices at Lloyd's of London, will typically be low for contracts that contain reasonably self-evident risk transfer.
  This ratio (expressed as a percentage), commonly called the "rate on line" for historical reasons related to underwriting practices at Lloyd's of London , will typically be low for contracts that contain reasonably self-evident risk transfer.
 Ideally, the contract should contain an ' Entire Agreement ' clause that assures there are no undisclosed written or oral side agreements that confer rights, create obligations, or create benefits on the part of either or both parties.
The contract should be considered to include any other agreements, written or oral , that confer rights, create obligations, or create benefits on the part of either or both parties.
 If such rights, obligations or benefits exist, they must be factored into the tests of reasonableness and significance.
The contract should be considered to include any other agreements, written or oral, that confer rights, create obligations, or create benefits on the part of either or both parties.
 If such rights, obligations or benefits exist, they must be factored into the tests of reasonableness and significance .
 For example, a property insurance company may agree to bear the risk that a particular piece of property (e.g., a car or a house ) may suffer a specific type or types of damage or loss during a certain period of time in exchange for a fee from the policyholder who would otherwise be responsible for that damage or loss.
Insurance, generally, is a contract in which the insurer (stock insurance company, mutual insurance company, reciprocal, or Lloyd's syndicate, for example), agrees to compensate or indemnify another party (the insured, the policyholder or a beneficiary) for specified loss or damage to a specified thing (e.g., an item, property or life) from certain perils or risks in exchange for a fee (the insurance premium )
Insurance, generally, is a contract in which the insurer (stock insurance company, mutual insurance company, reciprocal, or Lloyd's syndicate, for example), agrees to compensate or indemnify another party ( the insured, the policyholder or a beneficiary ) for specified loss or damage to a specified thing (e.g., an item, property or life) from certain perils or risks in exchange for a fee (the insurance premium).
 That agreement takes the form of an insurance policy .
Insurance, generally, is a contract in which the insurer (stock insurance company, mutual insurance company, reciprocal, or Lloyd's syndicate, for example), agrees to compensate or indemnify another party (the insured, the policyholder or a beneficiary) for specified loss or damage to a specified thing (e.g., an item, property or life) from certain perils or risks in exchange for a fee ( the insurance premium )
The first insurance company in the United States underwrote fire insurance and was formed in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1735 .
The first insurance company in the United States underwrote fire insurance and was formed in Charleston , South Carolina, in 1735.
The first insurance company in the United States underwrote fire insurance and was formed in Charleston, South Carolina , in 1735.
The first insurance company in the United States underwrote fire insurance and was formed in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1735.
 In 1752, Benjamin Franklin helped form a mutual insurance company called the Philadelphia Contributionship , which is the nation's oldest insurance carrier still in operation.
The first stock insurance company formed in the United States was the Insurance Company of North America in 1792 .
The first stock insurance company formed in the United States was the Insurance Company of North America in 1792.
Formal regulation of the insurance industry began in earnest when the first state commissioner of insurance was appointed in New Hampshire in 1851.
Formal regulation of the insurance industry began in earnest when the first state commissioner of insurance was appointed in New Hampshire in 1851.
Formal regulation of the insurance industry began in earnest when the first state commissioner of insurance was appointed in New Hampshire in 1851.
 Insurance companies were, in large part, prohibited from writing more than one line of insurance until laws began to permit multi-line charters in the 1950s.
 Insurance companies were, in large part, prohibited from writing more than one line of insurance until laws began to permit multi-line charters in the 1950s.
 Insurance companies were, in large part, prohibited from writing more than one line of insurance until laws began to permit multi-line charters in the 1950s .
 From an industry dominated by small, local, single-line mutual companies and member societies, the business of insurance has grown increasingly towards multi-line, multi-state and even multi-national insurance conglomerates and holding companies.
 Insurance companies were, in large part, prohibited from writing more than one line of insurance until laws began to permit multi-line charters in the 1950s.
The United States Supreme Court found in the 1944 case of United States v. South-Eastern Underwriters Association that the business of insurance was subject to federal regulation under the Commerce Clause of the U.S. Constitution.
The United States Supreme Court found in the 1944 case of United States v. South-Eastern Underwriters Association that the business of insurance was subject to federal regulation under the Commerce Clause of the U.S. Constitution.
 The United States Congress, however, responded almost immediately with the McCarran-Ferguson Act in 1945 .
 The United States Congress , however, responded almost immediately with the McCarran-Ferguson Act in 1945.
The United States Supreme Court found in the 1944 case of United States v. South-Eastern Underwriters Association that the business of insurance was subject to federal regulation under the Commerce Clause of the U.S. Constitution.
A wave of insurance company insolvencies in the 1980s sparked a renewed interest in federal insurance regulation, including new legislation for a dual state and federal system of insurance solvency regulation.  In response, the National Association of Insurance Commissioners (NAIC) adopted several model reforms for state insurance regulation, including risk-based capital requirements, financial regulation accreditation standards and an initiative to codify accounting principles.
 In response, the National Association of Insurance Commissioners (NAIC) adopted several model reforms for state insurance regulation , including risk-based capital requirements, financial regulation accreditation standards and an initiative to codify accounting principles.
 In response, the National Association of Insurance Commissioners (NAIC) adopted several model reforms for state insurance regulation, including risk-based capital requirements, financial regulation accreditation standards and an initiative to codify accounting principles. As more and more states enacted versions of these model reforms into law, the pressure for federal reform of insurance regulation waned.
As more and more states enacted versions of these model reforms into law, the pressure for federal reform of insurance regulation waned. However, there are still significant differences between states in their systems of insurance regulation, and the cost of compliance with those systems is ultimately borne by insureds in the form of higher premiums.
The NAIC acts as a forum for the creation of model laws and regulations. Each state decides whether to pass each NAIC model law or regulation, and each state may make changes in the enactment process, but the models are widely, albeit somewhat irregularly, adopted.
Each state decides whether to pass each NAIC model law or regulation , and each state may make changes in the enactment process, but the models are widely, albeit somewhat irregularly, adopted.
Each state decides whether to pass each NAIC model law or regulation, and each state may make changes in the enactment process , but the models are widely, albeit somewhat irregularly, adopted.
NAIC model acts and regulations provide some degree of uniformity between states , but these models do not have the force of law and have no effect unless they are adopted by a state.
NAIC model acts and regulations provide some degree of uniformity between states, but these models do not have the force of law and have no effect unless they are adopted by a state.  They are, however, used as guides by most states, and some states adopt them with little or no change.
 The idea of an optional federal charter was first raised after a spate of solvency and capacity issues plagued property and casualty insurers in the 1970s.
 The idea of an optional federal charter was first raised after a spate of solvency and capacity issues plagued property and casualty insurers in the 1970s.
 The idea of an optional federal charter was first raised after a spate of solvency and capacity issues plagued property and casualty insurers in the 1970s.  This OFC concept was to establish an elective federal regulatory scheme that insurers could opt into from the traditional state system, somewhat analogous to the dual-charter regulation of banks.
 This OFC concept was to establish an elective federal regulatory scheme that insurers could opt into from the traditional state system , somewhat analogous to the dual-charter regulation of banks.
In 2010 , Congress passed the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act which is touted by some as the most sweeping financial regulation overhaul since the Great Depression.
 The Dodd-Frank Act has significant implications for the insurance industry.  Significantly, Title V of created the Federal Insurance Office (FIO) in the Department of the Treasury.
 The FIO is authorized to monitor all aspects of the insurance industry and identify any gaps in the state-based regulatory system.  The Dodd-Frank Act also establishes the Financial Stability Oversight Council (FSOC), which is charged with monitoring the financial services markets, including the insurance industry, to identify potential risks to the financial stability of the United States.
 Significantly, Title V of created the Federal Insurance Office (FIO) in the Department of the Treasury.  The FIO is authorized to monitor all aspects of the insurance industry and identify any gaps in the state-based regulatory system.
An important artifact of the state-based insurance regulation system in the United States is the dichotomy between admitted and surplus insurers.  Insurers in the U.S. may be "admitted", meaning that they have been formally admitted to a state's insurance market by the state insurance commissioner, and are subject to various state laws governing organization, capitalization, policy forms, and claims handling.
 Insurers in the U.S. may be "admitted", meaning that they have been formally admitted to a state's insurance market by the state insurance commissioner , and are subject to various state laws governing organization, capitalization, policy forms, and claims handling.
 Or they may be "surplus", meaning that they are nonadmitted in a particular state but are willing to write coverage there.  Surplus line insurers are supposed to underwrite only very unusual or difficult-to-insure risks.
 Surplus line insurers are supposed to underwrite only very unusual or difficult-to-insure risks.  Although experienced insurance brokers are well aware of what risks an admitted insurer will not accept, they must document a ritual of actually shopping around a risk to several admitted insurers (who will reject it, of course) before applying for coverage with a surplus line insurer.
To relieve insurers and brokers of that tedious and time-consuming chore, many states (with the notable exception of Texas) now maintain "export lists" of risks that the state insurance commissioner has already identified as having no coverage available whatsoever from any admitted insurer in the state.
To relieve insurers and brokers of that tedious and time-consuming chore, many states (with the notable exception of Texas ) now maintain "export lists" of risks that the state insurance commissioner has already identified as having no coverage available whatsoever from any admitted insurer in the state.
 In turn, brokers presented by clients with those risks can immediately "export" them to the out-of-state surplus market and apply directly to surplus line insurers without having to first document multiple attempts to present the risk to admitted insurers.
To relieve insurers and brokers of that tedious and time-consuming chore, many states (with the notable exception of Texas) now maintain "export lists" of risks that the state insurance commissioner has already identified as having no coverage available whatsoever from any admitted insurer in the state.  In turn, brokers presented by clients with those risks can immediately "export" them to the out-of-state surplus market and apply directly to surplus line insurers without having to first document multiple attempts to present the risk to admitted insurers.
Although surplus line insurers are still regulated by the states in which they are actually admitted , the disadvantages of obtaining insurance from a surplus line insurer are that the policy will usually be written on a nonstandard form (that is, not from the Insurance Services Office), and if the insurer collapses, its insureds in states in which it is nonadmitted will not enjoy certain types of protection available to insureds in states in which the insurer is admitted.
Although surplus line insurers are still regulated by the states in which they are actually admitted, the disadvantages of obtaining insurance from a surplus line insurer are that the policy will usually be written on a nonstandard form (that is, not from the Insurance Services Office), and if the insurer collapses, its insureds in states in which it is nonadmitted will not enjoy certain types of protection available to insureds in states in which the insurer is admitted.
Although surplus line insurers are still regulated by the states in which they are actually admitted, the disadvantages of obtaining insurance from a surplus line insurer are that the policy will usually be written on a nonstandard form (that is, not from the Insurance Services Office ), and if the insurer collapses, its insureds in states in which it is nonadmitted will not enjoy certain types of protection available to insureds in states in which the insurer is admitted.
Although surplus line insurers are still regulated by the states in which they are actually admitted, the disadvantages of obtaining insurance from a surplus line insurer are that the policy will usually be written on a nonstandard form (that is, not from the Insurance Services Office), and if the insurer collapses, its insureds in states in which it is nonadmitted will not enjoy certain types of protection available to insureds in states in which the insurer is admitted. However, for persons trying to obtain coverage for unusual risks, the choice is usually between a surplus line insurer or no coverage at all.
However, for persons trying to obtain coverage for unusual risks, the choice is usually between a surplus line insurer or no coverage at all .
Only the smallest insurers exist as a single corporation.
 Most major insurance companies actually exist as insurance groups .
 That is, they consist of holding companies which own several admitted and surplus insurers (and sometimes a few excess insurers and reinsurers as well).
 There are dramatic variations from one insurance group to the next in terms of how its various business functions are divided up among its subsidiaries or outsourced to third party corporations altogether.
An example of how insurance groups work is that when people call GEICO and ask for a rate quote, they are actually speaking to GEICO Insurance Agency, which may then write a policy from any one of GEICO's seven insurance companies .
 When the customer writes their check for the premium to "GEICO", the premium is actually deposited with one of those seven insurance companies (the one that actually wrote their policy) .
 Similarly, any claims against the policy are charged to the issuing company .
 But as far as most layperson customers know, they are simply dealing with GEICO .
Obviously, it is more difficult to operate an insurance group than a single insurance company, since employees must be painstakingly trained to observe corporate formalities so that courts will not treat the entities in the group as alter egos of each other.
Obviously, it is more difficult to operate an insurance group than a single insurance company, since employees must be painstakingly trained to observe corporate formalities so that courts will not treat the entities in the group as alter egos of each other.  For example, all insurance policies and all claim-related documents must consistently reference the relevant company within the group, and the flows of premiums and claim payments must be carefully recorded against the books of the correct company.
 For example, all insurance policies and all claim-related documents must consistently reference the relevant company within the group , and the flows of premiums and claim payments must be carefully recorded against the books of the correct company.
 For example, all insurance policies and all claim-related documents must consistently reference the relevant company within the group, and the flows of premiums and claim payments must be carefully recorded against the books of the correct company.
Unlike natural languages, such as English, the language of first-order logic is completely formal , so that it can be mechanically determined whether a given expression is legal.
Unlike natural languages, such as English, the language of first-order logic is completely formal, so that it can be mechanically determined whether a given expression is legal .
 There are two key types of legal expressions: terms , which intuitively represent objects, and formulas, which intuitively express predicates that can be true or false.
 There are two key types of legal expressions: terms, which intuitively represent objects, and formulas , which intuitively express predicates that can be true or false.
The terms and formulas of first-order logic are strings of symbols which together form the alphabet of the language.
It is common to divide the symbols of the alphabet into logical symbols , which always have the same meaning, and non-logical symbols, whose meaning varies by interpretation.
It is common to divide the symbols of the alphabet into logical symbols, which always have the same meaning , and non-logical symbols, whose meaning varies by interpretation.
It is common to divide the symbols of the alphabet into logical symbols, which always have the same meaning, and non-logical symbols , whose meaning varies by interpretation.
It is common to divide the symbols of the alphabet into logical symbols, which always have the same meaning, and non-logical symbols, whose meaning varies by interpretation .
It is common to divide the symbols of the alphabet into logical symbols, which always have the same meaning, and non-logical symbols, whose meaning varies by interpretation.
The role of the parentheses in the definition is to ensure that any formula can only be obtained in one way by following the inductive definition (in other words, there is a unique parse tree for each formula).
This property is known as unique readability of formulas .
For example, some authors use colons or full stops instead of parentheses, or change the places in which parentheses are inserted.
a proof of unique readability .
A less common convention is Polish notation , in which one writes ....→...{\displaystyle \rightarrow }.., ....∧...{\displaystyle \wedge }.., and so on in front of their arguments rather than between them.
This convention allows all punctuation symbols to be discarded.
Polish notation is compact and elegant, but rarely used in practice because it is hard for humans to read it.
Polish notation is compact and elegant , but rarely used in practice because it is hard for humans to read it.
The definitions above use infix notation for binary connectives such as ....→...{\displaystyle \to }...
English sentences like "everyone loves someone" can be formalized by first-order logic formulas like ∀x∃y L(x,y).
English sentences like "everyone loves someone" can be formalized by first-order logic formulas like ∀x∃y L(x,y) .
Using just the two quantifiers ∀ and ∃ and the loving relation symbol L, but no logical connectives and no function symbols (including constants), formulas with 8 different meanings can be built.
Only for the formulas 9 and 10 is the model unique, all other formulas may be satisfied by several models.
A deductive system is used to demonstrate, on a purely syntactic basis , that one formula is a logical consequence of another formula.
A deductive system is used to demonstrate, on a purely syntactic basis, that one formula is a logical consequence of another formula. There are many such systems for first-order logic, including Hilbert-style deductive systems, natural deduction, the sequent calculus, the tableaux method, and resolution.
There are many such systems for first-order logic, including Hilbert-style deductive systems, natural deduction, the sequent calculus, the tableaux method , and resolution.
 These finite deductions themselves are often called derivations in proof theory .
They are also often called proofs , but are completely formalized unlike natural-language mathematical proofs.
For example, one common rule of inference is the rule of substitution .
If t is a term and φ is a formula possibly containing the variable x, then φ[t/x] (often denoted φ[x/t]) is the result of replacing all free instances of x by t in φ.
The substitution rule states that for any φ and any term t, one can conclude φ[t/x] from φ provided that no free variable of t becomes bound during the substitution process.
( If some free variable of t becomes bound, then to substitute t for x it is first necessary to change the bound variables of φ to differ from the free variables of t.)
The intended replacement can be obtained by renaming the bound variable x of φ to something else, say z , so that the formula after substitution is ....∃.z.(.z.=.x.+.1.)...{\displaystyle \exists z(z=x+1)}.., which is again logically valid.
If t is the term "x + 1", the formula φ[t/y] is ....∃.x.(.x.=.x.+.1.)...{\displaystyle \exists x(x=x+1)}.., which will be false in many interpretations. The problem is that the free variable x of t  became bound during the substitution. The intended replacement can be obtained by renaming the bound variable x of φ to something else, say z, so that the formula after substitution is ....∃.z.(.z
The intended replacement can be obtained by renaming the bound variable x of φ to something else, say z , so that the formula after substitution is ....∃.z.(.z.=.x.+.1.)...{\displaystyle \exists z(z=x+1)}.., which is again logically valid.
The substitution rule demonstrates several common aspects of rules of inference.
It is entirely syntactical ; one can tell whether it was correctly applied without appeal to any interpretation.
It has (syntactically defined) limitations on when it can be applied , which must be respected to preserve the correctness of derivations.
Moreover, as is often the case, these limitations are necessary because of interactions between free and bound variables that occur during syntactic manipulations of the formulas involved in the inference rule.
A deduction in a Hilbert-style deductive system is a list of formulas, each of which is a logical axiom , a hypothesis that has been assumed for the derivation at hand, or follows from previous formulas via a rule of inference.
A deduction in a Hilbert-style deductive system is a list of formulas, each of which is a logical axiom, a hypothesis that has been assumed for the derivation at hand, or follows from previous formulas via a rule of inference .
The logical axioms consist of several axiom schemas of logically valid formulas ; these encompass a significant amount of propositional logic.
The rules of inference enable the manipulation of quantifiers. Typical Hilbert-style systems have a small number of rules of inference, along with several infinite schemas of logical axioms.
Typical Hilbert-style systems have a small number of rules of inference, along with several infinite schemas of logical axioms. It is common to have only modus ponens and universal generalization as rules of inference.
First-order logic is a collection of formal systems used in mathematics, philosophy, linguistics, and computer science.
It is also known as first-order predicate calculus , the lower predicate calculus, quantification theory, and predicate logic.
First-order logic uses quantified variables over (non-logical) objects .
 It allows the use of sentences that contain variables , so that rather than propositions such as Socrates is a man one can have expressions in the form X is a man where X is a variable.
It is also known as first-order predicate calculus, the lower predicate calculus, quantification theory , and predicate logic.
First-order logic uses quantified variables over (non-logical) objects.
First-order logic is a collection of formal systems used in mathematics, philosophy, linguistics, and computer science.
It is also known as first-order predicate calculus, the lower predicate calculus , quantification theory, and predicate logic.
It is also known as first-order predicate calculus, the lower predicate calculus, quantification theory, and predicate logic .
This distinguishes it from propositional logic, which does not use quantifiers .
It is also known as first-order predicate calculus, the lower predicate calculus, quantification theory , and predicate logic.
This distinguishes it from propositional logic , which does not use quantifiers.
First-order logic uses quantified variables over (non-logical) objects.
First-order logic is a collection of formal systems used in mathematics, philosophy, linguistics ,
First-order logic uses quantified variables over (non-logical) objects.
First-order logic is a collection of formal systems used in mathematics, philosophy, linguistics, and computer science.
First-order logic is a collection of formal systems used in mathematics, philosophy, linguistics, and computer science .
It is also known as first-order predicate calculus , the lower predicate calculus, quantification theory, and predicate logic.
 It allows the use of sentences that contain variables , so that rather than propositions such as Socrates is a man one can have expressions in the form X is a man where X is a variable.
This distinguishes it from propositional logic, which does not use quantifiers .
Some formulas imply others, i.e. all matrices satisfying the antecedent ( LHS ) also satisfy the conclusion (RHS) of the implication — e.g. formula 3 implies formula 1, i.e.: each matrix fulfilling formula 3 also fulfills formula 1, but not vice versa (see the Hasse diagram for this ordering relation).
Some formulas imply others, i.e. all matrices satisfying the antecedent (LHS) also satisfy the conclusion ( RHS ) of the implication — e.g. formula 3 implies formula 1, i.e.: each matrix fulfilling formula 3 also fulfills formula 1, but not vice versa (see the Hasse diagram for this ordering relation).
In contrast, only some matrices, which satisfy formula 2, happen to satisfy also formula 5 , whereas others, also satisfying formula 2, do not; therefore formula 5 is not a logical consequence of formula 2.
In contrast, only some matrices, which satisfy formula 2, happen to satisfy also formula 5, whereas others, also satisfying formula 2, do not; therefore formula 5 is not a logical consequence of formula 2 .
An interpretation of a first-order language assigns a denotation to all non-logical constants in that language .
It also determines a domain of discourse that specifies the range of the quantifiers .
The study of the interpretations of formal languages is called formal semantics .
What follows is a description of the standard or Tarskian semantics for first-order logic.
The interpretation of an n-ary predicate symbol is a set of n-tuples of elements of the domain of discourse .
This means that, given an interpretation, a predicate symbol, and n elements of the domain of discourse , one can tell whether the predicate is true of those elements according to the given interpretation.
For example, an interpretation I(P) of a binary predicate symbol P may be the set of pairs of integers such that the first one is less than the second.
According to this interpretation, the predicate P would be true if its first argument is less than the second.
There is a second common approach to defining truth values that does not rely on variable assignment functions .
One now defines truth for quantified formulas syntactically , as follows:
The interpretation is extended so that each new constant symbol is assigned to its corresponding element of the domain .
Instead, given an interpretation M, one first adds to the signature a collection of constant symbols , one for each element of the domain of discourse in M; say that for each d in the domain the constant symbol cd is fixed.
Satisfiability of formulas with free variables is more complicated, because an interpretation on its own does not determine the truth value of such a formula .
The most common convention is that a formula with free variables is said to be satisfied by an interpretation if the formula remains true regardless which individuals from the domain of discourse are assigned to its free variables.
The most common convention is that a formula with free variables is said to be satisfied by an interpretation if the formula remains true regardless which individuals from the domain of discourse are assigned to its free variables .
This has the same effect as saying that a formula is satisfied if and only if its universal closure is satisfied.
Infinitary logic generalizes first-order logic to allow formulas of infinite length.
The most common way in which formulas can become infinite is through infinite conjunctions and disjunctions .
However, it is also possible to admit generalized signatures in which function and relation symbols are allowed to have infinite arities, or in which quantifiers can bind infinitely many variables.
Because an infinite formula cannot be represented by a finite string, it is necessary to choose some other representation of formulas; the usual representation in this context is a tree .
Thus formulas are, essentially, identified with their parse trees , rather than with the strings being parsed.
The set of free variables in a formula of Lκω can have any cardinality strictly less than κ, yet only finitely many of them can be in the scope of any quantifier when a formula appears as a subformula of another.
In other infinitary logics , a subformula may be in the scope of infinitely many quantifiers.
The set of free variables in a formula of Lκω can have any cardinality strictly less than κ, yet only finitely many of them can be in the scope of any quantifier when a formula appears as a subformula of another.
For example, in Lκ∞ , a single universal or existential quantifier may bind arbitrarily many variables simultaneously.
Similarly, the logic Lκλ permits simultaneous quantification over fewer than λ variables, as well as conjunctions and disjunctions of size less than κ.
Unlike first-order logic , for which only one semantics is studied, there are several possible semantics for second-order logic.
Unlike first-order logic, for which only one semantics is studied, there are several possible semantics for second-order logic.
The combination of additional quantifiers and the full semantics for these quantifiers makes higher-order logic stronger than first-order logic.
The most commonly employed semantics for second-order and higher-order logic is known as full semantics .
In particular, the (semantic) logical consequence relation for second-order and higher-order logic is not semidecidable; there is no effective deduction system for second-order logic that is sound and complete under full semantics.
However, the compactness theorem can be used to show that connected graphs are not an elementary class in first-order logic, and there is no formula φ(x,y) of first-order logic, in the logic of graphs, that expresses the idea that there is a path from x to y. Connectedness can be expressed in second-order logic , however, but not with only existential set quantifiers, as .....Σ..1...1.....{\displaystyle \Sigma _{1}^{1}}.. also enjoys compactness.
For example, in computer science, many situations can be modeled as a directed graph of states ( nodes ) and connections (directed edges).
There are also more subtle limitations of first-order logic that are implied by the compactness theorem .
However, the compactness theorem can be used to show that connected graphs are not an elementary class in first-order logic, and there is no formula φ(x,y) of first-order logic, in the logic of graphs, that expresses the idea that there is a path from x to y. Connectedness can be expressed in second-order logic, however, but not with only existential set quantifiers, as .....Σ..1...1.....{\displaystyle \Sigma _{1}^{1}}.. also enjoys compactness.
For example, in computer science, many situations can be modeled as a directed graph of states (nodes) and connections ( directed edges )
There are also more subtle limitations of first-order logic that are implied by the compactness theorem .
Connectedness can be expressed in second-order logic, however, but not with only existential set quantifiers, as .....Σ..1...1.....{\displaystyle \Sigma _{1}^{1}}.. also enjoys compactness.
There are also more subtle limitations of first-order logic that are implied by the compactness theorem.
For example, in computer science, many situations can be modeled as a directed graph of states ( nodes ) and connections (directed edges).
For example, in computer science, many situations can be modeled as a directed graph of states (nodes) and connections ( directed edges )
 Validating such a system may require showing that no " bad " state can be reached from any "good" state.
However, the compactness theorem can be used to show that connected graphs are not an elementary class in first-order logic, and there is no formula φ(x,y) of first-order logic, in the logic of graphs, that expresses the idea that there is a path from x to y. Connectedness can be expressed in second-order logic, however, but not with only existential set quantifiers, as .....Σ..1...1.....{\displaystyle \Sigma _{1}^{1}}.. also enjoys compactness.
However, the compactness theorem can be used to show that connected graphs are not an elementary class in first-order logic, and there is no formula φ(x,y) of first-order logic, in the logic of graphs, that expresses the idea that there is a path from x to y. Connectedness can be expressed in second -order logic, however, but not with only existential set quantifiers, as .....Σ..1...1.....{\displaystyle \Sigma _{1}^{1}}.. also enjoys compactness.
Second-order logic with full semantics is more expressive than first-order logic.
For example, it is possible to create axiom systems in second-order logic that uniquely characterize the natural numbers and the real line.
The cost of this expressiveness is that second-order and higher-order logics have fewer attractive metalogical properties than first-order logic.
For example, the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem and compactness theorem of first-order logic become false when generalized to higher-order logics with full semantics.
For example, the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem and compactness theorem of first-order logic become false when generalized to higher-order logics with full semantics.
Unlike propositional logic, first-order logic is undecidable (although semidecidable ), provided that the language has at least one predicate of arity at least 2 (other than equality).
This result was established independently by Alonzo Church and Alan Turing in 1936 and 1937 , respectively, giving a negative answer to the Entscheidungsproblem posed by David Hilbert in 1928.
This result was established independently by Alonzo Church and Alan Turing in 1936 and 1937, respectively, giving a negative answer to the Entscheidungsproblem posed by David Hilbert in 1928.
This result was established independently by Alonzo Church and Alan Turing in 1936 and 1937, respectively, giving a negative answer to the Entscheidungsproblem posed by David Hilbert in 1928.
This result was established independently by Alonzo Church and Alan Turing in 1936 and 1937, respectively, giving a negative answer to the Entscheidungsproblem posed by David Hilbert in 1928.
This result was established independently by Alonzo Church and Alan Turing in 1936 and 1937 , respectively, giving a negative answer to the Entscheidungsproblem posed by David Hilbert in 1928.
This result was established independently by Alonzo Church and Alan Turing in 1936 and 1937, respectively, giving a negative answer to the Entscheidungsproblem posed by David Hilbert in 1928.
Their proofs demonstrate a connection between the unsolvability of the decision problem for first-order logic and the unsolvability of the halting problem.
This result was established independently by Alonzo Church and Alan Turing in 1936 and 1937, respectively, giving a negative answer to the Entscheidungsproblem posed by David Hilbert in 1928 .
This result was established independently by Alonzo Church and Alan Turing in 1936 and 1937, respectively, giving a negative answer to the Entscheidungsproblem posed by David Hilbert in 1928.
Automated theorem proving refers to the development of computer programs that search and find derivations (formal proofs) of mathematical theorems.
Automated theorem proving refers to the development of computer programs that search and find derivations ( formal proofs )
Finding derivations is a difficult task because the search space can be very large; an exhaustive search of every possible derivation is theoretically possible but computationally infeasible for many systems of interest in mathematics.
Finding derivations is a difficult task because the search space can be very large; an exhaustive search of every possible derivation is theoretically possible but computationally infeasible for many systems of interest in mathematics.
Thus complicated heuristic functions are developed to attempt to find a derivation in less time than a blind search.
Some proof verifiers, such as Metamath , insist on having a complete derivation as input.
 Others, such as Mizar and Isabelle , take a well-formatted proof sketch (which may still be very long and detailed) and fill in the missing pieces by doing simple proof searches or applying known decision procedures: the resulting derivation is then verified by a small, core "kernel".
 Others, such as Mizar and Isabelle, take a well-formatted proof sketch (which may still be very long and detailed) and fill in the missing pieces by doing simple proof searches or applying known decision procedures: the resulting derivation is then verified by a small, core "kernel".
 Others, such as Mizar and Isabelle, take a well-formatted proof sketch (which may still be very long and detailed) and fill in the missing pieces by doing simple proof searches or applying known decision procedures: the resulting derivation is then verified by a small, core "kernel". Many such systems are primarily intended for interactive use by human mathematicians: these are known as proof assistants.
Because a full derivation of any nontrivial result in a first-order deductive system will be extremely long for a human to write, results are often formalized as a series of lemmas , for which derivations can be constructed separately.
The Löwenheim–Skolem theorem shows that if a first-order theory has any infinite model, then it has infinite models of every cardinality.
 Many extensions of first-order logic, including infinitary logics and higher-order logics , are more expressive in the sense that they do permit categorical axiomatizations of the natural numbers or real numbers.
In particular, no first-order theory with an infinite model can be categorical .
This expressiveness comes at a metalogical cost, however: by Lindström's theorem , the compactness theorem and the downward Löwenheim–Skolem theorem cannot hold in any logic stronger than first-order.
The Löwenheim–Skolem theorem shows that if a first-order theory has any infinite model, then it has infinite models of every cardinality.
The Löwenheim–Skolem theorem shows that if a first-order theory has any infinite model, then it has infinite models of every cardinality.
In particular, no first-order theory with an infinite model can be categorical .
This expressiveness comes at a metalogical cost, however: by Lindström's theorem, the compactness theorem and the downward Löwenheim–Skolem theorem cannot hold in any logic stronger than first-order.
The Löwenheim–Skolem theorem shows that if a first-order theory has any infinite model, then it has infinite models of every cardinality.
Restrictions such as these are useful as a technique to reduce the number of inference rules or axiom schemas in deductive systems, which leads to shorter proofs of metalogical results.
There is thus a trade-off between the ease of working within the formal system and the ease of proving results about the formal system.
Similarly, derivations in the limited systems may be longer than derivations in systems that include additional connectives.
Restrictions such as these are useful as a technique to reduce the number of inference rules or axiom schemas in deductive systems, which leads to shorter proofs of metalogical results .
Restrictions such as these are useful as a technique to reduce the number of inference rules or axiom schemas in deductive systems, which leads to shorter proofs of metalogical results.
Restrictions such as these are useful as a technique to reduce the number of inference rules or axiom schemas in deductive systems, which leads to shorter proofs of metalogical results.
The cost of the restrictions is that it becomes more difficult to express natural-language statements in the formal system at hand, because the logical connectives used in the natural language statements must be replaced by their (longer) definitions in terms of the restricted collection of logical connectives.
Restrictions such as these are useful as a technique to reduce the number of inference rules or axiom schemas in deductive systems, which leads to shorter proofs of metalogical results.
Similarly, derivations in the limited systems may be longer than derivations in systems that include additional connectives.
There are many deductive systems for first-order logic which are both sound (all provable statements are true in all models) and complete (all statements which are true in all models are provable).
There are many deductive systems for first-order logic which are both sound (all provable statements are true in all models) and complete (all statements which are true in all models are provable).
There are many deductive systems for first-order logic which are both sound (all provable statements are true in all models) and complete (all statements which are true in all models are provable).
Although the logical consequence relation is only semidecidable , much progress has been made in automated theorem proving in first-order logic.
Although the logical consequence relation is only semidecidable, much progress has been made in automated theorem proving in first-order logic.
There are many deductive systems for first-order logic which are both sound (all provable statements are true in all models ) and complete (all statements which are true in all models are provable).
There are many deductive systems for first-order logic which are both sound (all provable statements are true in all models) and complete (all statements which are true in all models are provable). Although the logical consequence relation is only semidecidable, much progress has been made in automated theorem proving in first-order logic.
Although the logical consequence relation is only semidecidable , much progress has been made in automated theorem proving in first-order logic.
First-order logic also satisfies several metalogical theorems that make it amenable to analysis in proof theory, such as the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem and the compactness theorem.
Although the logical consequence relation is only semidecidable, much progress has been made in automated theorem proving in first-order logic.
. No first-order theory , however, has the strength to uniquely describe  a structure with an infinite domain, such as the natural numbers or the real line.
First-order logic is the standard for the formalization of mathematics into axioms and is studied in the foundations of mathematics.
.Peano arithmetic and Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory are axiomatizations of number theory and set theory, respectively, into first-order logic.
Axioms systems that do fully describe these two structures (that is, categorical axiom systems) can be obtained in stronger logics such as second-order logic .
First-order logic is the standard for the formalization of mathematics into axioms and is studied in the foundations of mathematics .
. Peano arithmetic and Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory are axiomatizations of number theory and set theory, respectively, into first-order logic.
.Peano arithmetic and Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory are axiomatizations of number theory and set theory, respectively, into first-order logic.
Axioms systems that do fully describe these two structures (that is, categorical axiom systems) can be obtained in stronger logics such as second-order logic.
Axioms systems that do fully describe these two structures (that is, categorical axiom systems) can be obtained in stronger logics such as second-order logic.
A predicate takes an entity or entities in the domain of discourse as input and outputs either True or False.
In propositional logic, these sentences are viewed as being unrelated and might be denoted , for example, by variables such as p and q.
A predicate takes an entity or entities in the domain of discourse as input and outputs either True or False. Consider the two sentences "Socrates is a philosopher" and "Plato is a philosopher".
In propositional logic, these sentences are viewed as being unrelated and might be denoted, for example, by variables such as p and q .
The use of predicates, such as "is a philosopher" in this example, distinguishes first-order logic from propositional logic. [clarification needed]
A predicate takes an entity or entities in the domain of discourse as input and outputs either True or False. Consider the two sentences "Socrates is a philosopher" and "Plato is a philosopher".
In propositional logic, these sentences are viewed as being unrelated and might be denoted, for example, by variables such as p and q.
An interpretation (or model) of a first-order formula specifies what each predicate means and the entities that can instantiate the variables.
An interpretation (or model) of a first-order formula specifies what each predicate means and the entities that can instantiate the variables.
These entities form the domain of discourse or universe , which is usually required to be a nonempty set.
These entities form the domain of discourse or universe, which is usually required to be a nonempty set. For example, in interpretation with the domain of discourse consisting of all human beings and the predicate "is a philosopher" understood as "was the author of the Republic", the sentence "There exists a such that a is a philosopher" is seen as being true, as witnessed by Plato.
An interpretation (or model) of a first-order formula specifies what each predicate means and the entities that can instantiate the variables .
It is also possible to restrict the arities of function symbols and predicate symbols , in sufficiently expressive theories.
One can in principle dispense entirely with functions of arity greater than 2 and predicates of arity greater than 1 in theories that include a pairing function.
One can in principle dispense entirely with functions of arity greater than 2 and predicates of arity greater than 1 in theories that include a pairing function.
This is a function of arity 2 that takes pairs of elements of the domain and returns an ordered pair containing them.
It is also sufficient to have two predicate symbols of arity 2 that define projection functions from an ordered pair to its components.
When there are only finitely many sorts in a theory, many-sorted first-order logic can be reduced to single-sorted first-order logic.
One introduces into the single-sorted theory a unary predicate symbol for each sort in the many-sorted theory, and adds an axiom saying that these unary predicates partition the domain of discourse.
One introduces into the single-sorted theory a unary predicate symbol for each sort in the many-sorted theory, and adds an axiom saying that these unary predicates partition the domain of discourse.
One introduces into the single-sorted theory a unary predicate symbol for each sort in the many-sorted theory, and adds an axiom saying that these unary predicates partition the domain of discourse .
One introduces into the single-sorted theory a unary predicate symbol for each sort in the many-sorted theory, and adds an axiom saying that these unary predicates partition the domain of discourse.
There are systems weaker than full first -order logic for which the logical consequence relation is decidable.
There are systems weaker than full first -order logic for which the logical consequence relation is decidable.
There are systems weaker than full first-order logic for which the logical consequence relation is decidable.
There are systems weaker than full first-order logic for which the logical consequence relation is decidable.
The Löwenheim–Skolem theorem shows that if a first-order theory of cardinality λ has an infinite model, then it has models of every infinite cardinality greater than or equal to λ.
The Löwenheim–Skolem theorem shows that if a first-order theory of cardinality λ has an infinite model , then it has models of every infinite cardinality greater than or equal to λ.
The Löwenheim–Skolem theorem shows that if a first-order theory of cardinality λ has an infinite model, then it has models of every infinite cardinality greater than or equal to λ .
The Löwenheim–Skolem theorem shows that if a first-order theory of cardinality λ has an infinite model, then it has models of every infinite cardinality greater than or equal to λ.
The Löwenheim–Skolem theorem implies that infinite structures cannot be categorically axiomatized in first-order logic.
Since the real line is infinite, any theory satisfied by the real line is also satisfied by some nonstandard models.
For example, there is no first-order theory whose only model is the real line: any first-order theory with an infinite model also has a model of cardinality larger than the continuum .
When the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem is applied to first-order set theories, the nonintuitive consequences are known as Skolem's paradox .
The compactness theorem states that a set of first -order sentences has a model if and only if every finite subset of it has a model.
The compactness theorem states that a set of first-order sentences has a model if and only if every finite subset of it has a model.
This theorem was proved first by Kurt Gödel as a consequence of the completeness theorem, but many additional proofs have been obtained over time.
It is a central tool in model theory , providing a fundamental method for constructing models.
The compactness theorem states that a set of first-order sentences has a model if and only if every finite subset of it has a model.
With hockey pucks approaching them at speeds of up to 100 mph they must wear equipment with more protection.
Goaltenders wear specialty goalie skates , (these skates are built more for movement side to side rather than forwards and backwards) a jock or jill, large leg pads, (there are size restrictions in certain leagues) blocking glove, catching glove, a chest protector, a goalie mask, and a large jersey.
Goaltenders wear specialty goalie skates, (these skates are built more for movement side to side rather than forwards and backwards) a jock or jill, large leg pads, (there are size restrictions in certain leagues) blocking glove, catching glove, a chest protector, a goalie mask, and a large jersey.
Goaltenders wear specialty goalie skates, (these skates are built more for movement side to side rather than forwards and backwards) a jock or jill, large leg pads , (there are size restrictions in certain leagues) blocking glove, catching glove, a chest protector, a goalie mask, and a large jersey.
Goaltender's equipment has continually become larger and larger leading to fewer goals in each game and many official rule changes .
In addition, they must be rigid and tough to protect the skater's feet from contact with other skaters, sticks, pucks, the boards, and the ice itself .
Blade length, thickness (width), and curvature (rocker/radius (front to back) and radius of hollow (across the blade width) are quite different from speed or figure skates.
Rigidity also improves the overall maneuverability of the skate .
Most skate's width are about an 1/8 of an inch thick .
The curve itself has a big impact on its performance.
A deep curve allows for lifting the puck easier while a shallow curve allows for easier backhand shots .
A deep curve allows for lifting the puck easier while a shallow curve allows for easier backhand shots.
The ice hockey stick consists of a long, relatively wide, and slightly curved flat blade , attached to a shaft.
Typically, a less flexible stick is meant for a stronger player since the player is looking for the right balanced flex that allows the stick to flex easily while still having a strong "whip-back" which sends the puck flying at high speeds.
Ice hockey is a full contact sport and carries a high risk of injury.
Women's ice hockey players can have contact but are not allowed to body check .
Players are moving at speeds around approximately 20 – 30 mph and quite a bit of the game revolves around the physical contact between the players.
Some common injuries are concussions, broken bones, hyperextensions, and muscle strains .
Players are moving at speeds around approximately 20 – 30 mph and quite a bit of the game revolves around the physical contact between the players.
According to the Hughston Health Alert, " Lacerations to the head, scalp, and face are the most frequent types of injury [in hockey]."[citation needed] Even a shallow cut to the head results in a loss of a large amount of blood.
Not only are lacerations common, "it is estimated that direct trauma accounts for 80% of all [hockey] injuries.
Due to the danger of delivering a check from behind , many leagues, including the NHL have made this a major and game misconduct penalty (called "boarding").
Another type of check that accounts for many of the player-to-player contact concussions is a check to the head resulting in a misconduct penalty (called "head contact").
Another type of check that accounts for many of the player-to-player contact concussion s is a check to the head resulting in a misconduct penalty (called "head contact").
An important defensive tactic is checking—attempting to take the puck from an opponent or to remove the opponent from play.
An important defensive tactic is checking— attempting to take the puck from an opponent or to remove the opponent from play .
Stick checking, sweep checking, and poke checking are legal uses of the stick to obtain possession of the puck.
Body checking is using one's shoulder or hip to strike an opponent who has the puck or who is the last to have touched it (the last person to have touched the puck is still legally "in possession" of it, although a penalty is generally called if he is checked more than two seconds after his last touch).
Often the term checking is used to refer to body checking , with its true definition generally only propagated among fans of the game.
NHL rules instated for the 2006 season redefined the offside rule to make the two-line pass legal; a player may pass the puck from behind his own blue line, past both that blue line and the centre red line, to a player on the near side of the opponents' blue line.
Offensive tactics are designed ultimately to score a goal by taking a shot. When a player purposely directs the puck towards the opponent's goal, he or she is said to "shoot" the puck.
When a player purposely directs the puck towards the opponent's goal, he or she is said to " shoot " the puck.
Offensive tactics include improving a team's position on the ice by advancing the puck out of one's zone towards the opponent's zone, progressively by gaining lines, first your own blue line, then the red line and finally the opponent's blue line.
A deflection is a shot that redirects a shot or a pass towards the goal from another player , by allowing the puck to strike the stick and carom towards the goal.
A one-timer is a shot struck directly off a pass, without receiving the pass and shooting in two separate actions.
Headmanning the puck, also known as  breaking out, is the tactic of rapidly passing to the player farthest down the ice.
Headmanning the puck, also known as  breaking out, is the tactic of rapidly passing to the player farthest down the ice.
Loafing , also known as cherry-picking, is when a player, usually a forward, skates behind an attacking team, instead of playing defense, in an attempt to create an easy scoring chance.
Forechecking is the act of attacking the opposition in their defensive zone .
shooting the puck into the offensive zone and then chasing after it ).
Each team will use their own unique system but the main ones are: 2–1–2, 1–2–2, and 1–4 .
The 1–4 is the most defensive forecheck system, referred to as the neutral zone trap, where one forward will apply pressure to the puck carrier around the oppositions' blueline and the other 4 players stand basically in a line by their blueline in hopes the opposition will skate into one of them.
The 2–1–2 is the most basic forecheck system where two forwards will go in deep and pressure the opposition's defencemen, the third forward stays high and the two defencemen stay at the blueline.
Cycling moves the puck along the boards in the offensive zone to create a scoring chance by making defenders tired or moving them out of position.
Cycling moves the puck along the boards in the offensive zone to create a scoring chance by making defenders tired or moving them out of position.
Pinching is when a defencemen pressures the opposition's winger in the offensive zone when they are breaking out, attempting to stop their attack and keep the puck in the offensive zone.
A saucer pass is a pass used when an opposition's stick or body is in the passing lane.
British soldiers and immigrants to Canada and the United States brought their stick-and-ball games with them and played them on the ice and snow of winter.
In 1825, John Franklin wrote "The game of hockey played on the ice was the morning sport" on Great Bear Lake during one of his Arctic expeditions.
A mid-1830s watercolour portrays New Brunswick lieutenant governor Archibald Campbell and his family with British soldiers on skates playing a stick-on-ice sport.
British soldiers and immigrants to Canada and the United States brought their stick-and-ball games with them and played them on the ice and snow of winter.
A mid-1830s watercolour portrays New Brunswick lieutenant governor Archibald Campbell and his family with British soldiers on skates playing a stick-on-ice sport.
Early 19th-century paintings depict shinney (or "shinny"), an early form of hockey with no standard rules which was played in Nova Scotia.[citation needed] Many of these early games absorbed the physical aggression of what the Mi'kmaq in Nova Scotia called dehuntshigwa'es (lacrosse).
Early 19th-century paintings depict shinney (or "shinny"), an early form of hockey with no standard rules which was played in Nova Scotia.[citation needed] Many of these early games absorbed the physical aggression of what the Mi'kmaq in Nova Scotia called dehuntshigwa'es (lacrosse).
Shinney was played on the St. Lawrence River at Montreal and Quebec City, and in Kingston, Ontario and Ottawa , Ontario.
Shinney was played on the St. Lawrence River at Montreal and Quebec City, and in Kingston, Ontario and Ottawa, Ontario.
Early 19th-century paintings depict shinney (or "shinny"), an early form of hockey with no standard rules which was played in Nova Scotia.[citation needed] Many of these early games absorbed the physical aggression of what the Mi'kmaq in Nova Scotia called dehuntshigwa'es (lacrosse).
This has been interpreted by some historians from Windsor, Nova Scotia as reminiscence of the days when the author was a student at King's College School in that town in 1810 and earlier.
Thomas Chandler Haliburton, in The Attache: Second Series (published in 1844 ) imagined a dialogue, between two of the novel's characters, which mentions playing "hurly on the long pond on the ice".
whose chapter XI was titled "New Improvements on the Game of Hockey".
However, several references have been found to hurling and shinty being played on the ice long before the earliest references from both Windsor and Dartmouth/Halifax, and the word "hockey" was used to designate a stick-and-ball game at least as far back as 1773 , as it was mentioned in the book Juvenile Sports and Pastimes, to Which Are Prefixed, Memoirs of the Author: Including a New Mode of Infant Education by Richard Johnson (Pseud.
This has been interpreted by some historians from Windsor, Nova Scotia as reminiscence of the days when the author was a student at King's College School in that town in 1810 and earlier.
On March 3, 1875 , the first organized indoor game was played at Montreal's Victoria Skating Rink between two nine-player teams, including James Creighton and several McGill University students.
On March 3, 1875, the first organized indoor game was played at Montreal's Victoria Skating Rink between two nine-player teams, including James Creighton and several McGill University students.
While the game's origins lie elsewhere, Montreal is at the center of the development of the sport of contemporary ice hockey.
On March 3, 1875, the first organized indoor game was played at Montreal's Victoria Skating Rink between two nine -player teams, including James Creighton and several McGill University students.
The goal posts were 8 feet ( 2.4 m ) apart (today's goals are six feet wide).
In 1876 , the first game played in Montreal was reportedly "conducted under the 'Hockey Association' rules"; the Hockey Association was England's field hockey organization.
In 1877, The Gazette (Montreal) published a list of seven rules, six of which were largely based on six of the Hockey Association's twelve rules, with only minor differences (even the word "ball" was kept); the one added rule explained how disputes should be settled.
In 1880 , the number of players per side was reduced from nine to seven.
In 1877, The Gazette (Montreal) published a list of seven rules, six of which were largely based on six of the Hockey Association's twelve rules, with only minor differences (even the word "ball" was kept); the one added rule explained how disputes should be settled.
In 1876, the first game played in Montreal was reportedly "conducted under the 'Hockey Association' rules"; the Hockey Association was England's field hockey organization.
National teams representing the member federations of the IIHF compete annually in the IIHF Ice Hockey World Championships. Teams are selected from the available players by the individual federations, without restriction on amateur or professional status.
Since it is held in the spring, the tournament coincides with the annual NHL Stanley Cup playoffs and many of the top players are hence not available to participate in the tournament.
For many years, the tournament was an amateur-only tournament, but this restriction was removed, beginning in the 1970s. Players are not paid to play in the tournament, but insurance and expenses are covered from the tournament revenues.
Since it is held in the spring, the tournament coincides with the annual NHL Stanley Cup playoffs and many of the top players are hence not available to participate in the tournament.
Players are not paid to play in the tournament, but insurance and expenses are covered from the tournament revenues.
The 1972 Summit Series and 1974 Summit Series, two series pitting the best Canadian and Soviet players without IIHF restrictions were major successes, and established a rivalry between Canada and the USSR.
In the spirit of best-versus-best without restrictions on amateur or professional status, the series were followed by five Canada Cup tournaments, played in North America.
The United States won in 1996 and Canada won in 2004.
Two NHL versus USSR series were also held: the 1979 Challenge Cup and Rendez-vous '87. The Canada Cup tournament later became the World Cup of Hockey, played in 1996 and 2004.
The United States won in 1996 and Canada won in 2004.
The Memorial Cup, a competition for junior-level ( age 20 and under ) clubs is held annually from a pool of junior championship teams in Canada and the United States.
One of the oldest international ice hockey competition for clubs is the Spengler Cup, held every year in Davos, Switzerland , between Christmas and New Year's Day.
One of the oldest international ice hockey competition for clubs is the Spengler Cup, held every year in Davos, Switzerland, between Christmas and New Year's Day .
Pre-season tournaments include the European Trophy, Tampere Cup and the Pajulahti Cup .
The Memorial Cup, a competition for junior-level (age 20 and under) clubs is held annually from a pool of junior championship teams in Canada and the United States.
After the National Hockey Association decided to disband in 1917 , the result was the creation of the National Hockey League.
After the formation of this new league, the Boston Bruins became the first United States team to join the NHL in 1924, followed by The New York Americans and Pittsburgh Pirates in 1925.
The Pittsburgh Pirates and the New York Americans eventually dropped out of the league, leaving the NHL composed of the famous Original Six teams, the New York Rangers, Boston Bruins, Chicago Blackhawks, Detroit Red Wings, Toronto Maple Leafs, and the Montreal Canadiens.
After the formation of this new league, the Boston Bruins became the first United States team to join the NHL in 1924 , followed by The New York Americans and Pittsburgh Pirates in 1925.
By 1999, the NHL had expanded to 30 teams, and after a realignment in 2013, these teams were divided into two conferences and four divisions.
By 1999, the NHL had expanded to 30 teams, and after a realignment in 2013, these teams were divided into two conferences and four divisions .
In 1967 , the National Hockey League doubled in size to 12 teams, undertaking one of the greatest expansions in professional sports history.
A few years later, in 1972, a new 12 team league, the World Hockey Association (WHA) was formed and due to its ensuing rivalry with the NHL, it caused an escalation in players salaries.
In 1967, the National Hockey League doubled in size to 12 teams, undertaking one of the greatest expansions in professional sports history.
The players did not accept the owners offer, causing the 2004-2005 NHL season to be cancelled or "Locked Out."
NHL Lockouts Further on down the line in 2004, there was turmoil in the NHL between the owners and the players over the rapidly rising payroll costs .
The owners insisted on the players accepting a salary cap that would slow the rising payroll. The players did not accept the owners offer, causing the 2004-2005 NHL season to be cancelled or "Locked Out."
 The same thing happened again during the 2012-2013 regular season, the NHL was locked out for half of the season due to the owners and the NHL Players' Association could not reach a new agreement before the end of the collective bargaining agreement on September 16, 2012.
The players did not accept the owners offer, causing the 2004-2005 NHL season to be cancelled or "Locked Out." After this lockout, the owners ultimately won the battle for a salary cap, and the league resumed play in the 2005-2006 season.
In North America, the American Hockey League (AHL), sometimes referred to as "The A," is the primary developmental professional league for players aspiring to enter the NHL.
It comprises 30 teams from the United States and Canada.
The Southern Professional Hockey League (SPHL) is a developmental minor league in the United States with no NHL affiliations.
The ECHL (called the East Coast Hockey League before the 2003–04 season) is a mid-level minor league in the United States with a few players under contract to NHL or AHL teams .
It comprises 30 teams from the United States and Canada .
Pond hockey is commonly referred to in hockey circles as shinny .
Since 2002 , the World Pond Hockey Championship has been played on Roulston Lake in Plaster Rock, New Brunswick, Canada.
Since 2002, the World Pond Hockey Championship has been played on Roulston Lake in Plaster Rock, New Brunswick, Canada .
Pond hockey is a form of ice hockey played generally as pick-up hockey on lakes, ponds and artificial outdoor rinks during the winter .
Its rules differ from traditional hockey because there is no hitting and very little shooting, placing a greater emphasis on skating, puckhandling and passing abilities .
Guinness World Records, using a count of ticketed fans who actually entered the stadium instead of UM's figure of tickets sold, announced a final figure of 104,173 .
A record was set on December 11, 2010, when the University of Michigan 's men's ice hockey team faced cross-state rival Michigan State in an event billed as "The Big Chill at the Big House."
Ultimately, a crowd announced by UM as 113,411 , the largest in the stadium's history (including football), saw the homestanding Wolverines win 5–0.
A record was set on December 11, 2010, when the University of Michigan's men's ice hockey team faced cross-state rival Michigan State in an event billed as " The Big Chill at the Big House ."
When UM stopped sales to the public on May 6, 2010, with plans to reserve remaining tickets for students , over 100,000 tickets had been sold for the event.
In ice hockey, infractions of the rules lead to play stoppages whereby the play is restarted at a face off.
In the simplest case, the offending player is sent to the " penalty box " and their team has to play with one fewer player on the ice for a designated amount of time.
Minor penalties last for two minutes , major penalties last for five minutes, and a double minor penalty is two consecutive penalties of two minutes duration.
Minor penalties last for two minutes, major penalties last for five minutes , and a double minor penalty is two consecutive penalties of two minutes duration.
The team that has been given a penalty is said to be playing " short-handed " while the opposing team is on a "power play."
As of the 2005–2006 season , a minor penalty is also assessed for "diving", where a player embellishes or simulates an offence.
a four-minute double-minor penalty, particularly those that injure the victimized player.
The foul of "boarding" (defined as "check[ing] an opponent in such a manner that causes the opponent to be thrown violently in the boards") is penalized either by a minor or major penalty at the discretion of the referee, based on the violent state of the hit.
A two-minute minor penalty is often charged for lesser infractions such as "tripping", "elbowing", "roughing", "high-sticking", "delay of the game", "too many players on the ice", " boarding ", illegal equipment, "charging" (leaping into an opponent or body-checking him after taking more than two strides), "holding", holding the stick (grabbing an opponent's stick), "interference", "hooking", "slashing", "kneeing", "unsportsmanlike conduct" (arguing a penalty call with referee, extremely vulgar or inappropriate verbal comments), "butt-ending" (striking an opponent with the knob of the stick—a very rare penalty), "spearing", or "cross-checking".
Five-minute major penalties are called for especially violent instances of most minor infractions that result in intentional injury to an opponent, or when a "minor" penalty results in visible injury (such as bleeding) , as well as for fighting.
In the case of two players being assessed five-minute fighting majors , both the players serve five minutes without their team incurring a loss of player (both teams still have a full complement of players on the ice).
However, in the NHL, a team always has at least three skaters on the ice.
The offending player is ejected from the game and must immediately leave the playing surface (he does not sit in the penalty box); meanwhile, if an additional minor or major penalty is assessed, a designated player must serve out of that segment of the penalty in the box (similar to the above-mentioned "two-and-ten").
In some rare cases, a player may receive up to nineteen minutes in penalties for one string of plays.
In this case, both teams will have only four skating players (not counting the goaltender) until one or both penalties expire (if one penalty expires before the other, the opposing team gets a power play for the remainder of the time); this applies regardless of current pending penalties.
A "penalty shot" is awarded to a player when the illegal actions of another player stop a clear scoring opportunity, most commonly when the player is on a "breakaway" .
A penalty shot allows the obstructed player to pick up the puck on the centre red-line and attempt to score on the goalie with no other players on the ice, to compensate for the earlier missed scoring opportunity.
A " penalty shot " is awarded to a player when the illegal actions of another player stop a clear scoring opportunity, most commonly when the player is on a "breakaway".
A penalty shot allows the obstructed player to pick up the puck on the centre red-line and attempt to score on the goalie with no other players on the ice, to compensate for the earlier missed scoring opportunity.
A penalty shot allows the obstructed player to pick up the puck on the centre red-line and attempt to score on the goalie with no other players on the ice, to compensate for the earlier missed scoring opportunity.
An additional rule that has never been a penalty, but was an infraction in the NHL before recent rules changes, is the " two-line offside pass ."
Prior to the 2005–06 NHL season, play was stopped when a pass from inside a team's defending zone crossed the centre line, with a face-off held in the defending zone of the offending team.
Prior to the 2005–06 NHL season, play was stopped when a pass from inside a team's defending zone crossed the centre line , with a face-off held in the defending zone of the offending team.
Now, the centre line is no longer used in the NHL to determine a two-line pass infraction, a change that the IIHF had adopted in 1998 .
The number of teams grew, enough to hold the first "world championship" of ice hockey at Montreal 's annual Winter Carnival in 1883.
The number of teams grew, enough to hold the first "world championship" of ice hockey at Montreal's annual Winter Carnival in 1883 .
The McGill team won the tournament and was awarded the "Carnival Cup."
The McGill team won the tournament and was awarded the " Carnival Cup ."
 In 1886 , the teams competing at the Winter Carnival organized the Amateur Hockey Association of Canada (AHAC), and played a season comprising "challenges" to the existing champion.
In Europe, it is believed that in 1885 the Oxford University Ice Hockey Club was formed to play the first Ice Hockey Varsity Match against traditional rival Cambridge in St. Moritz, Switzerland; however, this is undocumented.
The match was won by the Oxford Dark Blues , 6–0; the first photographs and team lists date from 1895.
The match was won by the Oxford Dark Blues, 6–0 ; the first photographs and team lists date from 1895.
The match was won by the Oxford Dark Blues, 6–0; the first photographs and team lists date from 1895 .
Since 1986, considered the 100th anniversary of the rivalry, teams of the two colleges play for the Carr-Harris Cup .
Players are permitted to "bodycheck " opponents into the boards as a means of stopping progress.
The boards surrounding the ice help keep the puck in play and they can also be used as tools to play the puck .
Markings on the ice indicate the locations for the faceoff and guide the positioning of players.
Play can be stopped if the goal is knocked out of position. Play often proceeds for minutes without interruption.
In 1888, the Governor General of Canada, Lord Stanley of Preston (whose sons and daughter were hockey enthusiasts), first attended the Montreal Winter Carnival tournament and was impressed with the game.
In 1892, realizing that there was no recognition for the best team in Canada (although a number of leagues had championship trophies), he purchased a silver bowl for use as a trophy.
The Dominion Hockey Challenge Cup (which later became known as the Stanley Cup) was first awarded in 1893 to the Montreal Hockey Club, champions of the AHAC; it continues to be awarded annually to the National Hockey League's championship team.
The Dominion Hockey Challenge Cup (which later became known as the Stanley Cup) was first awarded in 1893 to the Montreal Hockey Club , champions of the AHAC; it continues to be awarded annually to the National Hockey League's championship team.
The Dominion Hockey Challenge Cup (which later became known as the Stanley Cup ) was first awarded in 1893 to the Montreal Hockey Club, champions of the AHAC; it continues to be awarded annually to the National Hockey League's championship team.
In the United States, "ice polo", played with a ball rather than a puck, was popular during this period; however, by 1893 Yale University and Johns Hopkins University held their first ice hockey matches.
In the United States, "ice polo", played with a ball rather than a puck, was popular during this period; however, by 1893 Yale University and Johns Hopkins University held their first ice hockey matches.
 American financier Malcolm Greene Chace is credited with being the father of hockey in the United States.
The first collegiate hockey match in the United States was played between Yale University and Johns Hopkins in Baltimore .
In 1896 , the first ice hockey league in the U.S. was formed.
By 1903, a five-team league had been founded.
The Ligue Internationale de Hockey sur Glace was founded in 1908 to govern international competition, and the first European championship was won by Great Britain in 1910.
The Ligue Internationale de Hockey sur Glace was founded in 1908 to govern international competition, and the first European championship was won by Great Britain in 1910.
Many bandy players switched to ice hockey so as to be able to compete in the Olympics.
In the mid-20th century, the Ligue became the International Ice Hockey Federation .
The three major rules of play in ice hockey that limit the movement of the puck: "offside", "icing", and the puck going out of play.
The three major rules of play in ice hockey that limit the movement of the puck: " offside", "icing", and the puck going out of play. A player is "offside" if he enters his opponent's zone before the puck itself.
A player is "offside" if he enters his opponent's zone before the puck itself. Under many situations, a player may not "ice the puck", shoot the puck all the way across both the centre line and the opponent's goal line.
The puck goes "out of play" whenever it goes past the perimeter of the ice rink (onto the player benches, over the "glass," or onto the protective netting above the glass) and a stoppage of play is called by the officials using whistles. It also does not matter if the puck comes back onto the ice surface from those areas as the puck is considered dead once it leaves the perimeter of the rink.
In tournament play, as well as in the NHL playoffs, North Americans favour sudden death overtime , in which the teams continue to play twenty-minute periods until a goal is scored.
Up until the 1999–2000 season regular season NHL games were settled with a single five-minute sudden death period with five players (plus a goalie) per side, with both teams awarded one point in the standings in the event of a tie.
In tournament play, as well as in the NHL playoffs, North Americans favour sudden death overtime, in which the teams continue to play twenty-minute periods until a goal is scored.
With a goal, the winning team would be awarded two points and the losing team none (just as if they had lost in regulation).
From 1999–2000 until 2003–04, the National Hockey League decided ties by playing a single five-minute sudden death overtime period with each team having four players (plus a goalie) per side to "open-up" the game.
In the event of a tie, each team would still receive one point in the standings but in the event of a victory the winning team would be awarded two points in the standings and the losing team one point.
In the event of a tie, each team would still receive one point in the standings but in the event of a victory the winning team would be awarded two points in the standings and the losing team one point.
Starting in the 2015-16 season, the single five-minute sudden death overtime session will consist of three players plus a goalie.
Most of the early indoor ice rinks have been demolished; Montreal's Victoria Rink, built in 1862 , was demolished in 1925.
The Stannus Street Rink in Windsor, Nova Scotia (built in 1897) may be the oldest still in existence; however, it is no longer used for ice hockey.
The Stannus Street Rink in Windsor, Nova Scotia (built in 1897) may be the oldest still in existence; however, it is no longer used for ice hockey.
The Stannus Street Rink in Windsor, Nova Scotia (built in 1897 ) may be the oldest still in existence; however, it is no longer used for ice hockey.
The Aberdeen Pavilion (built in 1898) in Ottawa was used for ice hockey in 1904 and is the oldest existing facility that has hosted Stanley Cup games.
a penalty shootout .
After these six total shots, the team with the most goals is awarded the victory.
If the score is still tied, the shootout then proceeds to a sudden death format .
In the NHL if a game is decided in overtime or by a shootout the winning team is awarded two points in the standings and the losing team is awarded one point.
Ties no longer occur in the NHL .
The oldest indoor ice hockey arena still in use today for ice hockey is Boston's Matthews Arena , which was built in 1910.
It has been modified extensively several times in its history and is used today by Northeastern University for ice hockey and other sports.
It was the original home rink of the Boston Bruins professional team, itself the oldest United States-based team in the NHL, starting play in the league in today's Matthews Arena on December 1, 1924.
Madison Square Garden in New York City, built in 1968, is the oldest continuously-operating arena in the NHL.
Madison Square Garden in New York City, built in 1968 , is the oldest continuously-operating arena in the NHL.
The league joined with teams in Michigan and Ontario to form the first fully professional league— the International Professional Hockey League (IPHL) —in 1904.
By 1902, the Western Pennsylvania Hockey League was the first to employ professionals.
The league joined with teams in Michigan and Ontario to form the first fully professional league—the International Professional Hockey League (IPHL)—in 1904 .
The IPHL, cut off from its largest source of players, disbanded in 1907 .
The league joined with teams in Michigan and Ontario to form the first fully professional league—the International Professional Hockey League (IPHL)—in 1904.
Hockey is an "off-side" game, meaning that forward passes are allowed, unlike in rugby.
Before the 1930s hockey was an on-side game, meaning that only backward passes were allowed .
Before the 1930s hockey was an on-side game, meaning that only backward passes were allowed.
With the arrival of offside rules , the forward pass transformed hockey into a truly team sport, where individual performance diminished in importance relative to team play, which could now be coordinated over the entire surface of the ice as opposed to merely rearward players.
Between the six players on the ice, they are typically divided into three forwards and two defensemen and a goaltender.
A substitution of an entire unit at once is called a line change .
Between the six players on the ice, they are typically divided into three forwards and two defensemen and a goaltender.
Substitutions are permitted at any time during the game , although during a stoppage of play the home team is permitted the final change.
When players are substituted during play, it is called changing on the fly .
Worldwide, there are ice hockey federations in 74 countries.
In North America, the National Hockey League (NHL) is the highest level for men's hockey and the most popular.
The Kontinental Hockey League (KHL) is the highest league in Russia and much of Eastern Europe.
The International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) is the formal governing body for international ice hockey.
A fast-paced, physical sport, ice hockey is most popular in areas of North America (particularly Canada and the northern United States) and northern and western Europe.
Ice hockey is believed to have evolved from simple stick and ball games played in the 18th and 19th century United Kingdom and elsewhere.
The contemporary sport of ice hockey was developed in Canada, most notably in Montreal , where the first indoor hockey game was played on March 3, 1875.
Amateur ice hockey leagues began in the 1880s , and professional ice hockey originated around 1900.
The contemporary sport of ice hockey was developed in Canada, most notably in Montreal, where the first indoor hockey game was played on March 3, 1875 .
The contemporary sport of ice hockey was developed in Canada , most notably in Montreal, where the first indoor hockey game was played on March 3, 1875.
In international competitions, the national teams of six countries ( The "Big Six" ) predominate: Canada, Czech Republic, Finland, Russia, Sweden and the United States.
Teams outside the "Big Six" have won only five medals in either competition since 1953: All 12 Women's Olympic and 36 IIHF World Women's Championships medals have been awarded to one of these six countries, and every gold medal in both competitions has been won by either the Canadian national team or the United States national team.
In the annual Ice Hockey World Championships, 177 of 201 medals have been awarded to the six nations.
the Canadian national team or the United States national team .
Of the 69 medals awarded all-time in men's competition at the Olympics, only six medals were not awarded to one of those countries.
Crowds seem to like fighting in ice hockey and cheer when fighting erupts.
Although fighting is officially prohibited in the rules, it is both a target of criticism and a considerable draw for the sport.
A fight will also break out if one of the team's skilled players gets hit hard or someone gets hit by what the team perceives as a dirty hit.
The amateur game penalizes fisticuffs more harshly, as a player who receives a fighting major is also assessed at least a 10-minute misconduct penalty (NCAA and some Junior leagues) or a game misconduct penalty and suspension (high school and younger, as well as some casual adult leagues).
Crowds seem to like fighting in ice hockey and cheer when fighting erupts.
Although fighting is officially prohibited in the rules, it is both a target of criticism and a considerable draw for the sport.
The amateur game penalizes fisticuffs more harshly, as a player who receives a fighting major is also assessed at least a 10-minute misconduct penalty (NCAA and some Junior leagues) or a game misconduct penalty and suspension (high school and younger, as well as some casual adult leagues).
The amateur game penalizes fisticuffs more harshly, as a player who receives a fighting major is also assessed at least a 10-minute misconduct penalty (NCAA and some Junior leagues) or a game misconduct penalty and suspension (high school and younger, as well as some casual adult leagues).
Crowds seem to like fighting in ice hockey and cheer when fighting erupts.
Crowds seem to like fighting in ice hockey and cheer when fighting erupts.
Its first known mention is from the 1773 book Juvenile Sports and Pastimes, to Which Are Prefixed, Memoirs of the Author: Including a New Mode of Infant Education, by Richard Johnson (Pseud.
The belief that hockey was mentioned in a 1363 proclamation by King Edward III of England is based on modern translations of the proclamation, which was originally in Latin and explicitly forbade the games "Pilam Manualem, Pedivam, & Bacularem: & ad Canibucam & Gallorum Pugnam".
The English historian and biographer John Strype did not use the word "hockey" when he translated the proclamation in 1720.
The belief that hockey was mentioned in a 1363 proclamation by King Edward III of England is based on modern translations of the proclamation, which was originally in Latin and explicitly forbade the games "Pilam Manualem, Pedivam, & Bacularem: & ad Canibucam & Gallorum Pugnam".
Its first known mention is from the 1773 book Juvenile Sports and Pastimes , to Which Are Prefixed, Memoirs of the Author: Including a New Mode of Infant Education, by Richard Johnson (Pseud.
Ice hockey is one of the fastest growing women's sports in the world, with the number of participants increasing 350 percent in the last 10 years.
Ice hockey is one of the fastest growing women's sports in the world, with the number of participants increasing 350 percent in the last 10 years.
In 2011, Canada had 85,827 women players, United States had 65,609, Finland 4,760, Sweden 3,075 and Switzerland 1,172.
While there are not as many organized leagues for women as there are for men, there exist leagues of all levels, including the Canadian Women's Hockey League, Western Women's Hockey League, National Women's Hockey League, Mid-Atlantic Women's Hockey League , and various European leagues; as well as university teams, national and Olympic teams, and recreational teams.
Ice hockey is one of the fastest growing women's sports in the world, with the number of participants increasing 350 percent in the last 10 years.
Ice hockey is one of the fastest growing women 's
Ice hockey is one of the fastest growing women's sports in the world, with the number of participants increasing 350 percent in the last 10 years.
While there are not as many organized leagues for women as there are for men, there exist leagues of all levels, including the Canadian Women's Hockey League , Western Women's Hockey League, National Women's Hockey League, Mid-Atlantic Women's Hockey League, and various European leagues; as well as university teams, national and Olympic teams, and recreational teams.
The IIHF holds a IIHF World Women's Championship tournament annually except in Olympic years.
A tournament in 1902 between Montreal and Trois-Rivieres was billed as the first championship tournament.
A tournament in 1902 between Montreal and Trois-Rivieres was billed as the first championship tournament.
Organizations started to develop in the 1920s , such as the  Ladies Ontario Hockey Association, and later, the Dominion Women's Amateur Hockey Association.
Starting in the 1960s , the game spread to universities.
There are two major women's hockey leagues, the National Women's Hockey League with teams in the Northeastern United States which is a professional league and the Canadian Women's Hockey League with teams in Canada and the United States, which is semi-professional and is developing toward becoming a fully professional league.
In Europe, these games included the Irish game of hurling, the closely related Scottish game of shinty and versions of field hockey (including "bandie ball," played in England).
IJscolf , a game resembling colf on an ice-covered surface, was popular in the Low Countries between the Middle Ages and the Dutch Golden Age.
A similar game ( knattleikr ) had been played for a thousand years or more by the Norse, as documented in the Icelandic sagas.
It was played with a wooden curved bat (called a colf or kolf ), a wooden or leather ball and two poles (or nearby landmarks), with the objective to hit the chosen point using the least number of strokes.
In Europe, these games included the Irish game of hurling, the closely related Scottish game of shinty and versions of field hockey (including " bandie ball ," played in England).
The United States Hockey League (USHL) welcomed the first female professional hockey player in 1969–70 , when the Marquette Iron Rangers signed Karen Koch.
One woman, Manon Rhéaume, has played in the NHL, as a goaltender for the Tampa Bay Lightning in pre-season games against the St. Louis Blues and the Boston Bruins.
One woman, Manon Rhéaume, has played in the NHL, as a goaltender for the Tampa Bay Lightning in pre-season games against the St. Louis Blues and the Boston Bruins.
The United States Hockey League (USHL) welcomed the first female professional hockey player in 1969–70, when the Marquette Iron Rangers signed Karen Koch .
Several women have competed in North American minor leagues, including Rhéaume, goaltenders Kelly Dyer and Erin Whitten and defenceman Angela Ruggiero.
Ice hockey has been played at the Winter Olympics since 1924 (and was played at the summer games in 1920).
Canada won six of the first seven gold medals to 1952, the exception occurring in 1936 when Great Britain won.
Canada won six of the first seven gold medals to 1952, the exception occurring in 1936 when Great Britain won.
The United States won their first gold medal in 1960.
The 2010 games in Vancouver were the first played in an NHL city since the inclusion of NHL players.
Rules are now more strictly enforced, resulting in more penalties , which in turn provides more protection to the players and facilitates more goals being scored.
The NHL has taken steps to speed up the game of hockey and create a game of finesse, by retreating from the past where illegal hits, fights, and "clutching and grabbing" among players were commonplace.
The governing body for United States amateur hockey has implemented many new rules to reduce the number of stick-on-body occurrences, as well as other detrimental and illegal facets of the game ("zero tolerance").
Rules are now more strictly enforced, resulting in more penalties, which in turn provides more protection to the players and facilitates more goals being scored.
The NHL has taken steps to speed up the game of hockey and create a game of finesse, by retreating from the past where illegal hits, fights, and "clutching and grabbing" among players were commonplace .
Rules are now more strictly enforced, resulting in more penalties , which in turn provides more protection to the players and facilitates more goals being scored.
Rules are now more strictly enforced, resulting in more penalties, which in turn provides more protection to the players and facilitates more goals being scored .
The governing body for United States amateur hockey has implemented many new rules to reduce the number of stick-on-body occurrences, as well as other detrimental and illegal facets of the game (" zero tolerance ").
A delayed penalty call occurs when a penalty offense is committed by the team that does not have possession of the puck.
Because the team on which the penalty was called cannot control the puck without stopping play, it is impossible for them to score a goal .
If a delayed penalty is signaled and the team in possession scores, the penalty is still assessed to the offending player, but not served .
In college games, the penalty is still enforced even if the team in possession scores .
However, it is possible for the controlling team to mishandle the puck into their own net .
A delayed penalty call occurs when a penalty offense is committed by the team that does not have possession of the puck.
Because the team on which the penalty was called cannot control the puck without stopping play, it is impossible for them to score a goal .
In this circumstance the team with possession of the puck is allowed to complete the play ; that is, play continues until a goal is scored, a player on the opposing team gains control of the puck, or the team in possession commits an infraction or penalty of their own.
In 2012 , this rule was changed by the NCAA for college level hockey in the United States.
In college games, the penalty is still enforced even if the team in possession scores .
A typical game of hockey is governed by two to four officials on the ice, charged with enforcing the rules of the game.
There are typically two linesmen who are mainly responsible for calling "offside" and "icing" violations, breaking up fights, and conducting faceoffs , and one or two referees, who call goals and all other penalties.
There are typically two linesmen who are mainly responsible for calling "offside" and "icing" violations, breaking up fights, and conducting faceoffs, and one or two referees, who call goals and all other penalties .
On-ice officials are assisted by off-ice officials who act as goal judges, time keepers, and official scorers .
The most widespread system in use today is the "three-man system," that uses one referee and two linesmen .
With the first being the National Hockey League, a number of leagues have started to implement the "four-official system," where an additional referee is added to aid in the calling of penalties normally difficult to assess by one single referee .
The system is now used in every NHL game, at IIHF World Championships, the Olympics and in many professional and high-level amateur leagues in North America and Europe.
The system is now used in every NHL game, at IIHF World Championships, the Olympics and in many professional and high-level amateur leagues in North America and Europe .
Since ice hockey is a full contact sport in men's hockey, body checks are allowed so injuries are a common occurrence .
This includes a helmet (cage worn if certain age or clear plastic visor can be worn) , shoulder pads, elbow pads, mouth guard, protective gloves, heavily padded shorts (also known as hockey pants) or a girdle, athletic cup (also known as a jock, for males; and jill, for females), shin pads, skates, and (optionally) a neck protector.
This includes a helmet (cage worn if certain age or clear plastic visor can be worn), shoulder pads, elbow pads, mouth guard, protective gloves, heavily padded shorts (also known as hockey pants) or a girdle, athletic cup (also known as a jock, for males; and jill , for females), shin pads, skates, and (optionally) a neck protector.
a neck protector .
Towards the end of the medical program, French medical students are provided with more responsibilities and are required to defend a thesis; however, unlike a PhD thesis , no original research is actually necessary to write an MD thesis.
Towards the end of the medical program, French medical students are provided with more responsibilities and are required to defend a thesis; however, unlike a PhD thesis, no original research is actually necessary to write an MD thesis .
Every new doctor must then proceed to a Diploma of Specialised Studies (Diplôme d'Etudes Spécialisées or DES) to mark their specialty.
Every new doctor must then proceed to a Diploma of Specialised Studies (Diplôme d'Etudes Spécialisées or DES) to mark their specialty.
 Some students may also receive a Diploma of Complementary Specialized Studies (Diplôme d'Etudes Spécialisées Complémentaires or DESC )
A very small number of slots per semester are reserved for selected applicants which already hold a university degree (Zweitstudium) and for medical officer candidates (Sanitätsoffizieranwärter).
A very small number of slots per semester are reserved for selected applicants which already hold a university degree (Zweitstudium) and for medical officer candidates (Sanitätsoffizieranwärter).
A very small number of slots per semester are reserved for selected applicants which already hold a university degree (Zweitstudium) and for medical officer candidates ( Sanitätsoffizieranwärter )
In Germany, admission to medical schools is currently administered jointly by the Stiftung für Hochschulzulassung ( SfH ), a centralized federal organization, and the universities themselves.
In Germany, admission to medical schools is currently administered jointly by the Stiftung für Hochschulzulassung (SfH), a centralized federal organization, and the universities themselves.
Students are required to spend three four -month clerkships, two of them in a hospital (internal medicine and surgery) as well as one elective, which can be one of the other clinical subjects (e. g. family medicine, anesthesiology, neurology, pediatrics, radiology etc.).
The first two years of medical school consist of the so-called pre-clinical classes.
During this time, the students are instructed in the basic sciences (e.g. physics, chemistry, biology, anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, etc.) and must pass a federal medical exam (Erster Abschnitt der ärztlichen Prüfung), administered nationally.
The last year of medical school consists of the so-called "practical year" (Praktisches Jahr, PJ).
The last year of medical school consists of the so-called "practical year" (Praktisches Jahr, PJ).
If physicians wish to open up a doctor's practice, they are required to further complete residency in order to fulfill the federal requirements of becoming Facharzt (specialized in a certain field of medicine such as internal medicine, surgery, pediatrics etc.).
After at least six years of medical school, the students graduate with a final federal medical exam (Zweiter Abschnitt der ärztlichen Prüfung).
Graduates receive their license to practice medicine and the professional title of physician ( Arzt ).
The academic degree Doctor of Medicine ( Dr. med. ) is technically a research doctorate degree, though it is roughly equivalent to a master's degree in Anglo-Saxon countries.
If physicians wish to open up a doctor's practice, they are required to further complete residency in order to fulfill the federal requirements of becoming Facharzt (specialized in a certain field of medicine such as internal medicine, surgery, pediatrics etc.).
Prospective students can apply for medical education directly after finishing the highest level of secondary school, vwo ; previous undergraduate education is not a precondition for admittance.
In the Netherlands, students receive three years of preclinical training, followed by three years of clinical training (co-assistentschappen, or co-schappen) in hospitals.
After 6 years, students graduate as Basisartsen (comparable to Doctors of Medicine).
In the Netherlands, students receive three years of preclinical training, followed by three years of clinical training (co-assistentschappen, or co-schappen) in hospitals.
In the Netherlands, students receive three years of preclinical training, followed by three years of clinical training (co-assistentschappen, or co-schappen) in hospitals .
It is most commonly used in the United States .
Doctor of Medicine (MD or DM), or in Latin: Medicinae Doctor, meaning " teacher of medicine ", is a terminal degree for physicians and surgeons.
In countries that follow the tradition of ancient Scotland , it is a first professional graduate degree awarded upon graduation from medical school.
In countries that follow the tradition of the English, the title of the equivalent medical degree is instead styled as Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery .
Doctor of Medicine ( MD or DM ), or in Latin: Medicinae Doctor, meaning "teacher of medicine", is a terminal degree for physicians and surgeons.
According to Sir John Bagot Glubb, Syed Faride and S. M. Imamuddin, the first medical schools to issue academic degrees and diplomas were the teaching bimaristan (hospitals) of the medieval Islamic world .
The first of these institutions was opened in Baghdad during the time of Harun al-Rashid.
They then appeared in Egypt from 872 and then in Islamic Spain, Persia and the Maghreb thereafter.
They then appeared in Egypt from 872 and then in Islamic Spain, Persia and the Maghreb thereafter.
Physicians and surgeons at these hospital-universities gave lectures on medicine to medical students and then a medical diploma or degree was issued to students who were qualified to be practicing physicians.
The initial medical schools that granted the ( Doctor of Medicine ) degrees were Columbia, Penn, Harvard, Maryland, and McGill.
These first few North American medical schools that were established were (for the most part) founded by physicians and surgeons who had been trained in England and Scotland .
The Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons in New York (which at the time was referred to as King's College of Medicine) was the first American university to grant the MD degree instead of the MB.
University medical education in England culminated with the MB qualification, and in Scotland the MD, until in the mid-19th century the public bodies who regulated medical practice at the time required practitioners in Scotland as well as England to hold the dual Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery degrees (MB BS/MBChB/MB BChir/BM BCh etc.).
North American medical schools switched to the tradition of the ancient universities of Scotland and began granting the MD title rather than the MB beginning in the late 18th century.
Before graduating from a medical school and achieving the Doctor of Medicine degree, most schools require their students to take the United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE) step one and both the clinical knowledge and clinical skills parts of step two.
Following the awarding of the MD, physicians who wish to practice in the United States are required to complete at least one internship year (PGY-1) and pass the USMLE Step 3.
The MD degree is typically earned in four years .
Depending upon the physician's chosen field, residencies and fellowships involve an additional three to eight years of training after obtaining the MD.
Those who wish to further specialize in areas such as cardiology or interventional radiology then complete a fellowship .
MDCM is from the Latin " Medicinae Doctorem et Chirurgiae Magistrum " meaning "doctor of medicine and master of surgery".
MDCM is from the Latin "Medicinae Doctorem et Chirurgiae Magistrum" meaning " doctor of medicine and master of surgery ".
Upon graduation, students enter into a residency phase of training.
Prior to obtaining independent practicing license from a provincial regulatory body, students must complete the Medical Council of Canada Qualifying Examination to obtain the Licentiate of the Medical Council of Canada (LMCC) qualifications.
In Canada, the MD is the basic medical degree required to practice medicine.
Even though the MD and DO are first professional degrees and not doctorates of research (i.e., a PhD), many holders of the MD or DO degree conduct clinical and basic scientific research and publish in peer-reviewed journals during training and after graduation; an academic physician whose work emphasizes basic research is called a physician-scientist.
The National Institutes of Health (NIH) through its Medical Scientist Training Program funds MD-PhD training programs at many universities.
Even though the MD and DO are first professional degrees and not doctorates of research (i.e., a PhD), many holders of the MD or DO degree conduct clinical and basic scientific research and publish in peer-reviewed journals during training and after graduation; an academic physician whose work emphasizes basic research is called a physician-scientist.
Even though the MD and DO are first professional degrees and not doctorates of research (i.e., a PhD), many holders of the MD or DO degree conduct clinical and basic scientific research and publish in peer-reviewed journals during training and after graduation; an academic physician whose work emphasizes basic research is called a physician-scientist .
Some MDs and DOs choose a research career and receive funding from the NIH as well as other sources such as the Howard Hughes Medical Institute .
The entry-level first professional degree in these countries for the practice of medicine is that of Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS, MB, MB BCh BAO, BMBS, MBBChir, or MBChB).
This degree typically requires between four and six years of study and clinical training, and is equivalent to the North American MD degree.
This degree typically requires between four and six years of study and clinical training, and is equivalent to the North American MD degree.
This degree typically requires between four and six years of study and clinical training, and is equivalent to the North American MD degree.
In order to be eligible to apply for an MD degree from a UK or Commonwealth University one must hold either an MBBS, MBChB, or an equivalent US-MD degree and must usually have at least five-years of postgraduate experience.
In order to be eligible to apply for an MD degree from a UK or Commonwealth University one must hold either an MBBS, MBChB, or an equivalent US-MD degree and must usually have at least five-years of postgraduate experience.
In some commonwealth nations these interns are designated as " house officers ".
Therefore, graduates from the MBBS or MBChB degrees do not hold doctor ates; however, physicians holding these degrees are referred to as "doctor" as they are fully licensed as medical practitioners.
The University of Cambridge is proposing to introduce a new degree of MedScD (more akin to the ScD degree) awarded on the basis of a career's contribution to the science or art of medicine, rather than a thesis, for which a candidate may be awarded the MD degree.
At some other universities (especially older institutions, such as Oxford, Dublin, Cambridge and St Andrews), the MD is a higher doctorate (similar to a DSc) awarded upon submission of a portfolio of published work representing a substantial contribution to medical research.
The University of Cambridge is proposing to introduce a new degree of MedScD (more akin to the ScD degree) awarded on the basis of a career's contribution to the science or art of medicine , rather than a thesis, for which a candidate may be awarded the MD degree.
At some other universities (especially older institutions, such as Oxford, Dublin, Cambridge and St Andrews), the MD is a higher doctorate (similar to a DSc) awarded upon submission of a portfolio of published work representing a substantial contribution to medical research .
At the end of first year, an internal ranking examination takes place in each of these universities in order to implement the numerus clausus.
At the end of first year, an internal ranking examination takes place in each of these universities in order to implement the numerus clausus .
First year consists mainly of theoretical classes such as biophysics and biochemistry, anatomy, ethics or histology .
Each student can only try twice. For example, the Université René Descartes welcomes about 2,000 students in first year and only 300 after numerus clausus.
First year consists mainly of theoretical classes such as biophysics and biochemistry, anatomy, ethics or histology.
At present there are a number of medical schools in the Philippines, notable examples include the University of the Philippines College of Medicine , Our Lady of Fatima University, Far Eastern University – Nicanor Reyes Medical Foundation, Saint Louis University International School of Medicine, De La Salle Health Sciences Institute, University of Santo Tomas Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila, UERMMMC College of Medicine, St. Luke's College of Medicine–William H. Quasha Memorial, Cebu Doctors' University, Cebu Institute of Medicine, Mindanao State University College of Medicine, Southwestern University, West Visayas State University in Iloilo City, Davao Medical School Foundation in Davao City, Xavier University – Ateneo de Cagayan, Dr. Jose P. Rizal School of Medicine in Cagayan de Oro, Virgen Milagrosa University Foundation in San Carlos, Pangasinan, and University of Northern Philippines in Vigan.
At present there are a number of medical schools in the Philippines, notable examples include the University of the Philippines College of Medicine, Our Lady of Fatima University , Far Eastern University – Nicanor Reyes Medical Foundation, Saint Louis University International School of Medicine, De La Salle Health Sciences Institute, University of Santo Tomas Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila, UERMMMC College of Medicine, St. Luke's College of Medicine–William H. Quasha Memorial, Cebu Doctors' University, Cebu Institute of Medicine, Mindanao State University College of Medicine, Southwestern University, West Visayas State University in Iloilo City, Davao Medical School Foundation in Davao City, Xavier University – Ateneo de Cagayan, Dr. Jose P. Rizal School of Medicine in Cagayan de Oro, Virgen Milagrosa University Foundation in San Carlos, Pangasinan, and University of Northern Philippines in Vigan.
At present there are a number of medical schools in the Philippines, notable examples include the University of the Philippines College of Medicine, Our Lady of Fatima University, Far Eastern University – Nicanor Reyes Medical Foundation, Saint Louis University International School of Medicine , De La Salle Health Sciences Institute, University of Santo Tomas Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila, UERMMMC College of Medicine, St. Luke's College of Medicine–William H. Quasha Memorial, Cebu Doctors' University, Cebu Institute of Medicine, Mindanao State University College of Medicine, Southwestern University, West Visayas State University in Iloilo City, Davao Medical School Foundation in Davao City, Xavier University – Ateneo de Cagayan, Dr. Jose P. Rizal School of Medicine in Cagayan de Oro, Virgen Milagrosa University Foundation in San Carlos, Pangasinan, and University of Northern Philippines in Vigan.
At present there are a number of medical schools in the Philippines, notable examples include the University of the Philippines College of Medicine, Our Lady of Fatima University, Far Eastern University – Nicanor Reyes Medical Foundation, Saint Louis University International School of Medicine, De La Salle Health Sciences Institute, University of Santo Tomas Faculty of Medicine and Surgery , Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila, UERMMMC College of Medicine, St. Luke's College of Medicine–William H. Quasha Memorial, Cebu Doctors' University, Cebu Institute of Medicine, Mindanao State University College of Medicine, Southwestern University, West Visayas State University in Iloilo City, Davao Medical School Foundation in Davao City, Xavier University – Ateneo de Cagayan, Dr. Jose P. Rizal School of Medicine in Cagayan de Oro, Virgen Milagrosa University Foundation in San Carlos, Pangasinan, and University of Northern Philippines in Vigan.
At present there are a number of medical schools in the Philippines, notable examples include the University of the Philippines College of Medicine, Our Lady of Fatima University, Far Eastern University – Nicanor Reyes Medical Foundation, Saint Louis University International School of Medicine, De La Salle Health Sciences Institute, University of Santo Tomas Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila, UERMMMC College of Medicine , St. Luke's College of Medicine–William H. Quasha Memorial, Cebu Doctors' University, Cebu Institute of Medicine, Mindanao State University College of Medicine, Southwestern University, West Visayas State University in Iloilo City, Davao Medical School Foundation in Davao City, Xavier University – Ateneo de Cagayan, Dr. Jose P. Rizal School of Medicine in Cagayan de Oro, Virgen Milagrosa University Foundation in San Carlos, Pangasinan, and University of Northern Philippines in Vigan.
In 1994 , the Zamboanga Medical School Foundation was founded.
Currently, it is now known as the Ateneo de Zamboanga University School of Medicine .
It is an innovative medical school which patterned its curriculum from the College of Medicine in the University of New Mexico and the University of Calgary in Canada yet, evolving it to be suitable and unique to the Philippine setting.
It is an innovative medical school which patterned its curriculum from the College of Medicine in the University of New Mexico and the University of Calgary in Canada yet, evolving it to be suitable and unique to the Philippine setting.
It is the only medical school in the Philippines offering a 5-year program integrating degrees of Doctor of Medicine and Master of Public Health.
In most institutions, medical education lasts for four years .
Basic subjects are taken up in the first and second years , while clinical sciences are studied in the second and third years.
Basic subjects are taken up in the first and second years, while clinical sciences are studied in the second and third years .
In their fourth year , students rotate in the various hospital departments, spending up to two months each in the fields of internal medicine, surgery, obstetrics and gynecology, and pediatrics, and several weeks in the other specialties.
After PGI , the student is eligible to take the Medical Licensure Examination.
In Sri Lanka, MBBS degree is the degree to be held for one to be licensed as a physicians by the Sri Lanka Medical Council.
MD degree is a higher postgraduate degree and in Sri Lanka awarded by the Postgraduate Institute of Medicine after completion of a postgraduate course and examinations.
In Sri Lanka, MBBS degree is the degree to be held for one to be licensed as a physicians by the Sri Lanka Medical Council.
In Community medicine and Medical Administration, part I examination consists of a theoretical exam while the degree is cofered after completion of a thesis as n PhD. This thesis has to be completed within a period of five years.
After successfully defending the academic thesis, MD degree is conferred to the candidate, The MD degree holder is certified as a Board certified specialist by the respective board of study of the Postgraduate Institute of Medicine after he/she undergoes 2–4 years of local and foreign training depending on the specialty/subspecialty selected.
After the bachelor courses, students are allowed to enter the 'master in medicine' courses , which consist of three years of theoretical and clinical study.
This contrasts with the Dutch approach, in which graduates are literally 'basic doctors' (basisartsen) who have yet to decide on a specialty.
After the bachelor courses, students are allowed to enter the 'master in medicine' courses, which consist of three years of theoretical and clinical study.
After the bachelor courses, students are allowed to enter the 'master in medicine' courses, which consist of three years of theoretical and clinical study .
 The third year is a year full of internships in a wide range of specialities in different clinics .
 The third year is a year full of internships in a wide range of specialities in different clinics .
This contrasts with the Dutch approach, in which graduates are literally 'basic doctors' (basisartsen) who have yet to decide on a specialty.
The seventh, final year serves as a kind of 'pre-specialization' year in which the students are specifically trained in the specialty they wish to pursue after medical school.
In general, the first two master years are very theoretical and teach the students human pathology, diseases and pharmacology.
The seventh, final year serves as a kind of 'pre-specialization' year in which the students are specifically trained in the specialty they wish to pursue after medical school.
In Ayurveda, Bachelor of Ayurveda, Medicine and Surgery B.A.M.S in Unani, Bachelor of Unani Medicine and Surgery BUMS in Sidha, Bachelor of Sidha Medicine and Surgery BSMS are the basic qualification for practicing Ayurveda, Unani,&Sidha.
In Ayurveda, Bachelor of Ayurveda, Medicine and Surgery B.A.M.S in Unani, Bachelor of Unani Medicine and Surgery BUMS in Sidha, Bachelor of Sidha Medicine and Surgery BSMS are the basic qualification for practicing Ayurveda, Unani,&Sidha.
In Ayurveda, Bachelor of Ayurveda, Medicine and Surgery B.A.M.S in Unani, Bachelor of Unani Medicine and Surgery BUMS in Sidha, Bachelor of Sidha Medicine and Surgery BSMS are the basic qualification for practicing Ayurveda, Unani,&Sidha.
The B.A.M.S, B.U.M.S, and B.S.M.S are 6-year degree (including internship) courses accepted by the University Grants Commission (Sri Lanka).
Ayurveda M.D (Ayu) (Ayurveda vachaspati) is a master's degree accepted by University Grants Commission (Sri Lanka), after completion of MPhil can follow PhD level programmes in Sri Lanka.
The medical education in Taiwan is usually 7 years (6-year learning plus 1-year internship) in duration, starting right after high schools.
The medical education in Taiwan is usually 7 years (6-year learning plus 1-year internship) in duration, starting right after high schools.
The first 2 years in the 7-year system is composed of basic sciences and liberal art courses.
.Taiwan’s medical education began in 1897 and is over 100 years old now.
.Taiwan’s medical education began in 1897 and is over 100 years old now.
The Thai medical education is 6 years system, consisting of 1 year in basic-science, 2 years in pre-clinical training, and 3 years for clinical training.
The Thai medical education is 6 years system, consisting of 1 year in basic-science, 2 years in pre-clinical training, and 3 years for clinical training.
The Thai medical education is 6 years system, consisting of 1 year in basic-science, 2 years in pre-clinical training, and 3 years for clinical training.
The Thai medical education is 6 years system, consisting of 1 year in basic-science, 2 years in pre-clinical training, and 3 years for clinical training.
After medical school, newly graduated doctor are under contract to spend a year of internship and 2 years of tenure in rural areas before they are eligible for any other residency positions or specialized training.
In Tunisia, education is free for all Tunisian citizens and for foreigners who have scholarships .
The oldest Medical school is a faculty of the University of Tunis .
 There are four medicine faculties situated in the major cities of Tunis, Sfax, Sousse and Monastir .
Medical school curriculum consists of five years.  The first two years are medical theory, containing all basic sciences related to medicine, and the last three years consists of clinical issues related to all medical specialties.
 There are four medicine faculties situated in the major cities of Tunis, Sfax, Sousse and Monastir.
A second alternate qualification, termed DNB [ Diplomate of National Board ], is considered equivalent to the MD and MS degrees.
The College of Physicians & Surgeons of Bombay, India (Established 1912 ) also awards higher postgraduate degrees in clinical and pre-clinical specialties, called FCPS; it involves three years of study and the successful completion of an examination, which includes both theoretical and practical elements, and a research thesis and a viva.
The College of Physicians & Surgeons of Bombay, India (Established 1912) also awards higher postgraduate degrees in clinical and pre-clinical specialties, called FCPS; it involves three years of study and the successful completion of an examination, which includes both theoretical and practical elements, and a research thesis and a viva.
The College of Physicians & Surgeons of Bombay, India (Established 1912) also awards higher postgraduate degrees in clinical and pre-clinical specialties, called FCPS; it involves three years of study and the successful completion of an examination , which includes both theoretical and practical elements, and a research thesis and a viva.
Till 2007, the Government of India and the Medical Council of India recognised the FCPS qualification - since then, this is being done by State Medical Councils .
After obtaining the first postgraduate degree , that is MD/MS/FCPS/DNB, one can go for further specialisation in medical or surgical fields.
Course has three years of additional training and study and then after passing an examination, both theory and practical, the degree awarded is DM ( Doctor of Medicine ), like DM in Cardiology, Neurology, Nephrology, Gastroenterology, NeuroRadiology, Critical Care, Pulmonology, Hematology, Medical Oncology, Cardioanaesthesia,Clinical Pharmacology and Neuroanaesthesia.
For surgical superspecialities the degree awarded is MCh ( Magister Chirurgiae ), like MCh in Cardiac Thoracic and Vascular Surgery, Neurosurgery, Gastrosurgery, Urology, Plastic Surgery, Pediatric Surgery etc.
 A third alternate qualification is DNB (superspecialties) , offered by National Board of Examinations, like DNB in Cardiology, Neurology, Cardiac Surgery, Neurosurgery.
 A third alternate qualification is DNB (superspecialties), offered by National Board of Examinations , like DNB in Cardiology, Neurology, Cardiac Surgery, Neurosurgery.
In Iran, Medical education begins after high school .
The primary medical degree is completed in 7-7.5 years .
Medical graduates are awarded a certificate in general medicine , called "Professional Doctorate in Medicine" validated by the "Ministry of health and Medical Education of Iran".
Medical graduates are awarded a certificate in general medicine, called "Professional Doctorate in Medicine" validated by the " Ministry of health and Medical Education of Iran ".
All physicians will obtain licence and medical council registration number from the " Medical Council of Iran " before they officially begin to practice.
They all follow the European 6-year model except Bar-Ilan University who has a four-year program similar to the US system.
They all follow the European 6-year model except Bar-Ilan University who has a four-year program similar to the US system.
Israeli students require a high school Baccalaureate average above 100 and psychometric examination grade over 740 .
There are five university medical schools in Israel, including the Technion in Haifa, Ben Gurion University in Be'er Sheva, Tel Aviv University, the Hebrew University in Jerusalem and the Medical school of the Bar-Ilan University in Safed.
The degree of Doctor of Medicine (MD) is legally considered to be equivalent to master's degree due to Israeli Educational System .
In Pakistan, the equivalent degree is MBBS ( Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery ).
The MBBS is awarded as the basic medical qualification after completing five years of study .
Also, the craze of getting an MD is at peak nowadays because of the integrated curriculum .
Upon successful completion, a fellow of the relevant specialty is awarded .
Subsequently, there are three years of clinical internship and courses on medicine surgery and pharmacology.
In Argentina the First Degree of Physician or Physician Diplomate (Título de Médico) is equivalent to the North American M. D. Degree with six years of intensive studies followed by usually three or four years of residency as a major specialty in a particular empiric field, consisting of internships, social services and sporadic research.
In Argentina the First Degree of Physician or Physician Diplomate (Título de Médico) is equivalent to the North American M. D. Degree with six years of intensive studies followed by usually three or four years of residency as a major specialty in a particular empiric field, consisting of internships, social services and sporadic research.
Only by holding a Medical Title can the postgraduate student apply for the Doctor degree through a Doctorate in Medicine program approved by the National Commission for University Evaluation and Accreditation.
Only by holding a Medical Title can the postgraduate student apply for the Doctor degree through a Doctorate in Medicine program approved by the National Commission for University Evaluation and Accreditation .
Only by holding a Medical Title can the postgraduate student apply for the Doctor degree through a Doctorate in Medicine program approved by the National Commission for University Evaluation and Accreditation.
The MBBS course is for five and a half years , and training is obtained in medical disciplines (e.g.: Internal Medicine, Radiology, Pathology, etc.).
After three years of study and the successful completion of an examination, which includes both theoretical and practical elements, in a pre-clinical or clinical subject of a non-surgical nature the candidate receives MD degree, whereas in a pre-clinical or clinical subject of a surgical nature, i.e. anatomy, general surgery, orthopaedics and gynaecology, the candidate receives the equivalent degree Master of Surgery (MS).
The MBBS (Bachelor of Medicine/Bachelor of Surgery) degree represents the first (graduation) level of training required to be licensed as a physicians, and the MS or MD degree is a higher postgraduate degree, representative of specialty training.
After three years of study and the successful completion of an examination, which includes both theoretical and practical elements, in a pre-clinical or clinical subject of a non-surgical nature the candidate receives MD degree, whereas in a pre-clinical or clinical subject of a surgical nature, i.e. anatomy, general surgery, orthopaedics and gynaecology, the candidate receives the equivalent degree Master of Surgery (MS) .
The MBBS (Bachelor of Medicine/Bachelor of Surgery) degree represents the first (graduation) level of training required to be licensed as a physicians, and the MS or MD degree is a higher postgraduate degree, representative of specialty training.
Although the majority of Australian MBBS degrees have been graduate programs since the 1990s, under the previous Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) they remained categorised as Level 7 Bachelor's degrees together with other undergraduate programs.
Although the majority of Australian MBBS degrees have been graduate programs since the 1990s, under the previous Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) they remained categorised as Level 7 Bachelor's degrees together with other undergraduate programs.
Historically, Australian medical schools have followed the British tradition by conferring the degrees of Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS) to its graduates whilst reserving the title of Doctor of Medicine (MD) for their research training degree, analogous to the PhD, or for their honorary doctorates.
Historically, Australian medical schools have followed the British tradition by conferring the degrees of Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS) to its graduates whilst reserving the title of Doctor of Medicine (MD) for their research training degree, analogous to the PhD, or for their honorary doctorates .
its graduates whilst reserving the title of Doctor of Medicine (MD) for their research training degree, analogous to the PhD, or for their honorary doctorates.
The latest version of the AQF includes the new category of Level 9 Master's (Extended) degrees which permits the use of the term 'Doctor' in the styling of the degree title of relevant professional programs.
As a result, various Australian medical schools have replaced their MBBS degrees with the MD to resolve the previous anomalous nomenclature.
The University of Melbourne was the first to introduce the MD in 2011 as a basic medical degree, and has renamed its research degree to Doctor of Medical Science (DMedSc).
The University of Melbourne was the first to introduce the MD in 2011 as a basic medical degree , and has renamed its research degree to Doctor of Medical Science (DMedSc).
The latest version of the AQF includes the new category of Level 9 Master's (Extended) degrees which permits the use of the term 'Doctor' in the styling of the degree title of relevant professional programs.
Although the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development in January 2012 annual point-in-time count found that 633,782 people across the United States were homeless, other counts vary widely.
Although the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development in January 2012 annual point-in-time count found that 633,782 people across the United States were homeless, other counts vary widely.
 Another approximation is from a study done by the National Law Center on Homelessness and Poverty, which states that approximately 3.5 million people, 1.35 million of them children, are likely to experience homelessness in a given year (National Law Center on Homelessness and Poverty, 2007).
 Another approximation is from a study done by the National Law Center on Homelessness and Poverty , which states that approximately 3.5 million people, 1.35 million of them children, are likely to experience homelessness in a given year (National Law Center on Homelessness and Poverty, 2007).
With 2007 as a benchmark, the data from the report showed a 6.8 percent decline in homelessness among individuals, a 3.7 percent decline of homeless families, a 13.1 percent decline of the unsheltered homeless population, and a 19.3 percent decline in persons experiencing chronic homelessness.
Texas, California and Florida have the highest numbers of unaccompanied homeless youth under the age of 18; comprising 58% of the total homeless under 18 youth population
There were an estimated 57,849 homeless veterans estimated in the United States during January 2013; or 12 percent of all homeless adults.
There were an estimated 57,849 homeless veterans estimated in the United States during January 2013; or 12 percent of all homeless adults.
In 2013 that number jumped to one out of 30 children, or 2.5 million .
Just under 8 percent of homeless U.S. veterans are female.
"Los Angeles Mayor Eric Garcetti and seven of the 15 City Council members announced they would declare a state of emergency and try to find $100 million to cure what has become a municipal curse."
 Homelessness in New York City has tripled since January 2000, from approximately 20,000 people using provided nightly shelter services to more than 60,000 in January 2015.
In 2015, homelessness is considered an epidemic in several American cities. " Los Angeles Mayor Eric Garcetti and seven of the 15 City Council members announced they would declare a state of emergency and try to find $100 million to cure what has become a municipal curse."
"Los Angeles Mayor Eric Garcetti and seven of the 15 City Council members announced they would declare a state of emergency and try to find $100 million to cure what has become a municipal curse."
"Los Angeles Mayor Eric Garcetti and seven of the 15 City Council members announced they would declare a state of emergency and try to find $100 million to cure what has become a municipal curse."
During the last decade and more, a transfer of wealth from the poorer classes to the wealthier classes has affected widespread poverty across the country, later exacerbated by the 2008 subprime mortgage crisis.
 Incidents of domestic violence contribute to homelessness among women, who are often denied police protection and legal recourse.
During the last decade and more, a transfer of wealth from the poorer classes to the wealthier classes has affected widespread poverty across the country, later exacerbated by the 2008 subprime mortgage crisis.
Shut down in 2011 by national security agencies and local police forces collaborating with private business, members say they later lost jobs, defaulted on home mortgages, then became homeless.
Since 2007 , the US Department of Housing and Urban Development has issued an Annual Homeless Assessment Report, which revealed the number of individuals and families that were homeless, both sheltered and unsheltered.
Since 2007, the US Department of Housing and Urban Development has issued an Annual Homeless Assessment Report, which revealed the number of individuals and families that were homeless, both sheltered and unsheltered .
Over the past decades, the availability and quality of data on homelessness has improved considerably , due, in part, to initiatives by the US Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), the US Department of Health and Human Services, the US Department of Veterans Affairs, and several nongovernmental organizations working with homeless populations.
Over the past decades, the availability and quality of data on homelessness has improved considerably, due, in part, to initiatives by the US Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), the US Department of Health and Human Services, the US Department of Veterans Affairs, and several nongovernmental organizations working with homeless populations.
According to the Coalition for the Homeless, the homeless population of New York rose to an all-time high in 2011 .
That is an increase of 80% from 2002.
According to the Coalition for the Homeless, the homeless population of New York rose to an all-time high in 2011.
About half of the people who slept in shelter in 2010 returned for housing in 2011.
A reported 113,552 people slept in the city's emergency shelters last year, including over 40,000 children; marking an 8 percent increase from the previous year and a 37 percent increase from 2002.
According to the NYC Department of Homeless Services, 64 percent of those applying for emergency shelter in 2010 were denied.
Several were denied because they were said to have family who could house them when in actuality this might not have been the case.
Applicants may have faced overcrowding, unsafe conditions, or may have had relatives unwilling to house them.
According to Mary Brosnaham, spokeswoman for Coalition for the Homeless, the administration of Mayor Michael Bloomberg employs a deliberate policy of "active deterrence".
Part of the problem lies with long-term joblessness that characterizes the United States' economic crisis.
A family in New York City must earn at least $54,000 to find an affordable home.
According to the Community Service Society, "Two-thirds of poor New Yorkers and over one-third of near poor households—up to twice the poverty level—spend at least half of their incomes on rent…and place millions of low-income New Yorkers at risk of housing hardships and displacement."
According to the Center for an Urban Future about a third of the adult workers in New York City are low-wage earners, making under $11.54 an hour.
In March 2010 , there were protests about the Governor's proposed cut of $65 million in annual funding to the homeless adult services system.
However, the Advantage program itself was consciously advanced by the Bloomberg administration as an alternative to providing long-term affordable housing opportunities for the poor and working class.
In addition, Mayor Bloomberg proposed $37 million in cuts to the city's budget for homeless services this year.
A court has delayed the cut until May 2011 because there was doubt over the legality of cancelling the city's commitment.
The Bloomberg administration announced an immediate halt to the Advantage program, threatening to cast 15,000 families back into the shelters or onto the streets.
Approximately 61% of the homeless population were already living and working in San Francisco when they became homeless, indicating that a majority of people experiencing homelessness did not come to the city for its resources but rather are being priced out of their home.
The city's homeless population has been estimated at 7,000–10,000 people, of which approximately 3,000–5,000 refuse shelter due to the conditions within the shelters including violence, racism, and homophobia and transphobia.
The city spends $200 million a year on homelessness related programs.
In 2010 , a city ordinance was passed to disallow sitting and lying down on public sidewalks for most of the day, from 7 am until 11 pm furthering a "criminalization" strategy for responding to homelessness.
Other organizations like the Coalition On Homelessness fight for increasing affordable and supportive housing in the quickly changing housing landscape of San Francisco.
The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development estimated in 2013 the number of homeless in Washington, D.C. as 6,865, which was a 29 percent increase after 2007.
D.C. ranks eighth regarding total homeless population among other major American cities.
According to the D.C. Department of Human Services, during the winter of 2012 the city spent $2,544,454 on putting homeless families in hotels, and budgeted $3.2 million on hotel beds in 2013.
Since D.C. does not have enough shelter units available, every winter it books hotel rooms in the suburbs with an average cost around $100 for a night.
The news article and video entitled, "SF library offers Social Services to Homeless," speaks about the step of the San Francisco library having a full time social worker at the library to reduce and help homeless patrons.
It mentions that Leah Esguerra , who is a psychiatric social worker, has a usual routine which is done by making her rounds to different homeless patrons and greeting them to see if she could help them.
She also supervises a 12-week vocational program that culminates in gainful employment in the library for the formerly homeless (Knight, 2010).
a drop in inappropriate behavior.
In February 2009, President Obama signed the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, which was part of the President's effort to save or create 3.5 million jobs in the United States to mitigate the effects of the economic recession begun in 2008.
Part of the Act addressed homelessness prevention, in which he allocated an additional $1.5 billion to HUD for the "Homelessness Prevention and Rapid Rehousing Program (HPRP)."
In February 2009 , President Obama signed the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, which was part of the President's effort to save or create 3.5 million jobs in the United States to mitigate the effects of the economic recession begun in 2008.
HPRP grant monies were distributed to localities in the same formula used for Emergency Shelter Grants (ESG) in amounts not to exceed $500,000 and must be used within three years .
In February 2009, President Obama signed the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, which was part of the President's effort to save or create 3.5 million jobs in the United States to mitigate the effects of the economic recession begun in 2008 .
The San Jose University Library became one of the first academic libraries to pay attention to the needs of the homeless and implement changes to better serve this population.
Additional changes implemented included temporary computer passes and generous in-house reading space to counteract the policies in place that may prevent the homeless from obtaining a library card (Collins, 2009).New York Public Library offers services to those homeless residing in shelters.
Collaborations with nonprofit organizations in the area culminated in computer classes being taught, as well as nutrition classes, family literacy programs, and book discussion groups (Collins, 2009).
Collaborations with nonprofit organizations in the area culminated in computer classes being taught, as well as nutrition classes, family literacy programs, and book discussion groups (Collins, 2009).
However, at the close of 2010 HUD reported that many communities had successfully used HPRP funds to assist those in need in their communities, and reported that the program prevented homelessness for nearly 750,000 Americans.
On May 20, 2009, President Obama signed the Homeless Emergency Assistance and Rapid Transition to Housing (HEARTH) Act into Public Law (Public Law 111-22 or "PL 111-22"), reauthorizing HUD's Homeless Assistance programs.
On May 20, 2009, President Obama signed the Homeless Emergency Assistance and Rapid Transition to Housing (HEARTH) Act into Public Law ( Public Law 111-22 or "PL 111-22" ), reauthorizing HUD's Homeless Assistance programs.
On May 20, 2009, President Obama signed the Homeless Emergency Assistance and Rapid Transition to Housing (HEARTH) Act into Public Law (Public Law 111-22 or "PL 111-22"), reauthorizing HUD's Homeless Assistance programs.
The HEARTH act allows for the prevention of homelessness , rapid re-housing, consolidation of housing programs, and new homeless categories.
The United States Interagency Council on Homelessness (USICH),a federal agency contained in the Executive Branch , was established in 1987 as a requirement of the McKinney-Vento Act of 1987.
The United States Interagency Council on Homelessness (USICH),a federal agency contained in the Executive Branch, was established in 1987 as a requirement of the McKinney-Vento Act of 1987.
The United States Interagency Council on Homelessness (USICH),a federal agency contained in the Executive Branch, was established in 19 87 as a requirement of the McKinney-Vento Act of 1987.
Since its revitalization in 2001 as an agency independent from the Executive Office of the President and reauthorization in 2009, USICH serves as the coordinating body of all 19 federal agencies and their programs and initiatives to serve the homeless population.
The United States Interagency Council on Homelessness (USICH),a federal agency contained in the Executive Branch, was established in 1987 as a requirement of the McKinney-Vento Act of 1987.
Opening Doors is a publication of the U.S. Interagency Council on Homelessness, which worked with all Federal agencies and many state and local stakeholders on its creation and vision, setting a ten-year path for the nation on preventing and ending all types of homelessness.
This Plan was presented to the President and Congress in a White House Ceremony on June 22, 2010 .
This Plan was presented to the President and Congress in a White House Ceremony on June 22, 2010.
Opening Doors is a publication of the U.S. Interagency Council on Homelessness, which worked with all Federal agencies and many state and local stakeholders on its creation and vision, setting a ten-year path for the nation on preventing and ending all types of homelessness.
Over the years, the city of Chicago , Illinois has gained a reputation as the city with the most homeless people, rivaling Los Angeles and New York, although no statistical data have backed this up.
Indeed, from statistical data, Chicago has far less homeless per capita than peers New York, and Los Angeles, or other major cities such as Philadelphia, San Francisco, and Boston, among others, with only 5,922 homeless recorded in a one night count taken in 2007.
Over the years, the city of Chicago, Illinois has gained a reputation as the city with the most homeless people, rivaling Los Angeles and New York, although no statistical data have backed this up.
Indeed, from statistical data, Chicago has far less homeless per capita than peers New York, and Los Angeles, or other major cities such as Philadelphia, San Francisco, and Boston, among others, with only 5,922 homeless recorded in a one night count taken in 2007 .
The McKinney-Vento Act paved the way for service providers in the coming years.
It became increasingly apparent that simply providing services to alleviate the symptoms of homelessness (i.e. shelter beds, hot meals, psychiatric counseling, etc.), although needed, were not successful at solving the root causes of homelessness.
However, despite these efforts and the dramatic economic growth marked by this decade, homeless numbers remained stubbornly high .
During the 1990s homeless shelters, soup kitchens, and other supportive services sprouted up in cities and towns across the nation.
Throughout this decade, homeless service providers and the Federal government have been able to reduce chronic homelessness and homelessness among Veterans with targeted efforts and interagency cooperation on initiatives like the HUD-VASH program.
At the close of the decade the trend continued unabated, with the number of individuals in homeless families increasing from 431,541 in 2007 to 535,447 in 2009.
At the close of the decade the trend continued unabated, with the number of individuals in homeless families increasing from 431,541 in 2007 to 535,447 in 2009.
The 2000s, however, saw a new population of those experiencing homelessness: families with children .
Throughout this decade, homeless service providers and the Federal government have been able to reduce chronic homelessness and homelessness among Veterans with targeted efforts and interagency cooperation on initiatives like the HUD-VASH program .
The center takes its name from a homosexual teenager who lived on the streets for much of the 1990s .
The center takes its name from a homosexual teenager who lived on the streets for much of the 1990s .
In 1997, Ali Forney was himself murdered by an attacker who has not yet been identified .
In 2002, activist and youth advocate Carl Siciliano founded the Ali Forney Center—a homeless shelter in New York City that is dedicated specifically to providing aid and shelter to homeless and at-risk LGBTQ youth.
Many communities and states across the country have created these plans and have set up measurable goals and targets for the short- and long-term.
In 2001 , the NAEH along with the U.S. ICH encouraged communities to create and implement state and local strategic plans to prevent and end homelessness, focusing on Housing First initiatives to house the chronically homeless population who have many barriers to stability, a cost-benefit analysis of state- and local-level resources, best practice engagement and service innovations, and prevention.
In 2001, the NAEH along with the U.S. ICH encouraged communities to create and implement state and local strategic plans to prevent and end homelessness, focusing on Housing First initiatives to house the chronically homeless population who have many barriers to stability, a cost-benefit analysis of state- and local-level resources, best practice engagement and service innovations, and prevention.
In 2001, the NAEH along with the U.S. ICH encouraged communities to create and implement state and local strategic plans to prevent and end homelessness, focusing on Housing First initiatives to house the chronically homeless population who have many barriers to stability, a cost-benefit analysis of state- and local-level resources, best practice engagement and service innovations, and prevention.
Various studies and surveys indicate that homeless people have a much higher criminal victimization rate than the non-homeless, but that most incidents never get reported to authorities.
In 2013 there were 109 attacks on homeless people, a 24 per cent increase on the previous year, according to the NCH.
Eighteen people died as a result of the attacks.
In July 2014 three boys 15, 16 and 18 , were arrested and charged with beating to death two homeless men with bricks and a metal pole in Albuquerque.
In July 2014 three boys 15, 16 and 18, were arrested and charged with beating to death two homeless men with bricks and a metal pole in Albuquerque .
There were about 643,000 sheltered and unsheltered homeless persons nationwide in January 2009.
About 1.56 million people, or about 0.5% of the U.S. population, used an emergency shelter or a transitional housing program between October 1, 2008 and September 30, 2009 .
About 1.56 million people, or about 0.5% of the U.S. population, used an emergency shelter or a transitional housing program between October 1, 2008 and September 30, 2009.
Around 44% of homeless people were employed.
Many towns and cities had an area which contained the poor, transients, and afflicted, such as a " skid row ".
Many towns and cities had an area which contained the poor, transients, and afflicted, such as a " skid row ".
Rescue missions offering " soup, soap, and salvation ", a phrase introduced by The Salvation Army, sprang up along the Bowery thoroughfare, including the oldest one, The Bowery Mission.
Rescue missions offering "soup, soap, and salvation", a phrase introduced by The Salvation Army, sprang up along the Bowery thoroughfare, including the oldest one, The Bowery Mission .
The mission was founded in 1879 by the Rev. and Mrs. A.G. Ruliffson.
At the time the Bowery Mission was established it was located at 36 Bowery , a location that in an earlier time in New York City, played a role in the New York City Draft Riots, when the building was used as a saloon.
At the time the Bowery Mission was established it was located at 36 Bowery, a location that in an earlier time in New York City, played a role in the New York City Draft Riots , when the building was used as a saloon.
To cite examples from period newspapers, The New York Tribune's article, "The Bowery Mission, A Sketch of its Career", dated March 14, 1898 opens with "The Bowery Mission was started in 1880 at No.36 Bowery by a number of men who were interested in mission work ."
In The Darkness", declared "The Bowery Evangelical Mission, at No.36 Bowery, was opened yesterday afternoon with a prayer-meeting, at which some 150 persons were present."
The present location of the Bowery Mission at 227–229 Bowery dates to 1909 when an abandoned coffin factory was converted to a mission.
The History of the United States ( 1980–1991 ) illustrates that this was a time when there was economic distress, high unemployment, and was the period when chronic homelessness became a societal problem.
In 1980, federal funds accounted for 22% of big city budgets, but by 1989 the similar aid composed only 6% of urban revenue (part of a larger 60% decrease in federal spending to support local governments).
In 1980, federal funds accounted for 22% of big city budgets, but by 1989 the similar aid composed only 6% of urban revenue (part of a larger 60% decrease in federal spending to support local governments).
The History of the United States (1980–1991) illustrates that this was a time when there was economic distress, high unemployment, and was the period when chronic homelessness became a societal problem.
In 1980, federal funds accounted for 22% of big city budgets, but by 1989 the similar aid composed only 6% of urban revenue (part of a larger 60% decrease in federal spending to support local governments).
An advocacy group claims that Congress halved the budget for public housing and Section 8 (the government's housing voucher subsidization program) and that between the years of 1980 and 1989 HUD's budget authority was reduced from $74 billion to $19 billion.
An advocacy group claims that Congress halved the budget for public housing and Section 8 (the government's housing voucher subsidization program) and that between the years of 1980 and 1989 HUD's budget authority was reduced from $74 billion to $19 billion .
Such alleged changes is claimed to have resulted in an inadequate supply of affordable housing to meet the growing demand of low-income populations.
In 1970 there were 300,000 more low-cost rental units (6.5 million) than low-income renter households (6.2 million).
By 1985, the advocacy group claimed that the number of low-cost units had fallen to 5.6 million, and the number of low-income renter households had grown to 8.9 million , a disparity of 3.3 million units
Human Rights Watch (2010) identified emancipated teenagers in California as a new homeless population.
According to the Stewart B. McKinney Act, 42 U.S.C. § 11301, et seq.
( 1994 ), a person is considered homeless if he or she "lacks a fixed, regular, and adequate nighttime residence and ... has a primary nighttime residency that is: (A) a supervised publicly or privately operated shelter designed to provide temporary living accommodations... (B) an institution that provides a temporary residence for individuals intended to be institutionalized, or (C) a public or private place not designed for, or ordinarily used as, a regular sleeping accommodation for human beings."
According to the Stewart B. McKinney Act, 42 U.S.C. § 11301, et seq. (1994), a person is considered homeless if he or she "lacks a fixed, regular, and adequate nighttime residence and ... has a primary nighttime residency that is: (A) a supervised publicly or privately operated shelter designed to provide temporary living accommodations... (B) an institution that provides a temporary residence for individuals intended to be institutionalized, or (C) a public or private place not designed for, or ordinarily used as, a regular sleeping accommodation for human beings."
Human Rights Watch ( 2010 ) identified emancipated teenagers in California as a new homeless population.
Nearly two-thirds stayed in an emergency shelter or transitional housing program and the other third were living on the street, in an abandoned building, or another place not meant for human habitation (p. 19).
The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development's 5th Annual Homeless Assessment Report to Congress  estimated that 1.56 million people, or one in every 200 Americans, experienced homelessness and found shelter between October 1, 2008 and September 30, 2009 (p. iii).
Nearly two-thirds stayed in an emergency shelter or transitional housing program and the other third were living on the street, in an abandoned building, or another place not meant for human habitation (p. 19).
A typical sheltered homeless person is a single, middle-aged man and a member of a minority group.
The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development's 5th Annual Homeless Assessment Report to Congress  estimated that 1.56 million people, or one in every 200 Americans, experienced homelessness and found shelter between October 1, 2008 and September 30, 2009 (p. iii).
"In 2004 the United States Conference of Mayors... surveyed the mayors of major cities on the extent and causes of urban homelessness and most of the mayors named the lack of affordable housing as a cause of homelessness....
The lowest ranking cause, cited by five mayors, was prisoner reentry .
"In 2004 the United States Conference of Mayors... surveyed the mayors of major cities on the extent and causes of urban homelessness and most of the mayors named the lack of affordable housing as a cause of homelessness....
The next three causes identified by mayors, in rank order, were mental illness or the lack of needed services, substance abuse and lack of needed services, and low-paying jobs.
The next three causes identified by mayors, in rank order, were mental illness or the lack of needed services, substance abuse and lack of needed services, and low-paying jobs .
A 1960 survey by Temple University of Philadelphia's poor neighborhoods found that 75 percent of the homeless were over 45 years old, and 87 percent were white.
In the 1980s there was a sharp rise in the number of homeless families in certain parts of the United States; notably New York City.[citation needed] Most homeless families consist of a single mother and children.
A 1960 survey by Temple University of Philadelphia's poor neighborhoods found that 75 percent of the homeless were over 45 years old, and 87 percent were white.
In the 1980s there was a sharp rise in the number of homeless families in certain parts of the United States; notably New York City.[citation needed] Most homeless families consist of a single mother and children .
A 1960 survey by Temple University of Philadelphia's poor neighborhoods found that 75 percent of the homeless were over 45 years old, and 87 percent were white.
Approximately 68 percent of the 1.6 million sheltered homeless people were homeless as individuals and 32 percent were persons in families.
According to the US Department of Housing and Urban Development's 2008 Annual Homeless Assessment Report, the most common demographic features of all sheltered homeless people are: male , members of minority groups, older than age 31, and alone.
More than 40 percent of sheltered homeless people have a disability.
At the same time, sizable segments of the sheltered homeless population are white, non-Hispanic ( 38 percent), children (20 percent), or part of multi-person households (33 percent).
Approximately 68 percent of the 1.6 million sheltered homeless people were homeless as individuals and 32 percent were persons in families.
While Mayor of Denver, Colorado , Colorado Governor John Hickenlooper made dealing with the issues that underlie homelessness a top priority on his Mayoral agenda, speaking heavily on the issue during his first "State of the City" address in 2003.
While Mayor of Denver, Colorado, Colorado Governor John Hickenlooper made dealing with the issues that underlie homelessness a top priority on his Mayoral agenda, speaking heavily on the issue during his first "State of the City" address in 2003.
While Mayor of Denver, Colorado, Colorado Governor John Hickenlooper made dealing with the issues that underlie homelessness a top priority on his Mayoral agenda, speaking heavily on the issue during his first "State of the City" address in 2003 .
While Denver's homeless population is much lower than other major cities, the homeless residents have often suffered when without shelter during Denver's infamously cold winters .
Now officials have said that this number has risen over the past few years.
Homeless advocate and urban designer Michael E. Arth proposed building a Pedestrian village for the adult homeless in Volusia County near Daytona Beach, Florida in 2007.
Homeless advocate and urban designer Michael E. Arth proposed building a Pedestrian village for the adult homeless in Volusia County near Daytona Beach, Florida in 2007.
 His proposed " Tiger Bay Village " would have a community garden and orchard, a place to hire certified workers, and a work crew to help build and maintain the village.
Homeless advocate and urban designer Michael E. Arth proposed building a Pedestrian village for the adult homeless in Volusia County near Daytona Beach, Florida in 2007.
 His proposed "Tiger Bay Village" would have a community garden and orchard , a place to hire certified workers, and a work crew to help build and maintain the village.
In 2008 more than 66 percent of all sheltered homeless people were located in principal cities, with 32 percent located in suburban or rural jurisdictions.
Most people had relatively short lengths of stay in emergency shelters: 60 percent stayed less than a month, and a 33 percent stayed a week or less.
About 40 percent of people entering an emergency shelter or transitional housing program during 2008 came from another homeless situation (sheltered or unsheltered), 40 percent came from a housed situation (in their own or someone else's home), and the remaining 20 percent were split between institutional settings or other situations such as hotels or motels.
Most people had relatively short lengths of stay in emergency shelters: 60 percent stayed less than a month, and a 33 percent stayed a week or less.
About 40 percent of people entering an emergency shelter or transitional housing program during 2008 came from another homeless situation (sheltered or unsheltered), 40 percent came from a housed situation (in their own or someone else's home), and the remaining 20 percent were split between institutional settings or other situations such as hotels or motels.
In Indianapolis, Indiana, as many as 2,200 people are homeless on any given night, and as many as 15,000 individuals over the course of a year.
In 2001, Mayor Bart Peterson endorsed a 10-year plan, called the Blueprint to End Homelessness , and made it one of his administration's top priorities.
In 2001 , Mayor Bart Peterson endorsed a 10-year plan, called the Blueprint to End Homelessness, and made it one of his administration's top priorities.
The Blueprint notwithstanding, Indianapolis has criminalized aspects of homelessness, such as making panhandling a misdemeanor ; and the City-County Council has twice (in April 2002, and August 2005) denied the zoning necessary to open a new shelter for homeless women.
Indianapolis is notable among cities of similar size for having only faith-based shelters , such as the century-old Wheeler Mission.
In 2013 , a Central Florida Commission on Homelessness study indicated that the region spends $31,000 a year per homeless person to cover "salaries of law-enforcement officers to arrest and transport homeless individuals — largely for nonviolent offenses such as trespassing, public intoxication or sleeping in parks — as well as the cost of jail stays, emergency-room visits and hospitalization for medical and psychiatric issues.
In 2013, a Central Florida Commission on Homelessness study indicated that the region spends $31,000 a year per homeless person to cover "salaries of law-enforcement officers to arrest and transport homeless individuals — largely for nonviolent offenses such as trespassing, public intoxication or sleeping in parks — as well as the cost of jail stays, emergency-room visits and hospitalization for medical and psychiatric issues.
In contrast, the report estimated the cost of permanent supportive housing at " $10,051 per person per year " and concluded that "[h]ousing even half of the region's chronically homeless population would save taxpayers $149 million during the next decade — even allowing for 10 percent to end up back on the streets again."
In contrast, the report estimated the cost of permanent supportive housing at "$10,051 per person per year" and concluded that "[h]ousing even half of the region's chronically homeless population would save taxpayers $149 million during the next decade — even allowing for 10 percent to end up back on the streets again."
This particular study followed 107 long-term-homeless residents living in Orange, Osceola or Seminole Counties.
In its January 2013 census, Los Angeles County counted 39,463 people sleeping on the street or in homeless shelters.
It is estimated that 190,207 people are homeless in Los Angeles County at least one night during the year.
The number of people in the latter category, called "precariously housed" or "at risk of homelessness", was estimated by means of a telephone survey .
The number of homeless in Los Angeles County, including the precariously housed and at risk of homelessness, was 51,340 in 2011, of which 23,539 were in the City of Los Angeles, and 4,316 were in the 50 block area east of downtown Los Angeles informally known as Skid Row.
The number of homeless in Los Angeles County, including the precariously housed and at risk of homelessness, was 51,340 in 2011, of which 23,539 were in the City of Los Angeles, and 4,316 were in the 50 block area east of downtown Los Angeles informally known as Skid Row.
Homeless individuals report mental illness as being the number three reason for becoming or staying homeless.
Such illnesses are often closely linked with the fourth reason— substance abuse —and therefore it is generally accepted that both of these issues should be treated simultaneously.
Proposed legislation such as the Bringing America Home Act are intended to provide comprehensive treatment for many homeless mental and substance abuse patients.
Although many medical, psychiatric, and counseling services exist to address these needs, it is commonly believed that without the support of reliable and stable housing such treatments remain ineffective.
Furthermore, in the absence of a universal health-care plan, many of those in need cannot afford such services.
In October 2009, as part of the city's Leading the Way initiative, Mayor Thomas Menino of Boston dedicated and opened the Weintraub Day Center which is the first city-operated day center for chronically homeless persons .
In October 2009 , as part of the city's Leading the Way initiative, Mayor Thomas Menino of Boston dedicated and opened the Weintraub Day Center which is the first city-operated day center for chronically homeless persons.
In October 2009, as part of the city's Leading the Way initiative, Mayor Thomas Menino of Boston dedicated and opened the Weintraub Day Center which is the first city-operated day center for chronically homeless persons.
It is a 3,400-square-foot (320 m2) facility located in the Woods Mullen Shelter.
It is a 3,400-square-foot (320 m2) facility located in the Woods Mullen Shelter .
The homeless community of the United States is aided in many ways from governmental and non-governmental organizations. Non-governmental organizations help the homeless by advocating or by physical and financial aid.
Non-governmental organizations help the homeless by advocating or by physical and financial aid.
Organizations like the National Alliance to End Homelessness go to government officials and offices to speak on behalf of the homeless community calling for policy changes or for the creation of policy to help end homelessness.
Organizations like the National Alliance to End Homelessness go to government officials and offices to speak on behalf of the homeless community calling for policy changes or for the creation of policy to help end homelessness.
In the United States each year, there are around 3.5 million people who live their lives without shelter or a stable occupation.
For 2006 alone, $28.5 billion was allotted to homeless programs ran through HUD (Housing and Urban Development), $1 billion was given for Section 8 housing, and $1.4 billion was used for Homeless Assistance Grants.
There have been instances in which volunteer support networks have sprung into place which communicate via the Internet; for example, a Facebook-coordinated 800-member volunteer group named Helping Other People Everyday , or H.O.P.E., rallied to support a man who had been homeless for four years; within a month, the formerly homeless man got medical care, new clothes, a cane, a haircut, meals and a train ticket to be reunited with his daughter.
There have been instances in which volunteer support networks have sprung into place which communicate via the Internet; for example, a Facebook-coordinated 800 -member volunteer group named Helping Other People Everyday, or H.O.P.E., rallied to support a man who had been homeless for four years; within a month, the formerly homeless man got medical care, new clothes, a cane, a haircut, meals and a train ticket to be reunited with his daughter.
For 2006 alone, $28.5 billion was allotted to homeless programs ran through HUD (Housing and Urban Development), $1 billion was given for Section 8 housing, and $1.4 billion was used for Homeless Assistance Grants.
Education of homeless youth is thought to be essential in breaking the cycle of poverty.[citation needed] The McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act mandates equal opportunity to a free public education to homeless students.
Education of homeless youth is thought to be essential in breaking the cycle of poverty.[citation needed] The McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act mandates equal opportunity to a free public education to homeless students.
Education of homeless youth is thought to be essential in breaking the cycle of poverty.[citation needed] The McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act mandates equal opportunity to a free public education to homeless students.
Once a student surpasses these barriers, they are still subject to the stigma of being homeless , and the humiliation they feel because of their situation.
Many homeless students fall behind their peers in school due to behavioral disorders, and lack of attendance in school .
A 2011 study led by Dr. Rebecca T. Brown in Boston, Massachusetts conducted by the Institute for Aging Research (an affiliate of Harvard Medical School), Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, and the Boston Health Care for the Homeless Program found the elderly homeless population had "higher rates of geriatric syndromes, including functional decline, falls, frailty and depression, than seniors in the general population and that many of these conditions may be easily treated if detected".
The report was published in the Journal of Geriatric Internal Medicine .
The report was published in the Journal of Geriatric Internal Medicine .
A 2011 study led by Dr. Rebecca T. Brown in Boston, Massachusetts conducted by the Institute for Aging Research (an affiliate of Harvard Medical School), Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, and the Boston Health Care for the Homeless Program found the elderly homeless population had "higher rates of geriatric syndromes, including functional decline, falls, frailty and depression, than seniors in the general population and that many of these conditions may be easily treated if detected".
Many advocates for the homeless contend that a key difficulty is the social stigma surrounding homelessness.
There is anecdotal evidence that many Americans complain about the presence of homeless people, blame them for their situation, and feel that their requests for money or support (usually via begging) are unjustified. In the 1990s , particularly, many observers and media articles spoke of "compassion fatigue" a belief that the public had grown weary of this seemingly intractable problem.
A Penn State study in 2004 concluded that "familiarity breeds sympathy" and greater support for addressing the problem.
A Penn State study in 2004 concluded that " familiarity breeds sympathy" and greater support for addressing the problem .
Research shows that " physically attractive persons are judged more positively than physically unattractive individuals on various traits …reflecting social competence."
A 2007 survey conducted by Public Agenda , a nonprofit organization that helps leaders and their citizens navigate through complex social issues, found that 67 percent of New Yorkers agreed that most homeless people were without shelter because of "circumstances beyond their control," including high housing costs and lack of good and steady employment.
A 2007 survey conducted by Public Agenda, a nonprofit organization that helps leaders and their citizens navigate through complex social issues, found that 67 percent of New Yorkers agreed that most homeless people were without shelter because of "circumstances beyond their control," including high housing costs and lack of good and steady employment.
More than one-third ( 36 percent ) said they worried about becoming homeless themselves, with 15 percent saying they were "very worried."
More interestingly, 90 percent of New Yorkers believed that everyone has a right to shelter , and 68 percent believed that the government is responsible for guaranteeing that right to its citizens.
The survey found support for investments in prevention, rental assistance and permanent housing for the homeless .
In recent years, largely due to the efforts of the National Coalition for the Homeless (NCH) and academic researchers, the problem of violence against the homeless has gained national attention.
In their report: Hate, Violence, and Death on Mainstreet USA, the NCH reported 386 violent acts committed against homeless persons over the period, among which 155 were lethal.
In recent years, largely due to the efforts of the National Coalition for the Homeless (NCH) and academic researchers, the problem of violence against the homeless has gained national attention.
In their report: Hate, Violence, and Death on Mainstreet USA, the NCH reported 386 violent acts committed against homeless persons over the period, among which 155 were lethal.
The NCH called those acts hate crimes (they retain the definition of the American Congress).
In recent years, largely due to the efforts of the National Coalition for the Homeless (NCH) and academic researchers, the problem of violence against the homeless has gained national attention.
In recent years, largely due to the efforts of the National Coalition for the Homeless (NCH) and academic researchers, the problem of violence against the homeless has gained national attention.
In their report: Hate, Violence, and Death on Mainstreet USA, the NCH reported 386 violent acts committed against homeless persons over the period, among which 155 were lethal.
In their report: Hate, Violence, and Death on Mainstreet USA, the NCH reported 386 violent acts committed against homeless persons over the period, among which 155 were lethal.
The NCH called those acts hate crimes (they retain the definition of the American Congress).
In 1980 the government decided to start sending funding to the homeless, but it was not until 1984 that shelters were built to accommodate and feed them.
The " Ending Chronic Homelessness through Employment and Housing " initiative was a collaborative grant offered jointly by HUD and the Department of Labor (DOL).
The Bush Administration established a national goal of ending chronic homelessness in ten years, by 2012.
The initiative offered $10 million from HUD and $3.5 million from DOL to help the chronically homeless in five communities gain access to employment and permanent housing.
On May 20, 2009 , President Barack Obama signed the Homeless Emergency Assistance and Rapid Transition to Housing (HEARTH) Act of 2009.
On May 20, 2009, President Barack Obama signed the Homeless Emergency Assistance and Rapid Transition to Housing (HEARTH) Act of 2009.
The HEARTH Act of 2009 consolidated HUD's competitive grant programs, created a Rural Housing Stability Program , changed HUD's definition of homelessness and chronic homelessness, supplied a simplified match requirement, increased prevention resources and increased in the emphasis on performance.
The HEARTH Act amends and reauthorizes the McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act with substantial changes.
Housing First has met with success since its initial implementations in 2009 by providing relatively no strings-attached housing to homeless people with substance abuse problems or mental health issues.
Housing First has met with success since its initial implementations in 2009 by providing relatively no strings-attached housing to homeless people with substance abuse problems or mental health issues.
Housing First allows homeless men and women to be taken directly off the street into private community-based apartments , without requiring treatment first.
Housing First has met with success since its initial implementations in 2009 by providing relatively no strings-attached housing to homeless people with substance abuse problems or mental health issues .
In 2000, the National Alliance to End Homelessness released "A Plan, Not a Dream: How to End Homelessness in Ten Years" which encouraged communities to develop and implement 10-year plans to end homelessness in their communities.
In 2000, the National Alliance to End Homelessness released " A Plan, Not a Dream: How to End Homelessness in Ten Years " which encouraged communities to develop and implement 10-year plans to end homelessness in their communities.
In 2000, the National Alliance to End Homelessness released "A Plan, Not a Dream: How to End Homelessness in Ten Years" which encouraged communities to develop and implement 10-year plans to end homelessness in their communities.
A significant shift has occurred in homeless services over the past five years[needs update] which has changed the emphasis from "managing the problem of homelessness" with emergency shelters, soup kitchens and health clinic to ending homelessness by housing individuals who are experiencing homelessness.
Perhaps the most accurate, comprehensive, and current data on homelessness in the United States is reported annually by the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) in the Annual Homeless Assessment Report to Congress (AHAR), released in June of every year since 2007 .
Perhaps the most accurate, comprehensive, and current data on homelessness in the United States is reported annually by the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) in the Annual Homeless Assessment Report to Congress (AHAR), released in June of every year since 2007.
Perhaps the most accurate, comprehensive, and current data on homelessness in the United States is reported annually by the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) in the Annual Homeless Assessment Report to Congress (AHAR), released in June of every year since 2007.
The AHAR report relies on data from two sources: single-night, point-in-time counts of both sheltered and unsheltered homeless populations reported on the Continuum of Care applications to HUD; and counts of the sheltered homeless population over a full year provided by a sample of communities based on data in their Management Information Systems (HMIS).
The Amen Break was the main starting influence for Drum and Bass.
 Drum and Bass for mainstream UK was clean and formal .
 A very obvious and strong influence on jungle and drum and bass, thanks to the British African-Caribbean sound system scene, is the original Jamaican dub and reggae sound, with pioneers like King Tubby, Peter Tosh, Sly & Robbie, Bill Laswell, Lee Perry, Mad Professor, Roots Radics, Bob Marley and Buju Banton heavily influencing the music.
 Jungle has a distinct African flow which is dirty .
As a musical style built around funk or syncopated rock and roll breaks, James Brown, Al Green, Marvin Gaye, Ella Fitzgerald, Gladys Knight & the Pips, Billie Holiday, Aretha Franklin, Otis Redding, the Supremes, the Commodores , Jerry Lee Lewis and even Michael Jackson, are funky influences on the music.
Jazz pioneer Miles Davis has been named as a possible influence.
Blues artists like Lead Belly, Robert Johnson, Charlie Patton, Muddy Waters and B.B King have also been cited by producers as inspirations.
One of the most influential tracks in drum and bass history was "Amen Brother" by The Winstons which contains a drum solo that has since become known as the "Amen break", which after being extensively used in early hip hop music, went on to become the basis for the rhythms used in drum and bass.
One of the most influential tracks in drum and bass history was "Amen Brother" by The Winstons which contains a drum solo that has since become known as the "Amen break" , which after being extensively used in early hip hop music, went on to become the basis for the rhythms used in drum and bass.
One of his more famous basslines (Reese – "Just Want Another Chance", Incognito Records, 1988 ) was indeed sampled on Renegade's Terrorist and countless others since, being known simply as the 'Reese' bassline.
Kevin Saunderson released a series of bass-heavy, minimal techno cuts as Reese/The Reese Project in the late '80s which were hugely influential in drum and bass terms.
He followed these up with equally influential (and bassline-heavy) tracks in the UK hardcore style as Tronik House in 1991–1992.
The sampled-up jazz break on Carl Craig's Bug in the Bassbin was also influential on the newly emerging sound, DJs at the Rage club used to play it pitched up ( increased speed ) as far as their Technics record decks would go.
 Drum and bass shares many musical characteristics with hip-hop, though it is nowadays mostly stripped of lyrics .
Grandmaster Flash, Roger Troutman, Afrika Bambaata, Run DMC, Mac Dre, Public Enemy, Schooly D, N.W.A , Kid Frost, Wu-Tang Clan, Dr. Dre, Mos Def, Beastie Boys and the Pharcyde are very often directly sampled, regardless of their general influence.
By the late 1980s and early 1990s the tradition of breakbeat use in hip hop production had influenced the sound of breakbeat hardcore, which in turn led to the emergence of jungle, drum and bass, and other genres that shared the same use of broken beats.
 Drum and bass shares many musical characteristics with hip-hop , though it is nowadays mostly stripped of lyrics.
The genre places great importance on the "bass line", a deep sub-bass musical pattern which can be felt physically through powerful sound systems due to the low-range frequencies favoured. There has been considerable exploration of different timbres in the bass line region, particularly within techstep.
There has been considerable exploration of different timbres in the bass line region , particularly within techstep.
The bass lines most notably originate from sampled sources or synthesizers .
There has been considerable exploration of different timbres in the bass line region, particularly within techstep.
Drum and bass is usually between 160–180 BPM , in contrast to other breakbeat-based dance styles such as nu skool breaks, which maintain a slower pace at around 130–140 BPM.
Drum and bass is usually between 160–180 BPM, in contrast to other breakbeat-based dance styles such as nu skool breaks, which maintain a slower pace at around 130–140 BPM.
Drum and bass is usually between 160–180 BPM, in contrast to other breakbeat-based dance styles such as nu skool breaks, which maintain a slower pace at around 130–140 BPM .
The earliest forms of drum and bass clocked in at around 130 bpm in 1990/1991, speeding up to around 155–165 BPM by 1993.
Since around 1996, drum and bass tempos have predominantly stayed in the 170–180 range .
Many mixing points begin or end with the " drop ".
Many mixing points begin or end with the "drop".
Sometimes the drop is used to switch between tracks, layering components of different tracks, though as the two records may be simply ambient breakdowns at this point, though some DJs prefer to combine breakbeats, a more difficult exercise.
Sometimes the drop is used to switch between tracks, layering components of different tracks, though as the two records may be simply ambient breakdowns at this point, though some DJs prefer to combine breakbeats, a more difficult exercise .
Some drops are so popular that the DJ will "rewind" or "reload" or "lift up" by spinning the record back and restarting it at the build.
Despite its roots in the UK , which can still be treated as the "home" of drum and bass, the style has firmly established itself around the world.
São Paulo is sometimes called the drum and bass Ibiza .[citation needed] Brazilian drum and bass is sometimes referred to as "sambass", with its specific style and sound.
São Paulo is sometimes called the drum and bass Ibiza.[citation needed] Brazilian drum and bass is sometimes referred to as "sambass", with its specific style and sound.
In Colombia there is a large underground scene, The RE.set Label and Bogotá Project are two collectives that put on DnB events in the city, as well as a twice yearly event called Radikal Styles, that brings together local talent and international big names.
In Colombia there is a large underground scene, The RE.set Label and Bogotá Project are two collectives that put on DnB events in the city, as well as a twice yearly event called Radikal Styles, that brings together local talent and international big names.
Born around the same time as jungle , breakcore and digital hardcore share many of the elements of drum and bass and to the uninitiated, tracks from the extreme end of drum and bass, may sound identical to breakcore thanks to speed, complexity, impact and maximum sonic density combined with musical experimentation.
German Drum and Bass DJ The Panacea is also one of the leading Digital Hardcore artists.
German Drum and Bass DJ
Raggacore resembles a faster version of the ragga influenced jungle music of the 1990s, similar to breakcore but with more friendly dancehall beats (dancehall itself being a very important influence on drum and bass).
Darkcore , a direct influence on drum and bass, was combined with influences of drum and bass itself leading to the creation of darkstep.
The genre has influenced many other genres like hip hop, big beat, dubstep, house music, trip hop, ambient music, techno, rock and pop, with artists such as Bill Laswell, Incubus, Pitchshifter, Linkin Park , The Roots, Talvin Singh, MIDIval Punditz, Missy Elliott, The Freestylers, Bowery Electric, Nine Inch Nails, David Bowie (the last two both using elements of Goldie's "Timeless")[citation needed] and others quoting drum and bass and using drum and bass techniques and elements.
The genre has influenced many other genres like hip hop, big beat, dubstep, house music, trip hop, ambient music, techno, rock and pop, with artists such as Bill Laswell, Incubus, Pitchshifter, Linkin Park, The Roots, Talvin Singh, MIDIval Punditz, Missy Elliott, The Freestylers, Bowery Electric, Nine Inch Nails, David Bowie (the last two both using elements of Goldie's "Timeless")[citation needed] and others quoting drum and bass and using drum and bass techniques and elements.
Recently created in the United States is a genre called ghettotech which contains synth and basslines similar to drum & bass.
Recently created in the United States is a genre called ghettotech which contains synth and basslines similar to drum & bass.
The genre has influenced many other genres like hip hop, big beat, dubstep, house music, trip hop, ambient music, techno, rock and pop, with artists such as Bill Laswell, Incubus, Pitchshifter, Linkin Park, The Roots, Talvin Singh, MIDIval Punditz, Missy Elliott, The Freestylers, Bowery Electric, Nine Inch Nails, David Bowie (the last two both using elements of Goldie's "Timeless")[citation needed] and others quoting drum and bass and using drum and bass techniques and elements.
The major international music labels such as Sony Music and Universal have shown very little interest in the drum and bass scene though there have been a few signings, most recently Pendulum's In Silico LP to Warner.
Roni Size's Full Cycle Records played a big, if not the biggest, part in the creation of drum and bass with their dark, baseline sounds.
V Recordings also played a large part of the development of drum and bass.[citation needed] Roni Size, Krust and DJ Die produced some of the first tracks to be considered[who?] mainstream drum and bass tracks.[citation needed]
The major international music labels such as Sony Music and Universal have shown very little interest in the drum and bass scene though there have been a few signings, most recently Pendulum's In Silico LP to Warner.
More recently, music networking websites such as SoundCloud and MixCloud have become powerful tools for artist recognition, providing a vast platform that enables quick responses to new tracks.
Record labels have adopted the use of Podcasts .
Prior to the rise of the internet, drum and bass was commonly broadcast over pirate radio .
Today, drum and bass is widely promoted throughout the world using different methods such as video sharing services (YouTube, Dailymotion), blogs, radio and television , the latter being the most uncommon method.
Today, drum and bass is widely promoted throughout the world using different methods such as video sharing services ( YouTube, Dailymotion ), blogs, radio and television, the latter being the most uncommon method.
The BBC's "urban" station BBC Radio 1Xtra used to feature the genre heavily, with DJ Bailey (show axed as of 29/08/2012) and Crissy Criss (show axed as of August 2014) as its advocates.
The network also organises a week-long tour of the UK each year called Xtra Bass .
London pirate radio stations have been instrumental in the development of Drum and Bass , with stations such as Kool FM (which continues to broadcast today having done so since 1991), Origin FM, Don FM (the only Drum and Bass pirate to have gained a temporary legal license), Renegade Radio 107.2FM, Rude FM, Wax Fm and Eruption among the most influential.
London pirate radio stations have been instrumental in the development of Drum and Bass, with stations such as Kool FM (which continues to broadcast today having done so since 1991), Origin FM, Don FM (the only Drum and Bass pirate to have gained a temporary legal license), Renegade Radio 107.2FM, Rude FM, Wax Fm and Eruption among the most influential.
From September 2014, Ministry abruptly dropped all non-mainstream genres to focus on mainstream EDM , causing disappointment amongst the fans of the D&B community.
Stations like Rough Tempo are proving very popular with listeners.
Drum and bass was supported by Ministry of Sound radio from the early 2000s until 2014 , with Bryan Gee of V Recordings, and later featuring Tuesday shows from labels such as Metalheadz, Dispatch Recordings, Fabio & Grooverider, DJ Marky, DJ Bailey, Viper Recordings, Technique Recordings, Shogun Audio and Hospital Records.
Drum and bass was supported by Ministry of Sound radio from the early 2000s until 2014, with Bryan Gee of V Recordings, and later featuring Tuesday shows from labels such as Metalheadz, Dispatch Recordings, Fabio & Grooverider, DJ Marky, DJ Bailey, Viper Recordings, Technique Recordings, Shogun Audio and Hospital Records.
In North America, The Prophecy on 89.5 CIUT-FM With Marcus Visionary, DJ Prime and Mr. Brown Is North America's longest running Jungle Radio show[citation needed] (Toronto), Album 88.5 (Atlanta) and C89.5fm (Seattle) have shows showcasing drum and bass.
Seattle also has a long-standing electronica show known as Expansions on 90.3 FM KEXP.
Also, Tulsa, Oklahoma's rock station, 104.5 The Edge, has a two-hour show starting at 10:00PM Saturday nights called Edge Essential Mix mixed by DJ Demko showcasing electronic and drum and bass style.
In Tucson, Arizona, 91.3 FM KXCI has a two-hour electronic show known as " Digital Empire ", Friday nights at 10pm (MST).
From its roots in the UK , the style has established itself around the world.
Drum and Bass remains most popular in the UK, but has developed scenes all around the world, in countries such as the Netherlands, Belgium, New Zealand, Canada and Australia.
Drum and bass has influenced many other genres like hip hop, big beat, dubstep, house music, trip hop, ambient music, techno, rock and pop .
Drum and bass subgenres include breakcore, ragga jungle, hardstep, darkstep, techstep , Neurofunk, ambient drum and bass, liquid funk, deep, drumfunk, funkstep, sambass dnbnoise and drill 'n' bass.
The major international music labels have shown very little interest in the drum and bass scene. Drum and Bass remains most popular in the UK, but has developed scenes all around the world, in countries such as the Netherlands, Belgium, New Zealand, Canada and Australia.
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, a growing nightclub and overnight outdoor event culture gave birth to a new electronic music style called rave music , which, much like hip-hop, combined sampled syncopated beats or breakbeats, other samples from a wide range of different musical genres and, occasionally, samples of music, dialogue and effects from films and television programmes.
But rave music tended to feature stronger bass sounds and a faster tempo (127 to over 140) beats per minute (BPM) than that of early house music.
This subgenre was known as "hardcore" rave but from as early as 1991, some musical tracks made up of these high-tempo break beats, with heavy basslines and samples of older Jamaican music , were referred to as "jungle techno", a genre influenced by Jack Smooth and Basement Records, and later just "jungle", which became recognized as a separate musical genre popular at raves and on pirate radio in Britain.
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, a growing nightclub and overnight outdoor event culture gave birth to a new electronic music style called rave music, which, much like hip-hop , combined sampled syncopated beats or breakbeats, other samples from a wide range of different musical genres and, occasionally, samples of music, dialogue and effects from films and television programmes.
But rave music tended to feature stronger bass sounds and a faster tempo (127 to over 140) beats per minute (BPM) than that of early house music.
By 1994 jungle had begun to gain mainstream popularity and fans of the music (often referred to as junglists) became a more recognizable part of youth subculture.
By 1994 jungle had begun to gain mainstream popularity and fans of the music (often referred to as junglists ) became a more recognizable part of youth subculture.
Despite the affiliation with the ecstasy-fuelled rave scene, Jungle also inherited some associations with violence and criminal activity , both from the gang culture that had affected the UK's hip-hop scene and as a consequence of jungle's often aggressive or menacing sound and themes of violence (usually reflected in the choice of samples).
However, this developed in tandem with the often positive reputation of the music as part of the wider rave scene and dancehall-based Jamaican music culture prevalent in London .
By 1995 , whether as a reaction to, or independently of this cultural schism, some jungle producers began to move away from the ragga-influenced style and create what would become collectively labelled, for convenience, as drum and bass.
As the genre became generally more polished and sophisticated technically , it began to expand its reach from pirate radio to commercial stations and gain widespread acceptance (circa 1995–1997).
It also began to split into recognizable subgenres such as jump-up and Hardstep .
As the genre became generally more polished and sophisticated technically, it began to expand its reach from pirate radio to commercial stations and gain widespread acceptance (circa 1995–1997 )
As a lighter and often jazz-influenced style of drum and bass gained mainstream appeal, additional subgenres emerged including techstep (circa 1996–1997) which drew greater influence from techno music and the soundscapes of science fiction and anime films.
As a lighter and often jazz-influenced style of drum and bass gained mainstream appeal, additional subgenres emerged including techstep (circa 1996–1997 ) which drew greater influence from techno music and the soundscapes of science fiction and anime films.
The popularity of drum and bass at its commercial peak ran parallel to several other homegrown dance styles in the UK including big beat and hard house .
But towards the turn of the millennium its popularity was deemed to have dwindled as the UK garage style known as speed garage yielded several hit singles.
Speed garage shared high tempos and heavy basslines with drum and bass, but otherwise followed the established conventions of "house music", with this and its freshness giving it an advantage commercially.
To this day drum and bass makes frequent appearances in mainstream media and popular culture including in television, as well as being a major reference point for subsequent genres such as grime and dubstep and successful artists including Chase & Status and Australia's Pendulum.
London DJ/producer C.K. says, "It is often forgotten by my students that a type of music called " garage house " existed in the late 1980s alongside hip house, acid house and other forms of house music."
Connecticut (/kəˈnɛt[invalid input: 'ɨ']kət/ (listen) kə-NET-i-kət) is the southernmost state in the region of the United States known as New England.
Connecticut is also often grouped along with New York and New Jersey as the Tri-State area.
It is bordered by Rhode Island to the east, Massachusetts to the north, New York to the west, and Long Island Sound to the south.
Its capital city is Hartford , and its most populous city is Bridgeport.
Its capital city is Hartford, and its most populous city is Bridgeport .
Connecticut is the third smallest state by area, the 29th most populous, and the fourth most densely populated of the 50 United States.
Much of southern and western Connecticut (along with the majority of the state's population) is part of the New York metropolitan area: three of Connecticut's eight counties are statistically included in the New York City combined statistical area, which is widely referred to as the Tri-State area.
It is known as the "Constitution State", the "Nutmeg State", the "Provisions State", and the "Land of Steady Habits ".
Connecticut's center of population is in Cheshire , New Haven County, which is also located within the Tri-State area.
Connecticut's center of population is in Cheshire, New Haven County, which is also located within the Tri-State area.
Connecticut's first European settlers were Dutch .
They established a small, short-lived settlement in present-day Hartford at the confluence of the Park and Connecticut rivers, called Huys de Goede Hoop .
They established a small, short-lived settlement in present-day Hartford at the confluence of the Park and Connecticut rivers, called Huys de Goede Hoop.
The first major settlements were established in the 1630s by England.
Thomas Hooker led a band of followers overland from the Massachusetts Bay Colony and founded what would become the Connecticut Colony; other settlers from Massachusetts founded the Saybrook Colony and the New Haven Colony.
Connecticut's rural areas and small towns in the northeast and northwest corners of the state contrast sharply with its industrial cities, located along the coastal highways from the New York border to New London, then northward up the Connecticut River to Hartford.
Many towns center around a "green," such as the Litchfield Green, Lebanon Green (the largest in the state), and Wethersfield Green (the oldest in the state).
Many towns center around a "green," such as the Litchfield Green, Lebanon Green (the largest in the state), and Wethersfield Green (the oldest in the state).
Near the green typically stand historical visual symbols of New England towns, such as a white church, a colonial meeting house, a colonial tavern or "inne," several colonial houses, and so on, establishing a scenic historic appearance maintained for both historic preservation and tourism .
Many towns center around a "green," such as the Litchfield Green, Lebanon Green (the largest in the state), and Wethersfield Green (the oldest in the state).
The southwestern border of Connecticut, where it abuts New York State, is marked by a panhandle in Fairfield County, containing the towns of Greenwich, Stamford, New Canaan, Darien, and parts of Norwalk and Wilton.
The southwestern border of Connecticut, where it abuts New York State, is marked by a panhandle in Fairfield County, containing the towns of Greenwich, Stamford, New Canaan, Darien, and parts of Norwalk and Wilton.
The southwestern border of Connecticut, where it abuts New York State, is marked by a panhandle in Fairfield County, containing the towns of Greenwich, Stamford, New Canaan, Darien, and parts of Norwalk and Wilton.
This irregularity in the boundary is the result of territorial disputes in the late 17th century, culminating with New York giving up its claim to the area, whose residents considered themselves part of Connecticut, in exchange for an equivalent area extending northwards from Ridgefield to the Massachusetts border as well as undisputed claim to Rye , New York.
This irregularity in the boundary is the result of territorial disputes in the late 17th century, culminating with New York giving up its claim to the area, whose residents considered themselves part of Connecticut, in exchange for an equivalent area extending northwards from Ridgefield to the Massachusetts border as well as undisputed claim to Rye, New York.
The General Assembly is a bicameral body consisting of an upper body, the State Senate ( 36 senators); and a lower body, the House of Representatives (151 representatives).
The General Assembly is a bicameral body consisting of an upper body, the State Senate (36 senators); and a lower body, the House of Representatives ( 151 representatives)
a two-thirds majority in each house.
Per Article XV of the state constitution, Senators and Representatives must be at least 18 years of age and are elected to two-year terms in November on even-numbered years.
Per Article XV of the state constitution, Senators and Representatives must be at least 18 years of age and are elected to two-year terms in November on even-numbered years.
The highest court of Connecticut's judicial branch is the Connecticut Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of Connecticut.
Its proceedings are similar to those of the United States Supreme Court, with no testimony given by witnesses, and the lawyers of the two sides each present oral arguments no longer than thirty minutes .
The highest court of Connecticut's judicial branch is the Connecticut Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of Connecticut .
As of 2015[update] the Chief Justice is Chase T. Rogers.
The Supreme Court is responsible for deciding on the constitutionality of the law or cases as they relate to the law.
Unlike all but one other state ( Rhode Island ), Connecticut does not have county government.
The eight counties are still widely used for purely geographical and statistical purposes, such as weather reports, and census reporting.
Connecticut county governments were mostly eliminated in 1960 , with the exception of sheriffs elected in each county.
In 2000, the county sheriff was abolished and replaced with the state marshal system , which has districts that follow the old county territories.
In 2000 , the county sheriff was abolished and replaced with the state marshal system, which has districts that follow the old county territories.
The state is divided into 169 towns, which serve as the fundamental political jurisdictions.
The state is divided into 169 towns , which serve as the fundamental political jurisdictions.
There are also 21 cities , most of which are coterminous with their namesake towns and have a merged city-town government.
There are two exceptions: City of Groton, which is a subsection of the Town of Groton , and the City of Winsted in the Town of Winchester.
Connecticut shares with the rest of New England a governmental institution called the New England town.
The state (with the exception of the Town of Stafford in Tolland County) is also divided into 15 planning regions defined by the state Office of Planning and Management.
The state (with the exception of the Town of Stafford in Tolland County ) is also divided into 15 planning regions defined by the state Office of Planning and Management.
The Intragovernmental Policy Division of this Office coordinates regional planning with the administrative bodies of these regions.
The state (with the exception of the Town of Stafford in Tolland County) is also divided into 15 planning regions defined by the state Office of Planning and Management .
The state (with the exception of the Town of Stafford in Tolland County) is also divided into 15 planning regions defined by the state Office of Planning and Management.
The suburban towns of New Canaan and Darien in Fairfield County are considered the most Republican areas in the state.
The suburban towns of New Canaan and Darien in Fairfield County are considered the most Republican areas in the state.
The suburban towns of New Canaan and Darien in Fairfield County are considered the most Republican areas in the state.
Westport, a wealthy town a few miles to the east, is often considered one of the most loyally Democratic , liberal towns in Fairfield County.
Westport, a wealthy town a few miles to the east, is often considered one of the most loyally Democrat ic, liberal towns in Fairfield County.
Joe Lieberman's predecessor, Lowell P. Weicker, Jr., was the last Connecticut Republican to serve as Senator.
Before Weicker, the last Republican to represent Connecticut in the Senate was Prescott Bush, the father of former President George H.W. Bush and the grandfather of former President George W. Bush.
Before Weicker, the last Republican to represent Connecticut in the Senate was Prescott Bush, the father of former President George H.W. Bush and the grandfather of former President George W. Bush .
He broke with President Richard Nixon during Watergate and successfully ran for governor in 1990 as an independent, creating A Connecticut Party as his election vehicle.
He served 1953 –63.
The UConn Huskies play NCAA Division I sports and are popular in the state.
In 2014 , UConn repeated its feat of being the only school in NCAA Division I to win men's and women's basketball tournaments in the same year.
Both the men's basketball and women's basketball teams have won multiple national championships, including in 2004 , when UConn became the first school in NCAA Division I history to have its men's and women's basketball programs win the national title in the same year.
The UConn women's basketball team holds the record for the longest consecutive winning streak in NCAA college basketball at 90 games, a streak that ended in 2008.[citation needed] The UConn Huskies football team has played in the Football Bowl Subdivision since 2002, and has played in four bowl games since.
The UConn women's basketball team holds the record for the longest consecutive winning streak in NCAA college basketball at 90 games, a streak that ended in 2008 .[citation needed] The UConn Huskies football team has played in the Football Bowl Subdivision since 2002, and has played in four bowl games since.
The name "Connecticut" originates from the Mohegan word quonehtacut, meaning " place of long tidal river ."
The name "Connecticut" originates from the Mohegan word quonehtacut, meaning "place of long tidal river."
George Washington gave Connecticut the title of " The Provisions State " because of the material aid the state rendered to the American Revolutionary War effort.
Connecticut's official nickname, adopted in 1959 , is "The Constitution State," based on its colonial constitution of 1638–39 which was the first in America and, arguably, the world.
The name "Connecticut" originates from the Mohegan word quonehtacut , meaning "place of long tidal river."
According to Webster's New International Dictionary, 1993, a person who is a native or resident of Connecticut is a " Connecticuter ."
"Nutmegger" is sometimes used, as is "Yankee" (the official state song is " Yankee Doodle "), though this usually refers to someone from the wider New England region (and in the Southern United States, to anyone who lives north of the Mason–Dixon line).
The traditional abbreviation of the state's name is "Conn.;" the official postal abbreviation is CT .
There are numerous other terms coined in print, but not in use, such as: " Connecticotian " – Cotton Mather in 1702.
There are numerous other terms coined in print, but not in use, such as: "Connecticotian" – Cotton Mather in 1702. " Connecticutensian " – Samuel Peters in 1781.
Most of western and southern Connecticut (particularly the Gold Coast) is strongly associated with New York City; this area is the most affluent and populous region of the state.
Eastern Connecticut is more culturally influenced by the greater New England area, including the cities of Boston and Providence.
In 1790 , 97% of the population in Connecticut was classified as "rural."
Most of western and southern Connecticut (particularly the Gold Coast ) is strongly associated with New York City; this area is the most affluent and populous region of the state.
The center of population of Connecticut is located in the town of Cheshire .
Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 75,991 people , and migration within the country produced a net loss of 34,273 people.
As of 2015, Connecticut had an estimated population of 3,590,886, which is an decrease of 5,791 , or -0.16%, from the prior year and an increase of 16,789, or 0.47%, since the year 2010.
Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 75,991 people, and migration within the country produced a net loss of 34,273 people.
Based on the 2005 estimates, Connecticut moves from the 29th most populous state to 30th.
This includes a natural increase since the last census of 67,427 people (that is 222,222 births minus 154,795 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 41,718 people into the state.
Hurricane Sandy had tropical storm-force winds when it reached Connecticut October 29, 2012.
In 2011 and 2012, Connecticut was hit by three major storms in just over 14 months, with all three causing extensive property damage and electric outages.
In 2011 and 2012, Connecticut was hit by three major storms in just over 14 months, with all three causing extensive property damage and electric outages .
Two months later in late October, the " Halloween nor'easter " dropped extensive snow onto trees, resulting in snapped branches and trunks that damaged power lines, with some areas not seeing electricity restored for 11 days.
Sandy's winds drove storm surges into streets, and cut power to 98 percent of homes and businesses en route to more than $360 million in damage.
Gore and Lieberman fell five votes short of George W. Bush and Dick Cheney in the Electoral College.
In 2000, presidential candidate Al Gore chose as his running mate Senator Joe Lieberman, marking the first time a major party presidential ticket included someone of the Jewish faith.
Gore and Lieberman fell five votes short of George W. Bush and Dick Cheney in the Electoral College.
a corruption investigation , later pleading guilty to federal charges.
In the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, 65 state residents were killed, mostly Fairfield County residents who were working in the World Trade Center.
Connecticut manufactured 4.1 percent of total U.S. military armaments produced during World War II, ranking ninth among the 48 states, with major factories including Colt for firearms, Pratt & Whitney for aircraft engines, Chance Vought for fighter planes, Hamilton Standard for propellers, and Electric Boat for submarines and PT boats.
In Bridgeport, General Electric would produce a significant new weapon to counter opposing tanks: the bazooka .
The advent of Lend-Lease in support of Britain helped lift Connecticut from the Great Depression, with the state a major production center for weaponry and supplies used in World War II.
Connecticut manufactured 4.1 percent of total U.S. military armaments produced during World War II, ranking ninth among the 48 states, with major factories including Colt for firearms, Pratt & Whitney for aircraft engines, Chance Vought for fighter planes, Hamilton Standard for propellers, and Electric Boat for submarines and PT boats.
The advent of Lend-Lease in support of Britain helped lift Connecticut from the Great Depression, with the state a major production center for weaponry and supplies used in World War II.
The state was known for its political conservatism , typified by its Federalist party and the Yale College of Timothy Dwight.
The foremost intellectuals were Dwight and Noah Webster , who compiled his great dictionary in New Haven.
The failure of the Hartford Convention in 1814 hurt the Federalist cause, with the Republican Party gaining control in 1817.
The failure of the Hartford Convention in 1814 hurt the Federalist cause, with the Republican Party gaining control in 1817.
Religious tensions polarized the state, as the established Congregational Church, in alliance with the Federalists, tried to maintain its grip on power.
Connecticut manufacturers played a major role in supplying the Union forces with weapons and supplies during the Civil War.
James H. Ward of Hartford was the first U.S. Naval Officer killed in the Civil War.
Connecticut casualties included 2088 killed in combat, 2801 dying from disease, and 689 dying in Confederate prison camps.
The state furnished 55,000 men.
They were formed into thirty full regiments of infantry, including two in the U.S.
Starting in the 1890s J. P. Morgan began financing the major New England railroads, and dividing territory so they would not compete.
By 1912, the New Haven operated over 2,000 miles (3,200 km) of track, and 120,000 employees.
The New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad, called the New Haven or "The Consolidated," became the dominant Connecticut railroad company after 1872.
The New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad, called the New Haven or "The Consolidated," became the dominant Connecticut railroad company after 1872.
The New Haven purchased 50 smaller companies, including steamship lines , and built a network of light rails (electrified trolleys) that provided inter-urban transportation for all of southern New England.
The state enthusiastically supported the American war effort in 1917 and 1918 , with large purchases of war bonds and a further expansion of war industry, and emphasis on increasing food production in the farms.
The state enthusiastically supported the American war effort in 1917 and 1918, with large purchases of war bonds and a further expansion of war industry, and emphasis on increasing food production in the farms.
Thousands of state, local, and volunteer groups mobilized for the war effort, and were coordinated by the Connecticut State Council of Defense .
Manufacturers wrestled with manpower shortages; with American Brass and Manufacturing running at half capacity , the federal government agreed to furlough soldiers to join the Waterbury company.
Manufacturers wrestled with manpower shortages; with American Brass and Manufacturing running at half capacity, the federal government agreed to furlough soldiers to join the Waterbury company.
On September 21, 1938 , the most destructive storm in New England history struck eastern Connecticut, killing hundreds of people.
The eye of the "Long Island Express" passed just west of New Haven and devastated the Connecticut shoreline between Old Saybrook and Stonington, which lacked the partial protection provided by Long Island, N.Y. to points west from the full force of wind and waves.
The eye of the "Long Island Express" passed just west of New Haven and devastated the Connecticut shoreline between Old Saybrook and Stonington , which lacked the partial protection provided by Long Island, N.Y. to points west from the full force of wind and waves.
Heavy rainfall caused the Connecticut River to flood downtown Hartford and East Hartford.
An estimated 50,000 trees fell onto roadways.
Connecticut has large Italian American, Irish American and English American populations, as well as German American and Polish American populations, with the Italian American population having the second highest percentage of any state, behind Rhode Island (19.3%).
Italian is the largest ancestry group in five of the state's counties, while the Irish are the largest group in Tolland county, French Canadians the largest group in Windham county.
Connecticut has the highest percentage of Puerto Ricans of any state.
Connecticut has large Italian American, Irish American and English American populations, as well as German American and Polish American populations, with the Italian American population having the second highest percentage of any state, behind Rhode Island (19.3%).
Italian is the largest ancestry group in five of the state's counties, while the Irish are the largest group in Tolland county, French Canadians the largest group in Windham county.
Protestant 27%, Mormonism 0.5%, Jewish 1%, Roman Catholic 43%, Orthodox 1%, Non-religious 23%, Jehovah's Witness 1%,  Hinduism 0.5%, Buddhism 1% and Islam 0.5%.
The Jewish population is concentrated in the towns near Long Island Sound between Greenwich and New Haven, in Greater New Haven and in Greater Hartford, especially the suburb of West Hartford.
According to the Association of Religion Data Archives, the largest Christian denominations, by number of adherents, in 2010 were: the Catholic Church , with 1,252,936; the United Church of Christ, with 96,506; and non-denominational Evangelical Protestants, with 72,863.
According to the Association of Religion Data Archives, the largest Christian denominations, by number of adherents, in 2010 were: the Catholic Church, with 1,252,936; the United Church of Christ, with 96,506 ; and non-denominational Evangelical Protestants, with 72,863.
The Jewish population is concentrated in the towns near Long Island Sound between Greenwich and New Haven, in Greater New Haven and in Greater Hartford, especially the suburb of West Hartford .
Connecticut's per capita personal income in 2013 was estimated at $60,847 , the highest of any state.
There is, however, a great disparity in incomes throughout the state; after New York , Connecticut had the second largest gap nationwide between the average incomes of the top 1 percent and the average incomes of the bottom 99 percent.
According to a 2013 study by Phoenix Marketing International, Connecticut had the third -largest number of millionaires per capita in the United States, with a ratio of 7.32 percent.
According to a 2013 study by Phoenix Marketing International, Connecticut had the third-largest number of millionaires per capita in the United States, with a ratio of 7.32 percent .
Hartford is the poorest municipality in Connecticut, with a per capita income of $13,428 in 2000.
All wages of Connecticut residents are subject to the state's income tax, even if earned outside the state.
Since New York and Massachusetts have higher tax rates than Connecticut, this effectively means that Connecticut residents that work in those states have no Connecticut income tax withheld.
Connecticut permits a credit for taxes paid to other jurisdictions, but since residents who work in other states are still subject to Connecticut income taxation, they may owe taxes if the jurisdictional credit does not fully offset the Connecticut tax amount.
Connecticut permits a credit for taxes paid to other jurisdictions, but since residents who work in other states are still subject to Connecticut income taxation, they may owe taxes if the jurisdictional credit does not fully offset the Connecticut tax amount.
However, in those cases, Connecticut income tax must be withheld only to the extent the Connecticut tax exceeds the amount withheld by the other jurisdiction .
Connecticut levies a 6.35% state sales tax on the retail sale, lease, or rental of most goods.
A provision excluding clothing under $50 from sales tax was repealed as of July 1, 2011.
A provision excluding clothing under $50 from sales tax was repealed as of July 1, 2011 .
There are no additional sales taxes imposed by local jurisdictions.
In August 2013, Connecticut authorized a sales tax "holiday" for one week during which retailers did not have to remit sales tax on certain items and quantities of clothing.
All real and personal property located within the state of Connecticut is taxable unless specifically exempted by statute.
The maximum property tax credit is $300 per return and any excess may not be refunded or carried forward.
All real and personal property located within the state of Connecticut is taxable unless specifically exempted by statute.
According to the Tax Foundation, the 2010 Census data shows Connecticut residents paying the 2nd highest average property taxes in the nation with only New Jersey ahead of them.
Another 20% of the value may be taxed by the local government though.
Finance and insurance is Connecticut's largest industry, according to the U.S. Census Bureau, generating 16.4% of gross domestic product (GDP) in 2009.
Finance and insurance is Connecticut's largest industry, according to the U.S. Census Bureau, generating 16.4% of gross domestic product (GDP) in 2009.
Finance and insurance is Connecticut's largest industry, according to the U.S. Census Bureau, generating 16.4 % of gross domestic product (GDP) in 2009.
Separately, the real estate industry accounted for an additional 15 % of economic activity in 2009, with major employers including Realogy; and William Raveis Real Estate.
Major financial industry employers include The Hartford , Travelers, Cigna, Aetna, Mass Mutual, People's United Financial, Royal Bank of Scotland, UBS Bridgewater Associates and GE Capital.
Two casinos, Foxwoods Resort Casino and Mohegan Sun , number among the state's largest employers; both are located on Native American reservations in the eastern part of Connecticut.
A report issued by the Connecticut Commission on Culture & Tourism on December 7, 2006, demonstrated that the economic impact of the arts, film, history and tourism generated more than $14 billion in economic activity and 170,000 jobs annually .
Two casinos, Foxwoods Resort Casino and Mohegan Sun, number among the state's largest employers; both are located on Native American reservations in the eastern part of Connecticut.
A report issued by the Connecticut Commission on Culture & Tourism on December 7, 2006, demonstrated that the economic impact of the arts, film, history and tourism generated more than $14 billion in economic activity and 170,000 jobs annually.
Oyster harvesting was historically an important source of income to towns along the Connecticut coastline.
In 1911, Connecticut's oyster production reached its peak at nearly 25 million pounds of oyster meats.
In the 19th century , oystering boomed in New Haven, Bridgeport and Norwalk and achieved modest success in neighboring towns.
The sloop Hope, completed in Greenwich in 1948, is believed to be the last oyster sloop built in Connecticut.
During this time, the Connecticut coast was known, in the shellfishing industry, as the oyster capital of the world .
The Interstate highways in the state are Interstate 95 (I-95; the Connecticut Turnpike ) traveling southwest to northeast along the coast, I-84 traveling southwest to northeast in the center of the state, I-91 traveling north to south in the center of the state, and I-395 traveling north to south near the eastern border of the state.
The other major highways in Connecticut are the Merritt Parkway and Wilbur Cross Parkway, which together form Connecticut Route 15 (Route 15), traveling from the Hutchinson River Parkway in New York parallel to I-95 before turning north of New Haven and traveling parallel to I-91, finally becoming a surface road in Berlin.
A series of terrible crashes at these plazas eventually contributed to the decision to remove the tolls in 1988.
Other major arteries in the state include U.S. Route 7 (US 7) in the west traveling parallel to the New York state line, Route 8 farther east near the industrial city of Waterbury and traveling north–south along the Naugatuck River Valley nearly parallel with US 7, and Connecticut Route 9 in the east.
Connecticut averages 56% of possible sunshine (higher than the USA average), averaging 2,400 hours of sunshine annually.
Connecticut averages 56% of possible sunshine (higher than the USA average), averaging 2,400 hours of sunshine annually.
Far southern and coastal Connecticut has a more mild humid temperate/subtropical climate with seasonal extremes tempered by proximity to the Atlantic Ocean , warmer winters, and longer frost-free seasons.
Much of Connecticut has a humid continental climate , with cold winters and warm humid summers.
Far southern and coastal Connecticut has a more mild humid temperate/ subtropical climate with seasonal extremes tempered by proximity to the Atlantic Ocean, warmer winters, and longer frost-free seasons.
Winters are generally cool to cold from south to north in Connecticut, with average January temperatures ranging from 38 °F (3 °C) in the coastal lowlands to 29 °F (−2 °C) in the inland and northern portions on the state.
Winters are generally cool to cold from south to north in Connecticut, with average January temperatures ranging from 38 °F (3 °C) in the coastal lowlands to 29 °F (−2 °C) in the inland and northern portions on the state.
The average yearly snowfall ranges from about 50–60 inches (1,300–1,500 mm) in the higher elevations of the northern portion of the state to only 20–25 inches (510–640 mm) along the southeast coast of Connecticut.
The average yearly snowfall ranges from about 50–60 inches (1,300–1,500 mm) in the higher elevations of the northern portion of the state to only 20–25 inches (510–640 mm) along the southeast coast of Connecticut.
Generally, any locale north or west of Interstate 84 receives the most snow, during a storm, and throughout the season.
Summer is hot and often humid throughout the state, with average highs in New London of 81 °F (27 °C) and 87 °F (31 °C) in Windsor Locks.
Although summer s are sunny in Connecticut, summer thunderstorms often bring quick downpours with thunder and lighting.
Summer is hot and often humid throughout the state, with average highs in New London of 81 °F (27 °C) and 87 °F (31 °C) in Windsor Locks.
Thunderstorms are most frequent during the summer, occurring on average 30 times annually.
These storms can be severe, and the state usually averages one tornado per year .
The first European explorer in Connecticut was the Dutch explorer Adriaen Block .
After he explored this region in 1614 , Dutch fur traders sailed up the Connecticut River (then known by the Dutch as Versche Rivier – "Fresh River") and built a fort at Dutch Point in what is present-day Hartford, which they called "House of Hope" (Dutch: Huis van Hoop).
After he explored this region in 1614, Dutch fur traders sailed up the Connecticut River (then known by the Dutch as Versche Rivier – "Fresh River") and built a fort at Dutch Point in what is present-day Hartford, which they called "House of Hope" (Dutch: Huis van Hoop).
After he explored this region in 1614, Dutch fur traders sailed up the Connecticut River (then known by the Dutch as Versche Rivier – "Fresh River") and built a fort at Dutch Point in what is present-day Hartford, which they called "House of Hope" (Dutch: Huis van Hoop).
The name Connecticut is derived from anglicized versions of the Algonquian word that has been translated as "long tidal river" and "upon the long river."
The first English settlers came in 1633 and settled at Windsor, and then at Wethersfield the following year.
He broke with the political leadership in Massachusetts, and, just as Roger Williams created a new polity in Rhode Island, Hooker and his cohort did the same and established the Connecticut Colony at Hartford in 1636.
The settlers were Puritans from Massachusetts, led by Thomas Hooker .
However, the main body of settlers came in one large group in 1636 .
The New Haven Colony had its own constitution, " The Fundamental Agreement of the New Haven Colony ," which was signed on June 4, 1639.
Connecticut is known as the "Constitution State" .
After the Fundamental Orders, Connecticut was granted governmental authority by King Charles II of England through the Connecticut Charter of 1662 .
After the Fundamental Orders, Connecticut was granted governmental authority by King Charles II of England through the Connecticut Charter of 1662.
While the origin of this title is uncertain, the nickname may either refer to the Fundamental Orders of 1638–39 or possibly the "Great Compromise" ("Connecticut Compromise") of the 1787 Constitutional convention.
After the Fundamental Orders, Connecticut was granted governmental authority by King Charles II of England through the Connecticut Charter of 1662 .
The more likely source of the nickname "Constitution State" comes from Connecticut's pivotal role in the federal constitutional convention of 1787 , during which Roger Sherman and Oliver Ellsworth helped to orchestrate what became known as the Connecticut Compromise, or the Great Compromise.
The more likely source of the nickname "Constitution State" comes from Connecticut's pivotal role in the federal constitutional convention of 1787, during which Roger Sherman and Oliver Ellsworth helped to orchestrate what became known as the Connecticut Compromise, or the Great Compromise.
This plan combined the Virginia Plan and the New Jersey Plan to form a bicameral legislature, a form copied by almost every state constitution since the adoption of the federal constitution.
Although variations of the bicameral legislature had been proposed by Virginia and New Jersey , Connecticut's plan is the one that was in effect until the early 20th century, when Senators ceased to be selected by their state legislatures and were instead directly elected.
Although variations of the bicameral legislature had been proposed by Virginia and New Jersey, Connecticut's plan is the one that was in effect until the early 20th century , when Senators ceased to be selected by their state legislatures and were instead directly elected.
A commuter rail service called the Hartford Line between New Haven and Springfield on Amtrak's New Haven-Springfield Line is scheduled to begin operating in 2018 .
A proposed commuter rail service, the Central Corridor Rail Line , will connect New London with Norwich, Willimantic, Storrs, and Stafford Springs, with service continuing into Massachusetts and Brattleboro.
Southwestern Connecticut is served by the Metro-North Railroad's New Haven Line , operated by the Metropolitan Transportation Authority and providing commuter service to New York City and New Haven, with branches servicing New Canaan, Danbury, and Waterbury.
Southwestern Connecticut is served by the Metro-North Railroad's New Haven Line, operated by the Metropolitan Transportation Authority and providing commuter service to New York City and New Haven, with branches servicing New Canaan, Danbury, and Waterbury.
As of 2011[update], Dannel Malloy is the Governor and Nancy Wyman is the Lieutenant Governor, both are Democrats.
Malloy, the former mayor of Stamford, won the 2010 general election for Governor, and was sworn in on January 5, 2011 .
In 1974, Ella Grasso was elected as the governor of Connecticut.
As of 2011[update], Dannel Malloy is the Governor and Nancy Wyman is the Lieutenant Governor, both are Democrats.
From 1639 until the adoption of the 1818 constitution, the governor presided over the General Assembly.
There are several executive departments: Administrative Services, Agriculture, Banking, Children and Families, Consumer Protection, Correction, Economic and Community Development, Developmental Services, Construction Services, Education, Emergency Management and Public Protection, Energy & Environmental Protection, Higher Education, Insurance, Labor, Mental Health and Addiction Services , Military, Motor Vehicles, Public Health, Public Utility Regulatory Authority, Public Works, Revenue Services, Social Services, Transportation, and Veterans Affairs.
There are several executive departments: Administrative Services, Agriculture, Banking, Children and Families, Consumer Protection, Correction, Economic and Community Development, Developmental Services, Construction Services, Education, Emergency Management and Public Protection, Energy & Environmental Protection, Higher Education, Insurance, Labor, Mental Health and Addiction Services, Military, Motor Vehicles, Public Health, Public Utility Regulatory Authority , Public Works, Revenue Services, Social Services, Transportation, and Veterans Affairs.
There are several executive departments: Administrative Services, Agriculture, Banking, Children and Families, Consumer Protection, Correction, Economic and Community Development, Developmental Services, Construction Services, Education, Emergency Management and Public Protection, Energy & Environmental Protection, Higher Education, Insurance, Labor, Mental Health and Addiction Services, Military, Motor Vehicles, Public Health, Public Utility Regulatory Authority, Public Works, Revenue Services, Social Services, Transportation, and Veterans Affairs .
There are several executive departments: Administrative Services, Agriculture, Banking, Children and Families, Consumer Protection, Correction, Economic and Community Development, Developmental Services, Construction Services, Education, Emergency Management and Public Protection , Energy & Environmental Protection, Higher Education, Insurance, Labor, Mental Health and Addiction Services, Military, Motor Vehicles, Public Health, Public Utility Regulatory Authority, Public Works, Revenue Services, Social Services, Transportation, and Veterans Affairs.
There are several executive departments: Administrative Services, Agriculture, Banking, Children and Families, Consumer Protection, Correction, Economic and Community Development, Developmental Services, Construction Services, Education, Emergency Management and Public Protection, Energy & Environmental Protection , Higher Education, Insurance, Labor, Mental Health and Addiction Services, Military, Motor Vehicles, Public Health, Public Utility Regulatory Authority, Public Works, Revenue Services, Social Services, Transportation, and Veterans Affairs.
Connecticut residents who register to vote have the option of declaring an affiliation to a political party , may become unaffiliated at will, and may change affiliations subject to certain waiting periods.
As of 2013[update] about 58% of registered voters are enrolled (about 1% total in 18 third parties minor parties), and ratios among unaffiliated voters and the two major parties are about 8 unaffiliated for every 7 in the Democratic Party of Connecticut and for every 4 in the Connecticut Republican Party.
As of 2013[update] about 58% of registered voters are enrolled (about 1% total in 18 third parties minor parties), and ratios among unaffiliated voters and the two major parties are about 8 unaffiliated for every 7 in the Democratic Party of Connecticut and for every 4 in the Connecticut Republican Party.
As of 2013[update] about 58% of registered voters are enrolled (about 1% total in 18 third parties minor parties), and ratios among unaffiliated voters and the two major parties are about 8 unaffiliated for every 7 in the Democratic Party of Connecticut and for every 4 in the Connecticut Republican Party .
Elections in Connecticut take place mostly at the levels of town and/or city, state legislative districts for both houses, Congressional districts, and statewide .
In almost all races , the two major parties have some practical advantages granted on the basis of their respective performances in the most recent election covering the same constituency.
Several processes , to varying degrees internal to either a major or minor party, are in practice nearly prerequisites to being permitted mention on the provided ballots, and even more so to winning office.
In almost all races, the two major parties have some practical advantages granted on the basis of their respective performances in the most recent election covering the same constituency .
More specifically, the status of "major party" is usually reconfirmed every four years , as belonging to the two parties that polled best, statewide, in the gubernatorial column; this status includes the benefit of appearing in one of the top two rows on the ballot provided the party has at least one candidate on the ballot.
More specifically, the status of "major party" is usually reconfirmed every four years, as belonging to the two parties that polled best, statewide, in the gubernatorial column; this status includes the benefit of appearing in one of the top two rows on the ballot provided the party has at least one candidate on the ballot.
More specifically, the status of "major party" is usually reconfirmed every four years, as belonging to the two parties that polled best, statewide, in the gubernatorial column ; this status includes the benefit of appearing in one of the top two rows on the ballot provided the party has at least one candidate on the ballot.
Minor parties appear below major parties , and their performance in recent elections determines whether a candidates who wins in their nomination process must also meet a petitioning threshold in order to appear.
In a major party, a party convention for the office's constituency must be held; in practice, at the town level, a major party convention of voters of the town who are enrolled in the party usually is attended almost exclusively by members of the town party committee.
In a major party, a party convention for the office's constituency must be held; in practice, at the town level, a major party convention of voters of the town who are enrolled in the party usually is attended almost exclusively by members of the town party committee .
The convention may choose to endorse a candidate , who will appear on the ballot unless additional candidates meet a petition threshold for a primary election; if at least one candidate meets the petition threshold, the endorsed candidate and all who meet the threshold appear on the primary ballot, and the winner of the primary election appears on the party line for that office.
The convention may choose to endorse a candidate, who will appear on the ballot unless additional candidates meet a petition threshold for a primary election; if at least one candidate meets the petition threshold, the endorsed candidate and all who meet the threshold appear on the primary ballot , and the winner of the primary election appears on the party line for that office.
In short, most winning candidates have won the endorsement of the applicable "major"-party convention; nearly all of the rest have won with a "professionally managed" primary-election campaign; and successful minor-party candidates are almost without exception major-party figures like Lowell Weicker whose minor parties disappear after that success.
In short, most winning candidates have won the endorsement of the applicable "major"-party convention; nearly all of the rest have won with a "professionally managed" primary-election campaign ; and successful minor-party candidates are almost without exception major-party figures like Lowell Weicker whose minor parties disappear after that success.
A Connecticut Party, which Weicker founded, became nominally the leading major party, and state law was changed during his administration to provide that in a situation such as his win, the top "three" parties in the governor's race all became major parties .
In short, most winning candidates have won the endorsement of the applicable "major"-party convention; nearly all of the rest have won with a "professionally managed" primary-election campaign; and successful minor-party candidates are almost without exception major-party figures like Lowell Weicker whose minor parties disappear after that success.
Connecticut retained land.extending across the northern part of present-day Ohio, called the Connecticut Western Reserve .
The Western Reserve section was settled largely by people from Connecticut , and they brought Connecticut place names to Ohio.
Agreements with Pennsylvania and New York extinguished the land claims by Connecticut within its neighbors, creating the Connecticut Panhandle.
In 1786, Connecticut ceded territory to the U.S. government that became part of the Northwest Territory .
In 1786, Connecticut ceded territory to the U.S. government that became part of the Northwest Territory.
For the winter of 1778–79, General George Washington decided to split the Continental Army into three divisions encircling New York City, where British General Sir Henry Clinton had taken up winter quarters.
The Redding encampment allowed Putnam's soldiers to guard the replenished supply depot in Danbury and support any operations along Long Island Sound and the Hudson River Valley.
Some of the men were veterans of the winter encampment at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania the previous winter.
The Redding encampment allowed Putnam's soldiers to guard the replenished supply depot in Danbury and support any operations along Long Island Sound and the Hudson River Valley.
Soldiers at the Redding camp endured supply shortages, cold temperatures and significant snow, with some historians dubbing the encampment "Connecticut's Valley Forge."
"provided the said line come not within 10 miles (16 km) of Hudson River .
According to the Hartford Treaty with the Dutch, signed on September 19, 1650, but never ratified by the British, the western boundary of Connecticut ran north from Greenwich Bay for a distance of 20 miles (32 km).
This agreement was observed by both sides until war erupted between England and The Netherlands in 1652.
Conflict over uncertain colonial limits continued until the Duke of York captured New Netherland in 1664."
Connecticut took its grant seriously, and established a ninth county between the Susquehanna and Delaware Rivers, named Westmoreland County .
Neither the establishment of the Connecticut Colony or the Quinnipiack Colony was carried out with the sanction of the English Crown , and they were independent political entities.
They naturally were presumptively English, but in a legal sense, they were only secessionist outposts of Massachusetts Bay .
In 1662, Winthrop took advantage of this void in political affairs and obtained in England the charter by which the colonies of Connecticut and Quinnipiack were united from the newly restored Charles II, who granted liberal political terms.
In 1662, Winthrop took advantage of this void in political affairs and obtained in England the charter by which the colonies of Connecticut and Quinnipiack were united from the newly restored Charles II , who granted liberal political terms.
Although Winthrop's charter favored the Connecticut colony, New Haven remained a seat of government with Hartford until after the American Revolution.
With the Pequot people reacting with increasing aggression to European settlers encroaching on their territory, settlers responded in 1636 with a raid on a Pequot village on Block Island.
The Pequots laid siege to Saybrook Colony's garrison that autumn, then in the spring of 1637 raided Wethersfield.
Colonists there declared war on the Pequots, organized a band of militia and Native Americans, and attacked a Pequot village on the Mystic River , with death toll estimates ranging between 300 and 700 Pequots.
Colonists there declared war on the Pequots, organized a band of militia and Native Americans, and attacked a Pequot village on the Mystic River, with death toll estimates ranging between 300 and 700 Pequots .
After suffering another major loss at a battle in Fairfield , the Pequots asked for a truce and peace terms.
In more traditional terminology, it is an inflected language , although the typologists are apt to say "inflecting".
This fusion of root meaning and markers produces very compact sentence elements.
Thus words include an objective semantic element, and also markers specifying the grammatical use of the word .
This fusion of root meaning and markers produces very compact sentence elements .
For example, amō , "I love," is produced from a semantic element, ama-, "love," to which -ō, a first person singular marker, is suffixed.
The grammatical function can be changed by changing the markers : the word is "inflected" to express different grammatical functions.
The semantic element does not change .
The grammatical function can be changed by changing the markers: the word is "inflected" to express different grammatical functions .
For example, amābit, " he or she will love ", is formed from the same stem, amā-, to which a future tense marker, -bi-, is suffixed, and a third person singular marker, -t, is suffixed.
All natural languages contain ambiguities of one sort or another.
A regular Latin noun belongs to one of five main declensions, a group of nouns with similar inflected forms.
A regular Latin noun belongs to one of five main declensions, a group of nouns with similar inflected forms .
The declensions are identified by the genitive singular form of the noun .
The fourth declension, with a predominant ending letter of u , is signified by the genitive singular ending of -ūs.
And the fifth declension , with a predominant ending letter of e, is signified by the genitive singular ending of -ei.
First and second declension adjectives are declined like first declension nouns for the feminine forms and like second declension nouns for the masculine and neuter forms.
First and second declension adjectives are declined like first declension nouns for the feminine forms and like second declension nouns for the masculine and neuter forms.
For example, for mortuus, mortua, mortuum (dead), mortua is declined like a regular first declension noun (such as puella (girl)), mortuus is declined like a regular second declension masculine noun (such as dominus (lord, master)), and mortuum is declined like a regular second declension neuter noun (such as auxilium (help)).
First and second declension adjectives are declined like first declension nouns for the feminine forms and like second declension nouns for the masculine and neuter forms.
A regular verb in Latin belongs to one of four main conjugations .
The conjugations are identified by the last letter of the verb's present stem .
A conjugation is " a class of verbs with similar inflected forms ."
The present stem can be found by stripping the -re (or -ri, in the case of a deponent verb) ending from the present infinitive form .
Irregular verbs may not follow these types, or may be marked in a different way.
Third-conjugation stems end in a consonant : the consonant conjugation.
Further, there is a subset of the 3rd conjugation, the i-stems , which behave somewhat like the 4th conjugation, as they are both i-stems, one short and the other long.
Further, there is a subset of the 3rd conjugation, the i-stems, which behave somewhat like the 4th conjugation , as they are both i-stems, one short and the other long.
These stem categories descend from Indo-European, and can therefore be compared to similar conjugations in other Indo-European languages.
There are six tenses in the Latin language.
These are divided into two tense systems: the present system, which is made up of the present, imperfect, and future tenses, and the perfect system, which is made up of the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect tenses.
These are divided into two tense systems: the present system, which is made up of the present, imperfect, and future tenses , and the perfect system, which is made up of the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect tenses.
These are divided into two tense systems: the present system, which is made up of the present, imperfect, and future tenses, and the perfect system, which is made up of the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect tenses .
After the Fall of Tarentum ( 272 BC ), the Romans began hellenizing, or adopting features of Greek culture, including the borrowing of Greek words, such as camera (vaulted roof), sumbolum (symbol), and balineum (bath).
After the Fall of Tarentum (272 BC), the Romans began hellenizing, or adopting features of Greek culture , including the borrowing of Greek words, such as camera (vaulted roof), sumbolum (symbol), and balineum (bath).
This hellenization led to the addition of "Y" and "Z" to the alphabet to represent Greek sounds.
After the Fall of Tarentum (272 BC), the Romans began hellenizing, or adopting features of Greek culture, including the borrowing of Greek words, such as camera (vaulted roof), sumbolum (symbol), and balineum (bath).
Some films of ancient settings, such as Sebastiane and The Passion of the Christ , have been made with dialogue in Latin for the sake of realism.
Some films of ancient settings, such as Sebastiane and The Passion of the Christ, have been made with dialogue in Latin for the sake of realism .
Subtitles are usually shown for the benefit of those who do not understand Latin. There are also songs written with Latin lyrics.
Some films of ancient settings, such as Sebastiane and The Passion of the Christ, have been made with dialogue in Latin for the sake of realism .
Many organizations today have Latin mottos, such as " Semper paratus " (always ready), the motto of the United States Coast Guard, and "Semper fidelis" (always faithful), the motto of the United States Marine Corps.
Veritas was the goddess of truth, a daughter of Saturn, and the mother of Virtue.
Several of the states of the United States also have Latin mottos, such as "Qui transtulit sustinet" ("He who transplanted still sustains"), the state motto of Connecticut; "Ad astra per aspera" ("To the stars through hardships"), that of Kansas; "Si quaeris peninsulam amoenam, circumspice" ("If you seek a pleasant peninsula, look about you"), that of Michigan; " Salus populi suprema lex esto " ("The health of the people should be the highest law"), that of Missouri; "Esse quam videri" (To be rather than to seem), that of North Carolina; "Sic semper tyrannis" (Thus always for tyrants), that of Virginia; and "Montani semper liberi" (Mountaineers are always free), that of West Virginia.
Several of the states of the United States also have Latin mottos, such as "Qui transtulit sustinet" ("He who transplanted still sustains"), the state motto of Connecticut; "Ad astra per aspera" (" To the stars through hardships "), that of Kansas; "Si quaeris peninsulam amoenam, circumspice" ("If you seek a pleasant peninsula, look about you"), that of Michigan; "Salus populi suprema lex esto" ("The health of the people should be the highest law"), that of Missouri; "Esse quam videri" (To be rather than to seem), that of North Carolina; "Sic semper tyrannis" (Thus always for tyrants), that of Virginia; and "Montani semper liberi" (Mountaineers are always free), that of West Virginia.
Classical Latin distinguished between long and short vowels .
During the Classical period, long vowels, except for ⟨I⟩, were frequently marked using the apex , which was sometimes similar to an acute accent ⟨Á É Ó V́ Ý⟩. Long /iː/ was written using a taller version of ⟨I⟩, called i longa "long I": ⟨ꟾ⟩. In modern texts, long vowels are often indicated by a macron ⟨ā ē ī ō ū⟩, and short vowels are usually unmarked, except when necessary to distinguish between words, in which case they are marked with a breve: ⟨ă ĕ ĭ ŏ ŭ⟩.
During the Classical period, long vowels, except for ⟨I⟩ , were frequently marked using the apex, which was sometimes similar to an acute accent ⟨Á É Ó V́ Ý⟩. Long /iː/ was written using a taller version of ⟨I⟩, called i longa "long I": ⟨ꟾ⟩. In modern texts, long vowels are often indicated by a macron ⟨ā ē ī ō ū⟩, and short vowels are usually unmarked, except when necessary to distinguish between words, in which case they are marked with a breve: ⟨ă ĕ ĭ ŏ ŭ⟩.
a macron ⟨ā ē ī ō ū⟩, and short vowels are usually unmarked, except when necessary to distinguish between words, in which case they are marked with a breve: ⟨ă ĕ ĭ ŏ ŭ⟩.
These sequences sometimes did not represent diphthongs .
⟨ae⟩ and ⟨oe⟩ also represented a sequence of two vowels in different syllables in aēnus [aˈeː.nʊs] "of bronze" and coēpit [kɔˈeː.pɪt] "began", and ⟨au ui eu ei ou⟩ represented sequences of two vowels, or of a vowel and one of the semivowels /j w/, in cauē [ˈka.weː] "beware!", cuius [ˈkʊj.jʊs] "whose", monuī [ˈmɔn.ʊ.iː] "I warned", soluī [ˈsɔɫ.wiː] "I released", dēlēuī [deːˈleː.wiː] "I destroyed", eius [ˈɛj.jʊs] "his", and nouus [ˈnɔ.wʊs] "new".
⟨ae⟩ and ⟨oe⟩ also represented a sequence of two vowels in different syllables in aēnus [aˈeː.nʊs] "of bronze" and coēpit [kɔˈeː.pɪt] "began", and ⟨au ui eu ei ou⟩ represented sequences of two vowels, or of a vowel and one of the semivowels /j w/, in cauē [ˈka.weː] "beware!", cuius [ˈkʊj.jʊs] "whose", monuī [ˈmɔn.ʊ.iː] "I warned", soluī [ˈsɔɫ.wiː] "I released", dēlēuī [deːˈleː.wiː] "I destroyed", eius [ˈɛj.jʊs] "his", and nouus [ˈnɔ.wʊs] "new".
⟨ae⟩ and ⟨oe⟩ also represented a sequence of two vowels in different syllables in aēnus [aˈeː.nʊs] "of bronze" and coēpit [kɔˈeː.pɪt] "began", and ⟨au ui eu ei ou⟩ represented sequences of two vowels, or of a vowel and one of the semivowels /j w/, in cauē [ˈka.weː] "beware!", cuius [ˈkʊj.jʊs] "whose", monuī [ˈmɔn.ʊ.iː] "I warned", soluī [ˈsɔɫ.wiː] "I released", dēlēuī [deːˈleː.wiː] "I destroyed", eius [ˈɛj.jʊs] "his", and nouus [ˈnɔ.wʊs] "new".
Latin was written in the Latin alphabet, derived from the Old Italic alphabet , which was in turn drawn from the Greek and ultimately the Phoenician alphabet.
Latin was written in the Latin alphabet, derived from the Old Italic alphabet, which was in turn drawn from the Greek and ultimately the Phoenician alphabet .
This alphabet has continued to be used over the centuries as the script for the Romance, Celtic , Germanic, Baltic, Finnic, and many Slavic languages (Polish, Slovak, Slovene, Croatian and Czech), and has been adopted by many languages around the world, including Vietnamese, the Austronesian languages, many Turkic languages, and most languages in sub-Saharan Africa, the Americas, and Oceania, making it by far the world's single most widely used writing system.
This alphabet has continued to be used over the centuries as the script for the Romance, Celtic, Germanic, Baltic, Finnic, and many Slavic languages (Polish, Slovak, Slovene, Croatian and Czech), and has been adopted by many languages around the world, including Vietnamese , the Austronesian languages, many Turkic languages, and most languages in sub-Saharan Africa, the Americas, and Oceania, making it by far the world's single most widely used writing system.
Despite dialect variation (which is found in any sufficiently widespread language) the languages of Spain, France, Portugal, and Italy retained a remarkable unity in phonological forms and developments , bolstered by the stabilizing influence of their common Christian (Roman Catholic) culture.
Despite dialect variation (which is found in any sufficiently widespread language) the languages of Spain, France, Portugal, and Italy retained a remarkable unity in phonological forms and developments, bolstered by the stabilizing influence of their common Christian (Roman Catholic) culture .
It was not until the Moorish conquest of Spain in 711 cut off communications between the major Romance regions that the languages began to diverge seriously.
It was not until the Moorish conquest of Spain in 711 cut off communications between the major Romance regions that the languages began to diverge seriously.
The Vulgar Latin dialect that would later become Romanian diverged somewhat more from the other varieties due to its being largely cut off from the unifying influences in the western part of the Empire.
Medieval Latin is the written Latin in use during that portion of the post-classical period when no corresponding Latin vernacular existed.
The spoken language had developed into the various incipient Romance languages; however, in the educated and official world Latin continued without its natural spoken base .
It became useful for international communication between the member states of the Holy Roman Empire and its allies .
Moreover, this Latin spread into lands that had never spoken Latin, such as the Germanic and Slavic nations .
The spoken language had developed into the various incipient Romance languages ; however, in the educated and official world Latin continued without its natural spoken base.
Without the institutions of the Roman empire that had supported its uniformity, medieval Latin lost its linguistic cohesion: for example, in classical Latin sum and eram are used as auxiliary verbs in the perfect and pluperfect passive, which are compound tenses.
Without the institutions of the Roman empire that had supported its uniformity, medieval Latin lost its linguistic cohesion : for example, in classical Latin sum and eram are used as auxiliary verbs in the perfect and pluperfect passive, which are compound tenses.
Furthermore, the meanings of many words have been changed and new vocabularies have been introduced from the vernacular.
Medieval Latin might use fui and fueram instead.
The Renaissance briefly reinforced the position of Latin as a spoken language, through its adoption by the Renaissance Humanists.
The Renaissance briefly reinforced the position of Latin as a spoken language, through its adoption by the Renaissance Humanists .
The Renaissance briefly reinforced the position of Latin as a spoken language, through its adoption by the Renaissance Humanists .
They strove to preserve what they could and restore Latin to what it had been, introducing the practice of producing revised editions of the literary works that remained by comparing surviving manuscripts.
They corrected medieval Latin out of existence no later than the 15th century and replaced it with more formally correct versions supported by the scholars of the rising universities, who attempted, through scholarship, to discover what the classical language had been.
The largest organization that retains Latin in official and quasi-official contexts is the Catholic Church .
Latin remains the language of the Roman Rite; the Tridentine Mass is celebrated in Latin.
In the pontifical universities postgraduate courses of Canon law are taught in Latin and papers should be written in the same language.
Vatican City is also home to the world's only ATM that gives instructions in Latin.
The largest organization that retains Latin in official and quasi-official contexts is the Catholic Church.
By the late Roman Republic ( 75 BC ), Old Latin had been standardized into Classical Latin.
Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence.
By the late Roman Republic (75 BC), Old Latin had been standardized into Classical Latin .
Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence.
Late Latin is the written language beginning in the 3rd century AD and Medieval Latin the language used from the ninth century until the Renaissance which used Renaissance Latin.
The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part, in substantial works or in fragments to be analyzed in philology.
Their works were published in manuscript form before the invention of printing and now exist in carefully annotated printed editions such as the Loeb Classical Library , published by Harvard University Press, or the Oxford Classical Texts, published by Oxford University Press.
Their works were published in manuscript form before the invention of printing and now exist in carefully annotated printed editions such as the Loeb Classical Library, published by Harvard University Press, or the Oxford Classical Texts, published by Oxford University Press.
Their works were published in manuscript form before the invention of printing and now exist in carefully annotated printed editions such as the Loeb Classical Library, published by Harvard University Press, or the Oxford Classical Texts , published by Oxford University Press.
They are in part the subject matter of the field of Classics .
Additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissner's Latin Phrasebook.
The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales , "fabulae mirabiles," are intended to garner popular interest in the language.
How the Grinch Stole Christmas!,
Latin translations of modern literature such as The Hobbit, Treasure Island, Robinson Crusoe, Paddington Bear, Winnie the Pooh, The Adventures of Tintin, Asterix, Harry Potter, Walter the Farting Dog, Le Petit Prince, Max und Moritz, How the Grinch Stole Christmas!,
The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, "fabulae mirabiles," are intended to garner popular interest in the language.
Many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French .
In the medieval period, much borrowing from Latin occurred through ecclesiastical usage established by Saint Augustine of Canterbury in the sixth century or indirectly after the Norman Conquest through the Anglo-Norman language.
From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words.
These were dubbed " inkhorn terms ", as if they had spilled from a pot of ink.
Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development.
Due to the influence of Roman governance and Roman technology on the less developed nations under Roman dominion , those nations adopted Latin phraseology in some specialized areas, such as science, technology, medicine, and law.
For example, the Linnaean system of plant and animal classification was heavily influenced by Historia Naturalis, an encyclopedia of people, places, plants, animals, and things published by Pliny the Elder .
Roman medicine, recorded in the works of such physicians as Galen , established that today's medical terminology would be primarily derived from Latin and Greek words, the Greek being filtered through the Latin.
Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole.
Latin law principles have survived partly in a long list of legal Latin terms .
Throughout European history, an education in the Classics was considered crucial for those who wished to join literate circles.
Instruction in Latin is an essential aspect of Classics.
In today's world, a large number of Latin students in America learn from Wheelock's Latin: The Classic Introductory Latin Course , Based on Ancient Authors.
This book, first published in 1956 , was written by Frederic M. Wheelock, who received a PhD from Harvard University.
This book, first published in 1956, was written by Frederic M. Wheelock, who received a PhD from Harvard University .
The Living Latin movement attempts to teach Latin in the same way that living languages are taught, i.e., as a means of both spoken and written communication .
It is available at the Vatican and at some institutions in the U.S. , such as the University of Kentucky and Iowa State University.
The British Cambridge University Press is a major supplier of Latin textbooks for all levels, such as the Cambridge Latin Course series.
The British Cambridge University Press is a major supplier of Latin textbooks for all levels, such as the Cambridge Latin Course series.
It has also published a subseries of children's texts in Latin by Bell & Forte, which recounts the adventures of a mouse called Minimus .
In the United Kingdom, the Classical Association encourages the study of antiquity through various means, such as publications and grants .
The University of Cambridge, the Open University (OU), a number of prestigious independent schools, for example Eton and Harrow, and Via Facilis, a London-based charity , run Latin courses.
Its subsidiaries include the National Junior Classical League (with more than 50,000 members), which encourages high school students to pursue the study of Latin, and the National Senior Classical League, which encourages students to continue their study of the classics into college.
Its subsidiaries include the National Junior Classical League (with more than 50,000 members ), which encourages high school students to pursue the study of Latin, and the National Senior Classical League, which encourages students to continue their study of the classics into college.
In the United States and Canada, the American Classical League supports every effort to further the study of classics.
According to Roman Mythology, Latin was established by a tribal people called the Latini some time before the Trojan War .[citation needed] A number of historical phases of the language have been recognized, each distinguished by subtle differences in vocabulary, usage, spelling, morphology, and syntax.
There are no hard and fast rules of classification ; different scholars emphasize different features.
There are no hard and fast rules of classification; different scholars emphasize different features .
According to Roman Mythology, Latin was established by a tribal people called the Latini some time before the Trojan War.[citation needed] A number of historical phases of the language have been recognized, each distinguished by subtle differences in vocabulary, usage, spelling, morphology, and syntax.
In addition to the historical phases, Ecclesiastical Latin refers to the styles used by the writers of the Roman Catholic Church , as well as by Protestant scholars, from Late Antiquity onward.
As vernacular Latin was free to develop on its own, there is no reason to suppose that the speech was uniform either diachronically or geographically .
The Decline of the Roman Empire meant a deterioration in educational standards that brought about Late Latin, a post-classical stage of the language seen in Christian writings of the time.
The Decline of the Roman Empire meant a deterioration in educational standards that brought about Late Latin, a post-classical stage of the language seen in Christian writings of the time .
This language was more in line with the everyday speech not only because of a decline in education, but also because of a desire to spread the word to the masses.
As vernacular Latin was free to develop on its own , there is no reason to suppose that the speech was uniform either diachronically or geographically.
Fundamental results of computability theory show that there are functions that can be precisely defined but are not computable.
The number of computable functions from integers to integers is countable, because the number of possible algorithms is .
Fundamental results of computability theory show that there are functions that can be precisely defined but are not computable .
Specific examples of uncomputable functions are known, including the busy beaver function and functions related to the halting problem and other undecidable problems.
Use of f(A) to denote the image of a subset A ⊆ X is consistent so long as no subset of the domain is also an element of the domain.
Likewise, some authors use square brackets to avoid confusion between the inverse image and the inverse function.
Thus they would write f−1[B] and f−1[b] for the preimage of a set and a singleton.
Use of f(A) to denote the image of a subset A ⊆ X is consistent so long as no subset of the domain is also an element of the domain .
That is, the value of x is obtained by first applying f to x to obtain y = f(x) and then applying g to y to obtain z = g(y) .
 The notation can be memorized by reading the notation as "g of f" or "g after f" .
The composition ....g.∘.f...{\displaystyle g\circ f}.. is only defined when the codomain of f is the domain of g .
In the notation ....g.∘.f...{\displaystyle g\circ f}.., the function on the right, f, acts first and the function on the left, g acts second, reversing English reading order .
The overriding of f: X → Y by g: W → Y (also called overriding union ) is an extension of g denoted as (f ⊕ g): (X ∪ W) → Y.  Its graph is the set-theoretical union of the graphs of g and f|X \ W.  Thus, it relates any element of the domain of g to its image under g, and any other element of the domain of f to its image under f.  Overriding is an associative operation; it has the empty function as an identity element.
The overriding of f: X → Y by g: W → Y (also called overriding union) is an extension of g denoted as (f ⊕ g): (X ∪ W) → Y .
The overriding of f: X → Y by g: W → Y (also called overriding union) is an extension of g denoted as (f ⊕ g): (X ∪ W) → Y.  Its graph is the set-theoretical union of the graphs of g and f|X \ W.  Thus, it relates any element of the domain of g to its image under g, and any other element of the domain of f to its image under f.  Overriding is an associative operation ; it has the empty function as an identity element.
The overriding of f: X → Y by g: W → Y (also called overriding union) is an extension of g denoted as (f ⊕ g): (X ∪ W) → Y.  Its graph is the set-theoretical union of the graphs of g and f|X \ W.  Thus, it relates any element of the domain of g to its image under g, and any other element of the domain of f to its image under f.  Overriding is an associative operation; it has the empty function as an identity element .
The set of all functions from a set X to a set Y is denoted by X → Y, by [X → Y], or by YX .
The latter notation is motivated by the fact that, when X and Y are finite and of size |X| and |Y|, then the number of functions X  → Y is |YX| = |Y||X| .
This is an example of the convention from enumerative combinatorics that provides notations for sets based on their cardinalities.
If X is infinite and there is more than one element in Y then there are uncountably many functions from X to Y, though only countably many of them can be expressed with a formula or algorithm.
A function f from X to Y is a subset of the Cartesian product X × Y subject to the following condition: every element of X is the first component of one and only one ordered pair in the subset.
In other words, for every x in X there is exactly one element y such that the ordered pair (x, y) is contained in the subset defining the function f.
A function f from X to Y is a subset of the Cartesian product X × Y subject to the following condition: every element of X is the first component of one and only one ordered pair in the subset.
In other words, for every x in X there is exactly one element y such that the ordered pair (x, y) is contained in the subset defining the function f.
In other words, for every x in X there is exactly one element y such that the ordered pair (x, y) is contained in the subset defining the function f.
A general function is often denoted by f. Special functions have names, for example, the signum function is denoted by sgn.
Given a real number x, its image under the signum function is then written as sgn(x) .
Here, the argument is denoted by the symbol x, but different symbols may be used in other contexts.
The parentheses around the argument may be omitted when there is little chance of confusion, thus: sin x; this is known as prefix notation.
For example, in physics, the velocity of some body, depending on the time, is denoted v(t) .
Despite that, many authors drop the specification of the domain and codomain , especially if these are clear from the context.
Despite that, many authors drop the specification of the domain and codomain, especially if these are clear from the context.
(with different domain) is not considered the same function, even though the formulas defining f and g agree, and similarly with a different codomain.
So in this example many just write f(x) = 4 − x .
Sometimes, the maximal possible domain is also understood implicitly: a formula such as .....f.(.x.)
To define a function, sometimes a dot notation is used in order to emphasize the functional nature of an expression without assigning a special symbol to the variable.
To define a function, sometimes a dot notation is used in order to emphasize the functional nature of an expression without assigning a special symbol to the variable.
For instance, .....a.(.⋅..)..2...... {\displaystyle \scriptstyle a(\cdot )^{2}} .. stands for the function .....x.↦.a..x..2......{\displaystyle \textstyle x\mapsto ax^{2}}.., ......∫..a....⋅...f.(.u.).d.u....{\displaystyle \scriptstyle \int _{a}^{\,\cdot }f(u)du}.. stands for the integral function .....x.↦..∫..a...x...f.(.u.)
To define a function, sometimes a dot notation is used in order to emphasize the functional nature of an expression without assigning a special symbol to the variable.
To define a function, sometimes a dot notation is used in order to emphasize the functional nature of an expression without assigning a special symbol to the variable .
Functions that send integers to integers, or finite strings to finite strings, can sometimes be defined by an algorithm, which gives a precise description of a set of steps for computing the output of the function from its input.
Functions that send integers to integers, or finite strings to finite strings , can sometimes be defined by an algorithm, which gives a precise description of a set of steps for computing the output of the function from its input.
Functions definable by an algorithm are called computable functions .
For example, the Euclidean algorithm gives a precise process to compute the greatest common divisor of two positive integers.
For example, the Euclidean algorithm gives a precise process to compute the greatest common divisor of two positive integers .
In mathematics, a function is a relation between a set of inputs and a set of permissible outputs with the property that each input is related to exactly one output.
The output of a function f corresponding to an input x is denoted by f(x) ( read "f of x" ).
The output of a function f corresponding to an input x is denoted by f(x) (read "f of x").
The output of a function f corresponding to an input x is denoted by f(x) (read "f of x").
Functions of various kinds are "the central objects of investigation" in most fields of modern mathematics.
Others are given by a picture, called the graph of the function .
In science, functions are sometimes defined by a table that gives the outputs for selected inputs.
Some functions may be defined by a formula or algorithm that tells how to compute the output for a given input.
In modern mathematics, a function is defined by its set of inputs, called the domain ; a set containing the set of outputs, and possibly additional elements, as members, called its codomain; and the set of all input-output pairs, called its graph.
In modern mathematics, a function is defined by its set of inputs, called the domain; a set containing the set of outputs, and possibly additional elements, as members, called its codomain ; and the set of all input-output pairs, called its graph.
In modern mathematics, a function is defined by its set of inputs, called the domain; a set containing the set of outputs, and possibly additional elements, as members, called its codomain; and the set of all input-output pairs, called its graph .
Sometimes the codomain is called the function's " range ", but more commonly the word "range" is used to mean, instead, specifically the set of outputs (this is also called the image of the function).
 Collections of functions with the same domain and the same codomain are called function spaces , the properties of which are studied in such mathematical disciplines as real analysis, complex analysis, and functional analysis.
For an example of a function, let X be the set consisting of four shapes: a red triangle, a yellow rectangle, a green hexagon, and a red square ; and let Y be the set consisting of five colors: red, blue, green, pink, and yellow.
 This function will be referred to as the "color-of-the-shape function" .
 This function will be referred to as the "color-of-the-shape function" .
Linking each shape to its color is a function from X to Y: each shape is linked to a color (i.e., an element in Y), and each shape is "linked", or "mapped", to exactly one color .
The input to a function is called the argument and the output is called the value.
The set of all permitted inputs to a given function is called the domain of the function, while the set of permissible outputs is called the codomain .
The set of all permitted inputs to a given function is called the domain of the function, while the set of permissible outputs is called the codomain.
The input to a function is called the argument and the output is called the value .
The above definition of "a function from X to Y" is generally agreed on,[citation needed] however there are two different ways a "function" is normally defined where the domain X and codomain Y are not explicitly or implicitly specified.
The above definition of "a function from X to Y" is generally agreed on,[citation needed] however there are two different ways a "function" is normally defined where the domain X and codomain Y are not explicitly or implicitly specified.
The above definition of "a function from X to Y" is generally agreed on,[citation needed] however there are two different ways a "function" is normally defined where the domain X and codomain Y are not explicitly or implicitly specified.
on the reals does not completely specify a function as the codomain is not specified , and in the other it is a valid definition.
If a function is defined as a set of ordered pairs with no specific codomain , then f: X → Y indicates that f is a function whose domain is X and whose image is a subset of Y.  This is the case in the ISO standard.
This is also referred to by saying that " f maps X into Y " In some usages X and Y may subset the ordered pairs, e.g. the function f on the real numbers such that y=x2 when used as in f: [0,4] → [0,4] means the function defined only on the interval [0,2].
If a function is defined as a set of ordered pairs with no specific codomain, then f: X → Y indicates that f is a function whose domain is X and whose image is a subset of Y.  This is the case in the ISO standard.
With the definition of a function as an ordered triple this would always be considered a partial function.
Functions are commonly defined as a type of relation .
A relation from X to Y is a set of ordered pairs (x, y) with x ∈ X and y ∈ Y. A function from X to Y can be described as a relation from X to Y that is left-total and right-unique.
Normally a relation is just defined as a set of ordered pairs and a correspondence is defined as a triple (X, Y, F) , however the distinction between the two is often blurred or a relation is never referred to without specifying the two sets.
The definition of a function as a triple defines a function as a type of correspondence , whereas the definition of a function as a set of ordered pairs defines a function as a type of relation.
Normally a relation is just defined as a set of ordered pairs and a correspondence is defined as a triple (X, Y, F), however the distinction between the two is often blurred or a relation is never referred to without specifying the two sets.
In some parts of mathematics, including recursion theory and functional analysis, it is convenient to study partial functions in which some values of the domain have no association in the graph; i.e., single-valued relations .
In some parts of mathematics, including recursion theory and functional analysis , it is convenient to study partial functions in which some values of the domain have no association in the graph; i.e., single-valued relations.
 For example, the function f such that f(x) = 1/x does not define a value for x = 0 , since division by zero is not defined.
Hence f is only a partial function from the real line to the real line.
The idea of structure-preserving functions , or homomorphisms, led to the abstract notion of morphism, the key concept of category theory.
The idea of structure-preserving functions, or homomorphisms, led to the abstract notion of morphism, the key concept of category theory .
However, this is still a well-defined function .
Such a function is called an empty function .
In particular, the identity function of the empty set is defined, a requirement for sets to form a category .
Each reference line is called a coordinate axis or just axis of the system, and the point where they meet is its origin, usually at ordered pair (0, 0).
Each reference line is called a coordinate axis or just axis of the system, and the point where they meet is its origin, usually at ordered pair (0, 0).
Each reference line is called a coordinate axis or just axis of the system, and the point where they meet is its origin, usually at ordered pair (0, 0) .
The coordinates can also be defined as the positions of the perpendicular projections of the point onto the two axes, expressed as signed distances from the origin .
A Cartesian coordinate system is a coordinate system that specifies each point uniquely in a plane by a pair of numerical coordinates, which are the signed distances to the point from two fixed perpendicular directed lines, measured in the same unit of length.
Each reference line is called a coordinate axis or just axis of the system, and the point where they meet is its origin , usually at ordered pair (0, 0).
A Cartesian coordinate system is a coordinate system that specifies each point uniquely in a plane by a pair of numerical coordinates, which are the signed distances to the point from two fixed perpendicular directed lines, measured in the same unit of length.
Each reference line is called a coordinate axis or just axis of the system, and the point where they meet is its origin , usually at ordered pair (0, 0).
Each reference line is called a coordinate axis or just axis of the system, and the point where they meet is its origin, usually at ordered pair (0, 0).
One can use the same principle to specify the position of any point in three-dimensional space by three Cartesian coordinates , its signed distances to three mutually perpendicular planes (or, equivalently, by its perpendicular projection onto three mutually perpendicular lines).
In general, n Cartesian coordinates (an element of real n-space) specify the point in an n-dimensional Euclidean space for any dimension n. These coordinates are equal, up to sign, to distances from the point to n mutually perpendicular hyperplanes.
One can use the same principle to specify the position of any point in three-dimensional space by three Cartesian coordinates, its signed distances to three mutually perpendicular planes (or, equivalently, by its perpendicular projection onto three mutually perpendicular lines).
One can use the same principle to specify the position of any point in three-dimensional space by three Cartesian coordinates, its signed distances to three mutually perpendicular planes (or, equivalently, by its perpendicular projection onto three mutually perpendicular lines).
The invention of Cartesian coordinates in the 17th century by René Descartes (Latinized name: Cartesius) revolutionized mathematics by providing the first systematic link between Euclidean geometry and algebra.
The invention of Cartesian coordinates in the 17th century by René Descartes (Latinized name: Cartesius) revolutionized mathematics by providing the first systematic link between Euclidean geometry and algebra.
Using the Cartesian coordinate system, geometric shapes (such as curves) can be described by Cartesian equations: algebraic equations involving the coordinates of the points lying on the shape.
Using the Cartesian coordinate system, geometric shapes (such as curves) can be described by Cartesian equations: algebraic equations involving the coordinates of the points lying on the shape.
Cartesian coordinates are the foundation of analytic geometry, and provide enlightening geometric interpretations for many other branches of mathematics, such as linear algebra, complex analysis, differential geometry, multivariate calculus, group theory and more.
Cartesian coordinates are the foundation of analytic geometry, and provide enlightening geometric interpretations for many other branches of mathematics, such as linear algebra, complex analysis, differential geometry, multivariate calculus, group theory and more.
A familiar example is the concept of the graph of a function .
Cartesian coordinates are the foundation of analytic geometry, and provide enlightening geometric interpretations for many other branches of mathematics, such as linear algebra, complex analysis, differential geometry, multivariate calculus, group theory and more.
The idea of this system was developed in 1637 in writings by Descartes and independently by Pierre de Fermat, although Fermat also worked in three dimensions and did not publish the discovery.
The idea of this system was developed in 1637 in writings by Descartes and independently by Pierre de Fermat, although Fermat also worked in three dimensions and did not publish the discovery.
The idea of this system was developed in 1637 in writings by Descartes and independently by Pierre de Fermat , although Fermat also worked in three dimensions and did not publish the discovery.
The concept of using a pair of axes was introduced later, after Descartes' La Géométrie was translated into Latin in 1649 by Frans van Schooten and his students .
The concept of using a pair of axes was introduced later, after Descartes' La Géométrie was translated into Latin in 1649 by Frans van Schooten and his students.
The Cartesian coordinates of a point are usually written in parentheses and separated by commas , as in (10, 5) or (3, 5, 7).
 The origin is often labelled with the capital letter O. In analytic geometry, unknown or generic coordinates are often denoted by the letters (x, y) in the plane, and (x, y, z) in three-dimensional space.
 The origin is often labelled with the capital letter O. In analytic geometry, unknown or generic coordinates are often denoted by the letters (x, y) in the plane, and (x, y, z) in three-dimensional space .
This custom comes from a convention of algebra , which uses letters near the end of the alphabet for unknown values (such as were the coordinates of points in many geometric problems), and letters near the beginning for given quantities.
This custom comes from a convention of algebra, which uses letters near the end of the alphabet for unknown values (such as were the coordinates of points in many geometric problems), and letters near the beginning for given quantities .
For three-dimensional systems, a convention is to portray the xy-plane horizontally, with the z axis added to represent height (positive up).
Furthermore, there is a convention to orient the x-axis toward the viewer, biased either to the right or left .
In such a 2D diagram of a 3D coordinate system, the z axis would appear as a line or ray pointing down and to the left or down and to the right, depending on the presumed viewer or camera perspective .
 If a diagram (3D projection or 2D perspective drawing) shows the x and y axis horizontally and vertically, respectively, then the z axis should be shown pointing "out of the page" towards the viewer or camera .
All laws of physics and math assume this right-handedness , which ensures consistency.
If (x, y) are the Cartesian coordinates of a point, then (−x, y) are the coordinates of its reflection across the second coordinate axis (the Y-axis) , as if that line were a mirror.
 Likewise, (x, −y) are the coordinates of its reflection across the first coordinate axis ( the X-axis ).
If (x, y) are the Cartesian coordinates of a point, then (−x, y) are the coordinates of its reflection across the second coordinate axis ( the Y-axis ), as if that line were a mirror.
 Likewise, (x, −y) are the coordinates of its reflection across the first coordinate axis (the X-axis) .
In more generality, reflection across a line through the origin making an angle .... θ ...{\displaystyle \theta }.. with the x-axis, is equivalent to replacing every point with coordinates (x, y) by the point with coordinates (x′,y′), where
 The standard orientation, where the xy-plane is horizontal and the z-axis points up (and the x-
Once the x- and y-axes are specified, they determine the line along which the z-axis should lie, but there are two possible directions on this line.
 The standard orientation, where the xy-plane is horizontal and the z-axis points up (and the x- and the y-axis form a positively oriented two-dimensional coordinate system in the xy-plane if observed from above the xy-plane) is called right-handed or positive.
Once the x- and y-axes are specified, they determine the line along which the z-axis should lie, but there are two possible directions on this line.
 The two possible coordinate systems which result are called 'right-handed' and 'left-handed' .
 Because a three-dimensional object is represented on the two-dimensional screen , distortion and ambiguity result.
is also meant to point towards the observer, whereas the "middle" axis is meant to point away from the observer.
The axis pointing downward (and to the right) is also meant to point towards the observer, whereas the "middle" axis is meant to point away from the observer.
 The red circle is parallel to the horizontal xy-plane and indicates rotation from the x-axis to the y-axis (in both cases).
 The red circle is parallel to the horizontal xy-plane and indicates rotation from the x-axis to the y-axis (in both cases).
Figure 8 is another attempt at depicting a right-handed coordinate system.
Many observers see Figure 8 as "flipping in and out" between a convex cube a nd a concave "corner".
Many observers see Figure 8 as "flipping in and out" between a convex cube and a concave "corner" .
Again, there is an ambiguity caused by projecting the three-dimensional coordinate system into the plane.
 Thus the "correct" way to view Figure 8 is to imagine the x-axis as pointing towards the observer and thus seeing a concave corner.
where .....i..=...(....1.....0....).....{\displaystyle \mathbf {i} ={\begin{pmatrix}1\\0\end{pmatrix}}}.., and .....j..=...(....0.....1....).....{\displaystyle \mathbf {j} ={\begin{pmatrix}0\\1\end{pmatrix}}}.. are unit vectors in the direction of the x-axis and y-axis respectively, generally referred to as the standard basis (in some application areas these may also be referred to as versors).
where .....i..=...(....1.....0....).....{\displaystyle \mathbf {i} ={\begin{pmatrix}1\\0\end{pmatrix}}}.., and .....j..=...(....0.....1....).....{\displaystyle \mathbf {j} ={\begin{pmatrix}0\\1\end{pmatrix}}}.. are unit vectors in the direction of the x-axis and y-axis respectively, generally referred to as the standard basis (in some application areas these may also be referred to as versors )
where .....i..=...(....1.....0....).....{\displaystyle \mathbf {i} ={\begin{pmatrix}1\\0\end{pmatrix}}}.., and .....j..=...(....0.....1....).....{\displaystyle \mathbf {j} ={\begin{pmatrix}0\\1\end{pmatrix}}}.. are unit vectors in the direction of the x-axis and y-axis respectively, generally referred to as the standard basis (in some application areas these may also be referred to as versors).
Similarly, in three dimensions, the vector from the origin to the point with Cartesian coordinates ....(.x.,.y.,.z.)...{\displaystyle ( x,y,z )}.. can be written as:
There is no natural interpretation of multiplying vectors to obtain another vector that works in all dimensions, however there is a way to use complex numbers to provide such a multiplication.
In a two dimensional cartesian plane, identify the point with coordinates (x, y) with the complex number z = x + iy .
Here, i is the imaginary unit and is identified with the point with coordinates (0, 1) , so it is not the unit vector in the direction of the x-axis.
Here, i is the imaginary unit and is identified with the point with coordinates (0, 1), so it is not the unit vector in the direction of the x-axis.
Cartesian coordinates are an abstraction that have a multitude of possible applications in the real world.
 However, three constructive steps are involved in superimposing coordinates on a problem application.
 1) Units of distance must be decided defining the spatial size represented by the numbers used as coordinates.
An origin must be assigned to a specific spatial location or landmark, and 3) the orientation of the axes must be defined using available directional cues for (n-1) of the n axes.
  Kilometers are a good choice, since the original definition of the kilometer was geospatial...10,000 km equalling the surface distance from the Equator to the North Pole.
10,000 km equalling the surface distance from the Equator to the North Pole.
A location on the Equator is needed to define the X-axis, and the Prime Meridian stands out as a reference direction, so the X-axis takes the direction from geocenter out to [ 0 degrees longitude, 0 degrees latitude ].
  Using [ longitude = −73.985656, latitude = 40.748433 ], Earth radius =
  Using [ longitude = −73.985656, latitude = 40.748433 ], Earth radius = 40,000/2π , and transforming from spherical --> Cartesian coordinates, you can estimate the geocentric coordinates of the Empire State Building, [ x, y, z ] =
While spatial apps employ identical units along all axes, in business and scientific apps, each axis may have different units of measurement associated with it (such as kilograms, seconds, pounds, etc.).
 Although four- and higher-dimensional spaces are difficult to visualize, the algebra of Cartesian coordinates can be extended relatively easily to four or more variables , so that certain calculations involving many variables can be done.
While spatial apps employ identical units along all axes, in business and scientific apps, each axis may have different units of measurement associated with it (such as kilograms, seconds, pounds, etc .).
 Conversely, it is often helpful to use the geometry of Cartesian coordinates in two or three dimensions to visualize algebraic relationships between two or three of many non-spatial variables.
The graph of a function or relation is the set of all points satisfying that function or relation.
A sketch of the graph of such a function or relation would consist of all the salient parts of the function or relation which would include its relative extrema, its concavity and points of inflection, any points of discontinuity and its end behavior.
All of these terms are more fully defined in calculus .
The graph of a function or relation is the set of all points satisfying that function or relation.
Choosing a Cartesian coordinate system for a one-dimensional space—that is, for a straight line—involves choosing a point O of the line (the origin ), a unit of length, and an orientation for the line.
An orientation chooses which of the two half-lines determined by O is the positive, and which is negative ; we then say that the line "is oriented" (or "points") from the negative half towards the positive half.
Choosing a Cartesian coordinate system for a one -dimensional space—that is, for a straight line—involves choosing a point O of the line (the origin), a unit of length, and an orientation for the line.
Then each point P of the line can be specified by its distance from O, taken with a + or − sign depending on which half-line contains P.
Choosing a Cartesian coordinate system for a one-dimensional space—that is, for a straight line —involves choosing a point O of the line (the origin), a unit of length, and an orientation for the line.
Choosing a Cartesian coordinate system for a one-dimensional space—that is, for a straight line—involves choosing a point O of the line (the origin), a unit of length , and an orientation for the line.
An orientation chooses which of the two half-lines determined by O is the positive, and which is negative; we then say that the line "is oriented" (or "points") from the negative half towards the positive half.
Choosing a Cartesian coordinate system for a one-dimensional space—that is, for a straight line—involves choosing a point O of the line ( the origin ), a unit of length, and an orientation for the line.
An orientation chooses which of the two half-lines determined by O is the positive, and which is negative; we then say that the line "is oriented" (or " points ") from the negative half towards the positive half.
The Cartesian coordinate system in two dimensions (also called a rectangular coordinate system ) is defined by an ordered pair of perpendicular lines (axes), a single unit of length for both axes, and an orientation for each axis.
(Early systems allowed " oblique " axes, that is, axes that did not meet at right angles.)
The lines are commonly referred to as the x- and y-axes where the x-axis is taken to be horizontal and the y-axis is taken to be vertical. The point where the axes meet is taken as the origin for both, thus turning each axis into a number line.
The lines are commonly referred to as the x- and y-axes where the x-axis is taken to be horizontal and the y-axis is taken to be vertical.
The lines are commonly referred to as the x- and y-axes where the x-axis is taken to be horizontal and the y-axis is taken to be vertical .
The Cartesian coordinate system in two dimensions (also called a rectangular coordinate system ) is defined by an ordered pair of perpendicular lines (axes), a single unit of length for both axes, and an orientation for each axis.
The point where the axes meet is taken as the origin for both , thus turning each axis into a number line.
The Cartesian coordinate system in two dimensions (also called a rectangular coordinate system) is defined by an ordered pair of perpendicular lines (axes), a single unit of length for both axes, and an orientation for each axis. (Early systems allowed "oblique" axes, that is, axes that did not meet at right angles.)
(Early systems allowed " oblique" axes, that is, axes that did not meet at right angles .)
Choosing a Cartesian coordinate system for a three-dimensional space means choosing an ordered triplet of lines (axes) that are pair-wise perpendicular, have a single unit of length for all three axes and have an orientation for each axis.  As in the two-dimensional case, each axis becomes a number line.
Choosing a Cartesian coordinate system for a three-dimensional space means choosing an ordered triplet of lines (axes) that are pair-wise perpendicular, have a single unit of length for all three axes and have an orientation for each axis.
Choosing a Cartesian coordinate system for a three-dimensional space means choosing an ordered triplet of lines (axes) that are pair-wise perpendicular , have a single unit of length for all three axes and have an orientation for each axis.
 As in the two-dimensional case, each axis becomes a number line .
A Euclidean plane with a chosen Cartesian system is called a Cartesian plane.  Since Cartesian coordinates are unique and non-ambiguous, the points of a Cartesian plane can be identified with pairs of real numbers; that is with the Cartesian product ......R...2...=..R..×..R....{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}=\mathbb {R} \times \mathbb {R} }.., where .....R....{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }.. is the set of all reals.
 Since Cartesian coordinates are unique and non-ambiguous, the points of a Cartesian plane can be identified with pairs of real numbers ; that is with the Cartesian product ......R...2...=..R..×..R....{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}=\mathbb {R} \times \mathbb {R} }.., where .....R....{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }.. is the set of all reals.
 In the same way, the points any Euclidean space of dimension n  be identified with the tuples ( lists ) of n real numbers,
 Since Cartesian coordinates are unique and non-ambiguous , the points of a Cartesian plane can be identified with pairs of real numbers; that is with the Cartesian product ......R...2...=..R..×..R....{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}=\mathbb {R} \times \mathbb {R} }.., where .....R....{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }.. is the set of all reals.
The concept of Cartesian coordinates generalizes to allow axes that are not perpendicular to each other, and/or different units along each axis .
 In that case, each coordinate is obtained by projecting the point onto one axis along a direction that is parallel to the other axis (or, in general, to the hyperplane defined by all the other axes).
In such an oblique coordinate system the computations of distances and angles must be modified from that in standard Cartesian systems, and many standard formulas (such as the Pythagorean formula for the distance) do not hold (see Affine plane).
In such an oblique coordinate system the computations of distances and angles must be modified from that in standard Cartesian systems, and many standard formulas (such as the Pythagorean formula for the distance) do not hold (see Affine plane).
Tin is a chemical element with the symbol Sn (for Latin: stannum) and atomic number 50.
Tin is the 49th most abundant element and has, with 10 stable isotopes , the largest number of stable isotopes in the periodic table.
Tin shows a chemical similarity to both neighboring group-14 elements, germanium and lead , and has two possible oxidation states, +2 and the slightly more stable +4.
It is a silvery, malleable other metal that is not easily oxidized in air, obtained chiefly from the mineral cassiterite where it occurs as tin dioxide, SnO2.
Tin shows a chemical similarity to both neighboring group-14 elements, germanium and lead, and has two possible oxidation states, +2 and the slightly more stable +4 .
The first alloy used on a large scale since 3000 BC was bronze , an alloy of tin and copper.
Another large application for tin is corrosion-resistant tin plating of steel .
Pewter, which is an alloy of 85–90% tin with the remainder commonly consisting of copper, antimony and lead, was used for flatware from the Bronze Age until the 20th century .
Because of its low toxicity, tin-plated metal was used for food packaging as tin cans , which are now made mostly of steel,[citation needed] even though the name is kept in English.
Tin is a malleable, ductile and highly crystalline silvery-white metal. When a bar of tin is bent, a crackling sound known as the tin cry can be heard due to the twinning of the crystals.
Tin melts at a low temperature of about 232 °C (450 °F) , which is further reduced to 177.3 °C (351.1 °F) for 11 nm particles.
When a bar of tin is bent, a crackling sound known as the tin cry can be heard due to the twinning of the crystals .
Tin melts at a low temperature of about 232 °C (450 °F), which is further reduced to 177.3 °C (351.1 °F) for 11 nm particles .
β-tin (the metallic form, or white tin), which is stable at and above room temperature, is malleable. In contrast, α-tin (nonmetallic form, or gray tin), which is stable below 13.2 °C (55.8 °F), is brittle.
In contrast, α-tin (nonmetallic form, or gray tin), which is stable below 13.2 °C (55.8 °F) , is brittle.
Two more allotropes, γ and σ, exist at temperatures above 161 °C (322 °F)  and pressures above several GPa .
lower the transition temperature well below 0 °C (32 °F) and, on the addition of Sb or Bi, the transformation may not occur at all, increasing the durability of the tin.
In cold conditions, β-tin tends to transform spontaneously into α-tin, a phenomenon known as "tin pest". Although the α-β transformation temperature is nominally 13.2 °C (55.8 °F), impurities (e.g. Al, Zn, etc.) lower the transition temperature well below 0 °C (32 °F) and, on the addition of Sb or Bi, the transformation may not occur at all, increasing the durability of the tin.
Commercial grades of tin (99.8%) resist transformation because of the inhibiting effect of the small amounts of bismuth, antimony, lead and silver present as impurities. Alloying elements such as copper, antimony, bismuth, cadmium and silver increase its hardness.
Tin tends rather easily to form hard, brittle intermetallic phases, which are often undesirable. It does not form wide solid solution ranges in other metals in general, and there are few elements that have appreciable solid solubility in tin.
Alloying elements such as copper, antimony, bismuth, cadmium and silver increase its hardness. Tin tends rather easily to form hard, brittle intermetallic phases, which are often undesirable.
Simple eutectic systems, however, occur with bismuth, gallium, lead, thallium and zinc.
Tin becomes a superconductor below 3.72 K.
In fact, tin was one of the first superconductors to be studied ; the Meissner effect, one of the characteristic features of superconductors, was first discovered in superconducting tin crystals.
In fact, tin was one of the first superconductors to be studied; the Meissner effect , one of the characteristic features of superconductors, was first discovered in superconducting tin crystals.
In fact, tin was one of the first superconductors to be studied; the Meissner effect, one of the characteristic features of superconductors, was first discovered in superconducting tin crystals .
Tin resists corrosion from water , but can be attacked by acids and alkalis.
Tin resists corrosion from water, but can be attacked by acids and alkalis .
Tin can be highly polished and is used as a protective coat for other metals.
In this case a protective oxide layer prevents further oxidation.
Tin acts as a catalyst when oxygen is in solution and helps accelerate chemical attack.[clarification needed][citation needed]
Tin has ten stable isotopes, with atomic masses of 112, 114 through 120, 122 and 124, the greatest number of any element.
Tin, with its three common isotopes 116Sn, 118Sn and 120Sn , is among the easiest elements to detect and analyze by NMR spectroscopy, and its chemical shifts are referenced against SnMe4.[note 1]
Tin, with its three common isotopes 116Sn, 118Sn and 120Sn, is among the easiest elements to detect and analyze by NMR spectroscopy , and its chemical shifts are referenced against SnMe4.[note 1]
Of these, the most abundant ones are 120Sn (at almost a third of all tin), 118Sn, and 116Sn , while the least abundant one is 115Sn.
Of these, the most abundant ones are 120Sn (at almost a third of all tin), 118Sn, and 116Sn, while the least abundant one is 115Sn .
This large number of stable isotopes is thought to be a direct result of tin possessing an atomic number of 50 , which is a "magic number" in nuclear physics.
This large number of stable isotopes is thought to be a direct result of tin possessing an atomic number of 50 , which is a "magic number" in nuclear physics.
In addition, there are 29 known unstable isotopes, encompassing all the remaining ones with atomic masses between 99 and 137.
The radioactive 100Sn is one of the few nuclides possessing a "doubly magic" nucleus and was discovered in 1994.
The radioactive 100Sn is one of the few nuclides possessing a "doubly magic" nucleus and was discovered in 1994.
The word tin is shared among Germanic languages and can be traced back to reconstructed Proto-Germanic *tin-om; cognates include German [Zinn] error: {{lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Swedish [tenn] error: {{lang}}: text has italic markup (help) and Dutch [tin] error: {{lang}}: text has italic markup (help).
It is not found in other branches of Indo-European , except by borrowing from Germanic (e.g. Irish [tinne] error: {{lang}}: text has italic markup (help) from English).
The word tin is shared among Germanic languages and can be traced back to reconstructed Proto-Germanic *tin-om; cognates include German [Zinn] error: {{lang}}: text has italic markup (help), Swedish [tenn] error: {{lang}}: text has italic markup (help) and Dutch [tin] error: {{lang}}: text has italic markup (help).
It is not found in other branches of Indo-European, except by borrowing from Germanic (e.g. Irish [ tinne ] error: {{lang}}: text has italic markup (help) from English).
Swedish [ tenn ] error: {{lang}}: text has italic markup (help) and Dutch [tin] error: {{lang}}: text has italic markup (help).
The Latin name stannum originally meant an alloy of silver and lead , and came to mean 'tin' in the 4th century BCE—the earlier Latin word for it was plumbum candidum, or "white lead".
The Latin name stannum originally meant an alloy of silver and lead, and came to mean 'tin' in the 4th century BCE—the earlier Latin word for it was plumbum candidum , or "white lead".
The La tin name stannum originally meant an alloy of silver and lead, and came to mean 'tin' in the 4th century BCE—the earlier Latin word for it was plumbum candidum, or "white lead".
The origin of stannum/stāgnum is unknown ; it may be pre-Indo-European.
that Cornwall in the first centuries AD was the main source of tin.
Tin extraction and use can be dated to the beginnings of the Bronze Age around 3000 BC , when it was observed that copper objects formed of polymetallic ores with different metal contents had different physical properties.
The earliest bronze objects had a tin or arsenic content of less than 2% and are therefore believed to be the result of unintentional alloying due to trace metal content in the copper ore.
Arsenical bronze objects appear first in the Near East where arsenic is commonly found in association with copper ore, but the health risks were quickly realized and the quest for sources of the much less hazardous tin ores began early in the Bronze Age.
Arsenical bronze objects appear first in the Near East where arsenic is commonly found in association with copper ore, but the health risks were quickly realized and the quest for sources of the much less hazardous tin ores began early in the Bronze Age.
Arsenical bronze objects appear first in the Near East where arsenic is commonly found in association with copper ore, but the health risks were quickly realized and the quest for sources of the much less hazardous tin ores began early in the Bronze Age .
Cassiterite ( SnO2 ), the tin oxide form of tin, was most likely the original source of tin in ancient times.
Cassiterite (SnO2), the tin oxide form of tin, was most likely the original source of tin in ancient times.
Cassiterite often accumulates in alluvial channels as placer deposits due to the fact that it is harder, heavier, and more chemically resistant than the granite in which it typically forms.
Cassiterite often accumulates in alluvial channels as placer deposits due to the fact that it is harder, heavier, and more chemically resistant than the granite in which it typically forms.
These deposits can be easily seen in river banks as cassiterite is usually black, purple or otherwise dark in color, a feature exploited by early Bronze Age prospectors.
Halide compounds are known for both oxidation states .
The three heavier members are volatile molecular compounds , whereas the tetrafluoride is polymeric.
The three heavier members are volatile molecular compounds, whereas the tetrafluoride is polymeric .
Of these eight compounds, only the iodides are colored.
All are polymeric solids .
Tin(II) chloride (also known as stannous chloride) is the most important tin halide in a commercial sense.
Illustrating the routes to such compounds, chlorine reacts with tin metal to give SnCl4 whereas the reaction of hydrochloric acid and tin gives SnCl2 and hydrogen gas.
Illustrating the routes to such compounds, chlorine reacts with tin metal to give SnCl4 whereas the reaction of hydrochloric acid and tin gives SnCl2 and hydrogen gas .
Tin(II) chloride (also known as stannous chloride ) is the most important tin halide in a commercial sense.
Alternatively SnCl4 and Sn combine to stannous chloride via a process called comproportionation :
Most metal pipes in a pipe organ are made of varying amounts of a tin/lead alloy, with 50%/50% being the most common.
Major advantages of using tin for pipes include its appearance, its workability, and resistance to corrosion .
This metal alloy is referred to as spotted metal .
Most metal pipes in a pipe organ are made of varying amounts of a tin/ lead alloy, with 50%/50% being the most common.
a tin /lead alloy, with 50%/50% being the most common.
Most metal pipes in a pipe organ are made of varying amounts of a tin/lead alloy, with 50%/50% being the most common.
Most metal pipes in a pipe organ are made of varying amounts of a tin/lead alloy , with 50%/50% being the most common.
The amount of tin in the pipe defines the pipe's tone , since tin is the most tonally resonant of all metals.[dubious  – discuss] When a tin/lead alloy cools, the lead cools slightly faster and produces a mottled or spotted effect.
a tin /lead alloy, with 50%/50% being the most common.
This metal alloy is referred to as spotted metal .
Punched tin-plated steel, also called pierced tin , is an artisan technique originating in central Europe for creating housewares that are both functional and decorative.
Punched tin lanterns are the most common application of this artisan technique.
Punched tin-plated steel, also called pierced tin, is an artisan technique originating in central Europe for creating housewares that are both functional and decorative.
A well-known example is the Revere type lantern, named after Paul Revere .
Punched tin-plated steel, also called pierced tin , is an artisan technique originating in central Europe for creating housewares that are both functional and decorative.
Punched tin-plated steel, also called pierced tin, is an artisan technique originating in central Europe for creating housewares that are both functional and decorative.
Punched tin lanterns are the most common application of this artisan technique.
A well-known example is the Revere type lantern , named after Paul Revere.
A well-known example is the Revere type lantern, named after Paul Revere .
Tin has long been used as a solder in the form of an alloy with lead , tin accounting for 5 to 70% w/w. Tin forms a eutectic mixture with lead containing 63% tin and 37% lead.
Such solders are primarily used for joining pipes or electric circuits .
Since the European Union Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEE Directive) and Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive came into effect on 1 July 2006 , the use of lead in such alloys has decreased.
Replacing lead has many problems, including a higher melting point, and the formation of tin whiskers causing electrical problems .
Tin pest can occur in lead-free solders, leading to loss of the soldered joint .
Tin bonds readily to iron and is used for coating lead, zinc and steel to prevent corrosion. Tin-plated steel containers are widely used for food preservation , and this forms a large part of the market for metallic tin.
A tinplate canister for preserving food was first manufactured in London in 1812. Speakers of British English call them "tins", while speakers of American English call them "cans" or "tin cans".
Speakers of British English call them "tins", while speakers of American English call them "cans" or "tin cans" .
One thus-derived use of the slang term "tinnie" or "tinny" means " can of beer" .
The tin whistle is so called because it was first mass-produced in tin-plated steel .
Tin is most commonly alloyed with copper .
Tin in combination with other elements forms a wide variety of useful alloys.
Because copper is often the major metal in such coins, and zinc is sometimes present as well, these could technically be called bronze and/or brass alloys .
Bronze is mostly copper (12% tin), while addition of phosphorus gives phosphor bronze .
Bell metal is also a copper-tin alloy, containing 22% tin.
The niobium-tin compound Nb3Sn is commercially used as wires for superconducting magnets, due to the material's high critical temperature (18 K) and critical magnetic field (25 T).
The niobium-tin compound Nb3Sn is commercially used as wires for superconducting magnets , due to the material's high critical temperature (18 K) and critical magnetic field (25 T).
The niobium-tin compound Nb3Sn is commercially used as wires for superconducting magnets, due to the material's high critical temperature (18 K) and critical magnetic field (25 T) .
A superconducting magnet weighing as little as two kilograms is capable of producing magnetic fields comparable to a conventional electromagnet weighing tons .
The niobium-tin compound Nb3Sn is commercially used as wires for superconducting magnets , due to the material's high critical temperature (18 K) and critical magnetic field (25 T) .
Tin is also used as a negative electrode in advanced Li-ion batteries.
Tin is also used as a negative electrode in advanced Li-ion batteries.
Its application is somewhat limited by the fact that some tin surfaces[which?] catalyze decomposition of carbonate-based electrolytes used in Li-ion batteries.
Tin is also used as a negative electrode in advanced Li-ion batteries.
On the other hand, certain organotin compounds are almost as toxic as cyanide.
On the other hand, certain organotin compounds are almost as toxic as cyanide .
Cases of poisoning from tin metal, its oxides, and its salts are "almost unknown" .
On the other hand, certain organotin compounds are almost as toxic as cyanide.
Some tin reagents are useful in organic chemistry.
In the largest application, stannous chloride is a common reducing agent for the conversion of nitro and oxime groups to amines.
The Stille reaction couples organotin compounds with organic halides or pseudohalides.
The Stille reaction couples organotin compounds with organic halides or pseudohalides.
Tin(II) fluoride is added to some dental care products as stannous fluoride (SnF2).
Tin(II) fluoride can be mixed with calcium abrasives while the more common sodium fluoride gradually becomes biologically inactive combined with calcium compounds.
It has also been shown to be more effective than sodium fluoride in controlling gingivitis .
Tin(II) fluoride can be mixed with calcium abrasives while the more common sodium fluoride gradually becomes biologically inactive combined with calcium compounds.
Tin(II) fluoride is added to some dental care products as stannous fluoride ( SnF2 ).
They have been used for their biocidal effects in/as fungicides, pesticides, algaecides, wood preservative s, and antifouling agents.
The EU banned the use of organotin compounds in 2003 , while concerns over the toxicity of these compounds to marine life and their effects on the reproduction and growth of some marine species, (some reports describe biological effects to marine life at a concentration of 1 nanogram per liter) have led to a worldwide ban by the International Maritime Organization.
Many nations now restrict the use of organotin compounds to vessels over 25 meters long .
Tributyltin was used as additive for ship paint to prevent growth of marine organisms on ships, with use declining after organotin compounds were recognized as persistent organic pollutants with an extremely high toxicity for some marine organisms, for example the dog whelk.
The problem was partially solved by Sony .
Recent research showed that only some crystalline facets of tetragonal (beta) Sn are responsible for undesirable electrochemical activity.
Tin inter-metallic compound with cobalt, mixed with carbon, has been implemented by Sony in its Nexelion cells released in late 2000's.
Large volumetric expansion of tin upon alloying with lithium and instability of the tin-organic electrolyte interface at low electrochemical potentials are the greatest challenges in employing it in commercial cells.
The major commercial application of organotin compounds is in the stabilization of PVC plastics .
Tin scavenges labile chloride ions (Cl−), which would otherwise initiate loss of HCl from the plastic material.
The major commercial application of organotin compounds is in the stabilization of PVC plastics.
Typical tin compounds are carboxylic acid derivatives of dibutyltin dichloride , such as the dilaurate.
The major commercial application of organo tin compounds is in the stabilization of PVC plastics.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (Permissible exposure limit) for tin exposure in the workplace as 2 mg/m3 over an 8-hour workday.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (Permissible exposure limit) for tin exposure in the workplace as 2 mg/m3 over an 8-hour workday.
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 2 mg/m3 over an 8-hour workday.
At levels of 100 mg/m3 , tin is immediately dangerous to life and health.
Tin can form many oxides, sulfides, and other chalcogenide derivatives.
The dioxide SnO2 ( cassiterite ) forms when tin is heated in the presence of air.
The dioxide SnO2 (cassiterite) forms when tin is heated in the presence of air .
SnO2 is amphoteric , which means that it dissolves in both acidic and basic solutions.
The sulfides of tin exist in both the +2 and +4 oxidation states: tin(II) sulfide and tin(IV) sulfide (mosaic gold).
Stannane (SnH4), where tin is in the +4 oxidation state, is unstable.
tributyltin hydride (Sn(C4H9)3H) .
Stannane (SnH4) , where tin is in the +4 oxidation state, is unstable.
These compound release transient tributyl tin radicals , rare examples of compounds of tin(III).
Organotin compounds , sometimes called stannanes, are chemical compounds with tin–carbon bonds.
Organotin compounds , sometimes called stannanes, are chemical compounds with tin–carbon bonds.
Of the compounds of tin, the organic derivatives are the most useful commercially.
Some organotin compounds are highly toxic and have been used as biocides .
The first organotin compound to be reported was diethyltin diiodide ((C2H5)2SnI2), reported by Edward Frankland in 1849.
Most organotin compounds are colorless liquids or solids that are stable to air and water.
Most organotin compounds are colorless liquids or solids that are stable to air and water .
They adopt tetrahedral geometry .
Tetraalkyl- and tetraaryltin compounds can be prepared using Grignard reagents:
The mixed halide-alkyls, which are more common and more important commercially than the tetraorgano derivatives, are prepared by redistribution reactions :
The mixed halide-alkyls, which are more common and more important commercially than the tetraorgano derivatives, are prepared by redistribution reactions:
The mixed halide-alkyls , which are more common and more important commercially than the tetraorgano derivatives, are prepared by redistribution reactions:
The mixed halide-alkyls , which are more common and more important commercially than the tetraorgano derivatives, are prepared by redistribution reactions:
The recovery of tin through secondary production, or recycling of scrap tin, is increasing rapidly.
Whereas the United States has neither mined since 1993 nor smelted tin since 1989, it was the largest secondary producer, recycling nearly 14,000 tonnes in 2006.
Whereas the United States has neither mined since 1993 nor smelted tin since 1989 , it was the largest secondary producer, recycling nearly 14,000 tonnes in 2006.
Whereas the United States has neither mined since 1993 nor smelted tin since 1989, it was the largest secondary producer, recycling nearly 14,000 tonnes in 2006.
Secondary , or scrap, tin is also an important source of the metal.
The recovery of tin through secondary production, or recycling of scrap tin , is increasing rapidly.
Whereas the United States has neither mined since 1993 nor smelted tin since 1989, it was the largest secondary producer, recycling nearly 14,000 tonnes in 2006.
Whereas the United States has neither mined since 1993 nor smelted tin since 1989, it was the largest secondary producer, recycling nearly 14,000 tonnes in 2006.
New deposits are reported to be in southern Mongolia , and in 2009, new deposits of tin were discovered in Colombia, by the Seminole Group Colombia CI, SAS.
New deposits are reported to be in southern Mongolia, and in 2009, new deposits of tin were discovered in Colombia, by the Seminole Group Colombia CI, SAS.
New deposits are reported to be in southern Mongolia, and in 2009 , new deposits of tin were discovered in Colombia, by the Seminole Group Colombia CI, SAS.
New deposits are reported to be in southern Mongolia , and in 2009, new deposits of tin were discovered in Colombia, by the Seminole Group Colombia CI, SAS.
New deposits are reported to be in southern Mongolia, and in 2009, new deposits of tin were discovered in Colombia , by the Seminole Group Colombia CI, SAS.
New deposits are reported to be in southern Mongolia, and in 2009, new deposits of tin were discovered in Colombia, by the Seminole Group Colombia CI, SAS .
.Most of the world's tin is traded on the London Metal Exchange (LME) , from 8 countries, under 17 brands.
.Most of the world's tin is traded on the London Metal Exchange (LME), from 8 countries, under 17 brands .
.Most of the world's tin is traded on the London Metal Exchange (LME), from 8 countries, under 17 brands.
It is not clear which of these companies include tin smelted from the mine at Bisie, Democratic Republic of the Congo, which is controlled by a renegade militia and produces 15,000 tonnes.
a renegade militia and produces 15,000 tonnes.
The ten largest companies produced most of the world's tin in 2007.
It is not clear which of these companies include tin smelted from the mine at Bisie, Democratic Republic of the Congo, which is controlled by a renegade militia and produces 15,000 tonnes .
It is not clear which of these companies include tin smelted from the mine at Bisie, Democratic Republic of the Congo , which is controlled by a renegade militia and produces 15,000 tonnes.
.Most of the world's tin is traded on the London Metal Exchange (LME) , from 8 countries, under 17 brands.
Tin is unique among other mineral commodities by the complex "agreements" between producer countries and consumer countries dating back to 1921.
The earlier agreements tended to be somewhat informal and sporadic; they led to the "First International Tin Agreement" in 1956, the first of a.continuously numbered series that essentially collapsed in 1985.
Through this series of agreements, the International Tin Council (ITC) had a considerable effect on tin prices.
However, the buffer stockpile was not sufficiently large, and during most of those 29 years tin prices rose, sometimes sharply, especially from 1973 through 1980 when rampant inflation plagued many world economies.
Tin is unique among other mineral commodities by the complex "agreements" between producer countries and consumer countries dating back to 1921.
The earlier agreements tended to be somewhat informal and sporadic ; they led to the "First International Tin Agreement" in 1956, the first of a.continuously numbered series that essentially collapsed in 1985.
The earlier agreements tended to be somewhat informal and sporadic; they led to the "First International Tin Agreement" in 1956, the first of a.continuously numbered series that essentially collapsed in 1985 .
Through this series of agreements, the International Tin Council (ITC) had a considerable effect on tin prices.
The earlier agreements tended to be somewhat informal and sporadic; they led to the "First International Tin Agreement" in 1956, the first of a.continuously numbered series that essentially collapsed in 1985.
Before the modern era, in some areas of the Alps , a goat or sheep's horn would be sharpened and a tin panel would be punched out using the alphabet and numbers from one to nine.
Before the modern era , in some areas of the Alps, a goat or sheep's horn would be sharpened and a tin panel would be punched out using the alphabet and numbers from one to nine.
Before the modern era, in some areas of the Alps, a goat or sheep's horn would be sharpened and a tin panel would be punched out using the alphabet and numbers from one to nine .
Modern reproductions are decorated with such motifs as hearts and tulips.
In America , pie safes and food safes came into use in the days before refrigeration.
These were wooden cupboards of various styles and sizes – either floor standing or hanging cupboards meant to discourage vermin and insects and to keep dust from perishable foodstuffs.
These were wooden cupboards of various styles and sizes – either floor standing or hanging cupboards meant to discourage vermin and insects and to keep dust from perishable foodstuffs.
These were wooden cupboards of various styles and sizes – either floor standing or hanging cupboards meant to discourage vermin and insects and to keep dust from perishable foodstuffs .
Modern reproductions of these articles remain popular in North America .
Window glass is most often made by floating molten glass on top of molten tin (creating float glass) in order to produce a flat surface.
Window glass is most often made by floating molten glass on top of molten tin (creating float glass ) in order to produce a flat surface.
Window glass is most often made by floating molten glass on top of molten tin (creating float glass) in order to produce a flat surface.
This is called the " Pilkington process ".
Tin does not occur as the native element but must be extracted from various ores. Cassiterite (SnO2) is the only commercially important source of tin, although small quantities of tin are recovered from complex sulfides such as stannite, cylindrite, franckeite, canfieldite, and teallite.
T in does not occur as the native element but must be extracted from various ores.
Cassiterite (SnO2) is the only commercially important source of tin, although small quantities of tin are recovered from complex sulfides such as stannite, cylindrite, franckeite, canfieldite, and teallite.
Minerals with tin are almost always associated with granite rock , usually at a level of 1% tin oxide content.
Cassiterite (SnO2) is the only commercially important source of tin, although small quantities of tin are recovered from complex sulfides such as stannite, cylindrite, franckeite, canfieldite, and teallite .
Tin is generated via the long S-process in low-to-medium mass stars (with masses of 0.6 to 10 times that of Sun).
Tin is generated via the long S-process in low-to-medium mass stars (with masses of 0.6 to 10 times that of Sun).
It arises via beta decay of heavy isotopes of indium.
Tin is generated via the long S-process in low-to-medium mass stars (with masses of 0.6 to 10 times that of Sun ).
Both classes exhibit unusual reactions.
The greater stabilization enjoyed by Sn(II) is attributed to the "inert pair effect ". Organotin(II) compounds include both stannylenes (formula: R2Sn, as seen for singlet carbenes) and distannylenes (R4Sn2), which are roughly equivalent to alkenes.
Organotin(II) compounds include both stannylenes (formula: R2Sn, as seen for singlet carbenes) and distannylenes (R4Sn2) , which are roughly equivalent to alkenes.
Tin is often recovered from granules washed downstream in the past and deposited in valleys or under sea.
Because of the higher specific gravity of tin dioxide, about 80% of mined tin is from secondary deposits found downstream from the primary lodes.
The most economical ways of mining tin are through dredging, hydraulic methods or open cast mining. Most of the world's tin is produced from placer deposits, which may contain as little as 0.015% tin.
Most of the world's tin is produced from placer deposits , which may contain as little as 0.015% tin.
Most of the world's tin is produced from placer deposits, which may contain as little as 0.015% tin .
About 253,000 tonnes of tin have been mined in 2011, mostly in China (110,000 t ), Indonesia (51,000 t), Peru (34,600 t), Bolivia (20,700 t) and Brazil (12,000 t).
About 253,000 tonnes of tin have been mined in 2011, mostly in China (110,000 t), Indonesia (51,000 t), Peru (34,600 t), Bolivia (20,700 t) and Brazil (12,000 t).
Estimates of tin production have historically varied with the dynamics of economic feasibility and the development of mining technologies, but it is estimated that, at current consumption rates and technologies, the Earth will run out of tin that can be mined in 40 years.
Estimates of tin production have historically varied with the dynamics of economic feasibility and the development of mining technologies, but it is estimated that, at current consumption rates and technologies, the Earth will run out of tin that can be mined in 40 years .
Estimates of tin production have historically varied with the dynamics of economic feasibility and the development of mining technologies, but it is estimated that, at current consumption rates and technologies , the Earth will run out of tin that can be mined in 40 years.
During the late 1970s and early 1980s, the U.S. Government tin stockpile was in an aggressive selling mode, partly to take advantage of the historically high tin prices.
The ITC continued to borrow until late 1985 , when it reached its credit limit.
The sharp recession of 1981–82 proved to be quite harsh on the tin industry.
Immediately, a major "tin crisis" followed — tin was delisted from trading on the London Metal Exchange for about three years, the ITC dissolved soon afterward, and the price of tin, now in a free-market environment, plummeted sharply to $4 per pound and remained around this level through the 1990s.
Immediately, a major "tin crisis" followed — tin was delisted from trading on the London Metal Exchange for about three years, the ITC dissolved soon afterward, and the price of tin, now in a free-market environment, plummeted sharply to $4 per pound and remained around this level through the 1990s.
 She went on to point out that there are a disproportionate number of women who are nurses, and that denying admission to men "lends credibility to the old view that women, not men, should become nurses, and makes the assumption that nursing is a field for women a self-fulfilling prophecy".
 She went on to point out that there are a disproportionate number of women who are nurses, and that denying admission to men "lends credibility to the old view that women, not men, should become nurses, and makes the assumption that nursing is a field for women a self-fulfilling prophecy".
 She went on to point out that there are a disproportionate number of women who are nurses, and that denying admission to men "lends credibility to the old view that women, not men, should become nurses, and makes the assumption that nursing is a field for women a self-fulfilling prophecy".
In what was her first opinion written for the Supreme Court, Justice Sandra Day O'Connor stated, "In limited circumstances, a gender-based classification favoring one sex can be justified if it intentionally and directly assists members of the sex that is disproportionately burdened."
In what was her first opinion written for the Supreme Court , Justice Sandra Day O'Connor stated, "In limited circumstances, a gender-based classification favoring one sex can be justified if it intentionally and directly assists members of the sex that is disproportionately burdened."
This suggestion has proven to be accurate as there are no public women's colleges in the United States today and, as a result of United States v. Virginia, the last all-male public university in the United States, Virginia Military Institute , was required to admit women.
The ruling did not require the university to change its name to reflect its coeducational status and it continues a tradition of academic and leadership development for women by providing liberal arts and professional education to women and men.
The ruling did not require the university to change its name to reflect its coeducational status and it continues a tradition of academic and leadership development for women by providing liberal arts and professional education to women and men.
In the dissenting opinions, Justices Harry A. Blackmun, Warren E. Burger, Lewis F. Powell, Jr., and William H. Rehnquist suggested that the result of this ruling would be the elimination of publicly supported single-sex educational opportunities .
The historiography of the United States' second-wave feminism is criticized for failing to acknowledge and analyze the multiple sites of feminist insurgencies of women of color, silencing and ignoring the diverse pre-political and political developments that occurred during this time.
The dominant historical narratives of the feminist movement focuses on white, East Coast, and predominantly middle-class women and women's consciousness-raising groups , disregarding the experiences and contributions of women of color, working-class and lower-class women, as well as lesbian women.
This restricting view ignores the oppressions women faced determined by their race, class, and sexuality, and gave rise to women of color feminisms that separated from the women's liberation movement, such as Black feminism, Africana womanism, and the Hijas de Cuauhtémoc that emerged at California State University, Long Beach, which was founded by Anna NietoGomez , due to the Chicano Movement's sexism.
This restricting view ignores the oppressions women faced determined by their race, class, and sexuality, and gave rise to women of color feminisms that separated from the women's liberation movement, such as Black feminism, Africana womanism, and the Hijas de Cuauhtémoc that emerged at California State University, Long Beach, which was founded by Anna NietoGomez, due to the Chicano Movement's sexism.
Chela Sandoval called the dominant narratives of the women's liberation movement " hegemonic feminism " because it essentializes the feminist historiography to an exclusive population of women, which assumes that all women experience the same oppressions as the white, East Coast, and predominantly middle-class women.
Many feminist scholars see the generational division of the second-wave as problematic.
Second wavers are typically essentialized as the Baby Boomer generation , when in actuality many feminist leaders of the second-wave were born before World War II ended.
Second wavers are typically essentialized as the Baby Boomer generation, when in actuality many feminist leaders of the second-wave were born before World War II ended .
This generational essentialism homogenizes the group that belongs to the wave and asserts that every person part of a certain demographic generation shared the same ideologies, because ideological differences were considered to be generational differences .
Feminist scholars, particularly those from the late 20th and early 21st centuries to the present-day, have revisited diverse writings, oral histories, artwork, and artifacts of women of color, working-class women, and lesbians during the early 1960s to the early 1980s to decenter the dominant historical narratives of the second-wave of the women's liberation movement, allowing the scope of the historical understanding of feminist consciousness to expand and transform.
By recovering histories that have been erased and overlooked, new forms of consciousness are created, establishing alternative registers of moral and political meaning and authority through what Maylei Blackwell termed "retrofitted memory."
By recovering histories that have been erased and overlooked, new forms of consciousness are created, establishing alternative registers of moral and political meaning and authority through what Maylei Blackwell termed "retrofitted memory."
By looking within the gaps and crevices of the second-wave, fragments of historical knowledge and memory are discovered, and new historical feminist subjects as well as new perspectives about the past emerge, forcing existing dominant histories that claim to represent a universal experience to be decentered and refocused .
By looking within the gaps and crevices of the second-wave , fragments of historical knowledge and memory are discovered, and new historical feminist subjects as well as new perspectives about the past emerge, forcing existing dominant histories that claim to represent a universal experience to be decentered and refocused.
Whereas first-wave feminism focused mainly on suffrage and overturning legal obstacles to gender equality (e.g.., voting rights, property rights), second-wave feminism broadened the debate to a wide range of issues: sexuality, family, the workplace, reproductive rights, de facto inequalities, and official legal inequalities.
Whereas first-wave feminism focused mainly on suffrage and overturning legal obstacles to gender equality (e.g.., voting rights, property rights) , second-wave feminism broadened the debate to a wide range of issues: sexuality, family, the workplace, reproductive rights, de facto inequalities, and official legal inequalities.
Whereas first-wave feminism focused mainly on suffrage and overturning legal obstacles to gender equality (e.g.., voting rights, property rights), second-wave feminism broadened the debate to a wide range of issues: sexuality, family, the workplace, reproductive rights, de facto inequalities, and official legal inequalities. Second-wave feminism also drew attention to domestic violence and marital rape issues, establishment of rape crisis and battered women's shelters, and changes in custody and divorce law.
Second-wave feminism also drew attention to domestic violence and marital rape issues, establishment of rape crisis and battered women's shelters, and changes in custody and divorce law. Its major effort was the attempted passage of the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) to the United States Constitution, in which they were defeated by anti-feminists led by Phyllis Schlafly, who argued as an anti-ERA view that the ERA meant women would be drafted into the military.
Its major effort was the attempted passage of the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) to the United States Constitution, in which they were defeated by anti-feminists led by Phyllis Schlafly, who argued as an anti-ERA view that the ERA meant women would be drafted into the military.
Whereas first-wave feminism focused mainly on suffrage and overturning legal obstacles to gender equality (e.g.., voting rights, property rights), second-wave feminism broadened the debate to a wide range of issues: sexuality, family, the workplace, reproductive rights, de facto inequalities, and official legal inequalities.
Whereas first-wave feminism focused mainly on suffrage and overturning legal obstacles to gender equality (e.g.., voting rights, property rights), second-wave feminism broadened the debate to a wide range of issues: sexuality, family, the workplace, reproductive rights, de facto inequalities, and official legal inequalities. Second-wave feminism also drew attention to domestic violence and marital rape issues, establishment of rape crisis and battered women's shelters, and changes in custody and divorce law.
Second-wave feminism also drew attention to domestic violence and marital rape issues, establishment of rape crisis and battered women's shelters, and changes in custody and divorce law. Its major effort was the attempted passage of the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) to the United States Constitution, in which they were defeated by anti-feminists led by Phyllis Schlafly, who argued as an anti-ERA view that the ERA meant women would be drafted into the military.
Whereas first-wave feminism focused mainly on suffrage and overturning legal obstacles to gender equality (e.g.., voting rights, property rights ), second-wave feminism broadened the debate to a wide range of issues: sexuality, family, the workplace, reproductive rights, de facto inequalities, and official legal inequalities.
Its major effort was the attempted passage of the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) to the United States Constitution , in which they were defeated by anti-feminists led by Phyllis Schlafly, who argued as an anti-ERA view that the ERA meant women would be drafted into the military.
French writer Simone de Beauvoir had in the 1940s examined the notion of women being perceived as "other" in the patriarchal society.
French writer Simone de Beauvoir had in the 1940s examined the notion of women being perceived as "other" in the patriarchal society. She went on to conclude that male-centered ideology was being accepted as a norm and enforced by the ongoing development of myths, and that the fact that women are capable of getting pregnant, lactating, and menstruating is in no way a valid cause or explanation to place them as the "second sex".
In 1960 the Food and Drug Administration approved the combined oral contraceptive pill, which was made available in 1961.
This made it easier for women to have careers without having to leave due to unexpectedly becoming pregnant .
The administration of President Kennedy made women's rights a key issue of the New Frontier , and named women (such as Esther Peterson) to many high-ranking posts in his administration.
In 1963 Betty Friedan, influenced by The Second Sex , wrote the bestselling book The Feminine Mystique.
In 1963 Betty Friedan, influenced by The Second Sex, wrote the bestselling book The Feminine Mystique .
Discussing primarily white women, she explicitly objected to how women were depicted in the mainstream media, and how placing them at home limited their possibilities and wasted potential.
Friedan described this as "The Problem That Has No Name" .
The perfect nuclear family image depicted and strongly marketed at the time, she wrote, did not reflect happiness and was rather degrading for women. This book is widely credited with having begun second-wave feminism.
The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963 , when "Mother of the Movement" Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality.
Though it is widely accepted that the movement lasted from the 1960s into the early 1980s, the exact years of the movement are more difficult to pinpoint and are often disputed .
The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963, when "Mother of the Movement" Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality.
The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963, when "Mother of the Movement" Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality .
The report, which revealed great discrimination against women in American life, along with Friedan's book, which spoke to the discontent of many women (especially housewives), led to the formation of many local, state, and federal government women's groups as well as many independent feminist organizations.
Though it is widely accepted that the movement lasted from the 1960s into the early 1980s, the exact years of the movement are more difficult to pinpoint and are often disputed .
The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963 , when "Mother of the Movement" Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality.
The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963, when "Mother of the Movement" Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality.
The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963, when "Mother of the Movement" Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality .
The report, which revealed great discrimination against women in American life, along with Friedan's book, which spoke to the discontent of many women (especially housewives), led to the formation of many local, state, and federal government women's groups as well as many independent feminist organizations.
Though it is widely accepted that the movement lasted from the 1960s into the early 1980s, the exact years of the movement are more difficult to pinpoint and are often disputed .
The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963 , when "Mother of the Movement" Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality.
The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963, when "Mother of the Movement" Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality.
The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963, when "Mother of the Movement" Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality .
The report, which revealed great discrimination against women in American life, along with Friedan's book, which spoke to the discontent of many women (especially housewives), led to the formation of many local, state, and federal government women's groups as well as many independent feminist organizations.
Though it is widely accepted that the movement lasted from the 1960s into the early 1980s, the exact years of the movement are more difficult to pinpoint and are often disputed .
The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963, when "Mother of the Movement" Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality.
The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963 , when "Mother of the Movement" Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality.
The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963, when "Mother of the Movement" Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality .
The report, which revealed great discrimination against women in American life, along with Friedan's book, which spoke to the discontent of many women (especially housewives), led to the formation of many local, state, and federal government women's groups as well as many independent feminist organizations.
Though it is widely accepted that the movement lasted from the 1960s into the early 1980s, the exact years of the movement are more difficult to pinpoint and are often disputed .
The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963, when "Mother of the Movement" Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality.
The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963 , when "Mother of the Movement" Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality.
The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963, when "Mother of the Movement" Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality .
The report, which revealed great discrimination against women in American life, along with Friedan's book, which spoke to the discontent of many women (especially housewives), led to the formation of many local, state, and federal government women's groups as well as many independent feminist organizations.
Though it is widely accepted that the movement lasted from the 1960s into the early 1980s, the exact years of the movement are more difficult to pinpoint and are often disputed .
The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963, when "Mother of the Movement" Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality.
The report, which revealed great discrimination against women in American life, along with Friedan's book, which spoke to the discontent of many women (especially housewives), led to the formation of many local, state, and federal government women's groups as well as many independent feminist organizations.
The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963 , when "Mother of the Movement" Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality.
The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963, when "Mother of the Movement" Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality .
Though it is widely accepted that the movement lasted from the 1960s into the early 1980s, the exact years of the movement are more difficult to pinpoint and are often disputed .
The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963, when "Mother of the Movement" Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality .
The report, which revealed great discrimination against women in American life, along with Friedan's book, which spoke to the discontent of many women (especially housewives), led to the formation of many local, state, and federal government women's groups as well as many independent feminist organizations.
The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963, when "Mother of the Movement" Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality.
The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963 , when "Mother of the Movement" Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality.
Though it is widely accepted that the movement lasted from the 1960s into the early 1980s, the exact years of the movement are more difficult to pinpoint and are often disputed .
The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963 , when "Mother of the Movement" Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality.
The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963, when "Mother of the Movement" Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality.
The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963, when "Mother of the Movement" Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality .
The report, which revealed great discrimination against women in American life, along with Friedan's book, which spoke to the discontent of many women (especially housewives), led to the formation of many local, state, and federal government women's groups as well as many independent feminist organizations.
Though it is widely accepted that the movement lasted from the 1960s into the early 1980s, the exact years of the movement are more difficult to pinpoint and are often disputed .
The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963, when "Mother of the Movement" Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality .
The report, which revealed great discrimination against women in American life, along with Friedan's book, which spoke to the discontent of many women (especially housewives), led to the formation of many local, state, and federal government women's groups as well as many independent feminist organizations.
The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963, when "Mother of the Movement" Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality.
The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963 , when "Mother of the Movement" Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality.
Though it is widely accepted that the movement lasted from the 1960s into the early 1980s, the exact years of the movement are more difficult to pinpoint and are often disputed .
The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963 , when "Mother of the Movement" Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality.
The report, which revealed great discrimination against women in American life, along with Friedan's book, which spoke to the discontent of many women (especially housewives), led to the formation of many local, state, and federal government women's groups as well as many independent feminist organizations.
The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963, when "Mother of the Movement" Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality .
The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963, when "Mother of the Movement" Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality.
Though it is widely accepted that the movement lasted from the 1960s into the early 1980s, the exact years of the movement are more difficult to pinpoint and are often disputed .
The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963 , when "Mother of the Movement" Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality.
The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963, when "Mother of the Movement" Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality.
The report, which revealed great discrimination against women in American life, along with Friedan's book, which spoke to the discontent of many women (especially housewives), led to the formation of many local, state, and federal government women's groups as well as many independent feminist organizations.
The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963, when "Mother of the Movement" Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality .
Despite the early successes NOW achieved under Friedan's leadership, her decision to pressure the Equal Employment Opportunity to use Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act to enforce more job opportunities among American women met with fierce opposition within the organization.
Siding with arguments among several of the group's African-American members, many of NOW's leaders were convinced that the vast number of male African-Americans who lived below the poverty line were in need of more job opportunities than women within the middle and upper class.
Despite the early successes NOW achieved under Friedan's leadership, her decision to pressure the Equal Employment Opportunity to use Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act to enforce more job opportunities among American women met with fierce opposition within the organization.
Despite the early successes NOW achieved under Friedan's leadership, her decision to pressure the Equal Employment Opportunity to use Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act to enforce more job opportunities among American women met with fierce opposition within the organization.
Friedan stepped down as president in 1969 .
In 1969 , Bryn Mawr College and Haverford College (then all male) developed a system of sharing residential colleges.
When Haverford became coeducational in 1980 , Bryn Mawr discussed the possibly of coeducation as well, but decided against it.
In 1983 , Columbia University began admitting women after a decade of failed negotiations with Barnard College for a merger along the lines of Harvard and Radcliffe (Barnard has been affiliated with Columbia since 1900, but it continues to be independently governed).
In 1983, Columbia University began admitting women after a decade of failed negotiations with Barnard College for a merger along the lines of Harvard and Radcliffe (Barnard has been affiliated with Columbia since 1900, but it continues to be independently governed).
In 1963 , freelance journalist Gloria Steinem gained widespread popularity among feminists after a diary she authored while working undercover as a Playboy Bunny waitress at the Playboy Club was published as a two-part feature in the May and June issues of Show.
In 1963, freelance journalist Gloria Steinem gained widespread popularity among feminists after a diary she authored while working undercover as a Playboy Bunny waitress at the Playboy Club was published as a two-part feature in the May and June issues of Show.
In 1963, freelance journalist Gloria Steinem gained widespread popularity among feminists after a diary she authored while working undercover as a Playboy Bunny waitress at the Playboy Club was published as a two-part feature in the May and June issues of Show.
 In her diary, Steinem alleged the club was mistreating its waitresses in order to gain male customers and exploited the Playboy Bunnies as symbols of male chauvinism, noting that the club's manual instructed the Bunnies that "there are many pleasing ways they can employ to stimulate the club's liquor volume."
 By 1968, Steinem had become arguably the most influential figure in the movement and support for legalized abortion and federally funded day-cares had become the two leading objectives for feminists.
Mount Holyoke College engaged in a lengthy debate under the presidency of David Truman over the issue of coeducation .
On November 6, 1971, "after reviewing an exhaustive study on coeducation, the board of trustees decided unanimously that Mount Holyoke should remain a women's college , and a group of faculty was charged with recommending curricular changes that would support the decision."
The remaining Seven Sisters decided against coeducation .
On November 6, 1971, "after reviewing an exhaustive study on coeducation, the board of trustees decided unanimously that Mount Holyoke should remain a women's college, and a group of faculty was charged with recommending curricular changes that would support the decision." Smith College also made a similar decision in 1971.
Amongst the most significant legal victories of the movement after the formation of NOW were a 1967 Executive Order extending full affirmative action rights to women , a 1968 EEOC decision ruling illegal sex-segregated help wanted ads, Title IX and the Women's Educational Equity Act (1972 and 1974, respectively, educational equality), Title X (1970, health and family planning), the Equal Credit Opportunity Act (1974), the Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978, the outlawing of marital rape (although not outlawed in all states until 1993 ), and the legalization of no-fault divorce (although not legalized in all states until 2010 ), a 1975 law requiring the U.S. Military Academies to admit women, and many Supreme Court cases, perhaps most notably Reed v. Reed of 1971 and Roe v. Wade of 1973.
Amongst the most significant legal victories of the movement after the formation of NOW were a 1967 Executive Order extending full affirmative action rights to women, a 1968 EEOC decision ruling illegal sex-segregated help wanted ads , Title IX and the Women's Educational Equity Act (1972 and 1974, respectively, educational equality), Title X (1970, health and family planning), the Equal Credit Opportunity Act (1974), the Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978, the outlawing of marital rape (although not outlawed in all states until 1993 ), and the legalization of no-fault divorce (although not legalized in all states until 2010 ), a 1975 law requiring the U.S. Military Academies to admit women, and many Supreme Court cases, perhaps most notably Reed v. Reed of 1971 and Roe v. Wade of 1973.
Amongst the most significant legal victories of the movement after the formation of NOW were a 1967 Executive Order extending full affirmative action rights to women, a 1968 EEOC decision ruling illegal sex-segregated help wanted ads, Title IX and the Women's Educational Equity Act (1972 and 1974, respectively, educational equality), Title X (1970, health and family planning), the Equal Credit Opportunity Act (1974), the Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978, the outlawing of marital rape (although not outlawed in all states until 1993 ), and the legalization of no-fault divorce (although not legalized in all states until 2010 ), a 1975 law requiring the U.S. Military Academies to admit women, and many Supreme Court cases, perhaps most notably Reed v. Reed of 1971 and Roe v. Wade of 1973.
Amongst the most significant legal victories of the movement after the formation of NOW were a 1967 Executive Order extending full affirmative action rights to women, a 1968 EEOC decision ruling illegal sex-segregated help wanted ads, Title IX and the Women's Educational Equity Act (1972 and 1974, respectively, educational equality), Title X (1970, health and family planning), the Equal Credit Opportunity Act (1974), the Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978, the outlawing of marital rape (although not outlawed in all states until 1993 ), and the legalization of no-fault divorce (although not legalized in all states until 2010 ), a 1975 law requiring the U.S. Military Academies to admit women, and many Supreme Court cases, perhaps most notably Reed v. Reed of 1971 and Roe v. Wade of 1973.
However, the changing of social attitudes towards women is usually considered the greatest success of the women's movement.
The first, Radcliffe College, merged with Harvard University .
Beginning in 1963, students at Radcliffe received Harvard diplomas signed by the presidents of Radcliffe and Harvard and joint commencement exercises began in 1970 .
Beginning in 1963 , students at Radcliffe received Harvard diplomas signed by the presidents of Radcliffe and Harvard and joint commencement exercises began in 1970.
In 1999 Radcliffe College was dissolved and Harvard University assumed full responsibility over the affairs of female undergraduates.
Radcliffe is now the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study in Women's Studies at Harvard University.
Second-wave feminists viewed popular culture as sexist , and created pop culture of their own to counteract this.
Australian artist Helen Reddy's song "I Am Woman" played a large role in popular culture and became a feminist anthem; Reddy came to be known as a "feminist poster girl" or a "feminist icon".
Second-wave feminists viewed popular culture as sexist, and created pop culture of their own to counteract this.
Australian artist Helen Reddy's song "I Am Woman" played a large role in popular culture and became a feminist anthem; Reddy came to be known as a "feminist poster girl" or a "feminist icon". ."One project of second wave feminism was to create 'positive' images of women, to act as a counterweight to the dominant images circulating in popular culture and to raise women's consciousness of their oppressions."
."One project of second wave feminism was to create 'positive' images of women , to act as a counterweight to the dominant images circulating in popular culture and to raise women's consciousness of their oppressions."
In June 1967 Jo Freeman attended a "free school'" course on women at the University of Chicago led by Heather Booth  and Naomi Weisstein.
In June 1967 Jo Freeman attended a "free school'" course on women at the University of Chicago led by Heather Booth  and Naomi Weisstein .
She invited them to organize a woman's workshop at the then-forthcoming National Conference of New Politics (NCNP) , to be held over Labor Day weekend 1967 in Chicago.
When the National Conference for New Politics Director Willam F. Pepper refused to recognize any of the women waiting to speak and instead called on someone to speak about the American Indian, five women, including Firestone, rushed the podium to demand to know why.
After a few months Freeman started a newsletter which she called Voice of the women's liberation movement .
In 1968 , an SDS organizer at the University of Washington told a meeting about white college men working with poor white men, and "[h]e noted that sometimes after analyzing societal ills, the men shared leisure time by 'balling a chick together.'
After the meeting, a handful of women formed Seattle's first women's liberation group .
In 1968, an SDS organizer at the University of Washington told a meeting about white college men working with poor white men, and "[h]e noted that sometimes after analyzing societal ills, the men shared leisure time by 'balling a chick together.' He pointed out that such activities did much to enhance the political consciousness of poor white youth.
In 1968, an SDS organizer at the University of Washington told a meeting about white college men working with poor white men, and "[h]e noted that sometimes after analyzing societal ills, the men shared leisure time by 'balling a chick together.'
By the early 1980s , it was largely perceived that women had met their goals and succeeded in changing social attitudes towards gender roles, repealing oppressive laws that were based on sex, integrating the "boys' clubs" such as Military academies, the United States armed forces, NASA, single-sex colleges, men's clubs, and the Supreme Court, and illegalizing gender discrimination.
By the early 1980s, it was largely perceived that women had met their goals and succeeded in changing social attitudes towards gender roles, repealing oppressive laws that were based on sex, integrating the "boys' clubs" such as Military academies, the United States armed forces, NASA, single-sex colleges, men's clubs, and the Supreme Court, and illegalizing gender discrimination.
By the early 1980s, it was largely perceived that women had met their goals and succeeded in changing social attitudes towards gender roles, repealing oppressive laws that were based on sex, integrating the "boys' clubs" such as Military academies, the United States armed forces, NASA, single-sex colleges, men's clubs, and the Supreme Court, and illegalizing gender discrimination .
However, in 1982 adding the Equal Rights Amendment to the United States Constitution failed, having been ratified by only 35 states, leaving it three states short of ratification.
As of 2011 [update], more women earn bachelor's degrees than men, half of the Ivy League presidents are women, the numbers of women in government and traditionally male-dominated fields have dramatically increased, and in 2009 the percentage of women in the American workforce temporarily surpassed that of men.
Ten states have adopted constitutions or constitutional amendments providing that equal rights under the law shall not be denied because of sex, and most of these provisions mirror the broad language of the Equal Rights Amendment.
As of 2011[update], more women earn bachelor's degrees than men, half of the Ivy League presidents are women, the numbers of women in government and traditionally male-dominated fields have dramatically increased, and in 2009 the percentage of women in the American workforce temporarily surpassed that of men.
The salary of the average American woman has also increased over time , although as of 2008 it is only 77% of the average man's salary, a phenomenon often referred to as the Gender Pay Gap.
The salary of the average American woman has also increased over time, although as of 2008 it is only 77% of the average man's salary, a phenomenon often referred to as the Gender Pay Gap.
In the Spanish tradition, usually the father's surname comes first, followed by the mother's surname , whereas in Portuguese-speaking countries the father's name is the last, mother's coming first.
 A woman may adopt her husband's surname(s), but nevertheless she usually keeps her birth names, or at least the last one .
In the Spanish tradition, usually the father's surname comes first, followed by the mother's surname, whereas in Portuguese-speaking countries the father's name is the last, mother's coming first .
Since 1977 , a husband can also adopt his wife's surname.
In general, the traditions followed in countries like Brazil, Portugal and Angola are somewhat different from the ones in Spain .
It spread in the late 19th century in the upper classes, under French influence, and in the 20th century, particularly during the 1930s and 1940, it became socially almost obligatory.
It spread in the late 19th century in the upper classes, under French influence , and in the 20th century, particularly during the 1930s and 1940, it became socially almost obligatory.
It spread in the late 19th century in the upper classes, under French influence, and in the 20th century, particularly during the 1930s and 1940 , it became socially almost obligatory.
Nowadays, fewer women adopt, even officially, their husbands' names , and among those who do so officially, it is quite common not to use it either in their professional or informal life.[citation needed]
It spread in the late 19th century in the upper classes , under French influence, and in the 20th century, particularly during the 1930s and 1940, it became socially almost obligatory.
When Jewish families in Central Europe were forced to adopt surnames in the 18th and 19th centuries , those who failed to choose a surname were often given pejorative or even cruel nicknames (such as "Schweinmann" ("pig man") or "Schmutz" (a variant of "filthy")) by the local registrar.
These include names, also known as eke-names, based on appearance such as "Schwartzkopf," " Short ," and possibly "Caesar," and names based on temperament and personality such as "Daft," "Gutman," and "Maiden," which, according to a number of sources, was an English nickname meaning "effeminate."
When Jewish families in Central Europe were forced to adopt surnames in the 18th and 19th centuries, those who failed to choose a surname were often given pejorative or even cruel nicknames (such as "Schweinmann" ("pig man") or "Schmutz" (a variant of " filthy ")) by the local registrar.
When Jewish families in Central Europe were forced to adopt surnames in the 18th and 19th centuries, those who failed to choose a surname were often given pejorative or even cruel nicknames (such as "Schweinmann" (" pig man ") or "Schmutz" (a variant of "filthy")) by the local registrar.
When Jewish families in Central Europe were forced to adopt surnames in the 18th and 19th centuries, those who failed to choose a surname were often given pejorative or even cruel nicknames (such as "Schweinmann" ("pig man") or "Schmutz" (a variant of "filthy")) by the local registrar .
Until the end of the 19th century it was common for women, especially those from a very poor background, not to have a surname and so to be known only by their first names.
Until the end of the 19th century it was common for women, especially those from a very poor background, not to have a surname and so to be known only by their first names .
With the advent of republicanism in Brazil and Portugal, along with the institution of civil registries, all children now have surnames.
A woman would then adopt her husband's full surname after marriage. With the advent of republicanism in Brazil and Portugal, along with the institution of civil registries, all children now have surnames.
Examples include "Morgenstern" (" morning star "), "Safire" ("sapphire"), and "Reis" ("branch").
Examples include "Morgenstern" ("morning star"), "Safire" (" sapphire "), and "Reis" ("branch").
Examples include "Morgenstern" ("morning star"), "Safire" ("sapphire"), and "Reis" (" branch ").
 During the era of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade (of Africans) many Africans lost their native names and were forced[by whom?] to take the surnames of their slave masters and any given name the slave master desired.
Ornamental names used as surnames are more common in communities which adopted (or were forced to adopt) surnames in the 18th and 19th centuries .
For the children, some bear only the last surnames of the parents .
 However, the child may have any other combination of the parents' surnames, according to euphony, social significance or other reasons.
 However, the child may have any other combination of the parents' surnames, according to euphony, social significance or other reasons.
 However, the child may have any other combination of the parents' surnames , according to euphony, social significance or other reasons.
In India, surnames are placed as last names or before first names, which often denote: village of origin , caste, clan, office of authority their ancestors held, or trades of their ancestors.
In India , surnames are placed as last names or before first names, which often denote: village of origin, caste, clan, office of authority their ancestors held, or trades of their ancestors.
In India, surnames are placed as last names or before first names , which often denote: village of origin, caste, clan, office of authority their ancestors held, or trades of their ancestors.
In India, surnames are placed as last names or before first names, which often denote: village of origin, caste, clan, office of authority their ancestors held, or trades of their ancestors.
Here surnames are placed last , the order being: the given name, followed by the father's name, followed by the family name.
Here surnames are placed last, the order being: the given name, followed by the father's name, followed by the family name .
The majority of surnames are derived from the place where the family lived , with the 'ker' (Marathi) or 'Kar'(Konkani) suffix, for example, Mumbaiker, Puneker, Aurangabadker or Tendulkar, Parrikar, Mangeshkar, Mahendrakar.
The largest variety of surnames is found in the states of Maharashtra and Goa , which numbers more than the rest of India together.
It is a common in Kerala and some other parts of South India that the spouse adopts her husband's first name instead of his family or surname name after marriage.
I t is a common in Kerala and some other parts of South India that the spouse adopts her husband's first name instead of his family or surname name after marriage.
It is a common in Kerala and some other parts of South India that the spouse adopts her husband's first name instead of his family or surname name after marriage.
It is a common in Kerala and some other parts of South India that the spouse adopts her husband's first name instead of his family or surname name after marriage.
40% of all Vietnamese have the surname Nguyen .
40% of all Vietnamese have the surname Nguyen.
The last dynasty in Vietnam was the Nguyen dynasty , so as a result many people have this surname.
This may be because when a new dynasty took power in Vietnam it was custom to adopt that dynasty's surname .
For example, in Greece , if a man called Papadopoulos has a daughter, she will likely be named Papadopoulou (if the couple have decided their offspring will take the father's surname), since that name has a female version.
In Poland , if the husband is named Podwiński, and his wife takes his surname, her last name, and those of their unmarried daughters, would be Podwińska.
In Poland, if the husband is named Podwiński , and his wife takes his surname, her last name, and those of their unmarried daughters, would be Podwińska.
In Lithuania, if the husband is named Vilkas, his wife will be named Vilkienė and his daughter will be named Vilkaitė.
In Lithuania, if the husband is named Vilkas, his wife will be named Vilkienė and his daughter will be named Vilkaitė .
The most common European name in this category may be the Irish name " Ryan ", which means little king in Irish Gaelic.
The same name may appear in different cultures by coincidence or romanization; the surname Lee is used in English culture, but is also a romanization of the Chinese surname Li .
The same name may appear in different cultures by coincidence or romanization; the surname Lee is used in English culture, but is also a romanization of the Chinese surname Li.
The most common European name in this category may be the Irish name "Ryan", which means little king in Irish Gaelic.
Other surnames may have arisen from more than one source: the name "De Luca," for instance, likely arose either in or near Lucania or in the family of someone named Lucas or Lucius; in some instances, however, the name may have arisen from Lucca, with the spelling and pronunciation changing over time and with emigration.
Surnames were uncommon prior to the 12th century, and still somewhat rare into the 13th; most European surnames were originally occupational or locational, and served to distinguish one person from another if they happened to live near one another (e.g., two different people named John could conceivably be identified as 'John Butcher' and 'John Chandler').
This still happens, in some communities where a surname is particularly common, for example on the Isle of Lewis in Scotland, many residents have the family name MacLeod ( son of Lewis ) and so may still be known by a surname symbolising their occupation such as 'Kevin the post' and 'Kevin Handbag'.[citation needed]
This still happens, in some communities where a surname is particularly common, for example on the Isle of Lewis in Scotland , many residents have the family name MacLeod (son of Lewis) and so may still be known by a surname symbolising their occupation such as 'Kevin the post' and 'Kevin Handbag'.[citation needed]
Surnames were uncommon prior to the 12th century, and still somewhat rare into the 13th; most European surnames were originally occupational or locational , and served to distinguish one person from another if they happened to live near one another (e.g., two different people named John could conceivably be identified as 'John Butcher' and 'John Chandler').
This still happens, in some communities where a surname is particularly common, for example on the Isle of Lewis in Scotland, many residents have the family name MacLeod (son of Lewis) and so may still be known by a surname symbolising their occupation such as 'Kevin the post' and 'Kevin Handbag'.[citation needed]
These true compound surnames are passed on and inherited as compounds .
Beyond this seemingly "compound" surname system in the Hispanic world, there are also true compound surnames in the Spanish-speaking countries .
For instance, former Chairman of the Supreme Military Junta of Ecuador, General Luis Telmo Paz y Miño Estrella , has Luis as his first given name, Telmo as his middle name, the true compound surname Paz y Miño as his first (i.e. paternal) surname, and Estrella as his second (i.e. maternal) surname.
For instance, former Chairman of the Supreme Military Junta of Ecuador, General Luis Telmo Paz y Miño Estrella , has Luis as his first given name, Telmo as his middle name, the true compound surname Paz y Miño as his first (i.e. paternal) surname, and Estrella as his second (i.e. maternal) surname.
For instance, former Chairman of the Supreme Military Junta of Ecuador , General Luis Telmo Paz y Miño Estrella, has Luis as his first given name, Telmo as his middle name, the true compound surname Paz y Miño as his first (i.e. paternal) surname, and Estrella as his second (i.e. maternal) surname.
For instance, former Chairman of the Supreme Military Junta of Ecuador, General Luis Telmo Paz y Miño Estrella, has Luis as his first given name, Telmo as his middle name, the true compound surname Paz y Miño as his first (i.e. paternal) surname, and Estrella as his second (i.e. maternal) surname.
For instance, former Chairman of the Supreme Military Junta of Ecuador, General Luis Telmo Paz y Miño Estrella, has Luis as his first given name, Telmo as his middle name, the true compound surname Paz y Miño as his first (i.e. paternal) surname, and Estrella as his second (i.e. maternal) surname.
For instance, former Chairman of the Supreme Military Junta of Ecuador, General Luis Telmo Paz y Miño Estrella , has Luis as his first given name, Telmo as his middle name, the true compound surname Paz y Miño as his first (i.e. paternal) surname, and Estrella as his second (i.e. maternal) surname.
For instance, former Chairman of the Supreme Military Junta of Ecuador , General Luis Telmo Paz y Miño Estrella, has Luis as his first given name, Telmo as his middle name, the true compound surname Paz y Miño as his first (i.e. paternal) surname, and Estrella as his second (i.e. maternal) surname.
Unlike other true compound surnames, which resulted from the merging of a previously paternal and maternal surname, the Álava compound surname is characterized for having the first portion of the surname as a patronymic, normally a Spanish patronymic (i.e. from the Castilian language) or more unusually a Basque language patronymic, followed by the preposition "de", with the second part of the surname being a local toponymic surname from Álava.
These type of customary compound surnames used to be found throughout Guipúzcoa, Navarra, Soria, Logroño, and most of Green Spain generally (i.e. the Spanish northern maritime façade exposed to the Atlantic Ocean which runs along the coastal strip lying north of the Cantabrian and Basque mountains, along the Bay of Biscay.)
Unlike other true compound surnames, which resulted from the merging of a previously paternal and maternal surname, the Álava compound surname is characterized for having the first portion of the surname as a patronymic, normally a Spanish patronymic (i.e. from the Castilian language) or more unusually a Basque language patronymic, followed by the preposition "de", with the second part of the surname being a local toponymic surname from Álava .
These type of customary compound surnames used to be found throughout Guipúzcoa, Navarra, Soria, Logroño, and most of Green Spain generally (i.e. the Spanish northern maritime façade exposed to the Atlantic Ocean which runs along the coastal strip lying north of the Cantabrian and Basque mountains, along the Bay of Biscay .)
Compound surnames in English and several other European cultures feature two (or occasionally more) words, often joined by a hyphen or hyphens.
However, it is not unusual for compound surnames to be composed of separate words not linked by a hyphen , for example Iain Duncan Smith, a former leader of the British Conservative Party, whose surname is "Duncan Smith".
A surname with the prefix "Fitz" can be spelled with the prefix as a separate word , as in "Fitz William", as well as "FitzWilliam" or "Fitzwilliam".
A surname with the prefix "Fitz" can be spelled with the prefix as a separate word, as in "Fitz William", as well as "FitzWilliam" or "Fitzwilliam" .
The common prefixes "Ó" and "Mac" can be spelled with the prefix as a separate word, yielding "Ó Briain" or "Mac Millan" as well as the anglicized "O'Brien" and "MacMillan" or "Macmillan."
Name etymologists classify European surnames under five categories, depending on their origin:  given name, occupational name, location name, nickname, and ornamental name.
Name etymologists classify European surnames under five categories, depending on their origin:  given name, occupational name, location name, nickname, and ornamental name .
Multiple surnames may be derived from a single given name: e.g. there are thought to be over 90 Italian surnames based on the given name " Giovanni ."
These may be a simple first name such as "Wilhelm," a patronymic such as "Andersen," a matronymic such as " Beaton ," or a clan name such as "O'Brien."
These may be a simple first name such as "Wilhelm," a patronymic such as "Andersen," a matronymic such as "Beaton," or a clan name such as " O'Brien ."
These may be a simple first name such as "Wilhelm," a patronymic such as " Andersen ," a matronymic such as "Beaton," or a clan name such as "O'Brien."
In the United States, 1,712 surnames cover 50% of the population, and about 1% of the population has the surname Smith, which is also the most frequent English name and an occupational name ("metal worker"), a contraction, for instance, of blacksmith or iron smith, among others.
In the United States, 1,712 surnames cover 50% of the population, and about 1% of the population has the surname Smith, which is also the most frequent English name and an occupational name ("metal worker"), a contraction, for instance, of blacksmith or iron smith, among others.
In the United States, 1,712 surnames cover 50% of the population, and about 1% of the population has the surname Smith, which is also the most frequent English name and an occupational name ("metal worker"), a contraction, for instance, of blacksmith or iron smith, among others.
In the United States, 1,712 surnames cover 50% of the population, and about 1% of the population has the surname Smith , which is also the most frequent English name and an occupational name ("metal worker"), a contraction, for instance, of blacksmith or iron smith, among others.
Spellings and pronunciations of names remained fluid in the United States until the Social Security System enforced standardization.
In Spain and in most Spanish-speaking countries , the custom is for people to have two surnames.
One family member's relationship to another can often be identified by the various combinations and permutations of surnames.
For example, if "(José) GARCÍA Torres" and "(María) ACOSTA Gómez" had a child named Pablo , then his full name would be Pablo García Acosta.
For example, if "(José) GARCÍA Torres" and "(María) ACOSTA Gómez" had a child named Pablo, then his full name would be Pablo García Acosta .
In Spain , especially Catalonia, the paternal and maternal surnames are often combined using y (Spanish) or i (in Catalan), see for example the economist Xavier Sala-i-Martin or painter Salvador Dalí i Domènech.
In Spain, especially Catalonia, the paternal and maternal surnames are often combined using y ( Spanish ) or i (in Catalan), see for example the economist Xavier Sala-i-Martin or painter Salvador Dalí i Domènech.
In Spain, especially Catalonia, the paternal and maternal surnames are often combined using y (Spanish) or i (in Catalan ), see for example the economist Xavier Sala-i-Martin or painter Salvador Dalí i Domènech.
In Spain, especially Catalonia , the paternal and maternal surnames are often combined using y (Spanish) or i (in Catalan), see for example the economist Xavier Sala-i-Martin or painter Salvador Dalí i Domènech.
In Spain , a woman does not change her legal surnames when she marries.
In some Spanish-speaking countries in Latin America , a woman may, on her marriage, drop her mother's surname and add her husband's surname to her father's surname using the preposition "de" (of).
In some Spanish-speaking countries in Latin America, a woman may, on her marriage, drop her mother's surname and add her husband's surname to her father's surname using the preposition "de" (of) .
In some countries, this form may be mainly social and not an official name change, i.e. her name would still legally be her birth name .
Children take the surnames of both parents , so if the couple above had two children named "Andrés" and "Ana", then their names would be "Andrés Gómez Reyes" and "Ana Gómez Reyes".
In 1973 in Chile, the law was changed to avoid stigmatizing illegitimate children with the maternal surname repeated.
In Spain, a 1995 reform in the law allows the parents to choose whether the father's or the mother's surname goes first, although this order must be the same for all their children.
In Spain , a 1995 reform in the law allows the parents to choose whether the father's or the mother's surname goes first, although this order must be the same for all their children.
In 1973 in Chile , the law was changed to avoid stigmatizing illegitimate children with the maternal surname repeated.
Occupational names include such simple examples as Smith (for a smith), Miller (for a miller), Farmer (for farm tax collectors or sometimes farmers), Thatcher (for a thatcher), Shepherd (for a shepherd), Potter (for a potter), and so on, as well as non-English ones such as Eisenhauer (iron worker, later Anglicized in America as Eisenhower) or Schneider (tailor).
For instance, the surname Vickers is thought to have arisen as an occupational name adopted by the servant of a vicar , while Roberts could have been adopted by either the son or the servant of a man named Robert.
A subset of occupational names in English are names thought to be derived from the medieval mystery plays.
Names derived from this may include King, Lord, Virgin, and Death ; the last is often wrongly thought to be an anglicization of the French name D'Ath.
In French Canada until the 19th century , several families adopted surnames that followed the family name in order to distinguish the various branches of a large family.
Such a surname was preceded by the word "dit" ("said") and was known as a "nom-dit" ("said-name").
Such a surname was preceded by the word "dit" ("said") and was known as a "nom-dit" ("said-name") .
Thus the Bourbeau family has split into Bourbeau dit Verville , Bourbeau dit Lacourse, and Bourbeau dit Beauchesne.
While this tradition is no longer in use, in many cases the nom-dit has come to replace the original family name.
The Icelandic system , formerly used in much of Scandinavia, does not use family names.
A person's last name indicates the first name of his or her father (patronymic) or in some cases mother (matronymic).
Many common family names in other Scandinavian countries are a result of this naming practice, such as Hansen (son of Hans), Johansen (son of Johan) and Olsen (son of Ole/Ola), the three most common surnames in Norway.
A person's last name indicates the first name of his or her father (patronymic) or in some cases mother ( matronymic ).
This also occurs in other cultures: Spanish and Portuguese (López or Lopes, son of Lopo; Álvarez or Álvares, son of Álvaro; Domínguez or Domingues, son of Domingo or Domingos; etc.); in English (Johnson, son of John; Richardson, son of Richard), etc.
Location (toponymic, habitation) names derive from the inhabited location associated with the person given that name .
Such locations can be any type of settlement , such as: homesteads, farms, enclosures, villages, hamlets, strongholds or cottages.
Examples of Old English elements are frequently found in the second element of habitational names.
The habitative elements in such names can differ in meaning, according to different periods, different locations, or with being used with certain other elements .
For example, the Old English element tūn may have originally meant "enclosure" in one name, but can have meant "farmstead", "village", "manor", or "estate" in other names.
In Russia and Bulgaria , both patronymic and family name are obligatory parts of one's full name: e.g. if a Russian is called Ivan Andreyevich Sergeyev, that means that his father's name is Andrey and his family name is Sergeyev.
In Russia and Bulgaria, both patronymic and family name are obligatory parts of one's full name: e.g. if a Russian is called Ivan Andrey evich Sergeyev, that means that his father's name is Andrey and his family name is Sergeyev.
In Russia and Bulgaria, both patronymic and family name are obligatory parts of one's full name: e.g. if a Russian is called Ivan Andreyevich Sergeyev , that means that his father's name is Andrey and his family name is Sergeyev.
A similar system is used in Greece .
Location names, or habitation names, may be as generic as "Monte" (Portuguese for "mountain"), "Górski" (Polish for "hill") or "Pitt" (variant of "pit"), but may also refer to specific locations.
Although some surnames, such as "London," "Lisboa" or "Bialystok" are derived from large cities , more people reflect the names of smaller communities, as in Ó Creachmhaoil, derived from a village in County Galway.
Location names, or habitation names, may be as generic as "Monte" (Portuguese for "mountain"), "Górski" (Polish for "hill" ) or "Pitt" (variant of "pit"), but may also refer to specific locations.
Although some surnames, such as "London," "Lisboa" or "Bialystok" are derived from large cities, more people reflect the names of smaller communities, as in Ó Creachmhaoil, derived from a village in County Galway .
"Washington," for instance, is thought to mean "the homestead of the family of Wassa," while "Lucci" likely means " resident of Lucca ."
In Ethiopia and Eritrea , a child adopts the given name of one of their parents, usually the father, as a pseudo-surname.
In Ethiopia and Eritrea, a child adopts the given name of one of their parents, usually the father , as a pseudo-surname.
In Ethiopia and Eritrea, a child adopts the given name of one of their parents, usually the father, as a pseudo-surname .
Very rarely do children adopt their mother's given name, who in any case would retain their "pseudo-surname."
Just as in Iceland, referring to Abraham Mesfin as "Mr Mesfin" would be erroneous: the correct term would be "Mr Abraham." Very rarely do children adopt their mother's given name, who in any case would retain their "pseudo-surname."
Many Japanese surnames derive from geographical features ; for example, Ishikawa (石川) means "stone river", Yamamoto (山本) means "the base of the mountain", and Inoue (井上) means "above the well."
Many Japanese surnames derive from geographical features; for example, Ishikawa (石川) means " stone river ", Yamamoto (山本) means "the base of the mountain", and Inoue (井上) means "above the well."
Many Japanese surnames derive from geographical features; for example, Ishikawa (石川) means "stone river", Yamamoto (山本) means "the base of the mountain", and Inoue (井上) means "above the well."
Many Japanese surnames derive from geographical features; for example, Ishikawa (石川) means "stone river", Yamamoto (山本) means "the base of the mountain", and Inoue (井上) means " above the well. "
As part of Hebrew patronymic names , Ben is followed by the father's name, e.g. ben adam (Hebrew: בן אדם‎) or Abraham ben Abraham.
As part of Hebrew patronymic names, Ben is followed by the father's name, e.g. ben adam (Hebrew: בן אדם‎) or Abraham ben Abraham.
Bar-, "son of" in Aramaic, is used likewise, e.g. Meir Bar-Ilan.
As part of Hebrew patronymic names, Ben is followed by the father's name, e.g. ben adam (Hebrew: בן אדם‎) or Abraham ben Abraham .
Arabic names sometimes contain surnames that denote the city of origin .
For example, in cases of Saddam Hussein al Tikrit i, meaning Saddam Hussein of Tikrit, a city in Iraq.
For example, in cases of Saddam Hussein al Tikriti, meaning Saddam Hussein of Tikrit, a city in Iraq .
This component of the name is called a nisbah .
 Although Argentina is a Spanish-speaking country, it is also composed of other varied European influences, such as Italian, French, Russian, German, etc .
a Spanish -speaking country, it is also composed of other varied European influences, such as Italian, French, Russian, German, etc.
Combined names come from old traditional families and are considered one last name, but are rare.
Combined names come from old traditional families and are considered one last name, but are rare .
Children typically use their fathers' last names only.
Some state offices have started to use both last names , in the traditional father then mother order, to reduce the risk of a person being mistaken for others using the same name combinations, e.g. if Eva Duarte and Juan Perón had a child named Juan, he might be misidentified if he were called Juan Perón, but not if he was known as Juan Perón Duarte.
Some state offices have started to use both last names, in the traditional father then mother order, to reduce the risk of a person being mistaken for others using the same name combinations , e.g. if Eva Duarte and Juan Perón had a child named Juan, he might be misidentified if he were called Juan Perón, but not if he was known as Juan Perón Duarte.
Some state offices have started to use both last names, in the traditional father then mother order, to reduce the risk of a person being mistaken for others using the same name combinations, e.g. if Eva Duarte and Juan Perón had a child named Juan, he might be misidentified if he were called Juan Perón, but not if he was known as Juan Perón Duarte.
In early 2008 , some new legislation is under consideration that will place the mother's last name ahead the father's last name, as it is done in Portuguese-speaking countries and only optionally in Spain, despite Argentina being a Spanish-speaking country.
In early 2008, some new legislation is under consideration that will place the mother's last name ahead the father's last name, as it is done in Portuguese-speaking countries and only optionally in Spain, despite Argentina being a Spanish-speaking country .
In early 2008, some new legislation is under consideration that will place the mother's last name ahead the father's last name , as it is done in Portuguese-speaking countries and only optionally in Spain, despite Argentina being a Spanish-speaking country.
In early 2008, some new legislation is under consideration that will place the mother's last name ahead the father's last name, as it is done in Portuguese-speaking countries and only optionally in Spain , despite Argentina being a Spanish-speaking country.
In Chile , marriage has no effect at all on either of the spouses' names, so people keep their birth names for all their life, no matter how many times marital status, theirs or that of their parents, may change.
However, in some circles, it is still customary for a wife to use her husband's name as reference, as in "Doña María Inés de Ramírez" (literally Lady María Inés (wife) of Ramírez).
In Chile, marriage has no effect at all on either of the spouses' names, so people keep their birth names for all their life, no matter how many times marital status , theirs or that of their parents, may change.
In Chile, marriage has no effect at all on either of the spouses' names , so people keep their birth names for all their life, no matter how many times marital status, theirs or that of their parents, may change.
Children will always bear the surname of the father followed by that of the mother , but if there is no known father and the mother is single, the children can bear either both of her mother's surnames or the mother's first surname followed by any of the surnames of the mother's parents or grandparents, or the child may bear the mother's first surname twice in a row.
Children will always bear the surname of the father followed by that of the mother, but if there is no known father and the mother is single , the children can bear either both of her mother's surnames or the mother's first surname followed by any of the surnames of the mother's parents or grandparents, or the child may bear the mother's first surname twice in a row.
Children will always bear the surname of the father followed by that of the mother, but if there is no known father and the mother is single, the children can bear either both of her mother's surnames or the mother's first surname followed by any of the surnames of the mother's parents or grandparents , or the child may bear the mother's first surname twice in a row.
will always bear the surname of the father followed by that of the mother , but if there is no known father and the mother is single, the children can bear either both of her mother's surnames or the mother's first surname followed by any of the surnames of the mother's parents or grandparents, or the child may bear the mother's first surname twice in a row.
Luis Telmo Paz y Miño Estrella is also known more casually as Luis Paz y Miño , Telmo Paz y Miño, or Luis Telmo Paz y Miño.
Luis Telmo Paz y Miño Estrella is also known more casually as Luis Paz y Miño , Telmo Paz y Miño, or Luis Telmo Paz y Miño.
Luis Telmo Paz y Miño Estrella is also known more casually as Luis Paz y Miño, Telmo Paz y Miño, or Luis Telmo Paz y Miño.
He would never be regarded as Luis Estrella, Telmo Estrella, or Luis Telmo Estrella, nor as Luis Paz, Telmo Paz, or Luis Telmo Paz .
Luis Telmo Paz y Miño Estrella is also known more casually as Luis Paz y Miño, Telmo Paz y Miño, or Luis Telmo Paz y Miño.
In this case, Paz y Miño is in fact the paternal surname, being a true compound surname.
In this case, Paz y Miño is in fact the paternal surname, being a true compound surname.
His children, therefore, would inherit the compound surname "Paz y Miño" as their paternal surname, while Estrella would be lost, since the mother's paternal surname becomes the children's second surname (as their own maternal surname).
In this case, Paz y Miño is in fact the paternal surname, being a true compound surname.
His children, therefore, would inherit the compound surname "Paz y Miño" as their paternal surname, while Estrella would be lost, since the mother's paternal surname becomes the children's second surname (as their own maternal surname).
This is true especially in the Anglosphere , but also sometimes even in the Hispanic world, since to many Hispanics unfamiliar with this and other compound surnames, "Paz y Miño" might be inadvertently mistaken as "Paz" for the paternal surname and "Miño" for the maternal surname.
To avoid ambiguity, one might often informally see these true compound surnames hyphenated, for instance, as Paz-y- Miño .
Although Miño did start off as the maternal surname in this compound surname, it was many generations ago, around five centuries , that it became compounded, and henceforth inherited and passed on as a compound.
This is true especially in the Anglosphere, but also sometimes even in the Hispanic world , since to many Hispanics unfamiliar with this and other compound surnames, "Paz y Miño" might be inadvertently mistaken as "Paz" for the paternal surname and "Miño" for the maternal surname.
To avoid ambiguity, one might often informally see these true compound surnames hyphenated , for instance, as Paz-y-Miño.
Other surnames which started off as compounds of two or more surnames, but which merged into one single word, also exist.
An example would be the surname Pazmiño, whose members are related to the Paz y Miño , as both descend from the "Paz Miño" family of five centuries ago.
An example would be the surname Pazmiño, whose members are related to the Paz y Miño, as both descend from the " Paz Miño " family of five centuries ago.
An example would be the surname Pazmiño, whose members are related to the Paz y Miño, as both descend from the "Paz Miño" family of five centuries ago .
An example would be the surname Pazmiño , whose members are related to the Paz y Miño, as both descend from the "Paz Miño" family of five centuries ago.
When those from Japan, Taiwan and Hong Kong write their personal name in the Latin alphabet, it is common to reverse the order of the given and family names for the convenience of Westerners , so that they know which name is the family name for official/formal purposes.
Reversing the order of names for the same reason is also customary for the Baltic Fennic peoples and the Hungarians , but other Uralic peoples traditionally did not have surnames, perhaps because of the clan structure of their societies.
Reversing the order of names for the same reason is also customary for the Baltic Fennic peoples and the Hungarians , but other Uralic peoples traditionally did not have surnames, perhaps because of the clan structure of their societies.
Reversing the order of names for the same reason is also customary for the Baltic Fennic peoples and the Hungarians, but other Uralic peoples traditionally did not have surnames, perhaps because of the clan structure of their societies .
Recently, integration into the EU and increased communications with foreigners prompted many Samis to reverse the order of their full name to given name followed by surname, to avoid their given name being mistaken for and used as a surname .
When those from Japan, Taiwan and Hong Kong write their personal name in the Latin alphabet, it is common to reverse the order of the given and family names for the convenience of Westerners , so that they know which name is the family name for official/formal purposes.
Reversing the order of names for the same reason is also customary for the Baltic Fennic peoples and the Hungarians , but other Uralic peoples traditionally did not have surnames, perhaps because of the clan structure of their societies.
Reversing the order of names for the same reason is also customary for the Baltic Fennic peoples and the Hungarians , but other Uralic peoples traditionally did not have surnames, perhaps because of the clan structure of their societies.
Reversing the order of names for the same reason is also customary for the Baltic Fennic peoples and the Hungarians, but other Uralic peoples traditionally did not have surnames, perhaps because of the clan structure of their societies .
Recently, integration into the EU and increased communications with foreigners prompted many Samis to reverse the order of their full name to given name followed by surname, to avoid their given name being mistaken for and used as a surname .
Indian surnames may often denote caste, profession, and village and are invariably mentioned along with the personal names.
Indian surname s may often denote caste, profession, and village and are invariably mentioned along with the personal names.
In telephone directories the surname is used for collation .
In North Indian states the surname is placed after given names where it exists.
In south India , where use of two names is by no means universal, surname is placed before personal name and in most cases it is only shown as an initial (for example 'S.' for Suryapeth).[citation needed]
Indian surnames may often denote caste, profession, and village and are invariably mentioned along with the personal names.
Indian surname s may often denote caste, profession, and village and are invariably mentioned along with the personal names.
In telephone directories the surname is used for collation .
In south India , where use of two names is by no means universal, surname is placed before personal name and in most cases it is only shown as an initial (for example 'S.' for Suryapeth).[citation needed]
In North Indian states the surname is placed after given names where it exists.
In English, although the usual order of names is "first middle last" for the purpose of cataloging in libraries and in citing the names of authors in scholarly papers, the order is changed to " last, first middle," with the last and first names separated by a comma, and items are alphabetized by the last name.
In English, although the usual order of names is "first middle last" for the purpose of cataloging in libraries and in citing the names of authors in scholarly papers, the order is changed to "last, first middle," with the last and first names separated by a comma, and items are alphabetized by the last name.
In English, although the usual order of names is "first middle last" for the purpose of cataloging in libraries and in citing the names of authors in scholarly papers, the order is changed to "last, first middle," with the last and first names separated by a comma , and items are alphabetized by the last name.
In English, although the usual order of names is "first middle last" for the purpose of cataloging in libraries and in citing the names of authors in scholarly papers , the order is changed to "last, first middle," with the last and first names separated by a comma, and items are alphabetized by the last name.
In English, although the usual order of names is "first middle last" for the purpose of cataloging in libraries and in citing the names of authors in scholarly papers , the order is changed to "last, first middle," with the last and first names separated by a comma, and items are alphabetized by the last name.
In English, although the usual order of names is "first middle last" for the purpose of cataloging in libraries and in citing the names of authors in scholarly papers, the order is changed to " last, first middle," with the last and first names separated by a comma, and items are alphabetized by the last name.
In English, although the usual order of names is "first middle last" for the purpose of cataloging in libraries and in citing the names of authors in scholarly papers, the order is changed to "last, first middle," with the last and first names separated by a comma, and items are alphabetized by the last name.
In English, although the usual order of names is "first middle last" for the purpose of cataloging in libraries and in citing the names of authors in scholarly papers, the order is changed to "last, first middle," with the last and first names separated by a comma , and items are alphabetized by the last name.
In English, although the usual order of names is "first middle last" for the purpose of cataloging in libraries and in citing the names of authors in scholarly papers , the order is changed to "last, first middle," with the last and first names separated by a comma, and items are alphabetized by the last name.
In English, although the usual order of names is "first middle last" for the purpose of cataloging in libraries and in citing the names of authors in scholarly papers , the order is changed to "last, first middle," with the last and first names separated by a comma, and items are alphabetized by the last name.
In most Spanish-speaking countries , the custom is for people to have two surnames.
For instance, Spanish ex-premier José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero has José Luis as his given name, Rodríguez, as his first (i.e. paternal) surname, and Zapatero as his second (i.e. maternal) surname.
For instance, Spanish ex-premier José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero has José Luis as his given name, Rodríguez, as his first (i.e. paternal) surname, and Zapatero as his second (i.e. maternal) surname.
For instance, Spanish ex-premier José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero has José Luis as his given name, Rodríguez, as his first (i.e. paternal) surname, and Zapatero as his second (i.e. maternal) surname.
paternal ) surname, and Zapatero as his second (i.e. maternal) surname.
This custom is not seen in the Hispanic world as being a true compound surname system per se, since it is widely understood that the first surname denotes one's father's family , and the second surname denotes one's mother's family.
So "Rodríguez Zapatero" is not considered one surname ; it is two distinct surnames.
Only the paternal surname of both father and mother are passed on .
The father's paternal surname becomes the child's own paternal surname, while the mother's paternal surname becomes the child's second surname (as the child's own maternal surname).
The father's paternal surname becomes the child's own paternal surname, while the mother's paternal surname becomes the child's second surname (as the child's own maternal surname).
For instance, painter Pablo Ruiz Picasso and Spanish Prime Minister José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero are known by their maternal surnames as "Picasso" and "Zapatero".
It should be noted that some Hispanic people, after leaving their country, drop their maternal surname, even if not formally, so as to better fit into the non-Hispanic society they live or work in.
It should be noted that some Hispanic people, after leaving their country, drop their maternal surname, even if not formally, so as to better fit into the non-Hispanic society they live or work in .
For instance, painter Pablo Ruiz Picasso and Spanish Prime Minister José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero are known by their maternal surnames as "Picasso" and "Zapatero" .
For instance, painter Pablo Ruiz Picasso and Spanish Prime Minister José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero are known by their maternal surnames as "Picasso" and "Zapatero" .
In some churches, such as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, where the family structure is emphasized, as well as legal marriage, the wife is referred to as " hermana " [sister] plus the surname of her husband.
In some churches, such as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints , where the family structure is emphasized, as well as legal marriage, the wife is referred to as "hermana" [sister] plus the surname of her husband.
In some churches, such as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, where the family structure is emphasized, as well as legal marriage , the wife is referred to as "hermana" [sister] plus the surname of her husband.
In some churches, such as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, where the family structure is emphasized, as well as legal marriage, the wife is referred to as "hermana" [ sister ] plus the surname of her husband.
A new trend in the United States for Hispanics is to hyphenate their father's and mother's last names .
This is done because American born English-speakers are not aware of the Hispanic custom of using two last names and thus mistake the first last name of the individual for a middle name .
This is done because American born English-speakers are not aware of the Hispanic custom of using two last names and thus mistake the first last name of the individual for a middle name.
To avoid such mistakes, Esteban Álvarez Cobos, would become Esteban Álvarez-Cobos , to clarify that both are last names.
The Argentine Civilian Code states both uses are correct, but police offices and passports are issued with the complete name.
In Argentina , women traditionally used their husband's last name after "de".
The Argentine Civilian Code states both uses are correct, but police offices and passports are issued with the complete name.
Today most women prefer to maintain their birth name given that "de" can be interpreted as meaning they belong to their husbands .
In Argentina, women traditionally used their husband's last name after "de".
When Eva Duarte married Juan Domingo Perón , she could be addressed as Eva Duarte de Perón, but the preferred style was Eva Perón, or the familiar and affectionate Evita (little Eva).
When Eva Duarte married Juan Domingo Perón, she could be addressed as Eva Duarte de Perón , but the preferred style was Eva Perón, or the familiar and affectionate Evita (little Eva).
When Eva Duarte married Juan Domingo Perón, she could be addressed as Eva Duarte de Perón, but the preferred style was Eva Perón, or the familiar and affectionate Evita ( little Eva )
When Eva Duarte married Juan Domingo Perón, she could be addressed as Eva Duarte de Perón, but the preferred style was Eva Perón , or the familiar and affectionate Evita (little Eva).
A surname or family name is a name added to a given name.
In the western hemisphere, it is commonly synonymous with last name because it is usually placed at the end of a person's given name.
A surname or family name is a name added to a given name .
In the western hemisphere, it is commonly synonymous with last name because it is usually placed at the end of a person's given name .
In most Spanish-speaking and Portuguese-speaking countries, two or more last names (or surnames) may be used.
In China, Hungary, Japan, Korea, Madagascar, Taiwan, Vietnam, and parts of India, the family name is placed before a person's given name.
In China, Hungary, Japan, Korea, Madagascar, Taiwan, Vietnam, and parts of India, the family name is placed before a person's given name.
In China, Hungary, Japan, Korea, Madagascar, Taiwan, Vietnam, and parts of India, the family name is placed before a person's given name.
In China, Hungary, Japan, Korea, Madagascar, Taiwan, Vietnam, and parts of India, the family name is placed before a person's given name.
The style of having both a family name (surname) and a given name (forename) is far from universal.
In many countries, it is common for ordinary people to have only one name or mononym.
The style of having both a family name (surname) and a given name (forename) is far from universal .
In many countries, it is common for ordinary people to have only one name or mononym .
Based on an individual's occupation or area of residence , a byname would be used in situations where more than one person had the same name.
The concept of a "surname" is a relatively recent historical development, evolving from a medieval naming practice called a "byname".
The concept of a "surname" is a relatively recent historical development, evolving from a medieval naming practice called a "byname" .
The concept of a "surname" is a relatively recent historical development , evolving from a medieval naming practice called a "byname".
Based on an individual's occupation or area of residence, a byname would be used in situations where more than one person had the same name.
In some cultures, including those of most Western countries, the surname or family name ("last name") is placed after the personal or given name ("first name").
In other cultures the surname is placed first , followed by the given name or names.
In some cultures, including those of most Western countries, the surname or family name ("last name") is placed after the personal or given name (" first name ").
This is the case in Hungary, parts of Romania, Bavaria, Austria, South India, Sri Lanka, Madagascar and countries in the East Asian cultural sphere including Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Vietnam and China .
This is the case in Hungary , parts of Romania, Bavaria, Austria, South India, Sri Lanka, Madagascar and countries in the East Asian cultural sphere including Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Vietnam and China.
In some cultures, including those of most Western countries, the surname or family name ("last name") is placed after the personal or given name ("first name").
In other cultures the surname is placed first , followed by the given name or names.
In some cultures, including those of most Western countries, the surname or family name ("last name") is placed after the personal or given name (" first name ").
This is the case in Hungary, parts of Romania, Bavaria, Austria, South India, Sri Lanka, Madagascar and countries in the East Asian cultural sphere including Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Vietnam and China .
This is the case in Hungary , parts of Romania, Bavaria, Austria, South India, Sri Lanka, Madagascar and countries in the East Asian cultural sphere including Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Vietnam and China.
In some cultures, including those of most Western countries, the surname or family name ("last name") is placed after the personal or given name ("first name").
In some cultures, including those of most Western countries, the surname or family name ("last name") is placed after the personal or given name (" first name ").
In other cultures the surname is placed first , followed by the given name or names.
This is the case in Hungary , parts of Romania, Bavaria, Austria, South India, Sri Lanka, Madagascar and countries in the East Asian cultural sphere including Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Vietnam and China.
This is the case in Hungary, parts of Romania, Bavaria, Austria, South India, Sri Lanka, Madagascar and countries in the East Asian cultural sphere including Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Vietnam and China .
At retail, Windows XP was now marketed in two main editions: the "Home" edition was targeted towards consumers, while the "Professional" edition was targeted towards business environments and power users, and included additional security and networking features.
Mainstream support for Windows XP ended on April 14, 2009 .
At retail, Windows XP was now marketed in two main editions: the "Home" edition was targeted towards consumers, while the "Professional" edition was targeted towards business environments and power users, and included additional security and networking features.
Extended support ended on April 8, 2014 .
Home and Professional were later accompanied by the "Media Center" edition (designed for home theater PCs, with an emphasis on support for DVD playback, TV tuner cards, DVR functionality, and remote controls), and the "Tablet PC" edition (designed for mobile devices meeting its specifications for a tablet computer, with support for stylus pen input and additional pen-enabled applications).
Home and Professional were later accompanied by the "Media Center" edition (designed for home theater PCs, with an emphasis on support for DVD playback, TV tuner cards, DVR functionality, and remote controls), and the "Tablet PC" edition (designed for mobile devices meeting its specifications for a tablet computer, with support for stylus pen input and additional pen-enabled applications).
At retail, Windows XP was now marketed in two main editions: the "Home" edition was targeted towards consumers, while the "Professional" edition was targeted towards business environments and power users , and included additional security and networking features.
Home and Professional were later accompanied by the " Media Center " edition (designed for home theater PCs, with an emphasis on support for DVD playback, TV tuner cards, DVR functionality, and remote controls), and the "Tablet PC" edition (designed for mobile devices meeting its specifications for a tablet computer, with support for stylus pen input and additional pen-enabled applications).
Home and Professional were later accompanied by the "Media Center" edition (designed for home theater PCs, with an emphasis on support for DVD playback, TV tuner cards, DVR functionality, and remote controls), and the " Tablet PC " edition (designed for mobile devices meeting its specifications for a tablet computer, with support for stylus pen input and additional pen-enabled applications).
Mainstream support for Windows XP ended on April 14, 2009 .
Microsoft introduced an operating environment named Windows on November 20, 1985 , as a graphical operating system shell for MS-DOS in response to the growing interest in graphical user interfaces (GUIs).
Microsoft introduced an operating environment named Windows on November 20, 1985, as a graphical operating system shell for MS-DOS in response to the growing interest in graphical user interfaces (GUIs).
Microsoft Windows came to dominate the world's personal computer market with over 90% market share, overtaking Mac OS, which had been introduced in 1984.
However, since 2012, because of the massive growth of smartphones, Windows sells less than Android , which became the most popular operating system in 2014, when counting all of the computing platforms each operating system runs on; in 2014, the number of Windows devices sold were less than 25% of Android devices sold.
However, since 2012, because of the massive growth of smartphones, Windows sells less than Android , which became the most popular operating system in 2014, when counting all of the computing platforms each operating system runs on; in 2014, the number of Windows devices sold were less than 25% of Android devices sold.
The history of Windows dates back to September 1981 , when Chase Bishop, a computer scientist, designed the first model of an electronic device and project Interface Manager was started.
The history of Windows dates back to September 1981, when Chase Bishop , a computer scientist, designed the first model of an electronic device and project Interface Manager was started.
It was announced in November 1983 (after the Apple Lisa, but before the Macintosh) under the name "Windows", but Windows 1.0 was not released until November 1985 .
The shell of Windows 1.0 is a program known as the MS-DOS Executive .
Windows 1.0 does not allow overlapping windows .
The early versions of Windows are often thought of as graphical shells , mostly because they ran on top of MS-DOS and use it for file system services.
The early versions of Windows are often thought of as graphical shells, mostly because they ran on top of MS-DOS and use it for file system services.
The early versions of Windows are often thought of as graphical shells, mostly because they ran on top of MS-DOS and use it for file system services .
Unlike MS-DOS, Windows allowed users to execute multiple graphical applications at the same time, through cooperative multitasking .
Windows implemented an elaborate, segment-based, software virtual memory scheme, which allows it to run applications larger than available memory: code segments and resources are swapped in and thrown away when memory became scarce ; data segments moved in memory when a given application had relinquished processor control.
Windows 3.0, released in 1990 , improved the design, mostly because of virtual memory and loadable virtual device drivers (VxDs) that allow Windows to share arbitrary devices between multi-tasked DOS applications.[citation needed] Windows 3.0 applications can run in protected mode, which gives them access to several megabytes of memory without the obligation to participate in the software virtual memory scheme.
Windows 3.0 is the first Microsoft Windows version to achieve broad commercial success, selling 2 million copies in the first six months.
Windows 3.0 , released in 1990, improved the design, mostly because of virtual memory and loadable virtual device drivers (VxDs) that allow Windows to share arbitrary devices between multi-tasked DOS applications.[citation needed] Windows 3.0 applications can run in protected mode, which gives them access to several megabytes of memory without the obligation to participate in the software virtual memory scheme.
Windows 3.0, released in 1990, improved the design, mostly because of virtual memory and loadable virtual device drivers (VxDs) that allow Windows to share arbitrary devices between multi-tasked DOS applications.[citation needed] Windows 3.0 applications can run in protected mode , which gives them access to several megabytes of memory without the obligation to participate in the software virtual memory scheme.
Windows 3.0, released in 1990, improved the design, mostly because of virtual memory and loadable virtual device drivers (VxDs) that allow Windows to share arbitrary devices between multi-tasked DOS applications.[citation needed] Windows 3.0 applications can run in protected mode, which gives them access to several megabytes of memory without the obligation to participate in the software virtual memory scheme.
The next major consumer-oriented release of Windows, Windows 95, was released on August 24, 1995 .
Microsoft published four OEM Service Releases (OSR) of Windows 95, each of which was roughly equivalent to a service pack.
Mainstream support for Windows 95 ended on December 31, 2000, and extended support for Windows 95 ended on December 31, 2001 .
While still remaining MS-DOS-based, Windows 95 introduced support for native 32-bit applications, plug and play hardware, preemptive multitasking, long file names of up to 255 characters , and provided increased stability over its predecessors.
Windows 95 also introduced a redesigned, object oriented user interface, replacing the previous Program Manager with the Start menu, taskbar, and Windows Explorer shell .
Windows 98 SE added Internet Explorer 5.0 and Windows Media Player 6.2 amongst other upgrades.
Windows 98 SE added Internet Explorer 5.0 and Windows Media Player 6.2 amongst other upgrades.
In May 1999, Microsoft released Windows 98 Second Edition , an updated version of Windows 98.
Mainstream support for Windows 98 ended on June 30, 2002, and extended support for Windows 98 ended on July 11, 2006 .
On September 14, 2000, Microsoft released Windows ME (Millennium Edition) , the last DOS-based version of Windows.
Windows ME incorporated visual interface enhancements from its Windows NT -based counterpart Windows 2000, had faster boot times than previous versions (which however, required the removal of the ability to access a real mode DOS environment, removing compatibility with some older programs), expanded multimedia functionality (including Windows Media Player 7, Windows Movie Maker, and the Windows Image Acquisition framework for retrieving images from scanners and digital cameras), additional system utilities such as System File Protection and System Restore, and updated home networking tools.
Windows ME incorporated visual interface enhancements from its Windows NT-based counterpart Windows 2000, had faster boot times than previous versions (which however, required the removal of the ability to access a real mode DOS environment, removing compatibility with some older programs), expanded multimedia functionality (including Windows Media Player 7, Windows Movie Maker, and the Windows Image Acquisition framework for retrieving images from scanners and digital cameras ), additional system utilities such as System File Protection and System Restore, and updated home networking tools.
On September 14, 2000, Microsoft released Windows ME (Millennium Edition), the last DOS-based version of Windows.
PC World considered Windows ME to be one of the worst operating systems Microsoft had ever released, and the 4th worst tech product of all time.
The language for both the keyboard and the interface can be changed through the Region and Language Control Panel .
Components for all supported input languages, such as Input Method Editors, are automatically installed during Windows installation (in Windows XP and earlier, files for East Asian languages, such as Chinese, and right-to-left scripts, such as Arabic, may need to be installed separately, also from the said Control Panel).
Components for all supported input languages, such as Input Method Editors, are automatically installed during Windows installation (in Windows XP and earlier, files for East Asian languages, such as Chinese, and right-to-left scripts, such as Arabic , may need to be installed separately, also from the said Control Panel).
Third-party IMEs may also be installed if a user feels that the provided one is insufficient for their needs.
The language for both the keyboard and the interface can be changed through the Region and Language Control Panel .
The language for both the keyboard and the interface can be changed through the Region and Language Control Panel .
Multilingual support is built into Windows.
Components for all supported input languages, such as Input Method Editors, are automatically installed during Windows installation (in Windows XP and earlier, files for East Asian languages, such as Chinese, and right-to-left scripts, such as Arabic, may need to be installed separately, also from the said Control Panel).
Third-party IMEs may also be installed if a user feels that the provided one is insufficient for their needs.
The language for both the keyboard and the interface can be changed through the Region and Language Control Panel.
Language Interface Packs (LIPs) are redistributable and may be downloaded from Microsoft's Download Center and installed for any edition of Windows (XP or later) - they translate most, but not all, of the Windows interface, and require a certain base language (the language which Windows originally shipped with).
Interface languages for the operating system are free for download , but some languages are limited to certain editions of Windows.
Language Interface Packs (LIPs) are redistributable and may be downloaded from Microsoft's Download Center and installed for any edition of Windows ( XP or later ) - they translate most, but not all, of the Windows interface, and require a certain base language (the language which Windows originally shipped with).
Full Language Packs, which translates the complete operating system , are only available for specific editions of Windows (Ultimate and Enterprise editions of Windows Vista and 7, and all editions of Windows 8, 8.1 and RT except Single Language).
These languages cannot be downloaded through the Download Center, but available as optional updates through the Windows Update service (except Windows 8).
Language Interface Packs (LIPs) are redistributable and may be downloaded from Microsoft's Download Center and installed for any edition of Windows (XP or later) - they translate most, but not all, of the Windows interface, and require a certain base language (the language which Windows originally shipped with).
Language Interface Packs (LIPs) are redistributable and may be downloaded from Microsoft's Download Center and installed for any edition of Windows (XP or later) - they translate most, but not all, of the Windows interface, and require a certain base language (the language which Windows originally shipped with).
Full Language Packs , which translates the complete operating system, are only available for specific editions of Windows (Ultimate and Enterprise editions of Windows Vista and 7, and all editions of Windows 8, 8.1 and RT except Single Language).
These languages cannot be downloaded through the Download Center, but available as optional updates through the Windows Update service (except Windows 8).
Full Language Packs, which translates the complete operating system, are only available for specific editions of Windows (Ultimate and Enterprise editions of Windows Vista and 7, and all editions of Windows 8 , 8.1 and RT except Single Language).
Windows NT 3.5 was released in September 1994, focusing on performance improvements and support for Novell's NetWare, and was followed up by Windows NT 3.51 in May 1995, which included additional improvements and support for the PowerPC architecture.
Windows NT 4.0 was released in June 1996 , introducing the redesigned interface of Windows 95 to the NT series.
The first release of the resulting operating system, Windows NT 3.1 (named to associate it with Windows 3.1) was released in July 1993, with versions for desktop workstations and servers.
Windows NT 4.0 was released in June 1996, introducing the redesigned interface of Windows 95 to the NT series.
In November 1988, a new development team within Microsoft (which included former Digital Equipment Corporation developers Dave Cutler and Mark Lucovsky) began work on a revamped version of IBM and Microsoft's OS/2 operating system known as "NT OS/2".
However, following the successful release of Windows 3.0, the NT development team decided to rework the project to use an extended 32-bit port of the Windows API known as Win32 instead of those of OS/2.
Win32 maintained a similar structure to the Windows APIs ( allowing existing Windows applications to easily be ported to the platform ), but also supported the capabilities of the existing NT kernel.
However, following the successful release of Windows 3.0 , the NT development team decided to rework the project to use an extended 32-bit port of the Windows API known as Win32 instead of those of OS/2.
Windows 8 and Windows Server 2012 introduces a new Language Control Panel where both the interface and input languages can be simultaneously changed, and language packs, regardless of type, can be downloaded from a central location.
The above limitations for language packs are however still in effect, except that full language packs can be installed for any edition except Single Language , which caters to emerging markets.
The PC Settings app in Windows 8.1 and Windows Server 2012 R2 also includes a counterpart settings page for this.
Changing the interface language also changes the language of preinstalled Windows Store apps (such as Mail, Maps and News) and certain other Microsoft-developed apps (such as Remote Desktop).
The above limitations for language packs are however still in effect, except that full language packs can be installed for any edition except Single Language, which caters to emerging markets .
Windows 8 and Windows Server 2012 introduces a new Language Control Panel where both the interface and input languages can be simultaneously changed, and language packs, regardless of type, can be downloaded from a central location.
Windows 8 and Windows Server 2012 introduces a new Language Control Panel where both the interface and input languages can be simultaneously changed, and language packs, regardless of type, can be downloaded from a central location.
The PC Settings app in Windows 8.1 and Windows Server 2012 R2 also includes a counterpart settings page for this.
Changing the interface language also changes the language of preinstalled Windows Store apps (such as Mail, Maps and News ) and certain other Microsoft-developed apps (such as Remote Desktop).
The next major version of Windows NT, Windows XP , was released on October 25, 2001.
The next major version of Windows NT, Windows XP , was released on October 25, 2001.
The next major version of Windows NT , Windows XP, was released on October 25, 2001.
The next major version of Windows NT, Windows XP , was released on October 25, 2001.
The introduction of Windows XP aimed to unify the consumer -oriented Windows 9x series with the architecture introduced by Windows NT, a change which Microsoft promised would provide better performance over its DOS-based predecessors.
After a lengthy development process, Windows Vista was released on November 30, 2006, for volume licensing and January 30, 2007 , for consumers.
After a lengthy development process, Windows Vista was released on November 30, 2006 , for volume licensing and January 30, 2007, for consumers.
It contained a number of new features, from a redesigned shell and user interface to significant technical changes, with a particular focus on security features .
Vista's server counterpart, Windows Server 2008 was released in early 2008.
Vista's server counterpart, Windows Server 2008 was released in early 2008 .
On July 22, 2009 , Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2 were released as RTM (release to manufacturing) while the former was released to the public 3 months later on October 22, 2009.
Unlike its predecessor, Windows Vista , which introduced a large number of new features, Windows 7 was intended to be a more focused, incremental upgrade to the Windows line, with the goal of being compatible with applications and hardware with which Windows Vista was already compatible.
Unlike its predecessor, Windows Vista, which introduced a large number of new features, Windows 7 was intended to be a more focused, incremental upgrade to the Windows line, with the goal of being compatible with applications and hardware with which Windows Vista was already compatible.
Windows 7 has multi-touch support , a redesigned Windows shell with an updated taskbar, a home networking system called HomeGroup, and performance improvements.
Windows 7 has multi-touch support, a redesigned Windows shell with an updated taskbar, a home networking system called HomeGroup , and performance improvements.
Windows 8, the successor to Windows 7, was released generally on October 26, 2012 .
A number of significant changes were made on Windows 8, including the introduction of a user interface based around Microsoft's Metro design language with optimizations for touch-based devices such as tablets and all-in-one PCs.
A number of significant changes were made on Windows 8, including the introduction of a user interface based around Microsoft's Metro design language with optimizations for touch-based devices such as tablets and all-in-one PCs.
Other changes include increased integration with cloud services and other online platforms (such as social networks and Microsoft's own SkyDrive and Xbox Live services), the Windows Store service for software distribution, and a new variant known as Windows RT for use on devices that utilize the ARM architecture.
Other changes include increased integration with cloud services and other online platforms (such as social networks and Microsoft's own SkyDrive and Xbox Live services), the Windows Store service for software distribution, and a new variant known as Windows RT for use on devices that utilize the ARM architecture.
On September 30, 2014, Microsoft announced Windows 10 as the successor to Windows 8.1.
It was released on July 29, 2015 ,
It was released on July 29, 2015, and addresses shortcomings in the user interface first introduced with Windows 8.
On September 30, 2014 , Microsoft announced Windows 10 as the successor to Windows 8.1.
Windows 10 is said to be available to update from qualified Windows 7 with SP1 and Windows 8.1 computers from the Get Windows 10 Application (for Windows 7, Windows 8.1) or Windows Update (Windows 7).
.Microsoft updates Xbox One's OS every month , and these updates can be downloaded from the Xbox Live service to the Xbox and subsequently installed, or by using offline recovery images downloaded via a PC.
Xbox OS is an unofficial name given to the version of Windows that runs on the Xbox One.
.Microsoft updates Xbox One's OS every month, and these updates can be downloaded from the Xbox Live service to the Xbox and subsequently installed, or by using offline recovery images downloaded via a PC.
. Xbox One's system also allows backward compatibility with Xbox 360, and the Xbox 360's system is backwards compatible with the original Xbox.
.Microsoft updates Xbox One's OS every month, and these updates can be downloaded from the Xbox Live service to the Xbox and subsequently installed, or by using offline recovery images downloaded via a PC .
Microsoft releases security patches through its Windows Update service approximately once a month (usually the second Tuesday of the month), although critical updates are made available at shorter intervals when necessary.
Microsoft releases security patches through its Windows Update service approximately once a month (usually the second Tuesday of the month), although critical updates are made available at shorter intervals when necessary.
In versions of Windows after and including Windows 2000 SP3 and Windows XP , updates can be automatically downloaded and installed if the user selects to do so.
As a result, Service Pack 2 for Windows XP, as well as Service Pack 1 for Windows Server 2003 , were installed by users more quickly than it otherwise might have been.
The Windows NT series of operating systems, by contrast, are true multi-user, and implement absolute memory protection.
However, a lot of the advantages of being a true multi-user operating system were nullified by the fact that, prior to Windows Vista, the first user account created during the setup process was an administrator account , which was also the default for new accounts.
Though Windows XP did have limited accounts, the majority of home users did not change to an account type with fewer rights – partially due to the number of programs which unnecessarily required administrator rights – and so most home users ran as administrator all the time.
that, prior to Windows Vista, the first user account created during the setup process was an administrator account , which was also the default for new accounts.
Windows Vista changes this by introducing a privilege elevation system called User Account Control .
When an application requests higher privileges or "Run as administrator" is clicked, UAC will prompt for confirmation and, if consent is given (including administrator credentials if the account requesting the elevation is not a member of the administrators group), start the process using the unrestricted token.
User applications, including the Windows Shell, are then started with the restricted token, resulting in a reduced privilege environment even under an Administrator account.
When an application requests higher privileges or "Run as administrator" is clicked , UAC will prompt for confirmation and, if consent is given (including administrator credentials if the account requesting the elevation is not a member of the administrators group), start the process using the unrestricted token.
All Windows versions from Windows NT 3 have been based on a file system permission system referred to as AGLP (Accounts, Global, Local, Permissions) AGDLP which in essence where file permissions are applied to the file/folder in the form of a 'local group' which then has other 'global groups' as members.
However using this process of AGLP/AGDLP/AGUDLP allows a small number of static permissions to be applied and allows for easy changes to the account groups without reapplying the file permissions on the files and folders .
However using this process of AGLP/AGDLP/AGUDLP allows a small number of static permissions to be applied and allows for easy changes to the account groups without reapplying the file permissions on the files and folders.
This system varies from other vendor products such as Linux and NetWare due to the 'static' allocation of permission being applied directory to the file or folder.
On January 6, 2005, Microsoft released a Beta version of Microsoft AntiSpyware , based upon the previously released Giant AntiSpyware.
On January 6, 2005, Microsoft released a Beta version of Microsoft AntiSpyware, based upon the previously released Giant AntiSpyware .
On February 14, 2006, Microsoft AntiSpyware became Windows Defender with the release of Beta 2.
In Windows 8, Windows Defender and Microsoft Security Essentials have been combined into a single program, named Windows Defender.
Windows Malicious Software Removal Tool and the optional Microsoft Safety Scanner are two other free security products offered by Microsoft.
A study conducted by Kevin Mitnick and marketing communications firm Avantgarde in 2004, found that an unprotected and unpatched Windows XP system with Service Pack 1 lasted only 4 minutes on the Internet before it was compromised, and an unprotected and also unpatched Windows Server 2003 system was compromised after being connected to the internet for 8 hours.
Typical suggestions include deploying Microsoft Windows behind a hardware or software firewall, running anti-virus and anti-spyware software, and installing patches as they become available through Windows Update .
The AOL National Cyber Security Alliance Online Safety Study of October 2004, determined that 80% of Windows users were infected by at least one spyware/adware product.[citation needed] Much documentation is available describing how to increase the security of Microsoft Windows products.
A study conducted by Kevin Mitnick and marketing communications firm Avantgarde in 2004, found that an unprotected and unpatched Windows XP system with Service Pack 1 lasted only 4 minutes on the Internet before it was compromised, and an unprotected and also unpatched Windows Server 2003 system was compromised after being connected to the internet for 8 hours.
The computer that was running Windows XP Service Pack 2 was not compromised.
Windows NT included support for several different platforms before the x86-based personal computer became dominant in the professional world.
Windows NT 4.0 and its predecessors supported PowerPC, DEC Alpha and MIPS R4000 .
However, Windows 2000 , the successor of Windows NT 4.0, dropped support for all platforms except the third generation x86 (known as IA-32) or newer in 32-bit mode.
However, Windows 2000, the successor of Windows NT 4.0, dropped support for all platforms except the third generation x86 (known as IA-32 ) or newer in 32-bit mode.
(Although some these platforms implement 64-bit computing, the operating system treated them as 32-bit.)
Windows XP 64-Bit Edition , released in 2005, is the last Windows client operating systems to support Itanium.
With the introduction of the Intel Itanium architecture (IA-64), Microsoft released new versions of Windows to support it.
With the introduction of the Intel Itanium architecture ( IA-64 ), Microsoft released new versions of Windows to support it.
Windows XP 64-Bit Edition, released in 2005 , is the last Windows client operating systems to support Itanium.
Windows Server line continued to support this platform until Windows Server 2012; Windows Server 2008 R2 is the last Windows operating system to support Itanium architecture.
Several plant species, the "pioneer crops" or Neolithic founder crops were named by Daniel Zohary , who highlighted importance of the three cereals, and suggesting domestication of flax, pea, chickpea, bitter vetch and lentil came a little later.
Gordon Hillman and Stuart Davies carried out experiments with wild wheat varieties to show that the process of domestication would have happened over a relatively short period of between twenty and two hundred years .
Wild lentils present a different challenge that needed to be overcome: most of the wild seeds do not germinate in the first year ; the first evidence of lentil domestication, breaking dormancy in their first year, was found in the early Neolithic at Jerf el Ahmar (in modern Syria), and quickly spread south to the Netiv HaGdud site in the Jordan Valley.
Based on analysis of the genes of domesticated plants, he preferred theories of a single, or at most a very small number of domestication events for each taxa that spread in an arc from the Levantine corridor around the fertile crescent and later into Europe.
Several plant species, the "pioneer crops" or Neolithic founder crops were named by Daniel Zohary, who highlighted importance of the three cereals , and suggesting domestication of flax, pea, chickpea, bitter vetch and lentil came a little later.
Early agriculture is believed to have originated and become widespread in Southwest Asia around 10,000–9,000 BP, though earlier individual sites have been identified.
The Fertile Crescent region of Southwest Asia is the centre of domestication for three cereals (einkorn wheat, emmer wheat and barley) four legumes (lentil, pea, bitter vetch and chickpea) and flax.
The Fertile Crescent region of Southwest Asia is the centre of domestication for three cereals ( einkorn wheat, emmer wheat and barley ) four legumes (lentil, pea, bitter vetch and chickpea) and flax.
The Mediterranean climate consists of a long dry season with a short period of rain, which may have favored small plants with large seeds, like wheat and barley.[citation needed] The Fertile Crescent also had a large area of varied geographical settings and altitudes and this variety may have made agriculture more profitable for former hunter-gatherers in this region in comparison with other areas with a similar climate .[citation needed]
The Fertile Crescent region of Southwest Asia is the centre of domestication for three cereals (einkorn wheat, emmer wheat and barley) four legumes (lentil, pea, bitter vetch and chickpea) and flax.
Finds of large quantities of seeds and a grinding stone at the paleolithic site of Ohalo II in the vicinity of the Sea of Galilee, dated to around 19,400 BP has shown some of the earliest evidence for advanced planning of plant food consumption and suggests that humans at Ohalo II processed the grain before consumption.
Finds of large quantities of seeds and a grinding stone at the paleolithic site of Ohalo II in the vicinity of the Sea of Galilee , dated to around 19,400 BP has shown some of the earliest evidence for advanced planning of plant food consumption and suggests that humans at Ohalo II processed the grain before consumption.
Finds of large quantities of seeds and a grinding stone at the paleolithic site of Ohalo II in the vicinity of the Sea of Galilee, dated to around 19,400 BP has shown some of the earliest evidence for advanced planning of plant food consumption and suggests that humans at Ohalo II processed the grain before consumption.
Tell Aswad is oldest site of agriculture with domesticated emmer wheat dated by Willem van Zeist and his assistant Johanna Bakker-Heeres to 8800 BC.
Tell Aswad is oldest site of agriculture with domesticated emmer wheat dated by Willem van Zeist and his assistant Johanna Bakker-Heeres to 8800 BC.
Northern China appears to have been the domestication center for foxtail millet (Setaria italica) and broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum) with evidence of domestication of these species approximately 8,000 years ago.
Soybean was domesticated in northern China 4500 years ago .
Rice was domesticated in southern China later on.
They were cultivated around 2500 BC .
These species were subsequently widely cultivated in the Yellow River basin (7,500 years ago).
On the African continent, three areas have been identified as independently developing agriculture: the Ethiopian highlands, the Sahel and West Africa.
 .Many grinding stones are found with the early Egyptian Sebilian and Mechian cultures and evidence has been found of a neolithic domesticated crop-based economy dating around 7,000 BP .
.Unlike the Middle East, this evidence appears as a "false dawn" to agriculture, as the sites were later abandoned, and permanent farming then was delayed until 6,500 BP with the Tasian and Badarian cultures and the arrival of crops and animals from the Near East.
On the African continent, three areas have been identified as independently developing agriculture: the Ethiopian highlands, the Sahel and West Africa .
By contrast,   Agriculture in the Nile River Valley is thought to have developed from the original Neolithic Revolution in the Fertile Crescent.
During the next millennia it would transform the small and mobile groups of hunter-gatherers that had hitherto dominated human pre-history into sedentary (here meaning non-nomadic) societies based in built-up villages and towns.
The Neolithic Revolution involved far more than the adoption of a limited set of food -producing techniques.
During the next millennia it would transform the small and mobile groups of hunter-gatherers that had hitherto dominated human pre-history into sedentary (here meaning non-nomadic) societies based in built-up villages and towns .
These societies radically modified their natural environment by means of specialized food-crop cultivation (e.g., irrigation and deforestation) which allowed extensive surplus food production.
During the next millennia it would transform the small and mobile groups of hunter-gatherers that had hitherto dominated human pre-history into sedentary (here meaning non-nomadic ) societies based in built-up villages and towns.
These societies radically modified their natural environment by means of specialized food-crop cultivation (e.g., irrigation and deforestation ) which allowed extensive surplus food production.
These societies radically modified their natural environment by means of specialized food-crop cultivation (e.g., irrigation and deforestation) which allowed extensive surplus food production .
These societies radically modified their natural environment by means of specialized food-crop cultivation (e.g., irrigation and deforestation) which allowed extensive surplus food production.
These developments provided the basis for densely populated settlements, specialization and division of labour, trading economies, the development of non-portable art and architecture, centralized administrations and political structures, hierarchical ideologies, depersonalized systems of knowledge (e.g., writing ), and property ownership[citation needed].
These developments provided the basis for densely populated settlements, specialization and division of labour, trading economies, the development of non-portable art and architecture, centralized administrations and political structures, hierarchical ideologies, depersonalized systems of knowledge (e.g., writing), and property ownership[ citation needed].
Personal land and private property ownership led to hierarchical society, class struggle and armies[citation needed].
The first fully developed manifestation of the entire Neolithic complex is seen in the Middle Eastern Sumerian cities (c. 5,500 BP), whose emergence also heralded the beginning of the Bronze Age.
The first fully developed manifestation of the entire Neolithic complex is seen in the Middle Eastern Sumerian cities (c. 5,500 BP), whose emergence also heralded the beginning of the Bronze Age .
The Levant followed by Mesopotamia are the sites of the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BC.
The Levant followed by Mesopotamia are the sites of the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BC .
It has been identified as having "inspired some of the most important developments in human history including the invention of the wheel , the planting of the first cereal crops and the development of cursive script, Mathematics, Astronomy and Agriculture."
It has been identified as having "inspired some of the most important developments in human history including the invention of the wheel, the planting of the first cereal crops and the development of cursive script, Mathematics , Astronomy and Agriculture."
The beginning of this process in different regions has been dated from 10,000 to 8,000 BC in the Fertile Crescent and perhaps 8000 BC in the Kuk Early Agricultural Site of Melanesia to 2500 BC in Subsaharan Africa, with some[who?] considering the developments[clarification needed] of 9000–7000 BC in the Fertile Crescent to be the most important.
The beginning of this process in different regions has been dated from 10,000 to 8,000 BC in the Fertile Crescent and perhaps 8000 BC in the Kuk Early Agricultural Site of Melanesia to 2500 BC in Subsaharan Africa, with some[who?] considering the developments[clarification needed] of 9000–7000 BC in the Fertile Crescent to be the most important.
Recent archaeological research suggests that in some regions such as the Southeast Asian peninsula , the transition from hunter-gatherer to agriculturalist was not linear, but region-specific.
The beginning of this process in different regions has been dated from 10,000 to 8,000 BC in the Fertile Crescent and perhaps 8000 BC in the Kuk Early Agricultural Site of Melanesia to 2500 BC in Subsaharan Africa , with some[who?] considering the developments[clarification needed] of 9000–7000 BC in the Fertile Crescent to be the most important.
This transition everywhere seems associated with a change from a largely nomadic hunter-gatherer way of life to a more settled, agrarian-based one , with the inception of the domestication of various plant and animal species—depending on the species locally available, and probably also influenced by local culture.
Once agriculture started gaining momentum, human activity resulted in the selective breeding of cereal grasses (beginning with emmer, einkorn and barley), and not simply of those that would favour greater caloric returns through larger seeds.
Plants that rapidly shed their seeds on maturity tended not to be gathered at harvest, therefore not stored and not seeded the following season; years of harvesting selected for strains that retained their edible seeds longer.
Once agriculture started gaining momentum, human activity resulted in the selective breeding of cereal grasses (beginning with emmer, einkorn and barley ), and not simply of those that would favour greater caloric returns through larger seeds.
Plants that rapidly shed their seeds on maturity tended not to be gathered at harvest, therefore not stored and not seeded the following season; years of harvesting selected for strains that retained their edible seeds longer .
Plants that possessed traits such as small seeds or bitter taste would have been seen as undesirable.
Maize (corn), beans and squash were among the earliest crops domesticated in Mesoamerica, with maize beginning about 7500 BC , squash, as early as 8000 to 6000 BC and beans by no later than 4000 BC.
Potatoes and manioc were domesticated in South America .
At Guilá Naquitz cave in the Mexican highlands , fragments of maize pollen, bottle gourd and pepo squash were recovered and variously dated between 8000 to 7000 BC.
Sedentary village life based on farming did not develop until the second millennium BC, referred to as the formative period.
Sedentary village life based on farming did not develop until the second millennium BC, referred to as the formative period .
Evidence of drainage ditches at Kuk Swamp on the borders of the Western and Southern Highlands of Papua New Guinea shows evidence of the cultivation of taro and a variety of other crops , dating back to 11,000 BP.
Evidence of drainage ditches at Kuk Swamp on the borders of the Western and Southern Highlands of Papua New Guinea shows evidence of the cultivation of taro and a variety of other crops, dating back to 11,000 BP .
This was at the altitudinal limits of these crops, and it has been suggested that cultivation in more favourable ranges in the lowlands may have been even earlier.
Evidence of drainage ditches at Kuk Swamp on the borders of the Western and Southern Highlands of Papua New Guinea shows evidence of the cultivation of taro and a variety of other crops, dating back to 11,000 BP.
This seems to confirm the theories of Carl Sauer who, in "Agricultural Origins and Dispersals", suggested as early as 1952 that this region was a centre of early agriculture.
When hunter-gathering began to be replaced by sedentary food production it became more profitable to keep animals close at hand.
The animals' size, temperament, diet, mating patterns, and life span were factors in the desire and success in domesticating animals.
Animals that provided milk , such as cows and goats, offered a source of protein that was renewable and therefore quite valuable.
Besides being a direct source of food, certain animals could provide leather, wool, hides, and fertilizer .
Some of the earliest domesticated animals included dogs ( East Asia , about 15,000 years ago), sheep, goats, cows, and pigs.
This area was also the first region to domesticate the dromedary camel .
Henri Fleisch discovered and termed the Shepherd Neolithic flint industry from the Bekaa Valley in Lebanon and suggested that it could have been used by the earliest nomadic shepherds.
Henri Fleisch discovered and termed the Shepherd Neolithic flint industry from the Bekaa Valley in Lebanon and suggested that it could have been used by the earliest nomadic shepherds .
As the climate in the Middle East changed and became drier , many of the farmers were forced to leave, taking their domesticated animals with them.
Some authors, like Jared Diamond, have postulated that this East-West axis is the main reason why plant and animal domestication spread so quickly from the Fertile Crescent to the rest of Eurasia and North Africa , while it did not reach through the North-South axis of Africa to reach the Mediterranean climates of South Africa, where temperate crops were successfully imported by ships in the last 500 years.
This is now questioned in view of findings by archaeologists and paleopathologists showing that nutritional standards of Neolithic populations were generally inferior to that of hunter-gatherers, and that their life expectancy may well have been shorter too, in part due to diseases and harder work - hunter-gatherers must have covered their food needs with about 20 hours' work a week, while agriculture required much more and was at least as uncertain.
This is now questioned in view of findings by archaeologists and paleopathologists showing that nutritional standards of Neolithic populations were generally inferior to that of hunter-gatherers, and that their life expectancy may well have been shorter too, in part due to diseases and harder work - hunter-gatherers must have covered their food needs with about 20 hours ' work a week, while agriculture required much more and was at least as uncertain.
The hunter-gatherers ' diet was more varied and balanced than what agriculture later allowed.
Average height went down from 5'10" (178 cm) for men and 5'6" (168 cm) for women to 5'5" (165 cm) and 5'1" (155 cm), respectively, and it took until the twentieth century for average human height to come back to the pre-Neolithic Revolution levels.
Average height went down from 5'10" (178 cm) for men and 5'6" (168 cm) for women to 5'5" (165 cm) and 5'1" (155 cm), respectively, and it took until the twentieth century for average human height to come back to the pre-Neolithic Revolution levels.
The traditional view is that agricultural food production supported a denser population , which in turn supported larger sedentary communities, the accumulation of goods and tools, and specialization in diverse forms of new labor.
Food surpluses made possible the development of a social elite who were not otherwise engaged in agriculture, industry or commerce, but dominated their communities by other means and monopolized decision-making.
Jared Diamond (in The World Until Yesterday) identifies the availability of milk and/or cereal grains as permitting mothers to raise both an older (e.g. 3 or 4 year old) child and a younger child concurrently, whereas this was not possible previously.
 The result is that a population can significantly more-rapidly increase its size than would otherwise be the case, resources permitting.
The development of larger societies led to the development of different means of decision making and to governmental organization .
Sherratt argues that this phase in agricultural development enabled humans to make use of the energy possibilities of their animals in new ways, and permitted permanent intensive subsistence farming and crop production, and the opening up of heavier soils for farming.
It also made possible nomadic pastoralism in semi arid areas, along the margins of deserts, and eventually led to the domestication of both the dromedary and Bactrian camel .
Living in one spot would have more easily permitted the accrual of personal possessions and an attachment to certain areas of land.
From such a position, it is argued[by whom?], prehistoric people were able to stockpile food to survive lean times and trade unwanted surpluses with others .
Once trade and a secure food supply were established, populations could grow , and society would have diversified into food producers and artisans, who could afford to develop their trade by virtue of the free time they enjoyed because of a surplus of food.
Throughout the development of sedentary societies, disease spread more rapidly than it had during the time in which hunter-gatherer societies existed.
Inadequate sanitary practices and the domestication of animals may explain the rise in deaths and sickness following the Neolithic Revolution, as diseases jumped from the animal to the human population.
In concordance with a process of natural selection, the humans who first domesticated the big mammals quickly built up immunities to the diseases as within each generation the individuals with better immunities had better chances of survival.
90% or more of many populations of the Americas were wiped out by European and African diseases before recorded contact with European explorers or colonists.
Some cultures like the Inca Empire did have a large domestic mammal, the llama, but llama milk was not drunk, nor did llamas live in a closed space with humans, so the risk of contagion was limited.
In his book Guns, Germs, and Steel, Jared Diamond argues that Europeans and East Asians benefited from an advantageous geographical location that afforded them a head start in the Neolithic Revolution.
Being among the first to adopt agriculture and sedentary lifestyles, and neighboring other early agricultural societies with whom they could compete and trade, both Europeans and East Asians were also among the first to benefit from technologies such as firearms and steel swords.
Being among the first to adopt agriculture and sedentary lifestyles, and neighboring other early agricultural societies with whom they could compete and trade, both Europeans and East Asians were also among the first to benefit from technologies such as firearms and steel swords .
In addition, they developed resistances to infectious disease, such as smallpox , due to their close relationship with domesticated animals.
Both shared the temperate climate ideal for the first agricultural settings, both were near a number of easily domesticable plant and animal species, and both were safer from attacks of other people than civilizations in the middle part of the Eurasian continent.
The dispersal of Neolithic culture from the Middle East has recently been associated with the distribution of human genetic markers .
In Africa, the spread of farming, and notably the Bantu expansion, is associated with the dispersal of Y-chromosome haplogroup E1b1a from West Africa .
In Africa, the spread of farming, and notably the Bantu expansion, is associated with the dispersal of Y-chromosome haplogroup E1b1a from West Africa.
In Europe, the spread of the Neolithic culture has been associated with distribution of the E1b1b lineages and Haplogroup J that are thought to have arrived in Europe from North Africa and the Near East respectively.
In Europe, the spread of the Neolithic culture has been associated with distribution of the E1b1b lineages and Haplogroup J that are thought to have arrived in Europe from North Africa and the Near East respectively.
In Hawaii, Mount Waiʻaleʻale, on the island of Kauai, is notable for its extreme rainfall, as it has the second highest average annual rainfall on Earth, with 12,000 millimetres (460 in) .
 Storm systems affect the state with heavy rains between October and March .
 Local climates vary considerably on each island due to their topography, divisible into windward (Koʻolau) and leeward (Kona) regions based upon location relative to the higher mountains.
 Windward sides face the east to northeast trade winds and receive much more rainfall ; leeward sides are drier and sunnier, with less rain and less cloud cover.
In Hawaii, Mount Waiʻaleʻale, on the island of Kauai , is notable for its extreme rainfall, as it has the second highest average annual rainfall on Earth, with 12,000 millimetres (460 in).
Extratropical cyclones can bring cold and dangerous conditions with heavy rain and snow with winds exceeding 119 km/h (74 mph), (sometimes referred to as windstorms in Europe).
Extratropical cyclones can bring cold and dangerous conditions with heavy rain and snow with winds exceeding 119 km/h (74 mph), (sometimes referred to as windstorms in Europe).
 When moist air tries to dislodge an arctic air mass, overrunning snow can result within the poleward side of the elongated precipitation band.
 In the Northern Hemisphere, poleward is towards the North Pole , or north.
The band of precipitation that is associated with their warm front is often extensive, forced by weak upward vertical motion of air over the frontal boundary which condenses as it cools and produces precipitation within an elongated band, which is wide and stratiform, meaning falling out of nimbostratus clouds.
Southwest of extratropical cyclones, curved cyclonic flow bringing cold air across the relatively warm water bodies can lead to narrow lake-effect snow bands .
The stronger the temperature decrease with height, the deeper the clouds get, and the greater the precipitation rate becomes.
Because of this temperature difference, warmth and moisture are transported upward, condensing into vertically oriented clouds (see satellite picture) which produce snow showers .
Those bands bring strong localized snowfall which can be understood as follows: Large water bodies such as lakes efficiently store heat that results in significant temperature differences (larger than 13 °C or 23 °F) between the water surface and the air above .
The wet, or rainy, season is the time of year, covering one or more months, when most of the average annual rainfall in a region falls.
 Tropical rainforests technically do not have dry or wet seasons, since their rainfall is equally distributed through the year.
Savanna climates and areas with monsoon regimes have wet summers and dry winters.
 When the wet season occurs during the warm season, or summer, rain falls mainly during the late afternoon and early evening hours.
 Developing countries have noted that their populations show seasonal weight fluctuations due to food shortages seen before the first harvest, which occurs late in the wet season.
Tropical cyclones, a source of very heavy rainfall, consist of large air masses several hundred miles across with low pressure at the centre and with winds blowing inward towards the centre in either a clockwise direction (southern hemisphere) or counterclockwise (northern hemisphere).
Tropical cyclones, a source of very heavy rainfall, consist of large air masses several hundred miles across with low pressure at the centre and with winds blowing inward towards the centre in either a clockwise direction (southern hemisphere) or counterclockwise (northern hemisphere).
 Areas in their path can receive a year's worth of rainfall from a tropical cyclone passage.
Tropical cyclones, a source of very heavy rainfall, consist of large air masses several hundred miles across with low pressure at the centre and with winds blowing inward towards the centre in either a clockwise direction (southern hemisphere) or counterclockwise (northern hemisphere).
 A tropical savanna is a grassland biome located in semi-arid to semi-humid climate regions of subtropical and tropical latitudes, with rainfall between 750 and 1,270 mm (30 and 50 in) a year.
 Humid subtropical climates lie on the east side continents, roughly between latitudes 20° and 40° degrees away from the equator.
Rain forests are characterized by high rainfall, with definitions setting minimum normal annual rainfall between 1,750 and 2,000 mm (69 and 79 in).
 A tropical savanna is a grassland biome located in semi-arid to semi-humid climate regions of subtropical and tropical latitudes, with rainfall between 750 and 1,270 mm (30 and 50 in) a year.
 A steppe is a dry grassland.
 Subarctic climates are cold with continuous permafrost and little precipitation.
An oceanic (or maritime) climate is typically found along the west coasts at the middle latitudes of all the world's continents, bordering cool oceans, as well as southeastern Australia, and is accompanied by plentiful precipitation year round.
An oceanic (or maritime) climate is typically found along the west coasts at the middle latitudes of all the world's continents, bordering cool oceans , as well as southeastern Australia, and is accompanied by plentiful precipitation year round.
Precipitation, especially rain , has a dramatic effect on agriculture.
 Drought can kill crops and increase erosion, while overly wet weather can cause harmful fungus growth.
 Drought can kill crops and increase erosion, while overly wet weather can cause harmful fungus growth .
 All plants need at least some water to survive, therefore rain (being the most effective means of watering) is important to agriculture.
Precipitation has generally increased over land north of 30°N from 1900 to 2005 but has declined over the tropics since the 1970s.
 Over the contiguous United States, total annual precipitation increased at an average rate of 6.1% per century since 1900, with the greatest increases within the East North Central climate region (11.6% per century) and the South (11.1%).
Precipitation has generally increased over land north of 30°N from 1900 to 2005 but has declined over the tropics since the 1970s .
 Over the contiguous United States, total annual precipitation increased at an average rate of 6.1% per century since 1900, with the greatest increases within the East North Central climate region (11.6% per century) and the South (11.1%).
Hawaii was the only region to show a decrease (-9.25%).
The urban heat island warms cities 0.6 to 5.6 °C (1.1 to 10.1 °F) above surrounding suburbs and rural areas.
 This extra heat leads to greater upward motion, which can induce additional shower and thunderstorm activity.
 Rainfall rates downwind of cities are increased between 48% and 116% .
 Partly as a result of this warming, monthly rainfall is about 28% greater between 32 to 64 kilometres (20 to 40 mi) downwind of cities, compared with upwind.
The Quantitative Precipitation Forecast (abbreviated QPF) is the expected amount of liquid precipitation accumulated over a specified time period over a specified area.
 Radar imagery forecasting techniques show higher skill than model forecasts within six to seven hours of the time of the radar image.
Starting in the mid to late 1990s, QPFs were used within hydrologic forecast models to simulate impact to rivers throughout the United States.
 The forecasts can be verified through use of rain gauge measurements, weather radar estimates , or a combination of both.
On the large scale, the highest precipitation amounts outside topography fall in the tropics , closely tied to the Intertropical Convergence Zone, itself the ascending branch of the Hadley cell.
On the large scale, the highest precipitation amounts outside topography fall in the tropics, closely tied to the Intertropical Convergence Zone, itself the ascending branch of the Hadley cell.
 Otherwise, the flow of the Westerlies into the Rocky Mountains lead to the wettest, and at elevation snowiest,  locations within North America.
 In Asia during the wet season, the flow of moist air into the Himalayas leads to some of the greatest rainfall amounts measured on Earth in northeast India.
 Mountainous locales near the equator in Colombia are amongst the wettest places on Earth.
 An exception to this rule is in Hawaii, where upslope flow due to the trade winds lead to one of the wettest locations on Earth.
 Mountainous locales near the equator in Colombia are amongst the wettest places on Earth.
On the large scale, the highest precipitation amounts outside topography fall in the tropics , closely tied to the Intertropical Convergence Zone, itself the ascending branch of the Hadley cell.
On the large scale, the highest precipitation amounts outside topography fall in the tropics, closely tied to the Intertropical Convergence Zone, itself the ascending branch of the Hadley cell .
 Otherwise, the flow of the Westerlies into the Rocky Mountains lead to the wettest, and at elevation snowiest,  locations within North America.
The standard way of measuring rainfall or snowfall is the standard rain gauge , which can be found in 100 mm (4 in) plastic and 200 mm (8 in) metal varieties.
The standard way of measuring rainfall or snowfall is the standard rain gauge, which can be found in 100 mm (4 in) plastic and 200 mm (8 in) metal varieties.
The standard way of measuring rainfall or snowfall is the standard rain gauge, which can be found in 100 mm (4 in) plastic and 200 mm (8 in) metal varieties.
The inner cylinder is filled by 25 mm (1 in) of rain, with overflow flowing into the outer cylinder.
The inner cylinder is filled by 25 mm (1 in) of rain, with overflow flowing into the outer cylinder.
Other types of gauges include the popular wedge gauge (the cheapest rain gauge and most fragile), the tipping bucket rain gauge, and the weighing rain gauge.
The wedge and tipping bucket gauges will have problems with snow.
For those looking to measure rainfall the most inexpensively, a can that is cylindrical with straight sides will act as a rain gauge if left out in the open, but its accuracy will depend on what ruler is used to measure the rain with .
Attempts to compensate for snow/ice by warming the tipping bucket meet with limited success, since snow may sublimate if the gauge is kept much above freezing.
Weighing gauges with antifreeze should do fine with snow, but again, the funnel needs to be removed before the event begins.
 Bits of liquid or solid water in the atmosphere are known as hydrometeors.
 All precipitation types are made up of hydrometeors by definition, including virga , which is precipitation which evaporates before reaching the ground.
 All precipitation types are made up of hydrometeors by definition, including virga, which is precipitation which evaporates before reaching the ground.
A concept used in precipitation measurement is the hydrometeor.
Satellite sensors now in practical use for precipitation fall into two categories.
Further, cloud tops with a lot of small-scale variation are likely to be more vigorous than smooth-topped clouds.
Due to the typical structure of the atmosphere, cloud-top temperatures are approximately inversely related to cloud-top heights, meaning colder clouds almost always occur at higher altitudes .
Thermal infrared (IR) sensors record a channel around 11 micron wavelength and primarily give information about cloud tops .
Due to the typical structure of the atmosphere, cloud-top temperatures are approximately inversely related to cloud-top heights, meaning colder clouds almost always occur at higher altitudes.
Snow crystals form when tiny supercooled cloud droplets (about 10 μm in diameter) freeze.
Once a droplet has frozen, it grows in the supersaturated environment.
 This process is known as the Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen process .
 The corresponding depletion of water vapour causes the droplets to evaporate , meaning that the ice crystals grow at the droplets' expense.
 These large crystals are an efficient source of precipitation, since they fall through the atmosphere due to their mass , and may collide and stick together in clusters, or aggregates.
Snow crystals form when tiny supercooled cloud droplets (about 10 μm in diameter) freeze.
Because water droplets are more numerous than the ice crystals the crystals are able to grow to hundreds of micrometers in size at the expense of the water droplets.
 This process is known as the Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen process .
 Guinness World Records list the world's largest snowflakes as those of January 1887 at Fort Keogh, Montana ; allegedly one measured 38 cm (15 inches) wide.
 These aggregates are snowflakes , and are usually the type of ice particle that falls to the ground.
Although the ice is clear, scattering of light by the crystal facets and hollows/imperfections mean that the crystals often appear white in color due to diffuse reflection of the whole spectrum of light by the small ice particles.
Rarely, at a temperature of around −2 °C (28 °F) , snowflakes can form in threefold symmetry—triangular snowflakes.
 The shape of the snowflake is determined broadly by the temperature and humidity at which it is formed .
Rarely, at a temperature of around −2 °C (28 °F), snowflakes can form in threefold symmetry— triangular snowflakes .
 The METAR code for snow is SN , while snow showers are coded SHSN.
 Short, intense periods of rain in scattered locations are called " showers ."
 The main forms of precipitation include  drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, graupel and hail .
 Thus, fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions, because the water vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate.
In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity .
 Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air becoming saturated: cooling the air or adding water vapor to the air .
 Two processes , possibly acting together, can lead to air becoming saturated: cooling the air or adding water vapor to the air.
 Short, intense periods of rain in scattered locations are called " showers ."
 Thus, fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions, because the water vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate.
In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity .
Precipitation forms as smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud.
Precipitation is a major component of the water cycle , and is responsible for depositing the fresh water on the planet.
Approximately 505,000 cubic kilometres (121,000 cu mi) of water falls as precipitation each year; 398,000 cubic kilometres (95,000 cu mi) of it over the oceans and 107,000 cubic kilometres (26,000 cu mi) over land.
Approximately 505,000 cubic kilometres (121,000 cu mi) of water falls as precipitation each year; 398,000 cubic kilometres (95,000 cu mi) of it over the oceans and 107,000 cubic kilometres (26,000 cu mi) over land. Given the Earth's surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres (39 in), but over land it is only 715 millimetres (28.1 in).
Given the Earth's surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres (39 in), but over land it is only 715 millimetres ( 28.1 in ).
Precipitation is a major component of the water cycle , and is responsible for depositing the fresh water on the planet.
Precipitation is a major component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing the fresh water on the planet.
Approximately 505,000 cubic kilometres (121,000 cu mi) of water falls as precipitation each year; 398,000 cubic kilometres (95,000 cu mi) of it over the oceans and 107,000 cubic kilometres (26,000 cu mi) over land.
Approximately 505,000 cubic kilometres (121,000 cu mi) of water falls as precipitation each year; 398,000 cubic kilometres (95,000 cu mi) of it over the oceans and 107,000 cubic kilometres (26,000 cu mi) over land.
Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes.
 The movement of the monsoon trough, or intertropical convergence zone , brings rainy seasons to savannah climes.
 Thundersnow is possible within a cyclone's comma head and within lake effect precipitation bands .
 In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation.  On the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating.
 On the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating .
Moisture overriding associated with weather fronts is an overall major method of precipitation production.
 If enough moisture and upward motion is present, precipitation falls from convective clouds such as cumulonimbus and can organize into narrow rainbands.
 On the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating.
 If enough moisture and upward motion is present, precipitation falls from convective clouds such as cumulonimbus and can organize into narrow rainbands.
 Thundersnow is possible within a cyclone's comma head and within lake effect precipitation bands.
Mechanisms of producing precipitation include convective, stratiform, and orographic rainfall.  Convective processes involve strong vertical motions that can cause the overturning of the atmosphere in that location within an hour and cause heavy precipitation, while stratiform processes involve weaker upward motions and less intense precipitation.
 Convective processes involve strong vertical motions that can cause the overturning of the atmosphere in that location within an hour and cause heavy precipitation , while stratiform processes involve weaker upward motions and less intense precipitation.
 Convective processes involve strong vertical motions that can cause the overturning of the atmosphere in that location within an hour and cause heavy precipitation, while stratiform processes involve weaker upward motions and less intense precipitation .
 Precipitation can be divided into three categories, based on whether it falls as liquid water, liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice .
 Frozen forms of precipitation include snow, ice needles, ice pellets, hail, and graupel.
 Liquid forms of precipitation include rain and drizzle .
 Precipitation can be divided into three categories , based on whether it falls as liquid water, liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice.
 Frozen forms of precipitation include snow, ice needles, ice pellets, hail, and graupel.
Mechanisms of producing precipitation include convective, stratiform, and orographic rainfall .
 Convective processes involve strong vertical motions that can cause the overturning of the atmosphere in that location within an hour and cause heavy precipitation, while stratiform processes involve weaker upward motions and less intense precipitation.
The frequencies in use range from about 10 gigahertz  to a few hundred GHz. Channels up to about 37 GHz primarily provide information on the liquid hydrometeors (rain and drizzle) in the lower parts of clouds, with larger amounts of liquid emitting higher amounts of microwave radiant energy.
Channels up to about 37 GHz primarily provide information on the liquid hydrometeors (rain and drizzle) in the lower parts of clouds, with larger amounts of liquid emitting higher amounts of microwave radiant energy.
Channels up to about 37 GHz primarily provide information on the liquid hydrometeors (rain and drizzle) in the lower parts of clouds, with larger amounts of liquid emitting higher amounts of microwave radiant energy. Channels above 37 GHz display emission signals, but are dominated by the action of solid hydrometeors (snow, graupel, etc.) to scatter microwave radiant energy.
Satellites such as the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) and the Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) mission employ microwave sensors to form precipitation estimates.
IR works best in cases of deep, vigorous convection —such as the tropics—and becomes progressively less useful in areas where stratiform (layered) precipitation dominates, especially in mid- and high-latitude regions.
IR works best in cases of deep, vigorous convection—such as the tropics—and becomes progressively less useful in areas where stratiform (layered) precipitation dominates, especially in mid- and high-latitude regions. The more-direct physical connection between hydrometeors and microwave channels gives the microwave estimates greater skill on short time and space scales than is true for IR.
However, microwave sensors fly only on low Earth orbit satellites , and there are few enough of them that the average time between observations exceeds three hours.
However, microwave sensors fly only on low Earth orbit satellites, and there are few enough of them that the average time between observations exceeds three hours. This several-hour interval is insufficient to adequately document precipitation because of the transient nature of most precipitation systems as well as the inability of a single satellite to appropriately capture the typical daily cycle of precipitation at a given location.
IR works best in cases of deep, vigorous convection—such as the tropics —and becomes progressively less useful in areas where stratiform (layered) precipitation dominates, especially in mid- and high-latitude regions.
The difficulties in using gauge data are that 1) their availability is limited, as noted above, and 2) the best analyses of gauge data take two months or more after the observation time to undergo the necessary transmission, assembly, processing and quality control.
As a result, while estimates that include gauge data may provide a more accurate depiction of the "true" precipitation, they are generally not suited for real- or near-real-time applications.
In other cases, the goal is producing the best instantaneous satellite estimate, which is the High Resolution Precipitation Product approach. In either case, of course, the less-emphasized goal is also considered desirable.
One key result of the multi-satellite studies is that including even a small amount of surface gauge data is very useful for controlling the biases that are endemic to satellite estimates. The difficulties in using gauge data are that 1) their availability is limited, as noted above, and 2) the best analyses of gauge data take two months or more after the observation time to undergo the necessary transmission, assembly, processing and quality control.
The likelihood or probability of an event with a specified intensity and duration , is called the return period or frequency.
The intensity of a storm can be predicted for any return period and storm duration, from charts based on historic data for the location.  The term 1 in 10 year storm describes a rainfall event which is rare and is only likely to occur once every 10 years, so it has a 10 percent likelihood any given year.
 The term 1 in 100 year storm describes a rainfall event which is extremely rare and which will occur with a likelihood of only once in a century, so has a 1 percent likelihood in any given year.
The intensity of a storm can be predicted for any return period and storm duration , from charts based on historic data for the location.
The Köppen classification depends on average monthly values of temperature and precipitation.  The most commonly used form of the Köppen classification has five primary types labeled A through E. Specifically, the primary types are A, tropical; B, dry; C, mild mid-latitude; D, cold mid-latitude; and E, polar.
 The most commonly used form of the Köppen classification has five primary types labeled A through E .
 The most commonly used form of the Köppen classification has five primary types labeled A through E. Specifically, the primary types are A, tropical; B, dry; C, mild mid-latitude ; D, cold mid-latitude; and E, polar.
 The most commonly used form of the Köppen classification has five primary types labeled A through E. Specifically, the primary types are A, tropical; B, dry; C, mild mid-latitude; D, cold mid-latitude ; and E, polar.
The five primary classifications can be further divided into secondary classifications such as rain forest, monsoon, tropical savanna, humid subtropical, humid continental, oceanic climate , Mediterranean climate, steppe, subarctic climate, tundra, polar ice cap, and desert.
Stratiform or dynamic precipitation occurs as a consequence of slow ascent of air in synoptic systems (on the order of cm/s), such as over surface cold fronts, and over and ahead of warm fronts.
 A wide variety of weather can be found along an occluded front, with thunderstorms possible, but usually their passage is associated with a drying of the air mass.
 Occluded fronts usually form around mature low-pressure areas .
 When it gets cold, Mars has precipitation that most likely takes the form of ice needles , rather than rain or snow.
Convective rain , or showery precipitation, occurs from convective clouds, e.g., cumulonimbus or cumulus congestus.
Convective rain, or showery precipitation, occurs from convective clouds, e.g., cumulonimbus or cumulus congestus.
Convective precipitation falls over a certain area for a relatively short time, as convective clouds have limited horizontal extent .
 In mid-latitudes, convective precipitation is intermittent and often associated with baroclinic boundaries such as cold fronts, squall lines, and warm fronts.
Convective rain, or showery precipitation, occurs from convective clouds, e.g., cumulonimbus or cumulus congestus.
 In mountainous parts of the world subjected to relatively consistent winds (for example, the trade winds), a more moist climate usually prevails on the windward side of a mountain than on the leeward or downwind side.
Orographic precipitation occurs on the windward side of mountains and is caused by the rising air motion of a large-scale flow of moist air across the mountain ridge , resulting in adiabatic cooling and condensation.
Orographic precipitation occurs on the windward side of mountains and is caused by the rising air motion of a large-scale flow of moist air across the mountain ridge, resulting in adiabatic cooling and condensation.
Moisture is removed by orographic lift, leaving drier air (see katabatic wind) on the descending and generally warming, leeward side where a rain shadow is observed.
The dew point is the temperature to which a parcel must be cooled in order to become saturated, and (unless super-saturation occurs) condenses to water.
 Water vapour normally begins to condense on condensation nuclei such as dust, ice, and salt in order to form clouds.
 Water vapour normally begins to condense on condensation nuclei such as dust, ice, and salt in order to form clouds.
 Stratus is a stable cloud deck which tends to form when a cool, stable air mass is trapped underneath a warm air mass.
 An elevated portion of a frontal zone forces broad areas of lift, which form clouds decks such as altostratus or cirrostratus .
There are four main mechanisms for cooling the air to its dew point: adiabatic cooling, conductive cooling, radiational cooling, and evaporative cooling.
Adiabatic cooling occurs when air rises and expands.
Conductive cooling occurs when the air comes into contact with a colder surface, usually by being blown from one surface to another, for example from a liquid water surface to colder land.
 Radiational cooling occurs due to the emission of infrared radiation, either by the air or by the surface underneath.
 Evaporative cooling occurs when moisture is added to the air through evaporation, which forces the air temperature to cool to its wet-bulb temperature, or until it reaches saturation.
Coalescence occurs when water droplets fuse to create larger water droplets, or when water droplets freeze onto an ice crystal, which is known as the Bergeron process.
Coalescence occurs when water droplets fuse to create larger water droplets, or when water droplets freeze onto an ice crystal, which is known as the Bergeron process .
 When air turbulence occurs, water droplets collide, producing larger droplets .
As these larger water droplets descend, coalescence continues, so that drops become heavy enough to overcome air resistance and fall as rain .
The fall rate of very small droplets is negligible , hence clouds do not fall out of the sky; precipitation will only occur when these coalesce into larger drops.
Raindrops have sizes ranging from 0.1 millimetres (0.0039 in) to 9 millimetres (0.35 in) mean diameter, above which they tend to break up.
Raindrops have sizes ranging from 0.1 millimetres (0.0039 in) to 9 millimetres (0.35 in) mean diameter, above which they tend to break up .
Smaller drops are called cloud droplets , and their shape is spherical.
As a raindrop increases in size, its shape becomes more oblate , with its largest cross-section facing the oncoming airflow.
 Rain drops associated with melting hail tend to be larger than other rain drops.
Ice pellets form when a layer of above-freezing air exists with sub-freezing air both above and below.
 However, if the sub-freezing layer beneath the warm layer is too small, the precipitation will not have time to re-freeze, and freezing rain will be the result at the surface.
 This causes the partial or complete melting of any snowflakes falling through the warm layer.
 A temperature profile showing a warm layer above the ground is most likely to be found in advance of a warm front during the cold season, but can occasionally be found behind a passing cold front.
 This causes the partial or complete melting of any snowflakes falling through the warm layer.
Like other precipitation, hail forms in storm clouds when supercooled water droplets freeze on contact with condensation nuclei, such as dust or dirt.
 The storm's updraft blows the hailstones to the upper part of the cloud.
 Hail has a diameter of 5 millimetres (0.20 in) or more.
 GR is derived from the French word grêle .
 The hailstone then may undergo ' wet growth ', where the liquid outer shell collects other smaller hailstones.
Until British supplies began to arrive in appreciable quantities in 1944 , the occupiers were the only source of arms.
One of two objectives of the movement, which was the military arm of the Unitary National Liberation Front (UNOF) coalition, led by the Communist Party of Yugoslavia (KPJ) and represented by the Anti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia (AVNNOJ) , the Yugoslav wartime deliberative assembly, was to fight the occupying forces.
One of two objectives of the movement, which was the military arm of the Unitary National Liberation Front (UNOF) coalition, led by the Communist Party of Yugoslavia (KPJ) and represented by the Anti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia (AVNNOJ), the Yugoslav wartime deliberative assembly, was to fight the occupying forces.
The other objective was to create a federal multi-ethnic communist state in Yugoslavia .
One of two objectives of the movement, which was the military arm of the Unitary National Liberation Front (UNOF) coalition, led by the Communist Party of Yugoslavia (KPJ) and represented by the Anti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia (AVNNOJ), the Yugoslav wartime deliberative assembly, was to fight the occupying forces.
One of two objectives of the movement, which was the military arm of the Unitary National Liberation Front (UNOF) coalition, led by the Communist Party of Yugoslavia (KPJ) and represented by the Anti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia (AVNNOJ), the Yugoslav wartime deliberative assembly, was to fight the occupying forces.
One of two objectives of the movement, which was the military arm of the Unitary National Liberation Front (UNOF) coalition, led by the Communist Party of Yugoslavia (KPJ) and represented by the Anti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia (AVNNOJ), the Yugoslav wartime deliberative assembly, was to fight the occupying forces.
One of two objectives of the movement, which was the military arm of the Unitary National Liberation Front (UNOF) coalition, led by the Communist Party of Yugoslavia (KPJ) and represented by the Anti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia (AVNNOJ) , the Yugoslav wartime deliberative assembly, was to fight the occupying forces.
Until British supplies began to arrive in appreciable quantities in 1944 , the occupiers were the only source of arms.
The objectives of the rival resistance movement which emerged some weeks earlier, the Chetniks , were the retention of the Yugoslav monarchy, ensuring the safety of ethnic Serbian populations, and the establishment of a Greater Serbia through the ethnic cleansing of non-Serbs from territories they considered rightfully and historically Serbian.
In the early part of the war Partisan forces were predominantly composed of Serbs and given to the persecution of Muslims (e.g. the slaughter of Muslim women and children in April 1942 in Herzegovina ).
In the early part of the war Partisan forces were predominantly composed of Serbs and given to the persecution of Muslims (e.g. the slaughter of Muslim women and children in April 1942 in Herzegovina).
Relations between the two movements were uneasy from the start, but from October 1941 they degenerated into full-scale conflict.
The objectives of the rival resistance movement which emerged some weeks earlier, the Chetniks , were the retention of the Yugoslav monarchy, ensuring the safety of ethnic Serbian populations, and the establishment of a Greater Serbia through the ethnic cleansing of non-Serbs from territories they considered rightfully and historically Serbian.
The objectives of the rival resistance movement which emerged some weeks earlier, the Chetniks , were the retention of the Yugoslav monarchy, ensuring the safety of ethnic Serbian populations, and the establishment of a Greater Serbia through the ethnic cleansing of non-Serbs from territories they considered rightfully and historically Serbian.
In the early part of the war Partisan forces were predominantly composed of Serbs and given to the persecution of Muslims (e.g. the slaughter of Muslim women and children in April 1942 in Herzegovina).
Relations between the two movements were uneasy from the start, but from October 1941 they degenerated into full-scale conflict.
The objectives of the rival resistance movement which emerged some weeks earlier, the Chetniks , were the retention of the Yugoslav monarchy, ensuring the safety of ethnic Serbian populations, and the establishment of a Greater Serbia through the ethnic cleansing of non-Serbs from territories they considered rightfully and historically Serbian.
Relations between the two movements were uneasy from the start, but from October 1941 they degenerated into full-scale conflict.
The objectives of the rival resistance movement which emerged some weeks earlier, the Chetniks , were the retention of the Yugoslav monarchy, ensuring the safety of ethnic Serbian populations, and the establishment of a Greater Serbia through the ethnic cleansing of non-Serbs from territories they considered rightfully and historically Serbian.
In the early part of the war Partisan forces were predominantly composed of Serbs and given to the persecution of Muslims (e.g. the slaughter of Muslim women and children in April 1942 in Herzegovina).
Chetnik attacks on Gala, near Split, resulted in the slaughter of some 200 Croatian civilians .
 Chetnik ethnic cleansing policies against the Muslims in Eastern Bosnia, and Dalmatia alienated Croats and Muslims from joining the Chetniks.
The Partisans played down communism in favour of a Popular Front approach which appealed to all Yugoslavs.
The Chetniks were a mainly Serb-oriented group and their Serb nationalism resulted in an inability to recruit or appeal to many non- Serbs .
Italian collaboration with Chetniks in northern Dalmatia resulted in atrocities which further galvanized support for the Partisans among Dalmatian Croats.
In particular, Mussolini's policy of forced Italianization ensured the first significant number of Croats joining the Partisans in late 1941.
In particular, Mussolini's policy of forced Italianization ensured the first significant number of Croats joining the Partisans in late 1941 .
Attacks from Croatian Ustaše on the Serbian population was considered to be one of the important reasons for the rise of guerrilla activities, thus aiding an ever growing Partisan resistance.
A group of Jewish youths from Sarajevo attempted to join a Partisan detachment in Kalinovnik, but the Serbian Partisans turned them back to Sarajevo, where many were captured by the Axis forces and perished.
Until early 1942, the almost exclusively Serb Partisans in Bosnia and Herzegovina cooperated closely with the Chetniks, and some Partisans in eastern Herzegovina and western Bosnia refused to accept Muslims into their ranks.
Until early 1942, the almost exclusively Serb Partisans in Bosnia and Herzegovina cooperated closely with the Chetniks , and some Partisans in eastern Herzegovina and western Bosnia refused to accept Muslims into their ranks.
However, in some areas of Bosnia and Herzegovina the Partisans were successful in attracting both Muslims and Croats from the beginning, notably in the Kozara Mountain area in north-west Bosnia and the Romanija Mountain area near Sarajevo .
However, in some areas of Bosnia and Herzegovina the Partisans were successful in attracting both Muslims and Croats from the beginning, notably in the Kozara Mountain area in north-west Bosnia and the Romanija Mountain area near Sarajevo.
At its fourth and last session, held on 24–25 July 1945 in Zagreb, ZAVNOH proclaimed itself as the Croatian Parliament or Sabor .
At its four th and last session, held on 24–25 July 1945 in Zagreb, ZAVNOH proclaimed itself as the Croatian Parliament or Sabor.
Croat partisans were unique in having the highest numbers of local Jews in their ranks of any other European resistance,[citation needed] and in early 1943 they took steps to establish ZAVNOH (National Anti-Fascist Council of the People's Liberation of Croatia) to act as a parliamentary body for all of Croatia – the only one of its kind in occupied Europe.
Croat partisans were unique in having the highest numbers of local Jews in their ranks of any other European resistance,[citation needed] and in early 1943 they took steps to establish ZAVNOH (National Anti-Fascist Council of the People's Liberation of Croatia) to act as a parliamentary body for all of Croatia – the only one of its kind in occupied Europe.
Croatian Partisans were integral to overall Yugoslav Partisans; by the end of 1943 Croatia proper, with 24% of the Yugoslav population, provided more Partisans than Serbia, Montenegro, Slovenia and Macedonia combined which collectively accounted for 59% of the Yugoslav population.
.In the liberated territories of Croatia after the war, Croatian Partisans proclaimed the Democratic Republic which was referred to by Winston Churchill as "the Croatian miracle."
This change was partly due to the decision of a key Croatian Peasant Party member, Božidar Magovac, to join the Partisans in June 1943, and partly due to the surrender of Italy.
In 1941-42, the majority of Partisans in Croatia were Serbs, but by October 1943 the majority were Croats.
In 1941-42, the majority of Partisans in Croatia were Serbs , but by October 1943 the majority were Croats.
This change was partly due to the decision of a key Croatian Peasant Party member, Božidar Magovac, to join the Partisans in June 1943, and partly due to the surrender of Italy .
The occupying forces instituted such severe burdens on the local populace that the Partisans came not only to enjoy widespread support but for many were the only option for survival.
Early in the occupation, German forces would hang or shoot indiscriminately, including women, children and the elderly, up to 100 local inhabitants for every one German soldier killed.
Furthermore, the country experienced a breakdown of law and order, with collaborationist militias roaming the countryside terrorizing the population.
The government of the puppet Independent State of Croatia found itself unable to control its territory in the early stages of the occupation, resulting in a severe crackdown by the Ustaše militias and the German army.[citation needed]
Furthermore, the country experienced a breakdown of law and order, with collaborationist militias roaming the countryside terrorizing the population.
On 10 August in Stanulović, a mountain village, the Partisans formed the Kopaonik Partisan Detachment Headquarters .
The area they controlled , consisting of nearby villages, was called the "Miners Republic" and lasted 42 days.
In 1941 Partisan forces in Serbia and Montnegro had around 55,000 fighters, but only 4,500 succeeded to escape to Bosnia.
On 21 December 1941 they formed the 1st Proletarian Assault Brigade (1. Proleterska Udarna Brigada) – the first regular Partisan military unit, capable of operating outside its local area.
In 1942 Partisan detachments officially merged into the People's Liberation Army and Partisan Detachments of Yugoslavia (NOV i POJ) with an estimated 236,000 soldiers in December 1942.
The extent of support for the Partisan movement varied according to region and nationality, reflecting the existential concerns of the local population and authorities.
An uprising occurred in Serbia two weeks later led by Tito (Uzice Republic), but it was quickly defeated by the Axis forces and support for the Partisans in Serbia thereafter dropped.
Increase of number of Partisans in Serbia, similarly to other republics, came partly in response to Tito's offer of amnesty to all collaborators on 17 August 1944.
At that point tens of thousands of Chetniks switched sides to the Partisans.[citation needed]
The first Partisan uprising occurred in Croatia on 22 June 1941, when forty Croatian Communists staged an uprising in the Brezovica woods between Sisak and Zagreb.
The Partisans staged a guerrilla campaign which enjoyed gradually increased levels of success and support of the general populace, and succeeded in controlling large chunks of Yugoslav territory.
At the very beginning, Partisan forces were relatively small, poorly armed and without any infrastructure.
The Partisans staged a guerrilla campaign which enjoyed gradually increased levels of success and support of the general populace, and succeeded in controlling large chunks of Yugoslav territory. These were managed via the "People's committees", organized to act as civilian governments in areas of the country controlled by the communists, even limited arms industries were set up.
These were managed via the "People's committees ", organized to act as civilian governments in areas of the country controlled by the communists, even limited arms industries were set up.
These were managed via the "People's committees", organized to act as civilian governments in areas of the country controlled by the communists, even limited arms industries were set up.
To gather intelligence, agents of the western Allies were infiltrated into both the Partisans and the Chetniks.
The search for intelligence ultimately resulted in the demise of the Chetniks and their eclipse by Tito's Partisans .
The Germans were executing Operation Schwarz (the Fifth anti-Partisan offensive), one of a series of offensives aimed at the resistance fighters, when F.W.D. Deakin was sent by the British to gather information.[citation needed]
The intelligence gathered by liaisons to the resistance groups was crucial to the success of supply missions and was the primary influence on Allied strategy in Yugoslavia.
The repatriations at Bleiburg (although scholars disagree on how many people died and no number has been officially recognized or agreed upon) of retreating columns of Chetnik and Slovene Home Guard troops, and soldiers of the Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia and thousands of civilians heading or retreating towards Austria to surrender to western Allied forces, have been called a "massacre".
The " foibe massacres " draw their name from the "foibe" pits in which Croatian Partisans of the 8th Dalmatian Corps (often along with groups of angry civilian locals)
The "foibe massacres" draw their name from the "foibe" pits in which Croatian Partisans of the 8th Dalmatian Corps (often along with groups of angry civilian locals) shot Italian fascists, and suspected collaborationists and/or separatists.
The 1944-1945 killings in Bačka were similar in nature and entailed the killing of suspected Hungarian, German and Serbian fascists , and their suspected affiliates, without regard to their personal responsibility.
The 1944-1945 killings in Bačka were similar in nature and entailed the killing of suspected Hungarian, German and Serbian fascists, and their suspected affiliates, without regard to their personal responsibility.
The Partisans did not have an official agenda of liquidating their enemies and their cardinal ideal was the " brotherhood and unity " of all Yugoslav nations (the phrase became the motto for the new Yugoslavia).
The country suffered between 900,000 and 1,150,000 civilian and military dead during the Axis occupation.
Between 80,000 and 100,000 people were killed in the partisan purges and at least 30,000 people were killed in the Bleiburg killings, according to Marcus Tanner in his work, Croatia: a Nation Forged in War.
Between 80,000 and 100,000 people were killed in the partisan purges and at least 30,000 people were killed in the Bleiburg killings, according to Marcus Tanner in his work, Croatia: a Nation Forged in War.
Between 80,000 and 100,000 people were killed in the partisan purges and at least 30,000 people were killed in the Bleiburg killings, according to Marcus Tanner in his work, Croatia: a Nation Forged in War.
The first small arms for the Partisans were acquired from the defeated Royal Yugoslav Army , like the M24 Mauser rifle.
Throughout the war the Partisans used any weapons they could find, mostly weapons captured from the Germans, Italians, Army of the NDH, Ustaše and the Chetniks , such as the Karabiner 98k rifle, MP 40 submachine gun, MG 34 machine gun, Carcano rifles and carbines and Beretta submachine guns.
Throughout the war the Partisans used any weapons they could find, mostly weapons captured from the Germans, Italians, Army of the NDH, Ustaše and the Chetniks, such as the Karabiner 98k rifle, MP 40 submachine gun, MG 34 machine gun, Carcano rifles and carbines and Beretta submachine guns .
The other way that the Partisans acquired weapons was from supplies given to them by the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom , including the PPSh-41 and the Sten MKII submachine guns respectively.
Additionally, Partisan workshops created their own weapons modelled on factory-made weapons already in use, including the so-called "Partisan rifle" and the anti-tank "Partisan mortar" .
The Yugoslav National Liberation Movement claimed 6,000,000 civilian supporters; its two million women formed the Antifascist Front of Women (AFŽ), in which the revolutionary coexisted with the traditional.
The Yugoslav National Liberation Movement claimed 6,000,000 civilian supporters; its two million women formed the Antifascist Front of Women (AFŽ), in which the revolutionary coexisted with the traditional.
The AFŽ managed schools, hospitals and even local governments .
 About 100,000 women served with 600,000 men in Tito's Yugoslav National Liberation Army.
It stressed its dedication to women's rights and gender equality and used the imagery of traditional folklore heroines to attract and legitimize the partizanka.
Slovenia was during WWII in a unique situation in Europe, only Greece shared its experience of being trisected, however, Slovenia was the only one that experienced a further step — absorption and annexation into neighboring Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Hungary.
Slovenia was during WWII in a unique situation in Europe, only Greece shared its experience of being trisected, however, Slovenia was the only one that experienced a further step — absorption and annexation into neighboring Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Hungary.
An emphasis on the defence of ethnic identity was shown by naming the troops after important Slovene poets and writers , following the example of the Ivan Cankar battalion.
Slovenia was during WWII in a unique situation in Europe, only Greece shared its experience of being trisected, however, Slovenia was the only one that experienced a further step — absorption and annexation into neighboring Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Hungary .
An emphasis on the defence of ethnic identity was shown by naming the troops after important Slovene poets and writers, following the example of the Ivan Cankar battalion.
Slovenia was during WWII in a unique situation in Europe, only Greece shared its experience of being trisected, however, Slovenia was the only one that experienced a further step — absorption and annexation into neighboring Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Hungary.
Slovenia was during WWII in a unique situation in Europe, only Greece shared its experience of being trisected, however, Slovenia was the only one that experienced a further step — absorption and annexation into neighboring Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Hungary. As the very existence of the Slovene nation was threatened, the Slovene support for the Partisan movement was much more solid than in Croatia or Serbia.
As the very existence of the Slovene nation was threatened, the Slovene support for the Partisan movement was much more solid than in Croatia or Serbia.
An emphasis on the defence of ethnic identity was shown by naming the troops after important Slovene poets and writers , following the example of the Ivan Cankar battalion.
An emphasis on the defence of ethnic identity was shown by naming the troops after important Slovene poets and writers, following the example of the Ivan Cankar battalion .
At the very beginning the Partisan forces were small, poorly armed and without any infrastructure , but Spanish Civil War veterans amongst them had some experience with guerrilla warfare.
At the very beginning the Partisan forces were small, poorly armed and without any infrastructure, but Spanish Civil War veterans amongst them had some experience with guerrilla warfare .
The Partisan movement in Slovenia functioned as the military arm of the Liberation Front of the Slovene Nation, an Anti-Fascist resistance platform established in the Province of Ljubljana on 26 April 1941, which originally consisted of multiple groups of left wing orientation, most notable being Communist Party and Christian Socialists.
The Partisan movement in Slovenia functioned as the military arm of the Liberation Front of the Slovene Nation, an Anti-Fascist resistance platform established in the Province of Ljubljana on 26 April 1941 , which originally consisted of multiple groups of left wing orientation, most notable being Communist Party and Christian Socialists.
The Partisan movement in Slovenia functioned as the military arm of the Liberation Front of the Slovene Nation, an Anti-Fascist resistance platform established in the Province of Ljubljana on 26 April 1941, which originally consisted of multiple groups of left wing orientation, most notable being Communist Party and Christian Socialists.
Supreme Plenum was active until 3 October 1943 when, at the Assembly of the Slovenian Nation's Delegates in Kočevje, the 120-member Liberation Front Plenum was elected as the supreme body of the Slovenian Liberation Front.
Supreme Plenum was active until 3 October 1943 when, at the Assembly of the Slovenian Nation's Delegates in Kočevje, the 120 -member Liberation Front Plenum was elected as the supreme body of the Slovenian Liberation Front.
Supreme Plenum was active until 3 October 1943 when, at the Assembly of the Slovenian Nation's Delegates in Kočevje, the 120-member Liberation Front Plenum was elected as the supreme body of the Slovenian Liberation Front.
Some historians consider the Kočevje Assembly to be the first Slovene elected parliament and Slovene Partisans as its representatives also participated on 2nd session of the AVNOJ and were instrumental in adding the self-determination clause to the resolution on the establishment of a new federal Yugoslavia.
The Liberation Front Plenum was renamed the Slovenian National Liberation Council at the conference in Črnomelj on 19 February 1944 and transformed into the Slovenian parliament.[citation needed]
The Slovene Partisans retained their specific organizational structure and Slovene language as the commanding language until the last months of World War II, when their language was removed as the commanding language.
From 1942 till after 1944 , they wore the Triglavka cap, which was then gradually replaced with the Titovka cap as part of their uniform.
From 1942 till after 1944, they wore the Triglavka cap, which was then gradually replaced with the Titovka cap as part of their uniform.
In March 1945, the Slovene Partisan Units were officially merged with the Yugoslav Army and thus ceased to exist as a separate formation.[citation needed]
In March 1945 , the Slovene Partisan Units were officially merged with the Yugoslav Army and thus ceased to exist as a separate formation.[citation needed]
From 1942 till after 1944 , they wore the Triglavka cap, which was then gradually replaced with the Titovka cap as part of their uniform.
The Slovene Partisans retained their specific organizational structure and Slovene language as the commanding language until the last months of World War II, when their language was removed as the commanding language.
From 1942 till after 1944, they wore the Triglavka cap, which was then gradually replaced with the Titovka cap as part of their uniform.
In March 1945, the Slovene Partisan Units were officially merged with the Yugoslav Army and thus ceased to exist as a separate formation.[citation needed]
In March 1945 , the Slovene Partisan Units were officially merged with the Yugoslav Army and thus ceased to exist as a separate formation.[citation needed]
The Partisans were responsible for the successful and sustained evacuation of downed Allied airmen from the Balkans.
The Partisans were responsible for the successful and sustained evacuation of downed Allied airmen from the Balkans .
For example, between 1 January and 15 October 1944, according to statistics compiled by the US Air Force Air Crew Rescue Unit, 1,152 American airmen were airlifted from Yugoslavia, 795 with Partisan assistance and 356 with the help of the Chetniks.
For example, between 1 January and 15 October 1944, according to statistics compiled by the US Air Force Air Crew Rescue Unit, 1,152 American airmen were airlifted from Yugoslavia, 795 with Partisan assistance and 356 with the help of the Chetniks.
For example, between 1 January and 15 October 1944, according to statistics compiled by the US Air Force Air Crew Rescue Unit, 1,152 American airmen were airlifted from Yugoslavia, 795 with Partisan assistance and 356 with the help of the Chetniks.
The first was that the Partisans were courageous and aggressive in battling the German 1st Mountain and 104th Light Division, had suffered significant casualties, and required support.
The second observation was that the entire German 1st Mountain Division had traveled from Russia by railway through Chetnik-controlled territory.
In September 1943 , at Churchill's request, Brigadier General Fitzroy Maclean was parachuted to Tito's headquarters near Drvar to serve as a permanent, formal liaison to the Partisans.
The first was that the Partisans were courageous and aggressive in battling the German 1st Mountain and 104th Light Division , had suffered significant casualties, and required support.
British intercepts (ULTRA) of German message traffic confirmed Chetnik timidity.
The first was that the Partisans were courageous and aggressive in battling the German 1st Mountain and 104th Light Division, had suffered significant casualties, and required support.
In September 1943 , at Churchill's request, Brigadier General Fitzroy Maclean was parachuted to Tito's headquarters near Drvar to serve as a permanent, formal liaison to the Partisans.
The second observation was that the entire German 1st Mountain Division had traveled from Russia by railway through Chetnik-controlled territory.
The first was that the Partisans were courageous and aggressive in battling the German 1st Mountain and 104th Light Division, had suffered significant casualties, and required support.
These were transported across Slovenia, from where many were airlifted from Semič , while others made the longer overland trek down through Croatia for a boat passage to Bari in Italy.
The Partisans also assisted hundreds of Allied soldiers who succeeded in escaping from German POW camps (mostly in southern Austria) throughout the war, but especially from 1943–45.
These were transported across Slovenia, from where many were airlifted from Semič, while others made the longer overland trek down through Croatia for a boat passage to Bari in Italy.
They were being assisted by local civilians , and on contacting Partisans on the general line of the River Drava, they were able to make their way to safety with Partisan guides.[citation needed]
In the spring of 1944 , the British military mission in Slovenia reported that there was a "steady, slow trickle" of escapes from these camps.
The Partisans also assisted hundreds of Allied soldiers who succeeded in escaping from German POW camps (mostly in southern Austria) throughout the war, but especially from 1943–45.
In the spring of 1944, the British military mission in Slovenia reported that there was a "steady, slow trickle" of escapes from these camps.
The Partisans also assisted hundreds of Allied soldiers who succeeded in escaping from German POW camps (mostly in southern Austria ) throughout the war, but especially from 1943–45.
In the spring of 1944, the British military mission in Slovenia reported that there was a "steady, slow trickle" of escapes from these camps.
They were being assisted by local civilians , and on contacting Partisans on the general line of the River Drava, they were able to make their way to safety with Partisan guides.[citation needed]
With Allied air support ( Operation Flotsam )
With Allied air support (Operation Flotsam) and assistance from the Red Army, in the second half of 1944 the Partisans turned their attention to Serbia , which had seen relatively little fighting since the fall of the Republic of Užice in 1941.
On 20 October , the Red Army and the Partisans liberated Belgrade in a joint operation known as the Belgrade Offensive.
At the onset of winter , the Partisans effectively controlled the entire eastern half of Yugoslavia – Serbia, Vardar Macedonia and Montenegro, as well as the Dalmatian coast.[citation needed]
On 20 October, the Red Army and the Partisans liberated Belgrade in a joint operation known as the Belgrade Offensive .
With Allied air support ( Operation Flotsam )
With Allied air support (Operation Flotsam) and assistance from the Red Army , in the second half of 1944 the Partisans turned their attention to Serbia, which had seen relatively little fighting since the fall of the Republic of Užice in 1941.
With Allied air support (Operation Flotsam) and assistance from the Red Army, in the second half of 1944 the Partisans turned their attention to Serbia, which had seen relatively little fighting since the fall of the Republic of Užice in 1941.
With Allied air support (Operation Flotsam) and assistance from the Red Army, in the second half of 1944 the Partisans turned their attention to Serbia , which had seen relatively little fighting since the fall of the Republic of Užice in 1941.
In 1945 , the Partisans, numbering over 800,000 strong defeated the Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia and the Wehrmacht, achieving a hard-fought breakthrough in the Syrmian front in late winter, taking Sarajevo in early April, and the rest of the NDH and Slovenia through mid-May. After taking Rijeka and Istria, which were part of Italy before the war, they beat the Allies to Trieste by two days.
In 1945, the Partisans, numbering over 800,000 strong defeated the Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia and the Wehrmacht, achieving a hard-fought breakthrough in the Syrmian front in late winter, taking Sarajevo in early April, and the rest of the NDH and Slovenia through mid-May. After taking Rijeka and Istria, which were part of Italy before the war, they beat the Allies to Trieste by two days.
The "last battle of World War Two in Europe", the Battle of Poljana , was fought between the Partisans and retreating Wehrmacht and quisling forces at Poljana, near Prevalje in Carinthia, on 14–15 May 1945.[citation needed]
The "last battle of World War Two in Europe", the Battle of Poljana, was fought between the Partisans and retreating Wehrmacht and quisling forces at Poljana, near Prevalje in Carinthia, on 14– 15 May 1945 .[citation needed]
In 1945, the Partisans, numbering over 800,000 strong defeated the Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia and the Wehrmacht, achieving a hard-fought breakthrough in the Syrmian front in late winter, taking Sarajevo in early April , and the rest of the NDH and Slovenia through mid-May. After taking Rijeka and Istria, which were part of Italy before the war, they beat the Allies to Trieste by two days.
In 1945, the Partisans, numbering over 800,000 strong defeated the Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia and the Wehrmacht, achieving a hard-fought breakthrough in the Syrmian front in late winter, taking Sarajevo in early April, and the rest of the NDH and Slovenia through mid-May. After taking Rijeka and Istria, which were part of Italy before the war, they beat the Allies to Trieste by two days.
The "last battle of World War Two in Europe", the Battle of Poljana , was fought between the Partisans and retreating Wehrmacht and quisling forces at Poljana, near Prevalje in Carinthia, on 14–15 May 1945.[citation needed]
The "last battle of World War Two in Europe", the Battle of Poljana, was fought between the Partisans and retreating Wehrmacht and quisling forces at Poljana, near Prevalje in Carinthia, on 14–15 May 1945.[citation needed]
In 1945 , the Partisans, numbering over 800,000 strong defeated the Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia and the Wehrmacht, achieving a hard-fought breakthrough in the Syrmian front in late winter, taking Sarajevo in early April, and the rest of the NDH and Slovenia through mid-May. After taking Rijeka and Istria, which were part of Italy before the war, they beat the Allies to Trieste by two days.
A total of 132 Allied prisoners of war were rescued from the Germans by the Partisans in a single operation in August 1944 in what is known as the Raid at Ožbalt.
A total of 132 Allied prisoners of war were rescued from the Germans by the Partisans in a single operation in August 1944 in what is known as the Raid at Ožbalt .
In June 1944, the Allied escape organization began to take an active interest in assisting prisoners from camps in southern Austria and evacuating them through Yugoslavia.
A post of the Allied mission in northern Slovenia had found that at Ožbalt, just on the Austrian side of the border, about 50 km (31 mi) from Maribor , there was a poorly guarded working camp from which a raid by Slovene Partisans could free all the prisoners.
A total of 132 Allied prisoners of war were rescued from the Germans by the Partisans in a single operation in August 1944 in what is known as the Raid at Ožbalt.
In June 1944, the Allied escape organization began to take an active interest in assisting prisoners from camps in southern Austria and evacuating them through Yugoslavia.
A total of 132 Allied prisoners of war were rescued from the Germans by the Partisans in a single operation in August 1944 in what is known as the Raid at Ožbalt .
Over 100 POWs were transported from Stalag XVIII-D at Maribor to Ožbalt each morning to do railway maintenance work, and returned to their quarters in the evening.
Contact was made between Partisans and the prisoners with the result that at the end of August a group of seven slipped away past a sleeping guard at 15:00, and at 21:00 the men were celebrating with the Partisans in a village, 8 km (5.0 mi) away on the Yugoslav side of the border.
Naval forces of the resistance were formed as early as 19 September 1942 , when Partisans in Dalmatia formed their first naval unit made of fishing boats, which gradually evolved into a force able to engage the Italian Navy and Kriegsmarine and conduct complex amphibious operations.
Naval forces of the resistance were formed as early as 19 September 1942, when Partisans in Dalmatia formed their first naval unit made of fishing boats , which gradually evolved into a force able to engage the Italian Navy and Kriegsmarine and conduct complex amphibious operations.
At its peak during World War II, the Yugoslav Partisans' Navy commanded 9 or 10 armed ships , 30 patrol boats, close to 200 support ships, six coastal batteries, and several Partisan detachments on the islands, around 3,000 men.[citation needed] On 26 October 1943, it was organized first into four, and later into six, Maritime Coastal Sectors (Pomorsko Obalni Sektor, POS).
At its peak during World War II, the Yugoslav Partisans' Navy commanded 9 or 10 armed ships, 30 patrol boats, close to 200 support ships, six coastal batteries, and several Partisan detachments on the islands, around 3,000 men .[citation needed] On 26 October 1943, it was organized first into four, and later into six, Maritime Coastal Sectors (Pomorsko Obalni Sektor, POS).
At its peak during World War II, the Yugoslav Partisans' Navy commanded 9 or 10 armed ships, 30 patrol boats, close to 200 support ships, six coastal batteries, and several Partisan detachments on the islands, around 3,000 men.[citation needed] On 26 October 1943 , it was organized first into four, and later into six, Maritime Coastal Sectors (Pomorsko Obalni Sektor, POS).
Naval forces of the resistance were formed as early as 19 September 1942 , when Partisans in Dalmatia formed their first naval unit made of fishing boats, which gradually evolved into a force able to engage the Italian Navy and Kriegsmarine and conduct complex amphibious operations.
Naval forces of the resistance were formed as early as 19 September 1942 , when Partisans in Dalmatia formed their first naval unit made of fishing boats, which gradually evolved into a force able to engage the Italian Navy and Kriegsmarine and conduct complex amphibious operations.
At its peak during World War II, the Yugoslav Partisans' Navy commanded 9 or 10 armed ships, 30 patrol boats, close to 200 support ships, six coastal batteries, and several Partisan detachments on the islands, around 3,000 men.[citation needed] On 26 October 1943, it was organized first into four, and later into six, Maritime Coastal Sectors (Pomorsko Obalni Sektor, POS).
At its peak during World War II, the Yugoslav Partisans' Navy commanded 9 or 10 armed ships, 30 patrol boats, close to 200 support ships, six coastal batteries, and several Partisan detachments on the islands, around 3,000 men.[citation needed] On 26 October 1943, it was organized first into four, and later into six, Maritime Coastal Sectors (Pomorsko Obalni Sektor, POS).
At its peak during World War II, the Yugoslav Partisans' Navy commanded 9 or 10 armed ships, 30 patrol boats, close to 200 support ships, six coastal batteries, and several Partisan detachments on the islands, around 3,000 men.[citation needed] On 26 October 1943, it was organized first into four, and later into six, Maritime Coastal Sectors (Pomorsko Obalni Sektor, POS).
Next morning, the seven returned with about a hundred Partisans to await the arrival of the work-party by the usual train.
As soon as work had begun the Partisans, to quote a New Zealand eye-witness, "swooped down the hillside and disarmed the eighteen guards ".
At the first headquarters camp reached, details were taken of the total of 132 escaped prisoners for transmission by radio to England.
A night ambush by one such patrol caused the loss of two prisoners and two of the escort.
Eventually they reached Semič, in White Carniola, Slovenia , which was a Partisan base catering for POWs.
SFR Yugoslavia was one of only two European countries that were largely liberated by its own forces during World War II.
It received significant assistance from the Soviet Union during the liberation of Serbia, and substantial assistance from the Balkan Air Force from mid-1944, but only limited assistance, mainly from the British, prior to 1944.
It received significant assistance from the Soviet Union during the liberation of Serbia, and substantial assistance from the Balkan Air Force from mid-1944, but only limited assistance, mainly from the British, prior to 1944.
It received significant assistance from the Soviet Union during the liberation of Serbia, and substantial assistance from the Balkan Air Force from mid-1944, but only limited assistance, mainly from the British , prior to 1944.
At the end of the war no foreign troops were stationed on its soil.
In 1947–48, the Soviet Union attempted to command obedience from Yugoslavia, primarily on issues of foreign policy , which resulted in the Tito-Stalin split and almost ignited an armed conflict.
In 1947–48, the Soviet Union attempted to command obedience from Yugoslavia, primarily on issues of foreign policy, which resulted in the Tito-Stalin split and almost ignited an armed conflict.
This however changed in 1953 with the Trieste crisis , a tense dispute between Yugoslavia and the Western Allies over the eventual Yugoslav-Italian border (see Free Territory of Trieste), and with Yugoslav-Soviet reconciliation in 1956.
This however changed in 1953 with the Trieste crisis, a tense dispute between Yugoslavia and the Western Allies over the eventual Yugoslav-Italian border (see Free Territory of Trieste), and with Yugoslav-Soviet reconciliation in 1956.
This however changed in 1953 with the Trieste crisis, a tense dispute between Yugoslavia and the Western Allies over the eventual Yugoslav-Italian border (see Free Territory of Trieste), and with Yugoslav-Soviet reconciliation in 1956 .
In November 1942 the movement was renamed into the National Liberation Army and Partisan Detachments of Yugoslavia (Narodnooslobodilačka vojska i partizanski odredi Jugoslavije, NOV i POJ), a name which it held until the end of the war.
In November 1942 the movement was renamed into the National Liberation Army and Partisan Detachments of Yugoslavia (Narodnooslobodilačka vojska i partizanski odredi Jugoslavije, NOV i POJ), a name which it held until the end of the war.
In November 1942 the movement was renamed into the National Liberation Army and Partisan Detachments of Yugoslavia (Narodnooslobodilačka vojska
In November 1942 the movement was renamed into the National Liberation Army and Partisan Detachments of Yugoslavia ( Narodnooslobodilačka vojska i partizanski odredi Jugoslavije, NOV i POJ), a name which it held until the end of the war.
On 6 April 1941 , the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was invaded from all sides by the Axis powers, primarily by German forces, but also including Italian, Hungarian and Bulgarian formations.
The invasion lasted little more than ten days , ending with the unconditional surrender of the Royal Yugoslav Army on 17 April.
During the invasion, Belgrade was bombed by the Luftwaffe.
The invasion lasted little more than ten days, ending with the unconditional surrender of the Royal Yugoslav Army on 17 April.
Besides being hopelessly ill-equipped when compared to the Wehrmacht, the Army attempted to defend all borders but only managed to thinly spread the limited resources available.
Germany occupied northern Slovenia , while retaining direct occupation over a rump Serbian state and considerable influence over its newly created puppet state, the Independent State of Croatia (NDH), which extended over much of today's Croatia and contained all of modern Bosnia and Herzegovina and Syrmia region of modern-day Serbia.
Mussolini's Italy occupied the remainder of Slovenia (annexed and renamed as the Province of Lubiana ), Kosovo, and large chunks of the coastal Dalmatia region (along with nearly all its Adriatic islands).
Germany occupied northern Slovenia, while retaining direct occupation over a rump Serbian state and considerable influence over its newly created puppet state, the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) , which extended over much of today's Croatia and contained all of modern Bosnia and Herzegovina and Syrmia region of modern-day Serbia.
Hungary dispatched the Hungarian Third Army to occupy part of Serbian Vojvodina, including Baranja and Bačka, and annexed the Croatian area of Međimurje and the Slovene area of Prekmurje.
Bulgaria , meanwhile, annexed nearly all of Macedonia, and small areas of eastern Serbia and Kosovo.
The Partisans gained an effective air force in May 1942 , when the pilots of two aircraft belonging to the Air Force of the Independent State of Croatia (French-designed and Yugoslav-built Potez 25, and Breguet 19 biplanes, themselves formerly of the Royal Yugoslav Air Force), Franjo Kluz and Rudi Čajavec, defected to the Partisans in Bosnia.
Although short-lived due to a lack of infrastructure , this was the first instance of a resistance movement having its own air force.
The Partisans later established a permanent air force by obtaining aircraft, equipment, and training from captured Axis aircraft, the British Royal Air Force (see BAF), and later the Soviet Air Force.[citation needed]
The Partisans gained an effective air force in May 19 42, when the pilots of two aircraft belonging to the Air Force of the Independent State of Croatia (French-designed and Yugoslav-built Potez 25, and Breguet 19 biplanes, themselves formerly of the Royal Yugoslav Air Force), Franjo Kluz and Rudi Čajavec, defected to the Partisans in Bosnia.
Between Fredonyer Pass and Lake Tahoe, the peaks range from 5,000 feet (1,500 m) to more than 9,000 feet (2,700 m) .
The Sierra rise to almost 14,000 feet (4,300 m) with Mount Humphreys near Bishop, California .
Finally, near Lone Pine, Mount Whitney is at 14,505 feet (4,421 m), the highest point in the contiguous United States.
Further south, the highest peak in Yosemite National Park is Mount Lyell (13,120 ft or 3,999 m).
Finally, near Lone Pine, Mount Whitney is at 14,505 feet ( 4,421 m ), the highest point in the contiguous United States.
The earliest rocks in the Sierra Nevada are metamorphic roof pendants of Paleozoic age, the oldest rocks being metasedimentary rocks from the Cambrian in the Mount Morrison region .
The earliest rocks in the Sierra Nevada are metamorphic roof pendants of Paleozoic age , the oldest rocks being metasedimentary rocks from the Cambrian in the Mount Morrison region.
This granite is mostly found east of the crest and north of 37.2°N .
This granite is mostly found east of the crest and north of 37.2°N. In the Triassic and into the Jurassic, an island arc collided with the west coast of North America and raised a chain of volcanoes, in an event called the Nevadan orogeny .
Nearly all subaerial Sierran Arc volcanoes have since disappeared; their remains were redeposited during the Great Valley Sequence and the subsequent Cenozoic filling of the Great Valley , which is the source of much of the sedimentary rock in California.
These plutons formed at various times, from 115 Ma to 87 Ma .
In the Cretaceous, a subduction zone formed at the edge of the continent.
The earlier plutons formed in the western half of the Sierra, while the later plutons formed in the eastern half of the Sierra.
Magma formed through the subduction of the ancient Farallon Plate rose in plumes (plutons) deep underground, their combined mass forming what is called the Sierra Nevada batholith .
The earlier plutons formed in the western half of the Sierra, while the later plutons formed in the eastern half of the Sierra.
The climate of the Sierra Nevada is influenced by the Mediterranean climate of California.
 During the fall, winter and spring, precipitation in the Sierra ranges from 20 to 80 in (510 to 2,030 mm) where it occurs mostly as snow above 6,000 ft (1,800 m).
Most parts of the range east of the crest are in a rain shadow, and receive less than 25 inches of precipitation per year.
The highest elevations of the Sierra have an alpine climate.
Summers are dry with low humidity; however, afternoon thunderstorms are common, particularly during the North American Monsoon .
The Sierra Nevada snowpack is the major source of water and a significant source of electric power generation in California.
 Many reservoirs were constructed in the canyons of the Sierra throughout the 20th century,  Several major aqueducts serving both agriculture and urban areas distribute Sierra water throughout the state.
 Many reservoirs were constructed in the canyons of the Sierra throughout the 20th century,  Several major aqueducts serving both agriculture and urban areas distribute Sierra water throughout the state.
However, the Sierra casts a rain shadow , which greatly affects the climate and ecology of the central Great Basin.
However, the Sierra casts a rain shadow, which greatly affects the climate and ecology of the central Great Basin.
Because of the large number of airplanes which have crashed in the Sierra Nevada, primarily due to the complex weather and atmospheric conditions such as downdrafts and microbursts caused by geography there, a portion of the area, a triangle whose vertices are Reno, Nevada; Fresno, California; and Las Vegas, Nevada, has been dubbed the "Nevada Triangle", in reference to the Bermuda Triangle.
Because of the large number of airplanes which have crashed in the Sierra Nevada, primarily due to the complex weather and atmospheric conditions such as downdrafts and microbursts caused by geography there, a portion of the area, a triangle whose vertices are Reno, Nevada; Fresno, California; and Las Vegas, Nevada, has been dubbed the "Nevada Triangle", in reference to the Bermuda Triangle.
Because of the large number of airplanes which have crashed in the Sierra Nevada, primarily due to the complex weather and atmospheric conditions such as downdrafts and microbursts caused by geography there, a portion of the area, a triangle whose vertices are Reno, Nevada; Fresno, California; and Las Vegas, Nevada, has been dubbed the "Nevada Triangle", in reference to the Bermuda Triangle.
Because of the large number of airplanes which have crashed in the Sierra Nevada, primarily due to the complex weather and atmospheric conditions such as downdrafts and microbursts caused by geography there, a portion of the area, a triangle whose vertices are Reno, Nevada; Fresno, California; and Las Vegas, Nevada, has been dubbed the " Nevada Triangle ", in reference to the Bermuda Triangle.
 Some counts put the number of crashes in the triangle at 2,000 , including millionaire and record-breaking flyer Steve Fossett.
Archaeological excavations placed Martis people of Paleo-Indians in northcentral Sierra Nevada during the period of 3,000 BCE to 500 CE .
The California and Sierra Native American tribes were predominantly peaceful , with occasional territorial disputes between the Paiute and Sierra Miwok tribes in the mountains.
Today, some mountain passes, such as Duck Pass with obsidian arrowheads, are artifact locations from historic intertribal trade route trails.
The California and Sierra Native American tribes were predominantly peaceful, with occasional territorial disputes between the Paiute and Sierra Miwok tribes in the mountains.
The earliest identified sustaining indigenous people in the Sierra Nevada were the Northern Paiute tribes on the east side, with the Mono tribe and Sierra Miwok tribe on the western side, and the Kawaiisu and Tubatulabal tribes in the southern Sierra.
In 1833, a subgroup of the Bonneville Expedition led by Joseph Reddeford Walker was sent westward to find an overland route to California.
Eventually the party discovered a route along the Humboldt River across present-day Nevada, ascending the Sierra Nevada, starting near present-day Bridgeport and descending between the Tuolumne and Merced River drainage.
The group may have been the first non-indigenous people to see Yosemite Valley .
The Walker party probably visited either the Tuolumne or Merced Groves of Giant Sequoia, becoming the first non-indigenous people to see the giant trees, but journals relating to the Walker party were destroyed in 1839, in a print shop fire in Philadelphia .
The Walker party probably visited either the Tuolumne or Merced Groves of Giant Sequoia, becoming the first non-indigenous people to see the giant trees, but journals relating to the Walker party were destroyed in 1839, in a print shop fire in Philadelphia.
On January 24, 1848 James W. Marshall , a foreman working for Sacramento pioneer John Sutter, found shiny metal in the tailrace of a lumber mill Marshall was building for Sutter on the American River.
Rumors soon started to spread and were confirmed in March 1848 by San Francisco newspaper publisher and merchant Samuel Brannan .
Rumors soon started to spread and were confirmed in March 1848 by San Francisco newspaper publisher and merchant Samuel Brannan.
Rumors soon started to spread and were confirmed in March 1848 by San Francisco newspaper publisher and merchant Samuel Brannan.
Brannan strode through the streets of San Francisco, holding aloft a vial of gold , shouting "Gold!
On August 19, 1848, the New York Herald was the first major newspaper on the East Coast to report the discovery of gold.
On December 5, 1848, President James Polk confirmed the discovery of gold in an address to Congress.:80 Soon, waves of immigrants from around the world, later called the "forty-niners", invaded the Gold Country of California or "Mother Lode".
Miners lived in tents, wood shanties, or deck cabins removed from abandoned ships.
On December 5, 1848, President James Polk confirmed the discovery of gold in an address to Congress.:80 Soon, waves of immigrants from around the world, later called the " forty-niners ", invaded the Gold Country of California or "Mother Lode".
On August 19, 1848, the New York Herald was the first major newspaper on the East Coast to report the discovery of gold.
By 1853 , most of the easily accessible gold had been collected, and attention turned to extracting gold from more difficult locations.
Hydraulic mining was used on ancient gold-bearing gravel beds on hillsides and bluffs in the gold fields.:89
By the mid-1880s, it is estimated that 11 million ounces (340 t) of gold (worth approximately US$15 billion at December 2010 prices) had been recovered by "hydraulicking".
By the mid-1880s, it is estimated that 11 million ounces (340 t) of gold (worth approximately US$15 billion at December 2010 prices) had been recovered by " hydraulicking ".
As of 1999[update], many areas still bear the scars of hydraulic mining, since the resulting exposed earth and downstream gravel deposits do not support plant life .:116–121
The Gold Rush populated the western foothills of the Sierra Nevada, but even by 1860 most of the Sierra was unexplored.
Josiah Whitney was appointed to head the survey.
The state legislature authorized the California Geological Survey to officially explore the Sierra (and survey the rest of the state).
 From 1892–7 Theodore Solomons made the first attempt to map a route along the crest of the Sierra.
Men of the survey, including William H. Brewer, Charles F. Hoffmann and Clarence King , explored the backcountry of what would become Yosemite National Park in 1863.
The Valley and Mariposa Grove were ceded to California in 1866 and turned into a state park.
.Yosemite Valley was first protected by the federal government in 1864 .
John Muir perceived overgrazing by sheep and logging of Giant Sequoia to be a problem in the Sierra.
Muir successfully lobbied for the protection of the rest of Yosemite National Park: Congress created an Act to protect the park in 1890 .
The Valley and Mariposa Grove were added to the Park in 1906 .
Between 1912 and 1918, Congress debated three times to protect Lake Tahoe in a national park.
By 1980, the permanent population of the Lake Tahoe area grew to 50,000 , while the summer population grew to 90,000.
The development around Lake Tahoe affected the clarity of the lake water .
In order to preserve the lake's clarity, construction in the Tahoe basin is currently regulated by the Tahoe Regional Planning Agency .
A recent increase in large-scale catastrophic wildfire like the Rim Fire in Yosemite National Park and the Stanislaus National Forest and the King Fire on the El Dorado National Forest, has prompted concerns about losing large tracts of conifer forest across the Sierra Nevada.
A recent increase in large-scale catastrophic wildfire like the Rim Fire in Yosemite National Park and the Stanislaus National Forest and the King Fire on the El Dorado National Forest, has prompted concerns about losing large tracts of conifer forest across the Sierra Nevada.
A recent increase in large-scale catastrophic wildfire like the Rim Fire in Yosemite National Park and the Stanislaus National Forest and the King Fire on the El Dorado National Forest , has prompted concerns about losing large tracts of conifer forest across the Sierra Nevada.
Logging occurs on both private and public lands, with controversial clearcut methods used on private lands and more science-based thinning logging on public lands.
In the Presidential election of 2012 , the Republican nominees were former Governor Mitt Romney of Massachusetts for President, and Representative Paul Ryan of Wisconsin for Vice President.
The Democrats nominated incumbents Barack Obama and Joe Biden .
In addition, in the November congressional elections, while Republicans lost 7 seats in the House, they retained control.
The campaign focused largely on the Affordable Care Act and President Obama's stewardship of the economy , with the country facing high unemployment numbers and a rising national debt four years after his first election.
However, Republicans were not able to gain control of the Senate, continuing their minority status with a net loss of 2 seats .
In the Presidential election of 2012, the Republican nominees were former Governor Mitt Romney of Massachusetts for President, and Representative Paul Ryan of Wisconsin for Vice President.
In addition, in the November congressional elections, while Republicans lost 7 seats in the House, they retained control.
Romney and Ryan were defeated by Obama and Biden .
In addition, in the November congressional elections, while Republicans lost 7 seats in the House, they retained control.
In the Presidential election of 2012, the Republican nominees were former Governor Mitt Romney of Massachusetts for President, and Representative Paul Ryan of Wisconsin for Vice President.
Owing largely to the prominence of the religious right in conservative politics in the United States, the Republican Party has taken positions regarded by many as outwardly hostile to the gay rights movement.
Republicans have historically strongly opposed same-sex marriage (the party's overall attitude on civil unions is much more divided, with some in favor and others opposed) , with the issue a galvanizing one that many believe helped George W. Bush win re-election in 2004.
As more states legalized same-sex marriage in the 2010s, Republicans increasingly supported allowing each state to decide its own marriage policy. Since the Supreme Court legalized same-sex marriage nationwide in 2015, Republicans have taken a more muted stance, and the issue has lost much of its political potency.
Since the Supreme Court legalized same-sex marriage nationwide in 2015 , Republicans have taken a more muted stance, and the issue has lost much of its political potency.
Owing largely to the prominence of the religious right in conservative politics in the United States, the Republican Party has taken positions regarded by many as outwardly hostile to the gay rights movement .
As more states legalized same-sex marriage in the 2010s , Republicans increasingly supported allowing each state to decide its own marriage policy.
Republicans have historically strongly opposed same-sex marriage (the party's overall attitude on civil unions is much more divided, with some in favor and others opposed), with the issue a galvanizing one that many believe helped George W. Bush win re-election in 2004.
Republicans have historically strongly opposed same-sex marriage (the party's overall attitude on civil unions is much more divided, with some in favor and others opposed), with the issue a galvanizing one that many believe helped George W. Bush win re-election in 2004.
Since the Supreme Court legalized same-sex marriage nationwide in 2015, Republicans have taken a more muted stance , and the issue has lost much of its political potency.
Owing largely to the prominence of the religious right in conservative politics in the United States, the Republican Party has taken positions regarded by many as outwardly hostile to the gay rights movement.
As more states legalized same-sex marriage in the 2010s , Republicans increasingly supported allowing each state to decide its own marriage policy.
Owing largely to the prominence of the religious right in conservative politics in the United States, the Republican Party has taken positions regarded by many as outwardly hostile to the gay rights movement.
Since the Supreme Court legalized same-sex marriage nationwide in 2015 , Republicans have taken a more muted stance, and the issue has lost much of its political potency.
Republicans have historically strongly opposed same-sex marriage (the party's overall attitude on civil unions is much more divided, with some in favor and others opposed), with the issue a galvanizing one that many believe helped George W. Bush win re-election in 2004.
Since the Supreme Court legalized same-sex marriage nationwide in 2015, Republicans have taken a more muted stance , and the issue has lost much of its political potency.
Prior to the formation of the conservative coalition , which helped realign the Democratic and Republican party ideologies in the mid-1960s, the party had historically advocated classical liberalism and progressivism.
The party is a full member of the conservative International Democrat Union as well as the Asia Pacific Democrat Union .
According to the most recent Gallup poll, 25% of Americans identify as Republican and 16% identify as leaning Republican.
In comparison, 30% identify as Democratic and 16% identify as leaning Democratic.
The Democratic Party has typically held an overall edge in party identification since Gallup began polling on the issue in 1991 .
Prior to the formation of the conservative coalition, which helped realign the Democratic and Republican party ideologies in the mid-1960s, the party had historically advocated classical liberalism and progressivism .
In another Gallup poll, 42% of Republicans and Republican-leaning independents identified as economically and socially conservative, followed by 24% as socially and economically moderate or liberal, 20% as socially moderate or liberal and fiscally conservative, and 10% as socially conservative and fiscally moderate or liberal.
It is also an associate member of the Alliance of European Conservatives and Reformists , which has close relations to the Conservative Party of the United Kingdom.
According to the most recent Gallup poll, 25% of Americans identify as Republican and 16 % identify as leaning Republican.
The Democratic Party has typically held an overall edge in party identification since Gallup began polling on the issue in 1991 .
It is also an associate member of the Alliance of European Conservatives and Reformists , which has close relations to the Conservative Party of the United Kingdom.
In another Gallup poll, 42% of Republicans and Republican-leaning independents identified as economically and socially conservative, followed by 24% as socially and economically moderate or liberal, 20% as socially moderate or liberal and fiscally conservative, and 10% as socially conservative and fiscally moderate or liberal.
Prior to the formation of the conservative coalition, which helped realign the Democratic and Republican party ideologies in the mid-1960s, the party had historically advocated classical liberalism and progressivism. The party is a full member of the conservative International Democrat Union as well as the Asia Pacific Democrat Union.
The party is a full member of the conservative International Democrat Union as well as the Asia Pacific Democrat Union. It is also an associate member of the Alliance of European Conservatives and Reformists, which has close relations to the Conservative Party of the United Kingdom.
Since 1980 , a "gender gap" has seen slightly stronger support for the Republican Party among men than among women.
In 2012, Obama won 55% of the women and 45% of the men—and more women voted than men .
In recent elections, Republicans have found their greatest support among whites from married couples with children living at home .
Unmarried and divorced women were far more likely to vote for Kerry in 2004.
They found that self-described Democrats had a +8 advantage over Republicans among college graduates, +14 of all post-graduates polled.
They found that self-described Democrats had a +8 advantage over Republicans among college graduates, +14 of all post-graduates polled.
They found that self-described Democrats had a +8 advantage over Republicans among college graduates, +14 of all post-graduates polled.
They found that self-described Democrats had a +8 advantage over Republicans among college graduates, +14 of all post-graduates polled.
They found that self-described Democrats had a +8 advantage over Republicans among college graduates, +14 of all post-graduates polled.
In 2012, 88% of Romney voters were white, while 56% of Obama voters were white.
While historically the party had been supporters of rights for African Americans since the 1860s, it lost its leadership position in the 1960s.[citation needed] Republicans have been winning under 15% of the black vote in recent national elections (1980 to 2012).
In the 2010 elections, two African American Republicans were elected to the U.S. House of Representatives.
The Republican Party abolished slavery under Abraham Lincoln, defeated the Slave Power, and gave blacks the vote during Reconstruction in the late 1860s .
Until the New Deal of the 1930s, blacks supported the Republican Party by large margins.
George W. Bush, who campaigned energetically for Hispanic votes, received 35% of their vote in 2000 and 44% in 2004.
George W. Bush, who campaigned energetically for Hispanic votes, received 35% of their vote in 2000 and 44% in 2004.
The election of Bobby Jindal as Governor of Louisiana has been hailed as pathbreaking.
George W. Bush, who campaigned energetically for Hispanic votes, received 35% of their vote in 2000 and 44% in 2004.
In the 2008 presidential election, John McCain won 55% of white votes, 35% of Asian votes, 31% of Hispanic votes, and 4% of African American votes.
Religion was a major dividing line between the parties before 1960, with Catholics, Jews, and Southern Protestants heavily Democratic, and Northeastern Protestants heavily Republican .
Voters who attend church weekly gave 61% of their votes to Bush in 2004; those who attend occasionally gave him only 47%, while those who never attend gave him 36%.
Religion was a major dividing line between the parties before 1960, with Catholics, Jews, and Southern Protestants heavily Democratic, and Northeastern Protestants heavily Republican.
Religion was a major dividing line between the parties before 1960, with Catholics, Jews, and Southern Protestants heavily Democratic, and Northeastern Protestants heavily Republican .
Religion was a major dividing line between the parties before 1960, with Catholics, Jews, and Southern Protestants heavily Democratic , and Northeastern Protestants heavily Republican.
The party's founding members chose the name "Republican Party" in the mid-1850s as homage to the values of republicanism promoted by Thomas Jefferson 's
The name reflects the 1776 republican values of civic virtue and opposition to aristocracy and corruption .
[that] would more fitly designate those who had united to restore the Union to its true mission of champion and promulgator of Liberty rather than propagandist of slavery ".
The idea for the name came from an editorial by the party's leading publicist Horace Greeley, who called for, "some simple name like 'Republican'
[that] would more fitly designate those who had united to restore the Union to its true mission of champion and promulgator of Liberty rather than propagandist of slavery".
That election night, for the first time, all of the major broadcast networks used the same color scheme for the electoral map: states won by Republican nominee George W. Bush were colored red, and states won by Democratic nominee Al Gore were colored blue.
Although the assignment of colors to political parties is unofficial and informal, the media has come to represent the respective political parties using these colors.
After the 2000 election, the color red became associated with Republicans.
After the 2000 election , the color red became associated with Republicans.
After the 2000 election, the color red became associated with Republicans .
At the national level Republicans supported the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947, which gives workers the right not to participate in unions.
Republicans believe corporations should be able to establish their own employment practices, including benefits and wages, with the free market deciding the value of work.
Since the 1920s Republicans have generally been opposed by labor union organizations and members.
Modern Republicans at the state level generally support various "right to work" laws that weaken unions.
Republicans believe corporations should be able to establish their own employment practices, including benefits and wages, with the free market deciding the value of work.
Republican President Richard Nixon was responsible for establishing the Environmental Protection Agency in 1970.
Republican President Theodore Roosevelt was a prominent conservationist whose policies eventually led to the creation of the National Park Service.
Historically, progressive leaders in the Republican party supported environmental protection.
Since then Republicans have increasingly taken positions against environmental regulation.
However, this position has changed since the 1980s and the administration of President Ronald Reagan , who labeled environmental regulations a burden on the economy.
The New Deal coalition of Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt controlled American politics for most of the next three decades, excepting the two-term presidency of Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower.
After Roosevelt took office in 1933, New Deal legislation sailed through Congress and the economy moved sharply upward from its nadir in early 1933. However, long-term unemployment remained a drag until 1940.
Blacks moved into the Democratic Party during the New Deal era; they could vote in the North but not in the South.
However, long-term unemployment remained a drag until 1940.
After the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the core base shifted considerably, with the Southern United States becoming more reliably Republican in presidential politics, and the Northeastern United States becoming more reliably Democratic, especially since 1992.
Historically speaking, the Republican base initially consisted of northern white Protestants and African-Americans nationwide, with the first Presidential candidate, John C. Fremont, receiving almost no votes in the South.
After the Civil Rights Act of 1964 , the core base shifted considerably, with the Southern United States becoming more reliably Republican in presidential politics, and the Northeastern United States becoming more reliably Democratic, especially since 1992.
Every Northeastern state except for New Hampshire has voted Democratic six straight elections or more.
This trend continued into the 20th century, with 1944 Republican presidential candidate Thomas E. Dewey having only 10% of his popular votes in the South.
After the Civil Rights Act of 1964 , the core base shifted considerably, with the Southern United States becoming more reliably Republican in presidential politics, and the Northeastern United States becoming more reliably Democratic, especially since 1992.
Historically speaking, the Republican base initially consisted of northern white Protestants and African-Americans nationwide, with the first Presidential candidate, John C. Fremont, receiving almost no votes in the South.
This trend continued into the 20th century, with 1944 Republican presidential candidate Thomas E. Dewey having only 10% of his popular votes in the South.
Every Northeastern state except for New Hampshire has voted Democratic six straight elections or more.
Historically speaking, the Republican base initially consisted of northern white Protestants and African-Americans nationwide, with the first Presidential candidate, John C. Fremont, receiving almost no votes in the South.
Since the 1990s , a significant part of the US conservative movement has worked to challenge climate science and climate policy.
While the scientific consensus for human activity created climate-warming is around 97%, according to a Pew Research survey, 44% of American adults in the general public acknowledged human activity as the cause of climate change, and 23% of Republicans.
While the scientific consensus for human activity created climate-warming is around 97%, according to a Pew Research survey, 44% of American adults in the general public acknowledged human activity as the cause of climate change, and 23% of Republicans.
Republicans are divided over acknowledging the human causes of climate change and global warming.
Republican views on global warming and scientific consensus on climate change show a similar trend, and few Republican lawmakers support climate policy that builds on international consensus.
The Old Right sharply attacked the "Second New Deal" and said it represented class warfare and socialism.
Roosevelt was reelected in a landslide in 1936 but everything went awry in his second term, as the economy plunged, strikes soared, and FDR failed to take control of the Supreme Court or to purge the Southern conservatives in the Democratic party.
Roosevelt was reelected in a landslide in 1936 but everything went awry in his second term, as the economy plunged, strikes soared, and FDR failed to take control of the Supreme Court or to purge the Southern conservatives in the Democratic party.
Roosevelt won a third and fourth term in 1940 and 1944.
The Old Right sharply attacked the "Second New Deal" and said it represented class warfare and socialism .
In 2006 then California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger broke from Republican orthodoxy to sign several bills imposing caps on carbon emissions in California.
George W. Bush , then U.S. President, opposed mandatory caps at a national level.
Bush's decision not to regulate carbon dioxide as a pollutant was challenged in the supreme court by 12 states, with the court ruling against the Bush administration in 2007 .
Bush also publicly opposed ratification of the Kyoto Protocols which sought to limit greenhouse gas emissions and thereby combat climate change, a decision heavily criticized by climate scientists.
Bush also publicly opposed ratification of the Kyoto Protocols which sought to limit greenhouse gas emissions and thereby combat climate change, a decision heavily criticized by climate scientists.
In Vermont , Jim Jeffords, a Republican Senator became an independent in 2001 due to growing disagreement with President Bush and the party leadership.
The moderates tend to dominate the party in New England, and used to be well represented in all states.
Republican conservatives are strongest in the South, Mountain West and Midwest , where they draw support from social conservatives.
In addition, moderate Republicans have recently held the governorships in several New England States, while Lincoln Chafee, a former moderate Republican senator is an independent-turned-Democrat former governor of Rhode Island .
Former Senator Olympia Snowe and current Senator Susan Collins , both of Maine, and former Senator Scott Brown of Massachusetts are notable moderate Republicans from New England.
In Vermont, Jim Jeffords , a Republican Senator became an independent in 2001 due to growing disagreement with President Bush and the party leadership.
In addition, moderate Republicans have recently held the governorships in several New England States, while Lincoln Chafee, a former moderate Republican senator is an independent-turned-Democrat former governor of Rhode Island.
Former Senator Olympia Snowe and current Senator Susan Collins, both of Maine, and former Senator Scott Brown of Massachusetts are notable moderate Republicans from New England.
Republican conservatives are strongest in the South, Mountain West and Midwest , where they draw support from social conservatives.
The moderates tend to dominate the party in New England, and used to be well represented in all states.
Senator John McCain has also previously proposed laws regulating carbon emissions , such as the McCain-Lieberman Climate Stewardship Act,
Some Republican candidates have supported development of alternative fuels in order to achieve energy independence for the US.
Senator John McCain has also previously proposed laws regulating carbon emissions, such as the McCain-Lieberman Climate Stewardship Act, although his position on climate change is unusual among high-ranking party members.
The Republican party rejects cap-and-trade policy to limit carbon emissions.
Some Republicans support increased oil drilling in protected areas such as the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge , a position that has drawn criticism from activists.
Eisenhower had defeated conservative leader Senator Robert A. Taft for the 1952 nomination, but conservatives dominated the domestic policies of the Eisenhower Administration.
After 1970 , the liberal wing faded away.
Eisenhower had defeated conservative leader Senator Robert A. Taft for the 1952 nomination, but conservatives dominated the domestic policies of the Eisenhower Administration.
The second half of the 20th century saw election or succession of Republican presidents Dwight D. Eisenhower, Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford, Ronald Reagan, George H. W. Bush and George W. Bush.
Voters liked Ike much more than they liked the GOP , and he proved unable to shift the party to a more moderate position.
Republicans are divided on how to confront illegal immigration between a platform that allows for migrant workers and a path to citizenship (supported by establishment types), versus a position focused on securing the border and deporting illegal immigrants (supported by populists).
In 2006 , the White House supported and Republican-led Senate passed comprehensive immigration reform that would eventually allow millions of illegal immigrants to become citizens, but the House, also led by Republicans, did not advance the bill.
Republicans are divided on how to confront illegal immigration between a platform that allows for migrant workers and a path to citizenship (supported by establishment types), versus a position focused on securing the border and deporting illegal immigrants (supported by populists).
Republicans are divided on how to confront illegal immigration between a platform that allows for migrant workers and a path to citizenship (supported by establishment types), versus a position focused on securing the border and deporting illegal immigrants (supported by populists).
In general, Republican thinking on defense and international relations is heavily influenced by the theories of neorealism and realism , characterizing conflicts between nations as struggles between faceless forces of international structure, as opposed to being the result of the ideas and actions of individual leaders.
Some in the Republican Party support unilateralism on issues of national security, believing in the ability and right of the United States to act without external support in matters of its national defense.
Some in the Republican Party support unilateralism on issues of national security, believing in the ability and right of the United States to act without external support in matters of its national defense.
The realist school's influence shows in Reagan's Evil Empire stance on the Soviet Union and George W. Bush's Axis of evil .
Ever since he left office in 1989 , Reagan has been the iconic Republican; and Republican presidential candidates frequently claim to share his views and aim to establish themselves and their policies as the more appropriate heir to his legacy.
However, the Republican presidential candidate won a majority of the popular vote only in 2004 , while coming in second in 1992, 1996, 2000, 2008 and 2012.
However, Gingrich was unable to deliver on most of its promises, and after the impeachment of President Bill Clinton in 1998 and subsequent Republican losses in the House, he resigned.
Ever since he left office in 1989, Reagan has been the iconic Republican; and Republican presidential candidates frequently claim to share his views and aim to establish themselves and their policies as the more appropriate heir to his legacy.
The Senate majority lasted until 2001, when the Senate became split evenly but was regained in the 2002 elections .
Both Republican majorities in the House and Senate were held until the Democrats regained control in the mid-term elections of 2006 .
The Republican Party has since been defined by social conservatism, a preemptive war foreign policy intended to defeat terrorism and promote global democracy, a more powerful executive branch, supply side economics, support for gun ownership, and deregulation.
The Republican Party has since been defined by social conservatism, a preemptive war foreign policy intended to defeat terrorism and promote global democracy, a more powerful executive branch, supply side economics, support for gun ownership, and deregulation.
Since 1976 , liberalism has virtually faded out of the Republican Party, apart from a few Northeastern holdouts.
Before 1932 leading progressive Republicans included Theodore Roosevelt , Robert M. La Follette Sr., Charles Evan Hughes, Hiram Johnson, William Borah, George W. Norris, Hiram Johnson, and Fiorello La Guardia.
Historically, the Republican Party has included a liberal wing made up of individuals who, like members of the liberal wing of the Democratic Party, believe in the power of government to improve people's lives .
Prominent liberal Republicans, 1936 to the 1970s, included Alf Landon , Wendell Willkie, Earl Warren, Thomas Dewey, Prescott Bush, Nelson Rockefeller, Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., George W. Romney, William Scranton, Charles Mathias, Lowell Weicker, and Jacob Javits.
Prominent liberal Republicans, 1936 to the 1970s, included Alf Landon, Wendell Willkie, Earl Warren, Thomas Dewey, Prescott Bush, Nelson Rockefeller, Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., George W. Romney, William Scranton, Charles Mathias, Lowell Weicker, and Jacob Javits.
Since 1976, liberalism has virtually faded out of the Republican Party, apart from a few Northeastern holdouts.
Prominent liberal Republicans, 1936 to the 1970s, included Alf Landon, Wendell Willkie, Earl Warren, Thomas Dewey, Prescott Bush, Nelson Rockefeller , Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., George W. Romney, William Scranton, Charles Mathias, Lowell Weicker, and Jacob Javits.
Since 1976 , liberalism has virtually faded out of the Republican Party, apart from a few Northeastern holdouts.
Before 1932 leading progressive Republicans included Theodore Roosevelt , Robert M. La Follette Sr., Charles Evan Hughes, Hiram Johnson, William Borah, George W. Norris, Hiram Johnson, and Fiorello La Guardia.
Historically, the Republican Party has included a liberal wing made up of individuals who, like members of the liberal wing of the Democratic Party, believe in the power of government to improve people's lives .
However, libertarians and libertarian-leaning conservatives increasingly found fault with what they saw as Republicans' restricting of vital civil liberties while corporate welfare and the national debt hiked considerably under Bush's tenure .
For example, Doug Bandow, former Special Assistant to President Ronald Reagan , criticized in The American Conservative how many Republican defenders of Bush thought that opposition to any Bush "decision is treason" as well as how many Bush defenders charged "critics with a lack of patriotism".
For example, Doug Bandow , former Special Assistant to President Ronald Reagan, criticized in The American Conservative how many Republican defenders of Bush thought that opposition to any Bush "decision is treason" as well as how many Bush defenders charged "critics with a lack of patriotism".
In contrast, some social conservatives expressed dissatisfaction with the party's support for economic policies that they saw as sometimes in conflict with their moral values.
In March 2013 , National Committee Chairman Reince Priebus gave a stinging report on the party's failures in 2012, calling on Republicans to reinvent themselves and officially endorse immigration reform.
In March 2013, National Committee Chairman Reince Priebus gave a stinging report on the party's failures in 2012, calling on Republicans to reinvent themselves and officially endorse immigration reform.
In March 2013, National Committee Chairman Reince Priebus gave a stinging report on the party's failures in 2012, calling on Republicans to reinvent themselves and officially endorse immigration reform.
In March 2013, National Committee Chairman Reince Priebus gave a stinging report on the party's failures in 2012, calling on Republicans to reinvent themselves and officially endorse immigration reform .
He proposed 219 reforms that included a $10 million marketing campaign to reach women, minorities and gays as well as setting a shorter, more controlled primary season and creating better data collection facilities.
With a majority of Republicans and Republican-leaning independents under the age of 49 supporting legal recognition of same-sex marriages versus the opposition remaining from those over 50, the issue remains a particular divide within the Party.
Former House Speaker Newt Gingrich has remarked that the "Party is going to be torn on this issue" with some constituents "going to flake off".
With a majority of Republicans and Republican-leaning independents under the age of 49 supporting legal recognition of same-sex marriages versus the opposition remaining from those over 50, the issue remains a particular divide within the Party.
Former House Speaker Newt Gingrich has remarked that the "Party is going to be torn on this issue" with some constituents "going to flake off".
A Reuters/Ipsos survey from April 2015 found that 68% of Americans overall would attend the same-sex wedding of a loved one, with 56% of Republicans agreeing.
The Republican candidate for President in 2012, Mitt Romney, lost to incumbent President Barack Obama , the fifth time in six elections the Republican candidate received fewer votes than his Democratic counterpart.
The Republican candidate for President in 2012, Mitt Romney , lost to incumbent President Barack Obama, the fifth time in six elections the Republican candidate received fewer votes than his Democratic counterpart.
The Republican candidate for President in 2012, Mitt Romney, lost to incumbent President Barack Obama, the fifth time in six elections the Republican candidate received fewer votes than his Democratic counterpart.
In the aftermath of the loss, some prominent Republicans spoke out against their own party ; for example, 1996 Republican Presidential candidate and longtime former Senator Bob Dole said, "today's GOP members are too conservative and overly partisan.
The National Republican Congressional Committee (NRCC) assists in House races, while the National Republican Senatorial Committee (NRSC) does so in Senate races.
The National Republican Congressional Committee (NRCC) assists in House races, while the National Republican Senatorial Committee (NRSC) does so in Senate races.
They each raise over $100 million per election cycle, and play important roles in recruiting strong state candidates, while the Republican Governors Association (RGA) assists in state gubernatorial races; in 2014 it is chaired by Governor Chris Christie of New Jersey.
They each raise over $100 million per election cycle, and play important roles in recruiting strong state candidates, while the Republican Governors Association (RGA) assists in state gubernatorial races; in 2014 it is chaired by Governor Chris Christie of New Jersey .
They each raise over $100 million per election cycle, and play important roles in recruiting strong state candidates, while the Republican Governors Association (RGA) assists in state gubernatorial races; in 2014 it is chaired by Governor Chris Christie of New Jersey.
Being primarily an island, Manhattan is linked to New York City's outer boroughs by numerous bridges, of various sizes.
Manhattan has fixed highway connections with New Jersey to its west by way of the George Washington Bridge , the Holland Tunnel, and the Lincoln Tunnel, and to three of the four other New York City boroughs—the Bronx to the northeast, and Brooklyn and Queens (both on Long Island) to the east and south.
Its only direct connection with the fifth New York City borough, Staten Island, is the Staten Island Ferry across New York Harbor, which is free of charge.
The ferry terminal is located near Battery Park at Manhattan's southern tip.
It is also possible to travel on land to Staten Island by way of Brooklyn, via the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge .
The Lincoln Tunnel, which carries 120,000 vehicles a day under the Hudson River between New Jersey and Midtown Manhattan, is the busiest vehicular tunnel in the world.
The Lincoln Tunnel, which carries 120,000 vehicles a day under the Hudson River between New Jersey and Midtown Manhattan, is the busiest vehicular tunnel in the world.
The Holland Tunnel , connecting Lower Manhattan to Jersey City, New Jersey, was the world's first mechanically ventilated vehicular tunnel.
The Queens-Midtown Tunnel, built to relieve congestion on the bridges connecting Manhattan with Queens and Brooklyn, was the largest non-federal project in its time when it was completed in 1940; President Franklin D. Roosevelt was the first person to drive through it.
The Queens-Midtown Tunnel, built to relieve congestion on the bridges connecting Manhattan with Queens and Brooklyn, was the largest non-federal project in its time when it was completed in 1940 ; President Franklin D. Roosevelt was the first person to drive through it.
Manhattan has three public heliports: the East 34th Street Heliport (also known as the Atlantic Metroport) at East 34th Street, owned by New York City and run by the New York City Economic Development Corporation ("NYCEDC")); the Port Authority Downtown Manhattan/Wall Street Heliport, owned by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey and run by the NYCEDC; and the West 30th Street Heliport, a privately owned heliport that is owned by the Hudson River Park Trust.
Manhattan has three public heliports: the East 34th Street Heliport (also known as the Atlantic Metroport) at East 34th Street, owned by New York City and run by the New York City Economic Development Corporation ("NYCEDC")); the Port Authority Downtown Manhattan/Wall Street Heliport, owned by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey and run by the NYCEDC; and the West 30th Street Heliport, a privately owned heliport that is owned by the Hudson River Park Trust.
Manhattan has three public heliports: the East 34th Street Heliport (also known as the Atlantic Metroport) at East 34th Street, owned by New York City and run by the New York City Economic Development Corporation ("NYCEDC")); the Port Authority Downtown Manhattan/Wall Street Heliport, owned by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey and run by the NYCEDC; and the West 30th Street Heliport , a privately owned heliport that is owned by the Hudson River Park Trust.
US Helicopter offered regularly scheduled helicopter service connecting the Downtown Manhattan Heliport with John F. Kennedy International Airport in Queens and Newark Liberty International Airport in New Jersey, before going out of business in 2009.
US Helicopter offered regularly scheduled helicopter service connecting the Downtown Manhattan Heliport with John F. Kennedy International Airport in Queens and Newark Liberty International Airport in New Jersey, before going out of business in 2009.
Gas and electric service is provided by Consolidated Edison to all of Manhattan.
Con Edison's electric business traces its roots back to Thomas Edison's Edison Electric Illuminating Company , the first investor-owned electric utility.
The company started service on September 4, 1882 , using one generator to provide 110 volts direct current (DC) to 59 customers with 800 light bulbs, in a one-square-mile area of Lower Manhattan from his Pearl Street Station.
Cable service is provided by Time Warner Cable and telephone service is provided by Verizon Communications, although AT&T is available as well.
Cable service is provided by Time Warner Cable and telephone service is provided by Verizon Communications , although AT&T is available as well.
Manhattan, surrounded by two brackish rivers, had a limited supply of fresh water.
To satisfy the growing population, the city of New York acquired land in Westchester County and constructed the old Croton Aqueduct system, which went into service in 1842 and was superseded by the new Croton Aqueduct, which opened in 1890, but this was interrupted in 2008 for the construction since underway of a US$3.2 billion water purification plant that can supply an estimated 290 million gallons daily when completed, representing almost a 20% addition to the city's availability of water, with this addition going to Manhattan and the Bronx.
To satisfy the growing population, the city of New York acquired land in Westchester County and constructed the old Croton Aqueduct system , which went into service in 1842 and was superseded by the new Croton Aqueduct, which opened in 1890, but this was interrupted in 2008 for the construction since underway of a US$3.2 billion water purification plant that can supply an estimated 290 million gallons daily when completed, representing almost a 20% addition to the city's availability of water, with this addition going to Manhattan and the Bronx.
Water comes to Manhattan through New York City Water Tunnel No. 1, Tunnel No. 2, and Tunnel No. 3 , completed in 1917, 1936, and (Manhattan's supply) 2013, respectively.
The New York City Department of Sanitation is responsible for garbage removal.
The bulk of the city's trash ultimately is disposed at mega-dumps in Pennsylvania, Virginia, South Carolina and Ohio (via transfer stations in New Jersey, Brooklyn and Queens) since the 2001 closure of the Fresh Kills Landfill on Staten Island.
The bulk of the city's trash ultimately is disposed at mega-dumps in Pennsylvania, Virginia, South Carolina and Ohio (via transfer stations in New Jersey, Brooklyn and Queens) since the 2001 closure of the Fresh Kills Landfill on Staten Island.
The bulk of the city's trash ultimately is disposed at mega-dumps in Pennsylvania, Virginia, South Carolina and Ohio (via transfer stations in New Jersey, Brooklyn and Queens) since the 2001 closure of the Fresh Kills Landfill on Staten Island.
Under the Köppen climate classification, using the 0 °C (32 °F) coldest month (January) isotherm, New York City including Manhattan itself experiences a humid subtropical climate (Cfa), and located at around 40°N latitude, is the northernmost major city on the North American continent with this categorization.
Central Park is the location of record for the borough's climatic data.
The city's long-term climate patterns are affected by the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation, a 70-year-long warming and cooling cycle in the Atlantic that influences the frequency and severity of hurricanes and coastal storms in the region.
Winters are cold and damp, and prevailing wind patterns that blow offshore minimize the moderating effects of the Atlantic Ocean; yet the Atlantic and the partial shielding from colder air by the Appalachians keep the city warmer in the winter than inland North American cities at similar or lesser latitudes, such as Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and Indianapolis, helping to moderate the amount of snow, which averages 25 inches (64 cm) each year.
A permanent European presence in New Netherland began in 1624 with the founding of a Dutch fur trading settlement on Governors Island .
A permanent European presence in New Netherland began in 1624 with the founding of a Dutch fur trading settlement on Governors Island.
In 1625 , construction was started on the citadel of Fort Amsterdam on Manhattan Island, later called New Amsterdam (Nieuw Amsterdam), in what is now Lower Manhattan.
According to a letter by Pieter Janszoon Schagen, Peter Minuit and Dutch colonists acquired Manhattan on May 24, 1626 from unnamed Native American people, which are believed to have been Canarsee Indians of the Lenape, in exchange for trade goods worth 60 guilders, often said to be worth US$24, although accounting for inflation, it actually amounts to around US$1,050 in 2014.
The 1625 establishment of Fort Amsterdam at the southern tip of Manhattan Island is recognized as the birth of New York City .
In 1647, Peter Stuyvesant was appointed as the last Dutch Director General of the colony.
New Amsterdam was formally incorporated as a city on February 2, 1653 .
In 1664, the English conquered New Netherland and renamed it "New York" after the English Duke of York and Albany, the future King James II.
In 1664, the English conquered New Netherland and renamed it " New York " after the English Duke of York and Albany, the future King James II.
In 1664, the English conquered New Netherland and renamed it " New York " after the English Duke of York and Albany, the future King James II.
Manhattan was at the heart of the New York Campaign, a series of major battles in the early American Revolutionary War.
Manhattan was at the heart of the New York Campaign, a series of major battles in the early American Revolutionary War .
The Continental Army was forced to abandon Manhattan after the Battle of Fort Washington on November 16, 1776 .
Manhattan was greatly damaged by the Great Fire of New York during the British military rule that followed.
British occupation lasted until November 25, 1783 , when George Washington returned to Manhattan, as the last British forces left the city.
New York was the first capital under the newly enacted Constitution of the United States, from March 4, 1789 , to August 12, 1790, at Federal Hall.
Federal Hall was also the site of where the United States Supreme Court met for the first time, the United States Bill of Rights were drafted and ratified, and where the Northwest Ordinance was adopted, establishing measures for adding new states to the Union.
New York was the first capital under the newly enacted Constitution of the United States, from March 4, 1789, to August 12, 1790, at Federal Hall .
From January 11, 1785, to the fall of 1788, New York City was the fifth of five capitals of the United States under the Articles of Confederation, with the Continental Congress meeting at New York City Hall (then at Fraunces Tavern).
From January 11, 1785, to the fall of 1788 , New York City was the fifth of five capitals of the United States under the Articles of Confederation, with the Continental Congress meeting at New York City Hall (then at Fraunces Tavern).
The city's strong commercial ties to the American South, its growing immigrant population (prior to then largely from Germany and Ireland; beginning in the late 1850s waves of Italian; and Central, and Eastern European Jews began flowing in en-masse), anger about conscription sizzled and resentment at those who could afford to pay $300 to avoid service, led to resentment against Lincoln's war policies, plus the racial element, fomented paranoia about free Blacks taking the poor immigrants' jobs, culminated in the three-day-long New York Draft Riots of July 1863.
The city's strong commercial ties to the American South , its growing immigrant population (prior to then largely from Germany and Ireland; beginning in the late 1850s waves of Italian; and Central, and Eastern European Jews began flowing in en-masse), anger about conscription sizzled and resentment at those who could afford to pay $300 to avoid service, led to resentment against Lincoln's war policies, plus the racial element, fomented paranoia about free Blacks taking the poor immigrants' jobs, culminated in the three-day-long New York Draft Riots of July 1863.
The city's strong commercial ties to the American South, its growing immigrant population (prior to then largely from Germany and Ireland; beginning in the late 1850s waves of Italian; and Central, and Eastern European Jews began flowing in en-masse), anger about conscription sizzled and resentment at those who could afford to pay $300 to avoid service, led to resentment against Lincoln's war policies, plus the racial element, fomented paranoia about free Blacks taking the poor immigrants' jobs, culminated in the three -day-long New York Draft Riots of July 1863.
The city's strong commercial ties to the American South, its growing immigrant population (prior to then largely from Germany and Ireland; beginning in the late 1850s waves of Italian; and Central, and Eastern European Jews began flowing in en-masse), anger about conscription sizzled and resentment at those who could afford to pay $300 to avoid service, led to resentment against Lincoln's war policies, plus the racial element, fomented paranoia about free Blacks taking the poor immigrants' jobs, culminated in the three-day-long New York Draft Riots of July 1863.
These intense war-time riots are counted among the worst incidents of civil disorder in American history, with an estimated 119 participants and passersby massacred.
In 1975, the team signed Pelé , officially recorded by FIFA as the world's greatest soccer player, to a $4.5 million contract, drawing a capacity crowd of 22,500 to watch him lead the team to a 2–0 victory.
The stadium was demolished in 2002 to make way for the $45 million, 4,754-seat Icahn Stadium, which includes an Olympic-standard 400-meter running track and, as part of Pele's and the Cosmos' legacy, includes a FIFA-approved floodlit soccer stadium that hosts matches between the 48 youth teams of a Manhattan soccer club.
In 1975, the team signed Pelé, officially recorded by FIFA as the world's greatest soccer player, to a $4.5 million contract, drawing a capacity crowd of 22,500 to watch him lead the team to a 2–0 victory.
The stadium was demolished in 2002 to make way for the $45 million, 4,754 -seat Icahn Stadium, which includes an Olympic-standard 400-meter running track and, as part of Pele's and the Cosmos' legacy, includes a FIFA-approved floodlit soccer stadium that hosts matches between the 48 youth teams of a Manhattan soccer club.
The Roosevelt Island Tramway, one of two commuter cable car systems in North America, whisks commuters between Roosevelt Island and Manhattan in less than five minutes , and has been serving the island since 1978.
The Roosevelt Island Tramway, one of two commuter cable car systems in North America, whisks commuters between Roosevelt Island and Manhattan in less than five minutes, and has been serving the island since 1978 .
The Staten Island Ferry, which runs 24 hours a day, 365 days a year, annually carries over 21 million passengers on the 5.2-mile (8.4 km) run between Manhattan and Staten Island.
The Staten Island Ferry, which runs 24 hours a day, 365 days a year , annually carries over 21 million passengers on the 5.2-mile (8.4 km) run between Manhattan and Staten Island.
The ferry has been fare-free since 1997 , when the then-50-cent fare was eliminated.
The metro region's commuter rail lines converge at Penn Station and Grand Central Terminal , on the west and east sides of Midtown Manhattan, respectively.
Amtrak provides inter-city passenger rail service from Penn Station to Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, D.C.; Upstate New York and New England; cross-Canadian border service to Toronto and Montreal ; and destinations in the Southern and Midwestern United States.
Amtrak provides inter-city passenger rail service from Penn Station to Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, D.C.; Upstate New York and New England; cross-Canadian border service to Toronto and Montreal; and destinations in the Southern and Midwestern United States.
About one-third of users of mass transit and two-thirds of railway passengers in the country live in New York and its suburbs.
The Commissioners' Plan of 1811 called for twelve numbered avenues running north and south roughly parallel to the shore of the Hudson River, each 100 feet (30 m)* wide, with First Avenue on the east side and Twelfth Avenue on the west side.
The numbered streets in Manhattan run east-west , and are generally 60 feet (18 m)
With each combined street and block adding up to about 260 feet (79 m), there are almost exactly 20 blocks per mile .
* wide, with First Avenue on the east side and Twelfth Avenue on the west side.
According to the original Commissioner's Plan, there were 155 numbered crosstown streets, but later the grid was extended up to the northernmost corner of Manhattan, where the last numbered street is 220th Street (Manhattan).
According to the original Commissioner's Plan, there were 155 numbered crosstown streets, but later the grid was extended up to the northernmost corner of Manhattan, where the last numbered street is 220th Street (Manhattan).
In much of Midtown Manhattan, Broadway runs at a diagonal to the grid, creating major named intersections at Union Square (Park Avenue South/Fourth Avenue and 14th Street), Madison Square (Fifth Avenue and 23rd Street), Herald Square (Sixth Avenue and 34th Street), Times Square (Seventh Avenue and 42nd Street), and Columbus Circle (Eighth Avenue/Central Park West and 59th Street).
Broadway is the most notable of many exceptions to the grid, starting at Bowling Green in Lower Manhattan and continuing north into the Bronx at Manhattan's northern tip.
Moreover, the numbering system continues even in The Bronx , north of Manhattan, despite the fact that the grid plan is not so regular there, and the last numbered street is 263rd Street.
only 4 crosstown roads for travel through Central Park, which is between 59th Street and 110th Street.
The congestion makes Manhattan's crosstown buses the perennial "winners" of the "Pokey Awards" for slowest service in New York City .
The trip is notoriously frustrating for drivers because of heavy congestion on narrow local streets laid out by the Commissioners' Plan of 1811, absence of express roads other than the Trans-Manhattan Expressway at the far north end of Manhattan Island, and only 4 crosstown roads for travel through Central Park, which is between 59th Street and 110th Street.
The trip is notoriously frustrating for drivers because of heavy congestion on narrow local streets laid out by the Commissioners' Plan of 1811 , absence of express roads other than the Trans-Manhattan Expressway at the far north end of Manhattan Island, and only 4 crosstown roads for travel through Central Park, which is between 59th Street and 110th Street.
The trip is notoriously frustrating for drivers because of heavy congestion on narrow local streets laid out by the Commissioners' Plan of 1811, absence of express roads other than the Trans-Manhattan Expressway at the far north end of Manhattan Island, and only 4 crosstown roads for travel through Central Park, which is between 59th Street and 110th Street .
Warren G. Harding was the most recent Republican presidential candidate to win a majority of the Manhattan vote, with 59.22% of the 1920 vote.
In the 2004 presidential election, Democrat John Kerry received 82.1% of the vote in Manhattan and Republican George W. Bush received 16.7 %.
In the 2004 presidential election, Democrat John Kerry received 82.1% of the vote in Manhattan and Republican George W. Bush received 16.7%.
The borough is the most important source of funding for presidential campaigns in the United States; in 2004, it was home to six of the top seven ZIP codes in the nation for political contributions.
The top ZIP code, 10021 on the Upper East Side, generated the most money for the United States presidential election for all presidential candidates, including both Kerry and Bush during the 2004 election.
The collapse of the Twin Towers caused extensive damage to other surrounding buildings and skyscrapers in Lower Manhattan, and resulted in the deaths of 2,606 people, in addition to those on the planes.
A memorial at the site was opened to the public on September 11, 2011 , and the museum opened in 2014.
However, many rescue workers and residents of the area developed several life-threatening illnesses that have led to some of their subsequent deaths.
A memorial at the site was opened to the public on September 11, 2011, and the museum opened in 2014 .
In 2014, the new One World Trade Center, at 1,776 feet (541 m)* and formerly known as the Freedom Tower, became the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere, while other skyscrapers were under construction at the site.
Starting in the mid-19th century, the United States became a magnet for immigrants seeking to escape poverty in their home countries. After arriving in New York, many new arrivals ended up living in squalor in the slums of the Five Points neighborhood, an area between Broadway and the Bowery, northeast of New York City Hall.
By the 1820s, the area was home to many gambling dens and brothels , and was known as a dangerous place to go.
After arriving in New York, many new arrivals ended up living in squalor in the slums of the Five Points neighborhood, an area between Broadway and the Bowery, northeast of New York City Hall .
In 1842, Charles Dickens visited the area and was appalled at the horrendous living conditions he had seen.
The area was so notorious that it even caught the attention of Abraham Lincoln, who visited the area before his Cooper Union speech in 1860 .
Manhattan is also home to some of the most extensive art collections in the world, both contemporary and historical, including the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA), the Frick Collection, the Whitney Museum of American Art, and the Frank Lloyd Wright-designed Guggenheim Museum.
Manhattan is also home to some of the most extensive art collections in the world, both contemporary and historical, including the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA), the Frick Collection, the Whitney Museum of American Art, and the Frank Lloyd Wright-designed Guggenheim Museum.
Manhattan is also home to some of the most extensive art collections in the world, both contemporary and historical, including the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA), the Frick Collection, the Whitney Museum of American Art, and the Frank Lloyd Wright-designed Guggenheim Museum .
its more than 200 art galleries that are home to modern art from both upcoming and established artists.
The Upper East Side has many art galleries, and the downtown neighborhood of Chelsea is known for its more than 200 art galleries that are home to modern art from both upcoming and established artists.
The phrase a New York minute is meant to convey a very short time , sometimes in hyperbolic form, as in "perhaps faster than you would believe is possible".
The term "melting pot" was first popularly coined to describe the densely populated immigrant neighborhoods on the Lower East Side in Israel Zangwill's play The Melting Pot, which was an adaptation of William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet set by Zangwill in New York City in 1908 .
The term "melting pot" was first popularly coined to describe the densely populated immigrant neighborhoods on the Lower East Side in Israel Zangwill's play The Melting Pot, which was an adaptation of William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet set by Zangwill in New York City in 1908.
Jazz musicians adopted the term to refer to the city as the world's jazz capital, and a 1970s ad campaign by the New York Convention and Visitors Bureau helped popularize the term.
On October 29 and 30, 2012 , Hurricane Sandy caused extensive destruction in the borough, ravaging portions of Lower Manhattan with record-high storm surge from New York Harbor, severe flooding, and high winds, causing power outages for hundreds of thousands of city residents and leading to gasoline shortages and disruption of mass transit systems.
On October 29 and 30, 2012, Hurricane Sandy caused extensive destruction in the borough, ravaging portions of Lower Manhattan with record-high storm surge from New York Harbor, severe flooding, and high winds, causing power outages for hundreds of thousands of city residents and leading to gasoline shortages and disruption of mass transit systems.
On October 29 and 30, 2012, Hurricane Sandy caused extensive destruction in the borough, ravaging portions of Lower Manhattan with record-high storm surge from New York Harbor, severe flooding, and high winds, causing power outages for hundreds of thousands of city residents and leading to gasoline shortages and disruption of mass transit systems.
On October 29 and 30, 2012, Hurricane Sandy caused extensive destruction in the borough, ravaging portions of Lower Manhattan with record-high storm surge from New York Harbor, severe flooding, and high winds, causing power outages for hundreds of thousands of city residents and leading to gasoline shortages and disruption of mass transit systems.
The storm and its profound impacts have prompted the discussion of constructing seawalls and other coastal barriers around the shorelines of the borough and the metropolitan area to minimize the risk of destructive consequences from another such event in the future.
The Bronx has the Yankees (American League) and Queens has the Mets (National League) of Major League Baseball.
The Bronx has the Yankees (American League) and Queens has the Mets (National League) of Major League Baseball.
The team moved to the Polo Grounds with the 1913 season, where they were officially christened the New York Yankees, remaining there until they moved across the Harlem River in 1923 to Yankee Stadium.
The New York Mets played in the Polo Grounds in 1962 and 1963, their first two seasons, before Shea Stadium was completed in 1964 .
After the Mets departed, the Polo Grounds was demolished in April 1964, replaced by public housing .
The first national college-level basketball championship, the National Invitation Tournament , was held in New York in 1938 and remains in the city.
The New York Knicks started play in 1946 as one of the National Basketball Association's original teams, playing their first home games at the 69th Regiment Armory, before making Madison Square Garden their permanent home.
The first national college-level basketball championship, the National Invitation Tournament, was held in New York in 1938 and remains in the city.
The New York Knicks started play in 1946 as one of the National Basketball Association's original teams, playing their first home games at the 69th Regiment Armory , before making Madison Square Garden their permanent home.
Early in the 19th century, landfill was used to expand Lower Manhattan from the natural Hudson shoreline at Greenwich Street to West Street.
When building the World Trade Center in 1968, 1.2 million cubic yards (917,000 m³) of material was excavated from the site.
Rather than dumping the spoil at sea or in landfills, the fill material was used to expand the Manhattan shoreline across West Street, creating Battery Park City .
The result was a 700-foot (210-m) extension into the river, running six blocks or 1,484 feet (452 m), covering 92 acres (37 ha)*, providing a 1.2-mile (1.9 km) riverfront esplanade and over 30 acres (12 ha)* of parks.
When building the World Trade Center in 1968 , 1.2 million cubic yards (917,000 m³) of material was excavated from the site.
The skyscraper, which has shaped Manhattan's distinctive skyline, has been closely associated with New York City 's identity since the end of the 19th century.
The nearby Park Row Building , with its 29 stories standing 391 feet (119 m)* high took the title in 1899.
From 1890 to 1973, the world's tallest building was in Manhattan (with a gap between 1901 and 1908, when the title was held by Philadelphia City Hall ), with nine different buildings holding the title.
The nearby Park Row Building, with its 29 stories standing 391 feet (119 m)
From 1890 to 1973, the world's tallest building was in Manhattan (with a gap between 1901 and 1908 , when the title was held by Philadelphia City Hall), with nine different buildings holding the title.
Others are acronyms, such as TriBeCa (for " TRIangle BElow CAnal Street ") or SoHo ("SOuth of HOuston"), or the far more recent vintages NoLIta ("NOrth of Little ITAly").
Others are acronyms, such as TriBeCa (for "TRIangle BElow CAnal Street") or SoHo (" SOuth of HOuston "), or the far more recent vintages NoLIta ("NOrth of Little ITAly").
Harlem is a name from the Dutch colonial era after Haarlem , a city in the Netherlands.
Alphabet City comprises Avenues A, B, C, and D , to which its name refers.
Some have simple folkloric names, such as Hell's Kitchen , alongside their more official but lesser used title (in this case, Clinton).
As the stock market soared in the days before the Wall Street Crash of 1929 , two developers publicly competed for the crown.
At 927 feet (283 m), 40 Wall Street, completed in May 1930 in an astonishing eleven months as the headquarters of the Bank of Manhattan, seemed to have secured the title.
At 927 feet (283 m), 40 Wall Street , completed in May 1930 in an astonishing eleven months as the headquarters of the Bank of Manhattan, seemed to have secured the title.
At Lexington Avenue and 42nd Street, auto executive Walter Chrysler and his architect William Van Alen developed plans to build the structure's trademark 185-foot (56 m) high spire in secret, pushing the Chrysler Building to 1,046 feet (319 m) and making it the tallest in the world when it was completed in 1929.
Both buildings were soon surpassed, with the May 1931 completion of the 102-story Empire State Building with its Art Deco tower soaring 1,250 feet (380 m) to the top of the building.
In 1961, the Pennsylvania Railroad unveiled plans to tear down the old Penn Station and replace it with a new Madison Square Garden and office building complex.
Organized protests were aimed at preserving the McKim, Mead & White-designed structure completed in 1910, widely considered a masterpiece of the Beaux-Arts style and one of the architectural jewels of New York City.
Organized protests were aimed at preserving the McKim, Mead & White-designed structure completed in 1910 , widely considered a masterpiece of the Beaux-Arts style and one of the architectural jewels of New York City.
The loss of Penn Station—called "an act of irresponsible public vandalism" by historian Lewis Mumford—led directly to the enactment in 1965 of a local law establishing the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission , which is responsible for preserving the "city's historic, aesthetic, and cultural heritage".
The loss of Penn Station—called "an act of irresponsible public vandalism" by historian Lewis Mumford—led directly to the enactment in 1965 of a local law establishing the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission, which is responsible for preserving the "city's historic, aesthetic, and cultural heritage".
Central Park is bordered on the north by West 110th Street , on the west by Eighth Avenue, on the south by West 59th Street, and on the east by Fifth Avenue.
The park was designed by Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux .
The 843 -acre (3.41 km2) park offers extensive walking tracks, two ice-skating rinks, a wildlife sanctuary, and grassy areas used for various sporting pursuits, as well as playgrounds for children.
The 6 -mile (9.7 km) road circling the park is popular with joggers, bicyclists and inline skaters, especially on weekends and in the evenings after 7:00 pm, when automobile traffic is banned.
The 6-mile (9.7 km) road circling the park is popular with joggers, bicyclists and inline skaters, especially on weekends and in the evenings after 7:00 pm , when automobile traffic is banned.
Manhattan is the economic engine of New York City, with its 2.3 million workers in 2007 drawn from the entire New York metropolitan area accounting for almost two-thirds of all jobs in New York City.
Manhattan is the economic engine of New York City, with its 2.3 million workers in 2007 drawn from the entire New York metropolitan area accounting for almost two-thirds of all jobs in New York City.
Manhattan's workforce is overwhelmingly focused on white collar professions, with manufacturing nearly extinct.
Manhattan is the economic engine of New York City, with its 2.3 million workers in 2007 drawn from the entire New York metropolitan area accounting for almost two-thirds of all jobs in New York City.
Manhattan is the economic engine of New York City, with its 2.3 million workers in 2007 drawn from the entire New York metropolitan area accounting for almost two-thirds of all jobs in New York City.
It has been widely believed that the depth to bedrock was the primary underlying reason for the clustering of skyscrapers in the Midtown and Financial District areas, and their absence over the intervening territory between these two areas.
Geologically, a predominant feature of the substrata of Manhattan is that the underlying bedrock base of the island rises considerably closer to the surface near Midtown Manhattan, dips down lower between 29th Street and Canal Street , then rises toward the surface again in Lower Manhattan.
However, research has shown that economic factors played a bigger part in the locations of these skyscrapers.
It has been widely believed that the depth to bedrock was the primary underlying reason for the clustering of skyscrapers in the Midtown and Financial District areas, and their absence over the intervening territory between these two areas.
Lucky Luciano established Cosa Nostra in Manhattan, forming alliances with other criminal enterprises, including the Jewish mob, led by Meyer Lansky , the leading Jewish gangster of that period.
As Italian immigration grew in the early 20th century many joined ethnic gangs, including Al Capone, who got his start in crime with the Five Points Gang .
Lucky Luciano established Cosa Nostra in Manhattan, forming alliances with other criminal enterprises, including the Jewish mob, led by Meyer Lansky, the leading Jewish gangster of that period.
From 1920– 1933 , Prohibition helped create a thriving black market in liquor, upon which the Mafia was quick to capitalize.
The Mafia (also known as Cosa Nostra ) first developed in the mid-19th century in Sicily and spread to the East Coast of the United States during the late 19th century following waves of Sicilian and Southern Italian emigration.
Robbery and burglary are down by more than 80% during the period, and auto theft has been reduced by more than 93%.
 Since 1990, crime in Manhattan has plummeted in all categories tracked by the CompStat profile.
In the seven major crime categories tracked by the system, overall crime has declined by more than 75% since 1990, and year-to-date statistics through May 2009 show continuing declines.
Robbery and burglary are down by more than 80% during the period, and auto theft has been reduced by more than 93% .
A borough that saw 503 murders in 1990 has seen a drop of nearly 88% to 62 in 2008.
By 1929 , stricter fire codes and the increased use of elevators in residential buildings, were the impetus behind a new housing code that effectively ended the tenement as a form of new construction, though many tenement buildings survive today on the East Side of the borough.
Tenements were usually five-stories high, constructed on the then-typical 25x100 lots, with "cockroach landlords" exploiting the new immigrants.
The rise of immigration near the turn of the 20th century left major portions of Manhattan, especially the Lower East Side , densely packed with recent arrivals, crammed into unhealthy and unsanitary housing.
Tenements were usually five-stories high, constructed on the then-typical 25x100 lots, with "cockroach landlords" exploiting the new immigrants.
Tenements were usually five-stories high, constructed on the then-typical 25x100 lots, with "cockroach landlords" exploiting the new immigrants.
There were 852,575 housing units in 2013 at an average density of 37,345 per square mile (14,419/km²).
As of 2003[update], only 20.3% of Manhattan residents lived in owner-occupied housing, the second-lowest rate of all counties in the nation, behind the Bronx.
There were 852,575 housing units in 2013 at an average density of 37,345 per square mile (14,419/km²).
Although the city of New York has the highest average cost for rent in the United States, it simultaneously hosts a higher average of income per capita.
The New York City Subway, the largest subway system in the world by number of stations, is the primary means of travel within the city, linking every borough except Staten Island .
Two multi-billion-dollar projects were completed in the mid-2010s, with the $1.4 billion Fulton Center having been completed in November 2014 and the $2.4 billion 7 Subway Extension having been completed in September 2015.
A second subway, the Port Authority Trans-Hudson (PATH) system, connects six stations in Manhattan to northern New Jersey .
Passengers pay fares with pay-per-ride MetroCards , which are valid on all city buses and subways, as well as on PATH trains.
There are 148 subway stations in Manhattan and four under construction, out of the 472 stations.
The New York City Department of City Planning projects that Manhattan's population will increase by 289,000 people between 2000 and 2030, an increase of 18.8% over the period, second only to Staten Island, while the rest of the city is projected to grow by 12.7% over the same period.
The New York City Department of City Planning projects that Manhattan's population will increase by 289,000 people between 2000 and 2030, an increase of 18.8 % over the period, second only to Staten Island, while the rest of the city is projected to grow by 12.7% over the same period.
The New York City Department of City Planning projects that Manhattan's population will increase by 289,000 people between 2000 and 2030 , an increase of 18.8% over the period, second only to Staten Island, while the rest of the city is projected to grow by 12.7% over the same period.
The New York City Department of City Planning projects that Manhattan's population will increase by 289,000 people between 2000 and 2030, an increase of 18.8% over the period, second only to Staten Island, while the rest of the city is projected to grow by 12.7% over the same period.
The elderly population is forecast to grow by 57.9% , with the borough adding 108,000 persons ages 65 and over, compared to 44.2% growth citywide.
According to the 2009 American Community Survey, the average household size was 2.11 , and the average family size was 3.21.
Approximately 59.4% of the population over the age of 25 have a bachelor's degree or higher.
Approximately 27.0 % of the population is foreign-born, and 61.7% of the population over the age of 5 speak only English at home.
Approximately 27.0% of the population is foreign-born, and 6 1.7% of the population over the age of 5 speak only English at home .
People of Irish ancestry make up 7.8% of the population , while Italian Americans make up 6.8% of the population.
Manhattan is one of the highest-income places in the United States with a population greater than one million.
Manhattan is one of the highest-income places in the United States with a population greater than one million.
In 2012, The New York Times reported that "the income gap in Manhattan, already wider than almost anywhere else in the country, rivaled disparities in sub-Saharan Africa. ...
Manhattan is one of the highest-income places in the United States with a population greater than one million.
As of 2010[update], 59.98 % (902,267) of Manhattan residents, ages five and older, spoke only English at home, while 23.07% (347,033) spoke Spanish, 5.33% (80,240) Chinese, 2.03% (30,567) French, 0.78% (11,776) Japanese, 0.77% (11,517) Russian, 0.72% (10,788) Korean, 0.70% (10,496) German, 0.66% (9,868) Italian, 0.64% (9,555) Hebrew, and 0.48% (7,158) African languages as a main language.
As of 2010[update], 59.98% (902,267) of Manhattan residents, ages five and older, spoke only English at home, while 23.07% (347,033) spoke Spanish, 5.33% (80,240) Chinese, 2.03% (30,567) French, 0.78% (11,776) Japanese, 0.77% (11,517) Russian, 0.72% (10,788) Korean, 0.70% (10,496) German, 0.66% (9,868) Italian, 0.64% (9,555) Hebrew, and 0.48% (7,158) African languages as a main language.
As of 2010[update], 59.98% (902,267) of Manhattan residents, ages five and older, spoke only English at home, while 23.07% (347,033) spoke Spanish, 5.33% (80,240) Chinese, 2.03% (30,567) French, 0.78% (11,776) Japanese, 0.77% (11,517) Russian, 0.72% (10,788) Korean, 0.70% (10,496) German, 0.66% (9,868) Italian, 0.64% (9,555) Hebrew, and 0.48% (7,158) African languages as a main language.
In total, 40.02% (602,058) of Manhattan's population, ages 5 and older , spoke a language other than English at home.
In total, 40.02% (602,058) of Manhattan's population, ages 5 and older, spoke a language other than English at home.
Manhattan has many energy-efficient green office buildings , such as the Hearst Tower, the rebuilt 7 World Trade Center, and the Bank of America Tower—the first skyscraper designed to attain a Platinum LEED Certification.
Manhattan has many energy-efficient green office buildings, such as the Hearst Tower, the rebuilt 7 World Trade Center, and the Bank of America Tower —the first skyscraper designed to attain a Platinum LEED Certification.
Manhattan has many energy-efficient green office buildings, such as the Hearst Tower, the rebuilt 7 World Trade Center, and the Bank of America Tower—the first skyscraper designed to attain a Platinum LEED Certification .
Manhattan has many energy-efficient green office buildings, such as the Hearst Tower, the rebuilt 7 World Trade Center, and the Bank of America Tower—the first skyscraper designed to attain a Platinum LEED Certification.
Real estate is a major force in Manhattan's economy, and indeed the city's, as the total value of all New York City property was assessed at US$914.8 billion for the 2015 fiscal year.
Manhattan has perennially been home to some of the nation's, as well as the world's, most valuable real estate, including the Time Warner Center, which had the highest-listed market value in the city in 2006 at US$1.1 billion , to be subsequently surpassed in October 2014 by the Waldorf Astoria New York, which became the most expensive hotel ever sold after being purchased by the Anbang Insurance Group, based in China, for US$1.95 billion.
the Waldorf Astoria New York , which became the most expensive hotel ever sold after being purchased by the Anbang Insurance Group, based in China, for US$1.95 billion.
In 2014, Manhattan was home to six of the top ten zip codes in the United States by median housing price.
When 450 Park Avenue was sold on July 2, 2007 for US$510 million , about US$1,589 per square foot (US$17,104/m²), it broke the barely month-old record for an American office building of US$1,476 per square foot (US$15,887/m²) based on the sale of 660 Madison Avenue.
Manhattan is served by the major New York City dailies, including The New York Times , New York Daily News, and New York Post, which are all headquartered in the borough.
The New York Amsterdam News, based in Harlem , is one of the leading African American weekly newspapers in the United States.
The nation's largest newspaper by circulation, The Wall Street Journal , is also based there.
Other daily newspapers include AM New York and The Villager .
The four major American broadcast networks, ABC, NBC, CBS, and Fox , as well as Univision, are all headquartered in Manhattan, as are many cable channels, including MSNBC, MTV, Fox News, HBO and Comedy Central.
In 1971 , WLIB became New York's first black-owned radio station and the crown jewel of Inner City Broadcasting Corporation.
WLIB began broadcasts for the African-American community in 1949 and regularly interviewed civil rights leaders like Malcolm X and aired live broadcasts from conferences of the NAACP.
Influential WQHT , also known as Hot 97, claims to be the premier hip-hop station in the United States.
WNYC , comprising an AM and FM signal, has the largest public radio audience in the nation and is the most-listened to commercial or non-commercial radio station in Manhattan.
Some of the best-known New York City public high schools, such as Beacon High School , Stuyvesant High School, Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School, High School of Fashion Industries, Eleanor Roosevelt High School, NYC Lab School, Manhattan Center for Science and Mathematics, Hunter College High School and High School for Math, Science and Engineering at City College are located in Manhattan.
Bard High School Early College , a hybrid school created by Bard College, serves students from around the city.
Some of the best-known New York City public high schools, such as Beacon High School, Stuyvesant High School, Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School, High School of Fashion Industries, Eleanor Roosevelt High School , NYC Lab School, Manhattan Center for Science and Mathematics, Hunter College High School and High School for Math, Science and Engineering at City College are located in Manhattan.
Some of the best-known New York City public high schools, such as Beacon High School, Stuyvesant High School, Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School, High School of Fashion Industries, Eleanor Roosevelt High School, NYC Lab School, Manhattan Center for Science and Mathematics, Hunter College High School and High School for Math, Science and Engineering at City College are located in Manhattan.
Some of the best-known New York City public high schools, such as Beacon High School, Stuyvesant High School, Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School, High School of Fashion Industries, Eleanor Roosevelt High School, NYC Lab School, Manhattan Center for Science and Mathematics, Hunter College High School and High School for Math, Science and Engineering at City College are located in Manhattan.
Many prestigious private prep schools are located in Manhattan, including the Upper East Side's Brearley School , Dalton School, Browning School, Spence School, Chapin School, Nightingale-Bamford School, Convent of the Sacred Heart, Hewitt School, Saint David's School, and Loyola School, along with the Upper West Side's Collegiate School and Trinity School.
The borough is also home to two private schools that are known as the most diverse in the nation, Manhattan Country School and United Nations International School .
The prestigious Regis High School , on the Upper East Side, is the only all-scholarship Catholic high school for boys in the country.
Manhattan has the only official Italian American school in the U.S., La Scuola d'Italia .
Manhattan is often described as the cultural and financial capital of the world and hosts the United Nations Headquarters.
Manhattan is often described as the cultural and financial capital of the world and hosts the United Nations Headquarters.
Anchored by Wall Street in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan, New York City has been called both the most economically powerful city and the leading financial center of the world, and Manhattan is home to the world's two largest stock exchanges by total market capitalization: the New York Stock Exchange and NASDAQ.
Historically documented to have been purchased by Dutch colonists from Native Americans in 1626, for the equivalent of US$1111, Manhattan real estate has since become among the most expensive in the world, with the value of Manhattan Island, including real estate, estimated to exceed US$3 trillion in 2013.
The rate of immigration from Europe grew steeply after the Civil War , and New York became the first stop for millions seeking a new life in the United States, a role acknowledged by the dedication of the Statue of Liberty on October 28, 1886, a gift from the people of France.
The rate of immigration from Europe grew steeply after the Civil War, and New York became the first stop for millions seeking a new life in the United States, a role acknowledged by the dedication of the Statue of Liberty on October 28, 1886, a gift from the people of France.
The rate of immigration from Europe grew steeply after the Civil War, and New York became the first stop for millions seeking a new life in the United States, a role acknowledged by the dedication of the Statue of Liberty on October 28, 1886 , a gift from the people of France.
The rate of immigration from Europe grew steeply after the Civil War, and New York became the first stop for millions seeking a new life in the United States, a role acknowledged by the dedication of the Statue of Liberty on October 28, 1886, a gift from the people of France .
The new European immigration brought further social upheaval .
In 1874 , the western portion of the present Bronx County was transferred to New York County from Westchester County, and in 1895 the remainder of the present Bronx County was annexed.
In 1883 , the opening of the Brooklyn Bridge established a road connection to Brooklyn, across the East River.
In 1898 , when New York City consolidated with three neighboring counties to form "the City of Greater New York", Manhattan and the Bronx, though still one county, were established as two separate boroughs.
In 1898, when New York City consolidated with three neighboring counties to form "the City of Greater New York", Manhattan and the Bronx , though still one county, were established as two separate boroughs.
On January 1, 1914 , the New York state legislature created Bronx County, and New York County was reduced to its present boundaries.
In 1874 , the western portion of the present Bronx County was transferred to New York County from Westchester County, and in 1895 the remainder of the present Bronx County was annexed.
In 1883 , the opening of the Brooklyn Bridge established a road connection to Brooklyn, across the East River.
In 1898 , when New York City consolidated with three neighboring counties to form "the City of Greater New York", Manhattan and the Bronx, though still one county, were established as two separate boroughs.
In 1898, when New York City consolidated with three neighboring counties to form "the City of Greater New York", Manhattan and the Bronx , though still one county, were established as two separate boroughs.
On January 1, 1914 , the New York state legislature created Bronx County, and New York County was reduced to its present boundaries.
The construction of the New York City Subway, which opened in 1904 , helped bind the new city together, as did additional bridges to Brooklyn.
The construction of the New York City Subway , which opened in 1904, helped bind the new city together, as did additional bridges to Brooklyn.
In the 1920s, Manhattan experienced large arrivals of African-Americans as part of the Great Migration from the southern United States, and the Harlem Renaissance, part of a larger boom time in the Prohibition era that included new skyscrapers competing for the skyline.
In the 1920s, Manhattan experienced large arrivals of African-Americans as part of the Great Migration from the southern United States, and the Harlem Renaissance, part of a larger boom time in the Prohibition era that included new skyscrapers competing for the skyline.
New York City became the most populous city in the world in 1925, overtaking London , which had reigned for a century.
As the city's demographics stabilized, labor unionization brought new protections and affluence to the working class, the city's government and infrastructure underwent a dramatic overhaul under La Guardia.
The period between the World Wars saw the election of reformist mayor Fiorello La Guardia and the fall of Tammany Hall after 80 years of political dominance.
Despite the Great Depression, some of the world's tallest skyscrapers were completed in Manhattan during the 1930s, including numerous Art Deco masterpieces that are still part of the city's skyline today, most notably the Empire State Building, the Chrysler Building, and the GE Building.
Despite the Great Depression, some of the world's tallest skyscrapers were completed in Manhattan during the 1930s, including numerous Art Deco masterpieces that are still part of the city's skyline today, most notably the Empire State Building, the Chrysler Building, and the GE Building.
Although New York County is the United States' second-smallest county by land area (larger only than Kalawao County, Hawaii), it is also the most densely populated U.S. county.
Although New York County is the United States' second-smallest county by land area (larger only than Kalawao County, Hawaii ), it is also the most densely populated U.S. county.
Although New York County is the United States' second-smallest county by land area (larger only than Kalawao County, Hawaii), it is also the most densely populated U.S. county.
Manhattan has the third-largest population of New York City's five boroughs, after Brooklyn and Queens, and is the smallest borough in terms of land area.
By the 1990s , crime rates started to drop dramatically due to revised police strategies, improving economic opportunities, gentrification, and new residents, both American transplants and new immigrants from Asia and Latin America.
Murder rates that had reached 2,245 in 1990 plummeted to 537 by 2008, and the crack epidemic and its associated drug-related violence came under greater control.
Murder rates that had reached 2,245 in 1990 plummeted to 537 by 2008, and the crack epidemic and its associated drug-related violence came under greater control.
The outflow of population turned around, as the city once again became the destination of immigrants from around the world, joining with low interest rates and Wall Street bonuses to fuel the growth of the real estate market .
Many districts and landmarks in Manhattan have become well known, as New York City received a record of nearly 60 million tourists in 2015, and Manhattan hosts three of the world's 10 most-visited tourist attractions in 2013: Times Square, Central Park, and Grand Central Terminal.
Many districts and landmarks in Manhattan have become well known, as New York City received a record of nearly 60 million tourists in 2015, and Manhattan hosts three of the world's 10 most-visited tourist attractions in 2013: Times Square, Central Park, and Grand Central Terminal.
There are many historically significant places in Manhattan: Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, and the Stonewall Inn in Greenwich Village is considered the birthplace of the modern gay rights movement.
Numerous colleges and universities are located in Manhattan, including Columbia University , New York University, and Rockefeller University, which have been ranked among the top 35 in the world.
The name "Manhattan" derives from the word Manna-hata , as written in the 1609 logbook of Robert Juet, an officer on Henry Hudson's yacht Halve Maen (Half Moon).
The name "Manhattan" derives from the word Manna-hata, as written in the 1609 logbook of Robert Juet , an officer on Henry Hudson's yacht Halve Maen (Half Moon).
The word "Manhattan" has been translated as " island of many hills " from the Lenape language.
The word "Manhattan" has been translated as "island of many hills" from the Lenape language. .The United States Postal Service prefers that mail addressed to Manhattan use "New York, NY" rather than "Manhattan, NY".
The area that is now Manhattan was long inhabited by the Lenape Native Americans .
In 1524, Florentine explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano – sailing in service of King Francis I of France – was the first European to visit the area that would become New York City.
He entered the tidal strait now known as The Narrows aboard his ship La Dauphine and named the land around Upper New York Harbor "New Angoulême", in reference to the family name of King Francis I that was derived from Angoulême in France; he sailed far enough into the harbor to sight the Hudson River, which he referred to in his report to the French king as a "very big river"; and he named the Bay of Santa Margarita – what is now Upper New York Bay – after Marguerite de Navarre , the elder sister of the king.
He entered the tidal strait now known as The Narrows aboard his ship La Dauphine and named the land around Upper New York Harbor "New Angoulême", in reference to the family name of King Francis I that was derived from Angoulême in France; he sailed far enough into the harbor to sight the Hudson River, which he referred to in his report to the French king as a "very big river"; and he named the Bay of Santa Margarita – what is now Upper New York Bay – after Marguerite de Navarre, the elder sister of the king.
He entered the tidal strait now known as The Narrows aboard his ship La Dauphine and named the land around Upper New York Harbor "New Angoulême", in reference to the family name of King Francis I that was derived from Angoulême in France; he sailed far enough into the harbor to sight the Hudson River, which he referred to in his report to the French king as a "very big river"; and he named the Bay of Santa Margarita – what is now Upper New York Bay – after Marguerite de Navarre, the elder sister of the king.
Manhattan's most important economic sector lies in its role as the headquarters for the U.S. financial industry , metonymously known as Wall Street.
Manhattan's most important economic sector lies in its role as the headquarters for the U.S. financial industry , metonymously known as Wall Street.
The borough's securities industry , enumerating 163,400 jobs in August 2013, continues to form the largest segment of the city's financial sector and an important economic engine for Manhattan, accounting in 2012 for 5 percent of private sector jobs in New York City, 8.5 percent (US$3.8 billion) of the city's tax revenue, and 22 percent of the city's total wages, including an average salary of US$360,700.
The borough's securities industry, enumerating 163,400 jobs in August 2013, continues to form the largest segment of the city's financial sector and an important economic engine for Manhattan, accounting in 2012 for 5 percent of private sector jobs in New York City, 8.5 percent (US$3.8 billion) of the city's tax revenue, and 22 percent of the city's total wages, including an average salary of US$360,700 .
Wall Street investment banking fees in 2012 totaled approximately US$40 billion , while in 2013, senior New York City bank officers who manage risk and compliance functions earned as much as US$324,000 annually.
Lower Manhattan is home to the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE), on Wall Street, and the NASDAQ, at 165 Broadway, representing the world's largest and second largest stock exchanges, respectively, when measured both by overall share trading value and by total market capitalization of their listed companies in 2013.
Lower Manhattan is home to the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE), on Wall Street, and the NASDAQ, at 165 Broadway , representing the world's largest and second largest stock exchanges, respectively, when measured both by overall share trading value and by total market capitalization of their listed companies in 2013.
The NYSE MKT (formerly the American Stock Exchange, AMEX), New York Board of Trade, and the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX) are also located downtown.
The NYSE MKT (formerly the American Stock Exchange, AMEX), New York Board of Trade, and the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX) are also located downtown.
In July 2013, NYSE Euronext , the operator of the New York Stock Exchange, took over the administration of the London interbank offered rate from the British Bankers Association.
Silicon Alley, centered in Manhattan , has evolved into a metonym for the sphere encompassing the New York City metropolitan region's high tech enterprises, utilizing the Internet, new media, telecommunications, digital media, software development, game design, financial technology ("fintech"), and other fields within information technology that are supported by the New York City metropolitan area's venture capital investments, amounting to over US$3.7 billion across a broad spectrum of high technology enterprises in the first half of 2015, and its entrepreneurship ecosystem.
Silicon Alley, centered in Manhattan, has evolved into a metonym for the sphere encompassing the New York City metropolitan region's high tech enterprises, utilizing the Internet, new media, telecommunications, digital media, software development, game design, financial technology ("fintech"), and other fields within information technology that are supported by the New York City metropolitan area's venture capital investments, amounting to over US$3.7 billion across a broad spectrum of high technology enterprises in the first half of 2015, and its entrepreneurship ecosystem.
High technology startup companies and employment, which are growing mostly in Manhattan, as well as in Brooklyn, Queens, and elsewhere in the region, are bolstered by New York City's position in North America as the leading Internet hub and telecommunications center , including its vicinity to several transatlantic fiber optic trunk lines, New York's intellectual capital, and its extensive outdoor wireless connectivity.
Verizon Communications, headquartered at 140 West Street in Lower Manhattan , was at the final stages in 2014 of completing a US$3 billion fiberoptic telecommunications upgrade throughout New York City.
Verizon Communications, headquartered at 140 West Street in Lower Manhattan, was at the final stages in 2014 of completing a US$3 billion fiberoptic telecommunications upgrade throughout New York City.
The biotechnology sector is also growing in Manhattan based upon the city's strength in academic scientific research and public and commercial financial support .
By mid-2014, Accelerator, a biotech investment firm, had raised more than US$30 million from investors, including Eli Lilly and Company, Pfizer, and Johnson & Johnson, for initial funding to create biotechnology startups at the Alexandria Center for Life Science, which encompasses more than 700,000 square feet (65,000 m2)* on East 29th Street and promotes collaboration among scientists and entrepreneurs at the center and with nearby academic, medical, and research institutions.
By mid-2014, Accelerator, a biotech investment firm, had raised more than US$30 million from investors, including Eli Lilly and Company, Pfizer, and Johnson & Johnson, for initial funding to create biotechnology startups at the Alexandria Center for Life Science, which encompasses more than 700,000 square feet (65,000 m2)* on East 29th Street and promotes collaboration among scientists and entrepreneurs at the center and with nearby academic, medical, and research institutions.
By mid-2014, Accelerator, a biotech investment firm, had raised more than US$30 million from investors, including Eli Lilly and Company, Pfizer, and Johnson & Johnson, for initial funding to create biotechnology startups at the Alexandria Center for Life Science, which encompasses more than 700,000 square feet (65,000 m2)* on East 29th Street and promotes collaboration among scientists and entrepreneurs at the center and with nearby academic, medical, and research institutions.
By mid-2014, Accelerator, a biotech investment firm, had raised more than US$30 million from investors, including Eli Lilly and Company, Pfizer, and Johnson & Johnson, for initial funding to create biotechnology startups at the Alexandria Center for Life Science, which encompasses more than 700,000 square feet (65,000 m2)* on East 29th Street and promotes collaboration among scientists and entrepreneurs at the center and with nearby academic, medical, and research institutions .
Tourism is vital to Manhattan's economy, and the landmarks of Manhattan are the focus of New York City's tourists, enumerating nearly 60 million visitors in 2015.
Tourism is vital to Manhattan's economy, and the landmarks of Manhattan are the focus of New York City's tourists, enumerating nearly 60 million visitors in 2015.
According to The Broadway League, shows on Broadway sold approximately US$1.27 billion worth of tickets in the 2013–2014 season, an increase of 11.4% from US$1.139 billion in the 2012–2013 season; attendance in 2013–2014 stood at 12.21 million, representing a 5.5% increase from the 2012–2013 season's 11.57 million.
Manhattan was on track to have an estimated 90,000 hotel rooms at the end of 2014, a 10% increase from 2013.
The University's buildings, along with most of its records and files, were destroyed in the Great Fire of 1845 that wiped out 20 square blocks of Pittsburgh.
Classes were temporarily held in Trinity Church until a new building was constructed on Duquesne Way (on what was the site of the former Horne's department store).
Only four years later, in 1849, this building also was destroyed by fire .
It is during this era, in 1867 , that Samuel Pierpont Langley, astronomer, inventor, aviation pioneer and future Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, was chosen as director of the Allegheny Observatory that was donated to WUP in 1865.
Langley was professor of astronomy and physics and remained at WUP until 1891, when he was succeeded by another prominent astronomer, James Keeler.
a 10-acre (4.0 ha) site on the North Side's Observatory Hill at the location of its Allegheny Observatory.
By 1893, the University had graduated its first African-American, William Dammond .
There, it constructed two new buildings, Science Hall and Main Hall, that were occupied by 1889 and 1890 respectively.
In 1895 WUP established its School of Law, and Andrew Carnegie and George Westinghouse were elected to the Board of Trustees, where they joined Andrew Mellon who had been elected in 1894.
By 1904 , playing at Exposition Park, the University had its first undefeated football team.
Citing a need to avoid confusion, distinguish itself from the University of Pennsylvania, and return to its roots by identifying itself with the city, the Western University of Pennsylvania, by act of the state legislature, was renamed the University of Pittsburgh in the summer of 1908 .
To consolidate all of its components on one campus, WUP bought 43 acres (170,000 m2) of land in December 1907 in what is now the Oakland neighborhood of Pittsburgh and began relocating departments there by 1909.
The initial campus plan for the new location centered on the winning submission from a national architectural contest that incorporated a Greek Acropolis design by Henry Hornbostel for 30 buildings.
However, due to financial and other constraints, only four of the buildings were constructed in this style, of which only Thaw Hall remains today.
To consolidate all of its components on one campus, WUP bought 43 acres (170,000 m2) of land in December 1907 in what is now the Oakland neighborhood of Pittsburgh and began relocating departments there by 1909 .
The 14 acres (5.7 ha) Frick Acres property in Oakland was soon purchased and plans for the campus shifted focus from the hillside to a neo-Gothic Revival plan that today comprises the Cathedral of Learning, Heinz Memorial Chapel, Stephen Foster Memorial, and Clapp Hall buildings.
The 14 acres (5.7 ha) Frick Acres property in Oakland was soon purchased and plans for the campus shifted focus from the hillside to a neo-Gothic Revival plan that today comprises the Cathedral of Learning, Heinz Memorial Chapel, Stephen Foster Memorial, and Clapp Hall buildings.
By 1925, Bowman had settled on a design by Charles Klauder for the "tall building": an attention-getting 535-foot (163 m) tower whose great height, with open spaces all around , would suggest the "character that ought to be in an educated man."
The Cathedral is "cut off" flat at the top to suggest that its lines, like education, have no ending .
Today, it remains the second tallest university building in the world and contains an equally impressive interior highlighted by a half-acre (2,000 m²) Gothic hall Commons Room with 52-foot ( 16 m ) tall arches currently surrounded by 30 Nationality Rooms, however seven more Nationality Rooms are in the making.
In the early 20th century, epidemics of polio began to hit the United States and other industrialized countries.
Meanwhile, Dr. Jonas Salk had set up the University of Pittsburgh's Virus Research Lab in the basement of what is now Salk Hall .
Soon, however, Salk began to test inoculations in paralyzed polio patients and by 1953 human trials among the general population were initiated.
By 1962 , Salk's vaccine had reduced the incidence of polio in the United States by 95 percent.
The breakthroughs in immunology and vaccine development at Pitt by Salk and his team are considered one of the most significant scientific and medical achievements in history.
The Pitt Men's Glee Club, founded in 1890 , is the oldest extracurricular club on campus.
The Pitt Men's Glee Club , founded in 1890, is the oldest extracurricular club on campus.
The Glee Club has also participated in national Collegiate Men's Choir festivals and international tours and music festivals in both the United States and Europe .
Heinz Chapel Choir is an accomplished and internationally known a cappella choir consisting entirely of Pitt students that has been performing for over 70 years.
The University of Pittsburgh Women's Choral Ensemble, founded in 2011 , is open to all women of the University including undergraduates, graduate students, and staff.
The orchestra performs not only works of the standard art music literature, but also new works of student composers .
Pitt Jazz Ensemble, founded in 1969 by saxophonist Dr. Davis , has performed internationally.
Pitt Jazz Ensemble, founded in 1969 by saxophonist Dr. Davis, has performed internationally.
Pitt Jazz Ensemble, founded in 1969 by saxophon ist Dr. Davis, has performed internationally.
Pitt African Music and Dance Ensemble, founded in 1983 by a Ghanaian ethnomusicologist Dr. Willie O. Anku, specializes in music and dances from Africa.
For most of its history, Pitt was a private institution, until 1966 when it became part of the Commonwealth System of Higher Education.
After surviving two devastating fires and various relocations within the area, the school moved to its current location in the Oakland neighborhood of the city; it was renamed as the University of Pittsburgh in 1908.
a change to its charter in 1819.
In 1787 after the American Revolutionary War, it was founded on the edge of the American frontier as the Pittsburgh Academy .
The University of Pitt sburgh (commonly referred to as Pitt) is a state-related research university located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
All varsity sports teams compete as members of the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) since the 2013-14 season, with the exception of the gymnastics team competing in the East Atlantic Gymnastics League (EAGL).
All varsity sports teams compete as members of the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) since the 2013-14 season, with the exception of the gymnastics team competing in the East Atlantic Gymnastics League (EAGL).
The university also maintains membership in the Eastern College Athletic Conference (ECAC).
All varsity sports teams compete as members of the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) since the 2013-14 season, with the exception of the gymnastics team competing in the East Atlantic Gymnastics League (EAGL)
In the fall of 1909 , the University of Pittsburgh was the first college or university to adopt the panther (Puma concolor) as its mascot.
Popular as photo sites, there are ten representations of Panthers in and about Pitt's campus , and ten more painted fiberglass panthers placed around the campus by the Pitt Student Government.
Popular as photo sites, there are ten representations of Panthers in and about Pitt's campus, and ten more painted fiberglass panthers placed around the campus by the Pitt Student Government.
These fiberglass panther structures are given to a campus group for a year and painted by the group to reflect their interests.
The oldest representations are four panthers that guard each corner of the Panther Hollow bridge.
Traditionally the most popular sport at the University of Pittsburgh, football has been played at the highest levels at the University since 1890.
During the more than 100 years of competitive football at Pitt, the University has helped pioneer the sport by, among other things, instituting the use of numbers on jerseys and desegregating the Sugar Bowl .
Traditionally the most popular sport at the University of Pittsburgh, football has been played at the highest levels at the University since 1890 .
Among the top schools in terms of all-time wins, Pitt teams have claimed nine National Championships and boast 88 players that have been chosen as first-team All-Americans.
Among the top schools in terms of all-time wins, Pitt teams have claimed nine National Championships and boast 88 players that have been chosen as first-team All-Americans.
Pitt first sponsored varsity men's basketball in 1905 and became an early national power after winning two Helms Foundation National Championships in 1927–28 and 1929–30.
Pitt first sponsored varsity men's basketball in 1905 and became an early national power after winning two Helms Foundation National Championships in 1927–28 and 1929–30 .
Those teams, coached by the innovative and legendary Naismith Hall of Fame inductee "Doc" Carlson , were led by National Player of the Year and Hall of Famer Charlie Hyatt.
Pitt joined the Big East Conference in 1982 , and by the end of the decade had secured a pair of Big East regular season championships led by All-Americans Charles Smith and Jerome Lane.
During this time, prior to joining the Atlantic Coast Conference in 2013 , Pitt and has won three Big East regular season championships, two Big East Tournament Championships, and has advanced to six Big East Tournament Championship games.
In Track and Field, Pitt has produced several Olympic and NCAA champions such as 800 m Olympic gold medalist John Woodruff, two-time 110 m hurdle Olympic gold medalist Roger Kingdom, and seven-time NCAA champion and 2005 World Champion triple jumper Trecia-Kaye Smith.
In Track and Field, Pitt has produced several Olympic and NCAA champions such as 800 m Olympic gold medalist John Woodruff, two-time 110 m hurdle Olympic gold medalist Roger Kingdom , and seven-time NCAA champion and 2005 World Champion triple jumper Trecia-Kaye Smith
In Track and Field, Pitt has produced several Olympic and NCAA champions such as 800 m Olympic gold medalist John Woodruff, two-time 110 m hurdle Olympic gold medalist Roger Kingdom, and seven-time NCAA champion and 2005 World Champion triple jumper Trecia-Kaye Smith.
The wrestling program has a rich history and is among the leaders in producing individual national champions with 16 .
Baseball , Pitt's oldest varsity sport, has produced several major league players and has reached the national 25 repeatedly, including in 2013.
Three Pitt alumni have been awarded the Nobel Prize: Paul Lauterbur '62 for his work in magnetic resonance imaging, Philip Hench '20 for discovery of the hormone cortisone, and Wangari Maathai '66 for founding the Green Belt Movement.
Three Pitt alumni have been awarded the Nobel Prize: Paul Lauterbur '62 for his work in magnetic resonance imaging, Philip Hench '20 for discovery of the hormone cortisone, and Wangari Maathai '66 for founding the Green Belt Movement.
Three Pitt alumni have been awarded the Nobel Prize: Paul Lauterbur '62 for his work in magnetic resonance imaging, Philip Hench '20 for discovery of the hormone cortisone, and Wangari Maathai '66 for founding the Green Belt Movement.
Other alumni have also been pioneers in their respective fields, including John Wistar Simpson '41, a pioneer in nuclear energy, and Vladimir Zworykin '26, who has been regarded as the "father of television".
Other notable people include Ken Wahlster , founder and CEO of BikeBandit.
The 132-acre Pittsburgh campus has multiple contributing historic buildings of the Schenley Farms Historic District, most notably its 42-story Gothic revival centerpiece, the Cathedral of Learning.
The campus is situated adjacent to the flagship medical facilities of its closely affiliated University of Pittsburgh Medical Center (UPMC), as well as the Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh, Schenley Park, and Carnegie Mellon University.
The 132-acre Pittsburgh campus has multiple contributing historic buildings of the Schenley Farms Historic District, most notably its 42-story Gothic revival centerpiece, the Cathedral of Learning.
The 132-acre Pittsburgh campus has multiple contributing historic buildings of the Schenley Farms Historic District, most notably its 42-story Gothic revival centerpiece, the Cathedral of Learning.
The 132-acre Pittsburgh campus has multiple contributing historic buildings of the Schenley Farms Historic District , most notably its 42-story Gothic revival centerpiece, the Cathedral of Learning.
The university has an annual operating budget of approximately $2 billion, which includes nearly $900 million in research and development expenditures.
A member of the Association of American Universities, Pitt is the sixth-largest recipient of federally sponsored research funding among U.S. universities in 2013, and it is a major recipient of research funding from the National Institutes of Health .
It is the second-largest non-government employer in the Pittsburgh region behind UPMC .
Pitt is ranked among the top public universities in the United States in both domestic and international rankings, and has been listed as a "best value" in higher education by several publications.
A member of the Association of American Universities , Pitt is the sixth-largest recipient of federally sponsored research funding among U.S. universities in 2013, and it is a major recipient of research funding from the National Institutes of Health.
Founded by Hugh Henry Brackenridge as Pittsburgh Academy in 1787, the University of Pittsburgh is one of the few universities and colleges established in the 18th century in the United States.
A brick building was erected in 1790 on the south side of Third Street and Cherry Alley for the Pittsburgh Academy.
Founded by Hugh Henry Brackenridge as Pittsburgh Academy in 1787, the University of Pittsburgh is one of the few universities and colleges established in the 18th century in the United States.
The school began as a preparatory school, presumably in a log cabin, possibly as early as 1770 in Western Pennsylvania, then a frontier .
west of the Allegheny Mountains.
Within a short period, more advanced education in the area was needed, so in 1819 the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania amended the school's 1787 charter to confer university status.
It was also during this era that the founder of Mellon Bank, Thomas Mellon (Class of 1837), graduated and later taught at WUP.
It was also during this era that the founder of Mellon Bank, Thomas Mellon (Class of 1837 ), graduated and later taught at WUP.
By the 1830s, the university faced severe financial pressure to abandon its traditional liberal education in favor of the state legislature's desire for it to provide more vocational training .
The school took the name the Western University of Pennsylvania, or WUP, and was intended to be the western sister institution to the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia .
Due to the historical nature of various sites around Pitt's buildings, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania has placed historical markers outside the Allegheny Observatory, Posvar Hall, Salk Hall, Stephen Foster Memorial, and the William Pitt Union.
Due to the historical nature of various sites around Pitt's buildings, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania has placed historical markers outside the Allegheny Observatory, Posvar Hall, Salk Hall, Stephen Foster Memorial, and the William Pitt Union.
Another state historical marker has been placed to highlight the significance of Pitt's involvement in the archaeological excavation at the Meadowcroft Rockshelter in Avella, Pennsylvania.
.In addition, a Pennsylvania Historical Marker has been placed on campus near the Cathedral of Learning to mark the significance of the University of Pittsburgh itself.
Another state historical marker has been placed to highlight the significance of Pitt's involvement in the archaeological excavation at the Meadowcroft Rockshelter in Avella, Pennsylvania .
In addition, the Pittsburgh History and Landmarks Foundation has designated the following Pitt buildings as Pittsburgh Historic Landmarks: Allegheny Observatory, Allen Hall, Alumni Hall, Bellefield Hall, Chancellor's Residence, Cathedral of Learning, the Cathedral of Learning interior rooms, Gardner Steel Conference Center, Heinz Memorial Chapel, Thaw Hall, Salk Hall, Schenley Quadrangle residence halls, Stephen Foster Memorial, the University Child Development Center, and the William Pitt Union.
In addition, the Pittsburgh History and Landmarks Foundation has designated the following Pitt buildings as Pittsburgh Historic Landmarks: Allegheny Observatory, Allen Hall, Alumni Hall, Bellefield Hall, Chancellor's Residence, Cathedral of Learning, the Cathedral of Learning interior rooms, Gardner Steel Conference Center, Heinz Memorial Chapel, Thaw Hall, Salk Hall, Schenley Quadrangle residence halls, Stephen Foster Memorial, the University Child Development Center, and the William Pitt Union.
In addition, the Pittsburgh History and Landmarks Foundation has designated the following Pitt buildings as Pittsburgh Historic Landmarks: Allegheny Observatory, Allen Hall, Alumni Hall, Bellefield Hall, Chancellor's Residence, Cathedral of Learning, the Cathedral of Learning interior rooms, Gardner Steel Conference Center, Heinz Memorial Chapel, Thaw Hall, Salk Hall, Schenley Quadrangle residence halls, Stephen Foster Memorial, the University Child Development Center, and the William Pitt Union.
In addition, the Pittsburgh History and Landmarks Foundation has designated the following Pitt buildings as Pittsburgh Historic Landmarks: Allegheny Observatory, Allen Hall, Alumni Hall, Bellefield Hall, Chancellor's Residence, Cathedral of Learning, the Cathedral of Learning interior rooms, Gardner Steel Conference Center, Heinz Memorial Chapel, Thaw Hall, Salk Hall, Schenley Quadrangle residence halls, Stephen Foster Memorial, the University Child Development Center, and the William Pitt Union.
In addition, the Pittsburgh History and Landmarks Foundation has designated the following Pitt buildings as Pittsburgh Historic Landmarks: Allegheny Observatory, Allen Hall, Alumni Hall, Bellefield Hall, Chancellor's Residence, Cathedral of Learning, the Cathedral of Learning interior rooms, Gardner Steel Conference Center, Heinz Memorial Chapel, Thaw Hall, Salk Hall, Schenley Quadrangle residence halls, Stephen Foster Memorial, the University Child Development Center, and the William Pitt Union.
Historic structures within, adjacent to, or near Pitt's campus, but not belonging to the university, include the Carnegie Museum buildings, Frick School, Forbes Field wall remnant, Magee Estate iron fence, the Schenley Fountain , Mellon Institute, Phipps Conservatory & Botanical Gardens, the Pittsburgh Athletic Association, St. Paul's Cathedral, St. Nicholas Greek Orthodox Church, Schenley High School, Soldiers and Sailors Memorial Hall, and the Stephen Foster sculpture.
Historic structures within, adjacent to, or near Pitt's campus, but not belonging to the university, include the Carnegie Museum buildings, Frick School, Forbes Field wall remnant, Magee Estate iron fence, the Schenley Fountain, Mellon Institute, Phipps Conservatory & Botanical Gardens, the Pittsburgh Athletic Association, St. Paul's Cathedral, St. Nicholas Greek Orthodox Church, Schenley High School , Soldiers and Sailors Memorial Hall, and the Stephen Foster sculpture.
Historic structures within, adjacent to, or near Pitt's campus, but not belonging to the university, include the Carnegie Museum buildings, Frick School, Forbes Field wall remnant, Magee Estate iron fence, the Schenley Fountain, Mellon Institute, Phipps Conservatory & Botanical Gardens, the Pittsburgh Athletic Association, St. Paul's Cathedral, St. Nicholas Greek Orthodox Church, Schenley High School, Soldiers and Sailors Memorial Hall, and the Stephen Foster sculpture.
Historic structures within, adjacent to, or near Pitt's campus, but not belonging to the university, include the Carnegie Museum buildings, Frick School, Forbes Field wall remnant, Magee Estate iron fence, the Schenley Fountain, Mellon Institute, Phipps Conservatory & Botanical Gardens, the Pittsburgh Athletic Association, St. Paul's Cathedral, St. Nicholas Greek Orthodox Church, Schenley High School, Soldiers and Sailors Memorial Hall, and the Stephen Foster sculpture.
Historic structures within, adjacent to, or near Pitt's campus, but not belonging to the university, include the Carnegie Museum buildings, Frick School, Forbes Field wall remnant, Magee Estate iron fence, the Schenley Fountain, Mellon Institute, Phipps Conservatory & Botanical Gardens, the Pittsburgh Athletic Association, St. Paul's Cathedral, St. Nicholas Greek Orthodox Church, Schenley High School, Soldiers and Sailors Memorial Hall, and the Stephen Foster sculpture.
The majority of Pitt-owned facilities are clustered in the Oakland neighborhood of Pittsburgh which includes the Schenley Farms Historic District, however a few prominent facilities are scattered elsewhere throughout the city, including the adjacent Shadyside neighborhood.
Pitt also maintains regional Pennsylvania campuses in Bradford, Greensburg, Johnstown, and Titusville, as well as a Computer Center in RIDC Park in Blawnox , the Plum Boro Science Center in Plum, the University of Pittsburgh Applied Research Center (U-PARC) in Harmarville, and the Pymatuning Laboratory of Ecology in Linesville.
Pitt also maintains regional Pennsylvania campuses in Bradford, Greensburg, Johnstown, and Titusville, as well as a Computer Center in RIDC Park in Blawnox, the Plum Boro Science Center in Plum, the University of Pittsburgh Applied Research Center (U-PARC) in Harmarville, and the Pymatuning Laboratory of Ecology in Linesville.
Pitt also maintains regional Pennsylvania campuses in Bradford, Greensburg, Johnstown, and Titusville, as well as a Computer Center in RIDC Park in Blawnox, the Plum Boro Science Center in Plum, the University of Pittsburgh Applied Research Center (U-PARC) in Harmarville, and the Pymatuning Laboratory of Ecology in Linesville.
Pitt also maintains regional Pennsylvania campuses in Bradford, Greensburg, Johnstown, and Titusville , as well as a Computer Center in RIDC Park in Blawnox, the Plum Boro Science Center in Plum, the University of Pittsburgh Applied Research Center (U-PARC) in Harmarville, and the Pymatuning Laboratory of Ecology in Linesville.
Athletic facilities of the University of Pittsburgh Panthers that are located in Oakland in the upper campus and include the Charles L Cost Sports Center, Fitzgerald Field House, the Petersen Events Center, Trees Hall and Trees Field.
An approximately $30 million upgrade of on-campus sports facilities, starting with the Petersen Sports Complex, includes new soccer, baseball, softball facilities, and helps clear a space for the future construction of a new track and field and band complex.
An approximately $30 million upgrade of on-campus sports facilities, starting with the Petersen Sports Complex, includes new soccer, baseball, softball facilities, and helps clear a space for the future construction of a new track and field and band complex .
Athletic facilities in Pittsburgh that are located outside of the Oakland neighborhood include Heinz Field and the UPMC Sports Performance Complex.
The University of Pittsburgh Medical Center (UPMC), which is consistently ranked in U.S. News & World Report's "Honor Roll" of America's top hospitals, consists of the following hospitals and facilities in the Oakland area, many of which have shared use with various university departments: UPMC Presbyterian Hospital, UPMC Montefiore Hospital, Magee-Women's Hospital of UPMC, Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic in Thomas Detre Hall, Eye and Ear Institute, Forbes Tower (home to the School of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences), Iroquois Building, Kaufman Medical Building, Medical Arts Building, 230 McKee Place, and UPMC University Center.
The University of Pittsburgh Medical Center (UPMC), which is consistently ranked in U.S. News & World Report's "Honor Roll" of America's top hospitals , consists of the following hospitals and facilities in the Oakland area, many of which have shared use with various university departments: UPMC Presbyterian Hospital, UPMC Montefiore Hospital, Magee-Women's Hospital of UPMC, Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic in Thomas Detre Hall, Eye and Ear Institute, Forbes Tower (home to the School of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences), Iroquois Building, Kaufman Medical Building, Medical Arts Building, 230 McKee Place, and UPMC University Center.
UPMC academic hospitals and facilities that are scattered elsewhere throughout the city include the Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh of UPMC campus in the Lawrencevville neighborhood , the UPMC Sports Performance Complex on the South Side, and UPMC Shadyside and the University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute in the Hillman Cancer Center both located in the Shadyside neighborhood adjacent to Oakland.
UPMC academic hospitals and facilities that are scattered elsewhere throughout the city include the Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh of UPMC campus in the Lawrencevville neighborhood, the UPMC Sports Performance Complex on the South Side, and UPMC Shadyside and the University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute in the Hillman Cancer Center both located in the Shadyside neighborhood adjacent to Oakland .
In 2009, Pitt was ranked second overall, and the top public university in the nation, as a "Best Neighbor" for positive impact on its urban community , including both commercial and residential activities such as revitalization, cultural renewal, economics, and community service and development according to the "Saviors of Our Cities" ranking.
In 2009 , Pitt was ranked second overall, and the top public university in the nation, as a "Best Neighbor" for positive impact on its urban community, including both commercial and residential activities such as revitalization, cultural renewal, economics, and community service and development according to the "Saviors of Our Cities" ranking.
These rankings reflect the statistics that each year Pitt spends more than $1.7 billion in the community and supports nearly 33,800 jobs in Allegheny County.
These rankings reflect the statistics that each year Pitt spends more than $1.7 billion in the community and supports nearly 33,800 jobs in Allegheny County.
Pitt's research program alone imports more than $822 million into the region each year (more than $3.60 for each $1 of state appropriations), and supports some 23,100 local jobs.
The University was chartered by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in 1787 and it operated as a fully private institution until an alteration to its charter in 1966 at which point it became part of the Commonwealth System of Higher Education.
Legally, however, the university remains a private entity , operating under its nonprofit corporate charter, governed by its independent Board of Trustees, and with its assets under its own ownership and control.
The University was chartered by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in 1787 and it operated as a fully private institution until an alteration to its charter in 1966 at which point it became part of the Commonwealth System of Higher Education.
Therefore, it retains the freedom and individuality of a private institution, both administratively and academically, setting its own standards for admissions, awarding of degrees, faculty qualifications, teaching, and staff hiring .
The University's Board of Trustees maintains ultimate legal authority, governance, and responsibility for the university but specifically reserves authority over selecting the university's Chancellor; approval of major policies, particularly those related to the fiduciary responsibilities of the Board; and the definition of the university's mission and goals.
It is made up of 36 voting members: Chancellor, 17 Term Trustees elected by the Board, 6 Alumni Trustees elected by the board on nomination from the Alumni Association Board of Directors, and 12 Commonwealth trustees.
The Governor of Pennsylvania, the President Pro Tempore of the Pennsylvania Senate, and the Speaker of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives each appoints four of the 12 Commonwealth trustees.
There are three or more regular meetings of the Board of Trustees per year.
The Board of Trustees selects the university's Chancellor, who doubles as the chief academic officer and the Chief Executive Officer of the university as well as serving as an ex officio voting member of the Board or Trustees.
The Chancellor is delegated with general administrative, academic, and management authority over the university .
Under the Chancellor are the Provost and Senior Vice Chancellor, the Senior Vice Chancellor for Health Sciences, the deans of the various schools, the presidents of the regional campuses, department chairs, and the directors of University centers and institutes.
The university is accredited by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools .
Annual traditional events include "Fall Fest", and in the spring, " Bigelow Bash ".
These festivals are held by the Pitt Program Council between the William Pitt Union and the Cathedral of Learning and involve a range of activities, novelties, and bands.
Also, the " Panther Sendoff " is a free annual reception typically held in Alumni Hall to congratulate each year's graduating class and wish them well.
A free event open to the public, the Nationality Rooms Open House occurs on a Sunday in early December each year in the Cathedral of Learning and involves the presentation of the rooms decorated in traditional holiday styles, day-long performances of dance and song by various ethnic groups, and food and crafts from many of the nationality room's committees.
A free event open to the public, the Nationality Rooms Open House occurs on a Sunday in early December each year in the Cathedral of Learning and involves the presentation of the rooms decorated in traditional holiday styles, day-long performances of dance and song by various ethnic groups, and food and crafts from many of the nationality room's committees.
Traditions related to athletics include the  "Victory Lights", where golden flood lights illuminate the top of the Cathedral of Learning after every football victory and select other athletic achievements.
Traditions related to athletics include the  "Victory Lights", where golden flood lights illuminate the top of the Cathedral of Learning after every football victory and select other athletic achievements.
Traditions related to athletics include the  "Victory Lights", where golden flood lights illuminate the top of the Cathedral of Learning after every football victory and select other athletic achievements.
At football games, the "Football Tunnel" occurs where student organizations, carrying standards, form a tunnel for the football players to run through as they enter the football field from the locker room; The Varsity Walk, a walkway between the Cathedral of Learning and Heinz Memorial Chapel, is carved each year the names of former Pitt athletes (each year since 1950 ) who have promoted the University through their athletic (Panther Award) or academic (Blue-Gold Award) achievements.
At football games, the "Football Tunnel" occurs where student organizations, carrying standards, form a tunnel for the football players to run through as they enter the football field from the locker room; The Varsity Walk, a walkway between the Cathedral of Learning and Heinz Memorial Chapel, is carved each year the names of former Pitt athletes (each year since 1950) who have promoted the University through their athletic ( Panther Award ) or academic (Blue-Gold Award) achievements.
The two biggest events each year are the Pitt Dance Marathon and Greek Sing.
The two biggest events each year are the Pitt Dance Marathon and Greek Sing .
"E-Week" is a spring celebration organized by the Engineer Student Council for a week-long series of activities and competitions to demonstrate engineering skills and foster a spirit of camaraderie.
The festivities reach climax with a parade on Friday , a soapbox derby on Saturday, and the "e-ball finale" on Saturday evening.
The festivities reach climax with a parade on Friday, a soapbox derby on Saturday, and the "e-ball finale" on Saturday evening.
Pitt Arts is a program founded by the University in 1997 to encourage students to explore and connect to the art and cultural opportunities of the City of Pittsburgh via three programs.
Art Encounters provides trips to arts events for undergrads that include free tickets, transportation, a catered reception, and encounters with international artists and thinkers.
Free Visits grants undergrad and grad students free admission using their Pitt IDs to the Carnegie Museum of Art, Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Senator John Heinz History Center, Phipps Conservatory, Mattress Factory, and the Andy Warhol Museum.
Free Visits grants undergrad and grad students free admission using their Pitt IDs to the Carnegie Museum of Art, Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Senator John Heinz History Center, Phipps Conservatory, Mattress Factory, and the Andy Warhol Museum.
Free Visits grants undergrad and grad students free admission using their Pitt IDs to the Carnegie Museum of Art, Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Senator John Heinz History Center, Phipps Conservatory, Mattress Factory, and the Andy Warhol Museum.
University of Pittsburgh Stages is the production company of the Department of Theatre Arts which puts public student performances of classic masterpieces, contemporary productions, and student-directed labs.
It also runs the Shakespeare-in-the-Schools which tours classic theater for K-12 students throughout the Pittsburgh area.
Friday Nite Improvs , Pittsburgh's longest-running theatre show, was started in 1989 by graduate theatre students.
The Redeye Theatre Project is a festival of one-act plays cast, written, and rehearsed in 24 hours.
The club was founded in 2009 .
Particularly well regarded programs include Pitt's Department of Philosophy , which has long been renowned in the U.S. and worldwide, and is especially strong in the areas of mathematical and philosophical logic, metaphysics, history and philosophy of science, philosophy of language, philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of mind and psychology, and semantics.
Particularly well regarded programs include Pitt's Department of Philosophy, which has long been renowned in the U.S. and worldwide, and is especially strong in the areas of mathematical and philosophical logic, metaphysics, history and philosophy of science, philosophy of language, philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of mind and psychology, and semantics.
Many of university's individual schools, departments, and programs are highly regarded in their particular field as evidenced by the number of Pitt programs that were ranked in the latest National Research Council rankings.
Particularly well regarded programs include Pitt's Department of Philosophy, which has long been renowned in the U.S. and worldwide, and is especially strong in the areas of mathematical and philosophical logic, metaphysics, history and philosophy of science, philosophy of language, philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of mind and psychology, and semantics.
Many of university's individual schools, departments, and programs are highly regarded in their particular field as evidenced by the number of Pitt programs that were ranked in the latest National Research Council rankings.
Pitt students and faculty have regularly won national and international scholarships and fellowship awards, including four Rhodes Scholarships since 2006.
Pitt students and faculty have regularly won national and international scholarships and fellowship awards, including four Rhodes Scholarships since 2006.
Since 1995, Pitt undergraduates have also won six Marshall Scholarships, five Truman Scholarships, seven Udall Scholarships, a Churchill Scholarship, a Gates Cambridge Scholarship, 43 Goldwater Scholarships, 23 Boren Scholarships, and three Mellon Humanities Fellowships.
In 2007, in addition to the three national military academies, Pitt was one of only nine universities, and the only public university, to claim both Rhodes and Marshall Scholars.
Since 1995, Pitt undergraduates have also won six Marshall Scholarships, five Truman Scholarships, seven Udall Scholarships, a Churchill Scholarship, a Gates Cambridge Scholarship, 43 Goldwater Scholarships, 23 Boren Scholarships, and three Mellon Humanities Fellowships.
Throughout its history, Pitt has been committed to a liberal arts education with a well-rounded curriculum in the arts, sciences, and humanities.
Pitt has an increasing emphasis on undergraduate research experience and for providing real-world opportunities such as co-ops and internships .
Undergraduate degrees can be earned as Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Science, and Bachelor of Philosophy .
Pitt has also initiated a University-wide Outside the Classroom Curriculum (OCC) that includes a structured series of extracurricular programs and experiences designed to complement students' academic studies and help develop personal attributes and professional skills.
Students who complete the OCC requirements receive an OCC "transcript" and a green cord of distinction to wear at commencement.
Pitt's history of commitment to international education is illustrated by its unique collection of 30 Nationality Rooms on the first and third floors of the Cathedral of Learning.
Pitt's history of commitment to international education is illustrated by its unique collection of 30 Nationality Rooms on the first and third floors of the Cathedral of Learning.
As a further demonstration of this commitment, Pitt is one of the country's leading producers of both Fulbright scholars and Peace Corps volunteers and one of fewer than 20 American universities to claim five or more area studies programs that have been competitively designated as National Resource Centers by the U.S. Department of Education.
As a further demonstration of this commitment, Pitt is one of the country's leading producers of both Fulbright scholars and Peace Corps volunteers and one of fewer than 20 American universities to claim five or more area studies programs that have been competitively designated as National Resource Centers by the U.S. Department of Education.
As a further demonstration of this commitment, Pitt is one of the country's leading producers of both Fulbright scholars and Peace Corps volunteers and one of fewer than 20 American universities to claim five or more area studies programs that have been competitively designated as National Resource Centers by the U.S. Department of Education .
The University Center for International Studies (UCIS) coordinates international education curricula, centers on topical specializations in international studies, and the centers for area studies, including the National Resource Centers, among existing faculty and departments throughout the university.
The University Center for International Studies (UCIS) coordinates international education curricula, centers on topical specializations in international studies, and the centers for area studies, including the National Resource Centers, among existing faculty and departments throughout the university.
It does not confer degrees, but awards certificates of attainment to degree candidates in the University's schools and also operates certificate programs in African Studies (undergraduate) and in Global Studies (undergraduate & graduate).
It does not confer degrees, but awards certificates of attainment to degree candidates in the University's schools and also operates certificate programs in African Studies ( undergraduate ) and in Global Studies (undergraduate & graduate).
It does not confer degrees, but awards certificates of attainment to degree candidates in the University's schools and also operates certificate programs in African Studies (undergraduate) and in Global Studies ( undergraduate & graduate ).
Pitt's study abroad program, under the auspices of UCIS, helps to facilitate student study in over a hundred different countries , and oversees a variety of programs including the Panther Programs, which are course taught abroad that have been developed and are accompanied by faculty of the university; two-way exchange agreements with foreign institutions; and Pitt-recognized, third-party exchange programs.
Pitt's study abroad program, under the auspices of UCIS, helps to facilitate student study in over a hundred different countries, and oversees a variety of programs including the Panther Programs , which are course taught abroad that have been developed and are accompanied by faculty of the university; two-way exchange agreements with foreign institutions; and Pitt-recognized, third-party exchange programs.
The university also offers several study abroad scholarships, including those through the Nationality Rooms program .
In addition, following the decision to end a 24-year sponsorship of the Semester at Sea program due to academic, administrative and safety concerns,  Pitt has created a Multi-region Academic Program (PittMAP) that involves international travel, accompanied by university faculty, to three different continents for the comparative study of one of six rotating global study themes.
Further, Pitt's Swanson School of Engineering has also established a joint engineering institute and program with Sichuan University in Chengdu, and Pitt's School of Medicine has established an exchange program for biomedical research students with Tsinghua University in Beijing, China.
In worldwide evaluations of universities, Newsweek ranked Pitt 37th in its "The Top 100 Global Universities."
Pitt ranked 70th worldwide (and 41st in the U.S.) in the 2015 Shanghai Jiao Tong University's Academic Ranking of World Universities.
Pitt ranked 70th worldwide (and 41st in the U.S.) in the 2015 Shanghai Jiao Tong University's Academic Ranking of World Universities.
Pitt ranked 133rd globally in the 2015/16 QS World University Rankings.
In worldwide evaluations of universities, Newsweek ranked Pitt 37th in its "The Top 100 Global Universities."
In the 1980s, significant medical research in the field of organ transplantation was conducted by Thomas Starzl, establishing Pitt as the world leader in the field of organ transplantation.
In 1991, chancellor Wesley Posvar retired after 24 years in office.
In the 1970s, Pitt's football team returned to greatness with a national championship season in 1976 led by Hall of Fame running back Tony Dorsett and continued success in the 1980s with players such as Hall of Fame quarterback Dan Marino.
In 1966, Pitt was designated by Pennsylvania as a state-related university.
Upon affiliation with the state, subsidized tuition led to a massive influx of new students and rapid expansion of Pitt's size and scope.
Mark Nordenberg was chancellor of the University from 1995 to 2014 and led Pitt through a period of substantial progress, including a $2-billion capital-raising campaign that is over three quarters of the way toward achieving its goal and a $1-billion 12-year facilities plan.
Major initiatives and events that have occurred during his tenure include the construction of the Petersen Events Center, a major expansion of on-campus housing, the growth of the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center and the restructuring of its relationship with the university, and a series of disruptive bomb threats that occurred in 2012 .
Mark Nordenberg was chancellor of the University from 1995 to 2014 and led Pitt through a period of substantial progress, including a $2-billion capital-raising campaign that is over three quarters of the way toward achieving its goal and a $1-billion 12-year facilities plan.
Major initiatives and events that have occurred during his tenure include the construction of the Petersen Events Center , a major expansion of on-campus housing, the growth of the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center and the restructuring of its relationship with the university, and a series of disruptive bomb threats that occurred in 2012.
Major initiatives and events that have occurred during his tenure include the construction of the Petersen Events Center, a major expansion of on-campus housing, the growth of the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center and the restructuring of its relationship with the university, and a series of disruptive bomb threats that occurred in 2012.
approximately 132 urban acres (0.53 km2) located in Pittsburgh's historic Oakland neighborhood.
The University of Pittsburgh's main campus comprises approximately 132 urban acres (0.53 km2) located in Pittsburgh's historic Oakland neighborhood.
Much of the campus, including its centerpiece 42-story Cathedral of Learning , falls within the Oakland Civic Center/Schenley Farms National Historic District.
The campus has won multiple Green Star Awards from the Professional Grounds Management Society .
Much of the campus, including its centerpiece 42-story Cathedral of Learning, falls within the Oakland Civic Center/Schenley Farms National Historic District .
Although generally within walking distance, the university also runs a bus and shuttle service between various campus locations and bordering neighborhoods.
The University of Pittsburgh's main campus contains four contiguous sections: upper (sports complexes, residence halls); mid (Benedum, Chevron, Allen and Thaw Halls); lower (Cathedral of Learning, Union, Posvar Hall); and on the west end of campus , the medical center complex.
The campus is bordered by Darragh Street/McKee Place to the west and Bellefield Avenue/Dithridge Street to the east; Forbes and Fifth avenues traverse the campus from west to east.
The campus is bordered by Darragh Street/McKee Place to the west and Bellefield Avenue/Dithridge Street to the east; Forbes and Fifth avenues traverse the campus from west to east.
The University of Pittsburgh's main campus contains four contiguous sections: upper (sports complexes, residence halls); mid (Benedum, Chevron, Allen and Thaw Halls); lower (Cathedral of Learning, Union, Posvar Hall); and on the west end of campus, the medical center complex.
The main quad of Carnegie Mellon University, Central Catholic High School, and historic Schenley Park , site of the Phipps Conservatory & Botanical Gardens, lie across Junction Hollow on the east end.
Carlow University is just west of campus, adjacent to the University's medical center complexes.
The campus is adjacent to Schenley Plaza, the main branch of the Carnegie Public Library, the Carnegie Museums of Natural History and Art and the Carnegie Music Hall, as well as portions of Carnegie Mellon University.
The main campus is within walking distance of many recreational, cultural, and educational institutions in the Oakland neighborhood.
The campus is adjacent to Schenley Plaza, the main branch of the Carnegie Public Library, the Carnegie Museums of Natural History and Art and the Carnegie Music Hall, as well as portions of Carnegie Mellon University .
From January to November 2012, the U.S. added approximately 151,000 jobs per month on average.
.Each month, The Hamilton Project examines the "jobs gap," which is the number of jobs that the U.S. economy needs to create in order to return to pre-recession employment levels while also absorbing the people who enter the labor force each month.
. Each month , The Hamilton Project examines the "jobs gap," which is the number of jobs that the U.S. economy needs to create in order to return to pre-recession employment levels while also absorbing the people who enter the labor force each month.
Job creation would have to average 208,000 per month to close the gap by 2020; 320,000 by 2017; or 472,000 by mid-2015.
Job creation would have to average 208,000 per month to close the gap by 2020; 320,000 by 2017; or 472,000 by mid-2015.
By this measure, the 2008-2009 recession was considerably worse than the five other U.S. recessions from 1970 to present.
By May 2013, U.S. employment had reached 98% of its pre-recession peak after approximately 60 months .
By May 2013 , U.S. employment had reached 98% of its pre-recession peak after approximately 60 months.
For example, it took Norway 8.5 years to return to its pre-recession peak employment after its 1987 financial crisis and it took Sweden 17.8 years after its 1991 financial crisis.
For example, it took Norway 8.5 years to return to its pre-recession peak employment after its 1987 financial crisis and it took Sweden 17.8 years after its 1991 financial crisis.
Unemployment can have adverse health effects.
One study indicated that a 1% increase in the unemployment rate can increase mortality among working-aged males by 6% .
The mortality increase was mainly driven by circulatory health issues (e.g., heart attacks).
This suggests that there are true health costs to job loss, beyond sicker people being more likely to lose their jobs." Extended job loss can add the equivalent of ten years to a persons age.
The Congressional Budget Office provides an unemployment rate forecast in its long term budget outlook.
During August 2012 , it projected that the unemployment rate would be 8.8% in 2013 and 8.7% in 2014.
The Congressional Budget Office provides an unemployment rate forecast in its long term budget outlook .
During December 2012, Wells Fargo Economics forecast that the unemployment rate would be 7.8% in 2013 and 7.6% in 2014.
The Department of Labor's Employment and Training Administration (ETA) prepares an annual report on those petitioning for trade adjustment assistance, due to jobs lost from international trade.
During 2011, there were 98,379 workers covered by petitions filed with ETA.
The figure was 280,873 in 2010, 201,053 in 2009 and 126,633 in 2008.
The Department of Labor's Employment and Training Administration (ETA) prepares an annual report on those petitioning for trade adjustment assistance, due to jobs lost from international trade .
The U.S. Federal Reserve (the Fed) has a dual mandate to achieve full employment while maintaining a low rate of inflation .
U.S. Federal Reserve interest rate adjustments (monetary policy) are important tools for managing the unemployment rate. There may be an economic trade-off between unemployment and inflation, as policies designed to reduce unemployment can create inflationary pressure, and vice versa.
There may be an economic trade-off between unemployment and inflation, as policies designed to reduce unemployment can create inflationary pressure, and vice versa .
 Debates regarding monetary policy during 2014-2015 centered on the timing and extent of interest rate increases, as a near-zero interest rate target had remained in place since the 2007-2009 recession .
Ultimately, the Fed decided to raise interest rates marginally in December 2015 .
The U.S. Federal Reserve has taken significant action to stimulate the economy after the 2007-2009 recession .
This bids up bond prices, helping keep interest rates low, to encourage companies to borrow and invest and people to buy homes .
The Fed expanded its balance sheet significantly from 2008-2014, meaning it essentially "printed money" to purchase large quantities of mortgage-backed securities and U.S. treasury bonds .
The Fed expanded its balance sheet significantly from 2008-2014 , meaning it essentially "printed money" to purchase large quantities of mortgage-backed securities and U.S. treasury bonds.
The Fed also tied its actions to its outlook for unemployment and inflation for the first time in December 2012 .
Liberals typically argue for government action or partnership with the private sector to improve job creation .
Typical proposals involve stimulus spending on infrastructure construction, clean energy investment, unemployment compensation, educational loan assistance, and retraining programs .
Liberals historically supported labor unions and protectionist trade policies. Liberals tend to be less concerned with budget deficits and debt and have a higher tolerance for inflation or currency devaluation to improve trade competitiveness, as a weaker currency makes exports relatively less expensive.
Liberals tend to be less concerned with budget deficits and debt and have a higher tolerance for inflation or currency devaluation to improve trade competitiveness, as a weaker currency makes exports relatively less expensive.
During recessions, liberals generally advocate solutions based on Keynesian economics , which argues for additional government spending when the private sector is unable or unwilling to support sufficient levels of economic growth.
Conservatives typically argue for free market solutions , with less government restriction of the private sector.
Conservatives tend to oppose stimulus spending or bailouts, letting the free market determine success and failure. Typical proposals involve deregulation and income tax rate reduction.
Conservatives typically argue for free market solutions, with less government restriction of the private sector. Conservatives tend to oppose stimulus spending or bailouts, letting the free market determine success and failure.
Conservatives historically have opposed labor unions and encouraged free trade agreements.
Conservatives generally advocate supply-side economics .
The affluent are much less inclined than other groups of Americans to support an active role for government in addressing high unemployment.
The affluent are much less inclined than other groups of Americans to support an active role for government in addressing high unemployment .
Among the general public, about 40% say unemployment is the most important issue while 25% say that the budget deficit is.
Only 19% of the wealthy say that Washington should insure that everyone who wants to work can find a job, but 68% of the general public support that proposition.
Government spending and taxation decisions ( fiscal policy) and U.S. Federal Reserve interest rate adjustments (monetary policy) are important tools for managing the unemployment rate.
Debates regarding monetary policy during 2014-2015 centered on the timing and extent of interest rate increases, as a near-zero interest rate target had remained in place since the 2007-2009 recession.
The U.S. Federal Reserve (the Fed) has a dual mandate to achieve full employment while maintaining a low rate of inflation.
Ultimately, the Fed decided to raise interest rates marginally in December 2015.
There may be an economic trade-off between unemployment and inflation, as policies designed to reduce unemployment can create inflationary pressure , and vice versa.
The major political parties debate appropriate solutions for improving the job creation rate, with liberals arguing for more government spending and conservatives arguing for lower taxes and less regulation.
The major political parties debate appropriate solutions for improving the job creation rate, with liberals arguing for more government spending and conservatives arguing for lower taxes and less regulation.
The major political parties debate appropriate solutions for improving the job creation rate, with liberals arguing for more government spending and conservatives arguing for lower taxes and less regulation.
The major political parties debate appropriate solutions for improving the job creation rate, with liberals arguing for more government spending and conservatives arguing for lower taxes and less regulation.
From October 2010 to November 2015, the U.S. added a total of 12.4 million jobs, with positive job growth each month averaging 203,000, a robust rate by historical standards.
The major political parties debate appropriate solutions for improving the job creation rate, with liberals arguing for more government spending and conservatives arguing for lower taxes and less regulation.
The major political parties debate appropriate solutions for improving the job creation rate, with liberals arguing for more government spending and conservatives arguing for lower taxes and less regulation.
The major political parties debate appropriate solutions for improving the job creation rate, with liberals arguing for more government spending and conservatives arguing for lower taxes and less regulation.
From October 2010 to November 2015, the U.S. added a total of 12.4 million jobs, with positive job growth each month averaging 203,000, a robust rate by historical standards.
The major political parties debate appropriate solutions for improving the job creation rate, with liberals arguing for more government spending and conservatives arguing for lower taxes and less regulation.
Unemployment can be measured in several ways.
For example, as of December 2015, the unemployment rate in the United States was 5.0% or 7.9 million people , while the government's broader U-6 unemployment rate, which includes the part-time underemployed was 9.9% or approximately 16.4 million people.
For example, as of December 2015, the unemployment rate in the United States was 5.0% or 7.9 million people, while the government's broader U-6 unemployment rate , which includes the part-time underemployed was 9.9% or approximately 16.4 million people.
These figures were calculated with a civilian labor force of approximately 157.8 million people, relative to a U.S. population of approximately 323 million people.
These figures were calculated with a civilian labor force of approximately 157.8 million people, relative to a U.S. population of approximately 323 million people.
During the 1940s , the U.S Department of Labor, specifically the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), began collecting employment information via monthly household surveys.
The unemployment rate has varied from as low as 1% during World War I to as high as 25% during the Great Depression.
The unemployment rate has varied from as low as 1% during World War I to as high as 25% during the Great Depression.
Unemployment tends to rise during recessions and fall during expansions.
This is referred to as frictional unemployment .
During 2012, there was significant debate regarding approximately $560 billion in tax increases and spending cuts scheduled to go into effect in 2013, which would reduce the 2013 budget deficit roughly in half .
Critics argued that with an employment crisis, such fiscal austerity was premature and misguided .
During 2012, there was significant debate regarding approximately $560 billion in tax increases and spending cuts scheduled to go into effect in 2013 , which would reduce the 2013 budget deficit roughly in half.
The Congressional Budget Office projected that such sharp deficit reduction would likely cause the U.S. to enter recession in 2013, with the unemployment rate rising to 9% versus approximately 8% in 2012, costing over 1 million jobs.
The Congressional Budget Office projected that such sharp deficit reduction would likely cause the U.S. to enter recession in 2013 , with the unemployment rate rising to 9% versus approximately 8% in 2012, costing over 1 million jobs.
The Federal Reserve Economic Data (FRED) database contains the total nonfarm employment level, a measure of private sector job creation.
For President Obama, between February 2009 and December 2015, the private sector added a total of 10 million jobs.
Over 10 million jobs were created in each of President Clinton's two terms during the 1990s, by far the largest number among recent Presidents.
President Reagan averaged over 7 million in each term during the 1980s, while George W. Bush had negative job creation in the 2000s.
For President Obama , between February 2009 and December 2015, the private sector added a total of 10 million jobs.
The Center on Budget and Policy Priorities (CBPP) wrote in March 2009: "Small business employment rose by an average of 2.3 percent ( 756,000 jobs) per year during the Clinton years, when tax rates for high-income filers were set at very similar levels to those that would be reinstated under President Obama's budget.
But during the Bush years, when the rates were lower, employment rose by just 1.0 percent ( 367,000 jobs )."
But during the Bush years, when the rates were lower, employment rose by just 1.0 percent (367,000 jobs)."
CBPP reported in September 2011 that both employment and GDP grew faster in the seven-year period following President Clinton's income tax rate increase of 1993, than a similar period after the Bush tax cuts of 2001.
CBPP reported in September 2011 that both employment and GDP grew faster in the seven-year period following President Clinton's income tax rate increase of 1993, than a similar period after the Bush tax cuts of 2001.
U.S. corporate after-tax profits were at record levels during 2012 while corporate tax revenue was below its historical average relative to GDP.
U.S. corporate after-tax profits were at record levels during 2012 while corporate tax revenue was below its historical average relative to GDP.
U.S. corporations paid approximately 1.2% GDP in taxes during 2011.
In comparing corporate taxes, the Congressional Budget Office found in 2005 that the top statutory tax rate was the third highest among OECD countries behind Japan and Germany. However, the U.S. ranked 27th lowest of 30 OECD countries in its collection of corporate taxes relative to GDP, at 1.8% vs. the average 2.5%.
In comparing corporate taxes, the Congressional Budget Office found in 2005 that the top statutory tax rate was the third highest among OECD countries behind Japan and Germany .
A variety of options for creating jobs exist, but these are strongly debated and often have tradeoffs in terms of additional government debt, adverse environmental impact, and impact on corporate profitability.
Authors Bittle & Johnson of Public agenda explained the pros and cons of 14 job creation arguments frequently discussed, several of which are summarized below by topic.
Authors Bittle & Johnson of Public agenda explained the pros and cons of 14 job creation arguments frequently discussed, several of which are summarized below by topic.
Authors Bittle & Johnson of Public agenda explained the pros and cons of 14 job creation arguments frequently discussed, several of which are summarized below by topic.
Authors Bittle & Johnson of Public agenda explained the pros and cons of 14 job creation arguments frequently discussed, several of which are summarized below by topic.
Authors Bittle & Johnson of Public agenda explained the pros and cons of 14 job creation arguments frequently discussed, several of which are summarized below by topic.
Authors Bittle & Johnson of Public agenda explained the pros and cons of 14 job creation arguments frequently discussed, several of which are summarized below by topic.
Authors Bittle & Johnson of Public agenda explained the pros and cons of 14 job creation arguments frequently discussed, several of which are summarized below by topic.
A variety of options for creating jobs exist, but these are strongly debated and often have tradeoffs in terms of additional government debt, adverse environmental impact, and impact on corporate profitability.
Authors Bittle & Johnson of Public agenda explained the pros and cons of 14 job creation arguments frequently discussed, several of which are summarized below by topic.
Many experts advocate infrastructure investment, such as building roads and bridges and upgrading the electricity grid.
Many experts advocate infrastructure investment, such as building roads and bridges and upgrading the electricity grid .
Such investments have historically created or sustained millions of jobs , with the offset to higher state and federal budget deficits.
In the wake of the 2008-2009 recession, there were over 2 million fewer employed housing construction workers.
The American Society of Civil Engineers rated U.S. infrastructure a " D+ " on their scorecard for 2013, identifying an estimated $3.6 trillion in investment ideas by 2020.
A March 2011 Gallup poll reported: "One in four Americans say the best way to create more jobs in the U.S. is to keep manufacturing in this country and stop sending work overseas.
Republicans and Democrats agreed that bringing the jobs home was the number one solution approach, but differed on other poll questions.
Republicans and Democrats agreed that bringing the jobs home was the number one solution approach, but differed on other poll questions.
Further, Gallup reported that: "Americans consistently say that jobs and the economy are the most important problems facing the country, with 26% citing jobs specifically as the nation's most important problem in March." Republicans and Democrats agreed that bringing the jobs home was the number one solution approach, but differed on other poll questions.
A March 2011 Gallup poll reported: "One in four Americans say the best way to create more jobs in the U.S. is to keep manufacturing in this country and stop sending work overseas.
Americans also suggest creating jobs by increasing infrastructure work, lowering taxes, helping small businesses, and reducing government regulation ."
Further, Gallup reported that: "Americans consistently say that jobs and the economy are the most important problems facing the country, with 26% citing jobs specifically as the nation's most important problem in March."
A March 2011 Gallup poll reported: "One in four Americans say the best way to create more jobs in the U.S. is to keep manufacturing in this country and stop sending work overseas.
Republicans next highest ranked items were lowering taxes and reducing regulation , while Democrats preferred infrastructure stimulus and more help for small businesses.
A March 2011 Gallup poll reported: " One in four Americans say the best way to create more jobs in the U.S. is to keep manufacturing in this country and stop sending work overseas.
Further, Gallup reported that: "Americans consistently say that jobs and the economy are the most important problems facing the country, with 26% citing jobs specifically as the nation's most important problem in March.
Further, Gallup reported that: "Americans consistently say that jobs and the economy are the most important problems facing the country, with 26% citing jobs specifically as the nation's most important problem in March." Republicans and Democrats agreed that bringing the jobs home was the number one solution approach, but differed on other poll questions.
Republicans next highest ranked items were lowering taxes and reducing regulation , while Democrats preferred infrastructure stimulus and more help for small businesses.
Republicans next highest ranked items were lowering taxes and reducing regulation, while Democrats preferred infrastructure stimulus and more help for small businesses .
An October 2010 Wall Street Journal/NBC News poll reported that: "[M]ore than half of those surveyed, 53% , said free-trade agreements have hurt the U.S.
Across party lines, income, and job type, between 76-95% of Americans surveyed agreed that "outsourcing of production and manufacturing work to foreign countries is a reason the U.S. economy is struggling and more people aren't being hired."
Across party lines, income, and job type, between 76-95% of Americans surveyed agreed that "outsourcing of production and manufacturing work to foreign countries is a reason the U.S. economy is struggling and more people aren't being hired."
Among those earning $75,000 or more, 50% now say free-trade pacts have hurt the U.S., up from 24% who said the same in 1999.
Further, U.S. sentiment on free trade has been turning more negative .
An October 2010 Wall Street Journal/NBC News poll reported that: "[M]ore than half of those surveyed, 53% , said free-trade agreements have hurt the U.S.
That is up from 46% three years ago and 32% in 1999."
Across party lines, income, and job type, between 76- 95% of Americans surveyed agreed that "outsourcing of production and manufacturing work to foreign countries is a reason the U.S. economy is struggling and more people aren't being hired."
The initial attempt to pass the bill failed in the House of Representatives due primarily to Republican opposition .
These historical positions were also expressed during the debate around the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008, which authorized the Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP), an approximately $700 billion bailout package (later reduced to $430 billion) for the banking industry.
These historical positions were also expressed during the debate around the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008, which authorized the Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP), an approximately $700 billion bailout package (later reduced to $430 billion ) for the banking industry.
Following a significant drop in the stock market and pressure from a variety of sources, a second vote passed the bill in the House.
These historical positions were also expressed during the debate around the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008, which authorized the Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP), an approximately $700 billion bailout package (later reduced to $430 billion) for the banking industry .
The initial attempt to pass the bill failed in the House of Representatives due primarily to Republican opposition.
The initial attempt to pass the bill failed in the House of Representatives due primarily to Republican opposition. Following a significant drop in the stock market and pressure from a variety of sources, a second vote passed the bill in the House.
Following a significant drop in the stock market and pressure from a variety of sources , a second vote passed the bill in the House.
Income inequality , expressed by wage stagnation for middle- and lower-income families coupled with a shift in income growth to the top earners, can adversely affect economic growth, as wealthier families tend to save more.
The quality or pay of the job matters, not just creating more jobs.
The union movement has declined considerably , one factor contributing to more income inequality and off-shoring.
Reinvigorating the labor movement could help create more higher-paying jobs, shifting some of the economic pie back to workers from owners.
For example, the main gauge, the unemployment rate, can be falling (a positive sign) while the labor force participation rate is falling as well (a negative sign).
The extent to which persons are not fully utilizing their skills is also difficult to determine when measuring the level of underemployment.
Further, the reasons for persons leaving the labor force may not be clear, such as aging (more people retiring) or because they are discouraged and have stopped looking for work.
A rough comparison of September 2014 (when the unemployment rate was 5.9% ) versus October 2009 (when the unemployment rate peaked at 10.0%) helps illustrate the analytical challenge.
A rough comparison of September 2014 (when the unemployment rate was 5.9%) versus October 2009 (when the unemployment rate peaked at 10.0% ) helps illustrate the analytical challenge.
The civilian population increased by roughly 10 million during that time, with the labor force increasing by about 2 million and those not in the labor force increasing by about 8 million.
The civilian population increased by roughly 10 million during that time, with the labor force increasing by about 2 million and those not in the labor force increasing by about 8 million.
The civilian population increased by roughly 10 million during that time, with the labor force increasing by about 2 million and those not in the labor force increasing by about 8 million .
The U.S. economy created between 18-21 million jobs in each of the three decades from 1970-2000, an average of approximately 165,500/month during that span.
The U.S. economy created between 18-21 million jobs in each of the three decades from 1970-2000, an average of approximately 165,500 /month during that span.
From January 2000 to January 2008 (the pre-recession peak), job creation averaged 77,000 jobs /month.
During the Great Recession, 8.5 million jobs were lost from the peak in early 2008 to the trough in February 2010.
During 2011 and 2012, job creation averaged 153,000 and 151,000 jobs/month respectively.
Wells Fargo economists estimated the figure around 150,000 in January 2013: "Over the past three months, labor force participation has averaged 63.7 percent, the same as the average for 2012.
Reuters reported a figure of 250,000 in February 2013, stating sustained job creation at this level would be needed to "significantly reduce the ranks of unemployed."
Meanwhile, job gains have averaged 151,000 .
The unemployment rate has been 7.9 percent, 7.8 percent and 7.8 percent for the past three months, while the labor force participation rate has been 63.8 percent, 63.6 percent and 63.6 percent .
The Congressional Research Service summarized the bill as follows: "Creating American Jobs and Ending Offshoring Act—Amends the Internal Revenue Code to: (1) exempt from employment taxes for a 24-month period employers who hire a employee who replaces another employee who is not a citizen or permanent resident of the United States and who performs similar duties overseas; (2) deny any tax deduction, deduction for loss, or tax credit for the cost of an American jobs offshoring transaction (defined as any transaction in which a taxpayer reduces or eliminates the operation of a trade or business in connection with the start-up or expansion of such trade or business outside the United States); and (3) eliminate the deferral of tax on income of a controlled foreign corporation attributable to property imported into the United States by such corporation or a related person, except for property exported before substantial use in the United States and for agricultural commodities not grown in the United States in commercially marketable quantities."
The Congressional Research Service summarized the bill as follows: "Creating American Jobs and Ending Offshoring Act—Amends the Internal Revenue Code to: (1) exempt from employment taxes for a 24-month period employers who hire a employee who replaces another employee who is not a citizen or permanent resident of the United States and who performs similar duties overseas; (2) deny any tax deduction, deduction for loss, or tax credit for the cost of an American jobs offshoring transaction (defined as any transaction in which a taxpayer reduces or eliminates the operation of a trade or business in connection with the start-up or expansion of such trade or business outside the United States); and (3) eliminate the deferral of tax on income of a controlled foreign corporation attributable to property imported into the United States by such corporation or a related person, except for property exported before substantial use in the United States and for agricultural commodities not grown in the United States in commercially marketable quantities."
The Congressional Research Service summarized the bill as follows: "Creating American Jobs and Ending Offshoring Act—Amends the Internal Revenue Code to: (1) exempt from employment taxes for a 24-month period employers who hire a employee who replaces another employee who is not a citizen or permanent resident of the United States and who performs similar duties overseas; (2) deny any tax deduction, deduction for loss, or tax credit for the cost of an American jobs offshoring transaction (defined as any transaction in which a taxpayer reduces or eliminates the operation of a trade or business in connection with the start-up or expansion of such trade or business outside the United States); and (3) eliminate the deferral of tax on income of a controlled foreign corporation attributable to property imported into the United States by such corporation or a related person, except for property exported before substantial use in the United States and for agricultural commodities not grown in the United States in commercially marketable quantities."
The Congressional Research Service summarized the bill as follows: "Creating American Jobs and Ending Offshoring Act—Amends the Internal Revenue Code to: (1) exempt from employment taxes for a 24-month period employers who hire a employee who replaces another employee who is not a citizen or permanent resident of the United States and who performs similar duties overseas; (2) deny any tax deduction, deduction for loss, or tax credit for the cost of an American jobs offshoring transaction (defined as any transaction in which a taxpayer reduces or eliminates the operation of a trade or business in connection with the start-up or expansion of such trade or business outside the United States); and (3) eliminate the deferral of tax on income of a controlled foreign corporation attributable to property imported into the United States by such corporation or a related person, except for property exported before substantial use in the United States and for agricultural commodities not grown in the United States in commercially marketable quantities."
President Barack Obama proposed the American Jobs Act in September 2011, which included a variety of tax cuts and spending programs to stimulate job creation.
President Barack Obama proposed the American Jobs Act in September 2011, which included a variety of tax cuts and spending programs to stimulate job creation .
President Barack Obama proposed the American Jobs Act in September 2011 , which included a variety of tax cuts and spending programs to stimulate job creation.
The White House provided a fact sheet which summarized the key provisions of the $447 billion bill.
CBO estimated in November 2011 that increased investment in infrastructure would create between 1-6 jobs per $1 million invested; in other words, a $100 billion investment would generate between 100,000 and 600,000 additional jobs.
CBO estimated in November 2011 that increased investment in infrastructure would create between 1-6 jobs per $1 million invested; in other words, a $100 billion investment would generate between 100,000 and 600,000 additional jobs.
However, other options, such as reducing employers' payroll taxes (especially if limited to firms that increase their payroll), increasing aid to the unemployed, and providing additional refundable tax credits to lower-income households, would generate more jobs per dollar of investment than infrastructure.
CBO estimated in November 2011 that increased investment in infrastructure would create between 1-6 jobs per $1 million invested; in other words, a $100 billion investment would generate between 100,000 and 600,000 additional jobs.
However, other options, such as reducing employers' payroll taxes (especially if limited to firms that increase their payroll), increasing aid to the unemployed , and providing additional refundable tax credits to lower-income households, would generate more jobs per dollar of investment than infrastructure.
The American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 significantly reduced taxes relative to the full expiration of the Bush tax cuts.
Removing the threat of higher taxes embodied in the fiscal cliff may encourage consumers to spend and employers to expand their business and add jobs.
Lowering the costs of workers also encourages employers to hire more.
President Obama reduced the Social Security payroll tax on workers during the 2011-2012 period, which added an estimated $100 billion to the deficit while leaving these funds with consumers to spend.
The Tax Policy Center estimated during 2012 that reducing the corporate tax rate from 35% to 20% would add $1 trillion to the debt over a decade, for example.
Raising the minimum wage would provide households with more money to spend, in an era with record corporate profits and a reluctance of corporations to invest.
Critics argue raising employment costs deters hiring .
During 2009, the minimum wage was $7.25 per hour, or $15,000 per year, below poverty level for some families.
During 2009, the minimum wage was $7.25 per hour, or $15,000 per year, below poverty level for some families.
If the minimum wage had kept pace with inflation or average wages over the past nearly 50 years, it would be about $10 an hour; if it had kept pace with the growth in average labor productivity, it would be about $17 an hour."
President Obama advocated raising the minimum wage during February 2013: "The President is calling on Congress to raise the minimum wage from $7.25 to $9 in stages by the end of 2015 and index it to inflation thereafter, which would directly boost wages for 15 million workers and reduce poverty and inequality...A range of economic studies show that modestly raising the minimum wage increases earnings and reduces poverty without jeopardizing employment.
President Obama advocated raising the minimum wage during February 2013: "The President is calling on Congress to raise the minimum wage from $7.25 to $9 in stages by the end of 2015 and index it to inflation thereafter, which would directly boost wages for 15 million workers and reduce poverty and inequality...
In fact, leading economists like Lawrence Katz, Richard Freeman, and Laura Tyson and businesses like Costco, Wal-Mart , and Stride Rite have supported past increases to the minimum wage, in part because increasing worker productivity and purchasing power for consumers will also help the overall economy."
President Obama advocated raising the minimum wage during February 2013: "The President is calling on Congress to raise the minimum wage from $7.25 to $9 in stages by the end of 2015 and index it to inflation thereafter, which would directly boost wages for 15 million workers and reduce poverty and inequality...
President Obama advocated raising the minimum wage during February 2013: "The President is calling on Congress to raise the minimum wage from $7.25 to $9 in stages by the end of 2015 and index it to inflation thereafter, which would directly boost wages for 15 million workers and reduce poverty and inequality...
Requiring laws to have sunset provisions (end-dates) would help ensure only worthwhile regulations are renewed.
New businesses account for about one-fifth of new jobs added.
However, the number of new businesses starting each year dropped by 17% after the recession.
Inc. magazine published 16 ideas to encourage new startups, including cutting red tape, approving micro-loans, allowing more immigration, and addressing tax uncertainty.
Inc. magazine published 16 ideas to encourage new startups, including cutting red tape, approving micro-loans, allowing more immigration, and addressing tax uncertainty.
The U.S. economy was severely impacted by the subprime mortgage crisis and the resulting 2007-2009 recession.
The U.S. unemployment rate rose steadily from 5% in January 2008 to a peak of 10% in October 2009.
It has since fallen to 5.0% in December 2015.
Employment fell from 138.0 million at peak employment in January 2008 to the trough of 129.2 million in February 2010, a decline of 8.8 million jobs or 6.4% of the workforce.
As of 2009, Detroit's unemployment rate was 27% , but the Detroit News suggests that nearly half of the city's working-age population was unemployed.
As part of the economic policy of Barack Obama, the United States Congress funded approximately $800 billion in spending and tax cuts via the February 2009 American Recovery and Reinvestment Act to stimulate the economy.
By March 2010 , employment again began to rise.
As part of the economic policy of Barack Obama, the United States Congress funded approximately $800 billion in spending and tax cuts via the February 2009 American Recovery and Reinvestment Act to stimulate the economy.
From March 2010 to September 2012, over 4.3 million jobs were added, with consecutive months of employment increases from October 2010 to December 2015.
As of December 2015, employment of 143.2 million was 4.9 million above the pre-crisis peak in January 2008 of 138.3 million.
A study by the Brookings Institution determined that the 2011 employment rate for teens (ages 16–19) in the United States was 25% .
Comparing employment rates in 2000 vs. 2011, the Brookings Institution found that younger workers had much lower rates of employment (higher unemployment) while older workers had higher rates of employment (lower unemployment).
Between 2000 and 2011, the employment rate for 16- to 19-year-olds fell from 44 to 24 percent, while the employment rate for those over 55 rose moderately.
For those aged 20–54, the rate of employment fell .
For those aged 20–54, the rate of employment fell .
Relief is a sculptural technique where the sculpted elements remain attached to a solid background of the same material. The term relief is from the Latin verb relevo, to raise.
The term relief is from the Latin verb relevo, to raise .
The technique involves considerable chiselling away of the background, which is a time-consuming exercise. On the other hand, a relief saves forming the rear of a subject, and is less fragile and more securely fixed than a sculpture in the round, especially one of a standing figure where the ankles are a potential weak point, especially in stone.
On the other hand, a relief saves forming the rear of a subject, and is less fragile and more securely fixed than a sculpture in the round , especially one of a standing figure where the ankles are a potential weak point, especially in stone.
 In other materials such as metal, clay, plaster stucco, ceramics or papier-mache the form can be just added to or raised up from the background, and monumental bronze reliefs are made by casting .
There are different degrees of relief depending on the degree of projection of the sculpted form from the field , for which the Italian appellations are still sometimes used.
 The full range includes high relief (alto-rilievo), where more than 50% of the depth is shown and there may be undercut areas , mid-relief (mezzo-rilievo), low-relief (basso-rilievo, or French: bas-relief /ˌbɑːrɪˈliːf/), and shallow-relief or rilievo schiacciato, where the plane is only very slightly lower than the sculpted elements.
 The full range includes high relief (alto-rilievo), where more than 50% of the depth is shown and there may be undercut areas, mid-relief (mezzo-rilievo), low-relief (basso-rilievo, or French: bas-relief /ˌbɑːrɪˈliːf/), and shallow-relief or rilievo schiacciato, where the plane is only very slightly lower than the sculpted elements .
 There is also sunk relief, which was mainly restricted to Ancient Egypt (see below).
 The opposite of relief sculpture is counter-relief, intaglio , or cavo-rilievo, where the form is cut into the field or background rather than rising from it; this is very rare in monumental sculpture.
 The opposite of relief sculpture is counter-relief, intaglio, or cavo-rilievo, where the form is cut into the field or background rather than rising from it ; this is very rare in monumental sculpture.
Works in the technique are described as "in relief ", and, especially in monumental sculpture, the work itself is "a relief".
Hyphens may or may not be used in all these terms , though they are rarely seen in "sunk relief" and are usual in "bas-relief" and "counter-relief".
Works in the technique are described as "in relief", and, especially in monumental sculpture, the work itself is "a relief".
Reliefs are common throughout the world on the walls of buildings and a variety of smaller settings, and a sequence of several panels or sections of relief may represent an extended narrative.
 Relief is more suitable for depicting complicated subjects with many figures and very active poses, such as battles, than free-standing "sculpture in the round ".
 Most ancient architectural reliefs were originally painted, which helped to define forms in low relief. The subject of reliefs is for convenient reference assumed in this article to be usually figures, but sculpture in relief often depicts decorative geometrical or foliage patterns, as in the arabesques of Islamic art, and may be of any subject.
The subject of reliefs is for convenient reference assumed in this article to be usually figures, but sculpture in relief often depicts decorative geometrical or foliage patterns, as in the arabesques of Islamic art, and may be of any subject.
The subject of reliefs is for convenient reference assumed in this article to be usually figures, but sculpture in relief often depicts decorative geometrical or foliage patterns, as in the arabesques of Islamic art, and may be of any subject.
The distinction between high and low relief is somewhat subjective, and the two are very often combined in a single work .
From the Parthenon Frieze onwards, many single figures have heads in high relief , but their lower legs are in low relief; the slightly projecting figures created in this way work well in reliefs that are seen from below (see Moissac portal in gallery).
 As unfinished examples from various periods show, raised reliefs, whether high or low, were normally "blocked out" by marking the outline of the figure and reducing the background areas to the new background level, work no doubt performed by apprentices (see gallery).
In particular, most later "high reliefs" contain sections in low relief, usually in the background .
A bas-relief ("low relief", French pronunciation: ​[baʁəljɛf], from the Italian basso rilievo) or low relief is a projecting image with a shallow overall depth , for example used on coins, on which all images are in low relief.
A bas-relief (" low relief ", French pronunciation: ​[baʁəljɛf], from the Italian basso rilievo) or low relief is a projecting image with a shallow overall depth, for example used on coins, on which all images are in low relief.
In the art of Ancient Egypt and other ancient Near Eastern and Asian cultures, and also Meso-America , a very low relief was commonly used for the whole composition.
In the lowest reliefs the relative depth of the elements shown is completely distorted , and if seen from the side the image makes no sense, but from the front the small variations in depth register as a three-dimensional image.
The Ishtar Gate of Babylon, now in Berlin , has low reliefs of large animals formed from moulded bricks, glazed in colour.
 However, it needs very good conditions to survive long in unmaintained buildings – Roman decorative plasterwork is mainly known from Pompeii and other sites buried by ash from Mount Vesuvius.
The Ishtar Gate of Babylon, now in Berlin, has low reliefs of large animals formed from moulded bricks, glazed in colour .
 Low relief was relatively rare in Western medieval art, but may be found, for example in wooden figures or scenes on the insides of the folding wings of multi-panel altarpieces.
The revival of low relief, which was seen as a classical style , begins early in the Renaissance; the Tempio Malatestiano in Rimini, a pioneering classicist building, designed by Leon Battista Alberti around 1450, uses low reliefs by Agostino di Duccio inside and on the external walls.
The revival of low relief, which was seen as a classical style, begins early in the Renaissance ; the Tempio Malatestiano in Rimini, a pioneering classicist building, designed by Leon Battista Alberti around 1450, uses low reliefs by Agostino di Duccio inside and on the external walls.
The revival of low relief, which was seen as a classical style, begins early in the Renaissance; the Tempio Malatestiano in Rimini, a pioneering classicist building , designed by Leon Battista Alberti around 1450, uses low reliefs by Agostino di Duccio inside and on the external walls.
The revival of low relief, which was seen as a classical style, begins early in the Renaissance; the Tempio Malatestiano in Rimini, a pioneering classicist building, designed by Leon Battista Alberti around 1450, uses low reliefs by Agostino di Duccio inside and on the external walls.
Low relief may use any medium or technique of sculpture, stone carving and metal casting being most common.
In later Western art, until a 20th-century revival, low relief was used mostly for smaller works or combined with higher relief to convey a sense of distance, or to give depth to the composition, especially for scenes with many figures and a landscape or architectural background, in the same way that lighter colours are used for the same purpose in painting.
Thus figures in the foreground are sculpted in high-relief, those in the background in low-relief .
Thus figures in the foreground are sculpted in high-relief , those in the background in low-relief.
 The typical traditional definition is that only up to half of the subject projects, and no elements are undercut or fully disengaged from the background field .
Mid-relief, " half-relief " or mezzo-rilievo is somewhat imprecisely defined, and the term is not often used in English, the works usually being described as low relief instead.
 The depth of the elements shown is normally somewhat distorted .
 Shallow-relief or rilievo stiacciato, used for the background areas of compositions with the main elements in low-relief, was perfected by the Italian Renaissance sculptor Donatello.
 Shallow-relief or rilievo stiacciato, used for the background areas of compositions with the main elements in low-relief, was perfected by the Italian Renaissance sculptor Donatello .
Mid-relief is probably the most common type of relief found in the Hindu and Buddhist art art of India and Southeast Asia.
The low reliefs of 2nd-century BCE to 6th-century CE Ajanta Caves and 5th to 10th-century Ellora Caves in India are rock reliefs .
Most of these reliefs are used to narrate sacred scriptures , such as the 1,460 panels of the 9th-century Borobudur temple in Central Java, Indonesia, narrating the Jataka tales or lives of the Buddha.
Most of these reliefs are used to narrate sacred scriptures, such as the 1,460 panels of the 9th-century Borobudur temple in Central Java, Indonesia, narrating the Jataka tales or lives of the Buddha.
At Bayon temple in Angkor Thom there are scenes of daily life in the Khmer Empire .
High relief (or altorilievo , from Italian) is where in general more than half the mass of the sculpted figure projects from the background, indeed the most prominent elements of the composition, especially heads and limbs, are often completely undercut, detaching them from the field.
High relief (or altorilievo, from Italian) is where in general more than half the mass of the sculpted figure projects from the background, indeed the most prominent elements of the composition, especially heads and limbs , are often completely undercut, detaching them from the field.
The parts of the subject that are seen are normally depicted at their full depth , unlike low relief where the elements seen are "squashed" flatter.
The parts of the subject that are seen are normally depicted at their full depth, unlike low relief where the elements seen are "squashed" flatter .
High-relief thus uses essentially the same style and techniques as free-standing sculpture , and in the case of a single figure gives largely the same view as a person standing directly in front of a free-standing statue would have.
Most of the many grand figure reliefs in Ancient Greek sculpture used a very "high" version of high-relief , with elements often fully free of the background, and parts of figures crossing over each other to indicate depth.
Most of the many grand figure reliefs in Ancient Greek sculpture used a very "high" version of high-relief, with elements often fully free of the background, and parts of figures crossing over each other to indicate depth .
The metopes of the Parthenon have largely lost their fully rounded elements, except for heads, showing the advantages of relief in terms of durability .
High relief has remained the dominant form for reliefs with figures in Western sculpture, also being common in Indian temple sculpture .
Smaller Greek sculptures such as private tombs, and smaller decorative areas such as friezes on large buildings , more often used low relief.
Hellenistic and Roman sarcophagus reliefs were cut with a drill rather than chisels, enabling and encouraging compositions extremely crowded with figures, like the Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus (250–260 CE).
Hellenistic and Roman sarcophagus reliefs were cut with a drill rather than chisels, enabling and encouraging compositions extremely crowded with figures , like the Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus (250–260 CE).
These are also seen in the enormous strips of reliefs that wound round Roman triumphal columns .
The sarcophagi in particular exerted a huge influence on later Western sculpture.
Very high relief reemerged in the Renaissance , and was especially used in wall-mounted funerary art and later on Neo-classical pediments and public monuments.
In Hindu-Buddhist art of India and Southeast Asia high relief can also be found, although it is not as common as low reliefs.
Most of Hindu-Buddhist sculptures however also can be considered as a high relief, since these sculptures usually connected to a stella as the background to support the statue as well as provides additional elements such as aura or halo in the back of sculpture's head, or floral decoration .
The examples of Indian high reliefs can be found in Khajuraho temple , that displaying voluptuous twisting figures that often describes the erotic Kamasutra positions.
The examples of Indian high reliefs can be found in Khajuraho temple, that displaying voluptuous twisting figures that often describes the erotic Kamasutra positions.
In 9th-century Prambanan temple, Central Java, the examples are the high reliefs of Lokapala devatas , the guardian of directions deities.
Sunk or sunken relief is largely restricted to the art of Ancient Egypt where it is very common, becoming after the Amarna period of Ahkenaten the dominant type used, as opposed to low relief.
It had been used earlier, but mainly for large reliefs on external walls, and for hieroglyphs and cartouches .
The image is made by cutting the relief sculpture itself into a flat surface .
In a simpler form the images are usually mostly linear in nature, like hieroglyphs, but in most cases the figure itself is in low relief, but set within a sunken area shaped round the image, so that the relief never rises beyond the original flat surface.
This method minimizes the work removing the background , while allowing normal relief modelling.
Various modelling techniques are used, such repoussé ("pushed-back") in metalwork, where a thin metal plate is shaped from behind using various metal or wood punches, producing a relief image.
Various modelling techniques are used, such repoussé ("pushed-back") in metalwork , where a thin metal plate is shaped from behind using various metal or wood punches, producing a relief image.
Various modelling techniques are used, such repoussé ("pushed-back") in metalwork, where a thin metal plate is shaped from behind using various metal or wood punches, producing a relief image.
Casting has also been widely used in bronze and other metals.
Reliefs in wax were produced at least from the Renaissance .
Carved ivory reliefs have been used since ancient times, and because the material, though expensive, cannot usually be reused, they have a relatively high survival rate, and for example consular diptychs represent a large proportion of the survivals of portable secular art from Late Antiquity.
In the Gothic period the carving of ivory reliefs became a considerable luxury industry in Paris and other centres.
In the Gothic period the carving of ivory reliefs became a considerable luxury industry in Paris and other centres.
As well as small diptychs and triptychs with densely packed religious scenes , usually from the New Testament, secular objects, usually in a lower relief, were also produced.
As well as small diptychs and triptychs with densely packed religious scenes, usually from the New Testament , secular objects, usually in a lower relief, were also produced.
These were often round mirror-cases, combs, handles , and other small items, but included a few larger caskets like the Casket with Scenes of Romances (Walters 71264) in Baltimore, Maryland, in the United States.
 Reliefs can be impressed by stamps onto clay, or the clay pressed into a mould bearing the design, as was usual with the mass-produced [ terra sigillata ] error: {{lang}}: text has italic markup (help) of Ancient Roman pottery.
Originally there were very often painted in bright colours .
Decorative reliefs in plaster or stucco may be much larger; this form of architectural decoration is found in many styles of interiors in the post-Renaissance West, and in Islamic architecture.
Decorative reliefs in plaster or stucco may be much larger; this form of architectural decoration is found in many styles of interiors in the post-Renaissance West, and in Islamic architecture .
In China, the Communist Party of China led by Mao Zedong reluctantly abandoned the civil war with the Kuomintang and cooperated with it against Japanese occupation forces .
The Partisans managed to form a communist Yugoslav state called Democratic Federal Yugoslavia in liberated territories in 1943 and by 1944, with the assistance of Soviet forces, seized control of Yugoslavia, entrenching a communist regime in Yugoslavia.
In China, the Communist Party of China led by Mao Zedong reluctantly abandoned the civil war with the Kuomintang and cooperated with it against Japanese occupation forces.
In China, the Communist Party of China led by Mao Zedong reluctantly abandoned the civil war with the Kuomintang and cooperated with it against Japanese occupation forces.
In Yugoslavia, the communist Yugoslav Partisans led by Josip Broz Tito , held up an effective guerrilla resistance movement to the Axis occupiers.
Tensions between the Western Allies and the communist Eastern allies accelerated after the end of World War II, resulting in the Cold War between the Soviet-led communist East and the American-led capitalist West.
Key events that began the Cold War included Soviet, Yugoslav, Bulgarian, and Albanian intervention in the Greek Civil War on the side of the communists, and the creation of the Berlin Blockade by the Soviet Union in 1948 .
Tensions between the Western Allies and the communist Eastern allies accelerated after the end of World War II, resulting in the Cold War between the Soviet-led communist East and the American -led capitalist West.
The United States and other Western powers used the war to prop up South Korea against Soviet and PRC-backed communist North Korea led by Kim Il-sung .
China returned to civil war between the Western-backed Kuomintang versus Mao Zedong's Communists supported by the Soviet Union with the Communists seizing control of all of mainland China in 1949, creating the People's Republic of China (PRC).
With the death of Stalin in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev gradually ascended to power in the Soviet Union and announced a radical policy of de-Stalinisation of the Communist Party and the country, condemning Stalin for excesses and tyranny.
With the death of Stalin in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev gradually ascended to power in the Soviet Union and announced a radical policy of de-Stalinisation of the Communist Party and the country, condemning Stalin for excesses and tyranny.
The conflict continued and escalated .
With the death of Stalin in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev gradually ascended to power in the Soviet Union and announced a radical policy of de-Stalinisation of the Communist Party and the country, condemning Stalin for excesses and tyranny.
Gulag forced labour camps were dismantled.
Communist revolution erupted in the Americas in this period, including revolutions in Bolivia, Cuba, El Salvador, Grenada, Nicaragua, Peru, and Uruguay .
In Cuba in 1959, forces led by Fidel Castro and Argentine revolutionary Che Guevara overthrew the regime of Fulgencio Batista and established a communist regime there with ties to the Soviet Union.
In Cuba in 1959, forces led by Fidel Castro and Argentine revolutionary Che Guevara overthrew the regime of Fulgencio Batista and established a communist regime there with ties to the Soviet Union .
In Cuba in 1959, forces led by Fidel Castro and Argentine revolutionary Che Guevara overthrew the regime of Fulgencio Batista and established a communist regime there with ties to the Soviet Union.
A brief dramatic episode of Marxist–Leninist revolution took place in North America during the October Crisis in the province of Quebec in Canada, where the Marxist–Leninist and Quebec separatist Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) kidnapped the British Trade Commissioner in Canada, James Cross, and Quebec government minister Pierre Laporte who was later killed, it issued a manifesto condemning what it considered English Canadian imperialism in French Quebec calling for an independent, socialist Quebec.
The People's Republic of China under Mao Zedong developed its own unique brand of Marxism–Leninism known as Maoism .
This was inaugurated with the visit of US President Richard Nixon to the PRC in 1972 and the US supporting the PRC replacing the Republic of China as the representative of China at the United Nations and taking its seat at the UN Security Council.
The death of Mao eventually saw the Deng Xiaoping politically outmaneuver Mao's chosen successor to power in the People's Republic of China.
After the split, the PRC eventually pursued détente with the United States as a means to challenge the Soviet Union.
The death of Mao eventually saw the Deng Xiaoping politically outmaneuver Mao's chosen successor to power in the People's Republic of China.
The ultimate goal of the Marxist–Leninist economy is the emancipation of the individual from alienating work , and therefore freedom from having to perform such labour to receive access to the material necessities for life.
The ultimate goal of the Marxist–Leninist economy is the emancipation of the individual from alienating work, and therefore freedom from having to perform such labour to receive access to the material necessities for life.
It is argued that freedom from necessity would maximise individual liberty , as individuals would be able to pursue their own interests and develop their own talents while only performing labour by free will without external coercion.
This advanced stage of social relations and economic organisation is called pure communism.
Elections are held in Marxist–Leninist states for all positions within the legislative structure, municipal councils, national legislatures and presidencies .
In most Marxist–Leninist states this has taken the form of directly electing representatives to fill positions, though in some states; such as China, Cuba, and the former Yugoslavia ; this system also included indirect elections such as deputies being elected by deputies as the next lower level of government.
In most Marxist–Leninist states this has taken the form of directly electing representatives to fill positions , though in some states; such as China, Cuba, and the former Yugoslavia; this system also included indirect elections such as deputies being elected by deputies as the next lower level of government.
These elections are not competitive multiparty elections, and most are not multi-candidate elections; usually a single communist party candidate is chosen to run for office in which voters vote either to accept or reject the candidate. Where there have been more than one candidates, all candidates are officially vetted before being able to stand for candidacy, and the system has frequently been structured to give advantage to official candidates over others.
Marxist–Leninist communist parties have typically exercised close control over the electoral process of such elections, including involvement with nomination, campaigning, and voting – including counting the ballots.
The Marxism–Leninist worldview promotes atheism as a fundamental tenet.
that the universe exists independently of human consciousness , consisting of only atoms and physical forces, is central to the worldview of Marxism–Leninism in the form of dialectical materialism.
Vitaly Ginzburg, a Soviet physicist, wrote that the "Bolshevik communists were not merely atheists, but, according to Lenin's terminology, militant atheists. " Therefore, many Marxist–Leninist states, historically and currently, are also atheist states.
Under these regimes, several religions and their adherents were targeted to be "stamped out".
Marxism–Leninism was created after Lenin's death during the regime of Josef Stalin in the Soviet Union , but continued to be the official ideology of the Soviet Communist Party after de-Stalinisation.
Marxism–Leninism descends from the Bolshevik ("Majority") faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) that was founded in the RSDLP's Second Congress in 1903.
Marxism–Leninism descends from the Bolshevik ("Majority") faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) that was founded in the RSDLP's Second Congress in 1903 .
Marxism– Lenin ism was created after Lenin's death during the regime of Josef Stalin in the Soviet Union, but continued to be the official ideology of the Soviet Communist Party after de-Stalinisation.
The Bolsheviks advocated the policy of democratic centralism that would allow members to elect their leaders and decide policy but that once policy was set, members would be obligated to have complete loyalty in their leaders.
Lenin attempted and failed to bring about communist revolution in Russia in the Russian Revolution of 1905–7 .
During the revolution, Lenin advocated mass action and that the revolution "accept mass terror in its tactics" .
During the revolution Lenin advocated militancy and violence of workers as a means to pressure the middle class to join and overthrow the Tsar. Bolshevik emigres briefly poured into Russia to take part in the revolution.
Most importantly, the experience of this revolution caused Lenin to conceive of the means of sponsoring communist revolution , through propaganda, agitation, a well-organised and disciplined but small political party, and through manipulation of aroused masses.
However, it was Lenin who defined the difference between "socialism" and "communism", explaining that they are similar to what Marx described with the lower and upper stages of communist society.
Marx explained that in a society immediately after the revolution, distribution must be based on the contribution of the individual , whereas in the upper stage of communism the from each according to his ability, to each according to his need concept would be applied.
the from each according to his ability, to each according to his need concept would be applied.
Originally and for a long time the concept of a socialist society was regarded as equal to that of a communist society .
Marxism–Leninism supports universal social welfare .
Improvements in public health and education, provision of child care, provision of state-directed social services, and provision of social benefits are deemed by Marxist–Leninists to help to raise labour productivity and advance a society in development towards a communist society.
Improvements in public health and education, provision of child care, provision of state-directed social services, and provision of social benefits are deemed by Marxist–Leninists to help to raise labour productivity and advance a society in development towards a communist society .
It advocates universal education with a focus on developing the proletariat with knowledge , class consciousness, and understanding the historical development of communism.
This is part of Marxist–Leninists' advocacy of promoting and reinforcing the operation of a planned socialist economy .
Marxist–Leninist cultural policy focuses upon modernisation and distancing society from: the past, the bourgeoisie, and the old intelligentsia.
Both cultural and educational policy in Marxist–Leninist states have emphasised the development of a "New Man" —a class conscious, knowledgeable, heroic proletarian person devoted to work and social cohesion as opposed to the antithetic "bourgeois individualist" associated with cultural backwardness and social atomisation.
Marxist–Leninist cultural policy focuses upon modernisation and distancing society from: the past, the bourgeoisie , and the old intelligentsia.
Both cultural and educational policy in Marxist–Leninist states have emphasised the development of a "New Man"—a class conscious, knowledgeable, heroic proletarian person devoted to work and social cohesion as opposed to the antithetic "bourgeois individualist" associated with cultural backwardness and social atomisation .
Both cultural and educational policy in Marxist–Leninist states have emphasised the development of a "New Man"—a class conscious, knowledgeable, heroic proletarian person devoted to work and social cohesion as opposed to the antithetic "bourgeois individualist" associated with cultural backwardness and social atomisation.
The state serves as a safeguard for the ownership and as the coordinator of production through a universal economic plan.
For the purpose of reducing waste and increasing efficiency, scientific planning replaces market mechanisms and price mechanisms as the guiding principle of the economy.
The Marxist–Leninist state's huge purchasing power replaces the role of market forces, with macroeconomic equilibrium not being achieved through market forces but by economic planning based on scientific assessment.
The profit motive as a driving force for production is replaced by social obligation to fulfil the economic plan.
Wages are set and differentiated according to skill and intensity of work .
Because Marxism–Leninism has historically only been the state ideology of countries who were economically undeveloped prior to socialist revolution (or whose economies were nearly obliterated by war, such as the German Democratic Republic), the primary goal before achieving full communism was the development of socialism in itself.
To develop socialism, the economy went through a period of massive industrialisation , in which much of the peasant population moved into urban areas while those remaining in the rural areas began working in the new collective agricultural system.
Since the mid-1930s, Marxism–Leninism has advocated a socialist consumer society based upon egalitarianism, asceticism, and self-sacrifice.
Since the mid-1930s, Marxism–Leninism has advocated a socialist consumer society based upon egalitarianism, asceticism, and self-sacrifice .
This pro-consumerist policy has been advanced on the lines of "industrial pragmatism" as it advances economic progress through bolstering industrialisation.
In 1936 , the Soviet Union adopted a new constitution that ended weighted voting preference for workers as in its previous constitutions, and created universal suffrage for all people over the age of eighteen.
Political developments in the Soviet Union from 1929 to 1941 included Stalin dismantling the remaining elements of democracy from the Party by extending his control over its institutions and eliminating any possible rivals.
The 1936 Constitution also split the Soviets into two legislatures, the Soviet of the Union – representing electoral districts, and the Soviet of the Nationalities – that represented the ethnic makeup of the country as a whole.
By 1939, with the exception of Stalin himself, none of the original Bolsheviks of the October Revolution of 1917 remained in the Party.
In 1936, the Soviet Union adopted a new constitution that ended weighted voting preference for workers as in its previous constitutions, and created universal suffrage for all people over the age of eighteen .
The collectivisation policies resulted in economic disaster with severe fluctuations in grain harvests, catastrophic losses in the number of livestock, a substantial drop in the food consumption of the country's citizens, and the allegedly intentional Holodomor famine in the Ukraine .
Economic developments in the Soviet Union from 1929 to 1941 included the acceleration of collectivisation of agriculture.
The collectivisation policies resulted in economic disaster with severe fluctuations in grain harvests, catastrophic losses in the number of livestock, a substantial drop in the food consumption of the country's citizens, and the allegedly intentional Holodomor famine in the Ukraine.
Modern sources estimate that between 2.4 and 7.5 million Ukrainians died in the Holodomor famine.
Unemployment was virtually eliminated in the country during the 1930s.
Art and culture became strictly regulated under the principles of Socialist Realism , and Russian traditions that Stalin admired were allowed to continue.
Education was transformed, under Lenin, the education system took allowed relaxed discipline in schools that became based upon Marxist theory, but Stalin reversed this in 1934 with a conservative approach taken with the reintroduction of formal learning, the use of examinations and grades, the assertion of full authority of the teacher, and the introduction of school uniforms.
Organised religion was repressed, especially minority religious groups.
Social developments in the Soviet Union from 1929 to 1941 included the relinquishment of the relaxed social control and allowance of experimentation under Lenin to Stalin's promotion of a rigid and authoritarian society based upon discipline – mixing traditional Russian values with Stalin's interpretation of Marxism.
With the Suddeten agreement in 1938 , Soviet foreign policy reversed, with Stalin abandoning anti-German policies and adopting pro-German policies.
In 1939, the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany agreed to both a non-aggression pact and an agreement to invade and partition Poland between them, resulting in the invasion of Poland in September 1939 by Germany and the Soviet Union and the beginning of World War II, with the Allies declaring war on Germany.
In 1939, the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany agreed to both a non-aggression pact and an agreement to invade and partition Poland between them, resulting in the invasion of Poland in September 1939 by Germany and the Soviet Union and the beginning of World War II, with the Allies declaring war on Germany.
The rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazis in Germany in 1933 resulted in the Soviet Union initially terminating the political connections it previously had established with Germany in the 1920s and Stalin turned to accommodate Czechoslovakia and the West against Hitler.
The rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazis in Germany in 1933 resulted in the Soviet Union initially terminating the political connections it previously had established with Germany in the 1920s and Stalin turned to accommodate Czechoslovakia and the West against Hitler.
The Soviet Union was brought into World War II and joined the Western Allies in a common front against the Axis Powers.
The German invasion of the Soviet Union resulted in the substantial realignment of multiple Soviet policies.
The Soviet Union was brought into World War II and joined the Western Allies in a common front against the Axis Powers.
Stalin enacted total war policy in response.[failed verification]
Marxism–Leninism is a political philosophy or worldview founded on ideas of Marxism and Leninism, and seeks to establish socialist states and develop them further.
It remains the official ideology of the ruling parties of China, Cuba, Laos, and Vietnam, and was the official ideology of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) and the other ruling parties making up the Eastern Bloc.
Marxism– Lenin ism is a political philosophy or worldview founded on ideas of Marxism and Leninism, and seeks to establish socialist states and develop them further.
Marxist–Leninists espouse a wide array of views depending on their understanding of Marxism and Leninism, but generally they support the idea of a vanguard party, one-party state, state-dominance over the economy, internationalism, opposition to bourgeois democracy, and opposition to capitalism.
Marxism–Leninism is a political philosophy or worldview founded on ideas of Marxism and Leninism, and seeks to establish socialist states and develop them further.
Marxism–Leninism first became a distinct philosophical movement in the Soviet Union during the 1920s , when Joseph Stalin and his supporters gained control of the Russian Communist Party (bolsheviks).
Marxism–Leninism first became a distinct philosophical movement in the Soviet Union during the 1920s, when Joseph Stalin and his supporters gained control of the Russian Communist Party (bolsheviks).
Marxism–Leninism first became a distinct philosophical movement in the Soviet Union during the 1920s, when Joseph Stalin and his supporters gained control of the Russian Communist Party ( bolsheviks ).
It rejected the notions, common among Marxists at the time, of world revolution as a prerequisite for building socialism in Russia (in favor of the concept of Socialism in One Country), and of a gradual transition from capitalism to socialism (signified by the introduction of the First Five-Year Plan ).
The internationalism of Marxism–Leninism was expressed in supporting revolutions in foreign countries (e.g., initially through the Communist International or through the concept of "socialist-leaning countries" of late Soviet Union).
The goal of Marxism–Leninism is the development of a state into a socialist republic through the leadership of a revolutionary vanguard, the part of the working class who come to class consciousness as a result of the dialectic of class struggle.
The socialist state, representing a "dictatorship of the proletariat " (as opposed to that of the bourgeoisie) is governed by the party of the revolutionary vanguard through the process of democratic centralism, which Vladimir Lenin described as "diversity in discussion, unity in action."
The socialist state, representing a "dictatorship of the proletariat" (as opposed to that of the bourgeoisie ) is governed by the party of the revolutionary vanguard through the process of democratic centralism, which Vladimir Lenin described as "diversity in discussion, unity in action."
It seeks the development of socialism into the full realisation of communism , a classless social system with common ownership of the means of production and with full social equality of all members of society.
It seeks the development of socialism into the full realisation of communism, a classless social system with common ownership of the means of production and with full social equality of all members of society.
Trotskyists claim that Marxism–Leninism led to the establishment of state capitalism.
Others, such as philosopher Eric Voegelin , claims that Marxism–Leninism is in its core (as in the ideas of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels) inherently oppressive; claiming that the "Marxian vision dictated the Stalinist outcome not because the communist utopia was inevitable but because it was impossible".
Marxism–Leninism as a philosophy and a political movement has been criticised over the years from widely different ideological currents, due to its relations with Stalinism , the Soviet Union, state repression in Marxist–Leninist run states and classical Marxism.
Marx ism–Leninism as a philosophy and a political movement has been criticised over the years from widely different ideological currents, due to its relations with Stalinism, the Soviet Union, state repression in Marxist–Leninist run states and classical Marxism.
Marxism–Leninism as a philosophy and a political movement has been criticised over the years from widely different ideological currents, due to its relations with Stalinism, the Soviet Union , state repression in Marxist–Leninist run states and classical Marxism.
After the Sino-Soviet split of the 1960s , the communist parties of the Soviet Union and of the People's Republic of China each claimed to be the sole successor to Marxism–Leninism.
After the Sino-Soviet split of the 1960s, the communist parties of the Soviet Union and of the People's Republic of China each claimed to be the sole successor to Marxism–Leninism.
In China, the claim that Mao had "adapted Marxism–Leninism to Chinese conditions" evolved into the idea that he had updated it in a fundamental way applying to the world as a whole;[citation needed] consequently, the term "Mao Zedong Thought" (commonly known as Maoism)  increasingly came to describe the official Chinese state ideology as well as the ideological basis of parties around the world which sympathised with the Communist Party of China (such as the Communist Party of the Philippines, founded by Jose Maria Sison in 1968).
In China, the claim that Mao had "adapted Marxism–Leninism to Chinese conditions" evolved into the idea that he had updated it in a fundamental way applying to the world as a whole;[citation needed] consequently, the term "Mao Zedong Thought" (commonly known as Maoism )  increasingly came to describe the official Chinese state ideology as well as the ideological basis of parties around the world which sympathised with the Communist Party of China (such as the Communist Party of the Philippines, founded by Jose Maria Sison in 1968).
After the death of Mao on 1976 , Peruvian Maoists associated with the Communist Party of Peru (Sendero Luminoso)  coined the term Marxism–Leninism–Maoism, arguing that Maoism was a more advanced stage of Marxism.
Initial Bolshevik economic policies from 1917 to 1918 were cautious with limited nationalisations of private property .
Beginning in mid-1918 , the Bolshevik regime enacted what is known as "war communism", an economic policy that aimed to replace the free market with state control over all means of production and distribution.
Lenin was immediately committed to avoid antagonising the peasantry by making efforts to coax them away from the Socialist Revolutionaries , allowing a peasant takeover of nobles' estates while no immediate nationalisations were enacted on peasants' property.
Beginning in mid-1918, the Bolshevik regime enacted what is known as "war communism", an economic policy that aimed to replace the free market with state control over all means of production and distribution .
The requisitioning of grain away from the peasantry to workers resulted in peasants losing incentive to labour, resulting in a drop in production , producing a food shortage crisis in the cities that provoked strikes and riots that seriously challenged the Bolshevik regime, with the most serious being the Kronstadt Revolt of 1921.
The New Economic Policy was started in 1921 as a backwards step from war communism, with the restoration of a degree of capitalism and private enterprise.
The New Economic Policy was started in 1921 as a backwards step from war communism, with the restoration of a degree of capitalism and private enterprise .
91 percent of industrial enterprises were returned to private ownership or trusts.
A key aspect that affected the Bolshevik regime was the backward economic conditions in Russia that were considered unfavourable to orthodox Marxist theory of communist revolution.
However, by 1924 , considerable economic progress had been achieved and by 1926 the economy regained its 1913 production level.
As Lenin neared death after suffering strokes, he declared in his testament of December 1922 an order to remove Joseph Stalin from his post as General Secretary and replace him by "some other person who is superior to Stalin only in one respect, namely, in being more tolerant, more loyal, more polite and more attentive to comrades".
As Lenin neared death after suffering strokes, he declared in his testament of December 1922 an order to remove Joseph Stalin from his post as General Secretary and replace him by "some other person who is superior to Stalin only in one respect, namely, in being more tolerant, more loyal, more polite and more attentive to comrades".
When Lenin died in January 1924 , the testament was read out to a meeting of the party's Central Committee.
However, party members believed that Stalin had improved his reputation in 1923 and ignored Lenin's order .
In 1929 , Stalin seized control of the Party.
Upon Stalin attaining power, Bolshevism became associated with Stalinism, whose policies included: rapid industrialisation, Socialism in One Country, a centralised state, the collectivisation of agriculture , and the subordination of interests of other communist parties to those of the Soviet party.
In 1929 , Stalin seized control of the Party.
Opposition to Stalin by Trotsky led to a dissident Bolshevik ideology called Trotskyism that was repressed under Stalin's rule.
He accused them of plotting against the Party's agreed strategy and forced them to resign from the Politburo and political office.
Stalin's regime was a totalitarian state under his dictatorship.
This abuse of power by local leaders exacerbated the violent purges and terror campaigns carried out by Stalin against members of the Party deemed to be traitors .
Stalin exercised extensive personal control over the Communist Party and unleashed an unprecedented level of violence to eliminate any potential threat to his regime.
Stalin unleashed the Great Terror campaign against alleged "socially dangerous" and "counterrevolutionary" persons that resulted in the Great Purge of 1936–1938 during which 1.5 million people were arrested from 1937–1938 and 681,692 of those were executed.
Stalin unleashed the Great Terror campaign against alleged "socially dangerous" and "counterrevolutionary" persons that resulted in the Great Purge of 1936–1938 during which 1.5 million people were arrested from 1937–1938 and 681,692 of those were executed.
French colonial forces had failed to hold back independence forces led by the communist leader Ho Chi Minh in North Vietnam.
Another major conflict erupted between the East and West in the Cold War in Asia during the Vietnam War .
French forces retreated from Vietnam and were replaced by American forces supporting a Western-backed client regime in South Vietnam.
French forces retreated from Vietnam and were replaced by American forces supporting a Western-backed client regime in South Vietnam.
With the direct intervention of North Vietnam in the South with the Tet Offensive of 1968 , US forces suffered heavy losses.
A new front of Marxist–Leninist revolution erupted in Africa , with revolutions in Benin, the Republic of the Congo, and Somalia; Marxist–Leninist liberation fronts in Angola and Mozambique revolting against Portuguese colonial rule; the overthrow of Haile Selassie and the creation of the Derg communist military junta in Ethiopia; blacks led by Robert Mugabe in Rhodesia revolting against white-minority rule there.
Angola, Benin, the Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Mozambique, Somalia and Zimbabwe (formerly Rhodesia) all became Marxist–Leninist states between 1969 and 1980 .
Angola, Benin, the Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Mozambique, Somalia and Zimbabwe (formerly Rhodesia) all became Marxist–Leninist states between 1969 and 1980 .
A new front of Marxist–Leninist revolution erupted in Africa, with revolutions in Benin, the Republic of the Congo, and Somalia; Marxist–Leninist liberation fronts in Angola and Mozambique revolting against Portuguese colonial rule; the overthrow of Haile Selassie and the creation of the Derg communist military junta in Ethiopia ; blacks led by Robert Mugabe in Rhodesia revolting against white-minority rule there.
A new front of Marxist–Leninist revolution erupted in Africa, with revolutions in Benin, the Republic of the Congo, and Somalia; Marxist–Leninist liberation fronts in Angola and Mozambique revolting against Portuguese colonial rule; the overthrow of Haile Selassie and the creation of the Derg communist military junta in Ethiopia; blacks led by Robert Mugabe in Rhodesia revolting against white-minority rule there.
In 1985 , Mikhail Gorbachev rose to power in the Soviet Union and began policies of radical political reform involving political liberalisation, called Perestroika and Glasnost.
In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev rose to power in the Soviet Union and began policies of radical political reform involving political liberalisation, called Perestroika and Glasnost .
In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev rose to power in the Soviet Union and began policies of radical political reform involving political liberalisation, called Perestroika and Glasnost.
Gorbachev's policies were designed at dismantling authoritarian elements of the state that were developed by Stalin , while aiming for a return to a supposed ideal Leninist state that retained one-party structure while allowing the democratic election of competing candidates within the Communist Party for political office.
Gorbachev also aimed to seek détente with the West and end the Cold War that was no longer economically sustainable to be pursued by the Soviet Union.
In 1989 , revolts across Eastern Europe and China against Marxist–Leninist regimes.
The revolts culminated with the revolt in East Germany against the Stalinist regime of Erich Honecker and demands for the Berlin Wall to be torn down.
Meanwhile, the eastern European communist states politically deteriorated in response to the success of the Polish Solidarity movement and the possibility of Gorbachev -style political liberalisation.
In China, the government refused to negotiate with student protestors resulting in the Tianamen Square attacks that stopped the revolts by force.
Unrest and eventual collapse of communism also occurred in Yugoslavia , though for different reasons than those of the Warsaw Pact.
This resulted in a surge of Slovene and Croat nationalism in response and the collapse of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia in 1990 , the victory of nationalists in multiparty elections in most of Yugoslavia's constituent republics, and eventually civil war between the various nationalities beginning in 1991.
The first leader to exploit such nationalism for political purposes was communist official Slobodan Milošević who used it to seize power as President of Serbia, and demanded concessions to Serbia and Serbs by the other republics in the Yugoslav federation.
The death of Tito in 1980 and the subsequent vacuum of strong leadership allowed the rise of rival ethnic nationalism in the multinational country.
This resulted in a surge of Slovene and Croat nationalism in response and the collapse of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia in 1990 , the victory of nationalists in multiparty elections in most of Yugoslavia's constituent republics, and eventually civil war between the various nationalities beginning in 1991.
The Soviet Union itself collapsed between 1990 and 1991 , with a rise of secessionist nationalism and a political power dispute between Gorbachev and the new non-communist leader of the Russian Federation, Boris Yeltsin.
The Soviet Union itself collapsed between 1990 and 1991, with a rise of secessionist nationalism and a political power dispute between Gorbachev and the new non-communist leader of the Russian Federation, Boris Yeltsin .
The Soviet Union itself collapsed between 1990 and 1991, with a rise of secessionist nationalism and a political power dispute between Gorbachev and the new non-communist leader of the Russian Federation, Boris Yeltsin.
The Soviet Union itself collapsed between 1990 and 1991 , with a rise of secessionist nationalism and a political power dispute between Gorbachev and the new non-communist leader of the Russian Federation, Boris Yeltsin.
On December 25, 1991 , Gorbachev officially announced the dissolution of the Soviet Union, ending the existence of the world's first communist-led state.
In Asia , a number of Marxist–Leninist regimes and movements continue to exist, though their practices depart from 20th century Marxism-Leninism in major respects[citation needed].
In the Philippines , the Maoist-oriented Communist Party of the Philippines and its armed wing, the New People's Army, have been waging armed revolution against the existing Philippine government since 1968.
In the Philippines, the Maoist-oriented Communist Party of the Philippines and its armed wing, the New People's Army, have been waging armed revolution against the existing Philippine government since 1968 .
Maoist rebels in Nepal engaged in a civil war from 1996 to 2006 that managed to topple the monarchy there and create a republic.
The Naxalite–Maoist insurgency has continued between the governments of India and Bangladesh against various Marxist–Leninist movements, having been unabated since the 1960s .
In 1979 , the Soviet Union intervened in Afghanistan to secure the communist regime there, though the act was seen as an invasion by Afghans opposed to Afghanistan's communist regime and by the West.
The West responded to the Soviet military actions by boycotting the Moscow Olympics of 1980 and providing clandestine support to the Mujahideen, including Osama bin Laden, as a means to challenge the Soviet Union.
The West responded to the Soviet military actions by boycotting the Moscow Olympics of 1980 and providing clandestine support to the Mujahideen, including Osama bin Laden, as a means to challenge the Soviet Union.
The West responded to the Soviet military actions by boycotting the Moscow Olympics of 1980 and providing clandestine support to the Mujahideen , including Osama bin Laden, as a means to challenge the Soviet Union.
The war became a Soviet equivalent of the Vietnam War to the United States – it remained a stalemate throughout the 1980s .
In the aftermath of the failed revolution of 1905–7, Bolshevik revolutionaries were forced back into exile in 1908 in Switzerland as well as other anti-Tsarist revolutionaries including the Mensheviks, the Socialist Revolutionaries, and anarchists.
Facing leadership challenges from the "Forward" group, Lenin usurped the all-Party Congress of the RSDLP in 1912, to seize control of it and make it an exclusively Bolshevik party loyal to his leadership.
Facing leadership challenges from the "Forward" group, Lenin usurped the all-Party Congress of the RSDLP in 1912 , to seize control of it and make it an exclusively Bolshevik party loyal to his leadership.
Membership in both the Bolshevik and Menshevik ranks diminished from 1907 to 1908 and the number of people taking part in strikes in 1907 was 26 percent of the figure during the year of the revolution in 1905, it dropped in 1908 to 6 percent of that figure, and in 1910 it was 2 percent of that figure.
In the aftermath of the failed revolution of 1905–7, Bolshevik revolutionaries were forced back into exile in 1908 in Switzerland as well as other anti-Tsarist revolutionaries including the Mensheviks, the Socialist Revolutionaries, and anarchists.
Facing leadership challenges from the "Forward" group, Lenin usurped the all-Party Congress of the RSDLP in 1912, to seize control of it and make it an exclusively Bolshevik party loyal to his leadership.
Facing leadership challenges from the "Forward" group, Lenin usurped the all-Party Congress of the RSDLP in 1912 , to seize control of it and make it an exclusively Bolshevik party loyal to his leadership.
Membership in both the Bolshevik and Menshevik ranks diminished from 1907 to 1908 and the number of people taking part in strikes in 1907 was 26 percent of the figure during the year of the revolution in 1905, it dropped in 1908 to 6 percent of that figure, and in 1910 it was 2 percent of that figure.
At the outset of World War I in 1914 , the Bolsheviks opposed the war unlike most other socialist parties across Europe that supported their national governments.
Lenin and a small group of anti-war socialist leaders, including Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht, denounced established socialist leaders of having betrayed the socialist ideal via their support of the war.
In response to the outbreak of World War I, Lenin wrote his book Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism from 1915 to 1916 and published in 1917 in which he argued that capitalism directly leads to imperialism.
As a means to destabilise Russia on the Eastern Front, Germany's High Command allowed Lenin to travel across Germany and German-held territory into Russia in April 1917, anticipating him partaking in revolutionary activity.
At the outset of World War I in 1914 , the Bolsheviks opposed the war unlike most other socialist parties across Europe that supported their national governments.
Lenin and a small group of anti-war socialist leaders, including Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht, denounced established socialist leaders of having betrayed the socialist ideal via their support of the war.
In response to the outbreak of World War I, Lenin wrote his book Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism from 1915 to 1916 and published in 1917 in which he argued that capitalism directly leads to imperialism.
As a means to destabilise Russia on the Eastern Front, Germany's High Command allowed Lenin to travel across Germany and German-held territory into Russia in April 1917, anticipating him partaking in revolutionary activity.
In March 1917 , Tsar Nicholas II abdicated his throne and a provisional government quickly filled the vacuum, proclaiming Russia a republic months later.
This was followed by the October Revolution by the Bolsheviks , who seized control in a quick coup d'état against the Provisional Government, resulting in the formation of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR), the first country in history committed to the establishment of communism.
This was followed by the October Revolution by the Bolsheviks, who seized control in a quick coup d'état against the Provisional Government, resulting in the formation of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) , the first country in history committed to the establishment of communism.
Amidst civil war between the Reds and the Whites, the RSFSR inherited the war that the Russian Empire was fighting against Germany that was ended a year later with an armistice.
In March 1917 , Tsar Nicholas II abdicated his throne and a provisional government quickly filled the vacuum, proclaiming Russia a republic months later.
This was followed by the October Revolution by the Bolsheviks , who seized control in a quick coup d'état against the Provisional Government, resulting in the formation of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR), the first country in history committed to the establishment of communism.
This was followed by the October Revolution by the Bolsheviks, who seized control in a quick coup d'état against the Provisional Government, resulting in the formation of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) , the first country in history committed to the establishment of communism.
Amidst civil war between the Reds and the Whites, the RSFSR inherited the war that the Russian Empire was fighting against Germany that was ended a year later with an armistice.
In March 1917 , Tsar Nicholas II abdicated his throne and a provisional government quickly filled the vacuum, proclaiming Russia a republic months later.
This was followed by the October Revolution by the Bolsheviks , who seized control in a quick coup d'état against the Provisional Government, resulting in the formation of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR), the first country in history committed to the establishment of communism.
This was followed by the October Revolution by the Bolsheviks, who seized control in a quick coup d'état against the Provisional Government, resulting in the formation of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) , the first country in history committed to the establishment of communism.
Amidst civil war between the Reds and the Whites, the RSFSR inherited the war that the Russian Empire was fighting against Germany that was ended a year later with an armistice.
In March 1917 , Tsar Nicholas II abdicated his throne and a provisional government quickly filled the vacuum, proclaiming Russia a republic months later.
This was followed by the October Revolution by the Bolsheviks , who seized control in a quick coup d'état against the Provisional Government, resulting in the formation of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR), the first country in history committed to the establishment of communism.
This was followed by the October Revolution by the Bolsheviks, who seized control in a quick coup d'état against the Provisional Government, resulting in the formation of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) , the first country in history committed to the establishment of communism.
Amidst civil war between the Reds and the Whites, the RSFSR inherited the war that the Russian Empire was fighting against Germany that was ended a year later with an armistice.
This was followed by the October Revolution by the Bolsheviks, who seized control in a quick coup d'état against the Provisional Government, resulting in the formation of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR), the first country in history committed to the establishment of communism.
In March 1917 , Tsar Nicholas II abdicated his throne and a provisional government quickly filled the vacuum, proclaiming Russia a republic months later.
This was followed by the October Revolution by the Bolsheviks, who seized control in a quick coup d'état against the Provisional Government, resulting in the formation of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) , the first country in history committed to the establishment of communism.
Amidst civil war between the Reds and the Whites, the RSFSR inherited the war that the Russian Empire was fighting against Germany that was ended a year later with an armistice.
In March 1917 , Tsar Nicholas II abdicated his throne and a provisional government quickly filled the vacuum, proclaiming Russia a republic months later.
This was followed by the October Revolution by the Bolsheviks , who seized control in a quick coup d'état against the Provisional Government, resulting in the formation of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR), the first country in history committed to the establishment of communism.
This was followed by the October Revolution by the Bolsheviks, who seized control in a quick coup d'état against the Provisional Government, resulting in the formation of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) , the first country in history committed to the establishment of communism.
Amidst civil war between the Reds and the Whites, the RSFSR inherited the war that the Russian Empire was fighting against Germany that was ended a year later with an armistice.
However, a successful communist revolution occurred in Mongolia in 1924 , resulting in the creation of the Mongolian People's Republic.
In response to the October Revolution, communist revolution broke out in Germany and Hungary from 1918 to 1920, involving creation of the Bavarian Soviet Republic, the failed Spartacist uprising in Berlin in 1919 , and the creation of the Hungarian Soviet Republic.
However, a successful communist revolution occurred in Mongolia in 1924, resulting in the creation of the Mongolian People's Republic .
In response to the October Revolution, communist revolution broke out in Germany and Hungary from 1918 to 1920, involving creation of the Bavarian Soviet Republic, the failed Spartacist uprising in Berlin in 1919, and the creation of the Hungarian Soviet Republic.
In response to the October Revolution, communist revolution broke out in Germany and Hungary from 1918 to 1920, involving creation of the Bavarian Soviet Republic, the failed Spartacist uprising in Berlin in 1919, and the creation of the Hungarian Soviet Republic.
However, a successful communist revolution occurred in Mongolia in 1924, resulting in the creation of the Mongolian People's Republic .
In response to the October Revolution, communist revolution broke out in Germany and Hungary from 1918 to 1920, involving creation of the Bavarian Soviet Republic, the failed Spartacist uprising in Berlin in 1919 , and the creation of the Hungarian Soviet Republic.
However, a successful communist revolution occurred in Mongolia in 1924 , resulting in the creation of the Mongolian People's Republic.
The entrenchment of Bolshevik power began in 1918 with the expulsion of Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries from the workers' soviets.
The Bolshevik government established the Cheka, a secret police force dedicated to confronting anti-Bolshevik elements.
The Bolshevik government established the Cheka, a secret police force dedicated to confronting anti-Bolshevik elements.
Initially, opposition to the Bolshevik regime was strong as a response to Russia's poor economic conditions, with the Cheka reporting no less than 118 uprisings, including the Kronstadt Revolt.
Lenin repressed opposition political parties.
The idea of "dual sovereignty" or "separate sovereigns" is derived from the Tenth Amendment to the Constitution, which states that "the powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people."
The idea of "dual sovereignty" or " separate sovereigns " is derived from the Tenth Amendment to the Constitution, which states that "the powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people."
The idea of "dual sovereignty" or "separate sovereigns" is derived from the Tenth Amendment to the Constitution, which states that "the powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people ."
The idea of "dual sovereignty" or "separate sovereigns" is derived from the Tenth Amendment to the Constitution, which states that "the powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people ."
The idea of " dual sovereignty " or "separate sovereigns" is derived from the Tenth Amendment to the Constitution, which states that "the powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people."
The United States Supreme Court in Texas v. White held that political states do not have the right to secede, though it did allow some possibility of the divisibility " through revolution , or through consent of the States."
The United States Supreme Court in Texas v. White held that political states do not have the right to secede, though it did allow some possibility of the divisibility " through revolution , or through consent of the States."
The United States Supreme Court in Texas v. White held that political states do not have the right to secede, though it did allow some possibility of the divisibility "through revolution, or through consent of the States ."
The United States Supreme Court in Texas v. White held that political states do not have the right to secede, though it did allow some possibility of the divisibility "through revolution, or through consent of the States ."
The United States Supreme Court in Texas v. White held that political states do not have the right to secede, though it did allow some possibility of the divisibility "through revolution, or through consent of the States."
Four states (Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Kentucky) call themselves " commonwealths ."
Four states (Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Kentucky) call themselves "commonwealths."
The word commonwealth in this context refers to the common "wealth", or welfare, of the public .
The term has no legal impact .
Four states (Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Kentucky ) call themselves "commonwealths."
The 50 states of the United States of America are as follows (this list includes both the postal code abbreviation and the traditional abbreviation for each state):
The 50 states of the United States of America are as follows (this list includes both the postal code abbreviation and the traditional abbreviation for each state):
The 50 states of the United States of America are as follows (this list includes both the postal code abbreviation and the traditional abbreviation for each state):
The 50 states of the United States of America are as follows (this list includes both the postal code abbreviation and the traditional abbreviation for each state):
The 50 states of the United States of America are as follows (this list includes both the postal code abbreviation and the traditional abbreviation for each state):
The states are divided into smaller administrative regions, called counties in all but two states.
The states are divided into smaller administrative regions, called counties in all but two states.
The exceptions are Alaska where main subdivisions is the boroughs (parts of the state are not included in any borough, called the Unorganized Borough, is divided into "census areas"), and Louisiana (which is divided into county-equivalents that are called parishes).
The exceptions are Alaska where main subdivisions is the boroughs (parts of the state are not included in any borough, called the Unorganized Borough, is divided into "census areas"), and Louisiana (which is divided into county-equivalents that are called parishes).
In some states, mainly in New England , they are primarily used as judicial districts.
Some counties, such as Arlington County, Virginia , do not have any additional subdivisions.
New York City is coterminous with five counties.
Some cities are consolidated with, and coterminous with, their counties, including Philadelphia, Honolulu, San Francisco, Nashville, and Denver—that is to say, these counties consist in their entirety of a single municipality the government of which also operates as the county government.
Some cities are consolidated with, and coterminous with, their counties, including Philadelphia, Honolulu, San Francisco, Nashville, and Denver—that is to say, these counties consist in their entirety of a single municipality the government of which also operates as the county government .
Towns and townships are subdivisions of counties .
In California, by contrast, the pertinent statutes of the Government Code clarify that "town" is simply another word for " city ", especially a general law city as distinct from a charter city.
Towns and towns hips are subdivisions of counties.
The terms townships and towns are closely related (in many historical documents the terms are used interchangeably).
Towns and towns hips are subdivisions of counties.
Townships in the United States are generally the product of the Public Land Survey System .
Some townships have governments and political power, others are simply geographic designations.
Townships in the United States are generally the product of the Public Land Survey System.
Some townships have governments and political power, others are simply geographic designations.
In Michigan, the state universities are constitutionally autonomous jurisdictions, possessed of a special status somewhat equivalent to that of metropolitan municipality .
These campuses are independent of all state laws, and under the sole control of the boards .
That is, as bodies corporate, they operate as though they were municipalities, but they have autonomy from legislative and executive control.
In Michigan , the state universities are constitutionally autonomous jurisdictions, possessed of a special status somewhat equivalent to that of metropolitan municipality.
The boards are responsible for all public services, e.g. policing, and fire protection.
Article IV , Section 3 of the U.S. Constitution defines the extent of the authority that the U.S. Congress exercises over the territory of the United States:
Article IV, Section 3 of the U.S. Constitution defines the extent of the authority that the U.S. Congress exercises over the territory of the United States:
Article IV, Section 3 of the U.S. Constitution defines the extent of the authority that the U.S. Congress exercises over the territory of the United States:
Article IV, Section 3 of the U.S. Constitution defines the extent of the authority that the U.S. Congress exercises over the territory of the United States :
The insular areas of the United States are those jurisdictions that are neither a part of one of the 50 states nor the federal district.
In most cases, however, Congress has granted considerable self-rule through an Organic Act ,
Insular areas are administered by the Federal Government through the Department of the Interior's Office of Insular Affairs.
Insular areas are administered by the Federal Government through the Department of the Interior's Office of Insular Affairs.
Unlike within the States, sovereignty over insular areas rests not with the local people, but in Congress .
The insular areas include a number of territories under the sovereignty of the United States and three sovereign nations in free association with the United States.
Territories incorporated within the provisions of the U.S. Constitution are designated incorporated territories .
Territories not so incorporated are designated " unincorporated ".
Territories may also be organized , if granted by an Organic Act of Congress or unorganized (without direct authorization of self-government by such an act).
Each Indian Reservation is subdivided in various ways .
For example, the Navajo Nation is subdivided into agencies and Chapter houses.
For example, the Navajo Nation is subdivided into agencies and Chapter houses .
While the Blackfeet Nation is subdivided into Communities .
Congress .
Since the organization of the Northwest Territory in 1789 , all areas not admitted to the United States as States were under the direct control of Congress as organized incorporated territories, with some political autonomy at the local level.
Thirty-one of the current 50 states were organized incorporated territories before their admission to the Union.
Since the admission of Hawaii to the Union in 1959 , there has been a single incorporated territory, the uninhabited Palmyra Atoll (formerly part of the Hawaii Territory, but excluded from the act of admission).
Since the admission of Hawaii to the Union in 1959, there has been a single incorporated territory, the uninhabited Palmyra Atoll (formerly part of the Hawaii Territory, but excluded from the act of admission).
Counties and county equivalents may be further subdivided into townships .
Towns or townships are used as subdivisions of a county in 20 states , mostly in the Northeast and Midwest.
Towns in New York and New England are treated as equivalents to townships by the United States Census Bureau.
Towns or townships are used as subdivisions of a county in 20 states, mostly in the Northeast and Midwest .
Political divisions of the United States or Administrative divisions of the United States are the various governing entities that together form the United States.
Political divisions of the United States or Administrative divisions of the United States are the various governing entities that together form the United States.
The first subdivision of the United States is the state.
The admission of states into the United States, beyond the original thirteen states, is authorized under Article IV, Section 3 , of the Constitution of the United States.
Population centers may be organized into incorporated cities, towns, villages, and other types of municipalities .
Municipalities are typically subordinate to a county government , with some exceptions.
In Virginia , cities are completely independent from the county in which they would otherwise be a part.
In some states, particularly in New England , towns form the primary unit of local government below the state level, in some cases eliminating the need for county government entirely.
Other divisions include the federal district, insular areas administered by the Federal government, and American Indian reservations.
The Federal government also maintains exclusive jurisdiction over military installations and American embassies and consulates located in foreign countries.
The Federal government also maintains exclusive jurisdiction over military installations and American embassies and consulates located in foreign countries.
Other special purpose divisions exist separately from those for general governance, examples of which include conservation districts and Congressional districts .
may enact their own laws and prosecute crimes pursuant thereto, they are not sovereign in the Westphalian sense in international law which says that each State has sovereignty over its territory and domestic affairs, to the exclusion of all external powers, on the principle of non-interference in another State's domestic affairs, and that each State (no matter how large or small) is equal in international law.
While state governments within the United States may enact their own laws and prosecute crimes pursuant thereto, they are not sovereign in the Westphalian sense in international law which says that each State has sovereignty over its territory and domestic affairs, to the exclusion of all external powers, on the principle of non-interference in another State's domestic affairs, and that each State (no matter how large or small) is equal in international law.
While state governments within the United States may enact their own laws and prosecute crimes pursuant thereto, they are not sovereign in the Westphalian sense in international law which says that each State has sovereignty over its territory and domestic affairs, to the exclusion of all external powers, on the principle of non-interference in another State's domestic affairs, and that each State (no matter how large or small) is equal in international law.
Additionally, the member states of the United States do not possess international legal sovereignty, meaning that they are not recognized by other sovereign States such as, for example, France, Germany or the United Kingdom, nor do they possess full interdependence sovereignty, meaning that they cannot control movement of persons across state borders.
may enact their own laws and prosecute crimes pursuant thereto, they are not sovereign in the Westphalian sense in international law which says that each State has sovereignty over its territory and domestic affairs, to the exclusion of all external powers, on the principle of non-interference in another State's domestic affairs, and that each State (no matter how large or small) is equal in international law.
While state governments within the United States may enact their own laws and prosecute crimes pursuant thereto, they are not sovereign in the Westphalian sense in international law which says that each State has sovereignty over its territory and domestic affairs, to the exclusion of all external powers, on the principle of non-interference in another State's domestic affairs, and that each State (no matter how large or small) is equal in international law.
While state governments within the United States may enact their own laws and prosecute crimes pursuant thereto, they are not sovereign in the Westphalian sense in international law which says that each State has sovereignty over its territory and domestic affairs, to the exclusion of all external powers, on the principle of non-interference in another State's domestic affairs, and that each State (no matter how large or small) is equal in international law.
Additionally, the member states of the United States do not possess international legal sovereignty, meaning that they are not recognized by other sovereign States such as, for example, France, Germany or the United Kingdom, nor do they possess full interdependence sovereignty, meaning that they cannot control movement of persons across state borders.
Member states of the United States are then typically subdivided into counties.
Member states of the United States are then typically subdivided into counties .
Louisiana uses the term parish and Alaska uses the term borough for what the Census terms county-equivalents in those states.
Louisiana uses the term parish and Alaska uses the term borough for what the Census terms county-equivalents in those states.
The primary political unit of the United States is the state .
In 1777 , they established a collective government under the Articles of Confederation.
According to numerous decisions of the United States Supreme Court , the 50 individual states and the United States as a whole are each sovereign jurisdictions.[citation needed] The 13 original states Thirteen Colonies declared independence from the British Empire in 1776.
The Constitution of the United States establishes the political government for the Federal government of the United States, which includes, among other things, judicial review, power to regulate citizenship, power to coin money, power to regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, conduct foreign policy, and to make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof.
According to numerous decisions of the United States Supreme Court, the 50 individual states and the United States as a whole are each sovereign jurisdictions.[citation needed] The 13 original states Thirteen Colonies declared independence from the British Empire in 1776 .
In addition to the territories noted above, the United States administered the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands from July 18, 1947 until October 1, 1994 .
The trust territory was subsequently divided into four political entities—the Northern Mariana Islands, listed above, and three freely-associated states with which the United States has entered into the Compact of Free Association (ISO 3166-1 codes in parentheses):
The trust territory was subsequently divided into four political entities—the Northern Mariana Islands , listed above, and three freely-associated states with which the United States has entered into the Compact of Free Association (ISO 3166-1 codes in parentheses):
The trust territory was subsequently divided into four political entities—the Northern Mariana Islands, listed above, and three freely-associated states with which the United States has entered into the Compact of Free Association (ISO 3166-1 codes in parentheses):
Territories , except the Minor Outlying Islands, are subdivided into municipalities.
Territories, except the Minor Outlying Islands , are subdivided into municipalities.
Guam uses the term Village and the U.S. Virgin Islands uses the term Districts, American Samoa uses the terms district and Unorganized atolls.
Guam uses the term Village and the U.S. Virgin Islands uses the term Districts , American Samoa uses the terms district and Unorganized atolls.
Guam uses the term Village and the U.S. Virgin Islands uses the term Districts, American Samoa uses the terms district and Unorganized atolls.
While not explicitly part of the U.S.'s political divisional makeup, as Associated States , the Federated States of Micronesia and Palau are divided into states (States of Micronesia and States of Palau).
While not explicitly part of the U.S.'s political divisional makeup, as Associated States, the Federated States of Micronesia and Palau are divided into states (States of Micronesia and States of Palau ).
While not explicitly part of the U.S.'s political divisional makeup, as Associated States, the Federated States of Micronesia and Palau are divided into states (States of Micronesia and States of Palau).
The Marshall Islands is divided into atolls and islands.
While Micronesia is a federation, Palau and the Marshall Islands are both unitary states .
Cuba and the Philippines are two additional former unincorporated territories that are now independent countries .
The United States Navy has held the Guantanamo Bay Naval Base in a portion of Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, since 1898 .
The present Cuban government of Raúl Castro disputes this arrangement, claiming Cuba was not truly sovereign at the time of the signing.
The United States government possesses a lease to this land, which only mutual agreement or United States abandonment of the area can terminate.
The present Cuban government of Raúl Castro disputes this arrangement, claiming Cuba was not truly sovereign at the time of the signing .
Once a territory becomes a state of the Union, the state must consent to any changes pertaining to the jurisdiction of that state.
The only potential violation of this occurred when the legislature of Virginia declared the secession of Virginia from the United States at the start of the American Civil War and a newly formed alternative Virginia legislature, recognized by the federal government, consented to have West Virginia secede from Virginia.
The only potential violation of this occurred when the legislature of Virginia declared the secession of Virginia from the United States at the start of the American Civil War and a newly formed alternative Virginia legislature, recognized by the federal government, consented to have West Virginia secede from Virginia.
The power of Congress over territorial divisions that are not part of one of the states is exclusive and universal .
On March 3, 1849 , the last day of the 30th Congress, a bill was passed to create the U.S. Department of the Interior to take charge of the internal affairs of United States territory.
On March 3, 1849, the last day of the 30th Congress, a bill was passed to create the U.S. Department of the Interior to take charge of the internal affairs of United States territory.
The Interior Department has a wide range of responsibilities (which include the regulation of territorial governments, the basic responsibilities for public lands, and other various duties).
The Interior Department has a wide range of responsibilities (which include the regulation of territorial governments, the basic responsibilities for public lands, and other various duties).
In contrast to similarly named Departments in other countries, the United States Department of the Interior is not responsible for local government or for civil administration except in the cases of Indian reservations, through the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) ,
In contrast to similarly named Departments in other countries, the United States Department of the Interior is not responsible for local government or for civil administration except in the cases of Indian reservations, through the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), and island dependencies, through the Office of Insular Affairs (OIA) .
In contrast to similarly named Departments in other countries, the United States Department of the Interior is not responsible for local government or for civil administration except in the cases of Indian reservations, through the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), and island dependencies, through the Office of Insular Affairs (OIA).
In contrast to similarly named Departments in other countries, the United States Department of the Interior is not responsible for local government or for civil administration except in the cases of Indian reservations, through the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), and island dependencies, through the Office of Insular Affairs (OIA).
The federal government also exercises exclusive jurisdiction over overseas military installations and American embassies and consulates located in foreign countries.
The federal government also exercises exclusive jurisdiction over overseas military installations and American embassies and consulates located in foreign countries.
The federal government also exercises exclusive jurisdiction over overseas military installations and American embassies and consulates located in foreign countries.
It exercises concurrent jurisdiction to varying degrees with the states in many domestic federal enclaves.
A separate federal district, the District of Columbia (DC) , which is under the direct authority of Congress, was formed from land ceded to the Federal Government by the states of Maryland and Virginia; however, the territory ceded by Virginia was returned to that state in 1846.
A separate federal district, the District of Columbia (DC), which is under the direct authority of Congress, was formed from land ceded to the Federal Government by the states of Maryland and Virginia ; however, the territory ceded by Virginia was returned to that state in 1846.
A separate federal district, the District of Columbia (DC), which is under the direct authority of Congress, was formed from land ceded to the Federal Government by the states of Maryland and Virginia ; however, the territory ceded by Virginia was returned to that state in 1846.
The District does not form part of any state and the United States Congress exercises "exclusive jurisdiction in all cases whatsoever", over the city; however, the District of Columbia Home Rule Act provides for limited home rule, including an elected mayor and city council.
The District does not form part of any state and the United States Congress exercises "exclusive jurisdiction in all cases whatsoever", over the city; however, the District of Columbia Home Rule Act provides for limited home rule, including an elected mayor and city council.
Haidt found that Americans who identified as liberals tended to value care and fairness higher than loyalty, respect and purity .
Both groups gave care the highest over-all weighting , but conservatives valued fairness the lowest, whereas liberals valued purity the lowest.
where the cultural mix is greater , thus requiring more liberalism.
Both groups gave care the highest over-all weighting , but conservatives valued fairness the lowest, whereas liberals valued purity the lowest.
If morality is the answer to the question ' how ought we to live ' at the individual level, politics can be seen as addressing the same question at the social level, though the political sphere raises additional problems and challenges.
The continued existence of a group may depend on widespread conformity to codes of morality; an inability to adjust moral codes in response to new challenges is sometimes credited with the demise of a community (a positive example would be the function of Cistercian reform in reviving monasticism; a negative example would be the role of the Dowager Empress in the subjugation of China to European interests).
Within nationalist movements, there has been some tendency to feel that a nation will not survive or prosper without acknowledging one common morality, regardless of its content.
The continued existence of a group may depend on widespread conformity to codes of morality; an inability to adjust moral codes in response to new challenges is sometimes credited with the demise of a community (a positive example would be the function of Cistercian reform in reviving monasticism; a negative example would be the role of the Dowager Empress in the subjugation of China to European interests).
Group morality develops from shared concepts and beliefs and is often codified to regulate behavior within a culture or community .
The continued existence of a group may depend on widespread conformity to codes of morality ; an inability to adjust moral codes in response to new challenges is sometimes credited with the demise of a community (a positive example would be the function of Cistercian reform in reviving monasticism; a negative example would be the role of the Dowager Empress in the subjugation of China to European interests).
Normative ethics is the branch of philosophy which studies morality in this sense.
In its normative sense, " morality " refers to whatever (if anything) is actually right or wrong, which may be independent of the values or mores held by any particular peoples or cultures.
In its normative sense, " morality " refers to whatever (if anything) is actually right or wrong, which may be independent of the values or mores held by any particular peoples or cultures.
In its normative sense, "morality" refers to whatever (if anything) is actually right or wrong, which may be independent of the values or mores held by any particular peoples or cultures.
For example, universal prescriptivism is a universalist form of non-cognitivism which claims that morality is derived from reasoning about implied imperatives, and divine command theory and ideal observer theory are universalist forms of ethical subjectivism which claim that morality is derived from the edicts of a god or the hypothetical decrees of a perfectly rational being, respectively.
For example, universal prescriptivism is a universalist form of non-cognitivism which claims that morality is derived from reasoning about implied imperatives, and divine command theory and ideal observer theory are universalist forms of ethical subjectivism which claim that morality is derived from the edicts of a god or the hypothetical decrees of a perfectly rational being , respectively.
For example, universal prescriptivism is a universalist form of non-cognitivism which claims that morality is derived from reasoning about implied imperatives , and divine command theory and ideal observer theory are universalist forms of ethical subjectivism which claim that morality is derived from the edicts of a god or the hypothetical decrees of a perfectly rational being, respectively.
Some forms of non-cognitivism and ethical subjectivism, while considered anti-realist in the robust sense used here, are considered realist in the sense synonymous with moral universalism .
Celia Green made a distinction between tribal and territorial morality.
Celia Green made a distinction between tribal and territorial morality.
By contrast, tribal morality is prescriptive, imposing the norms of the collective on the individual.
By contrast, tribal morality is prescriptive, imposing the norms of the collective on the individual.
Green relates the development of territorial morality to the rise of the concept of private property , and the ascendancy of contract over status.
According to The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Eth ics, religion and morality "are to be defined differently and have no definitional connections with ea ch other.
Conceptually and in principle, morality and a religious value system are two distinct kinds of value systems or action guides."
Morality does not depend upon religion although for some this is " an almost automatic assumption ".
Conceptually and in principle, morality and a religious value system are two distinct kinds of value systems or action guides ."
Some observers hold that individuals apply distinct sets of moral rules to people depending on their membership of an "in-group" (the individual and those they believe to be of the same culture or race) or an "out-group" (people not entitled to be treated according to the same rules).
Some biologists, anthropologists and evolutionary psychologists believe this in-group/out-group discrimination has evolved because it enhances group survival .
Gary R. Johnson and V.S. Falger have argued that nationalism and patriotism are forms of this in-group/out-group boundary.
Jonathan Haidt has noted that experimental observation indicating an in-group criterion provides one moral foundation substantially used by conservatives , but far less so by liberals.
This belief has been confirmed by simple computational models of evolution .
A further disparity between the values of religious traditions is pointed out by Barbara Stoler Miller, who states that, in Hinduism, "practically, right and wrong are decided according to the categories of social rank, kinship, and stages of life .
For modern Westerners , who have been raised on ideals of universality and egalitarianism, this relativity of values and obligations is the aspect of Hinduism most difficult to understand".
Modern monotheistic religions, such as Islam, Judaism, Christianity, and to a certain degree others such as Sikhism and Zoroastrianism, define right and wrong by the laws and rules set forth by their respective scriptures and as interpreted by religious leaders within the respective faith.
Within the wide range of moral traditions, religious value systems co-exist with contemporary secular frameworks such as consequentialism, freethought, humanism, utilitarianism, and others.
Peterson and Seligman approach the anthropological view looking across cultures, geo-cultural areas and across millennia.
They conclude that certain virtues have prevailed in all cultures they examined.
For instance humanity includes love, kindness, and social intelligence .
The major virtues they identified include wisdom / knowledge; courage; humanity; justice ; temperance; and transcendence.
The major virtues they identified include wisdom / knowledge ; courage; humanity; justice; temperance; and transcendence.
On April 26, 2012, the results of a study which tested their subjects' pro-social sentiments were published in the Social Psychological and Personality Science journal in which non-religious people had higher scores showing that they were more inclined to show generosity in random acts of kindness, such as lending their possessions and offering a seat on a crowded bus or train.
On April 26, 2012, the results of a study which tested their subjects' pro-social sentiments were published in the Social Psychological and Personality Science journal in which non-religious people had higher scores showing that they were more inclined to show generosity in random acts of kindness, such as lending their possessions and offering a seat on a crowded bus or train.
His conclusion is that a " complex relationship " exists between religiosity and homicide "with some.dimensions of religiosity encouraging homicide and other dimensions discouraging it".
A 2005 study by Gregory S. Paul published in the Journal of Religion and Society stated that, "In general, higher rates of belief in and worship of a creator correlate with higher rates of homicide, juvenile and early adult mortality, STD infection rates, teen pregnancy, and abortion in the prosperous democracies," and "In all secular developing democracies a centuries long-term trend has seen homicide rates drop to historical lows" with the exceptions being the United States (with a high religiosity level) and "theistic" Portugal. [d]  In a response, Gary Jensen builds on and refines Paul's study.
A 2005 study by Gregory S. Paul published in the Journal of Religion and Society stated that, "In general, higher rates of belief in and worship of a creator correlate with higher rates of homicide, juvenile and early adult mortality, STD infection rates, teen pregnancy, and abortion in the prosperous democracies," and "In all secular developing democracies a centuries long-term trend has seen homicide rates drop to historical lows" with the exceptions being the United States (with a high religiosity level) and "theistic" Portugal.[d]  In a response, Gary Jensen builds on and refines Paul's study.
Philosopher David Hume stated that, "the greatest crimes have been found, in many instances, to be compatible with a superstitious piety and devotion ; Hence it is justly regarded as unsafe to draw any inference in favor of a man's morals, from the fervor or strictness of his religious exercises, even though he himself believe them sincere."
Philosopher David Hume stated that, "the greatest crimes have been found, in many instances, to be compatible with a superstitious piety and devotion; Hence it is justly regarded as unsafe to draw any inference in favor of a man's morals , from the fervor or strictness of his religious exercises, even though he himself believe them sincere."
In monotheistic traditions, certain acts are viewed in more absolute terms, such as abortion or divorce.[a] Religion is not always positively associated with morality.
Philosopher David Hume stated that, " the greatest crimes have been found, in many instances, to be compatible with a superstitious piety and devotion; Hence it is justly regarded as unsafe to draw any inference in favor of a man's morals, from the fervor or strictness of his religious exercises, even though he himself believe them sincere."
For example, there is no absolute prohibition on killing in Hinduism, which recognizes that it "may be inevitable and indeed necessary" in certain circumstances .
Humanists like Paul Kurtz believe that we can identify moral values across cultures, even if we do not appeal to a supernatural or universalist understanding of principles - values including integrity, trustworthiness, benevolence, and fairness .
These values can be resources for finding common ground between believers and nonbelievers .
For example, Simon Blackburn states that "apologists for Hinduism defend or explain away its involvement with the caste system, and apologists for Islam defend or explain away its harsh penal code or its attitude to women and infidels".
For example, Simon Blackburn states that "apologists for Hinduism defend or explain away its involvement with the caste system , and apologists for Islam defend or explain away its harsh penal code or its attitude to women and infidels".
In regard to Christianity, he states that the " Bible can be read as giving us a carte blanche for harsh attitudes to children, the mentally handicapped, animals, the environment, the divorced, unbelievers, people with various sexual habits, and elderly women", and notes morally suspect themes in the Bible's New Testament as well.[e] Christian apologists address Blackburn's viewpoints and construe that Jewish laws in the Jewish Bible showed the evolution of moral standards towards protecting the vulnerable, imposing a death penalty on those pursuing slavery and treating slaves as persons and not property.
Phil Zuckerman's 2008 book, Society without God, notes that Denmark and Sweden, "which are probably the least religious countries in the world, and possibly in the history of the world", enjoy "among the lowest violent crime rates in the world [and] the lowest levels of corruption in the world".[c]
Phil Zuckerman's 2008 book, Society without God, notes that Denmark and Sweden , "which are probably the least religious countries in the world, and possibly in the history of the world", enjoy "among the lowest violent crime rates in the world [and] the lowest levels of corruption in the world".[c]
A number of studies have been conducted on the empirics of morality in various countries, and the overall relationship between faith and crime is unclear .[b]
A number of studies have been conducted on the empirics of morality in various countries , and the overall relationship between faith and crime is unclear.[b] A 2001 review of studies on this topic found "The existing evidence surrounding the effect of religion on crime is varied, contested, and inconclusive, and currently no persuasive answer exists as to the empirical relationship between religion and crime."
Phil Zuckerman's 2008 book, Society without God, notes that Denmark and Sweden, "which are probably the least religious countries in the world, and possibly in the history of the world", enjoy "among the lowest violent crime rates in the world [and] the lowest levels of corruption in the world ".[c]
Fons Trompenaars , author of Did the Pedestrian Die?, tested members of different cultures with various moral dilemmas.
One of these was whether the driver of a car would have his friend, a passenger riding in the car, lie in order to protect the driver from the consequences of driving too fast and hitting a pedestrian.
Trompenaars found that different cultures had quite different expectations (from none to almost certain).[citation needed]
Fons Trompenaars, author of Did the Pedestrian Die?, tested members of different cultures with various moral dilemmas .
The neurons fire in imitation of the action being observed , causing the same muscles to act minutely in the observer as are acting grossly in the person actually performing the action.
Mirror neurons are neurons in the brain that fire when another person is observed doing a certain action.
Research on mirror neurons, since their discovery in 1996 , suggests that they may have a role to play not only in action understanding, but also in emotion sharing empathy.
The inability to feel empathy is one of the defining characteristics of psychopathy, and this would appear to lend support to Decety's view.
Cognitive neuro-scientist Jean Decety thinks that the ability to recognize and vicariously experience what another individual is undergoing was a key step forward in the evolution of social behavior, and ultimately, morality.
John Newton , author of Complete Conduct Principles for the 21st Century  compared the Eastern and the Western cultures about morality.
the Eastern and the Western cultures about morality.
John Newton, author of Complete Conduct Principles for the 21st Century  compared the Eastern and the Western cultures about morality.
As stated in Complete Conduct Principles for the 21st Century, “One of the important objectives of this book is to blend harmoniously the fine souls regarding conduct in the Eastern and the Western cultures, to take the result as the source and then to create newer and better conduct principles to suit the human society of the new century, and to introduce a lot of Chinese fine conduct spirits to the Western world.
Lawrence Kohlberg, Jean Piaget, and Elliot Turiel have cognitive-developmental approaches to moral development; to these theorists morality forms in a series of constructive stages or domains .
Social psychologists such as Martin Hoffman and Jonathan Haidt emphasize social and emotional development based on biology , such as empathy.
Moral identity theorists, such as William Damon and Mordechai Nisan, see moral commitment as arising from the development of a self-identity that is defined by moral purposes: this moral self-identity leads to a sense of responsibility to pursue such purposes .
Of historical interest in psychology are the theories of psychoanalysts such as Sigmund Freud , who believe that moral development is the product of aspects of the super-ego as guilt-shame avoidance.
Of historical interest in psychology are the theories of psychoanalysts such as Sigmund Freud, who believe that moral development is the product of aspects of the super-ego as guilt-shame avoidance .
Monin and Miller (2001) examined the moral self-licensing effect and found that when participants established credentials as non-prejudiced persons, they were more willing to express politically incorrect opinions despite the fact that the audience was unaware of their credentials.
Monin and Miller (2001) examined the moral self-licensing effect and found that when participants established credentials as non-prejudiced persons, they were more willing to express politically incorrect opinions despite the fact that the audience was unaware of their credentials.
Monin and Miller ( 2001 ) examined the moral self-licensing effect and found that when participants established credentials as non-prejudiced persons, they were more willing to express politically incorrect opinions despite the fact that the audience was unaware of their credentials.
Monin and Miller (2001) examined the moral self-licensing effect and found that when participants established credentials as non-prejudiced persons, they were more willing to express politically incorrect opinions despite the fact that the audience was unaware of their credentials.
Monin and Miller (2001) examined the moral self-licensing effect and found that when participants established credentials as non-prejudiced persons , they were more willing to express politically incorrect opinions despite the fact that the audience was unaware of their credentials.
Even though we have a sense of responsibility to pursue moral purposes,[according to whom?] we still, at least occasionally, engage in immoral behaviour .
  Such behaviours jeopardize our moral self-image ; however, when we engage in immoral behaviours we still feel as though we are moral individuals.
 Moral self-licensing attempts to explain this phenomenon and proposes that self-image security increases our likelihood to engage in immoral behaviour.
 Moral self-licensing attempts to explain this phenomenon and proposes that self-image security increases our likelihood to engage in immoral behaviour.
Even though we have a sense of responsibility to pursue moral purposes,[according to whom?] we still, at least occasionally, engage in immoral behaviour.
Stimulation of the VMPC by transcranial magnetic stimulation, has been shown to inhibit the ability of human subjects to take into account intent when forming a moral judgment.
According to this investigation, TMS did not disrupt participants' ability to make any moral.judgment.
On the contrary, moral judgments of intentional harms and nonharms were unaffected by TMS to either the RTPJ or the control site; presumably, however, people typically make moral judgments of intentional harms by considering not only the action's harmful outcome but the agent's intentions and beliefs .
Alternatively, following TMS to the RTPJ, moral judgments might be made via an abnormal processing route that does not take belief into account.
So why.were moral judgments of intentional harms not affected by TMS to the RTPJ ?
The development of modern morality is a process closely tied to sociocultural evolution .
The development of modern morality is a process closely tied to sociocultural evolution.
Some evolutionary biologists, particularly sociobiologists , believe that morality is a product of evolutionary forces acting at an individual level and also at the group level through group selection (although to what degree this actually occurs is a controversial topic in evolutionary theory).
Humans consequently evolved "pro-social" emotions , such as feelings of empathy or guilt, in response to these moral behaviors.
Humans consequently evolved "pro-social" emotions, such as feelings of empathy or guilt , in response to these moral behaviors.
On this understanding, moralities are sets of self-perpetuating and biologically-driven behaviors which encourage human cooperation .
Biologists contend that all social animals, from ants to elephants, have modified their behaviors, by restraining immediate selfishness in order to improve their evolutionary fitness.
Human morality , although sophisticated and complex relative to other animals, is essentially a natural phenomenon that evolved to restrict excessive individualism that could undermine a group's cohesion and thereby reducing the individuals' fitness.
Human morality, although sophisticated and complex relative to other animals, is essentially a natural phenomenon that evolved to restrict excessive individualism that could undermine a group's cohesion and thereby reducing the individuals' fitness.
On this view, moral codes are ultimately founded on emotional instincts and intuitions that were selected for in the past because they aided survival and reproduction (inclusive fitness).
Examples: the maternal bond is selected for because it improves the survival of offspring; the Westermarck effect, where close proximity during early years reduces mutual sexual attraction, underpins taboos against incest because it decreases the likelihood of genetically risky behaviour such as inbreeding.
Examples: the maternal bond is selected for because it improves the survival of offspring; the Westermarck effect, where close proximity during early years reduces mutual sexual attraction, underpins taboos against incest because it decreases the likelihood of genetically risky behaviour such as inbreeding.
Examples: the maternal bond is selected for because it improves the survival of offspring; the Westermarck effect, where close proximity during early years reduces mutual sexual attraction, underpins taboos against incest because it decreases the likelihood of genetically risky behaviour such as inbreeding .
The phenomenon of reciprocity in nature is seen by evolutionary biologists as one way to begin to understand human morality.
Its function is typically to ensure a reliable supply of essential resources , especially for animals living in a habitat where food quantity or quality fluctuates unpredictably.
Its function is typically to ensure a reliable supply of essential resources, especially for animals living in a habitat where food quantity or quality fluctuates unpredictably .
Bats that did eat will then regurgitate part of their blood meal to save a conspecific from starvation.
Since these animals live in close-knit groups over many years, an individual can count on other group members to return the favor on nights when it goes hungry (Wilkinson, 1984)
Marc Bekoff and Jessica Pierce (2009) have argued that morality is a suite of behavioral capacities likely shared by all mammals living in complex social groups (e.g., wolves, coyotes, elephants, dolphins, rats, chimpanzees).
This suite of behaviors includes empathy, reciprocity, altruism, cooperation, and a sense of fairness .
They define morality as " a suite of interrelated other-regarding behaviors that cultivate and regulate complex interactions within social groups ."
Marc Bekoff and Jessica Pierce (2009) have argued that morality is a suite of behavioral capacities likely shared by all mammals living in complex social groups (e.g., wolves, coyotes, elephants, dolphins, rats, chimpanzees ).
They also possess the ability to engage in deception , and a level of social politics prototypical of our own tendencies for gossip and reputation management.
Christopher Boehm (1982) has hypothesized that the incremental development of moral complexity throughout hominid evolution was due to the increasing need to avoid disputes and injuries in moving to open savanna and developing stone weapons.
Christopher Boehm (1982) has hypothesized that the incremental development of moral complexity throughout hominid evolution was due to the increasing need to avoid disputes and injuries in moving to open savanna and developing stone weapons .
Other theories are that increasing complexity was simply a correlate of increasing group size and brain size , and in particular the development of theory of mind abilities.
Christopher Boehm (1982) has hypothesized that the incremental development of moral complexity throughout hominid evolution was due to the increasing need to avoid disputes and injuries in moving to open savanna and developing stone weapons.
The brain areas that are consistently involved when humans reason about moral issues have been investigated by a quantitative large-scale meta-analysis of the brain activity changes reported in the moral neuroscience literature.
 In fact, the neural network underlying moral decisions overlapped with the network pertaining to representing others' intentions (i.e., theory of mind) and the network pertaining to representing others' (vicariously experienced) emotional states (i.e., empathy).
The brain areas that are consistently involved when humans reason about moral issues have been investigated by a quantitative large-scale meta-analysis of the brain activity changes reported in the moral neuroscience literature .
This supports the notion that moral reasoning is related to both seeing things from other persons’ points of view and to grasping others’ feelings .
These results provide evidence that the neural network underlying moral decisions is probably domain-global (i.e., there might be no such things as a "moral module" in the human brain) and might be dissociable into cognitive and affective sub-systems.
The explicit making of moral right and wrong judgments coincides with activation in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPC) while intuitive reactions to situations containing implicit moral issues activates the temporoparietal junction area.
The explicit making of moral right and wrong judgments coincides with activation in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPC) while intuitive reactions to situations containing implicit moral issues activates the temporoparietal junction area.
The explicit making of moral right and wrong judgments coincides with activation in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex ( VMPC ) while intuitive reactions to situations containing implicit moral issues activates the temporoparietal junction area.
The explicit making of moral right and wrong judgments coincides with activation in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPC) while intuitive reactions to situations containing implicit moral issues activates the temporoparietal junction area .
Morality (from the Latin moralitas "manner, character, proper behavior") is the differentiation of intentions, decisions, and actions between those that are distinguished as proper and those that are improper .Long, A. A.; Sedley, D. N. (1987).
Morality (from the Latin moralitas "manner, character, proper behavior") is the differentiation of intentions, decisions, and actions between those that are distinguished as proper and those that are improper.
Morality (from the Latin moralitas "manner, character, proper behavior") is the differentiation of intentions, decisions, and actions between those that are distinguished as proper and those that are improper.
Morality (from the Latin moralitas " manner, character, proper behavior ") is the differentiation of intentions, decisions, and actions between those that are distinguished as proper and those that are improper.
Moral philosophy includes moral ontology, or the origin of morals, as well as moral epistemology, or knowledge about morals.
Moral philosophy includes moral ontology, or the origin of morals, as well as moral epistemology, or knowledge about morals.
Moral philosophy includes moral ontology, or the origin of morals, as well as moral epistemology , or knowledge about morals.
Moral philosophy includes moral ontology, or the origin of morals, as well as moral epistemology, or knowledge about morals .
Different systems of expressing morality have been proposed, including deontological ethical systems which adhere to a set of established rules , and normative ethical systems which consider the merits of actions themselves.
Immorality is the active opposition to morality (i.e. opposition to that which is good or right), while amorality is variously defined as an unawareness of, indifference toward, or disbelief in any set of moral standards or principles.
Immorality is the active opposition to morality (i.e. opposition to that which is good or right), while amorality is variously defined as an unawareness of, indifference toward, or disbelief in any set of moral standards or principles.
opposition to that which is good or right ), while amorality is variously defined as an unawareness of, indifference toward, or disbelief in any set of moral standards or principles.
Immorality is the active opposition to morality (i.e. opposition to that which is good or right), while amorality is variously defined as an unawareness of, indifference toward, or disbelief in any set of moral standards or principles.
Ethics (also known as moral philosophy ) is the branch of philosophy which addresses questions of morality.
The word "ethics" is "commonly used interchangeably with 'morality,' and sometimes it is used more narrowly to mean the moral principles of a particular tradition, group, or individual. " Likewise, certain types of ethical theories, especially deontological ethics, sometimes distinguish between ethics and morals: "Although the morality of people and their ethics amounts to the same thing, there is a usage that restricts morality to systems such as that of Immanuel Kant, based on notions such as duty, obligation, and principles of conduct, reserving ethics for the more Aristotelian approach to practical reasoning, based on the notion of a virtue, and generally avoiding the separation of 'moral' considerations from other practical considerations."
Ethics (also known as moral philosophy) is the branch of philosophy which addresses questions of morality .
Likewise, certain types of ethical theories, especially deontological ethics , sometimes distinguish between ethics and morals: "Although the morality of people and their ethics amounts to the same thing, there is a usage that restricts morality to systems such as that of Immanuel Kant, based on notions such as duty, obligation, and principles of conduct, reserving ethics for the more Aristotelian approach to practical reasoning, based on the notion of a virtue, and generally avoiding the separation of 'moral' considerations from other practical considerations."
Ethics (also known as moral philosophy) is the branch of philosophy which addresses questions of morality .
In its descriptive sense, "morality" refers to personal or cultural values, codes of conduct or social mores .
It does not connote objective claims of right or wrong , but only refers to that which is considered right or wrong.
It does not connote objective claims of right or wrong, but only refers to that which is considered right or wrong .
Descriptive ethics is the branch of philosophy which studies morality in this sense.
Rotterdam (/ˈrɒtərdæm/ or /ˌrɒtərˈdæm/; Dutch: [ˌrɔtərˈdɑm] (listen)) is a city in South Holland, the Netherlands , located geographically within the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt river delta at the North Sea.
Rotterdam (/ˈrɒtərdæm/ or /ˌrɒtərˈdæm/; Dutch: [ˌrɔtərˈdɑm] (listen)) is a city in South Holland, the Netherlands, located geographically within the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt river delta at the North Sea.
Its history goes back to 1270 when a dam was constructed in the Rotte river and people settled around it for safety .
In 1340 Rotterdam was granted city rights by the Count of Holland and slowly grew into a major logistic and economic centre .
Nowadays it is home to Europe's largest port and has a population of 630,383 (2017, city proper), ranking second in the Netherlands.
The near-complete destruction of Rotterdam's city centre during World War II (known as the Rotterdam Blitz) has resulted in a varied architectural landscape including sky-scrapers, which are an uncommon sight in other Dutch cities.
Recently Rotterdam was listed 8th in The Rough Guide Top 10 Cities to Visit and was voted 2015 European City of the Year by the Academy of Urbanism.
Rotterdam is home to some world-famous architecture from renowned architects like Rem Koolhaas, Piet Blom, Ben van Berkel and others.
Recently Rotterdam was listed 8th in The Rough Guide Top 10 Cities to Visit and was voted 2015 European City of the Year by the Academy of Urbanism.
The city of Rotterdam is known for the Erasmus University , riverside setting, lively cultural life and its maritime heritage.
The port of Rotterdam is the largest cargo port in Europe and the 10th largest in the world.
The rivers Rhine, Meuse and Scheldt give waterway access into the heart of Western Europe, including the highly industrialized Ruhr region.
The extensive distribution system including rail, roads and waterways have earned Rotterdam the nickname "Gateway to Europe" , and, conversely; "Gateway to the World" in Europe.
The port of Rotterdam is the largest cargo port in Europe and the 10th largest in the world.
Rotterdam's logistic success is based on its strategic location on the North Sea , directly at the mouth of the Nieuwe Maas (New Meuse) channel leading into the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta.
The settlement at the lower end of the fen stream Rotte (or Rotta, as it was then known, from rot, 'muddy' and a, 'water', thus 'muddy water' ) dates from at least 900 CE.
A dam on the Rotte or 'Rotterdam' was built in the 1260s and was located at the present-day Hoogstraat ('High Street').
The settlement at the lower end of the fen stream Rotte (or Rotta, as it was then known, from rot, 'muddy' and a, 'water', thus 'muddy water') dates from at least 900 CE.
Around 1150, large floods in the area ended development, leading to the construction of protective dikes and dams , including Schielands Hoge Zeedijk ('Schieland’s High Sea Dike') along the northern banks of the present-day Nieuwe Maas.
Around 1150, large floods in the area ended development, leading to the construction of protective dikes and dams, including Schielands Hoge Zeedijk ('Schieland’s High Sea Dike') along the northern banks of the present-day Nieuwe Maas.
During World War II , the German army invaded the Netherlands on 10 May 1940.
The statue stands near the Leuvehaven , not far from the Erasmusbrug in the centre of the city, on the north shore of the river Nieuwe Maas.
Adolf Hitler had hoped to conquer the country in just one day, but his forces met unexpectedly fierce resistance.
The Dutch army was finally forced to capitulate on 15 May 1940 , following Hitler's bombing Rotterdam on 14 May and threatening to bomb other Dutch cities.
Some 80,000 civilians were made homeless and 900 were killed; a relatively low number given that many had fled the city because of the warfare and bombing going on in Rotterdam since the start of the invasion three days earlier.
In 1898 , the 45-metre (148-foot) high-rise office building the White House (in Dutch Witte Huis) was completed, at that time the tallest office building in Europe.
. In the first decades of the 20th century , some influential architecture in the modern style was built in Rotterdam.
In 1898, the 45-metre (148-foot) high-rise office building the White House (in Dutch Witte Huis) was completed, at that time the tallest office building in Europe.
Notable are the Van Nelle fabriek (1929) a monument of modern factory design by Brinkman en Van der Vlugt , the Jugendstil clubhouse of the Royal Maas Yacht Club designed by Hooijkaas jr.
The Van Nelle Factory has since 2014 the status of UNESCO World Heritage Site.
In 1898 , the 45-metre (148-foot) high-rise office building the White House (in Dutch Witte Huis) was completed, at that time the tallest office building in Europe.
In 1898, the 45-metre (148-foot) high-rise office building the White House (in Dutch Witte Huis) was completed, at that time the tallest office building in Europe.
. In the first decades of the 20th century , some influential architecture in the modern style was built in Rotterdam.
Notable are the Van Nelle fabriek (1929) a monument of modern factory design by Brinkman en Van der Vlugt , the Jugendstil clubhouse of the Royal Maas Yacht Club designed by Hooijkaas jr.
The Van Nelle Factory has since 2014 the status of UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Feyenoord, founded in 1908 and the dominant of the three professional clubs, has won fourteen national titles since the introduction of professional football in the Netherlands.
Feyenoord , founded in 1908 and the dominant of the three professional clubs, has won fourteen national titles since the introduction of professional football in the Netherlands.
It won the European Cup (current Champions league) as the first Dutch club in 1970, and won the World Cup for club teams in the same year. In 1974, they were the first Dutch club to win the UEFA Cup and in 2002 , Feyenoord won the UEFA Cup again.
It won the European Cup (current Champions league) as the first Dutch club in 1970, and won the World Cup for club teams in the same year.
Feyenoord , founded in 1908 and the dominant of the three professional clubs, has won fourteen national titles since the introduction of professional football in the Netherlands.
In November 2008 Rotterdam was chosen as the host of the Grand Départ of the 2010 Tour de France.
Germany's Düsseldorf had previously also expressed interest in hosting.
.Rotterdam won the selection over the Dutch city of Utrecht .
The Amaury Sport Organization (ASO) , organizer of the Tour de France, said in a statement on its web site that it chose Rotterdam because, in addition to it being another big city, like London, to showcase the use of bikes for urban transportation, it provided a location well positioned considering the rest of the route envisioned for the 2010 event.
The Amaury Sport Organization (ASO), organizer of the Tour de France, said in a statement on its web site that it chose Rotterdam because, in addition to it being another big city, like London, to showcase the use of bikes for urban transportation, it provided a location well positioned considering the rest of the route envisioned for the 2010 event.
Rotterdam's swimming tradition started with Marie Braun aka Zus (sister) Braun , who was coached to a Gold medal at the 1928 Amsterdam Olympics by her mother Ma Braun, and 3 European titles 3 years later in Paris.
a Gold medal at the 1928 Amsterdam Olympics by her mother Ma Braun, and 3 European titles 3 years later in Paris.
Rotterdam's swimming tradition started with Marie Braun aka Zus (sister) Braun, who was coached to a Gold medal at the 1928 Amsterdam Olympics by her mother Ma Braun , and 3 European titles 3 years later in Paris.
In her career as 14 time national champ , she broke 6 world records.
Ma Braun later also coached the Rotterdam born, three-times Olympic champion Rie Mastenbroek during the Berlin Olympics in 1936.
Airport.Much smaller than the international hub Schiphol Airport, Rotterdam The Hague Airport (formerly known as Zestienhoven) is the third largest airport in the country, behind Schiphol Airport and Eindhoven Airport.
Located north of the city, it has shown a very strong growth over the past five years, mostly caused by the growth of the low-cost carrier market. For business travelers, Rotterdam The Hague Airport offers advantages in terms of rapid handling of passengers and baggage.
Environmental regulations make further growth uncertain.
Airport.Much smaller than the international hub Schiphol Airport, Rotterdam The Hague Airport (formerly known as Zestienhoven) is the third largest airport in the country, behind Schiphol Airport and Eindhoven Airport .
For business travelers, Rotterdam The Hague Airport offers advantages in terms of rapid handling of passengers and baggage. Environmental regulations make further growth uncertain.
'Rotterdam' is divided into a northern and a southern part by the river Nieuwe Maas , connected by (from west to east): the Beneluxtunnel; the Maastunnel; the Erasmusbrug ('Erasmus Bridge'); a subway tunnel; the Willemsspoortunnel ('Willems railway tunnel'); the Willemsbrug ('Willems Bridge'); the Koninginnebrug ('Queen's Bridge'); and the Van Brienenoordbrug ('Van Brienenoord Bridge').
The former railway lift bridge De Hef ('the Lift') is preserved as a monument in lifted position between the Noordereiland ('North Island') and the south of Rotterdam.
The former railway lift bridge De Hef ('the Lift') is preserved as a monument in lifted position between the Noordereiland ('North Island') and the south of Rotterdam.
'Rotterdam' is divided into a northern and a southern part by the river Nieuwe Maas, connected by (from west to east): the Beneluxtunnel; the Maastunnel; the Erasmusbrug ('Erasmus Bridge'); a subway tunnel; the Willemsspoortunnel ('Willems railway tunnel'); the Willemsbrug ('Willems Bridge'); the Koninginnebrug ('Queen's Bridge'); and the Van Brienenoordbrug ('Van Brienenoord Bridge').
'Rotterdam' is divided into a northern and a southern part by the river Nieuwe Maas, connected by (from west to east): the Beneluxtunnel; the Maastunnel; the Erasmusbrug ('Erasmus Bridge'); a subway tunnel; the Willemsspoortunnel ('Willems railway tunnel'); the Willemsbrug ('Willems Bridge'); the Koninginnebrug ('Queen's Bridge'); and the Van Brienenoordbrug ('Van Brienenoord Bridge').
'Rotterdam' is divided into a northern and a southern part by the river Nieuwe Maas , connected by (from west to east): the Beneluxtunnel; the Maastunnel; the Erasmusbrug ('Erasmus Bridge'); a subway tunnel; the Willemsspoortunnel ('Willems railway tunnel'); the Willemsbrug ('Willems Bridge'); the Koninginnebrug ('Queen's Bridge'); and the Van Brienenoordbrug ('Van Brienenoord Bridge').
'Rotterdam' is divided into a northern and a southern part by the river Nieuwe Maas, connected by (from west to east): the Beneluxtunnel; the Maastunnel; the Erasmusbrug (' Erasmus Bridge '); a subway tunnel; the Willemsspoortunnel ('Willems railway tunnel'); the Willemsbrug ('Willems Bridge'); the Koninginnebrug ('Queen's Bridge'); and the Van Brienenoordbrug ('Van Brienenoord Bridge').
The former railway lift bridge De Hef ('the Lift') is preserved as a monument in lifted position between the Noordereiland ('North Island') and the south of Rotterdam.
The former railway lift bridge De Hef ('the Lift') is preserved as a monument in lifted position between the Noordereiland ('North Island') and the south of Rotterdam.
'Rotterdam' is divided into a northern and a southern part by the river Nieuwe Maas, connected by (from west to east): the Beneluxtunnel; the Maastunnel; the Erasmusbrug ('Erasmus Bridge'); a subway tunnel; the Willemsspoortunnel ('Willems railway tunnel'); the Willemsbrug ('Willems Bridge'); the Koninginnebrug ('Queen's Bridge'); and the Van Brienenoordbrug ('Van Brienenoord Bridge').
Rotterdam was gradually rebuilt from the 1950s through to the 1970s.
In the 1990s, the Kop van Zuid was built on the south bank of the river as a new business centre.
.Rotterdam was voted 2015 European City of the Year by the Academy of Urbanism.
.Rotterdam was voted 2015 European City of the Year by the Academy of Urbanism .
It remained quite windy and open until the city councils from the 1980s on began developing an active architectural policy.
In the 1990s, the Kop van Zuid was built on the south bank of the river as a new business centre.
.Rotterdam was voted 2015 European City of the Year by the Academy of Urbanism.
It remained quite windy and open until the city councils from the 1980s on began developing an active architectural policy.
Daring and new styles of apartments, office buildings and recreation facilities resulted in a more ' livable ' city centre with a new skyline.
Rotterdam was gradually rebuilt from the 1950s through to the 1970s.
Furthermore, Rotterdam has the Dutch headquarters of Allianz, Maersk, Petrobras, Samskip, Louis Dreyfus Group and Aon .
.It is also home to the regional headquarters of chemical company LyondellBasell, commodities trading company Glencore, pharmaceutical company Pfizer , logistics companies Stolt-Nielsen, electrical equipment company ABB Group and consumer goods company Procter & Gamble.
Nowadays, well-known companies with headquarters in Rotterdam are consumers goods company Unilever , asset management firm Robeco, energy company Eneco, dredging company Van Oord, oil company Shell Downstream, terminal operator Vopak,commodity trading company Vitol and architecture firm Office for Metropolitan Architecture.
Nowadays, well-known companies with headquarters in Rotterdam are consumers goods company Unilever, asset management firm Robeco, energy company Eneco, dredging company Van Oord, oil company Shell Downstream , terminal operator Vopak,commodity trading company Vitol and architecture firm Office for Metropolitan Architecture.
the Lijnbaan (the first set of pedestrian streets of the country, opened in 1953), the Hoogstraat, the Coolsingel with the city hall, and the Weena, which runs from the Central Station to the Hofplein (square).
the Market Hall , with lots of small retailers inside.
A modern shopping venue is the Beurstraverse ("Stock Exchange Traverse"), better known by its informal name ' Koopgoot ' ('Buying/Shopping Gutter', after its subterranean position), which crosses the Coolsingel below street level).
The Kruiskade is a more upscale shopping street, with retailers like Michael Kors, 7 For All Mankind, Calvin Klein, Hugo Boss, Tommy Hilfiger and the Dutch well known men's clothier Oger .
Well-known streets in Rotterdam are the shopping center the Lijnbaan (the first set of pedestrian streets of the country, opened in 1953 ), the Hoogstraat, the Coolsingel with the city hall, and the Weena, which runs from the Central Station to the Hofplein (square).
Overall the demographics differ per city area.
According to a recent area analysis, the city centre has a singles population of 70% , between the ages of 20 and 40,[citation needed] considerably more than other city areas.
According to a recent area analysis, the city centre has a singles population of 70%, between the ages of 20 and 40,[citation needed] considerably more than other city areas.
Nonetheless, 80% of the homes are rented, not owned.
Also the city centre has a much larger population of people with higher education and higher income .
Rotterdam has one major university, the Erasmus University Rotterdam (EUR) , named after one of the city's famous former inhabitants, Desiderius Erasmus.
In Financial Times' 2005 rankings it placed 29th globally and 7th in Europe .
In the 2009 rankings of Masters of Management, the school reached first place with the CEMS Master in Management and a tenth place with its RSM Master in Management .
Rotterdam has one major university, the Erasmus University Rotterdam (EUR), named after one of the city's famous former inhabitants, Desiderius Erasmus .
The city has its own orchestra, the Rotterdam Philharmonic , with its well-regarded young music director Yannick Nézet-Séguin; a large congress and concert building called De Doelen; several theaters (including the new Luxor) and movie theatres; and the Ahoy Rotterdam complex in the south of the city, which is used for pop concerts, exhibitions, tennis tournaments, and other activities.
The city has its own orchestra, the Rotterdam Philharmonic, with its well-regarded young music director Yannick Nézet-Séguin ; a large congress and concert building called De Doelen; several theaters (including the new Luxor) and movie theatres; and the Ahoy Rotterdam complex in the south of the city, which is used for pop concerts, exhibitions, tennis tournaments, and other activities.
A major zoo called Diergaarde Blijdorp is situated at the northwest side of Rotterdam, complete with a walkthrough sea aquarium called the Oceanium.
A major zoo called Diergaarde Blijdorp is situated at the northwest side of Rotterdam, complete with a walkthrough sea aquarium called the Oceanium .
In the Netherlands, Rotterdam has the highest percentage of foreigners from non-industrialised nations.
In the Netherlands, Rotterdam has the highest percentage of foreigners from non-industrialised nations.
There are 80,000 Muslims, constituting 13% of the population.
The mayor of Rotterdam, Ahmed Aboutaleb , is of Moroccan descent and is a practicing Muslim.
The city also has its own China Town at the (West-) Kruiskade , close to the central railway station.
Rotterdam features some urban architecture projects, nightlife, and many summer festivals celebrating the city's multicultural population and identity, such as the Caribbean-inspired "Summer Carnival", the Dance Parade, Rotterdam 666, the Metropolis pop festival and the World Port days .
This resulted in the disappearance of the major music venues Nighttown and WATT and smaller stages such as Waterfront, Exit, and Heidegger .
In the years 2005–2011 the city struggled with venues for popmusic.[citation needed]  Many of the venues suffered severe financial problems.
.There are also the International Film Festival in January, the Poetry International Festival in June, the North Sea Jazz Festival in July, the Valery Gergiev Festival in September, September in Rotterdam and the World of the Witte de With.
Chromatic aberration is caused by the dispersion of the lens material—the variation of its refractive index, n, with the wavelength of light. Since, from the formulae above, f is dependent upon n, it follows that light of different wavelengths is focused to different positions.
Chromatic aberration of a lens is seen as fringes of colour around the image .
It can be minimised by using an achromatic doublet (or achromat) in which two materials with differing dispersion are bonded together to form a single lens.
The use of achromats was an important step in the development of the optical microscope .
An apochromat is a lens or lens system with even better chromatic aberration correction, combined with improved spherical aberration correction.
If the separation distance is equal to the sum of the focal lengths (d = f1+f2), the FFL and BFL are infinite.
This type of system is called an afocal system , since it produces no net convergence or divergence of the beam.
Two lenses at this separation form the simplest type of optical telescope .
This type of system is called an afocal system , since it produces no net convergence or divergence of the beam.
Lenses are used as prosthetics for the correction of visual impairments such as myopia, hyperopia, presbyopia, and astigmatism.
They are usually shaped to fit in a roughly oval, not circular, frame; the optical centres are placed over the eyeballs; their curvature may not be axially symmetric to correct for astigmatism.
Lenses are used as prosthetics for the correction of visual impairments such as myopia, hyperopia, presbyopia, and astigmatism .
Sunglasses ' lenses are designed to attenuate light; sunglass lenses that also correct visual impairments can be custom made.
In these devices lenses are sometimes paired up with curved mirrors to make a catadioptric system where the lens's spherical aberration corrects the opposite aberration in the mirror (such as Schmidt and meniscus correctors).
Some of these instruments produce a virtual image when applied to the human eye; others produce a real image that can be captured on photographic film or an optical sensor, or can be viewed on a screen.
Some of these instruments produce a virtual image when applied to the human eye; others produce a real image that can be captured on photographic film or an optical sensor , or can be viewed on a screen.
In these devices lenses are sometimes paired up with curved mirrors to make a catadioptric system where the lens's spherical aberration corrects the opposite aberration in the mirror (such as Schmidt and meniscus correctors).
Since ignition can be achieved even with a poorly made lens, lenses have been used as burning-glasses for at least 2400 years .
Convex lenses produce an image of an object at infinity at their focus; if the sun is imaged, much of the visible and infrared light incident on the lens is concentrated into the small image.
A modern application is the use of relatively large lenses to concentrate solar energy on relatively small photovoltaic cells , harvesting more energy without the need to use larger and more expensive cells.
Since ignition can be achieved even with a poorly made lens , lenses have been used as burning-glasses for at least 2400 years.
A lens is a transmissive optical device that affects the focus of a light beam through refraction .
A simple lens consists of a single piece of material , while a compound lens consists of several simple lenses (elements), usually along a common axis.
A simple lens consists of a single piece of material, while a compound lens consists of several simple lenses (elements) , usually along a common axis.
Lenses are made from transparent materials such as glass, ground and polished to a desired shape .
The earliest written records of lenses date to Ancient Greece , with Aristophanes' play The Clouds (424 BC) mentioning a burning-glass (a biconvex lens used to focus the sun's rays to produce fire).
Such lenses were used by artisans for fine work, and for authenticating seal impressions .
The earliest written records of lenses date to Ancient Greece, with Aristophanes' play The Clouds (424 BC) mentioning a burning-glass (a biconvex lens used to focus the sun's rays to produce fire).
The writings of Pliny the Elder (23–79) show that burning-glasses were known to the Roman Empire, and mentions what is arguably the earliest written reference to a corrective lens:
Lenses came into widespread use in Europe with the invention of spectacles, probably in Italy in the 1280s .
This was the start of the optical industry of grinding and polishing lenses for spectacles, first in Venice and Florence in the thirteenth century , and later in the spectacle-making centres in both the Netherlands and Germany.
Spectacle makers created improved types of lenses for the correction of vision based more on empirical knowledge gained from observing the effects of the lenses (probably without the knowledge of the rudimentary optical theory of the day).
The practical development and experimentation with lenses led to the invention of the compound optical microscope around 1595 , and the refracting telescope in 1608, both of which appeared in the spectacle-making centres in the Netherlands.
The practical development and experimentation with lenses led to the invention of the compound optical microscope around 1595, and the refracting telescope in 1608 , both of which appeared in the spectacle-making centres in the Netherlands.
This led to the invention of the compound achromatic lens by Chester Moore Hall in England in 1733, an invention also claimed by fellow Englishman John Dollond in a 1758 patent.
This led to the invention of the compound achromatic lens by Chester Moore Hall in England in 1733 , an invention also claimed by fellow Englishman John Dollond in a 1758 patent.
This led to the invention of the compound achromatic lens by Chester Moore Hall in England in 1733, an invention also claimed by fellow Englishman John Dollond in a 1758 patent.
This led to the invention of the compound achromatic lens by Chester Moore Hall in England in 1733, an invention also claimed by fellow Englishman John Dollond in a 1758 patent.
Most lenses are spherical lenses: their two surfaces are parts of the surfaces of spheres.
Most lenses are spherical lenses: their two surfaces are parts of the surfaces of spheres .
Each surface can be convex (bulging outwards from the lens), concave (depressed into the lens), or planar (flat) .
The line joining the centres of the spheres making up the lens surfaces is called the axis of the lens.
a Barlow lens .
It is also possible for the object distance S1 to be negative, in which case the lens sees a so-called virtual object .
This happens when the lens is inserted into a converging beam (being focused by a previous lens) before the location of its real image.
Using a positive lens of focal length f, a virtual image results when S1 < f, the lens thus being used a magnifying glass (rather than if S1 >> f as for a camera)
For instance, when characterizing a visual telescope or binoculars that produce only a virtual image, one would be more concerned with the angular magnification—which expresses how much larger a distant object appears through the telescope compared to the naked eye.
For instance, when characterizing a visual telescope or binoculars that produce only a virtual image, one would be more concerned with the angular magnification —which expresses how much larger a distant object appears through the telescope compared to the naked eye.
The plate scale is the reciprocal of the focal length of the camera lens; lenses are categorized as long-focus lenses or wide-angle lenses according to their focal lengths .
In the case of a camera one would quote the plate scale , which compares the apparent (angular) size of a distant object to the size of the real image produced at the focus.
Linear magnification M is not always the most useful measure of magnifying power.
For instance, using a magnifying glass of 5 cm focal length, held 20 cm from the eye and 5 cm from the object, produces a virtual image at infinity of infinite linear size: M = ∞. But the angular magnification is 5, meaning that the object appears 5 times larger to the eye than without the lens.
When taking a picture of the moon using a camera with a 50 mm lens, one is not concerned with the linear magnification M ≈ −50 mm / 380000 km = −1.3×10−10.
Using an inappropriate measurement of magnification can be formally correct but yield a meaningless number.
For instance, using a magnifying glass of 5 cm focal length, held 20 cm from the eye and 5 cm from the object, produces a virtual image at infinity of infinite linear size: M = ∞.
Spherical aberration occurs because spherical surfaces are not the ideal shape for a lens, but are by far the simplest shape to which glass can be ground and polished, and so are often used.
This manifests itself as a blurring of the image.
Spherical aberration occurs because spherical surfaces are not the ideal shape for a lens, but are by far the simplest shape to which glass can be ground and polished, and so are often used.
Lenses in which closer-to-ideal, non-spherical surfaces are used are called aspheric lenses .
For instance, a plano-convex lens , which is used to focus a collimated beam, produces a sharper focal spot when used with the convex side towards the beam source.
Coma , or comatic aberration, derives its name from the comet-like appearance of the aberrated image.
In general, a bundle of parallel rays passing through the lens at a fixed distance from the centre of the lens are focused to a ring-shaped image in the focal plane, known as a comatic circle .
Coma, or comatic aberration, derives its name from the comet-like appearance of the aberrated image.
Lenses in which both spherical aberration and coma are minimised are called bestform lenses.
Lenses are classified by the curvature of the two optical surfaces .
if both surfaces are convex .
If both surfaces have the same radius of curvature , the lens is equiconvex.
A lens with two concave surfaces is biconcave (or just concave).
If one of the surfaces is flat , the lens is plano-convex or plano-concave depending on the curvature of the other surface.
A negative meniscus lens has a steeper concave surface and is thinner at the centre than at the periphery .
Convex-concave (meniscus) lenses can be either positive or negative, depending on the relative curvatures of the two surfaces .
Conversely, a positive meniscus lens has a steeper convex surface and is thicker at the centre than at the periphery .
All real lenses have nonzero thickness , however, which makes a real lens with identical curved surfaces slightly positive.
To obtain exactly zero optical power, a meniscus lens must have slightly unequal curvatures to account for the effect of the lens' thickness.
As mentioned above, a positive or converging lens in air focuses a collimated beam travelling along the lens axis to a spot (known as the focal point) at a distance f from the lens.
The plane perpendicular to the lens axis situated at a distance f from the lens is called the focal plane.
Conversely, a point source of light placed at the focal point is converted into a collimated beam by the lens .
In the latter, an object at the focal length distance from the lens is imaged at infinity .
The signs of the lens' radii of curvature indicate whether the corresponding surfaces are convex or concave .
The sign convention used to represent this varies, but in this article a positive R indicates a surface's center of curvature is further along in the direction of the ray travel (right, in the accompanying diagrams), while negative R means that rays reaching the surface have already passed the center of curvature .
The sign convention used to represent this varies, but in this article a positive R indicates a surface's center of curvature is further along in the direction of the ray travel (right, in the accompanying diagrams), while negative R means that rays reaching the surface have already passed the center of curvature.
Consequently, for external lens surfaces as diagrammed above, R1 > 0 and  R2 < 0 indicate convex surfaces (used to converge light in a positive lens), while R1 < 0 and  R2 > 0 indicate concave surfaces.
Consequently, for external lens surfaces as diagrammed above, R1 > 0 and  R2 < 0 indicate convex surfaces (used to converge light in a positive lens), while R1 < 0 and  R2 > 0 indicate concave surfaces .
In some cases S2 is negative, indicating that the image is formed on the opposite side of the lens from where those rays are being considered .
Unlike real images, a virtual image cannot be projected on a screen , but appears to an observer looking through the lens as if it were a real object at the location of that virtual image.
Unlike real images, a virtual image cannot be projected on a screen, but appears to an observer looking through the lens as if it were a real object at the location of that virtual image .
The magnifying glass creates a (magnified) virtual image behind the magnifying glass , but those rays are then re-imaged by the lens of the eye to create a real image on the retina.
During the British Raj, the Kingdom of Manipur was one of the princely states.[page needed] Between 1917 and 1939, the people of Manipur pressed for their rights against the British Rule. By the late 1930s, the princely state of Manipur negotiated with the British administration its preference to be part of India, rather than Burma.[page needed] These negotiations were cut short with the outbreak of World War II.
By the late 1930s, the princely state of Manipur negotiated with the British administration its preference to be part of India, rather than Burma. [page needed] These negotiations were cut short with the outbreak of World War II.
By the late 1930s, the princely state of Manipur negotiated with the British administration its preference to be part of India, rather than Burma.[page needed] These negotiations were cut short with the outbreak of World War II. On 21 September 1949, Maharaja Budhachandra signed a Treaty of Accession merging the kingdom into India.
On 21 September 1949, Maharaja Budhachandra signed a Treaty of Accession merging the kingdom into India. This merger is disputed by groups in Manipur as having been completed without consensus and under duress.
The Shan or Pong called the area Cassay, the Burmese Kathe, and the Assamese Meklee. In the first treaty between the British East India Company and Meidingu Chingthangkhomba (Bhagyachandra) signed in 1762, the kingdom was recorded as Meckley.
Bhagyachandra and his successors issued coins engraved with "Manipureshwar", or "lord of Manipur", and the British discarded the name Meckley. Later on, the work Dharani Samhita (1825–34) popularised the Sanskrit legends of the origin of Manipur's name.
In the first treaty between the British East India Company and Meidingu Chingthangkhomba (Bhagyachandra) signed in 1762, the kingdom was recorded as Meckley. Bhagyachandra and his successors issued coins engraved with "Manipureshwar", or "lord of Manipur", and the British discarded the name Meckley.
Later on, the work Dharani Samhita (1825–34) popularised the Sanskrit legends of the origin of Manipur's name.
A separatist movement has been active in Manipur since 1964, when United National Liberation Front was founded. Several groups have used violence toward achieving their goal of a sovereign Manipur.
In addition, tribal peoples have demanded division of the present state into two or three Indian states along ethnic lines. This is considered one of India's "sensitive areas", due to its political troubles and isolated geography.
This is considered one of India's "sensitive areas", due to its political troubles and isolated geography. Foreign travelers must gain permission from the government to enter the state.
Foreign travelers must gain permission from the government to enter the state.
The first armed opposition group in Manipur, the United National Liberation Front (UNLF) , was founded in 1964, which declared that it wanted to gain independence from India and form Manipur as a new country.
For example, in 1977 the People's Revolutionary Party of Kangleipak (PREPAK) was formed , the People's Liberation Army (PLA) was formed in 1978 which Human Rights Watch states as having received arms and training from China.
The first armed opposition group in Manipur, the United National Liberation Front (UNLF), was founded in 1964, which declared that it wanted to gain independence from India and form Manipur as a new country. Over time, many more groups formed in Manipur, each with different goals, and deriving support from diverse ethnic groups in Manipur.
For example, in 1977 the People's Revolutionary Party of Kangleipak (PREPAK) was formed, the People's Liberation Army (PLA) was formed in 1978 which Human Rights Watch states as having received arms and training from China. In 1980, the Kangleipak Communist Party (KCP) was formed.
In 1980, the Kangleipak Communist Party (KCP) was formed. These groups began a spree of bank robberies and attacks on police officers and government buildings. The state government appealed to the central government in New Delhi for support in combating this violence.
The total area covered by the state is 22,347 square kilometres (8,628 sq mi). The capital lies in an oval-shaped valley of approximately 700 square miles (2,000 km2) surrounded by blue mountains and is at an elevation of 790 metres (2,590 ft) above sea level.
The state lies at a latitude of 23°83'N – 25°68'N and a longitude of 93°03'E – 94°78'E. The total area covered by the state is 22,347 square kilometres (8,628 sq mi).
The mountain ranges create a moderated climate, preventing the cold winds from the north from reaching the valley and barring cyclonic storms originating from the Bay of Bengal.[citation needed]
The capital lies in an oval-shaped valley of approximately 700 square miles (2,000 km2) surrounded by blue mountains and is at an elevation of 790 metres (2,590 ft) above sea level. The slope of the valley is from north to south.
Almost all the rivers in the valley area are in the mature stage and therefore deposit their sediment load in the Loktak lake.
These rivers are corrosive and assume turbulent form in the rainy season.
These rivers are corrosive and assume turbulent form in the rainy season .
Important rivers draining the western area include the Maku, Barak, Jiri, Irang and Leimatak .
Rivers draining the eastern part of the state, the Yu River Basin, include the Chamu, Khunou and other short streams. [citation needed]
Almost all the rivers in the valley area are in the mature stage and therefore deposit their sediment load in the Loktak lake.
These rivers are corrosive and assume turbulent form in the rainy season.
These rivers are corrosive and assume turbulent form in the rainy season .
Rivers draining the eastern part of the state, the Yu River Basin, include the Chamu, Khunou and other short streams. [citation needed]
Important rivers draining the western area include the Maku, Barak, Jiri, Irang and Leimatak .
Manipur may be characterised as two distinct physical regions: an outlying area of rugged hills and narrow valleys, and the inner area of flat plain, with all associated land forms .
The total area occupied by all the lakes is about 600 km2 .
The Loktak lake is an important feature of the central plain.
The altitude ranges from 40 m at Jiribam to 2,994 m at Mt. Iso Peak near Mao Songsong.
The altitude ranges from 40 m at Jiribam to 2,994 m at Mt. Iso Peak near Mao Songsong.
the red ferruginous soil in the hill area and the alluvium in the valley .
The valley soils generally contain loam, small rock fragments, sand and sandy clay , and are varied.
The normal pH value ranges from 5.4 to 6.8 .
Soil on the steep hill slopes is subject to high erosion, resulting in gullies and barren rock slopes.
The top soil on the steep slopes is very thin .
Lying 790 meters above sea level , Manipur is wedged among hills on all sides.
The maximum temperature in the summer months is 32 °C (90 °F) .
This northeastern corner of India enjoys a generally amiable climate, though the winters can be a chilly .
In winter the temperature often falls below 0 °C (32 °F) , bringing frost.
Snow sometimes falls in hilly regions due to the Western Disturbance.[citation needed] The coldest month is January, and the warmest July.
The state is drenched in rains from May until mid-October .
It receives an average annual rainfall of 1, 467.5 millimetres (57.78 in) .
Rain distribution varies from 933 millimetres (36.7 in) in Imphal to 2,593 millimetres (102.1 in) in Tamenglong.
Rain distribution varies from 933 millimetres (36.7 in) in Imphal to 2,593 millimetres (102.1 in) in Tamenglong .
The South Westerly Monsoon picks up moisture from the Bay of Bengal and heads toward Manipur, hits the eastern Himalaya ranges and produces a massive amount of rain.
The Nagas wish to annex part of Manipur and merge with a greater Nagaland or Nagalim, which is in conflict with Meetei insurgent demands for the integrity of their vision of an independent state.
The Kuki insurgent groups want a separate state for the Kukis to be carved out from the present state of Manipur .
The Kuki insurgent groups are under two umbrella organisations: Kuki National Organisation (KNO) and United Peoples Forum.
The Kuki insurgent groups are under two umbrella organisations: Kuki National Organisation (KNO) and United Peoples Forum .
The Kuki insurgent groups want a separate state for the Kukis to be carved out from the present state of Manipur .
The average worldwide violent unnatural death rate between 2004 and 2009 was 7.9 per 100,000 per year.
From 2010 onwards, about 25 civilians have died in militants-related violence (about 1 per 100,000 people), dropping further to 21 civilian deaths in 2013 (or 0.8 per 100,000 people).
From 2010 onwards, about 25 civilians have died in militants-related violence (about 1 per 100,000 people), dropping further to 21 civilian deaths in 2013 (or 0.8 per 100,000 people).
However, there were 76 explosions in 2013, compared to 107 explosions in 2012.
However, there were 76 explosions in 2013, compared to 107 explosions in 2012.
National Highway 53 (India) connects Manipur with another railway station at Silchar in Assam , which is 269 km (167 mi) away from Imphal.
National Highway 53 (India) connects Manipur with another railway station at Silchar in Assam, which is 269 km ( 167 mi) away from Imphal.
Tulihal Airport, Changangei, Imphal, the only airport of Manipur, connects directly with Delhi, Kolkata, Guwahati, and Agartala.
Tulihal Airport , Changangei, Imphal, the only airport of Manipur, connects directly with Delhi, Kolkata, Guwahati, and Agartala.
National Highway 53 (India) connects Manipur with another railway station at Silchar in Assam, which is 269 km (167 mi) away from Imphal.
Floating islands are made out of the tangle of watery weeds and other plants.
48 km ( 30 mi) from Imphal, lies the largest fresh water lake in the North East India, the Loktak Lake, a miniature inland sea.
It is in the district of Bishnupur .
48 km (30 mi) from Imphal, lies the largest fresh water lake in the North East India, the Loktak Lake , a miniature inland sea.
Life on the lake includes small islands that are floating weed on which live the Lake people , the blue waters of the lake, and colourful water plants.
It is performed in an area of 13×13 ft in the centre of any open space, in a very simple style without a raised stage, set design, or heavy props such as curtains, background scenery, and visual effects.
Etymologically Shumang lila is the combination of "Shumang" ( courtyard )
It uses one table and two chairs, kept on one side of the performance space.
It uses one table and two chairs, kept on one side of the performance space.
It uses one table and two chairs, kept on one side of the performance space.
Iskcon led by Bhaktisvarupa Damodara Swami started a network of schools in Northeastern India, where more than 4000 students receive education centred on Vaishnava spiritual values.
In 1989 he founded "Ranganiketan Manipuri Cultural Arts Troupe", which has approximately 600 performances at over 300 venues in over 15 countries.
In 1989 he founded "Ranganiketan Manipuri Cultural Arts Troupe", which has approximately 600 performances at over 300 venues in over 15 countries.
In 1989 he founded "Ranganiketan Manipuri Cultural Arts Troupe", which has approximately 600 performances at over 300 venues in over 15 countries.
A classical form of Manipuri dance based and inspired by the theme of Lord Krishna and his beloved Radha's love story and the devotion of the Gopis (companions) toward Lord Krishna.
This graceful and slow movement makes it one of the most acclaimed classical dances of India.
The costume is elegant , as there are nicely embroidered clothes that give lustre to the beauty of the art.
A classical form of Manipuri dance based and inspired by the theme of Lord Krishna and his beloved Radha 's
The auditorium of the theatre is on the outskirts of Imphal and the campus stretches for about 2 acres (8,100 m2).
Its 25 years of existence in theatre had disciplined its performers to a world of excellence.
Chakravyuha taken from the Mahabharat epic had won Fringe Firsts Award, 1987 at the Edinburgh International Theater Festival.
an 80-minute exposition of Emperor Ashoka's redemption.[citation needed]
Held in November, this is a social festival of the Meeteis and many communities of Manipur where married women (Ningol) are invited (Chakouba, literally calling to a meal ; for dinner or lunch) to a feast at their parental house with their children.
Besides the feast, gifts are given to the women/invitees and to their children. It is the festival that binds and revives the family relations between the girls married away and the parental family.
Held in November, this is a social festival of the Meeteis and many communities of Manipur where married women (Ningol) are invited (Chakouba, literally calling to a meal; for dinner or lunch) to a feast at their parental house with their children.
It is held every year on the 2nd lunar day of Heyangei (mostly during the month of November; sometimes it falls in October).[citation needed]
On 1 November of every year the state declared holiday for Kut celebration.
The festival is marked by cultural events such as traditional dances, folk dances, songs, sports and the Miss Kut contest.[citation needed] It is a festival of peace and thanksgiving to the Almighty for the harvests .[citation needed]
Held after the Harvest festival in November, this festival predominantly celebrated by Kuki-Chin-Zomi tribes in Manipur has become one of the leading festivals of the state.
Held after the Harvest festival in November, this festival predominantly celebrated by Kuki-Chin-Zomi tribes in Manipur has become one of the leading festivals of the state.
About 41.3% of Manipuri people are Hindus.
Vaishnavism school of Hinduism became a dominant force in Manipur in the eighteenth century when the king, Garib Niwas (1708–48), declared it as the official State religion.
Hinduism is mostly professed by Meetei people , who are majority in the state.
Vaishnavism school of Hinduism became a dominant force in Manipur in the eighteenth century when the king, Garib Niwas (1708–48), declared it as the official State religion.
The Hindu population is heavily concentrated in the Manipur valley among the Meetei people.
Christianity is the religion of 41.2% of the people in the state.
It was brought by missionaries to Manipur in the 19th century .
Christianity brought a marked change towards the civilization of the hill people.[citation needed] In the 20th century, a few Christian schools were established, which introduced Western-type education. Respected schools in Manipur are Little Flower School in Imphal, Don Bosco High School in Imphal, St. Joseph's Convent, and Nirmalabas High School, which are all run by Catholic priests and nuns.
Christian ity is the religion of 41.2% of the people in the state.
Respected schools in Manipur are Little Flower School in Imphal, Don Bosco High School in Imphal, St. Joseph's Convent, and Nirmalabas High School , which are all run by Catholic priests and nuns.
Folk religions are practiced by about 8% of the state's people.
Sanamahism is the ancient indigenous religion.
Sanamahi worship is concentrated around the Sun God/Sanamahi .
Their ancestor worship and animism was based on Umang Lai – ethnic governing deities worshiped in sacred groves.
Folk religions are practiced by about 8% of the state's people.
The literacy rate among Muslims is 58.6 percent (male 75 percent and female 41.6 percent) below the state's average of 70.5 percent (male 80.3 percent and female 60.5 percent).
There were 51 Class I Muslim officers including three women, 101 Class II officers and 1,270 and 1,663 employees belonging to Class III and IV categories respectively.
There were 51 Class I Muslim officers including three women , 101 Class II officers and 1,270 and 1,663 employees belonging to Class III and IV categories respectively.
In 1995, out of 135,000 Muslims, 5,704 had matriculated from secondary school.
The literacy rate among Muslims is 58.6 percent (male 75 percent and female 41.6 percent) below the state's average of 70.5 percent (male 80.3 percent and female 60.5 percent).
The violence in Manipur extend beyond those between Indian security forces and insurgent armed groups.
There is violence between the Meeteis, Nagas, Kukis and other tribal groups.
The violence in Manipur extend beyond those between Indian security forces and insurgent armed groups .
They have formed splinter groups who disagree with each other.
Other than UNLF, PLA and PREPAK , Manipuri insurgent groups include Revolutionary Peoples Front (RPF), Manipur Liberation Front Army (MLFA), Kanglei Yawol Khnna Lup (KYKL), Revolutionary Joint Committee (RJC), Kangleipak Communist Party (KCP), Peoples United Liberation Front (PULF), National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN-K), National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN-I/M), Kuki National Front (KNF), Kuki National Army (KNA), Kuki Defence Force (KDF), Kuki Democratic Movement (KDM), Kuki National Organisation (KNO), Kuki Security Force (KSF), Chin Kuki Revolutionary Front (CKRF), Kom Rem Peoples Convention (KRPC), Zomi Revolutionary Volunteers (ZRV), Zomi Revolutionary Army (ZRA), Zomi Reunification Organisation (ZRO), and Hmar Peoples Convention (HPC).
In parallel with this research, work with brain-damaged patients by Paul Broca suggested that certain regions of the brain were responsible for certain functions.
In parallel with this research, work with brain-damaged patients by Paul Broca suggested that certain regions of the brain were responsible for certain functions .
At the time, Broca's findings were seen as a confirmation of Franz Joseph Gall's theory that language was localized and that certain psychological functions were localized in specific areas of the cerebral cortex.
The localization of function hypothesis was supported by observations of epileptic patients conducted by John Hughlings Jackson, who correctly inferred the organization of the motor cortex by watching the progression of seizures through the body.
The localization of function hypothesis was supported by observations of epileptic patients conducted by John Hughlings Jackson , who correctly inferred the organization of the motor cortex by watching the progression of seizures through the body.
During the 20th century, neuroscience began to be recognized as a distinct academic discipline in its own right, rather than as studies of the nervous system within other disciplines.
Eric Kandel and collaborators have cited David Rioch, Francis O. Schmitt, and Stephen Kuffler as having played critical roles in establishing the field.
Rioch originated the integration of basic anatomical and physiological research with clinical psychiatry at the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research , starting in the 1950s.
Rioch originated the integration of basic anatomical and physiological research with clinical psychiatry at the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, starting in the 1950s .
During the same period, Schmitt established a neuroscience research program within the Biology Department at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , bringing together biology, chemistry, physics, and mathematics.
In 1952 , Alan Lloyd Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley presented a mathematical model for transmission of electrical signals in neurons of the giant axon of a squid, action potentials, and how they are initiated and propagated, known as the Hodgkin–Huxley model.
In 1952, Alan Lloyd Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley presented a mathematical model for transmission of electrical signals in neurons of the giant axon of a squid, action potentials, and how they are initiated and propagated , known as the Hodgkin–Huxley model.
In 1961–2 , Richard FitzHugh and J. Nagumo simplified Hodgkin–Huxley, in what is called the FitzHugh–Nagumo model.
In 1962, Bernard Katz modeled neurotransmission across the space between neurons known as synapses.
In 1961–2, Richard FitzHugh and J. Nagumo simplified Hodgkin–Huxley, in what is called the FitzHugh–Nagumo model .
The scientific study of the nervous system has increased significantly during the second half of the twentieth century, principally due to advances in molecular biology, electrophysiology, and computational neuroscience .
Neurons are cells specialized for communication .
They are able to communicate with neurons and other cell types through specialized junctions called synapses , at which electrical or electrochemical signals can be transmitted from one cell to another.
They are able to communicate with neurons and other cell types through specialized junctions called synapses, at which electrical or electrochemical signals can be transmitted from one cell to another .
Many neurons extrude long thin filaments of protoplasm called axons , which may extend to distant parts of the body and are capable of rapidly carrying electrical signals, influencing the activity of other neurons, muscles, or glands at their termination points.
In vertebrates, the nervous system can be split into two parts, the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), and the peripheral nervous system .
In vertebrates, the nervous system can be split into two parts, the central nervous system ( brain and spinal cord), and the peripheral nervous system.
In vertebrates, the nervous system can be split into two parts, the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), and the peripheral nervous system.
The human brain alone contains around one hundred billion neurons and one hundred trillion synapses
Due to the plasticity of the human brain, the structure of its synapses and their resulting functions change throughout life.
Most studies in neurology have too few test subjects to be scientifically sure.
Those insufficient size studies are the basis for all domain-specific diagnoses in neuropsychiatry, since the few large enough studies there are always find individuals with the brain changes thought to be associated with a mental condition but without any of the symptoms .
The only diagnoses that can be validated through large enough brain studies are those on serious brain damages and neurodegenerative diseases that destroy most of the brain.
Those insufficient size studies are the basis for all domain-specific diagnoses in neuropsychiatry, since the few large enough studies there are always find individuals with the brain changes thought to be associated with a mental condition but without any of the symptoms.
Neurology, psychiatry, neurosurgery, psychosurgery, anesthesiology and pain medicine, neuropathology, neuroradiology, ophthalmology, otolaryngology, clinical neurophysiology, addiction medicine, and sleep medicine are some medical specialties that specifically address the diseases of the nervous system.
Neurology , psychiatry, neurosurgery, psychosurgery, anesthesiology and pain medicine, neuropathology, neuroradiology, ophthalmology, otolaryngology, clinical neurophysiology, addiction medicine, and sleep medicine are some medical specialties that specifically address the diseases of the nervous system.
Psychiatry focuses on affective, behavioral, cognitive, and perceptual disorders.
Anesthesiology focuses on perception of pain, and pharmacologic alteration of consciousness.
Neuropathology focuses upon the classification and underlying pathogenic mechanisms of central and peripheral nervous system and muscle diseases, with an emphasis on morphologic, microscopic, and chemically observable alterations.
The largest professional neuroscience organization is the Society for Neuroscience (SFN) , which is based in the United States but includes many members from other countries.
 Since its founding in 1969 the SFN has grown steadily:  as of 2010 it recorded 40,290 members from 83 different countries.
 Since its founding in 1969 the SFN has grown steadily:  as of 2010 it recorded 40,290 members from 83 different countries.
The largest professional neuroscience organization is the Society for Neuroscience (SFN), which is based in the United States but includes many members from other countries.
 Since its founding in 1969 the SFN has grown steadily:  as of 2010 it recorded 40,290 members from 83 different countries.
Other major organizations devoted to neuroscience include the International Brain Research Organization (IBRO) , which holds its meetings in a country from a different part of the world each year, and the Federation of European Neuroscience Societies (FENS), which holds a meeting in a different European city every two years.
Other major organizations devoted to neuroscience include the International Brain Research Organization (IBRO), which holds its meetings in a country from a different part of the world each year, and the Federation of European Neuroscience Societies (FENS) , which holds a meeting in a different European city every two years.
Other major organizations devoted to neuroscience include the International Brain Research Organization (IBRO), which holds its meetings in a country from a different part of the world each year, and the Federation of European Neuroscience Societies (FENS), which holds a meeting in a different European city every two years .
 FENS comprises a set of 32 national-level organizations, including the British Neuroscience Association, the German Neuroscience Society (Neurowissenschaftliche Gesellschaft), and the French Société des Neurosciences.
The first National Honor Society in Neuroscience, Nu Rho Psi, was founded in 2006 .
In addition to conducting traditional research in laboratory settings, neuroscientists have also been involved in the promotion of awareness and knowledge about the nervous system among the general public and government officials .
In the United States, large organizations such as the Society for Neuroscience have promoted neuroscience education by developing a primer called Brain Facts, collaborating with public school teachers to develop Neuroscience Core Concepts for K-12 teachers and students, and cosponsoring a campaign with the Dana Foundation called Brain Awareness Week to increase public awareness about the progress and benefits of brain research.
For example, individual neuroscientists have promoted neuroscience education among young students by organizing the International Brain Bee , which is an academic competition for high school or secondary school students worldwide.
In the United States, large organizations such as the Society for Neuroscience have promoted neuroscience education by developing a primer called Brain Facts, collaborating with public school teachers to develop Neuroscience Core Concepts for K-12 teachers and students, and cosponsoring a campaign with the Dana Foundation called Brain Awareness Week to increase public awareness about the progress and benefits of brain research.
In Canada, the CIHR Canadian National Brain Bee is held annually at McMaster University .
The study of the nervous system can be done at multiple levels, ranging from the molecular and cellular levels to the systems and cognitive levels .
At the molecular level , the basic questions addressed in molecular neuroscience include the mechanisms by which neurons express and respond to molecular signals and how axons form complex connectivity patterns.
At this level, tools from molecular biology and genetics are used to understand how neurons develop and how genetic changes affect biological functions.
At this level, tools from molecular biology and genetics are used to understand how neurons develop and how genetic changes affect biological functions .
The morphology, molecular identity, and physiological characteristics of neurons and how they relate to different types of behavior are also of considerable interest.
The study of the nervous system can be done at multiple levels, ranging from the molecular and cellular levels to the systems and cognitive levels .
At the molecular level, the basic questions addressed in molecular neuroscience include the mechanisms by which neurons express and respond to molecular signals and how axons form complex connectivity patterns .
The morphology, molecular identity , and physiological characteristics of neurons and how they relate to different types of behavior are also of considerable interest.
At this level, tools from molecular biology and genetics are used to understand how neurons develop and how genetic changes affect biological functions .
Neuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system .
Traditionally, neuroscience has been seen as a branch of biology .
It also exerts influence on other fields, such as neuroeducation, neuroethics,  and neurolaw .
The term neurobiology is usually used interchangeably with the term neuroscience, although the former refers specifically to the biology of the nervous system, whereas the latter refers to the entire science of the nervous system.
The scope of neuroscience has broadened to include different approaches used to study the molecular, cellular, developmental, structural, functional, evolutionary, computational, and medical aspects of the nervous system.
The techniques used by neuroscientists have also expanded enormously, from molecular and cellular studies of individual nerve cells to imaging of sensory and motor tasks in the brain .
Recent theoretical advances in neuroscience have also been aided by the study of neural networks .
The scope of neuroscience has broadened to include different approaches used to study the molecular, cellular, developmental, structural, functional, evolutionary, computational, and medical aspects of the nervous system .
Early views on the function of the brain regarded it to be a "cranial stuffing" of sorts .
In Egypt, from the late Middle Kingdom onwards, the brain was regularly removed in preparation for mummification.
According to Herodotus, the first step of mummification was to " take a crooked piece of iron, and with it draw out the brain through the nostrils , thus getting rid of a portion, while the skull is cleared of the rest by rinsing with drugs."
It was believed at the time that the heart was the seat of intelligence.
The view that the heart was the source of consciousness was not challenged until the time of the Greek physician Hippocrates .
He believed that the brain was not only involved with sensation—since most specialized organs (e.g., eyes, ears, tongue) are located in the head near the brain— but was also the seat of intelligence .
Plato also speculated that the brain was the seat of the rational part of the soul.
Aristotle, however, believed the heart was the center of intelligence and that the brain regulated the amount of heat from the heart .
Studies of the brain became more sophisticated after the invention of the microscope and the development of a staining procedure by Camillo Golgi during the late 1890s.
Studies of the brain became more sophisticated after the invention of the microscope and the development of a staining procedure by Camillo Golgi during the late 1890s .
Studies of the brain became more sophisticated after the invention of the microscope and the development of a staining procedure by Camillo Golgi during the late 1890s.
The procedure used a silver chromate salt to reveal the intricate structures of individual neurons .
His technique was used by Santiago Ramón y Cajal and led to the formation of the neuron doctrine , the hypothesis that the functional unit of the brain is the neuron.
The fundamental questions addressed in cellular neuroscience include the mechanisms of how neurons process signals physiologically and electrochemically .
These questions include how signals are processed by neurites – thin extensions from a neuronal cell body , consisting of dendrites (specialized to receive synaptic inputs from other neurons) and axons (specialized to conduct nerve impulses called action potentials) – and somas (the cell bodies of the neurons containing the nucleus), and how neurotransmitters and electrical signals are used to process information in a neuron.
These questions include how signals are processed by neurites – thin extensions from a neuronal cell body, consisting of dendrites ( specialized to receive synaptic inputs from other neurons ) and axons (specialized to conduct nerve impulses called action potentials) – and somas (the cell bodies of the neurons containing the nucleus), and how neurotransmitters and electrical signals are used to process information in a neuron.
These questions include how signals are processed by neurites – thin extensions from a neuronal cell body, consisting of dendrites (specialized to receive synaptic inputs from other neurons) and axons ( specialized to conduct nerve impulses called action potentials ) –
These questions include how signals are processed by neurites – thin extensions from a neuronal cell body, consisting of dendrites (specialized to receive synaptic inputs from other neurons) and axons (specialized to conduct nerve impulses called action potentials) – and somas (the cell bodies of the neurons containing the nucleus ), and how neurotransmitters and electrical signals are used to process information in a neuron.
At the systems level, the questions addressed in systems neuroscience include how neural circuits are formed and used anatomically and physiologically to produce functions such as reflexes, multisensory integration, motor coordination, circadian rhythms, emotional responses, learning, and memory .
Neuroendocrinology and psychoneuroimmunology examine interactions between the nervous system and the endocrine and immune systems , respectively.
The related fields of neuroethology and neuropsychology address the question of how neural substrates underlie specific animal and human behaviors .
At the systems level, the questions addressed in systems neuroscience include how neural circuits are formed and used anatomically and physiologically to produce functions such as reflexes, multisensory integration, motor coordination, circadian rhythms, emotional responses, learning, and memory.
At the cognitive level, cognitive neuroscience addresses the questions of how psychological functions are produced by neural circuitry .
The emergence of powerful new measurement techniques such as neuroimaging (e.g., fMRI, PET, SPECT ), electrophysiology, and human genetic analysis combined with sophisticated experimental techniques from cognitive psychology allows neuroscientists and psychologists to address abstract questions such as how human cognition and emotion are mapped to specific neural substrates.
The emergence of powerful new measurement techniques such as neuroimaging (e.g., fMRI, PET, SPECT), electrophysiology, and human genetic analysis combined with sophisticated experimental techniques from cognitive psychology allows neuroscientists and psychologists to address abstract questions such as how human cognition and emotion are mapped to specific neural substrates.
The emergence of powerful new measurement techniques such as neuroimaging (e.g., fMRI, PET, SPECT), electrophysiology, and human genetic analysis combined with sophisticated experimental techniques from cognitive psychology allows neuroscientists and psychologists to address abstract questions such as how human cognition and emotion are mapped to specific neural substrates .
Ultimately neuroscientists would like to understand every aspect of the nervous system, including how it works, how it develops, how it malfunctions, and how it can be altered or repaired .
Over the long term, improvements in technology have been the primary drivers of progress.
The specific topics that form the main foci of research change over time, driven by an ever-expanding base of knowledge and the availability of increasingly sophisticated technical methods .
Developments in electron microscopy, computers, electronics, functional brain imaging, and most recently genetics and genomics , have all been major drivers of progress.
During the English Civil War, Oxford housed the court of Charles I in 1642, after the king was expelled from London, although there was strong support in the town for the Parliamentarian cause.
The town yielded to Parliamentarian forces under General Fairfax in the Siege of Oxford of 1646 .
It later housed the court of Charles II during the Great Plague of London in 1665–66 .
The city suffered two serious fires in 1644 and 1671 .
During the English Civil War, Oxford housed the court of Charles I in 1642 , after the king was expelled from London, although there was strong support in the town for the Parliamentarian cause.
During the English Civil War , Oxford housed the court of Charles I in 1642, after the king was expelled from London, although there was strong support in the town for the Parliamentarian cause.
It later housed the court of Charles II during the Great Plague of London in 1665–66.
The city suffered two serious fires in 1644 and 1671.
Although reluctant to do so, he was forced to evacuate when the plague got too close .
Oxford (/ˈɒksfərd/) is a city in the South East region of England and the county town of Oxfordshire .
With a population of 159,994 it is the 52nd largest city in the United Kingdom, and one of the fastest growing and most ethnically diverse.
The city is known worldwide as the home of the University of Oxford, the oldest university in the English-speaking world .
Buildings in Oxford demonstrate notable examples of every English architectural period since the late Saxon period .
Oxford was first settled in Saxon times and was initially known as " Oxenaforda ", meaning "Ford of the Oxen" (according to the English Place-Name Society, who base their result on a passing reference in Florence of Worcester's work "Chronicon ex chronicis"); fords were more common than bridges at that time.
Oxford was first settled in Saxon times and was initially known as "Oxenaforda", meaning "Ford of the Oxen" (according to the English Place-Name Society, who base their result on a passing reference in Florence of Worcester's work "Chronicon ex chronicis"); fords were more common than bridges at that time.
It began with the establishment of a river crossing for oxen around AD 900 .
In the 10th century, Oxford became an important military frontier town between the kingdoms of Mercia and Wessex and was on several occasions raided by Danes .
Oxford was heavily damaged during the Norman Invasion of 1066.
Following the conquest, the town was assigned to a governor, Robert D'Oyly , who ordered the construction of Oxford Castle to confirm Norman authority over the area.
Following the conquest, the town was assigned to a governor, Robert D'Oyly, who ordered the construction of Oxford Castle to confirm Norman authority over the area .
The community never grew large but it earned its place in history as one of Britain's oldest places of formal education.
It was there that in 1139 Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote his History of the Kings of Britain, a compilation of Arthurian legends.
Oxford's prestige was enhanced by its charter granted by King Henry II , granting its citizens the same privileges and exemptions as those enjoyed by the capital of the kingdom; and various important religious houses were founded in or near the city.
A grandson of King John established Rewley Abbey for the Cistercian Order; and friars of various orders (Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, Augustinians and Trinitarians) all had houses of varying importance at Oxford.
Oxford's prestige was enhanced by its charter granted by King Henry II, granting its citizens the same privileges and exemptions as those enjoyed by the capital of the kingdom; and various important religious houses were founded in or near the city.
A grandson of King John established Rewley Abbey for the Cistercian Order ; and friars of various orders (Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, Augustinians and Trinitarians) all had houses of varying importance at Oxford.
The University of Oxford is first mentioned in 12th century records.
Of the hundreds of Aularian houses that sprang up across the city, only St Edmund Hall (c. 1225) remains.
Oxford's earliest colleges were University College (1249), Balliol (1263) and Merton (1264) .
The relationship between "town and gown" has often been uneasy – as many as 93 students and townspeople were killed in the St Scholastica Day Riot of 1355 .
The relationship between "town and gown" has often been uneasy – as many as 93 students and townspeople were killed in the St Scholastica Day Riot of 1355.
In 1844, the Great Western Railway linked Oxford with London (Paddington) via Didcot and Reading; in 1851, the London and North Western Railway opened its own route from Oxford to London (Euston), via Bicester, Bletchley and Watford; and in 1864 a third route, also to Paddington, running via Thame, High Wycombe and Maidenhead, was provided; this was shortened in 1906 by the opening of a direct route between High Wycombe and London (Paddington) by way of Denham.
The distance from Oxford to London was 78 miles (125.5 km) via Bletchley; 63.5 miles (102.2 km) via Didcot and Reading; 63.25 miles (101.8 km) via Thame and Maidenhead; and 55.75 miles (89.7 km) via Denham.
In 1844, the Great Western Railway linked Oxford with London (Paddington) via Didcot and Reading; in 1851 , the London and North Western Railway opened its own route from Oxford to London (Euston), via Bicester, Bletchley and Watford; and in 1864 a third route, also to Paddington, running via Thame, High Wycombe and Maidenhead, was provided; this was shortened in 1906 by the opening of a direct route between High Wycombe and London (Paddington) by way of Denham.
The distance from Oxford to London was 78 miles (125.5 km) via Bletchley; 63.5 miles (102.2 km) via Didcot and Reading; 63.25 miles (101.8 km) via Thame and Maidenhead; and 55.75 miles (89.7 km) via Denham.
Oxford is the junction for a short branch line to Bicester, which was upgraded to 100 mph (161 km/h) during an 18-month closure in 2014/2015 - and is anticipated to be extended to form the East West Rail Link.
Oxford is the junction for a short branch line to Bicester, which was upgraded to 100 mph (161 km/h) during an 18-month closure in 2014/2015 - and is anticipated to be extended to form the East West Rail Link.
Chiltern Railways now connects Oxford to London Marylebone, having sponsored the building of about 400 metres of new track between Bicester Town and the Chiltern Main Line southwards in 2014.
Chiltern Railways now connects Oxford to London Marylebone, having sponsored the building of about 400 metres of new track between Bicester Town and the Chiltern Main Line southwards in 2014.
As well as the BBC national radio stations, Oxford and the surrounding area has several local stations, including BBC Oxford, Heart Thames Valley, Destiny 105, Jack FM and Jack FM 2 along with Oxide: Oxford Student Radio (which went on terrestrial radio at 87.7 MHz FM in late May 2005).
A local TV station, Six TV: The Oxford Channel was also available but closed in April 2009.
As well as the BBC national radio stations, Oxford and the surrounding area has several local stations, including BBC Oxford, Heart Thames Valley, Destiny 105, Jack FM and Jack FM 2 along with Oxide: Oxford Student Radio (which went on terrestrial radio at 87.7 MHz FM in late May 2005).
As well as the BBC national radio stations, Oxford and the surrounding area has several local stations, including BBC Oxford, Heart Thames Valley, Destiny 105, Jack FM and Jack FM 2 along with Oxide: Oxford Student Radio (which went on terrestrial radio at 87.7 MHz FM in late May 2005 ).
The most notable Oxford act is Radiohead , who all met at nearby Abingdon School, though other well known local bands include Supergrass, Ride, Swervedriver, Lab 4, Talulah Gosh, the Candyskins,  Medal, the Egg, Unbelievable Truth, Hurricane No. 1, Crackout, Goldrush and more recently, Young Knives, Foals, Glass Animals, Dive Dive and Stornoway.
The most notable Oxford act is Radiohead, who all met at nearby Abingdon School , though other well known local bands include Supergrass, Ride, Swervedriver, Lab 4, Talulah Gosh, the Candyskins,  Medal, the Egg, Unbelievable Truth, Hurricane No. 1, Crackout, Goldrush and more recently, Young Knives, Foals, Glass Animals, Dive Dive and Stornoway.
These and many other bands from over 30 years of the Oxford music scene's history feature in the documentary film Anyone Can Play Guitar?.
Oxford, and its surrounding towns and villages, have produced many successful bands and musicians.
The city's leading football club, Oxford United , are currently in League Two, the fourth tier of league football, though they enjoyed some success in the past in the upper reaches of the league.
The city's leading football club, Oxford United, are currently in League Two, the fourth tier of league football, though they enjoyed some success in the past in the upper reaches of the league.
They were elected to the Football League in 1962, reached the Third Division after three years and the Second Division after six, and most notably reached the First Division in 1985 –  23 years after joining the Football League.
They were elected to the Football League in 1962, reached the Third Division after three years and the Second Division after six, and most notably reached the First Division in 1985 –  23 years after joining the Football League.
Notable former players include John Aldridge, Ray Houghton, Tommy Caton, Matt Elliott, Nigel Jemson and Dean Whitehead .
The city centre is relatively small , and is centred on Carfax, a cross-roads which forms the junction of Cornmarket Street (pedestrianised), Queen Street (semi-pedestrianised), St Aldate's and the High.
The city centre is relatively small, and is centred on Carfax , a cross-roads which forms the junction of Cornmarket Street (pedestrianised), Queen Street (semi-pedestrianised), St Aldate's and the High.
Cornmarket Street and Queen Street are home to Oxford's various chain stores, as well as a small number of independent retailers, one of the longest established of which is Boswell's, which was founded in 1738.
Cornmarket Street and Queen Street are home to Oxford's various chain stores, as well as a small number of independent retailers, one of the longest established of which is Boswell's, which was founded in 1738 .
The High (the word street is traditionally omitted) is the longest of the four streets and has a number of independent and high-end chain stores, but mostly university and college buildings.
There are two small shopping centres in the city centre: The Clarendon Centre and the Westgate Centre.
There are two small shopping centres in the city centre: The Clarendon Centre and the Westgate Centre .
The Westgate Centre is named for the original West Gate in the city wall, and is located at the west end of Queen Street.
The Westgate Centre is named for the original West Gate in the city wall, and is located at the west end of Queen Street .
The development plans include a number of new homes, and completion is expected in 2011 , although this is being delayed due to the current financial climate.
The first of these to be established was the Ashmolean Museum , the world's first university museum, and the oldest museum in the UK.
The first of these to be established was the Ashmolean Museum , the world's first university museum, and the oldest museum in the UK.
Its first building was erected in 1678–1683 to house a cabinet of curiosities given to the University of Oxford in 1677.
It holds significant collections of art and archaeology , including works by Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Turner, and Picasso, as well as treasures such as the Scorpion Macehead, the Parian Marble and the Alfred Jewel.
As of 2015 [update], Oxford has one of the largest urban park and ride networks in the UK.
As of 20 15[update], Oxford has one of the largest urban park and ride networks in the UK.
Its five sites have a combined capacity of 4,930 car parking spaces, served by 20 Oxford Bus Company double deck buses with a combined capacity of 1,695 seats.
There are also bus services to the John Radcliffe Hospital ( from Thornhill and Water Eaton ) and to the Churchill and Nuffield Hospitals (from Thornhill).
Hybrid buses, which use battery power with a small diesel generator , began to be used in Oxford on 15 July 2010, on Stagecoach Oxfordshire's Route 1 (City centre – Cowley – Blackbird Leys).
Hybrid buses, which use battery power with a small diesel generator, began to be used in Oxford on 15 July 2010 , on Stagecoach Oxfordshire's Route 1 (City centre – Cowley – Blackbird Leys).
Both Stagecoach and Oxford Bus Company now operate numerous hybrid buses in the city.
In 2014 Oxford Bus introduced a fleet of 20 new buses with flywheel energy storage (FES) on the services it operates under contract for Brookes University.
Whereas electric hybrids use battery storage and an electric motor to save fuel, FES uses a high-speed flywheel .
Also during the 1920s, the economy and society of Oxford underwent a huge transformation as William Morris established Morris Motors Limited to mass-produce cars in Cowley, on the south-eastern edge of the city.
By the early 1970s over 20,000 people worked in Cowley at the huge Morris Motors and Pressed Steel Fisher plants.
Also during the 1920s, the economy and society of Oxford underwent a huge transformation as William Morris established Morris Motors Limited to mass-produce cars in Cowley, on the south-eastern edge of the city.
Cowley suffered major job losses in the 1980s and 1990s during the decline of British Leyland, but is now producing the successful Mini for BMW on a smaller site.
This led to the witticism that "Oxford is the left bank of Cowley ".
The influx of migrant labour to the car plants and hospitals, recent immigration from south Asia, and a large student population, have given Oxford a notably cosmopolitan character, especially in the Headington and Cowley Road areas with their many bars, cafes, restaurants, clubs, ethnic shops and fast food outlets and the annual Cowley Road Carnival.
Oxford is one of the most diverse small cities in Britain: the most recent population estimates for 2005 showed that 27% of the population were from ethnic minority groups, including 16.2% from non-white ethnic minority ethnic groups (ONS).
These figures do not take into account more recent international migration into the city; more than 10,000 people from overseas have registered for National Insurance Numbers in Oxford in 2005/06 and 2006/07.
The influx of migrant labour to the car plants and hospitals, recent immigration from south Asia, and a large student population, have given Oxford a notably cosmopolitan character, especially in the Headington and Cowley Road areas with their many bars, cafes, restaurants, clubs, ethnic shops and fast food outlets and the annual Cowley Road Carnival.
By 1874 there were nine breweries in Oxford and 13 brewers' agents in Oxford shipping beer in from elsewhere.
By 1874 there were nine breweries in Oxford and 13 brewers' agents in Oxford shipping beer in from elsewhere.
The rapid expansion of Oxford and the development of its railway links after the 1840s facilitated expansion of the brewing trade .
As well as expanding the market for Oxford's brewers, railways enabled brewers further from the city to compete for a share of its market.
Morrell's was founded in 1743 by Richard Tawney.
 After an acrimonious family dispute this much-loved brewery was closed in 1998 , the beer brand names being taken over by the Thomas Hardy Burtonwood brewery, while the 132 tied pubs were bought by Michael Cannon, owner of the American hamburger chain Fuddruckers, through a new company, Morrells of Oxford.
Morrell's was founded in 1743 by Richard Tawney .
 After an acrimonious family dispute this much-loved brewery was closed in 1998, the beer brand names being taken over by the Thomas Hardy Burtonwood brewery, while the 132 tied pubs were bought by Michael Cannon , owner of the American hamburger chain Fuddruckers, through a new company, Morrells of Oxford.
The Lion Brewery was converted into luxury apartments in 2002.
Murdoch 's
Murdoch, an Australian who in 1985 became a naturalised American citizen, already owned The Sun and the News of the World, but the Conservative government decided not to refer the deal to the Monopolies and Mergers Commission, citing a clause in the Fair Trading Act that exempted uneconomic businesses from referral.
Murdoch's News International acquired the group in February 1981 .
The Thomson Corporation had threatened to close the papers down if they were not taken over by someone else within an allotted time, and it was feared that any legal delay to Murdoch's takeover might lead to the two titles' demise.
Murdoch, an Australian who in 1985 became a naturalised American citizen, already owned The Sun and the News of the World, but the Conservative government decided not to refer the deal to the Monopolies and Mergers Commission, citing a clause in the Fair Trading Act that exempted uneconomic businesses from referral.
Evans was appointed editor of The Times in February 1981 and was replaced at The Sunday Times by Frank Giles.
In 1983, the newspaper bought the serialisation rights to publish the faked Hitler Diaries, thinking them to be genuine after they were authenticated the own newspaper's own independent director, Hugh Trevor-Roper , the historian and author of The Last Days of Hitler.
Evans was appointed editor of The Times in February 1981 and was replaced at The Sunday Times by Frank Giles .
In 1983, the newspaper bought the serialisation rights to publish the faked Hitler Diaries , thinking them to be genuine after they were authenticated the own newspaper's own independent director, Hugh Trevor-Roper, the historian and author of The Last Days of Hitler.
In 1983, the newspaper bought the serialisation rights to publish the faked Hitler Diaries, thinking them to be genuine after they were authenticated the own newspaper's own independent director, Hugh Trevor-Roper, the historian and author of The Last Days of Hitler .
It also built on its reputation for investigations .
Under Andrew Neil, editor from 1983 until 1994, The Sunday Times took a strongly Thatcherite slant that contrasted with the traditional paternalistic conservatism expounded by Peregrine Worsthorne at the rival Sunday Telegraph .
Under Andrew Neil , editor from 1983 until 1994, The Sunday Times took a strongly Thatcherite slant that contrasted with the traditional paternalistic conservatism expounded by Peregrine Worsthorne at the rival Sunday Telegraph.
Its scoops included the revelation in 1986 that Israel had manufactured more than 100 nuclear warheads and the publication in 1992 of extracts from Andrew Morton's book, Diana: Her True Story in Her Own Words.
In the early 1990s, the paper courted controversy with a series of articles in which it rejected the role of HIV in causing AIDS.
In January 1986, after the announcement of a strike by print workers , production of The Sunday Times, along with other newspapers in the group, was shifted to a new plant in Wapping, and the strikers were dismissed.
In January 1986, after the announcement of a strike by print workers, production of The Sunday Times, along with other newspapers in the group, was shifted to a new plant in Wapping , and the strikers were dismissed.
 The plant, which allowed journalists to input copy directly , was activated with the help of the Electrical, Electronic, Telecommunications and Plumbing Union (EETPU).
The print unions posted pickets and organised demonstrations outside the new plant to try to dissuade journalists and others from working there, in what became known as the Wapping Dispute .
The protest ended in failure in February 1987 .
During Neil's editorship, a number of new sections were added: the annual The Sunday Times Rich List and the Funday Times , in 1989, (the latter stopped appearing in print and was relaunched as a standalone website in March 2006 but was later closed); Style & Travel, News Review and Arts in 1990, and Culture in 1992.
During Neil 's
During Neil's editorship, a number of new sections were added: the annual The Sunday Times Rich List and the Funday Times, in 1989, (the latter stopped appearing in print and was relaunched as a standalone website in March 2006 but was later closed); Style & Travel , News Review and Arts in 1990, and Culture in 1992.
During Neil's editorship, a number of new sections were added: the annual The Sunday Times Rich List and the Funday Times, in 1989, (the latter stopped appearing in print and was relaunched as a standalone website in March 2006 but was later closed); Style & Travel, News Review and Arts in 1990, and Culture in 1992.
John Witherow, who became editor at the end of 1994 (after several months as acting editor ), continued the newspaper's expansion.
A website was launched in 1996 and new print sections added: Home in 2001, and Driving in 2002, which in 2006 was renamed InGear, expanding to include technology coverage.
(It reverted to the name Driving from 7 October 2012 , to coincide with the launch of a new standalone website, Sunday Times Driving.)
John Witherow , who became editor at the end of 1994 (after several months as acting editor), continued the newspaper's expansion.
A website was launched in 1996 and new print sections added: Home in 2001, and Driving in 2002, which in 2006 was renamed InGear, expanding to include technology coverage.
John Witherow oversaw a rise in circulation to 1.3 million and reconfirmed The Sunday Times's reputation for publishing hard-hitting news stories – such as Cash for Questions in 1994 and Cash for Honours in 2006 and revelations of corruption at Fifa in 2010.
The newspaper's foreign coverage has been especially strong, and its reporters, Marie Colvin , Jon Swain, Hala Jaber, Mark Franchetti and Christina Lamb have dominated the Foreign Reporter of the Year category at the British Press Awards since 2000.[citation needed] Marie Colvin, who worked for the paper from 1985, was killed in February 2012 by Syrian forces while covering the siege of Homs during that country's civil war.
John Witherow oversaw a rise in circulation to 1.3 million and reconfirmed The Sunday Times's reputation for publishing hard-hitting news stories – such as Cash for Questions in 1994 and Cash for Honours in 2006 and revelations of corruption at Fifa in 2010.
The newspaper's foreign coverage has been especially strong, and its reporters, Marie Colvin, Jon Swain, Hala Jaber, Mark Franchetti and Christina Lamb have dominated the Foreign Reporter of the Year category at the British Press Awards since 2000.[citation needed] Marie Colvin, who worked for the paper from 1985, was killed in February 2012 by Syrian forces while covering the siege of Homs during that country's civil war.
The newspaper's foreign coverage has been especially strong, and its reporters, Marie Colvin, Jon Swain, Hala Jaber, Mark Franchetti and Christina Lamb have dominated the Foreign Reporter of the Year category at the British Press Awards since 2000.[citation needed] Marie Colvin, who worked for the paper from 1985, was killed in February 2012 by Syrian forces while covering the siege of Homs during that country's civil war.
In common with other newspapers, The Sunday Times has been hit by a fall in circulation, which has declined from a peak of 1.3 million to just over 800,000.
In common with other newspapers, The Sunday Times has been hit by a fall in circulation, which has declined from a peak of 1.3 million to just over 800,000 .
It has a number of digital-only subscribers, which numbered 59,000 by March 2014.
In common with other newspapers, The Sunday Times has been hit by a fall in circulation , which has declined from a peak of 1.3 million to just over 800,000.
During January 2013, Martin Ivens became acting editor of The Sunday Times in succession to John Witherow, who became the 'acting' editor of The Times at the same time.
During January 2013, Martin Ivens became acting editor of The Sunday Times in succession to John Witherow , who became the 'acting' editor of The Times at the same time.
During January 2013, Martin Ivens became acting editor of The Sunday Times in succession to John Witherow, who became the 'acting' editor of The Times at the same time.
The independent directors rejected a permanent position for Ivens as editor because of the possible merger of the two Times titles .
During January 2013 , Martin Ivens became acting editor of The Sunday Times in succession to John Witherow, who became the 'acting' editor of The Times at the same time.
It previously shared an online presence with The Times, but in May 2010 they both launched their own sites to reflect their distinct brand identities.
It previously shared an online presence with The Times , but in May 2010 they both launched their own sites to reflect their distinct brand identities.
The Sunday Times has its own website.
Since July 2010 , the sites have charged for access.
It previously shared an online presence with The Times, but in May 2010 they both launched their own sites to reflect their distinct brand identities .
An iPad edition was launched in December 2010 , and an Android version in August 2011.
Since July 2012, the digital version of the paper has been available on Apple's Newsstand platform , allowing automated downloading of the news section.
An iPad edition was launched in December 2010, and an Android version in August 2011 .
With over 500MB of content every week, it is the biggest newspaper app in the world.
Since July 2012, the digital version of the paper has been available on Apple's Newsstand platform, allowing automated downloading of the news section. With over 500MB of content every week, it is the biggest newspaper app in the world.
The Sunday Times iPad app was named newspaper app of the year at the 2011 Newspaper Awards and has twice been ranked best newspaper or magazine app in the world by iMonitor.
The Sunday Times iPad app was named newspaper app of the year at the 2011 Newspaper Awards and has twice been ranked best newspaper or magazine app in the world by iMonitor.
The Sunday Times iPad app was named newspaper app of the year at the 2011 Newspaper Awards and has twice been ranked best newspaper or magazine app in the world by iMonitor.
Various subscription packages exist, giving access to both the print and digital versions of the paper.
The Sunday Times iPad app was named newspaper app of the year at the 2011 Newspaper Awards and has twice been ranked best newspaper or magazine app in the world by iMonitor .
It can be accessed without cost.
On 2 October 2012, The Sunday Times launched Sunday Times Driving , a separate classified advertising site for premium vehicles that also includes editorial content from the newspaper as well as specially commissioned articles.
On 2 October 2012, The Sunday Times launched Sunday Times Driving, a separate classified advertising site for premium vehicles that also includes editorial content from the newspaper as well as specially commissioned articles.
On 2 October 2012, The Sunday Times launched Sunday Times Driving, a separate classified advertising site for premium vehicles that also includes editorial content from the newspaper as well as specially commissioned articles.
On 2 October 2012, The Sunday Times launched Sunday Times Driving, a separate classified advertising site for premium vehicles that also includes editorial content from the newspaper as well as specially commissioned articles. It can be accessed without cost.
The Irish edition of The Sunday Times was launched on a small scale on 1993 with just two staff, Alan Ruddock and John Burns (who is at present associate editor).
The Irish edition of The Sunday Times was launched on a small scale on 1993 with just two staff, Alan Ruddock and John Burns (who is at present associate editor).
It is now the third biggest-selling newspaper in the Republic of Ireland measured in terms of full-price cover sales (Source: ABC Jan–June 2012).
The Irish edition of The Sunday Times was launched on a small scale on 1993 with just two staff, Alan Ruddock and John Burns (who is at present associate editor).
Circulation has grown steadily over the past two decades and stands at 127,336 on the island of Ireland (106,113 of which in the Republic.
The first issue of The Sunday Times Travel Magazine was in 2003 , and it includes news, features and insider guides.
The first issue of The Sunday Times Travel Magazine was in 2003, and it includes news, features and insider guides.
This 164 -page monthly magazine is sold separately from the newspaper and is Britain's best-selling travel magazine.
The first issue of The Sunday Times Travel Magazine was in 2003, and it includes news, features and insider guides.
This 164-page monthly magazine is sold separately from the newspaper and is Britain 's
In July 2011 The Sunday Times was implicated in the wider News International phone hacking scandal which primarily involved the News of the World, a Murdoch tabloid newspaper published in the UK from 1843 to 2011.
Former British prime minister Gordon Brown accused The Sunday Times of employing "known criminals" to impersonate him and obtain his private financial records.
Brown's bank reported that an investigator employed by The Sunday Times repeatedly impersonated Brown to gain access to his bank account records .
Former British prime minister Gordon Brown accused The Sunday Times of employing "known criminals" to impersonate him and obtain his private financial records.
In July 2011 The Sunday Times was implicated in the wider News International phone hacking scandal which primarily involved the News of the World, a Murdoch tabloid newspaper published in the UK from 1843 to 2011.
The office employs 25 people.
The paper also has a number of well-known freelance columnists including Brenda Power, Liam Fay, Matt Cooper, Damien Kiberd, Jill Kerby and Stephen Price.
The Irish edition has had four editors since it was set up: Ruddock, Rory Godson, Fiona McHugh and, since 2005, Frank Fitzgibbon.[citation needed]
The Irish edition has had four editors since it was set up: Ruddock, Rory Godson, Fiona McHugh and, since 2005, Frank Fitzgibbon.[citation needed]
The paper is heavily editionalised, with extensive Irish coverage of politics, general news, business, personal finance, sport, culture and lifestyle.
For more than 20 years the paper has published a separate Scottish edition, which has been edited since January 2012 by Jason Allardyce.
The edition also contains a weekly "Scottish Focus" feature and Scottish commentary, and covers Scottish sport in addition to providing Scottish television schedules .
For more than 20 years the paper has published a separate Scottish edition, which has been edited since January 2012 by Jason Allardyce .
The edition also contains a weekly "Scottish Focus" feature and Scottish commentary, and covers Scottish sport in addition to providing Scottish television schedules.
While most of the articles that run in the English edition appear in the Scottish edition, its award-winning staff also produces about a dozen Scottish news stories, including a front page article, most weeks.
Under its new owner, The Sunday Times notched up several firsts: a wood engraving it published of the coronation of Queen Victoria in 1838 was the largest illustration to have appeared in a British newspaper; in 1841, it became one of the first papers to serialise a novel: William Harrison Ainsworth's Old St Paul's .
Under its new owner, The Sunday Times notched up several firsts: a wood engraving it published of the coronation of Queen Victoria in 1838 was the largest illustration to have appeared in a British newspaper; in 1841, it became one of the first papers to serialise a novel: William Harrison Ainsworth's Old St Paul's.
Under its new owner, The Sunday Times notched up several firsts: a wood engraving it published of the coronation of Queen Victoria in 1838 was the largest illustration to have appeared in a British newspaper; in 1841, it became one of the first papers to serialise a novel: William Harrison Ainsworth's Old St Paul's.
Under its new owner, The Sunday Times notched up several firsts: a wood engraving it published of the coronation of Queen Victoria in 1838 was the largest illustration to have appeared in a British newspaper; in 1841, it became one of the first papers to serialise a novel: William Harrison Ainsworth's Old St Paul's.
Under its new owner, The Sunday Times notched up several firsts: a wood engraving it published of the coronation of Queen Victoria in 1838 was the largest illustration to have appeared in a British newspaper; in 1841, it became one of the first papers to serialise a novel : William Harrison Ainsworth's Old St Paul's.
The paper was bought in 1887 by Alice Cornwell , who had made her fortune in mining in Australia.
She then sold it in 1893 to Frederick Beer, who already owned the Observer.
She then sold it in 1893 to Frederick Beer, who already owned the Observer .
Beer appointed his wife, Rachel Sassoon Beer , as editor.
Beer appointed his wife, Rachel Sassoon Beer , as editor.
There was a further change of ownership in 1903, and then in 1915 the paper was bought by William Berry and his brother, Gomer Berry , later ennobled as Lord Camrose and Viscount Kemsley respectively.
Under their ownership, The Sunday Times continued its reputation for innovation: on 23 November 1930 , it became the first Sunday newspaper to publish a 40-page issue and on 21 January 1940, news replaced advertising on the front page.
Under their ownership, The Sunday Times continued its reputation for innovation: on 23 November 1930, it became the first Sunday newspaper to publish a 40-page issue and on 21 January 1940 , news replaced advertising on the front page.
There was a further change of ownership in 1903, and then in 1915 the paper was bought by William Berry and his brother, Gomer Berry, later ennobled as Lord Camrose and Viscount Kemsley respectively.
There was a further change of ownership in 1903, and then in 1915 the paper was bought by William Berry and his brother, Gomer Berry, later ennobled as Lord Camrose and Viscount Kemsley respectively.
In 1943 , the Kemsley Newspapers Group was established, with The Sunday Times becoming its flagship paper.
In 1943, the Kemsley Newspapers Group was established, with The Sunday Times becoming its flagship paper.
In 1943, the Kemsley Newspapers Group was established, with The Sunday Times becoming its flagship paper.
In 1943, the Kemsley Newspapers Group was established, with The Sunday Times becoming its flagship paper.
On 12 November 1945, Ian Fleming , who later created James Bond, joined the paper as foreign manager (foreign editor) and special writer.
On 12 November 1945, Ian Fleming, who later created James Bond, joined the paper as foreign manager (foreign editor) and special writer .
On 28 September 1958 the paper launched a separate Review section, becoming the first newspaper to publish two sections regularly.
On 12 November 1945 , Ian Fleming, who later created James Bond, joined the paper as foreign manager (foreign editor) and special writer.
On 28 September 1958 the paper launched a separate Review section, becoming the first newspaper to publish two sections regularly .
In 1959 the Kemsley group was bought by Lord Thomson , and in October 1960 circulation reached one million for the first time.
In another first, on 4 February 1962 the editor, Denis Hamilton , launched The Sunday Times Magazine.
(At the insistence of newsagents, worried at the impact on sales of standalone magazines, it was initially called the " colour section " and did not take the name The Sunday Times Magazine until 9 August 1964.)
The cover picture of the first issue was of Jean Shrimpton wearing a Mary Quant outfit and was taken by David Bailey.
The cover picture of the first issue was of Jean Shrimpton wearing a Mary Quant outfit and was taken by David Bailey .
In 1963, the Insight investigative team was established under Clive Irving .
On 27 September 1964 , the Business section was launched, making The Sunday Times Britain's first regular three-section newspaper.
On 27 September 1964, the Business section was launched, making The Sunday Times Britain's first regular three-section newspaper.
In September 1966, Thomson bought The Times, to form Times Newspapers Ltd (TNL).
In September 1966, Thomson bought The Times, to form Times Newspapers Ltd (TNL).
Harold Evans , editor from 1967 until 1981, established The Sunday Times as a leading campaigning and investigative newspaper.
Harold Evans, editor from 1967 until 1981 , established The Sunday Times as a leading campaigning and investigative newspaper.
On 19 May 1968 , the paper published its first major campaigning report on the drug Thalidomide, which had been reported by the Australian doctor William McBride in The Lancet in 1961 as associated with birth defects, and quickly withdrawn.
On 19 May 1968, the paper published its first major campaigning report on the drug Thalidomide, which had been reported by the Australian doctor William McBride in The Lancet in 1961 as associated with birth defects , and quickly withdrawn.
TNL was plagued by a series of industrial disputes at its plant at Gray's Inn Road in London , with the print unions resisting attempts to replace the old-fashioned hot-metal and labour-intensive Linotype method with technology that would allow the papers to be composed electronically.
 Thomson offered to invest millions of pounds to buy out obstructive practices and overmanning , but the unions rejected every proposal.
TNL was plagued by a series of industrial disputes at its plant at Gray's Inn Road in London, with the print unions resisting attempts to replace the old-fashioned hot-metal and labour-intensive Linotype method with technology that would allow the papers to be composed electronically.
As a result, publication of The Sunday Times and other titles in the group was suspended in November 1978 .
It did not resume until November 1979 .
Although journalists at The Times had been on full pay during the suspension , they went on strike demanding more money after production was resumed.
Although journalists at The Times had been on full pay during the suspension, they went on strike demanding more money after production was resumed.
Kenneth Thomson, the head of the company, felt betrayed and decided to sell.
Evans tried to organise a management buyout of The Sunday Times, but Thomson decided instead to sell to Rupert Murdoch , who he thought had a better chance of dealing with the trade unions.
Evans tried to organise a management buyout of The Sunday Times, but Thomson decided instead to sell to Rupert Murdoch, who he thought had a better chance of dealing with the trade unions.
It is published by Times Newspapers Ltd, a subsidiary of News UK , which is in turn owned by News Corp. Times Newspapers also publishes The Times.
The Sunday Times is the largest-selling British national "quality" Sunday newspaper.
It is published by Times Newspapers Ltd, a subsidiary of News UK, which is in turn owned by News Corp. Times Newspapers also publishes The Times.
The two papers were founded independently and have been under common ownership only since 1966 .
They were bought by News International in 1981 .
The Sunday Times occupies a dominant position in the quality Sunday market; its circulation of just under one million equals that of its main rivals, The Sunday Telegraph, The Observer and The Independent on Sunday, combined.
The Sunday Times occupies a dominant position in the quality Sunday market; its circulation of just under one million equals that of its main rivals, The Sunday Telegraph, The Observer and The Independent on Sunday, combined.
The Sunday Times occupies a dominant position in the quality Sunday market; its circulation of just under one million equals that of its main rivals, The Sunday Telegraph, The Observer and The Independent on Sunday , combined.
It sells more than twice as many copies as its sister paper, The Times, which is published Monday to Saturday .[citation needed]
It sells more than twice as many copies as its sister paper, The Times, which is published Monday to Saturday.[citation needed]
The Sunday Times has acquired a reputation for the strength of its investigative reporting – much of it by its award-winning Insight team – and also for its wide-ranging foreign coverage.
The Sunday Times has acquired a reputation for the strength of its investigative reporting – much of it by its award-winning Insight team – and also for its wide-ranging foreign coverage.
It has a number of popular writers, columnists and commentators including Jeremy Clarkson, A. A. Gill and Bryan Appleyard .
A typical edition contains the equivalent of 450 to 500 tabloid pages .
There are three magazines (The Sunday Times Magazine, Culture, and Style) and three tabloid supplements ( Travel, Home and Driving ).
The paper publishes The Sunday Times Rich List, an annual survey of the wealthiest people in Britain and Ireland, equivalent to the Forbes 400 list in the United States, and a series of league tables with reviews of private British companies, in particular the The Sunday Times Fast Track 100.
The paper publishes The Sunday Times Rich List, an annual survey of the wealthiest people in Britain and Ireland, equivalent to the Forbes 400 list in the United States, and a series of league tables with reviews of private British companies, in particular the The Sunday Times Fast Track 100 .
The paper also produces an annual league table of the best-performing state and independent schools at both junior and senior level across the United Kingdom, entitled Parent Power (with additional information available online), and an annual league table of British universities and a similar one for Irish universities.
It also organises The Sunday Times Oxford Literary Festival, held annually, and The Sunday Times Festival of Education , which takes place every year at Wellington College.[citation needed]
It publishes The Sunday Times Bestseller List of best-selling books in Britain, and a list of the "100 Best Companies to Work For", focusing on UK companies.
The paper began publication on 18 February 1821 as The New Observer, but from 21 April its title was changed to the Independent Observer.
The paper began publication on 18 February 1821 as The New Observer , but from 21 April its title was changed to the Independent Observer.
The paper began publication on 18 February 1821 as The New Observer, but from 21 April its title was changed to the Independent Observer.
Its founder, Henry White , chose the name in an apparent attempt to take advantage of the success of the The Observer newspaper, which had been founded in 1791, although there was no connection between the two papers.
In January 1823, White sold the paper to Daniel Whittle Harvey , a radical politician.
In computer programming, a subroutine is a sequence of program instructions that perform a specific task , packaged as a unit.
 In different programming languages, a subroutine may be called a procedure , a function, a routine, a method, or a subprogram.
 The generic term  callable unit is sometimes used.
In computer programming, a subroutine is a sequence of program instructions that perform a specific task, packaged as a unit.
 In different programming languages , a subroutine may be called a procedure, a function, a routine, a method, or a subprogram.
 Maurice Wilkes, David Wheeler, and Stanley Gill are credited with the invention of this concept, which they termed a closed subroutine , contrasted with an open subroutine or macro.
 Maurice Wilkes, David Wheeler, and Stanley Gill are credited with the invention of this concept, which they termed a closed subroutine, contrasted with an open subroutine or macro.
A subroutine is often coded so that it can be started (called) several times and from several places during one execution of the program, including from other subroutines, and then branch back (return) to the next instruction after the call once the subroutine's task is done.
 Maurice Wilkes, David Wheeler, and Stanley Gill are credited with the invention of this concept, which they termed a closed subroutine, contrasted with an open subroutine or macro .
As the name subprogram suggests, a subroutine behaves in much the same way as a computer program that is used as one step in a larger program or another subprogram.
Subroutines are a powerful programming tool , and the syntax of many programming languages includes support for writing and using them.
will often substantially reduce the cost of developing and maintaining a large program , while increasing its quality and reliability.
The discipline of object-oriented programming is based on objects and methods (which are subroutines attached to these objects or object classes).
Subroutines, often collected into libraries , are an important mechanism for sharing and trading software.
Judicious use of subroutines (for example, through the structured programming approach) will often substantially reduce the cost of developing and maintaining a large program, while increasing its quality and reliability.
A subroutine call may also have side effects such as modifying data structures in a computer memory, reading from or writing to a peripheral device, creating a file, halting the program or the machine, or even delaying the program's execution for a specified time.
A subprogram with side effects may return different results each time it is called , even if it is called with the same arguments.
The widespread use of subroutines with side effects is a characteristic of imperative programming languages.
An example is a random number function , available in many languages, that returns a different pseudo-random number each time it is called.
An example is a random number function, available in many languages , that returns a different pseudo-random number each time it is called.
Some programming languages, such as Pascal , Fortran, Ada and many dialects of BASIC, distinguish between functions or function subprograms, which provide an explicit return value to the calling program, and subroutines or procedures, which do not.
Some programming languages, such as Pascal, Fortran, Ada and many dialects of BASIC, distinguish between functions or function subprograms, which provide an explicit return value to the calling program, and subroutines or procedures, which do not.
In those languages, function calls are normally embedded in expressions (e.g., a sqrt function may be called as y =
Other languages, such as C and Lisp , do not distinguish between functions and subroutines.
Procedure calls either behave syntactically as statements (e.g., a print procedure may be called as if x > 0 then print(x) or are explicitly invoked by a statement such as CALL or GOSUB (e.g. call print(x)).
The earliest computers and microprocessors, such as the Small-Scale Experimental Machine and the RCA 1802 , did not have a single subroutine call instruction.
.Subroutines could be implemented, but they required programmers to use the call sequence —a series of instructions—at each call site.
This allows arbitrarily deep levels of subroutine nesting , but does not support recursive subroutines.
.Subroutines could be implemented, but they required programmers to use the call sequence— a series of instructions —at each call site.
.Machines before the mid 1960s—such as the UNIVAC I, the PDP-1, and the IBM 1130—typically use a calling convention which saved the instruction counter in the first memory location of the called subroutine.
In many early computers, the program instructions were entered into memory from a punched paper tape .
The name subroutine library originally meant a library, in the literal sense, which kept indexed collections of such tapes or card decks for collective use .
A similar approach was used in computers whose main input was through punched cards .
Each subroutine could then be provided by a separate piece of tape, loaded or spliced before or after the main program ; and the same subroutine tape could then be used by many different programs.
Most modern implementations use a call stack, a special case of the stack data structure , to implement subroutine calls and returns.
Most modern implementations use a call stack, a special case of the stack data structure, to implement subroutine calls and returns .
Each procedure call creates a new entry , called a stack frame, at the top of the stack; when the procedure returns, its stack frame is deleted from the stack, and its space may be used for other procedure calls.
Each stack frame contains the private data of the corresponding call , which typically includes the procedure's parameters and internal variables, and the return address.
When stack-based procedure calls were first introduced, an important motivation was to save precious memory .[citation needed] With this scheme, the compiler does not have to reserve separate space in memory for the private data (parameters, return address, and local variables) of each procedure.
At any moment, the stack contains only the private data of the calls that are currently active (namely, which have been called but haven't returned yet).
Indeed, the call stack mechanism can be viewed as the earliest and simplest method for automatic memory management .
When stack-based procedure calls were first introduced, an important motivation was to save precious memory.[citation needed] With this scheme, the compiler does not have to reserve separate space in memory for the private data ( parameters, return address, and local variables ) of each procedure
Because of the ways in which programs were usually assembled from libraries, it was (and still is) not uncommon to find programs that include thousands of subroutines, of which only a handful are active at any given moment.[citation needed] For such programs, the call stack mechanism could save significant amounts of memory. Indeed, the call stack mechanism can be viewed as the earliest and simplest method for automatic memory management.
.To reduce that overhead, many modern compilers try to delay the use of a call stack until it is really needed .[citation needed] For example, the call of a procedure P may store the return address and parameters of the called procedure in certain processor registers, and transfer control to the procedure's body by a simple jump.
This overhead is most obvious and objectionable in leaf procedures or leaf functions , which return without making any procedure calls themselves.
This overhead is most obvious and objectionable in leaf procedures or leaf functions, which return without making any procedure calls themselves .
If procedure P returns without making any other call , the call stack is not used at all.
In the Visual Basic 6 language, subprograms are termed functions or subs (or methods when associated with a class).
By default, an unspecified variable is registered as a variant type and can be passed as ByRef (default) or ByVal.
By default, an unspecified variable is registered as a variant type and can be passed as ByRef (default) or ByVal .
In the Visual Basic 6 language, subprograms are termed functions or subs (or methods when associated with a class ).
A subprogram may have any number and nature of call sites.
Recursion is a useful means to simplify some complex algorithms, and breaking down complex problems .
If recursion is supported, a subprogram may even call itself , causing its execution to suspend while another nested execution of the same subprogram occurs.
If recursion is supported, a subprogram may even call itself, causing its execution to suspend while another nested execution of the same subprogram occurs .
As nested calls accumulate, a call stack structure is formed , consisting of one activation record for each suspended subprogram.
As nested calls accumulate, a call stack structure is formed, consisting of one activation record for each suspended subprogram .
In fact, this stack structure is virtually ubiquitous, and so activation records are commonly termed stack frames .
Modern languages after ALGOL such as PL/1 and C almost invariably use a stack, usually supported by most modern computer instruction sets to provide a fresh activation record for every execution of a subprogram.
If a subprogram can function properly even when called while another execution is already in progress , that subprogram is said to be reentrant.
A recursive subprogram must be reentrant .
Reentrant subprograms are also useful in multi-threaded situations, since multiple threads can call the same subprogram without fear of interfering with each other .
In the IBM CICS transaction processing system, quasi-reentrant was a slightly less restrictive , but similar, requirement for application programs that were shared by many threads.
For example, a square root function might be defined to operate on reals, complex values or matrices .
In strongly typed languages, it is sometimes desirable to have a number of functions with the same name, but operating on different types of data, or with different parameter profiles .
By writing three separate functions with the same name, the programmer has the convenience of not having to remember different names for each type of data .
Further if a subtype can be defined for the reals, to separate positive and negative reals, two functions can be written for the reals, one to return a real when the parameter is positive, and another to return a complex value when the parameter is negative .
As another example, a subroutine might construct an object that will accept directions , and trace its path to these points on screen.
There are a plethora of parameters that could be passed in to the constructor ( colour of the trace, starting x and y co-ordinates, trace speed ).
If the programmer wanted the constructor to be able to accept only the color parameter, then he could call another constructor that accepts only color, which in turn calls the constructor with all the parameters passing in a set of default values for all the other parameters (X and Y would generally be centered on screen or placed at the origin, and the speed would be set to another value of the coder's choosing).
If the programmer wanted the constructor to be able to accept only the color parameter, then he could call another constructor that accepts only color, which in turn calls the constructor with all the parameters passing in a set of default values for all the other parameters (X and Y would generally be centered on screen or placed at the origin, and the speed would be set to another value of the coder's choosing).
Proponents of modular programming (modularizing code) advocate that each subroutine should have minimal dependency on other pieces of code .
For example, the use of global variables is generally deemed unwise by advocates for this perspective, because it adds tight coupling between the subroutine and these global variables .
For example, the use of global variables is generally deemed unwise by advocates for this perspective, because it adds tight coupling between the subroutine and these global variables.
If such coupling is not necessary, their advice is to refactor subroutines to accept passed parameters instead .
However, increasing the number of parameters passed to subroutines can affect code readability .
There is a significant runtime overhead in a calling a subroutine, including passing the arguments, branching to the subprogram, and branching back to the caller .
The overhead often includes saving and restoring certain processor registers, allocating and reclaiming call frame storage , etc..
In some languages, each subroutine call also implies automatic testing of the subroutine's return code, or the handling of exceptions that it may raise .
In object-oriented languages, a significant source of overhead is the intensively used dynamic dispatch for method calls.
There are some seemingly obvious optimizations of procedure calls that cannot be applied if the procedures may have side effects .
For example, in the expression (f(x)-1)/(f(x)+1), the function f must be called twice , because the two calls may return different results.
For example, in the expression (f(x)-1)/(f(x)+1), the function f must be called twice, because the two calls may return different results .
Moreover, the value of x must be fetched again before the second call , since the first call may have changed it.
A method used to eliminate this overhead is inline expansion or inlining of the subprogram's body at each call site (versus branching to the subroutine and back).
Not only does this avoid the call overhead, but it also allows the compiler to optimize the procedure's body more effectively by taking into account the context and arguments at that call.
Not only does this avoid the call overhead, but it also allows the compiler to optimize the procedure's body more effectively by taking into account the context and arguments at that call. The inserted body can be optimized by the compiler.
Not only does this avoid the call overhead, but it also allows the compiler to optimize the procedure's body more effectively by taking into account the context and arguments at that call.
Although the instrument was studiously ignored in Germany at first, French and Belgian military bands took full advantage of the instrument that Sax had designed.
Although the instrument was studiously ignored in Germany at first, French and Belgian military bands took full advantage of the instrument that Sax had designed.
Although the instrument was studiously ignored in Germany at first, French and Belgian military bands took full advantage of the instrument that Sax had designed.
Most French and Belgian military bands incorporate at least a quartet of saxophones comprising at least the E♭ baritone, B♭ tenor, E♭ alto and B♭ soprano.
These four instruments have proved the most popular of all of Sax's creations, with the E♭ contrabass and B♭ bass usually considered impractically large and the E♭ sopranino insufficiently powerful .
The saxophone was subsequently introduced into the concert band, which generally calls for the E♭ alto saxophone, the B♭ tenor saxophone, and the E♭ baritone saxophone .
The typical high-level[clarification needed] concert band includes two altos, one tenor, and one baritone .
The B♭ soprano saxophone is also occasionally used, in which case it is normally played by the first alto saxophonist.
The B♭ soprano saxophone is also occasionally used, in which case it is normally played by the first alto saxophonist .
The bass saxophone in B♭ is called for in some concert band music (especially music by Percy Grainger ).[citation needed]
Classical saxophone quartets include Quatuor Habanera, the h2 quartet, Raschèr Saxophone Quartet, the Aurelia Saxophone Quartet, the New Century Saxophone Quartet, and others.
The classical  saxophone quartet consists of the soprano saxophone, alto saxophone, tenor saxophone, and baritone saxophone .
There is a repertoire of classical compositions and arrangements for the SATB instrumentation dating back to the nineteenth century , particularly by French composers who knew Adolphe Sax.
However, organised quartets did exist before Mule's ensemble, the prime example being the quartet headed by Eduard Lefebre (1834–1911), former soloist with the Sousa band, in the United States c. 1904–1911.
Historically, the quartets led by Marcel Mule and Daniel Deffayet, saxophone professors at the Conservatoire de Paris , were started in 1928 and 1953, respectively, and were highly regarded.
Beginning in the early 20th century , the saxophone became popular in dance orchestras, which were not jazz ensembles but influenced the format of the big swing era bands that were soon to follow.
Beginning in the early 20th century, the saxophone became popular in dance orchestras, which were not jazz ensembles but influenced the format of the big swing era bands that were soon to follow.
 The swing bands of the 1930s utilized arrangements of saxophone and brass sections playing off each other in call-response patterns .
 The influence of tenor saxophonist Lester Young with the Count Basie Orchestra in the late 1930s and the tremendous popularity of Coleman Hawkins' 1939 recording of Body and Soul marked the saxophone as an influence on jazz equal to that of the trumpet, which had been the defining instrument of jazz since its beginnings in New Orleans.
 But the greatest influence of the saxophone on jazz was to occur just a few years later, as alto saxophonist Charlie Parker became an icon of the bebop revolution that influenced generations of jazz musicians.
The soprano saxophone was popularized by Sidney Bechet in early jazz, but then largely fell out of favor on the jazz scene until John Coltrane began to feature the instrument.[citation needed] Popular smooth jazz/contemporary pop musician Kenny G also features the soprano sax as his principal instrument.
 The soprano saxophone was popularized by Sidney Bechet in early jazz, but then largely fell out of favor on the jazz scene until John Coltrane began to feature the instrument.[citation needed] Popular smooth jazz/contemporary pop musician Kenny G also features the soprano sax as his principal instrument.
In addition to the colossal brilliance and virtuosity of Parker, the alto sax was also popularized in the 1950s by top saxophonists such as Sonny Stitt, Cannonball Adderley, Sonny Criss and Paul Desmond (latter of the Dave Brubeck Quartet).
 The soprano saxophone was popularized by Sidney Bechet in early jazz, but then largely fell out of favor on the jazz scene until John Coltrane began to feature the instrument.[citation needed] Popular smooth jazz/contemporary pop musician Kenny G also features the soprano sax as his principal instrument.
 The soprano saxophone was popularized by Sidney Bechet in early jazz, but then largely fell out of favor on the jazz scene until John Coltrane began to feature the instrument.[citation needed] Popular smooth jazz/contemporary pop musician Kenny G also features the soprano sax as his principal instrument.
The saxophone family was invented by the Belgian instrument maker Adolphe Sax in 1840.
The saxophone family was invented by the Belgian instrument maker Adolphe Sax in 1840 .
The saxophone (also referred to as the sax) is a family of woodwind instruments .
The series pitched in B♭ and E♭, designed for military bands, have proved extremely popular and most saxophones encountered today are from this series.
Instruments from the so-called "orchestral" series, pitched in C and F, never gained a foothold, and the B♭ and E♭ instruments have now replaced the C and F instruments when the saxophone is used in the orchestra.
The saxophone was developed in 1846 by Adolphe Sax, a Belgian instrument maker , flautist, and clarinetist born in Dinant and originally based in Brussels, he moved to Paris in 1842 to establish his musical instrument business.
The saxophone was developed in 1846 by Adolphe Sax, a Belgian instrument maker, flautist, and clarinetist born in Dinant and originally based in Brussels, he moved to Paris in 1842 to establish his musical instrument business .
Sax was also a maker of the then-popular ophicleide, a large conical brass instrument in the bass register with keys similar to a woodwind instrument .
He wanted it to overblow at the octave, unlike the clarinet, which rises in pitch by a twelfth when overblown. An instrument that overblew at the octave, would have identical fingering for both registers.
An instrument that overblew at the octave, would have identical fingering for both registers.
Having constructed saxophones in several sizes in the early 1840s,  Sax applied for, and received, a 15-year patent for the instrument on June 28, 1846.
The patent encompassed 14 versions of the fundamental design, split into two categories of seven instruments each , and ranging from sopranino to contrabass.
The patent encompassed 14 versions of the fundamental design, split into two categories of seven instruments each, and ranging from sopranino to contrabass .
The C soprano saxophone was the only instrument to sound at concert pitch. All the instruments were given an initial written range from the B below the treble staff to the F, one space above the three ledger lines above staff, giving each saxophone a range of two and a half octaves.
All the instruments were given an initial written range from the B below the treble staff to the F, one space above the three ledger lines above staff, giving each saxophone a range of two and a half octaves.
Sax's patent expired in 1866 ; thereafter, numerous saxophonists and instrument manufacturers implemented their own improvements to the design and keywork.
The first substantial modification was by a French manufacturer who extended the bell slightly and added an extra key to extend the range downwards by one semitone to B♭.
The first substantial modification was by a French manufacturer who extended the bell slightly and added an extra key to extend the range downwards by one semitone to B♭.
Using alternate fingerings will allow the player to play easily and as fast as they can. The player may also use alternate fingerings to bend the pitch.
The player may also use alternate fingerings to bend the pitch .
Sax's original keywork, which was based on the Triebert system 3 oboe for the left hand and the Boehm clarinet for the right, was very simplistic and made playing some legato passages and wide intervals extremely difficult to finger, so numerous developers added extra keys and alternate fingerings to make chromatic playing less difficult.
A substantial advancement in saxophone keywork was the development of a method by which the left thumb operates both tone holes with a single octave key , which is now universal on modern saxophones.
 Further developments were made by Selmer in the 1930s and 40s, including offsetting tone holes and revamping the octave key mechanism, beginning with their balanced action instruments and continuing through their celebrated Mark VI line.[citation needed] One of the most radical, however temporary, revisions of saxophone keywork was made in the 1950s by M. Houvenaghel of Paris, who completely redeveloped the mechanics of the system to allow a number of notes (C♯, B, A, G, F and E♭) to be flattened by a semitone simply by pressing the right middle finger.
 Further developments were made by Selmer in the 1930s and 40s, including offsetting tone holes and revamping the octave key mechanism, beginning with their balanced action instruments and continuing through their celebrated Mark VI line.[citation needed] One of the most radical, however temporary, revisions of saxophone keywork was made in the 1950s by M. Houvenaghel of Paris, who completely redeveloped the mechanics of the system to allow a number of notes (C♯, B, A, G, F and E♭) to be flattened by a semitone simply by pressing the right middle finger.
 Further developments were made by Selmer in the 1930s and 40s, including offsetting tone holes and revamping the octave key mechanism, beginning with their balanced action instruments and continuing through their celebrated Mark VI line.[citation needed] One of the most radical, however temporary, revisions of saxophone keywork was made in the 1950s by M. Houvenaghel of Paris, who completely redeveloped the mechanics of the system to allow a number of notes (C♯, B, A, G, F and E♭) to be flattened by a semitone simply by pressing the right middle finger. This enables a chromatic scale to be played over two octaves simply by playing the diatonic scale combined with alternately raising and lowering this one digit.
Saxophone players such as John Coltrane, Ornette Coleman, Sam Rivers and Pharoah Sanders again defined the forefront of creative exploration with the avant-garde movement of the 1960s.
 Sheets of sound, tonal exploration, upper harmonics, and multiphonics were hallmarks of the creative possibilities that saxophones offered in the new realm.
 One lasting influence of the avant-garde movement has been the exploration of non-western ethnic sounds on the saxophone , for example, the Africanized sounds used by Pharoah Sanders.
Saxophone players such as John Coltrane, Ornette Coleman, Sam Rivers and Pharoah Sanders again defined the forefront of creative exploration with the avant-garde movement of the 1960s.
The primary (military band) saxophone family alternates instruments in B♭ and E♭ .
One company has recently revived production of the C soprano and C melody .
The other (orchestral) family patented by Sax, alternating instruments in C and F , has always been marginal, although some manufacturers tried to popularise the soprano in C (or C soprano saxophone), the alto in F (or mezzo-soprano saxophone), and the tenor in C (or C melody saxophone) early in the twentieth century.
The C melody enjoyed some success in the late 1920s and early 1930s as a parlor instrument.
The fingering scheme of the saxophone , which has had only minor changes since the instrument's original invention, has presented inherent acoustic problems related to closed keys below the first open tonehole that affect response of, and slightly muffle, some notes.
The fingering scheme of the saxophone, which has had only minor changes since the instrument's original invention, has presented inherent acoustic problems related to closed keys below the first open tonehole that affect response of, and slightly muffle, some notes.
 There is also a lack of tactile consistency moving between key centers.
 Two efforts to remedy the acoustic problems and awkward aspects of the original fingering system are noteworthy.
The saxophone consists of an approximately conical tube, usually of thin brass, flared at the tip to form a bell.
At rest some of the holes stand open and others are closed.
The keys are activated by keytouches pressed by the fingers , either directly on the pad cup or connected to it with levers, either directly or with joints called "linkages."
The keys are activated by keytouches pressed by the fingers, either directly on the pad cup or connected to it with levers, either directly or with joints called "linkages."
The Leblanc Rationale and System saxophones had key mechanics designed to remedy the acoustic problems associated with closed keys below the first open tonehole.
 Some Leblanc System features were built into the Vito Model 35 saxophones of the 1950s and 1960s.
 The acceptance of what was arguably a superior system was impaired by the adjustment required of players switching between System and non-System horns, and the added costs associated with the added complexity of certain key mechanisms.
 They also enabled the player to make half-step shifts of scales by depressing one key while keeping the rest of the fingering consistent with that of the fingering a half step away (which could also trip up players used to certain alternate fingerings on a regular saxophone).
 Some Leblanc System features were built into the Vito Model 35 saxophones of the 1950s and 1960s.
The chromatic ,
The chromatic, or linear fingering, saxophone is a project of instrument designer and builder Jim Schmidt , developing a horn maximizing tactile and logical consistency between every interval on the horn regardless of key, and avoiding the acoustic problems associated closed keys below the first open tone hole.
 Production of this fascinating and expensive saxophone is on an individual order basis according to the designer's website referenced above.
The chromatic ,
The chromatic, or linear fingering, saxophone is a project of instrument designer and builder Jim Schmidt, developing a horn maximizing tactile and logical consistency between every interval on the horn regardless of key, and avoiding the acoustic problems associated closed keys below the first open tone hole.
Sax himself had mastered these techniques; he demonstrated the instrument as having a range of just beyond three octaves up to a (written) high B 4 .
There are many models of soprano saxophone that have a key for high G, and most modern models of baritone saxophone have an extended bore and key to produce low A ; it is also possible to play a low A on any saxophone by blocking the end of the bell, usually with the foot or inside of the left thigh.
There are many models of soprano saxophone that have a key for high G, and most modern models of baritone saxophone have an extended bore and key to produce low A ; it is also possible to play a low A on any saxophone by blocking the end of the bell, usually with the foot or inside of the left thigh.
For a short time Selmer Paris produced mark VI alto saxophones with the low A key.
F or a short time Selmer Paris produced mark VI alto saxophones with the low A key.
However, as the lower-pitched instruments would be unacceptably long if straight, for ergonomic reasons, the larger instruments usually incorporate a U-bend ("bow") at, or slightly above, the third-lowest tone hole.
This U-shape has become a distinctive feature of the saxophone family , to the extent that soprano and even sopranino saxes are sometimes made in the curved style, even though not strictly necessary.
Most commonly, however, the alto and tenor saxophones incorporate a detachable, curved "neck" above the highest tone hole, directing the mouthpiece to the player's mouth while the instrument is held in a playing stance.
This U-shape has become a distinctive feature of the saxophone family, to the extent that soprano and even sopranino saxes are sometimes made in the curved style, even though not strictly necessary.
The baritone, bass and contrabass saxophones accommodate the length of the bore with extra bows and right angle bends between the main body and the mouthpiece.
Because all saxophones use the same key arrangement and fingering to produce a given notated pitch, it is not difficult for a competent player to switch among the various sizes when the music has been suitably transposed, and many do so.
Since the baritone and alto are pitched in E♭ , players can read concert pitch music notated in the bass clef by reading it as if it were treble clef and adding three sharps to the key signature.
Since the baritone and alto are pitched in E♭, players can read concert pitch music notated in the bass clef by reading it as if it were treble clef and adding three sharps to the key signature.
This process, referred to as clef substitution , makes it possible for the Eb instruments to play from parts written for bassoon, tuba, trombone, or string bass.
The screw pins that connect the rods to the posts, as well as the needle and leaf springs that cause the keys to return to their rest position after being released, are generally made of blued or stainless steel.
Since 1920, most saxophones have 'key touches' (smooth replaceable pieces placed where the fingers touch the instrument) made from either plastic or mother of pearl.
 Recently, some saxophones are offered with abalone or stone keytouches .
Since 1920 , most saxophones have 'key touches' (smooth replaceable pieces placed where the fingers touch the instrument) made from either plastic or mother of pearl.
Other materials have been tried with varying degrees of success, such as the 1950s Grafton plastic alto saxophone and its recent successor, the polycarbonate saxophone, VibratoSax .
There is also the wooden Sawat saxophone created in Thailand on a small scale.
Recent years have seen use higher copper alloys substituted for the "yellow brass" or "cartridge brass" that are most common, for visual and tonal effect.
 Yanagisawa's 902 and 992 series saxophones are made with phosphor bronze, which is claimed to offer slightly different, more "vintage" tonal qualities from the brass 901 and 991 models of identical design.
 Other saxophones made of high copper alloys are sold under the brands Chateau, Kessler, Saxgourmet, and Bauhaus Walstein .
Prior to final assembly, the manufacturers usually apply a thin coating of clear or colored acrylic lacquer, or silver plate , over the bare brass.
The lacquer or plating serves to protect the brass from oxidation , and maintains its shiny appearance.
It is also possible to plate the instrument with nickel or gold , and a number of gold-plated saxophones have been produced.
It is also possible to plate the instrument with nickel or gold , and a number of gold-plated saxophones have been produced.
The saxophone uses a single-reed mouthpiece similar to that of the clarinet.
The saxophone uses a single-reed mouthpiece similar to that of the clarinet .
Most saxophonists use reeds made from Arundo donax cane , but since the 20th century some have also been made of fiberglass and other composite materials.
Reeds are commercially available in a vast array of brands, styles, and strengths .
Less common materials that have been used include wood, glass, crystal, porcelain, and even bone .
According to Larry Teal , the mouthpiece material has little, if any, effect on the sound, and the physical dimensions give a mouthpiece its tone colour.
 Mouthpiece design has a profound impact on tone.
Mouthpieces come in a wide variety of materials, including vulcanized rubber (sometimes called hard rubber or ebonite), plastic, and metals such as bronze or surgical steel.
Early mouthpieces were designed to produce a warm and round sound for classical playing.
 At the opposite extreme from the classical mouthpieces are those with a small chamber and a low clearance above the reed between the tip and the chamber, called high baffle .
The use of the saxophone in dance orchestras and jazz ensembles put a premium on dynamic range, projection, and tonal richness, leading to rapid innovation in chamber shape and tip design, and metal construction .
Saxophonists who follow the French school of classical saxophone playing, influenced by Marcel Mule , generally use mouthpieces with smaller chambers than Rascher style mouthpieces.
Among classical mouthpieces, those with a concave ("excavated") chamber are more true to Adolphe Sax's original design; these provide a softer or less piercing tone favored by some saxophonists, including students of Sigurd Raschèr, for classical playing.
Postmodern music is either music of the postmodern era, or music that follows aesthetic and philosophical trends of postmodernism .
Jonathan Kramer posits the idea (following Umberto Eco and Jean-François Lyotard) that postmodernism (including musical postmodernism) is less a surface style or historical period (i.e., condition) than an attitude.
Jonathan Kramer posits the idea (following Umberto Eco and Jean-François Lyotard ) that postmodernism (including musical postmodernism) is less a surface style or historical period (i.e., condition) than an attitude.
As the name suggests, the postmodernist movement formed partly in reaction to the ideals of the modernist.
Because of this, postmodern music is mostly defined in opposition to modernist music, and a work can either be modernist, or postmodern, but not both .
Composers such as Terry Riley, Henryk Górecki, Bradley Joseph, John Adams, Steve Reich, Philip Glass, Michael Nyman, and Lou Harrison reacted to the perceived elitism and dissonant sound of atonal academic modernism by producing music with simple textures and relatively consonant harmonies , whilst others, most notably John Cage challenged the prevailing narratives of beauty and objectivity common to Modernism.
The postmodern impulse in classical music arose in the 1960s with the advent of musical minimalism.
Composers such as Terry Riley, Henryk Górecki, Bradley Joseph, John Adams, Steve Reich, Philip Glass, Michael Nyman, and Lou Harrison reacted to the perceived elitism and dissonant sound of atonal academic modernism by producing music with simple textures and relatively consonant harmonies, whilst others, most notably John Cage challenged the prevailing narratives of beauty and objectivity common to Modernism.
Some composers have been openly influenced by popular music and world ethnic musical traditions .
The postmodern impulse in classical music arose in the 1960s with the advent of musical minimalism.
Eclecticism and freedom of expression , in reaction to the rigidity and aesthetic limitations of modernism, are the hallmarks of the postmodern influence in musical composition.
Eclecticism and freedom of expression, in reaction to the rigidity and aesthetic limitations of modernism, are the hallmarks of the postmodern influence in musical composition.
The works of Dutch composer Louis Andriessen , for example, exhibit experimentalist preoccupation that is decidedly anti-romantic.
The works of Dutch composer Louis Andriessen, for example, exhibit experimentalist preoccupation that is decidedly anti-romantic .
Eclecticism and freedom of expression , in reaction to the rigidity and aesthetic limitations of modernism, are the hallmarks of the postmodern influence in musical composition.
Eclecticism and freedom of expression, in reaction to the rigidity and aesthetic limitations of modernism, are the hallmarks of the postmodern influence in musical composition.
The works of Dutch composer Louis Andriessen , for example, exhibit experimentalist preoccupation that is decidedly anti-romantic.
The works of Dutch composer Louis Andriessen, for example, exhibit experimentalist preoccupation that is decidedly anti-romantic .
Postmodern designers were in the beginning stages of what we now refer to as "graphic design".
Yet, while postmodern design did not consist of one unified graphic style , the movement was an expressive and playful time for designers who searched for more and more ways to go against the system.
Key influential postmodern graphic designers include Wolfgang Weingart, April Greiman, Tibor Kalman, and Jamie Reid.
They created works beginning in the 1970s without any set adherence to rational order and formal organization.
Yet, while postmodern design did not consist of one unified graphic style, the movement was an expressive and playful time for designers who searched for more and more ways to go against the system.
One of the most well-known postmodernist concerns is " deconstruction ," a theory for philosophy, literary criticism, and textual analysis developed by Jacques Derrida.
A deconstructive approach further depends on the techniques of close reading without reference to cultural, ideological, moral opinions or information derived from an authority over the text such as the author.
Derrida discontinued his involvement with the movement after the publication of his collaborative project with architect Peter Eisenmann in Chora L Works: Jacques Derrida and Peter Eisenman.
Derrida's philosophy inspired a postmodern movement called deconstructivism among architects, characterized by the intentional fragmentation, distortion, and dislocation of architectural elements in designing a building.
Derrida's method frequently involves recognizing and spelling out the different, yet similar interpretations of the meaning of a given text and the problematic implications of binary oppositions within the meaning of a text.
Post modernism is a late-20th-century movement in the arts, architecture, and criticism that was a departure from modernism.
Postmodernism is a late-20th-century movement in the arts, architecture, and criticism that was a departure from modernism.
From a postmodern perspective knowledge is articulated from local perspectives, with all its uncertainties, complexity and paradox .
Postmodernism includes skeptical interpretations of culture, literature, art, philosophy, history, economics, architecture, fiction, and literary criticism. It is often associated with deconstruction and post-structuralism because its usage as a term gained significant popularity at the same time as twentieth-century post-structural thought.
It is often associated with deconstruction and post-structuralism because its usage as a term gained significant popularity at the same time as twentieth-century post-structural thought.
The term postmodern was first used around the 1880s. John Watkins Chapman suggested "a Postmodern style of painting" as a way to depart from French Impressionism.
J. M. Thompson, in his 1914 article in The Hibbert Journal (a quarterly philosophical review), used it to describe changes in attitudes and beliefs in the critique of religion: "The raison d'etre of Post-Modernism is to escape from the double-mindedness of Modernism by being thorough in its criticism by extending it to religion as well as theology, to Catholic feeling as well as to Catholic tradition."
J. M. Thompson, in his 1914 article in The Hibbert Journal ( a quarterly philosophical review) , used it to describe changes in attitudes and beliefs in the critique of religion: "The raison d'etre of Post-Modernism is to escape from the double-mindedness of Modernism by being thorough in its criticism by extending it to religion as well as theology, to Catholic feeling as well as to Catholic tradition."
John Watkins Chapman suggested "a Postmodern style of painting" as a way to depart from French Impressionism.
More recently, Walter Truett Anderson described postmodernism as belonging to one of four typological world views, which he identifies as either (a) Postmodern-ironist, which sees truth as socially constructed, (b) Scientific-rational, in which truth is found through methodical, disciplined inquiry, (c) Social-traditional, in which truth is found in the heritage of American and Western civilization, or (d) Neo-romantic, in which truth is found through attaining harmony with nature and/or spiritual exploration of the inner self.
More recently, Walter Truett Anderson described postmodernism as belonging to one of four typological world views, which he identifies as either (a) Postmodern-ironist, which sees truth as socially constructed , (b) Scientific-rational, in which truth is found through methodical, disciplined inquiry, (c) Social-traditional, in which truth is found in the heritage of American and Western civilization, or (d) Neo-romantic, in which truth is found through attaining harmony with nature and/or spiritual exploration of the inner self.
More recently, Walter Truett Anderson described postmodernism as belonging to one of four typological world views, which he identifies as either (a) Postmodern-ironist, which sees truth as socially constructed, (b) Scientific-rational, in which truth is found through methodical, disciplined inquiry , (c) Social-traditional, in which truth is found in the heritage of American and Western civilization, or (d) Neo-romantic, in which truth is found through attaining harmony with nature and/or spiritual exploration of the inner self.
More recently, Walter Truett Anderson described postmodernism as belonging to one of four typological world views, which he identifies as either (a) Postmodern-ironist, which sees truth as socially constructed, (b) Scientific-rational, in which truth is found through methodical, disciplined inquiry, (c) Social-traditional, in which truth is found in the heritage of American and Western civilization , or (d) Neo-romantic, in which truth is found through attaining harmony with nature and/or spiritual exploration of the inner self.
More recently, Walter Truett Anderson described postmodernism as belonging to one of four typological world views, which he identifies as either (a) Postmodern-ironist, which sees truth as socially constructed, (b) Scientific-rational, in which truth is found through methodical, disciplined inquiry, (c) Social-traditional, in which truth is found in the heritage of American and Western civilization, or (d) Neo-romantic, in which truth is found through attaining harmony with nature and/or spiritual exploration of the inner self .
Postmodernist ideas in philosophy and the analysis of culture and society expanded the importance of critical theory and has been the point of departure for works of literature, architecture, and design, as well as being visible in marketing/business and the interpretation of history, law and culture, starting in the late 20th century.
These developments—re-evaluation of the entire Western value system (love, marriage, popular culture, shift from industrial to service economy) that took place since the 1950s and 1960s , with a peak in the Social Revolution of 1968—are described with the term Postmodernity, as opposed to Postmodernism, a term referring to an opinion or movement.
These developments—re-evaluation of the entire Western value system (love, marriage, popular culture, shift from industrial to service economy) that took place since the 1950s and 1960s, with a peak in the Social Revolution of 1968 —are described with the term Postmodernity, as opposed to Postmodernism, a term referring to an opinion or movement.
These developments—re-evaluation of the entire Western value system (love, marriage, popular culture, shift from industrial to service economy) that took place since the 1950s and 1960s, with a peak in the Social Revolution of 1968—are described with the term Postmodernity, as opposed to Postmodernism, a term referring to an opinion or movement.
Postmodernism has also been used interchangeably with the term post-structuralism out of which postmodernism grew, a proper understanding of postmodernism or doing justice to the postmodernist thought demands an understanding of the poststructuralist movement and the ideas of its advocates.
The idea of Postmodernism in architecture began as a response to the perceived blandness and failed Utopianism of the Modern movement .
Modern Architecture, as established and developed by Walter Gropius and Le Corbusier , was focused on the pursuit of a perceived ideal perfection, and attempted harmony of form and function, and dismissal of "frivolous ornament."
Modern Architecture, as established and developed by Walter Gropius and Le Corbusier, was focused on the pursuit of a perceived ideal perfection, and attempted harmony of form and function, and dismissal of "frivolous ornament." Critics of modernism argued that the attributes of perfection and minimalism themselves were subjective, and pointed out anachronisms in modern thought and questioned the benefits of its philosophy.
Critics of modernism argued that the attributes of perfection and minimalism themselves were subjective , and pointed out anachronisms in modern thought and questioned the benefits of its philosophy.
In this sense, Postmodernism is a rejection of its predecessor: Modernism .
From the 1920s onwards, the Modern movement sought to design and plan cities which followed the logic of the new model of industrial mass production ; reverting to large-scale solutions, aesthetic standardisation and prefabricated design solutions (Goodchild 1990).
Furthermore, Modernism eroded urban living by its failure to recognise differences and aim towards homogenous landscapes (Simonsen 1990, 57).
Within Modernism, urban planning represented a 20th-century move towards establishing something stable, structured, and rationalised within what had become a world of chaos, flux and change (Irving 1993, 475).
The role of planners predating Postmodernism was one of the 'qualified professional' who believed they could find and implement one single 'right way' of planning new urban establishments (Irving 1993).
One of the greater problems with Modernist-style of planning was the disregard of resident or public opinion , which resulted in planning being forced upon the majority by a minority consisting of affluent professionals with little to no knowledge of real 'urban' problems characteristic of post-Second World War urban environments: slums, overcrowding, deteriorated infrastructure, pollution and disease, among others (Irving 1993).
One of the greater problems with Modernist-style of planning was the disregard of resident or public opinion, which resulted in planning being forced upon the majority by a minority consisting of affluent professionals with little to no knowledge of real 'urban' problems characteristic of post-Second World War urban environments: slums, overcrowding, deteriorated infrastructure, pollution and disease , among others (Irving 1993).
Advocacy planning and participatory models of planning emerged in the 1960s to counter these traditional elitist and technocratic approaches to urban planning (Irving 1993; Hatuka & D'Hooghe 2007).
Advocacy planning and participatory models of planning emerged in the 1960s to counter these traditional elitist and technocratic approaches to urban planning (Irving 1993; Hatuka & D'Hooghe 2007).
Furthermore, an assessment of the 'ills' of Modernism among planners during the 1960s, fuelled development of a participatory model that aimed to expand the range of participants in urban interventions (Hatuka & D'Hooghe 2007, 21).
Jane Jacobs 's 1961 book The Death and Life of Great American Cities was a sustained critique of urban planning as it had developed within Modernism and marked a transition from modernity to postmodernity in thinking about urban planning (Irving 1993, 479).
However, the transition from Modernism to Postmodernism is often said to have happened at 3:32pm on 15 July in 1972 , when Pruitt Igoe; a housing development for low-income people in St. Louis designed by architect Minoru Yamasaki, which had been a prize-winning version of Le Corbusier's 'machine for modern living' was deemed uninhabitable and was torn down (Irving 1993, 480).
However, the transition from Modernism to Postmodernism is often said to have happened at 3:32pm on 15 July in 1972, when Pruitt Igoe; a housing development for low-income people in St. Louis designed by architect Minoru Yamasaki , which had been a prize-winning version of Le Corbusier's 'machine for modern living' was deemed uninhabitable and was torn down (Irving 1993, 480).
Postmodern planning aims to accept pluralism and heighten awareness of social differences in order to accept and bring to light the claims of minority and disadvantaged groups (Goodchild 1990).
A postmodernism of 'reaction' rejects Modernism and seeks to return to the lost traditions and history in order to create a new cultural synthesis, while Postmodernity of 'resistance' seeks to deconstruct Modernism and is a critique of the origins without necessarily returning to them (Irving 1993, 60).
Jorge Luis Borges's (1939) short story Pierre Menard, Author of the Quixote , is often considered as predicting postmodernism and conceiving the ideal of the ultimate parody.
Jorge Luis Borges's (1939) short story Pierre Menard, Author of the Quixote, is often considered as predicting postmodernism and conceiving the ideal of the ultimate parody .
Samuel Beckett is sometimes seen as an important precursor and influence.
Novelists who are commonly connected with postmodern literature include Vladimir Nabokov , William Gaddis, Umberto Eco, John Hawkes, William Burroughs, Giannina Braschi, Kurt Vonnegut, John Barth, Jean Rhys, Donald Barthelme, E.L. Doctorow, Richard Kalich, Jerzy Kosinski, Don DeLillo, Thomas Pynchon (Pynchon's work has also been described as "high modern"), Ishmael Reed, Kathy Acker, Ana Lydia Vega, Jachym Topol and Paul Auster.
Novelists who are commonly connected with postmodern literature include Vladimir Nabokov, William Gaddis, Umberto Eco, John Hawkes, William Burroughs, Giannina Braschi, Kurt Vonnegut, John Barth, Jean Rhys, Donald Barthelme, E.L. Doctorow, Richard Kalich, Jerzy Kosinski, Don DeLillo, Thomas Pynchon (Pynchon's work has also been described as "high modern" ), Ishmael Reed, Kathy Acker, Ana Lydia Vega, Jachym Topol and Paul Auster.
In 1971, the Arab-American scholar Ihab Hassan published The Dismemberment of Orpheus: Toward a Postmodern Literature, an early work of literary criticism from a postmodern perspective, in which the author traces the development of what he calls "literature of silence" through Marquis de Sade, Franz Kafka, Ernest Hemingway, Beckett, and many others, including developments such as the Theatre of the Absurd and the nouveau roman.
In Constructing Postmodernism (1992), McHale's second book, he provides readings of postmodern fiction and of some of the contemporary writers who go under the label of cyberpunk.
In 'Postmodernist Fiction' (1987), Brian McHale details the shift from modernism to postmodernism, arguing that the former is characterized by an epistemological dominant[clarification needed], and that postmodern works have developed out of modernism and are primarily concerned with questions of ontology .
In 'Postmodernist Fiction' (1987), Brian McHale details the shift from modernism to postmodernism, arguing that the former is characterized by an epistemological dominant[clarification needed], and that postmodern works have developed out of modernism and are primarily concerned with questions of ontology.
In 'Postmodernist Fiction' ( 1987 ), Brian McHale details the shift from modernism to postmodernism, arguing that the former is characterized by an epistemological dominant[clarification needed], and that postmodern works have developed out of modernism and are primarily concerned with questions of ontology.
Structuralism was a philosophical movement developed by French academics in the 1950s, partly in response to French Existentialism.
It has been seen variously as an expression of Modernism, High modernism, or postmodernism[by whom?]. " Post-structuralists " were thinkers who moved away from the strict interpretations and applications of structuralist ideas.
Thinkers who have been called structuralists include the anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss, the linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, the Marxist philosopher Louis Althusser , and the semiotician Algirdas Greimas.
Structuralism was a philosophical movement developed by French academics in the 19 50s , partly in response to French Existentialism.
Many American academics consider post-structuralism to be part of the broader, less well-defined postmodernist movement, even though many post-structuralists insisted it was not.
Post-structuralism is not defined by a set of shared axioms or methodologies, but by an emphasis on how various aspects of a particular culture, from its most ordinary, everyday material details to its most abstract theories and beliefs, determine one another.
Thus the French structuralists considered themselves to be espousing Relativism and Constructionism.
Post-structuralist thinkers reject Reductionism and Epiphenomenalism and the idea that cause-and-effect relationships are top-down or bottom-up.
(An example is Claude Lévi-Strauss 's
Recently metamodernism, post-postmodernism and the "death of postmodernism" have been widely debated: in 2007 Andrew Hoberek noted in his introduction to a special issue of the journal Twentieth Century Literature titled "After Postmodernism" that "declarations of postmodernism's demise have become a critical commonplace".
Recently metamodernism, post-postmodernism and the "death of postmodernism" have been widely debated: in 2007 Andrew Hoberek noted in his introduction to a special issue of the journal Twentieth Century Literature titled "After Postmodernism" that "declarations of postmodernism's demise have become a critical commonplace".
A small group of critics has put forth a range of theories that aim to describe culture or society in the alleged aftermath of postmodernism, most notably Raoul Eshelman (performatism), Gilles Lipovetsky (hypermodernity), Nicolas Bourriaud (altermodern), and Alan Kirby (digimodernism, formerly called pseudo-modernism).
A small group of critics has put forth a range of theories that aim to describe culture or society in the alleged aftermath of postmodernism, most notably Raoul Eshelman (performatism), Gilles Lipovetsky (hypermodernity), Nicolas Bourriaud (altermodern), and Alan Kirby (digimodernism, formerly called pseudo-modernism).
The exhibition Postmodernism - Style and Subversion 1970–1990 at the Victoria and Albert Museum (London, 24 September 2011 – 15 January 2012) was billed as the first show to document postmodernism as a historical movement.
Criticisms of postmodernism are intellectually diverse, including the assertions that postmodernism is meaningless and promotes obscurantism .
If [these requests] can't be met, then I'd suggest recourse to Hume 's advice in similar circumstances: 'to the flames'."
For example, Noam Chomsky has argued that postmodernism is meaningless because it adds nothing to analytical or empirical knowledge.
He asks why postmodernist intellectuals do not respond like people in other fields when asked, "what are the principles of their theories, on what evidence are they based, what do they explain that wasn't already obvious, etc.?...
However, as for continental philosophy, American academics have tended to label it " postmodernist ", especially practitioners of "French Theory".
However, as for continental philosophy, American academics have tended to label it " postmodernist ", especially practitioners of "French Theory".
Such a trend might derive from U.S. departments of Comparative Literature .
It is interesting to note that Félix Guattari, often considered a "postmodernist", rejected its theoretical assumptions by arguing that the structuralist and postmodernist visions of the world were not flexible enough to seek explanations in psychological, social and environmental domains at the same time.
The structural design for a building must ensure that the building is able to stand up safely , able to function without excessive deflections or movements which may cause fatigue of structural elements, cracking or failure of fixtures, fittings or partitions, or discomfort for occupants.
It must also ensure that the design is practically buildable within acceptable manufacturing tolerances of the materials.
The structural design for a building must ensure that the building is able to stand up safely, able to function without excessive deflections or movements which may cause fatigue of structural elements, cracking or failure of fixtures , fittings or partitions, or discomfort for occupants.
The structural design of a modern building can be extremely complex , and often requires a large team to complete.
The main objectives of earthquake engineering are to understand the interaction of structures with the shaking ground, foresee the consequences of possible earthquakes, and design and construct the structures to perform during an earthquake.
The main objectives of earthquake engineering are to understand the interaction of structures with the shaking ground, foresee the consequences of possible earthquakes , and design and construct the structures to perform during an earthquake.
The main objectives of earthquake engineering are to understand the interaction of structures with the shaking ground, foresee the consequences of possible earthquakes, and design and construct the structures to perform during an earthquake.
The main objectives of earthquake engineering are to understand the interaction of structures with the shaking ground, foresee the consequences of possible earthquakes, and design and construct the structures to perform during an earthquake.
Earthquake-proof structures are not necessarily extremely strong like the El Castillo pyramid at Chichen Itza shown above.
Earthquake-proof structures are not necessarily extremely strong like the El Castillo pyramid at Chichen Itza shown above.
Earthquake-proof structures are not necessarily extremely strong like the El Castillo pyramid at Chichen Itza shown above.
In fact, many structures considered strong may in fact be stiff, which can result in poor seismic performance.
The structural engineer is the lead designer on these structures , and often the sole designer.
The structural engineer is the lead designer on these structures, and often the sole designer .
In the design of structures such as these, structural safety is of paramount importance (in the UK, designs for dams, nuclear power stations and bridges must be signed off by a chartered engineer).
In the design of structures such as these, structural safety is of paramount importance (in the UK, designs for dams , nuclear power stations and bridges must be signed off by a chartered engineer).
Civil engineering structures are often subjected to very extreme forces, such as large variations in temperature, dynamic loads such as waves or traffic , or high pressures from water or compressed gases.
Civil engineering structures are often subjected to very extreme forces, such as large variations in temperature, dynamic loads such as waves or traffic, or high pressures from water or compressed gases .
Civil engineering structures are often subjected to very extreme forces , such as large variations in temperature, dynamic loads such as waves or traffic, or high pressures from water or compressed gases.
They are also often constructed in corrosive environments, such as at sea, in industrial facilities or below ground .
struts and ties ).
A truss is a structure comprising two types of structural elements; compression members and tension members (i.e. struts and ties).
 Gusset plates are relatively flexible and minimize bending moments at the connections, thus allowing the truss members to carry primarily tension or compression.
 Gusset plates are relatively flexible and minimize bending moments at the connections, thus allowing the truss members to carry primarily tension or compression.
 Gusset plates are relatively flexible and minimize bending moments at the connections , thus allowing the truss members to carry primarily tension or compression.
The history of structural engineering contains many collapses and failures .
 Sometimes this is due to obvious negligence , as in the case of the Pétionville school collapse, in which Rev. Fortin Augustin "constructed the building all by himself, saying he didn't need an engineer as he had good knowledge of construction" following a partial collapse of the three-story schoolhouse that sent neighbors fleeing.
 Sometimes this is due to obvious negligence, as in the case of the Pétionville school collapse, in which Rev. Fortin Augustin "constructed the building all by himself, saying he didn't need an engineer as he had good knowledge of construction" following a partial collapse of the three-story schoolhouse that sent neighbors fleeing.
 Sometimes this is due to obvious negligence, as in the case of the Pétionville school collapse, in which Rev. Fortin Augustin "constructed the building all by himself, saying he didn't need an engineer as he had good knowledge of construction" following a partial collapse of the three -story schoolhouse that sent neighbors fleeing.
The final collapse killed 94 people , mostly children.
Plates carry bending in two directions.
A concrete flat slab is an example of a plate.
Plates are understood by using continuum mechanics, but due to the complexity involved they are most often designed using a codified empirical approach, or computer analysis.
Plates are understood by using continuum mechanics, but due to the complexity involved they are most often designed using a codified empirical approach, or computer analysis .
Plates are understood by using continuum mechanics, but due to the complexity involved they are most often designed using a codified empirical approach, or computer analysis.
In other cases structural failures require careful study , and the results of these inquiries have resulted in improved practices and greater understanding of the science of structural engineering.
In other cases structural failures require careful study, and the results of these inquiries have resulted in improved practices and greater understanding of the science of structural engineering .
 A famous case of structural knowledge and practice being advanced in this manner can be found in a series of failures involving box girders which collapsed in Australia during the 1970s.
 A famous case of structural knowledge and practice being advanced in this manner can be found in a series of failures involving box girders which collapsed in Australia during the 1970s.
Structural building engineering includes all structural engineering related to the design of buildings.
Structural building engineering includes all structural engineering related to the design of buildings.
Structural building engineering includes all structural engineering related to the design of buildings.
It is a branch of structural engineering closely affiliated with architecture .
Structural building engineering is primarily driven by the creative manipulation of materials and forms and the underlying mathematical and scientific ideas to achieve an end which fulfills its functional requirements and is structurally safe when subjected to all the loads it could reasonably be expected to experience.
This is subtly different from architectural design, which is driven by the creative manipulation of materials and forms, mass, space, volume, texture and light to achieve an end which is aesthetic, functional and often artistic .
Structural building engineering is primarily driven by the creative manipulation of materials and forms and the underlying mathematical and scientific ideas to achieve an end which fulfills its functional requirements and is structurally safe when subjected to all the loads it could reasonably be expected to experience.
Structural building engineering is primarily driven by the creative manipulation of materials and forms and the underlying mathematical and scientific ideas to achieve an end which fulfills its functional requirements and is structurally safe when subjected to all the loads it could reasonably be expected to experience.
They can also be designed with yield line theory , where an assumed collapse mechanism is analysed to give an upper bound on the collapse load (see Plasticity).
They can also be designed with yield line theory, where an assumed collapse mechanism is analysed to give an upper bound on the collapse load (see Plasticity ).
an unsafe prediction of the collapse load, for poorly conceived collapse mechanisms great care is needed to ensure that the assumed collapse mechanism is realistic.
This technique is used in practice  but because the method provides an upper-bound, i.e. an unsafe prediction of the collapse load, for poorly conceived collapse mechanisms great care is needed to ensure that the assumed collapse mechanism is realistic .
The architect is usually the lead designer on buildings, with a structural engineer employed as a sub-consultant.
The architect is usually the lead designer on buildings, with a structural engineer employed as a sub-consultant.
Many structures are structurally simple and led by architecture, such as multi-storey office buildings and housing, while other structures, such as tensile structures, shells and gridshells are heavily dependent on their form for their strength, and the engineer may have a more significant influence on the form, and hence much of the aesthetic, than the architect.
Many structures are structurally simple and led by architecture, such as multi-storey office buildings and housing, while other structures, such as tensile structures, shells and gridshells are heavily dependent on their form for their strength, and the engineer may have a more significant influence on the form, and hence much of the aesthetic, than the architect.
Shells derive their strength from their form , and carry forces in compression in two directions.
Shells derive their strength from their form, and carry forces in compression in two directions.
A dome is an example of a shell.
They can be designed by making a hanging-chain model, which will act as a catenary in pure tension, and inverting the form to achieve pure compression.
They can be designed by making a hanging-chain model, which will act as a catenary in pure tension, and inverting the form to achieve pure compression.
The role of a structural engineer today involves a significant understanding of both static and dynamic loading, and the structures that are available to resist them.
A structural engineer will typically have a four or five year undergraduate degree, followed by a minimum of three years of professional practice before being considered fully qualified.
A structural engineer will typically have a four or five year undergraduate degree, followed by a minimum of three years of professional practice before being considered fully qualified.
.Structural engineers are licensed or accredited by different learned societies and regulatory bodies around the world (for example, the Institution of Structural Engineers in the UK).
.Another international organisation is IABSE (International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering).
Structural engineering dates back to 2700 B.C.E. when the step pyramid for Pharaoh Djoser was built by Imhotep, the first engineer in history known by name.
Structural engineering dates back to 2700 B.C.E. when the step pyramid for Pharaoh Djoser was built by Imhotep, the first engineer in history known by name.
Pyramids were the most common major structures built by ancient civilizations because the structural form of a pyramid is inherently stable and can be almost infinitely scaled (as opposed to most other structural forms, which cannot be linearly increased in size in proportion to increased loads).
Pyramids were the most common major structures built by ancient civilizations because the structural form of a pyramid is inherently stable and can be almost infinitely scaled (as opposed to most other structural forms, which cannot be linearly increased in size in proportion to increased loads).
Structural engineering dates back to 2700 B.C.E. when the step pyramid for Pharaoh Djoser was built by Imhotep , the first engineer in history known by name.
that the structural stability of the pyramid is not primarily a result of its shape.
Since the compressive strength of limestone is anywhere from 30 to 250 MPa (MPa =
The limestone blocks were taken from a quarry near the build site.
that the structural stability of the pyramid is not primarily a result of its shape.
Arches carry forces in compression in one direction only, which is why it is appropriate to build arches out of masonry.
Arches carry forces in compression in one direction only, which is why it is appropriate to build arches out of masonry .
They are designed by ensuring that the line of thrust of the force remains within the depth of the arch.
It is mainly used to increase the bountifulness of any structure .
Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder .
No theory of structures existed , and understanding of how structures stood up was extremely limited, and based almost entirely on empirical evidence of 'what had worked before'.
No theory of structures existed, and understanding of how structures stood up was extremely limited, and based almost entirely on empirical evidence of 'what had worked before' .
Knowledge was retained by guilds and seldom supplanted by advances.
Knowledge was retained by guilds and seldom supplanted by advances.
No record exists of the first calculations of the strength of structural members or the behavior of structural material, but the profession of structural engineer only really took shape with the Industrial Revolution and the re-invention of concrete (see History of Concrete).
No record exists of the first calculations of the strength of structural members or the behavior of structural material, but the profession of structural engineer only really took shape with the Industrial Revolution and the re-invention of concrete (see History of Concrete).
No record exists of the first calculations of the strength of structural members or the behavior of structural material, but the profession of structural engineer only really took shape with the Industrial Revolution and the re-invention of concrete (see History of Concrete).
The physical sciences underlying structural engineering began to be understood in the Renaissance and have since developed into computer-based applications pioneered in the 1970s.
The physical sciences underlying structural engineering began to be understood in the Renaissance and have since developed into computer-based applications pioneered in the 1970s .
Catenaries derive their strength from their form , and carry transverse forces in pure tension by deflecting (just as a tightrope will sag when someone walks on it).
Catenaries derive their strength from their form, and carry transverse forces in pure tension by deflecting (just as a tightrope will sag when someone walks on it).
Catenaries derive their strength from their form, and carry transverse forces in pure tension by deflecting (just as a tightrope will sag when someone walks on it).
They are almost always cable or fabric structures .
A fabric structure acts as a catenary in two directions.
Structural engineering depends upon a detailed knowledge of applied mechanics, materials science and applied mathematics to understand and predict how structures support and resist self-weight and imposed loads.
Structural engineering depends upon a detailed knowledge of applied mechanics, materials science and applied mathematics to understand and predict how structures support and resist self-weight and imposed loads.
To apply the knowledge successfully a structural engineer generally requires detailed knowledge of relevant empirical and theoretical design codes, the techniques of structural analysis, as well as some knowledge of the corrosion resistance of the materials and structures, especially when those structures are exposed to the external environment.
Since the 1990s , specialist software has become available to aid in the design of structures, with the functionality to assist in the drawing, analyzing and designing of structures with maximum precision; examples include AutoCAD, StaadPro, ETABS, Prokon, Revit Structure etc.
Such software may also take into consideration environmental loads , such as from earthquakes and winds.
Structural engineering depends on the knowledge of materials and their properties, in order to understand how different materials support and resist loads.
Structural engineering depends on the knowledge of materials and their properties , in order to understand how different materials support and resist loads.
Structural engineering depends on the knowledge of materials and their properties, in order to understand how different materials support and resist loads.
Structural engineering depends on the knowledge of materials and their properties, in order to understand how different materials support and resist loads .
Structural engineering depends on the knowledge of materials and their properties , in order to understand how different materials support and resist loads.
Structural engineers are most commonly involved in nonbuilding structures, as well as building structures, but they can also be involved in the design of machinery, medical equipment, vehicles or any item where structural integrity affects the item's function or safety.
Structural engineers are most commonly involved in nonbuilding structures, as well as building structures, but they can also be involved in the design of machinery, medical equipment, vehicles or any item where structural integrity affects the item's function or safety.
Structural engineers are most commonly involved in nonbuilding structures, as well as building structures, but they can also be involved in the design of machinery, medical equipment, vehicles or any item where structural integrity affects the item's function or safety.
Structural engineers must ensure their designs satisfy given design criteria, predicated on safety (i.e. structures must not collapse without due warning) or serviceability and performance (i.e. building sway must not cause discomfort to the occupants).
Structural engineering design utilizes a number of simple structural elements to build complex structural systems.
Structural engineers are responsible for making creative and efficient use of funds, structural elements and materials to achieve these goals.
Structural engineer ing theory is based upon applied physical laws and empirical knowledge of the structural performance of different materials and geometries.
Structural engineering theory is based upon applied physical laws and empirical knowledge of the structural performance of different materials and geometries.
Entry-level structural engineers may design the individual structural elements of a structure, for example the beams, columns, and floors of a building.
More experienced engineers may be responsible for the structural design and integrity of an entire system, such as a building.
Entry-level structural engineers may design the individual structural elements of a structure, for example the beams, columns, and floors of a building.
Structural engineers are responsible for engineering design and analysis .
Structural engineers often specialize in particular fields, such as bridge engineering, building engineering, pipeline engineering, industrial structures, or special mechanical structures such as vehicles, ships or aircraft.
Structural engineers often specialize in particular fields, such as bridge engineering, building engineering, pipeline engineering, industrial structures, or special mechanical structures such as vehicles, ships or aircraft.
Structural engineers often specialize in particular fields, such as bridge engineering, building engineering, pipeline engineering, industrial structures, or special mechanical structures such as vehicles, ships or aircraft.
Structural engineers often specialize in particular fields, such as bridge engineering, building engineering, pipeline engineering, industrial structures, or special mechanical structures such as vehicles, ships or aircraft.
Principles of structural engineering are applied to variety of mechanical (moveable) structures.
The design of static structures assumes they always have the same geometry (in fact, so-called static structures can move significantly, and structural engineering design must take this into account where necessary), but the design of moveable or moving structures must account for fatigue, variation in the method in which load is resisted and significant deflections of structures.
The design of static structures assumes they always have the same geometry (in fact, so-called static structures can move significantly, and structural engineering design must take this into account where necessary), but the design of moveable or moving structures must account for fatigue, variation in the method in which load is resisted and significant deflections of structures.
The design of static structures assumes they always have the same geometry (in fact, so-called static structures can move significantly, and structural engineering design must take this into account where necessary), but the design of moveable or moving structures must account for fatigue , variation in the method in which load is resisted and significant deflections of structures.
The design of static structures assumes they always have the same geometry (in fact, so-called static structures can move significantly, and structural engineering design must take this into account where necessary), but the design of moveable or moving structures must account for fatigue, variation in the method in which load is resisted and significant deflections of structures.
A nanostructure is an object of intermediate size between molecular and microscopic (micrometer-sized) structures.
In describing nanostructures it is necessary to differentiate between the number of dimensions on the nanoscale .
Nanotextured surfaces have one dimension on the nanoscale, i.e., only the thickness of the surface of an object is between 0.1 and 100 nm.
Finally, spherical nanoparticles have three dimensions on the nanoscale, i.e., the particle is between 0.1 and 100 nm in each spatial dimension.
The term 'nanostructure' is often used when referring to magnetic technology .
Aerospace structure types include launch vehicles, (Atlas, Delta, Titan), missiles (ALCM, Harpoon), Hypersonic vehicles (Space Shuttle), military aircraft (F-16, F-18) and commercial aircraft (Boeing 777, MD-11).
Aerospace structure types include launch vehicles, ( Atlas, Delta, Titan ), missiles (ALCM, Harpoon), Hypersonic vehicles (Space Shuttle), military aircraft (F-16, F-18) and commercial aircraft (Boeing 777, MD-11).
Aerospace structures typically consist of thin plates with stiffeners for the external surfaces, bulkheads and frames to support the shape and fasteners such as welds, rivets, screws and bolts to hold the components together.
Aerospace structure types include launch vehicles, (Atlas, Delta, Titan), missiles (ALCM, Harpoon), Hypersonic vehicles (Space Shuttle), military aircraft (F-16, F-18) and commercial aircraft (Boeing 777, MD-11).
Aerospace structures typically consist of thin plates with stiffeners for the external surfaces, bulkheads and frames to support the shape and fasteners such as welds, rivets, screws and bolts to hold the components together.
The structural design must ensure that such structures are able to endure such loading for their entire design life without failing.
The forces which a boat or aircraft are subjected to vary enormously and will do so thousands of times over the structure's lifetime.
The forces which parts of a machine are subjected to can vary significantly, and can do so at a great rate.
The forces which a boat or aircraft are subjected to vary enormously and will do so thousands of times over the structure's lifetime.
The forces which parts of a machine are subjected to can vary significantly, and can do so at a great rate.
Medical equipment (also known as armamentarium) is designed to aid in the diagnosis, monitoring or treatment of medical conditions.
Monitors may measure patient vital signs and other parameters including ECG, EEG, blood pressure, and dissolved gases in the blood ; Diagnostic Medical Equipment may also be used in the home for certain purposes, e.g. for the control of diabetes mellitus.
A biomedical equipment technician (BMET) is a vital component of the healthcare delivery system.
There are several basic types: Diagnostic equipment includes medical imaging machines, used to aid in diagnosis ;  equipment includes infusion pumps, medical lasers and LASIK surgical machines ; Medical monitors allow medical staff to measure a patient's medical state.
Employed primarily by hospitals, BMETs are the people responsible for maintaining a facility's medical equipment.
Columns are elements that carry only axial force -  compression - or both axial force and bending (which is technically called a beam-column but practically, just a column).
Columns are elements that carry only axial force -  compression - or both axial force and bending (which is technically called a beam-column but practically, just a column).
The design of a column must check the axial capacity of the element, and the buckling capacity .
The design of a column must check the axial capacity of the element, and the buckling capacity.
Its capacity depends upon its geometry, material, and the effective length of the column , which depends upon the restraint conditions at the top and bottom of the column.
Its capacity depends upon its geometry, material, and the effective length of the column, which depends upon the restraint conditions at the top and bottom of the column.
The effective length is ....K.∗.l...{\displaystyle K*l}.. where ....l...{\displaystyle l}.. is the real length of the column.
The capacity of a column to carry axial load depends on the degree of bending it is subjected to , and vice versa.
a complex non-linear relationship.
The capacity of a column to carry axial load depends on the degree of bending it is subjected to, and vice versa.
This is represented on an interaction chart and is a complex non-linear relationship.
A beam may be defined as an element in which one dimension is much greater than the other two and the applied loads are usually normal to the main axis of the element.
Beams and columns are called line elements and are often represented by simple lines in structural modeling.
A beam may be defined as an element in which one dimension is much greater than the other two and the applied loads are usually normal to the main axis of the element.
Beams and columns are called line elements and are often represented by simple lines in structural modeling.
Beams are elements which carry pure bending only.
The compression part must be designed to resist buckling and crushing, while the tension part must be able to adequately resist the tension.
Bending causes one part of the section of a beam (divided along its length) to go into compression and the other part into tension.
The compression part must be designed to resist buckling and crushing, while the tension part must be able to adequately resist the tension .
The most familiar saccharolipids are the acylated glucosamine precursors of the Lipid A component of the lipopolysaccharides in Gram-negative bacteria.
A molecules are disaccharides of glucosamine, which are derivatized with as many as seven fatty-acyl chains.
Saccharolipids describe compounds in which fatty acids are linked directly to a sugar backbone , forming structures that are compatible with membrane bilayers.
The minimal lipopolysaccharide required for growth in E. coli is Kdo2-Lipid A , a hexa-acylated disaccharide of glucosamine that is glycosylated with two 3-deoxy-D-manno-octulosonic acid (Kdo) residues.
In the saccharolipids, a monosaccharide substitutes for the glycerol backbone present in glycerolipids and glycerophospholipids.
Triglycerides, stored in adipose tissue , are a major form of energy storage both in animals and plants.
The adipocyte, or fat cell , is designed for continuous synthesis and breakdown of triglycerides in animals, with breakdown controlled mainly by the activation of hormone-sensitive enzyme lipase.
The adipocyte, or fat cell, is designed for continuous synthesis and breakdown of triglycerides in animals, with breakdown controlled mainly by the activation of hormone-sensitive enzyme lipase .
Migratory birds that must fly long distances without eating use stored energy of triglycerides to fuel their flights.
The complete oxidation of fatty acids provides high caloric content, about 9 kcal/g, compared with 4 kcal/g for the breakdown of carbohydrates and proteins.
Micelles and bilayers form in the polar medium by a process known as the hydrophobic effect.
When dissolving a lipophilic or amphiphilic substance in a polar environment, the polar molecules (i.e., water in an aqueous solution) become more ordered around the dissolved lipophilic substance , since the polar molecules cannot form hydrogen bonds to the lipophilic areas of the amphiphile.
A biological membrane is a form of lamellar phase lipid bilayer .
Phase behavior is an area of study within biophysics and is the subject of current academic research.
In an aqueous system, the polar heads of lipids align towards the polar, aqueous environment, while the hydrophobic tails minimize their contact with water and tend to cluster together, forming a vesicle ; depending on the concentration of the lipid, this biophysical interaction may result in the formation of micelles, liposomes, or lipid bilayers.
They comprise a large number of secondary metabolites and natural products from animal, plant, bacterial, fungal and marine sources, and have great structural diversity.
Many polyketides are cyclic molecules whose backbones are often further modified by glycosylation, methylation, hydroxylation, oxidation, and/or other processes .
Many polyketides are cyclic molecules whose backbones are often further modified by glycosylation, methylation, hydroxylation, oxidation, and/or other processes.
Many commonly used anti-microbial, anti-parasitic, and anti-cancer agents are polyketides or polyketide derivatives, such as erythromycins, tetracyclines, avermectins, and antitumor epothilones.
They comprise a large number of secondary metabolites and natural products from animal, plant, bacterial, fungal and marine sources , and have great structural diversity.
Eukaryotic cells are compartmentalized into membrane-bound organelles that carry out different biological functions.
The glycerophospholipids are the main structural component of biological membranes, such as the cellular plasma membrane and the intracellular membranes of organelles; in animal cells the plasma membrane physically separates the intracellular components from the extracellular environment.[citation needed]
The glycerophospholipids are the main structural component of biological membranes, such as the cellular plasma membrane and the intracellular membranes of organelles; in animal cells the plasma membrane physically separates the intracellular components from the extracellular environment.[citation needed]
The glycerophospholipids are amphipathic molecules (containing both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions) that contain a glycerol core linked to two fatty acid-derived "tails" by ester linkages and to one "head" group by a phosphate ester linkage.[citation needed] While glycerophospholipids are the major component of biological membranes, other non-glyceride lipid components such as sphingomyelin and sterols (mainly cholesterol in animal cell membranes) are also found in biological membranes.
In plants and algae, the galactosyldiacylglycerols, and sulfoquinovosyldiacylglycerol , which lack a phosphate group, are important components of membranes of chloroplasts and related organelles and are the most abundant lipids in photosynthetic tissues, including those of higher plants, algae and certain bacteria.[citation needed]
Neural tissue (including the brain) contains relatively high amounts of glycerophospholipids, and alterations in their composition has been implicated in various neurological disorders.
Glycerophospholipids, usually referred to as phospholipids, are ubiquitous in nature and are key components of the lipid bilayer of cells, as well as being involved in metabolism and cell signaling .
Neural tissue (including the brain) contains relatively high amounts of glycerophospholipids, and alterations in their composition has been implicated in various neurological disorders .
Examples of glycerophospholipids found in biological membranes are phosphatidylcholine (also known as PC, GPCho or lecithin), phosphatidylethanolamine (PE or GPEtn) and phosphatidylserine (PS or GPSer) .
Typically, one or both of these hydroxyl groups are acylated with long-chain fatty acids, but there are also alkyl-linked and 1Z-alkenyl-linked (plasmalogen) glycerophospholipids, as well as dialkylether variants in archaebacteria.
In addition to serving as a primary component of cellular membranes and binding sites for intra- and intercellular proteins, some glycerophospholipids in eukaryotic cells, such as phosphatidylinositols and phosphatidic acids are either precursors of or, themselves, membrane-derived second messengers.
In addition to serving as a primary component of cellular membranes and binding sites for intra- and intercellular proteins, some glycerophospholipids in eukaryotic cells, such as phosphatidylinositols and phosphatidic acids are either precursors of or, themselves, membrane-derived second messengers.
Sphingolipids are a complicated family of compounds that share a common structural feature, a sphingoid base backbone that is synthesized de novo from the amino acid serine and a long-chain fatty acyl CoA, then converted into ceramides, phosphosphingolipids, glycosphingolipids and other compounds.
Sphingolipids are a complicated family of compounds that share a common structural feature, a sphingoid base backbone that is synthesized de novo from the amino acid serine and a long-chain fatty acyl CoA, then converted into ceramides, phosphosphingolipids, glycosphingolipids and other compounds .
The major sphingoid base of mammals is commonly referred to as sphingosine .
The fatty acids are typically saturated or mono-unsaturated with chain lengths from 16 to 26 carbon atoms .
Ceramides (N-acyl-sphingoid bases) are a major subclass of sphingoid base derivatives with an amide-linked fatty acid.
Sterol lipids , such as cholesterol and its derivatives, are an important component of membrane lipids, along with the glycerophospholipids and sphingomyelins.
The eighteen-carbon (C18) steroids include the estrogen family whereas the C19 steroids comprise the androgens such as testosterone and androsterone.
The eighteen-carbon (C18) steroids include the estrogen family whereas the C19 steroids comprise the androgens such as testosterone and androsterone .
The C21 subclass includes the progestogens as well as the glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids .
Structures containing greater than 40 carbons are known as polyterpenes.
Carotenoids are important simple isoprenoids that function as antioxidants and as precursors of vitamin A .
Vitamin E and vitamin K , as well as the ubiquinones, are examples of this class.
The simple isoprenoids ( linear alcohols, diphosphates, etc. ) are formed by the successive addition of C5 units, and are classified according to number of these terpene units.
Lipids may be broadly defined as hydrophobic or amphiphilic small molecules; the amphiphilic nature of some lipids allows them to form structures such as vesicles, multilamellar/unilamellar liposomes, or membranes in an aqueous environment.
Lipids may be broadly defined as hydrophobic or amphiphilic small molecules ; the amphiphilic nature of some lipids allows them to form structures such as vesicles, multilamellar/unilamellar liposomes, or membranes in an aqueous environment.
Lipids may be broadly defined as hydrophobic or amphiphilic small molecules; the amphiphilic nature of some lipids allows them to form structures such as vesicles, multilamellar/unilamellar liposomes, or membranes in an aqueous environment .
Biological lipids originate entirely or in part from two distinct types of biochemical subunits or "building-blocks": ketoacyl and isoprene groups .
Using this approach, lipids may be divided into eight categories : fatty acids, glycerolipids, glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids, saccharolipids, and polyketides (derived from condensation of ketoacyl subunits); and sterol lipids and prenol lipids (derived from condensation of isoprene subunits).
Although the term lipid is sometimes used as a synonym for fats, fats are a subgroup of lipids called triglycerides .
Although the term lipid is sometimes used as a synonym for fats, fats are a subgroup of lipids called triglycerides .
Lipids also encompass molecules such as fatty acids and their derivatives (including tri-, di-, monoglycerides, and phospholipids), as well as other sterol-containing metabolites such as cholesterol .
Although humans and other mammals use various biosynthetic pathways both to break down and to synthesize lipids, some essential lipids cannot be made this way and must be obtained from the diet .
Fatty acids, or fatty acid residues when they are part of a lipid, are a diverse group of molecules synthesized by chain-elongation of an acetyl-CoA primer with malonyl-CoA or methylmalonyl-CoA groups in a process called fatty acid synthesis.
Fatty acids, or fatty acid residues when they are part of a lipid, are a diverse group of molecules synthesized by chain-elongation of an acetyl-CoA primer with malonyl-CoA or methylmalonyl-CoA groups in a process called fatty acid synthesis .
They are made of a hydrocarbon chain that terminates with a carboxylic acid group; this arrangement confers the molecule with a polar, hydrophilic end, and a nonpolar, hydrophobic end that is insoluble in water.
They are made of a hydrocarbon chain that terminates with a carboxylic acid group; this arrangement confers the molecule with a polar, hydrophilic end, and a nonpolar, hydrophobic end that is insoluble in water .
The carbon chain, typically between four and 24 carbons long , may be saturated or unsaturated, and may be attached to functional groups containing oxygen, halogens, nitrogen, and sulfur.
Docosahexaenoic acid is also important in biological systems, particularly with respect to sight.
Examples of biologically important fatty acids include the eicosanoids , derived primarily from arachidonic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid, that include prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and thromboxanes.
Fatty esters include important biochemical intermediates such as wax esters, fatty acid thioester coenzyme A derivatives, fatty acid thioester ACP derivatives and fatty acid carnitines.
Other major lipid classes in the fatty acid category are the fatty esters and fatty amides .
Glycerolipids are composed of mono-, di-, and tri-substituted glycerols , the best-known being the fatty acid triesters of glycerol, called triglycerides.
The word " triacylglycerol " is sometimes used synonymously with "triglyceride".
Because they function as an energy store , these lipids comprise the bulk of storage fat in animal tissues.
The hydrolysis of the ester bonds of triglycerides and the release of glycerol and fatty acids from adipose tissue are the initial steps in metabolizing fat.
These include sphingosine-1-phosphate, a sphingolipid derived from ceramide that is a potent messenger molecule involved in regulating calcium mobilization, cell growth, and apoptosis; diacylglycerol (DAG) and the phosphatidylinositol phosphates (PIPs), involved in calcium-mediated activation of protein kinase C; the prostaglandins, which are one type of fatty-acid derived eicosanoid involved in inflammation and immunity; the steroid hormones such as estrogen, testosterone and cortisol, which modulate a host of functions such as reproduction, metabolism and blood pressure; and the oxysterols such as 25-hydroxy-cholesterol that are liver X receptor agonists.
In recent years, evidence has emerged showing that lipid signaling is a vital part of the cell signaling .
These include sphingosine-1-phosphate , a sphingolipid derived from ceramide that is a potent messenger molecule involved in regulating calcium mobilization, cell growth, and apoptosis; diacylglycerol (DAG) and the phosphatidylinositol phosphates (PIPs), involved in calcium-mediated activation of protein kinase C; the prostaglandins, which are one type of fatty-acid derived eicosanoid involved in inflammation and immunity; the steroid hormones such as estrogen, testosterone and cortisol, which modulate a host of functions such as reproduction, metabolism and blood pressure; and the oxysterols such as 25-hydroxy-cholesterol that are liver X receptor agonists.
These include sphingosine-1-phosphate, a sphingolipid derived from ceramide that is a potent messenger molecule involved in regulating calcium mobilization, cell growth, and apoptosis; diacylglycerol (DAG) and the phosphatidylinositol phosphates ( PIPs ), involved in calcium-mediated activation of protein kinase C; the prostaglandins, which are one type of fatty-acid derived eicosanoid involved in inflammation and immunity; the steroid hormones such as estrogen, testosterone and cortisol, which modulate a host of functions such as reproduction, metabolism and blood pressure; and the oxysterols such as 25-hydroxy-cholesterol that are liver X receptor agonists.
These include sphingosine-1-phosphate, a sphingolipid derived from ceramide that is a potent messenger molecule involved in regulating calcium mobilization, cell growth, and apoptosis; diacylglycerol (DAG) and the phosphatidylinositol phosphates (PIPs), involved in calcium-mediated activation of protein kinase C; the prostaglandins , which are one type of fatty-acid derived eicosanoid involved in inflammation and immunity; the steroid hormones such as estrogen, testosterone and cortisol, which modulate a host of functions such as reproduction, metabolism and blood pressure; and the oxysterols such as 25-hydroxy-cholesterol that are liver X receptor agonists.
The " fat-soluble " vitamins (A, D, E and K) – which are isoprene-based lipids – are essential nutrients stored in the liver and fatty tissues, with a diverse range of functions.
The "fat-soluble" vitamins (A, D, E and K) – which are isoprene-based lipids – are essential nutrients stored in the liver and fatty tissues , with a diverse range of functions.
Acyl-carnitines are involved in the transport and metabolism of fatty acids in and out of mitochondria , where they undergo beta oxidation.
Polyprenols and their phosphorylated derivatives also play important transport roles, in this case the transport of oligosaccharides across membranes.
Cardiolipins are a subclass of glycerophospholipids containing four acyl chains and three glycerol groups that are particularly abundant in the inner mitochondrial membrane.
In animals, when there is an oversupply of dietary carbohydrate, the excess carbohydrate is converted to triglycerides .
This involves the synthesis of fatty acids from acetyl-CoA and the esterification of fatty acids in the production of triglycerides, a process called lipogenesis .
The fatty acids may be subsequently converted to triglycerides that are packaged in lipoproteins and secreted from the liver .
Fatty acids are made by fatty acid synthases that polymerize and then reduce acetyl-CoA units.
Terpenes and isoprenoids, including the carotenoids, are made by the assembly and modification of isoprene units donated from the reactive precursors isopentenyl pyrophosphate and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate.
Terpenes and isoprenoids, including the carotenoids, are made by the assembly and modification of isoprene units donated from the reactive precursors isopentenyl pyrophosphate and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate .
In animals and archaea, the mevalonate pathway produces these compounds from acetyl-CoA, while in plants and bacteria the non-mevalonate pathway uses pyruvate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate as substrates.
Here, the isoprene units are joined together to make squalene and then folded up and formed into a set of rings to make lanosterol .
Beta oxidation is the metabolic process by which fatty acids are broken down in the mitochondria and/or in peroxisomes to generate acetyl-CoA.
For the most part, fatty acids are oxidized by a mechanism that is similar to, but not identical with, a reversal of the process of fatty acid synthesis .
That is, two-carbon fragments are removed sequentially from the carboxyl end of the acid after steps of dehydrogenation, hydration, and oxidation to form a beta-keto acid, which is split by thiolysis.
Beta oxidation is the metabolic process by which fatty acids are broken down in the mitochondria and/or in peroxisomes to generate acetyl-CoA .
The energy yield of the complete oxidation of the fatty acid palmitate is 106 ATP .
Most of the fat found in food is in the form of triglycerides, cholesterol, and phospholipids .
Humans and other mammals have a dietary requirement for certain essential fatty acids, such as linoleic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid) and alpha-linolenic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid) because they cannot be synthesized from simple precursors in the diet.
Humans and other mammals have a dietary requirement for certain essential fatty acids, such as linoleic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid) and alpha-linolenic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid ) because they cannot be synthesized from simple precursors in the diet.
Both of these fatty acids are 18 -carbon polyunsaturated fatty acids differing in the number and position of the double bonds.
In contrast, it is now well-established that consumption of trans fats , such as those present in partially hydrogenated vegetable oils, are a risk factor for cardiovascular disease.
The Nutrition Source , a website maintained by the Department of Nutrition at the Harvard School of Public Health, summarizes the current evidence on the impact of dietary fat: "Detailed research—much of it done at Harvard—shows that the total amount of fat in the diet isn't really linked with weight or disease."
However, a number of very large studies, including the Women's Health Initiative Dietary Modification Trial, an eight-year study of 49,000 women, the Nurses' Health Study and the Health Professionals Follow-up Study, revealed no such links.
A few studies have suggested that total dietary fat intake is linked to an increased risk of obesity and diabetes .
However, a number of very large studies, including the Women's Health Initiative Dietary Modification Trial, an eight-year study of 49,000 women, the Nurses' Health Study and the Health Professionals Follow-up Study, revealed no such links.