it is a replica of the grotto at lourdes , france where the virgin mary reputedly appeared to saint bernadette soubirous in 1858 . 
immediately in front of the main building and facing it , is a copper statue of christ with arms upraised with the legend `` venite ad me omnes '' . 
next to the main building is the basilica of the sacred heart . 
immediately behind the basilica is the grotto , a marian place of prayer and reflection . 
atop the main building 's gold dome is a golden statue of the virgin mary . 
begun as a one-page journal in september 1876 , the scholastic magazine is issued twice monthly and claims to be the oldest continuous collegiate publication in the united states . 
the other magazine , the juggler , is released twice a year and focuses on student literature and artwork . 
the newspapers have varying publication interests , with the observer published daily and mainly reporting university and other news , and staffed by students from both notre dame and saint mary 's college . 
the nine student-run outlets include three newspapers , both a radio and television station , and several magazines and journals . 
in 1987 , when some students believed that the observer began to show a conservative bias , a liberal newspaper , common sense was published . 
the university is the major seat of the congregation of holy cross -lrb- albeit not its official headquarters , which are in rome -rrb- . 
its main seminary , moreau seminary , is located on the campus across st. joseph lake from the main building . 
old college , the oldest building on campus and located near the shore of st. mary lake , houses undergraduate seminarians . 
retired priests and brothers reside in fatima house -lrb- a former retreat center -rrb- , holy cross house , as well as columba hall near the grotto . 
while not catholic , buechner has praised writers from notre dame and moreau seminary created a buechner prize for preaching . 
today the college , housed in the fitzpatrick , cushing , and stinson-remick halls of engineering , includes five departments of study -- aerospace and mechanical engineering , chemical and biomolecular engineering , civil engineering and geological sciences , computer science and engineering , and electrical engineering -- with eight b.s. degrees offered . 
the college of engineering was established in 1920 , however , early courses in civil and mechanical engineering were a part of the college of science since the 1870s . 
the college of engineering was established in 1920 , however , early courses in civil and mechanical engineering were a part of the college of science since the 1870s . 
today the college , housed in the fitzpatrick , cushing , and stinson-remick halls of engineering , includes five departments of study -- aerospace and mechanical engineering , chemical and biomolecular engineering , civil engineering and geological sciences , computer science and engineering , and electrical engineering -- with eight b.s. degrees offered . 
the college of engineering was established in 1920 , however , early courses in civil and mechanical engineering were a part of the college of science since the 1870s . 
the program also includes a learning resource center which provides time management , collaborative learning , and subject tutoring . 
all of notre dame 's undergraduate students are a part of one of the five undergraduate colleges at the school or are in the first year of studies program . 
the first year of studies program was established in 1962 to guide incoming freshmen in their first year at the school before they have declared a major . 
this program has been recognized previously , by u.s. news & world report , as outstanding . 
this changed in 1924 with formal requirements developed for graduate degrees , including offering doctorate -lrb- phd -rrb- degrees . 
most of the departments from the college of arts and letters offer phd programs , while a professional master of divinity -lrb- m.div . -rrb- 
additionally , the alliance for catholic education program offers a master of education program where students study at the university during the summer and teach in catholic elementary schools , middle schools , and high schools across the southern united states for two school years . 
the university first offered graduate degrees , in the form of a master of arts -lrb- ma -rrb- , in the 1854 -- 1855 academic year . 
all of the departments in the college of science offer phd programs , except for the department of pre-professional studies . 
the joan b. kroc institute for international peace studies at the university of notre dame is dedicated to research , education and outreach on the causes of violent conflict and the conditions for sustainable peace . 
the institute was inspired by the vision of the rev. theodore m. hesburgh csc , president emeritus of the university of notre dame . 
it was founded in 1986 through the donations of joan b. kroc , the widow of mcdonald 's owner ray kroc . 
it was founded in 1986 through the donations of joan b. kroc , the widow of mcdonald 's owner ray kroc . 
it was founded in 1986 through the donations of joan b. kroc , the widow of mcdonald 's owner ray kroc . 
the main building is the 14-story theodore m. hesburgh library , completed in 1963 , which is the third building to house the main collection of books . 
the main building is the 14-story theodore m. hesburgh library , completed in 1963 , which is the third building to house the main collection of books . 
the main building is the 14-story theodore m. hesburgh library , completed in 1963 , which is the third building to house the main collection of books . 
the front of the library is adorned with the word of life mural designed by artist millard sheets . 
this mural is popularly known as `` touchdown jesus '' because of its proximity to notre dame stadium and jesus ' arms appearing to make the signal for a touchdown . 
notre dame is known for its competitive admissions , with the incoming class enrolling in fall 2015 admitting 3,577 from a pool of 18,156 -lrb- 19.7 % -rrb- . 
notre dame is known for its competitive admissions , with the incoming class enrolling in fall 2015 admitting 3,577 from a pool of 18,156 -lrb- 19.7 % -rrb- . 
the academic profile of the enrolled class continues to rate among the top 10 to 15 in the nation for national research universities . 
1,400 of the 3,577 -lrb- 39.1 % -rrb- were admitted under the early action plan . 
admitted students came from 1,311 high schools and the average student traveled more than 750 miles to notre dame , making it arguably the most representative university in the united states . 
in 2015-2016 , notre dame ranked 18th overall among `` national universities '' in the united states in u.s. news & world report 's best colleges 2016 . 
forbes.com 's america 's best colleges ranks notre dame 13th among colleges in the united states in 2015 , 8th among research universities , and 1st in the midwest . 
businessweek ranks mendoza college of business undergraduate school as 1st overall . 
in 2014 , usa today ranked notre dame 10th overall for american universities based on data from college factual . 
additionally , the study abroad program ranks sixth in highest participation percentage in the nation , with 57.6 % of students choosing to study abroad in 17 countries . 
father joseph carrier , c.s.c. was director of the science museum and the library and professor of chemistry and physics until 1874 . 
one of carrier 's students was father john augustine zahm -lrb- 1851 -- 1921 -rrb- who was made professor and co-director of the science department at age 23 and by 1900 was a nationally prominent scientist and naturalist . 
one of carrier 's students was father john augustine zahm -lrb- 1851 -- 1921 -rrb- who was made professor and co-director of the science department at age 23 and by 1900 was a nationally prominent scientist and naturalist . 
his book evolution and dogma -lrb- 1896 -rrb- defended certain aspects of evolutionary theory as true , and argued , moreover , that even the great church teachers thomas aquinas and augustine taught something like it . 
father joseph carrier , c.s.c. was director of the science museum and the library and professor of chemistry and physics until 1874 . 
in 1882 , albert zahm -lrb- john zahm 's brother -rrb- built an early wind tunnel used to compare lift to drag of aeronautical models . 
around 1899 , professor jerome green became the first american to send a wireless message . 
around 1899 , professor jerome green became the first american to send a wireless message . 
in 1931 , father julius nieuwland performed early work on basic reactions that was used to create neoprene . 
in 1882 , albert zahm -lrb- john zahm 's brother -rrb- built an early wind tunnel used to compare lift to drag of aeronautical models . 
the lobund institute grew out of pioneering research in germ-free-life which began in 1928 . 
in the 1940s lobund achieved independent status as a purely research organization and in 1950 was raised to the status of an institute . 
in the 1940s lobund achieved independent status as a purely research organization and in 1950 was raised to the status of an institute . 
in 1958 it was brought back into the department of biology as integral part of that department , but with its own program leading to the degree of phd in gnotobiotics . 
the lobund institute grew out of pioneering research in germ-free-life which began in 1928 . 
the review of politics was founded in 1939 by gurian , modeled after german catholic journals . 
the review of politics was founded in 1939 by gurian , modeled after german catholic journals . 
for 44 years , the review was edited by gurian , matthew fitzsimons , frederick crosson , and thomas stritch . 
the review of politics was founded in 1939 by gurian , modeled after german catholic journals . 
the university president , john jenkins , described his hope that notre dame would become `` one of the pre -- eminent research institutions in the world '' in his inaugural address . 
the university president , john jenkins , described his hope that notre dame would become `` one of the pre -- eminent research institutions in the world '' in his inaugural address . 
the university has many multi-disciplinary institutes devoted to research in varying fields , including the medieval institute , the kellogg institute for international studies , the kroc institute for international peace studies , and the center for social concerns . 
as of 2013 , the university is home to the notre dame global adaptation index which ranks countries annually based on how vulnerable they are to climate change and how prepared they are to adapt . 
as of 2013 , the university is home to the notre dame global adaptation index which ranks countries annually based on how vulnerable they are to climate change and how prepared they are to adapt . 
in 2014 the notre dame student body consisted of 12,179 students , with 8,448 undergraduates , 2,138 graduate and professional and 1,593 professional -lrb- law , m.div. , business , m.ed . -rrb- 
around 21 -- 24 % of students are children of alumni , and although 37 % of students come from the midwestern united states , the student body represents all 50 states and 100 countries . 
the annual bookstore basketball tournament is the largest outdoor five-on-five tournament in the world with over 700 teams participating each year , while the notre dame men 's boxing club hosts the annual bengal bouts tournament that raises money for the holy cross missions in bangladesh . 
the annual bookstore basketball tournament is the largest outdoor five-on-five tournament in the world with over 700 teams participating each year , while the notre dame men 's boxing club hosts the annual bengal bouts tournament that raises money for the holy cross missions in bangladesh . 
in 2014 the notre dame student body consisted of 12,179 students , with 8,448 undergraduates , 2,138 graduate and professional and 1,593 professional -lrb- law , m.div. , business , m.ed . -rrb- 
about 80 % of undergraduates and 20 % of graduate students live on campus . 
the majority of the graduate students on campus live in one of four graduate housing complexes on campus , while all on-campus undergraduates live in one of the 29 residence halls . 
because of the religious affiliation of the university , all residence halls are single-sex , with 15 male dorms and 14 female dorms . 
about 80 % of undergraduates and 20 % of graduate students live on campus . 
because of the religious affiliation of the university , all residence halls are single-sex , with 15 male dorms and 14 female dorms . 
the university is affiliated with the congregation of holy cross -lrb- latin : congregatio a sancta cruce , abbreviated postnominals : `` csc '' -rrb- . 
while religious affiliation is not a criterion for admission , more than 93 % of students identify as christian , with over 80 % of the total being catholic . 
collectively , catholic mass is celebrated over 100 times per week on campus , and a large campus ministry program provides for the faith needs of the community . 
fifty-seven chapels are located throughout the campus . 
while religious affiliation is not a criterion for admission , more than 93 % of students identify as christian , with over 80 % of the total being catholic . 
eventually becoming known as washington hall , it hosted plays and musical acts put on by the school . 
this main building , and the library collection , was entirely destroyed by a fire in april 1879 , and the school closed immediately and students were sent home . 
sorin and the president at the time , the rev. william corby , immediately planned for the rebuilding of the structure that had housed virtually the entire university . 
construction was started on the 17th of may and by the incredible zeal of administrator and workers the building was completed before the fall semester of 1879 . 
by 1880 , a science program was established at the university , and a science hall -lrb- today lafortune student center -rrb- was built in 1883 . 
in 1919 father james burns became president of notre dame , and in three years he produced an academic revolution that brought the school up to national standards by adopting the elective system and moving away from the university 's traditional scholastic and classical emphasis . 
by 1921 , with the addition of the college of commerce , notre dame had grown from a small college to a university with five colleges and a professional law school . 
in 1919 father james burns became president of notre dame , and in three years he produced an academic revolution that brought the school up to national standards by adopting the elective system and moving away from the university 's traditional scholastic and classical emphasis . 
in 1919 father james burns became president of notre dame , and in three years he produced an academic revolution that brought the school up to national standards by adopting the elective system and moving away from the university 's traditional scholastic and classical emphasis . 
their graduates were shut out of harvard law school for that reason . 
knute rockne became head coach in 1918 . 
under rockne , the irish would post a record of 105 wins , 12 losses , and five ties . 
during his 13 years the irish won three national championships , had five undefeated seasons , won the rose bowl in 1925 , and produced players such as george gipp and the `` four horsemen '' . 
during his 13 years the irish won three national championships , had five undefeated seasons , won the rose bowl in 1925 , and produced players such as george gipp and the `` four horsemen '' . 
during his 13 years the irish won three national championships , had five undefeated seasons , won the rose bowl in 1925 , and produced players such as george gipp and the `` four horsemen '' . 
catholics rallied up around the team and listen to the games on the radio , especially when it knocked off the schools that symbolized the protestant establishment in america -- harvard , yale , princeton , and army . 
the most remarkable episode of violence was the clash between notre dame students and the ku klux klan in 1924 . 
on may 19 thousands of students massed downtown protesting the klavern , and only the arrival of college president fr . 
the klan decided to have a week-long klavern in south bend . 
the klan decided to have a week-long klavern in south bend . 
holy cross father john francis o'hara was elected vice-president in 1933 and president of notre dame in 1934 . 
holy cross father john francis o'hara was elected vice-president in 1933 and president of notre dame in 1934 . 
during his tenure at notre dame , he brought numerous refugee intellectuals to campus ; he selected frank h. spearman , jeremiah d. m. ford , irvin abell , and josephine brownson for the laetare medal , instituted in 1883 . 
during his tenure at notre dame , he brought numerous refugee intellectuals to campus ; he selected frank h. spearman , jeremiah d. m. ford , irvin abell , and josephine brownson for the laetare medal , instituted in 1883 . 
he wrote , `` notre dame football is a spiritual service because it is played for the honor and glory of god and of his blessed mother . 
cavanaugh 's legacy at notre dame in the post-war years was devoted to raising academic standards and reshaping the university administration to suit it to an enlarged educational mission and an expanded student body and stressing advanced studies and research at a time when notre dame quadrupled in student census , undergraduate enrollment increased by more than half , and graduate student enrollment grew fivefold . 
cavanaugh also established the lobund institute for animal studies and notre dame 's medieval institute . 
cavanaugh also presided over the construction of the nieuwland science hall , fisher hall , and the morris inn , as well as the hall of liberal arts -lrb- now o'shaughnessy hall -rrb- , made possible by a donation from i.a. o'shaughnessy , at the time the largest ever made to an american catholic university . 
the rev. john j. cavanaugh , c.s.c. served as president from 1946 to 1952 . 
cavanaugh also established the lobund institute for animal studies and notre dame 's medieval institute . 
the rev. theodore hesburgh , c.s.c. , -lrb- 1917 -- 2015 -rrb- served as president for 35 years -lrb- 1952 -- 87 -rrb- of dramatic transformations . 
in that time the annual operating budget rose by a factor of 18 from $ 9.7 million to $ 176.6 million , and the endowment by a factor of 40 from $ 9 million to $ 350 million , and research funding by a factor of 20 from $ 735,000 to $ 15 million . 
in that time the annual operating budget rose by a factor of 18 from $ 9.7 million to $ 176.6 million , and the endowment by a factor of 40 from $ 9 million to $ 350 million , and research funding by a factor of 20 from $ 735,000 to $ 15 million . 
the rev. theodore hesburgh , c.s.c. , -lrb- 1917 -- 2015 -rrb- served as president for 35 years -lrb- 1952 -- 87 -rrb- of dramatic transformations . 
enrollment nearly doubled from 4,979 to 9,600 , faculty more than doubled 389 to 950 , and degrees awarded annually doubled from 1,212 to 2,500 . 
hesburgh is also credited with transforming the face of notre dame by making it a coeducational institution . 
`` in american college education , '' explained the rev. charles e. sheedy , c.s.c. , notre dame 's dean of arts and letters , `` certain features formerly considered advantageous and enviable are now seen as anachronistic and out of place ... . 
thomas blantz , c.s.c. , notre dame 's vice president of student affairs , added that coeducation `` opened up a whole other pool of very bright students . '' 
in 1971 mary ann proctor became the first female undergraduate ; she transferred from st. mary 's college . 
in the mid-1960s notre dame and saint mary 's college developed a co-exchange program whereby several hundred students took classes not offered at their home institution , an arrangement that added undergraduate women to a campus that already had a few women in the graduate schools . 
in the 18 years under the presidency of edward malloy , c.s.c. , -lrb- 1987 -- 2005 -rrb- , there was a rapid growth in the school 's reputation , faculty , and resources . 
he increased the faculty by more than 500 professors ; the academic quality of the student body has improved dramatically , with the average sat score rising from 1240 to 1360 ; the number of minority students more than doubled ; the endowment grew from $ 350 million to more than $ 3 billion ; the annual operating budget rose from $ 177 million to more than $ 650 million ; and annual research funding improved from $ 15 million to more than $ 70 million . 
he increased the faculty by more than 500 professors ; the academic quality of the student body has improved dramatically , with the average sat score rising from 1240 to 1360 ; the number of minority students more than doubled ; the endowment grew from $ 350 million to more than $ 3 billion ; the annual operating budget rose from $ 177 million to more than $ 650 million ; and annual research funding improved from $ 15 million to more than $ 70 million . 
he increased the faculty by more than 500 professors ; the academic quality of the student body has improved dramatically , with the average sat score rising from 1240 to 1360 ; the number of minority students more than doubled ; the endowment grew from $ 350 million to more than $ 3 billion ; the annual operating budget rose from $ 177 million to more than $ 650 million ; and annual research funding improved from $ 15 million to more than $ 70 million . 
he increased the faculty by more than 500 professors ; the academic quality of the student body has improved dramatically , with the average sat score rising from 1240 to 1360 ; the number of minority students more than doubled ; the endowment grew from $ 350 million to more than $ 3 billion ; the annual operating budget rose from $ 177 million to more than $ 650 million ; and annual research funding improved from $ 15 million to more than $ 70 million . 
since 2005 , notre dame has been led by john i. jenkins , c.s.c. , the 17th president of the university . 
since 2005 , notre dame has been led by john i. jenkins , c.s.c. , the 17th president of the university . 
jenkins took over the position from malloy on july 1 , 2005 . 
during his tenure , notre dame has increased its endowment , enlarged its student body , and undergone many construction projects on campus , including compton family ice arena , a new architecture hall , additional residence halls , and the campus crossroads , a $ 400m enhancement and expansion of notre dame stadium . 
during his tenure , notre dame has increased its endowment , enlarged its student body , and undergone many construction projects on campus , including compton family ice arena , a new architecture hall , additional residence halls , and the campus crossroads , a $ 400m enhancement and expansion of notre dame stadium . 
the old college building has become one of two seminaries on campus run by the congregation of holy cross . 
the current basilica of the sacred heart is located on the spot of fr . 
it is built in french revival style and it is decorated by stained glass windows imported directly from france . 
the interior was painted by luigi gregori , an italian painter invited by fr . 
the grotto of our lady of lourdes , which was built in 1896 , is a replica of the original in lourdes , france . 
a science hall was built in 1883 under the direction of fr . 
zahm , but in 1950 it was converted to a student union building and named lafortune center , after joseph lafortune , an oil executive from tulsa , oklahoma . 
zahm , but in 1950 it was converted to a student union building and named lafortune center , after joseph lafortune , an oil executive from tulsa , oklahoma . 
commonly known as `` lafortune '' or `` lafun , '' it is a 4-story building of 83,000 square feet that provides the notre dame community with a meeting place for social , recreational , cultural , and educational activities . 
lafortune employs 35 part-time student staff and 29 full-time non-student staff and has an annual budget of $ 1.2 million . 
over the years 29 residence halls have been built to accommodate students and each has been constructed with its own chapel . 
many academic building were added together with a system of libraries , the most prominent of which is the theodore hesburgh library , built in 1963 and today containing almost 4 million books . 
many academic building were added together with a system of libraries , the most prominent of which is the theodore hesburgh library , built in 1963 and today containing almost 4 million books . 
additionally , a new residence for men , duncan hall , was begun on march 8 , 2007 , and began accepting residents for the fall 2008 semester . 
also , there are many outdoor fields , as the frank eck stadium for baseball . 
the university of notre dame has made being a sustainability leader an integral part of its mission , creating the office of sustainability in 2008 to achieve a number of goals in the areas of power generation , design and construction , waste reduction , procurement , food services , transportation , and water.as of 2012 -lsb- update -rsb- four building construction projects were pursuing leed-certified status and three were pursuing leed silver . 
notre dame 's dining services sources 40 % of its food locally and offers sustainably caught seafood as well as many organic , fair-trade , and vegan options . 
on the sustainable endowments institute 's college sustainability report card 2010 , university of notre dame received a `` b '' grade . 
the university also houses the kroc institute for international peace studies . 
the university has had a presence in london , england , since 1968 . 
since 1998 , its london center has been based in the former united university club at 1 suffolk street in trafalgar square . 
other global gateways are located in beijing , chicago , dublin , jerusalem and rome . 
since 1998 , its london center has been based in the former united university club at 1 suffolk street in trafalgar square . 
the college of arts and letters was established as the university 's first college in 1842 with the first degrees given in 1849 . 
the college of arts and letters was established as the university 's first college in 1842 with the first degrees given in 1849 . 
the college of arts and letters was established as the university 's first college in 1842 with the first degrees given in 1849 . 
the university 's first academic curriculum was modeled after the jesuit ratio studiorum from saint louis university . 
today the college , housed in o'shaughnessy hall , includes 20 departments in the areas of fine arts , humanities , and social sciences , and awards bachelor of arts -lrb- b.a. -rrb- degrees in 33 majors , making it the largest of the university 's colleges . 
the college of science was established at the university in 1865 by president father patrick dillon . 
the college of science was established at the university in 1865 by president father patrick dillon . 
dillon 's scientific courses were six years of work , including higher-level mathematics courses . 
today the college , housed in the newly built jordan hall of science , includes over 1,200 undergraduates in six departments of study -- biology , chemistry , mathematics , physics , pre-professional studies , and applied and computational mathematics and statistics -lrb- acms -rrb- -- each awarding bachelor of science -lrb- b.s. -rrb- degrees . 
today the college , housed in the newly built jordan hall of science , includes over 1,200 undergraduates in six departments of study -- biology , chemistry , mathematics , physics , pre-professional studies , and applied and computational mathematics and statistics -lrb- acms -rrb- -- each awarding bachelor of science -lrb- b.s. -rrb- degrees . 
the school of architecture was established in 1899 , although degrees in architecture were first awarded by the university in 1898 . 
today the school , housed in bond hall , offers a five-year undergraduate program leading to the bachelor of architecture degree . 
today the school , housed in bond hall , offers a five-year undergraduate program leading to the bachelor of architecture degree . 
all undergraduate students study the third year of the program in rome . 
it also awards the renowned annual driehaus architecture prize . 
a theology library was also opened in fall of 2015 . 
located on the first floor of stanford hall , it is the first branch of the library system to be housed in a dorm room . 
the library system holds over three million volumes , was the single largest university library in the world upon its completion , and remains one of the 100 largest libraries in the country . 
the library system holds over three million volumes , was the single largest university library in the world upon its completion , and remains one of the 100 largest libraries in the country . 
the rise of hitler and other dictators in the 1930s forced numerous catholic intellectuals to flee europe ; president john o'hara brought many to notre dame . 
from germany came anton-hermann chroust -lrb- 1907 -- 1982 -rrb- in classics and law , and waldemar gurian a german catholic intellectual of jewish descent . 
from germany came anton-hermann chroust -lrb- 1907 -- 1982 -rrb- in classics and law , and waldemar gurian a german catholic intellectual of jewish descent . 
positivism dominated american intellectual life in the 1920s onward but in marked contrast , gurian received a german catholic education and wrote his doctoral dissertation under max scheler . 
ivan meštrović -lrb- 1883 -- 1962 -rrb- , a renowned sculptor , brought croatian culture to campus , 1955 -- 62 . 
the university of notre dame du lac -lrb- or simply notre dame / ˌnoʊtərˈdeɪm / noh-tər-daym -rrb- is a catholic research university located adjacent to south bend , indiana , in the united states . 
the university of notre dame du lac -lrb- or simply notre dame / ˌnoʊtərˈdeɪm / noh-tər-daym -rrb- is a catholic research university located adjacent to south bend , indiana , in the united states . 
in french , notre dame du lac means `` our lady of the lake '' and refers to the university 's patron saint , the virgin mary . 
in french , notre dame du lac means `` our lady of the lake '' and refers to the university 's patron saint , the virgin mary . 
the main campus covers 1,250 acres in a suburban setting and it contains a number of recognizable landmarks , such as the golden dome , the `` word of life '' mural -lrb- commonly known as touchdown jesus -rrb- , and the basilica . 
notre dame rose to national prominence in the early 1900s for its fighting irish football team , especially under the guidance of the legendary coach knute rockne . 
notre dame rose to national prominence in the early 1900s for its fighting irish football team , especially under the guidance of the legendary coach knute rockne . 
the university 's athletic teams are members of the ncaa division i and are known collectively as the fighting irish . 
the football team , an independent , has accumulated eleven consensus national championships , seven heisman trophy winners , 62 members in the college football hall of fame and 13 members in the pro football hall of fame and is considered one of the most famed and successful college football teams in history . 
the football team , an independent , has accumulated eleven consensus national championships , seven heisman trophy winners , 62 members in the college football hall of fame and 13 members in the pro football hall of fame and is considered one of the most famed and successful college football teams in history . 
besides its prominence in sports , notre dame is also a large , four-year , highly residential research university , and is consistently ranked among the top twenty universities in the united states and as a major global university . 
the undergraduate component of the university is organized into four colleges -lrb- arts and letters , science , engineering , business -rrb- and the architecture school . 
the latter is known for teaching new classical architecture and for awarding the globally renowned annual driehaus architecture prize . 
notre dame 's graduate program has more than 50 master 's , doctoral and professional degree programs offered by the five schools , with the addition of the notre dame law school and a md-phd program offered in combination with iu medical school . 
it maintains a system of libraries , cultural venues , artistic and scientific museums , including hesburgh library and the snite museum of art . 
in 1842 , the bishop of vincennes , célestine guynemer de la hailandière , offered land to father edward sorin of the congregation of the holy cross , on the condition that he build a college in two years . 
in 1842 , the bishop of vincennes , célestine guynemer de la hailandière , offered land to father edward sorin of the congregation of the holy cross , on the condition that he build a college in two years . 
in 1842 , the bishop of vincennes , célestine guynemer de la hailandière , offered land to father edward sorin of the congregation of the holy cross , on the condition that he build a college in two years . 
sorin arrived on the site with eight holy cross brothers from france and ireland on november 26 , 1842 , and began the school using father stephen badin 's old log chapel . 
sorin arrived on the site with eight holy cross brothers from france and ireland on november 26 , 1842 , and began the school using father stephen badin 's old log chapel . 
the first degrees from the college were awarded in 1849 . 
the original main building built by sorin just after he arrived was replaced by a larger `` main building '' in 1865 , which housed the university 's administration , classrooms , and dormitories . 
beginning in 1873 , a library collection was started by father lemonnier . 
by 1879 it had grown to ten thousand volumes that were housed in the main building . 
beginning in 1873 , a library collection was started by father lemonnier . 
the television station , ndtv , grew from one show in 2002 to a full 24-hour channel with original programming by september 2006 . 
the television station , ndtv , grew from one show in 2002 to a full 24-hour channel with original programming by september 2006 . 
wsnd-fm serves the student body and larger south bend community at 88.9 fm , offering students a chance to become involved in bringing classical music , fine arts and educational programming , and alternative rock to the airwaves . 
more recently , however , wvfi has been airing independently and is streamed on the internet . 
the first phase of eddy street commons , a $ 215 million development located adjacent to the university of notre dame campus and funded by the university , broke ground on june 3 , 2008 . 
the first phase of eddy street commons , a $ 215 million development located adjacent to the university of notre dame campus and funded by the university , broke ground on june 3 , 2008 . 
the developer , kite realty out of indianapolis , has made agreements with major national chains rather than local businesses , a move that has led to criticism from alumni and students . 
the eddy street commons drew union protests when workers hired by the city of south bend to construct the public parking garage picketed the private work site after a contractor hired non-union workers . 
the eddy street commons drew union protests when workers hired by the city of south bend to construct the public parking garage picketed the private work site after a contractor hired non-union workers . 
they compete as a member of the national collegiate athletic association -lrb- ncaa -rrb- division i , primarily competing in the atlantic coast conference -lrb- acc -rrb- for all sports since the 2013 -- 14 school year . 
the fighting irish previously competed in the horizon league from 1982-83 to 1985-86 , and again from 1987-88 to 1994-95 , and then in the big east conference through 2012 -- 13 . 
both fencing teams compete in the midwest fencing conference , and the men 's ice hockey team competes in hockey east . 
both fencing teams compete in the midwest fencing conference , and the men 's ice hockey team competes in hockey east . 
the fighting irish previously competed in the horizon league from 1982-83 to 1985-86 , and again from 1987-88 to 1994-95 , and then in the big east conference through 2012 -- 13 . 
the irish left the big east for the acc during a prolonged period of instability in the big east ; while they maintain their football independence , they have committed to play five games per season against acc opponents . 
the irish left the big east for the acc during a prolonged period of instability in the big east ; while they maintain their football independence , they have committed to play five games per season against acc opponents . 
in ice hockey , the irish were forced to find a new conference home after the big ten conference 's decision to add the sport in 2013 -- 14 led to a cascade of conference moves that culminated in the dissolution of the school 's former hockey home , the central collegiate hockey association , after the 2012 -- 13 season . 
the official colors of notre dame are navy blue and gold rush which are worn in competition by its athletic teams . 
the notre dame leprechaun is the mascot of the athletic teams . 
on july 1 , 2014 , the university of notre dame and under armour reached an agreement in which under armour will provide uniforms , apparel , equipment , and monetary compensation to notre dame for 10 years . 
this contract , worth almost $ 100 million , is the most lucrative in the history of the ncaa . 
the band , which began in 1846 and has a claim as the oldest university band in continuous existence in the united states , was honored by the national music council as a `` landmark of american music '' during the united states bicentennial . 
the band , which began in 1846 and has a claim as the oldest university band in continuous existence in the united states , was honored by the national music council as a `` landmark of american music '' during the united states bicentennial . 
the band regularly plays the school 's fight song the notre dame victory march , which was named as the most played and most famous fight song by northern illinois professor william studwell . 
the notre dame football team has a long history , first beginning when the michigan wolverines football team brought football to notre dame in 1887 and played against a group of students . 
the notre dame football team has a long history , first beginning when the michigan wolverines football team brought football to notre dame in 1887 and played against a group of students . 
additionally , the program has the most members in the college football hall of fame , is tied with ohio state university with the most heisman trophies won , and have the highest winning percentage in ncaa history . 
with the long history , notre dame has accumulated many rivals , and its annual game against usc for the jeweled shillelagh has been named by some as one of the most important in college football and is often called the greatest intersectional rivalry in college football in the country . 
additionally , the program has the most members in the college football hall of fame , is tied with ohio state university with the most heisman trophies won , and have the highest winning percentage in ncaa history . 
george gipp was the school 's legendary football player during 1916 -- 20 . 
it was in 1928 that famed coach knute rockne used his final conversation with the dying gipp to inspire the notre dame team to beat the army team and `` win one for the gipper . '' 
the 1940 film , knute rockne , all american , starred pat o'brien as knute rockne and ronald reagan as gipp . 
the 1940 film , knute rockne , all american , starred pat o'brien as knute rockne and ronald reagan as gipp . 
today the team competes in notre dame stadium , an 80,795-seat stadium on campus . 
football gameday traditions during home games , activities occur all around campus and different dorms decorate their halls with a traditional item -lrb- e.g. zahm house 's two-story banner -rrb- . 
traditional activities begin at the stroke of midnight with the drummers ' circle . 
the band entire will play a concert at the steps of bond hall , from where they will march into notre dame stadium , leading fans and students alike across campus to the game . 
later that day , the trumpet section will play the notre dame victory march and the notre dame alma mater under the dome . 
this tradition involves the drum line of the band of the fighting irish and ushers in the rest of the festivities that will continue the rest of the gameday saturday . 
the men 's basketball team has over 1,600 wins , one of only 12 schools who have reached that mark , and have appeared in 28 ncaa tournaments . 
the men 's basketball team has over 1,600 wins , one of only 12 schools who have reached that mark , and have appeared in 28 ncaa tournaments . 
the men 's basketball team has over 1,600 wins , one of only 12 schools who have reached that mark , and have appeared in 28 ncaa tournaments . 
former player austin carr holds the record for most points scored in a single game of the tournament with 61 . 
the team is coached by mike brey , who , as of the 2014 -- 15 season , his fifteenth at notre dame , has achieved a 332-165 record . 
the rev. michael j. shea , a 1904 graduate , wrote the music , and his brother , john f. shea , who earned degrees in 1906 and 1908 , wrote the original lyrics . 
the rev. michael j. shea , a 1904 graduate , wrote the music , and his brother , john f. shea , who earned degrees in 1906 and 1908 , wrote the original lyrics . 
the rev. michael j. shea , a 1904 graduate , wrote the music , and his brother , john f. shea , who earned degrees in 1906 and 1908 , wrote the original lyrics . 
the lyrics were revised in the 1920s ; it first appeared under the copyright of the university of notre dame in 1928 . 
while her loyal sons are marching , onward to victory ! '' 
george gipp was played by ronald reagan , whose nickname `` the gipper '' was derived from this role . 
this scene was parodied in the movie airplane ! 
the song also was prominent in the movie rudy , with sean astin as daniel `` rudy '' ruettiger , who harbored dreams of playing football at the university of notre dame despite significant obstacles . 
with the same background music , only this time honoring george zipp , one of ted striker 's former comrades . 
in the film knute rockne , all american , knute rockne -lrb- played by pat o'brien -rrb- delivers the famous `` win one for the gipper '' speech , at which point the background music swells with the `` notre dame victory march '' . 
alumni working in political fields include state governors , members of the united states congress , and former united states secretary of state condoleezza rice . 
a notable alumnus of the college of science is medicine nobel prize winner eric f. wieschaus . 
a number of university heads are alumni , including notre dame 's current president , the rev. john jenkins . 
with the university having high profile sports teams itself , a number of alumni went on to become involved in athletics outside the university , including professional baseball , basketball , football , and ice hockey players , such as joe theismann , joe montana , tim brown , ross browner , rocket ismail , ruth riley , jeff samardzija , jerome bettis , brett lebda , olympic gold medalist mariel zagunis , professional boxer mike lee , former football coaches such as charlie weis , frank leahy and knute rockne , and basketball hall of famers austin carr and adrian dantley . 
other notable alumni include prominent businessman edward j. debartolo , jr. and astronaut jim wetherbee . 
born and raised in houston , texas , she performed in various singing and dancing competitions as a child , and rose to fame in the late 1990s as lead singer of r&b girl-group destiny 's child . 
born and raised in houston , texas , she performed in various singing and dancing competitions as a child , and rose to fame in the late 1990s as lead singer of r&b girl-group destiny 's child . 
their hiatus saw the release of beyoncé 's debut album , dangerously in love -lrb- 2003 -rrb- , which established her as a solo artist worldwide , earned five grammy awards and featured the billboard hot 100 number-one singles `` crazy in love '' and `` baby boy '' . 
born and raised in houston , texas , she performed in various singing and dancing competitions as a child , and rose to fame in the late 1990s as lead singer of r&b girl-group destiny 's child . 
born and raised in houston , texas , she performed in various singing and dancing competitions as a child , and rose to fame in the late 1990s as lead singer of r&b girl-group destiny 's child . 
born and raised in houston , texas , she performed in various singing and dancing competitions as a child , and rose to fame in the late 1990s as lead singer of r&b girl-group destiny 's child . 
their hiatus saw the release of beyoncé 's debut album , dangerously in love -lrb- 2003 -rrb- , which established her as a solo artist worldwide , earned five grammy awards and featured the billboard hot 100 number-one singles `` crazy in love '' and `` baby boy '' . 
managed by her father , mathew knowles , the group became one of the world 's best-selling girl groups of all time . 
born and raised in houston , texas , she performed in various singing and dancing competitions as a child , and rose to fame in the late 1990s as lead singer of r&b girl-group destiny 's child . 
their hiatus saw the release of beyoncé 's debut album , dangerously in love -lrb- 2003 -rrb- , which established her as a solo artist worldwide , earned five grammy awards and featured the billboard hot 100 number-one singles `` crazy in love '' and `` baby boy '' . 
beyoncé giselle knowles-carter -lrb- / biːˈjɒnseɪ / bee-yon-say -rrb- -lrb- born september 4 , 1981 -rrb- is an american singer , songwriter , record producer and actress . 
beyoncé giselle knowles-carter -lrb- / biːˈjɒnseɪ / bee-yon-say -rrb- -lrb- born september 4 , 1981 -rrb- is an american singer , songwriter , record producer and actress . 
born and raised in houston , texas , she performed in various singing and dancing competitions as a child , and rose to fame in the late 1990s as lead singer of r&b girl-group destiny 's child . 
born and raised in houston , texas , she performed in various singing and dancing competitions as a child , and rose to fame in the late 1990s as lead singer of r&b girl-group destiny 's child . 
their hiatus saw the release of beyoncé 's debut album , dangerously in love -lrb- 2003 -rrb- , which established her as a solo artist worldwide , earned five grammy awards and featured the billboard hot 100 number-one singles `` crazy in love '' and `` baby boy '' . 
their hiatus saw the release of beyoncé 's debut album , dangerously in love -lrb- 2003 -rrb- , which established her as a solo artist worldwide , earned five grammy awards and featured the billboard hot 100 number-one singles `` crazy in love '' and `` baby boy '' . 
their hiatus saw the release of beyoncé 's debut album , dangerously in love -lrb- 2003 -rrb- , which established her as a solo artist worldwide , earned five grammy awards and featured the billboard hot 100 number-one singles `` crazy in love '' and `` baby boy '' . 
born and raised in houston , texas , she performed in various singing and dancing competitions as a child , and rose to fame in the late 1990s as lead singer of r&b girl-group destiny 's child . 
their hiatus saw the release of beyoncé 's debut album , dangerously in love -lrb- 2003 -rrb- , which established her as a solo artist worldwide , earned five grammy awards and featured the billboard hot 100 number-one singles `` crazy in love '' and `` baby boy '' . 
their hiatus saw the release of beyoncé 's debut album , dangerously in love -lrb- 2003 -rrb- , which established her as a solo artist worldwide , earned five grammy awards and featured the billboard hot 100 number-one singles `` crazy in love '' and `` baby boy '' . 
beyoncé also ventured into acting , with a golden globe-nominated performance in dreamgirls -lrb- 2006 -rrb- , and starring roles in the pink panther -lrb- 2006 -rrb- and obsessed -lrb- 2009 -rrb- . 
her marriage to rapper jay z and portrayal of etta james in cadillac records -lrb- 2008 -rrb- influenced her third album , i am ... sasha fierce -lrb- 2008 -rrb- , which saw the birth of her alter-ego sasha fierce and earned a record-setting six grammy awards in 2010 , including song of the year for `` single ladies -lrb- put a ring on it -rrb- '' . 
her marriage to rapper jay z and portrayal of etta james in cadillac records -lrb- 2008 -rrb- influenced her third album , i am ... sasha fierce -lrb- 2008 -rrb- , which saw the birth of her alter-ego sasha fierce and earned a record-setting six grammy awards in 2010 , including song of the year for `` single ladies -lrb- put a ring on it -rrb- '' . 
beyoncé also ventured into acting , with a golden globe-nominated performance in dreamgirls -lrb- 2006 -rrb- , and starring roles in the pink panther -lrb- 2006 -rrb- and obsessed -lrb- 2009 -rrb- . 
her marriage to rapper jay z and portrayal of etta james in cadillac records -lrb- 2008 -rrb- influenced her third album , i am ... sasha fierce -lrb- 2008 -rrb- , which saw the birth of her alter-ego sasha fierce and earned a record-setting six grammy awards in 2010 , including song of the year for `` single ladies -lrb- put a ring on it -rrb- '' . 
beyoncé also ventured into acting , with a golden globe-nominated performance in dreamgirls -lrb- 2006 -rrb- , and starring roles in the pink panther -lrb- 2006 -rrb- and obsessed -lrb- 2009 -rrb- . 
her marriage to rapper jay z and portrayal of etta james in cadillac records -lrb- 2008 -rrb- influenced her third album , i am ... sasha fierce -lrb- 2008 -rrb- , which saw the birth of her alter-ego sasha fierce and earned a record-setting six grammy awards in 2010 , including song of the year for `` single ladies -lrb- put a ring on it -rrb- '' . 
following the disbandment of destiny 's child in june 2005 , she released her second solo album , b'day -lrb- 2006 -rrb- , which contained hits `` déjà vu '' , `` irreplaceable '' , and `` beautiful liar '' . 
following the disbandment of destiny 's child in june 2005 , she released her second solo album , b'day -lrb- 2006 -rrb- , which contained hits `` déjà vu '' , `` irreplaceable '' , and `` beautiful liar '' . 
beyoncé also ventured into acting , with a golden globe-nominated performance in dreamgirls -lrb- 2006 -rrb- , and starring roles in the pink panther -lrb- 2006 -rrb- and obsessed -lrb- 2009 -rrb- . 
her marriage to rapper jay z and portrayal of etta james in cadillac records -lrb- 2008 -rrb- influenced her third album , i am ... sasha fierce -lrb- 2008 -rrb- , which saw the birth of her alter-ego sasha fierce and earned a record-setting six grammy awards in 2010 , including song of the year for `` single ladies -lrb- put a ring on it -rrb- '' . 
her marriage to rapper jay z and portrayal of etta james in cadillac records -lrb- 2008 -rrb- influenced her third album , i am ... sasha fierce -lrb- 2008 -rrb- , which saw the birth of her alter-ego sasha fierce and earned a record-setting six grammy awards in 2010 , including song of the year for `` single ladies -lrb- put a ring on it -rrb- '' . 
a self-described `` modern-day feminist '' , beyoncé creates songs that are often characterized by themes of love , relationships , and monogamy , as well as female sexuality and empowerment . 
time listed her among the 100 most influential people in the world in 2013 and 2014 . 
forbes magazine also listed her as the most powerful female musician of 2015 . 
the recording industry association of america recognized her as the top certified artist in america during the 2000s decade . 
forbes magazine also listed her as the most powerful female musician of 2015 . 
a self-described `` modern-day feminist '' , beyoncé creates songs that are often characterized by themes of love , relationships , and monogamy , as well as female sexuality and empowerment . 
time listed her among the 100 most influential people in the world in 2013 and 2014 . 
throughout a career spanning 19 years , she has sold over 118 million records as a solo artist , and a further 60 million with destiny 's child , making her one of the best-selling music artists of all time . 
throughout a career spanning 19 years , she has sold over 118 million records as a solo artist , and a further 60 million with destiny 's child , making her one of the best-selling music artists of all time . 
throughout a career spanning 19 years , she has sold over 118 million records as a solo artist , and a further 60 million with destiny 's child , making her one of the best-selling music artists of all time . 
she has won 20 grammy awards and is the most nominated woman in the award 's history . 
forbes magazine also listed her as the most powerful female musician of 2015 . 
beyoncé 's younger sister solange is also a singer and a former member of destiny 's child . 
beyoncé 's name is a tribute to her mother 's maiden name . 
mathew is african-american , while tina is of louisiana creole descent -lrb- with african , native american , french , cajun , and distant irish and spanish ancestry -rrb- . 
she was raised in a methodist household . 
beyoncé giselle knowles was born in houston , texas , to celestine ann `` tina '' knowles -lrb- née beyincé -rrb- , a hairdresser and salon owner , and mathew knowles , a xerox sales manager . 
beyoncé giselle knowles was born in houston , texas , to celestine ann `` tina '' knowles -lrb- née beyincé -rrb- , a hairdresser and salon owner , and mathew knowles , a xerox sales manager . 
beyoncé 's younger sister solange is also a singer and a former member of destiny 's child . 
through her mother , beyoncé is a descendant of acadian leader joseph broussard . 
beyoncé giselle knowles was born in houston , texas , to celestine ann `` tina '' knowles -lrb- née beyincé -rrb- , a hairdresser and salon owner , and mathew knowles , a xerox sales manager . 
beyoncé giselle knowles was born in houston , texas , to celestine ann `` tina '' knowles -lrb- née beyincé -rrb- , a hairdresser and salon owner , and mathew knowles , a xerox sales manager . 
beyoncé 's younger sister solange is also a singer and a former member of destiny 's child . 
through her mother , beyoncé is a descendant of acadian leader joseph broussard . 
she was raised in a methodist household . 
beyoncé attended st. mary 's elementary school in fredericksburg , texas , where she enrolled in dance classes . 
her singing talent was discovered when dance instructor darlette johnson began humming a song and she finished it , able to hit the high-pitched notes . 
in fall of 1990 , beyoncé enrolled in parker elementary school , a music magnet school in houston , where she would perform with the school 's choir . 
her singing talent was discovered when dance instructor darlette johnson began humming a song and she finished it , able to hit the high-pitched notes . 
beyoncé was also a member of the choir at st. john 's united methodist church as a soloist for two years . 
in fall of 1990 , beyoncé enrolled in parker elementary school , a music magnet school in houston , where she would perform with the school 's choir . 
beyoncé 's interest in music and performing continued after winning a school talent show at age seven , singing john lennon 's `` imagine '' to beat 15/16-year-olds . 
beyoncé attended st. mary 's elementary school in fredericksburg , texas , where she enrolled in dance classes . 
her singing talent was discovered when dance instructor darlette johnson began humming a song and she finished it , able to hit the high-pitched notes . 
beyoncé 's interest in music and performing continued after winning a school talent show at age seven , singing john lennon 's `` imagine '' to beat 15/16-year-olds . 
beyoncé was also a member of the choir at st. john 's united methodist church as a soloist for two years . 
after seeing the group , r&b producer arne frager brought them to his northern california studio and placed them in star search , the largest talent show on national tv at the time . 
in 1995 beyoncé 's father resigned from his job to manage the group . 
the girls auditioned before record labels and were finally signed to elektra records , moving to atlanta records briefly to work on their first recording , only to be cut by the company . 
after seeing the group , r&b producer arne frager brought them to his northern california studio and placed them in star search , the largest talent show on national tv at the time . 
in 1995 beyoncé 's father resigned from his job to manage the group . 
in 1996 , the girls began recording their debut album under an agreement with sony music , the knowles family reunited , and shortly after , the group got a contract with columbia records . 
the girls auditioned before record labels and were finally signed to elektra records , moving to atlanta records briefly to work on their first recording , only to be cut by the company . 
at age eight , beyoncé and childhood friend kelly rowland met latavia roberson while in an audition for an all-girl entertainment group . 
at age eight , beyoncé and childhood friend kelly rowland met latavia roberson while in an audition for an all-girl entertainment group . 
they were placed into a group with three other girls as girl 's tyme , and rapped and danced on the talent show circuit in houston . 
after seeing the group , r&b producer arne frager brought them to his northern california studio and placed them in star search , the largest talent show on national tv at the time . 
in 1995 beyoncé 's father resigned from his job to manage the group . 
on october 5 , 1995 , dwayne wiggins 's grass roots entertainment signed the group . 
in 1997 , destiny 's child released their major label debut song `` killing time '' on the soundtrack to the 1997 film , men in black . 
the record features some of the group 's most widely known songs such as `` bills , bills , bills '' , the group 's first number-one single , `` jumpin ' jumpin ' '' and `` say my name '' , which became their most successful song at the time , and would remain one of their signature songs . 
during this time , beyoncé recorded a duet with marc nelson , an original member of boyz ii men , on the song `` after all is said and done '' for the soundtrack to the 1999 film , the best man . 
the group changed their name to destiny 's child in 1996 , based upon a passage in the book of isaiah . 
the group changed their name to destiny 's child in 1996 , based upon a passage in the book of isaiah . 
in 1997 , destiny 's child released their major label debut song `` killing time '' on the soundtrack to the 1997 film , men in black . 
the record features some of the group 's most widely known songs such as `` bills , bills , bills '' , the group 's first number-one single , `` jumpin ' jumpin ' '' and `` say my name '' , which became their most successful song at the time , and would remain one of their signature songs . 
during this time , beyoncé recorded a duet with marc nelson , an original member of boyz ii men , on the song `` after all is said and done '' for the soundtrack to the 1999 film , the best man . 
the group changed their name to destiny 's child in 1996 , based upon a passage in the book of isaiah . 
in 1997 , destiny 's child released their major label debut song `` killing time '' on the soundtrack to the 1997 film , men in black . 
the following year , the group released their self-titled debut album , scoring their first major hit `` no , no , no '' . 
the group released their multi-platinum second album the writing 's on the wall in 1999 . 
during this time , beyoncé recorded a duet with marc nelson , an original member of boyz ii men , on the song `` after all is said and done '' for the soundtrack to the 1999 film , the best man . 
beyoncé experienced depression following the split with luckett and roberson after being publicly blamed by the media , critics , and blogs for its cause . 
her long-standing boyfriend left her at this time . 
beyoncé would later speak of her mother as the person who helped her fight it . 
beyoncé experienced depression following the split with luckett and roberson after being publicly blamed by the media , critics , and blogs for its cause . 
the depression was so severe it lasted for a couple of years , during which she occasionally kept herself in her bedroom for days and refused to eat anything . 
beyoncé would later speak of her mother as the person who helped her fight it . 
letoya luckett and roberson became unhappy with mathew 's managing of the band and eventually were replaced by farrah franklin and michelle williams . 
beyoncé experienced depression following the split with luckett and roberson after being publicly blamed by the media , critics , and blogs for its cause . 
beyoncé would later speak of her mother as the person who helped her fight it . 
letoya luckett and roberson became unhappy with mathew 's managing of the band and eventually were replaced by farrah franklin and michelle williams . 
the remaining band members recorded `` independent women part i '' , which appeared on the soundtrack to the 2000 film , charlie 's angels . 
it became their best-charting single , topping the u.s. billboard hot 100 chart for eleven consecutive weeks . 
in early 2001 , while destiny 's child was completing their third album , beyoncé landed a major role in the mtv made-for-television film , carmen : a hip hopera , starring alongside american actor mekhi phifer . 
the album debuted at number one on the u.s. billboard 200 , with first-week sales of 663,000 copies sold . 
set in philadelphia , the film is a modern interpretation of the 19th century opera carmen by french composer georges bizet . 
when the third album survivor was released in may 2001 , luckett and roberson filed a lawsuit claiming that the songs were aimed at them . 
the remaining band members recorded `` independent women part i '' , which appeared on the soundtrack to the 2000 film , charlie 's angels . 
in early 2001 , while destiny 's child was completing their third album , beyoncé landed a major role in the mtv made-for-television film , carmen : a hip hopera , starring alongside american actor mekhi phifer . 
when the third album survivor was released in may 2001 , luckett and roberson filed a lawsuit claiming that the songs were aimed at them . 
when the third album survivor was released in may 2001 , luckett and roberson filed a lawsuit claiming that the songs were aimed at them . 
after releasing their holiday album 8 days of christmas in october 2001 , the group announced a hiatus to further pursue solo careers . 
in july 2002 , beyoncé continued her acting career playing foxxy cleopatra alongside mike myers in the comedy film , austin powers in goldmember , which spent its first weekend atop the us box office and grossed $ 73 million . 
beyoncé released `` work it out '' as the lead single from its soundtrack album which entered the top ten in the uk , norway , and belgium . 
in 2003 , beyoncé starred opposite cuba gooding , jr. , in the musical comedy the fighting temptations as lilly , a single mother whom gooding 's character falls in love with . 
the film received mixed reviews from critics but grossed $ 30 million in the u.s. beyoncé released `` fighting temptation '' as the lead single from the film 's soundtrack album , with missy elliott , mc lyte , and free which was also used to promote the film . 
another of beyoncé 's contributions to the soundtrack , `` summertime '' , fared better on the us charts . 
in july 2002 , beyoncé continued her acting career playing foxxy cleopatra alongside mike myers in the comedy film , austin powers in goldmember , which spent its first weekend atop the us box office and grossed $ 73 million . 
in july 2002 , beyoncé continued her acting career playing foxxy cleopatra alongside mike myers in the comedy film , austin powers in goldmember , which spent its first weekend atop the us box office and grossed $ 73 million . 
in 2003 , beyoncé starred opposite cuba gooding , jr. , in the musical comedy the fighting temptations as lilly , a single mother whom gooding 's character falls in love with . 
in 2003 , beyoncé starred opposite cuba gooding , jr. , in the musical comedy the fighting temptations as lilly , a single mother whom gooding 's character falls in love with . 
the film received mixed reviews from critics but grossed $ 30 million in the u.s. beyoncé released `` fighting temptation '' as the lead single from the film 's soundtrack album , with missy elliott , mc lyte , and free which was also used to promote the film . 
in july 2002 , beyoncé continued her acting career playing foxxy cleopatra alongside mike myers in the comedy film , austin powers in goldmember , which spent its first weekend atop the us box office and grossed $ 73 million . 
in july 2002 , beyoncé continued her acting career playing foxxy cleopatra alongside mike myers in the comedy film , austin powers in goldmember , which spent its first weekend atop the us box office and grossed $ 73 million . 
beyoncé released `` work it out '' as the lead single from its soundtrack album which entered the top ten in the uk , norway , and belgium . 
in 2003 , beyoncé starred opposite cuba gooding , jr. , in the musical comedy the fighting temptations as lilly , a single mother whom gooding 's character falls in love with . 
in 2003 , beyoncé starred opposite cuba gooding , jr. , in the musical comedy the fighting temptations as lilly , a single mother whom gooding 's character falls in love with . 
beyoncé 's first solo recording was a feature on jay z 's '' '03 bonnie & clyde '' that was released in october 2002 , peaking at number four on the u.s. billboard hot 100 chart . 
her first solo album dangerously in love was released on june 24 , 2003 , after michelle williams and kelly rowland had released their solo efforts . 
the album sold 317,000 copies in its first week , debuted atop the billboard 200 , and has since sold 11 million copies worldwide . 
the album 's lead single , `` crazy in love '' , featuring jay z , became beyoncé 's first number-one single as a solo artist in the us . 
beyoncé 's first solo recording was a feature on jay z 's '' '03 bonnie & clyde '' that was released in october 2002 , peaking at number four on the u.s. billboard hot 100 chart . 
beyoncé 's first solo recording was a feature on jay z 's '' '03 bonnie & clyde '' that was released in october 2002 , peaking at number four on the u.s. billboard hot 100 chart . 
her first solo album dangerously in love was released on june 24 , 2003 , after michelle williams and kelly rowland had released their solo efforts . 
beyoncé 's first solo recording was a feature on jay z 's '' '03 bonnie & clyde '' that was released in october 2002 , peaking at number four on the u.s. billboard hot 100 chart . 
the album earned beyoncé a then record-tying five awards at the 46th annual grammy awards ; best contemporary r&b album , best female r&b vocal performance for `` dangerously in love 2 '' , best r&b song and best rap/sung collaboration for `` crazy in love '' , and best r&b performance by a duo or group with vocals for `` the closer i get to you '' with luther vandross . 
beyoncé 's first solo recording was a feature on jay z 's '' '03 bonnie & clyde '' that was released in october 2002 , peaking at number four on the u.s. billboard hot 100 chart . 
her first solo album dangerously in love was released on june 24 , 2003 , after michelle williams and kelly rowland had released their solo efforts . 
the album 's lead single , `` crazy in love '' , featuring jay z , became beyoncé 's first number-one single as a solo artist in the us . 
the album earned beyoncé a then record-tying five awards at the 46th annual grammy awards ; best contemporary r&b album , best female r&b vocal performance for `` dangerously in love 2 '' , best r&b song and best rap/sung collaboration for `` crazy in love '' , and best r&b performance by a duo or group with vocals for `` the closer i get to you '' with luther vandross . 
the single `` baby boy '' also reached number one , and singles , `` me , myself and i '' and `` naughty girl '' , both reached the top-five . 
however , this was put on hold so she could concentrate on recording destiny fulfilled , the final studio album by destiny 's child . 
the group released their first compilation album number 1 's on october 25 , 2005 , in the us and accepted a star on the hollywood walk of fame in march 2006 . 
in november 2003 , she embarked on the dangerously in love tour in europe and later toured alongside missy elliott and alicia keys for the verizon ladies first tour in north america . 
released on november 15 , 2004 , in the us and peaking at number two on the billboard 200 , destiny fulfilled included the singles `` lose my breath '' and `` soldier '' , which reached the top five on the billboard hot 100 chart . 
destiny 's child embarked on a worldwide concert tour , destiny fulfilled ... and lovin ' it and during the last stop of their european tour , in barcelona on june 11 , 2005 , rowland announced that destiny 's child would disband following the north american leg of the tour . 
the group released their first compilation album number 1 's on october 25 , 2005 , in the us and accepted a star on the hollywood walk of fame in march 2006 . 
in november 2003 , she embarked on the dangerously in love tour in europe and later toured alongside missy elliott and alicia keys for the verizon ladies first tour in north america . 
in november 2003 , she embarked on the dangerously in love tour in europe and later toured alongside missy elliott and alicia keys for the verizon ladies first tour in north america . 
on february 1 , 2004 , beyoncé performed the american national anthem at super bowl xxxviii , at the reliant stadium in houston , texas . 
destiny 's child embarked on a worldwide concert tour , destiny fulfilled ... and lovin ' it and during the last stop of their european tour , in barcelona on june 11 , 2005 , rowland announced that destiny 's child would disband following the north american leg of the tour . 
it sold 541,000 copies in its first week and debuted atop the billboard 200 , becoming beyoncé 's second consecutive number-one album in the united states . 
the album 's lead single `` déjà vu '' , featuring jay z , reached the top five on the billboard hot 100 chart . 
the album 's lead single `` déjà vu '' , featuring jay z , reached the top five on the billboard hot 100 chart . 
the album 's lead single `` déjà vu '' , featuring jay z , reached the top five on the billboard hot 100 chart . 
beyoncé 's second solo album b'day was released on september 5 , 2006 , in the us , to coincide with her twenty-fifth birthday . 
the album 's lead single `` déjà vu '' , featuring jay z , reached the top five on the billboard hot 100 chart . 
the album 's lead single `` déjà vu '' , featuring jay z , reached the top five on the billboard hot 100 chart . 
beyoncé 's second solo album b'day was released on september 5 , 2006 , in the us , to coincide with her twenty-fifth birthday . 
it sold 541,000 copies in its first week and debuted atop the billboard 200 , becoming beyoncé 's second consecutive number-one album in the united states . 
the album 's lead single `` déjà vu '' , featuring jay z , reached the top five on the billboard hot 100 chart . 
b'day also produced three other singles ; `` ring the alarm '' , `` get me bodied '' , and `` green light '' -lrb- released in the united kingdom only -rrb- . 
her first acting role of 2006 was in the comedy film the pink panther starring opposite steve martin , grossing $ 158.8 million at the box office worldwide . 
her second film dreamgirls , the film version of the 1981 broadway musical loosely based on the supremes , received acclaim from critics and grossed $ 154 million internationally . 
her second film dreamgirls , the film version of the 1981 broadway musical loosely based on the supremes , received acclaim from critics and grossed $ 154 million internationally . 
in april 2007 , beyoncé embarked on the beyoncé experience , her first worldwide concert tour , visiting 97 venues and grossed over $ 24 million . 
in april 2007 , beyoncé embarked on the beyoncé experience , her first worldwide concert tour , visiting 97 venues and grossed over $ 24 million . 
her first acting role of 2006 was in the comedy film the pink panther starring opposite steve martin , grossing $ 158.8 million at the box office worldwide . 
in april 2007 , beyoncé embarked on the beyoncé experience , her first worldwide concert tour , visiting 97 venues and grossed over $ 24 million . 
at the same time , b'day was re-released with five additional songs , including her duet with shakira `` beautiful liar '' . 
her first acting role of 2006 was in the comedy film the pink panther starring opposite steve martin , grossing $ 158.8 million at the box office worldwide . 
in it , she starred opposite jennifer hudson , jamie foxx , and eddie murphy playing a pop singer based on diana ross . 
to promote the film , beyoncé released `` listen '' as the lead single from the soundtrack album . 
in april 2007 , beyoncé embarked on the beyoncé experience , her first worldwide concert tour , visiting 97 venues and grossed over $ 24 million . 
at the same time , b'day was re-released with five additional songs , including her duet with shakira `` beautiful liar '' . 
on april 4 , 2008 , beyoncé married jay z . 
i am ... sasha fierce was released on november 18 , 2008 in the united states . 
achieving the accomplishment of becoming her longest-running hot 100 single in her career , `` halo '' 's success in the us helped beyoncé attain more top-ten singles on the list than any other woman during the 2000s . 
its failure to win the best female video category , which went to american country pop singer taylor swift 's `` you belong with me '' , led to kanye west interrupting the ceremony and beyoncé improvising a re-presentation of swift 's award during her own acceptance speech . 
in march 2009 , beyoncé embarked on the i am ... world tour , her second headlining worldwide concert tour , consisting of 108 shows , grossing $ 119.5 million . 
she publicly revealed their marriage in a video montage at the listening party for her third studio album , i am ... sasha fierce , in manhattan 's sony club on october 22 , 2008 . 
in march 2009 , beyoncé embarked on the i am ... world tour , her second headlining worldwide concert tour , consisting of 108 shows , grossing $ 119.5 million . 
its failure to win the best female video category , which went to american country pop singer taylor swift 's `` you belong with me '' , led to kanye west interrupting the ceremony and beyoncé improvising a re-presentation of swift 's award during her own acceptance speech . 
in march 2009 , beyoncé embarked on the i am ... world tour , her second headlining worldwide concert tour , consisting of 108 shows , grossing $ 119.5 million . 
on april 4 , 2008 , beyoncé married jay z . 
on april 4 , 2008 , beyoncé married jay z . 
she publicly revealed their marriage in a video montage at the listening party for her third studio album , i am ... sasha fierce , in manhattan 's sony club on october 22 , 2008 . 
the album featured the number-one song `` single ladies -lrb- put a ring on it -rrb- '' and the top-five songs `` if i were a boy '' and `` halo '' . 
its failure to win the best female video category , which went to american country pop singer taylor swift 's `` you belong with me '' , led to kanye west interrupting the ceremony and beyoncé improvising a re-presentation of swift 's award during her own acceptance speech . 
beyoncé further expanded her acting career , starring as blues singer etta james in the 2008 musical biopic , cadillac records . 
beyoncé donated her entire salary from the film to phoenix house , an organization of rehabilitation centers for heroin addicts around the country . 
on january 20 , 2009 , beyoncé performed james ' `` at last '' at the first couple 's first inaugural ball . 
beyoncé starred opposite ali larter and idris elba in the thriller , obsessed . 
the fight scene finale between sharon and the character played by ali larter also won the 2010 mtv movie award for best fight . 
beyoncé donated her entire salary from the film to phoenix house , an organization of rehabilitation centers for heroin addicts around the country . 
beyoncé starred opposite ali larter and idris elba in the thriller , obsessed . 
she played sharon charles , a mother and wife who learns of a woman 's obsessive behavior over her husband . 
although the film received negative reviews from critics , the movie did well at the us box office , grossing $ 68 million -- $ 60 million more than cadillac records -- on a budget of $ 20 million . 
beyoncé further expanded her acting career , starring as blues singer etta james in the 2008 musical biopic , cadillac records . 
beyoncé donated her entire salary from the film to phoenix house , an organization of rehabilitation centers for heroin addicts around the country . 
on january 20 , 2009 , beyoncé performed james ' `` at last '' at the first couple 's first inaugural ball . 
beyoncé starred opposite ali larter and idris elba in the thriller , obsessed . 
at the 52nd annual grammy awards , beyoncé received ten nominations , including album of the year for i am ... sasha fierce , record of the year for `` halo '' , and song of the year for `` single ladies -lrb- put a ring on it -rrb- '' , among others . 
she tied with lauryn hill for most grammy nominations in a single year by a female artist . 
in 2010 , beyoncé was featured on lady gaga 's single `` telephone '' and its music video . 
the song topped the us pop songs chart , becoming the sixth number-one for both beyoncé and gaga , tying them with mariah carey for most number-ones since the nielsen top 40 airplay chart launched in 1992 . 
the song topped the us pop songs chart , becoming the sixth number-one for both beyoncé and gaga , tying them with mariah carey for most number-ones since the nielsen top 40 airplay chart launched in 1992 . 
at the 52nd annual grammy awards , beyoncé received ten nominations , including album of the year for i am ... sasha fierce , record of the year for `` halo '' , and song of the year for `` single ladies -lrb- put a ring on it -rrb- '' , among others . 
in 2010 , beyoncé was featured on lady gaga 's single `` telephone '' and its music video . 
in 2010 , beyoncé was featured on lady gaga 's single `` telephone '' and its music video . 
the song topped the us pop songs chart , becoming the sixth number-one for both beyoncé and gaga , tying them with mariah carey for most number-ones since the nielsen top 40 airplay chart launched in 1992 . 
she tied with lauryn hill for most grammy nominations in a single year by a female artist . 
at the 52nd annual grammy awards , beyoncé received ten nominations , including album of the year for i am ... sasha fierce , record of the year for `` halo '' , and song of the year for `` single ladies -lrb- put a ring on it -rrb- '' , among others . 
she tied with lauryn hill for most grammy nominations in a single year by a female artist . 
in 2010 , beyoncé was featured on lady gaga 's single `` telephone '' and its music video . 
the song topped the us pop songs chart , becoming the sixth number-one for both beyoncé and gaga , tying them with mariah carey for most number-ones since the nielsen top 40 airplay chart launched in 1992 . 
beyoncé announced a hiatus from her music career in january 2010 , heeding her mother 's advice , `` to live life , to be inspired by things again '' . 
beyoncé announced a hiatus from her music career in january 2010 , heeding her mother 's advice , `` to live life , to be inspired by things again '' . 
beyoncé 's musical break lasted nine months and saw her visit multiple european cities , the great wall of china , the egyptian pyramids , australia , english music festivals and various museums and ballet performances . 
beyoncé announced a hiatus from her music career in january 2010 , heeding her mother 's advice , `` to live life , to be inspired by things again '' . 
beyoncé announced a hiatus from her music career in january 2010 , heeding her mother 's advice , `` to live life , to be inspired by things again '' . 
during the break she and her father parted ways as business partners . 
beyoncé 's musical break lasted nine months and saw her visit multiple european cities , the great wall of china , the egyptian pyramids , australia , english music festivals and various museums and ballet performances . 
beyoncé announced a hiatus from her music career in january 2010 , heeding her mother 's advice , `` to live life , to be inspired by things again '' . 
beyoncé announced a hiatus from her music career in january 2010 , heeding her mother 's advice , `` to live life , to be inspired by things again '' . 
during the break she and her father parted ways as business partners . 
beyoncé 's musical break lasted nine months and saw her visit multiple european cities , the great wall of china , the egyptian pyramids , australia , english music festivals and various museums and ballet performances . 
in 2011 , documents obtained by wikileaks revealed that beyoncé was one of many entertainers who performed for the family of libyan ruler muammar gaddafi . 
rolling stone reported that the music industry was urging them to return the money they earned for the concerts ; a spokesperson for beyoncé later confirmed to the huffington post that she donated the money to the clinton bush haiti fund . 
later that year she became the first solo female artist to headline the main pyramid stage at the 2011 glastonbury festival in over twenty years , and was named the highest-paid performer in the world per minute . 
rolling stone reported that the music industry was urging them to return the money they earned for the concerts ; a spokesperson for beyoncé later confirmed to the huffington post that she donated the money to the clinton bush haiti fund . 
later that year she became the first solo female artist to headline the main pyramid stage at the 2011 glastonbury festival in over twenty years , and was named the highest-paid performer in the world per minute . 
in 2011 , documents obtained by wikileaks revealed that beyoncé was one of many entertainers who performed for the family of libyan ruler muammar gaddafi . 
in 2011 , documents obtained by wikileaks revealed that beyoncé was one of many entertainers who performed for the family of libyan ruler muammar gaddafi . 
rolling stone reported that the music industry was urging them to return the money they earned for the concerts ; a spokesperson for beyoncé later confirmed to the huffington post that she donated the money to the clinton bush haiti fund . 
later that year she became the first solo female artist to headline the main pyramid stage at the 2011 glastonbury festival in over twenty years , and was named the highest-paid performer in the world per minute . 
in 2011 , documents obtained by wikileaks revealed that beyoncé was one of many entertainers who performed for the family of libyan ruler muammar gaddafi . 
in 2011 , documents obtained by wikileaks revealed that beyoncé was one of many entertainers who performed for the family of libyan ruler muammar gaddafi . 
rolling stone reported that the music industry was urging them to return the money they earned for the concerts ; a spokesperson for beyoncé later confirmed to the huffington post that she donated the money to the clinton bush haiti fund . 
later that year she became the first solo female artist to headline the main pyramid stage at the 2011 glastonbury festival in over twenty years , and was named the highest-paid performer in the world per minute . 
her fourth studio album 4 was released on june 28 , 2011 in the us . 
the fourth single `` love on top '' was a commercial success in the us . 
`` eat , play , love '' , a cover story written by beyoncé for essence that detailed her 2010 career break , won her a writing award from the new york association of black journalists . 
in late 2011 , she took the stage at new york 's roseland ballroom for four nights of special performances : the 4 intimate nights with beyoncé concerts saw the performance of her 4 album to a standing room only . 
her fourth studio album 4 was released on june 28 , 2011 in the us . 
4 sold 310,000 copies in its first week and debuted atop the billboard 200 chart , giving beyoncé her fourth consecutive number-one album in the us . 
`` eat , play , love '' , a cover story written by beyoncé for essence that detailed her 2010 career break , won her a writing award from the new york association of black journalists . 
her fourth studio album 4 was released on june 28 , 2011 in the us . 
her fourth studio album 4 was released on june 28 , 2011 in the us . 
her fourth studio album 4 was released on june 28 , 2011 in the us . 
4 sold 310,000 copies in its first week and debuted atop the billboard 200 chart , giving beyoncé her fourth consecutive number-one album in the us . 
`` eat , play , love '' , a cover story written by beyoncé for essence that detailed her 2010 career break , won her a writing award from the new york association of black journalists . 
in late 2011 , she took the stage at new york 's roseland ballroom for four nights of special performances : the 4 intimate nights with beyoncé concerts saw the performance of her 4 album to a standing room only . 
on january 7 , 2012 , beyoncé gave birth to her first child , a daughter , blue ivy carter , at lenox hill hospital in new york . 
on january 7 , 2012 , beyoncé gave birth to her first child , a daughter , blue ivy carter , at lenox hill hospital in new york . 
on january 7 , 2012 , beyoncé gave birth to her first child , a daughter , blue ivy carter , at lenox hill hospital in new york . 
five months later , she performed for four nights at revel atlantic city 's ovation hall to celebrate the resort 's opening , her first performances since giving birth to blue ivy . 
on january 7 , 2012 , beyoncé gave birth to her first child , a daughter , blue ivy carter , at lenox hill hospital in new york . 
on january 7 , 2012 , beyoncé gave birth to her first child , a daughter , blue ivy carter , at lenox hill hospital in new york . 
five months later , she performed for four nights at revel atlantic city 's ovation hall to celebrate the resort 's opening , her first performances since giving birth to blue ivy . 
five months later , she performed for four nights at revel atlantic city 's ovation hall to celebrate the resort 's opening , her first performances since giving birth to blue ivy . 
on january 7 , 2012 , beyoncé gave birth to her first child , a daughter , blue ivy carter , at lenox hill hospital in new york . 
on january 7 , 2012 , beyoncé gave birth to her first child , a daughter , blue ivy carter , at lenox hill hospital in new york . 
on january 7 , 2012 , beyoncé gave birth to her first child , a daughter , blue ivy carter , at lenox hill hospital in new york . 
five months later , she performed for four nights at revel atlantic city 's ovation hall to celebrate the resort 's opening , her first performances since giving birth to blue ivy . 
five months later , she performed for four nights at revel atlantic city 's ovation hall to celebrate the resort 's opening , her first performances since giving birth to blue ivy . 
in january 2013 , destiny 's child released love songs , a compilation album of the romance-themed songs from their previous albums and a newly recorded track , `` nuclear '' . 
her feature-length documentary film , life is but a dream , first aired on hbo on february 16 , 2013 . 
in february 2013 , beyoncé signed a global publishing agreement with warner/chappell music , which would cover her future songwriting and then-upcoming studio album . 
in january 2013 , destiny 's child released love songs , a compilation album of the romance-themed songs from their previous albums and a newly recorded track , `` nuclear '' . 
in january 2013 , destiny 's child released love songs , a compilation album of the romance-themed songs from their previous albums and a newly recorded track , `` nuclear '' . 
beyoncé performed the american national anthem singing along with a pre-recorded track at president obama 's second inauguration in washington , d.c. . 
the performance stands as the second most tweeted about moment in history at 268,000 tweets per minute . 
in january 2013 , destiny 's child released love songs , a compilation album of the romance-themed songs from their previous albums and a newly recorded track , `` nuclear '' . 
in january 2013 , destiny 's child released love songs , a compilation album of the romance-themed songs from their previous albums and a newly recorded track , `` nuclear '' . 
beyoncé performed the american national anthem singing along with a pre-recorded track at president obama 's second inauguration in washington , d.c. . 
the following month , beyoncé performed at the super bowl xlvii halftime show , held at the mercedes-benz superdome in new orleans . 
her feature-length documentary film , life is but a dream , first aired on hbo on february 16 , 2013 . 
beyoncé embarked on the mrs. carter show world tour on april 15 in belgrade , serbia ; the tour included 132 dates that ran through to march 2014 . 
beyoncé embarked on the mrs. carter show world tour on april 15 in belgrade , serbia ; the tour included 132 dates that ran through to march 2014 . 
beyoncé voiced queen tara in the 3d cgi animated film , epic , released by 20th century fox on may 24 , and recorded an original song for the film , `` rise up '' , co-written with sia . 
beyoncé voiced queen tara in the 3d cgi animated film , epic , released by 20th century fox on may 24 , and recorded an original song for the film , `` rise up '' , co-written with sia . 
beyoncé embarked on the mrs. carter show world tour on april 15 in belgrade , serbia ; the tour included 132 dates that ran through to march 2014 . 
she was also honorary chair of the 2013 met gala . 
beyoncé voiced queen tara in the 3d cgi animated film , epic , released by 20th century fox on may 24 , and recorded an original song for the film , `` rise up '' , co-written with sia . 
beyoncé voiced queen tara in the 3d cgi animated film , epic , released by 20th century fox on may 24 , and recorded an original song for the film , `` rise up '' , co-written with sia . 
beyoncé embarked on the mrs. carter show world tour on april 15 in belgrade , serbia ; the tour included 132 dates that ran through to march 2014 . 
beyoncé embarked on the mrs. carter show world tour on april 15 in belgrade , serbia ; the tour included 132 dates that ran through to march 2014 . 
in may , beyoncé 's cover of amy winehouse 's `` back to black '' with andré 3000 on the great gatsby soundtrack was released . 
she was also honorary chair of the 2013 met gala . 
beyoncé voiced queen tara in the 3d cgi animated film , epic , released by 20th century fox on may 24 , and recorded an original song for the film , `` rise up '' , co-written with sia . 
on december 13 , 2013 , beyoncé unexpectedly released her eponymous fifth studio album on the itunes store without any prior announcement or promotion . 
on december 13 , 2013 , beyoncé unexpectedly released her eponymous fifth studio album on the itunes store without any prior announcement or promotion . 
on december 13 , 2013 , beyoncé unexpectedly released her eponymous fifth studio album on the itunes store without any prior announcement or promotion . 
the single `` drunk in love '' , featuring jay z , peaked at number two on the billboard hot 100 chart . 
in november , forbes reported that beyoncé was the top-earning woman in music for the second year in a row -- earning $ 115 million in the year , more than double her earnings in 2013 . 
in november , forbes reported that beyoncé was the top-earning woman in music for the second year in a row -- earning $ 115 million in the year , more than double her earnings in 2013 . 
on december 13 , 2013 , beyoncé unexpectedly released her eponymous fifth studio album on the itunes store without any prior announcement or promotion . 
beyoncé received critical acclaim and commercial success , selling one million digital copies worldwide in six days ; the new york times noted the album 's unconventional , unexpected release as significant . 
the single `` drunk in love '' , featuring jay z , peaked at number two on the billboard hot 100 chart . 
in april 2014 , after much speculation in the weeks before , beyoncé and jay z officially announced their on the run tour . 
at the 57th annual grammy awards in february 2015 , beyoncé was nominated for six awards , ultimately winning three : best r&b performance and best r&b song for `` drunk in love '' , and best surround sound album for beyoncé . 
she was nominated for album of the year but the award was won by beck for his morning phase album . 
in august , the cover of the september issue of vogue magazine was unveiled online , beyoncé as the cover star , becoming the first african-american artist and third african-american woman in general to cover the september issue . 
beyoncé made an uncredited featured appearance on the track `` hymn for the weekend '' by british rock band coldplay , on their seventh studio album a head full of dreams -lrb- 2015 -rrb- , which saw release in december . 
at the 57th annual grammy awards in february 2015 , beyoncé was nominated for six awards , ultimately winning three : best r&b performance and best r&b song for `` drunk in love '' , and best surround sound album for beyoncé . 
she was nominated for album of the year but the award was won by beck for his morning phase album . 
beyoncé made an uncredited featured appearance on the track `` hymn for the weekend '' by british rock band coldplay , on their seventh studio album a head full of dreams -lrb- 2015 -rrb- , which saw release in december . 
at the 57th annual grammy awards in february 2015 , beyoncé was nominated for six awards , ultimately winning three : best r&b performance and best r&b song for `` drunk in love '' , and best surround sound album for beyoncé . 
in august , the cover of the september issue of vogue magazine was unveiled online , beyoncé as the cover star , becoming the first african-american artist and third african-american woman in general to cover the september issue . 
beyoncé made an uncredited featured appearance on the track `` hymn for the weekend '' by british rock band coldplay , on their seventh studio album a head full of dreams -lrb- 2015 -rrb- , which saw release in december . 
beyoncé made an uncredited featured appearance on the track `` hymn for the weekend '' by british rock band coldplay , on their seventh studio album a head full of dreams -lrb- 2015 -rrb- , which saw release in december . 
at the 57th annual grammy awards in february 2015 , beyoncé was nominated for six awards , ultimately winning three : best r&b performance and best r&b song for `` drunk in love '' , and best surround sound album for beyoncé . 
at the 57th annual grammy awards in february 2015 , beyoncé was nominated for six awards , ultimately winning three : best r&b performance and best r&b song for `` drunk in love '' , and best surround sound album for beyoncé . 
she was nominated for album of the year but the award was won by beck for his morning phase album . 
in august , the cover of the september issue of vogue magazine was unveiled online , beyoncé as the cover star , becoming the first african-american artist and third african-american woman in general to cover the september issue . 
beyoncé made an uncredited featured appearance on the track `` hymn for the weekend '' by british rock band coldplay , on their seventh studio album a head full of dreams -lrb- 2015 -rrb- , which saw release in december . 
on february 6 , 2016 , one day before her performance at the super bowl , beyoncé released a new single exclusively on music streaming service tidal called `` formation '' . 
on february 6 , 2016 , one day before her performance at the super bowl , beyoncé released a new single exclusively on music streaming service tidal called `` formation '' . 
on february 6 , 2016 , one day before her performance at the super bowl , beyoncé released a new single exclusively on music streaming service tidal called `` formation '' . 
on february 6 , 2016 , one day before her performance at the super bowl , beyoncé released a new single exclusively on music streaming service tidal called `` formation '' . 
on february 6 , 2016 , one day before her performance at the super bowl , beyoncé released a new single exclusively on music streaming service tidal called `` formation '' . 
on february 6 , 2016 , one day before her performance at the super bowl , beyoncé released a new single exclusively on music streaming service tidal called `` formation '' . 
on february 6 , 2016 , one day before her performance at the super bowl , beyoncé released a new single exclusively on music streaming service tidal called `` formation '' . 
on february 6 , 2016 , one day before her performance at the super bowl , beyoncé released a new single exclusively on music streaming service tidal called `` formation '' . 
as of april 2014 , the couple have sold a combined 300 million records together . 
in april 2011 , beyoncé and jay z traveled to paris in order to shoot the album cover for her 4 , and unexpectedly became pregnant in paris . 
beyoncé suffered a miscarriage in 2010 or 2011 , describing it as `` the saddest thing '' she had ever endured . 
beyoncé is believed to have first started a relationship with jay z after a collaboration on '' '03 bonnie & clyde '' , which appeared on his seventh album the blueprint 2 : the gift & the curse -lrb- 2002 -rrb- . 
on april 4 , 2008 , beyoncé and jay z were married without publicity . 
as of april 2014 , the couple have sold a combined 300 million records together . 
she returned to the studio and wrote music in order to cope with the loss . 
in april 2011 , beyoncé and jay z traveled to paris in order to shoot the album cover for her 4 , and unexpectedly became pregnant in paris . 
beyoncé is believed to have first started a relationship with jay z after a collaboration on '' '03 bonnie & clyde '' , which appeared on his seventh album the blueprint 2 : the gift & the curse -lrb- 2002 -rrb- . 
on april 4 , 2008 , beyoncé and jay z were married without publicity . 
as of april 2014 , the couple have sold a combined 300 million records together . 
beyoncé suffered a miscarriage in 2010 or 2011 , describing it as `` the saddest thing '' she had ever endured . 
in april 2011 , beyoncé and jay z traveled to paris in order to shoot the album cover for her 4 , and unexpectedly became pregnant in paris . 
in august , the couple attended the 2011 mtv video music awards , at which beyoncé performed `` love on top '' and started the performance saying `` tonight i want you to stand up on your feet , i want you to feel the love that 's growing inside of me '' . 
at the end of the performance , she dropped her microphone , unbuttoned her blazer and rubbed her stomach , confirming her pregnancy she had alluded to earlier in the evening . 
her appearance helped that year 's mtv video music awards become the most-watched broadcast in mtv history , pulling in 12.4 million viewers ; the announcement was listed in guinness world records for `` most tweets per second recorded for a single event '' on twitter , receiving 8,868 tweets per second and `` beyonce pregnant '' was the most googled term the week of august 29 , 2011 . 
in august , the couple attended the 2011 mtv video music awards , at which beyoncé performed `` love on top '' and started the performance saying `` tonight i want you to stand up on your feet , i want you to feel the love that 's growing inside of me '' . 
her appearance helped that year 's mtv video music awards become the most-watched broadcast in mtv history , pulling in 12.4 million viewers ; the announcement was listed in guinness world records for `` most tweets per second recorded for a single event '' on twitter , receiving 8,868 tweets per second and `` beyonce pregnant '' was the most googled term the week of august 29 , 2011 . 
her appearance helped that year 's mtv video music awards become the most-watched broadcast in mtv history , pulling in 12.4 million viewers ; the announcement was listed in guinness world records for `` most tweets per second recorded for a single event '' on twitter , receiving 8,868 tweets per second and `` beyonce pregnant '' was the most googled term the week of august 29 , 2011 . 
her appearance helped that year 's mtv video music awards become the most-watched broadcast in mtv history , pulling in 12.4 million viewers ; the announcement was listed in guinness world records for `` most tweets per second recorded for a single event '' on twitter , receiving 8,868 tweets per second and `` beyonce pregnant '' was the most googled term the week of august 29 , 2011 . 
in august , the couple attended the 2011 mtv video music awards , at which beyoncé performed `` love on top '' and started the performance saying `` tonight i want you to stand up on your feet , i want you to feel the love that 's growing inside of me '' . 
in august , the couple attended the 2011 mtv video music awards , at which beyoncé performed `` love on top '' and started the performance saying `` tonight i want you to stand up on your feet , i want you to feel the love that 's growing inside of me '' . 
in august , the couple attended the 2011 mtv video music awards , at which beyoncé performed `` love on top '' and started the performance saying `` tonight i want you to stand up on your feet , i want you to feel the love that 's growing inside of me '' . 
her appearance helped that year 's mtv video music awards become the most-watched broadcast in mtv history , pulling in 12.4 million viewers ; the announcement was listed in guinness world records for `` most tweets per second recorded for a single event '' on twitter , receiving 8,868 tweets per second and `` beyonce pregnant '' was the most googled term the week of august 29 , 2011 . 
her appearance helped that year 's mtv video music awards become the most-watched broadcast in mtv history , pulling in 12.4 million viewers ; the announcement was listed in guinness world records for `` most tweets per second recorded for a single event '' on twitter , receiving 8,868 tweets per second and `` beyonce pregnant '' was the most googled term the week of august 29 , 2011 . 
two days later , jay z released `` glory '' , a song dedicated to their child , on his website lifeandtimes.com . 
two days later , jay z released `` glory '' , a song dedicated to their child , on his website lifeandtimes.com . 
on january 7 , 2012 , beyoncé gave birth to a daughter , blue ivy carter , at lenox hill hospital in new york under heavy security . 
on january 7 , 2012 , beyoncé gave birth to a daughter , blue ivy carter , at lenox hill hospital in new york under heavy security . 
two days later , jay z released `` glory '' , a song dedicated to their child , on his website lifeandtimes.com . 
on january 7 , 2012 , beyoncé gave birth to a daughter , blue ivy carter , at lenox hill hospital in new york under heavy security . 
blue ivy 's cries are included at the end of the song , and she was officially credited as `` b.i.c. '' on it . 
on january 7 , 2012 , beyoncé gave birth to a daughter , blue ivy carter , at lenox hill hospital in new york under heavy security . 
on january 7 , 2012 , beyoncé gave birth to a daughter , blue ivy carter , at lenox hill hospital in new york under heavy security . 
two days later , jay z released `` glory '' , a song dedicated to their child , on his website lifeandtimes.com . 
blue ivy 's cries are included at the end of the song , and she was officially credited as `` b.i.c. '' on it . 
blue ivy 's cries are included at the end of the song , and she was officially credited as `` b.i.c. '' on it . 
in july 2013 , beyoncé and jay-z attended a rally in response to the acquittal of george zimmerman for the shooting of trayvon martin . 
she performed `` america the beautiful '' at the 2009 presidential inauguration , as well as `` at last '' during the first inaugural dance at the neighborhood ball two days later . 
beyoncé and jay z held a fundraiser at the latter 's 40/40 club in manhattan for obama 's 2012 presidential campaign which raised $ 4 million . 
she publicly endorsed same sex marriage on march 26 , 2013 , after the supreme court debate on california 's proposition 8 . 
in july 2013 , beyoncé and jay-z attended a rally in response to the acquittal of george zimmerman for the shooting of trayvon martin . 
she performed `` america the beautiful '' at the 2009 presidential inauguration , as well as `` at last '' during the first inaugural dance at the neighborhood ball two days later . 
she performed `` america the beautiful '' at the 2009 presidential inauguration , as well as `` at last '' during the first inaugural dance at the neighborhood ball two days later . 
she performed `` america the beautiful '' at the 2009 presidential inauguration , as well as `` at last '' during the first inaugural dance at the neighborhood ball two days later . 
beyoncé uploaded pictures of her paper ballot on tumblr , confirming she had voted in support for the democratic party and to encourage others to do so . 
she publicly endorsed same sex marriage on march 26 , 2013 , after the supreme court debate on california 's proposition 8 . 
in an interview published by vogue in april 2013 , beyoncé was asked if she considers herself a feminist , to which she said , `` that word can be very extreme ... but i guess i am a modern-day feminist . 
she has also contributed to the ban bossy campaign , which uses television and social media to encourage leadership in girls . 
in an interview published by vogue in april 2013 , beyoncé was asked if she considers herself a feminist , to which she said , `` that word can be very extreme ... but i guess i am a modern-day feminist . 
in an interview published by vogue in april 2013 , beyoncé was asked if she considers herself a feminist , to which she said , `` that word can be very extreme ... but i guess i am a modern-day feminist . 
she has also contributed to the ban bossy campaign , which uses television and social media to encourage leadership in girls . 
she would later align herself more publicly with the movement , sampling `` we should all be feminists '' , a speech delivered by nigerian author chimamanda ngozi adichie at a tedxeuston conference in april 2013 , in her song `` flawless '' , released later that year . 
she has also contributed to the ban bossy campaign , which uses television and social media to encourage leadership in girls . 
she would later align herself more publicly with the movement , sampling `` we should all be feminists '' , a speech delivered by nigerian author chimamanda ngozi adichie at a tedxeuston conference in april 2013 , in her song `` flawless '' , released later that year . 
she has also contributed to the ban bossy campaign , which uses television and social media to encourage leadership in girls . 
in 2015 beyoncé signed an open letter which the one campaign had been collecting signatures for ; the letter was addressed to angela merkel and nkosazana dlamini-zuma , urging them to focus on women as they serve as the head of the g7 in germany and the au in south africa respectively , which will start to set the priorities in development funding before a main un summit in september 2015 that will establish new development goals for the generation . 
in 2015 beyoncé signed an open letter which the one campaign had been collecting signatures for ; the letter was addressed to angela merkel and nkosazana dlamini-zuma , urging them to focus on women as they serve as the head of the g7 in germany and the au in south africa respectively , which will start to set the priorities in development funding before a main un summit in september 2015 that will establish new development goals for the generation . 
in 2015 beyoncé signed an open letter which the one campaign had been collecting signatures for ; the letter was addressed to angela merkel and nkosazana dlamini-zuma , urging them to focus on women as they serve as the head of the g7 in germany and the au in south africa respectively , which will start to set the priorities in development funding before a main un summit in september 2015 that will establish new development goals for the generation . 
in 2015 beyoncé signed an open letter which the one campaign had been collecting signatures for ; the letter was addressed to angela merkel and nkosazana dlamini-zuma , urging them to focus on women as they serve as the head of the g7 in germany and the au in south africa respectively , which will start to set the priorities in development funding before a main un summit in september 2015 that will establish new development goals for the generation . 
in 2015 beyoncé signed an open letter which the one campaign had been collecting signatures for ; the letter was addressed to angela merkel and nkosazana dlamini-zuma , urging them to focus on women as they serve as the head of the g7 in germany and the au in south africa respectively , which will start to set the priorities in development funding before a main un summit in september 2015 that will establish new development goals for the generation . 
in 2015 beyoncé signed an open letter which the one campaign had been collecting signatures for ; the letter was addressed to angela merkel and nkosazana dlamini-zuma , urging them to focus on women as they serve as the head of the g7 in germany and the au in south africa respectively , which will start to set the priorities in development funding before a main un summit in september 2015 that will establish new development goals for the generation . 
in 2015 beyoncé signed an open letter which the one campaign had been collecting signatures for ; the letter was addressed to angela merkel and nkosazana dlamini-zuma , urging them to focus on women as they serve as the head of the g7 in germany and the au in south africa respectively , which will start to set the priorities in development funding before a main un summit in september 2015 that will establish new development goals for the generation . 
in 2015 beyoncé signed an open letter which the one campaign had been collecting signatures for ; the letter was addressed to angela merkel and nkosazana dlamini-zuma , urging them to focus on women as they serve as the head of the g7 in germany and the au in south africa respectively , which will start to set the priorities in development funding before a main un summit in september 2015 that will establish new development goals for the generation . 
in 2015 beyoncé signed an open letter which the one campaign had been collecting signatures for ; the letter was addressed to angela merkel and nkosazana dlamini-zuma , urging them to focus on women as they serve as the head of the g7 in germany and the au in south africa respectively , which will start to set the priorities in development funding before a main un summit in september 2015 that will establish new development goals for the generation . 
in 2015 beyoncé signed an open letter which the one campaign had been collecting signatures for ; the letter was addressed to angela merkel and nkosazana dlamini-zuma , urging them to focus on women as they serve as the head of the g7 in germany and the au in south africa respectively , which will start to set the priorities in development funding before a main un summit in september 2015 that will establish new development goals for the generation . 
in 2015 beyoncé signed an open letter which the one campaign had been collecting signatures for ; the letter was addressed to angela merkel and nkosazana dlamini-zuma , urging them to focus on women as they serve as the head of the g7 in germany and the au in south africa respectively , which will start to set the priorities in development funding before a main un summit in september 2015 that will establish new development goals for the generation . 
in 2015 beyoncé signed an open letter which the one campaign had been collecting signatures for ; the letter was addressed to angela merkel and nkosazana dlamini-zuma , urging them to focus on women as they serve as the head of the g7 in germany and the au in south africa respectively , which will start to set the priorities in development funding before a main un summit in september 2015 that will establish new development goals for the generation . 
following the death of freddie gray , beyoncé and jay-z , among other notable figures , met with his family . 
after the imprisonment of protesters of gray 's death , beyoncé and jay-z donated thousands of dollars to bail them out . 
following the death of freddie gray , beyoncé and jay-z , among other notable figures , met with his family . 
after the imprisonment of protesters of gray 's death , beyoncé and jay-z donated thousands of dollars to bail them out . 
forbes magazine began reporting on beyoncé 's earnings in 2008 , calculating that the $ 80 million earned between june 2007 to june 2008 , for her music , tour , films and clothing line made her the world 's best-paid music personality at the time , above madonna and celine dion . 
the couple made it into the previous year 's guinness world records as the `` highest-earning power couple '' for collectively earning $ 122 million in 2009 . 
mtv estimated that by the end of 2014 , beyoncé would become the highest-paid black musician in history ; she succeeded to do so in april 2014 . 
as of may 2015 , her net worth is estimated to be $ 250 million . 
forbes magazine began reporting on beyoncé 's earnings in 2008 , calculating that the $ 80 million earned between june 2007 to june 2008 , for her music , tour , films and clothing line made her the world 's best-paid music personality at the time , above madonna and celine dion . 
forbes magazine began reporting on beyoncé 's earnings in 2008 , calculating that the $ 80 million earned between june 2007 to june 2008 , for her music , tour , films and clothing line made her the world 's best-paid music personality at the time , above madonna and celine dion . 
for the years 2009 to 2011 , beyoncé earned an average of $ 70 million per year , and earned $ 40 million in 2012 . 
in june 2014 , beyoncé ranked at # 1 on the forbes celebrity 100 list , earning an estimated $ 115 million throughout june 2013 -- june 2014 . 
as of may 2015 , her net worth is estimated to be $ 250 million . 
forbes magazine began reporting on beyoncé 's earnings in 2008 , calculating that the $ 80 million earned between june 2007 to june 2008 , for her music , tour , films and clothing line made her the world 's best-paid music personality at the time , above madonna and celine dion . 
mtv estimated that by the end of 2014 , beyoncé would become the highest-paid black musician in history ; she succeeded to do so in april 2014 . 
mtv estimated that by the end of 2014 , beyoncé would become the highest-paid black musician in history ; she succeeded to do so in april 2014 . 
in 2013 , beyoncé 's endorsements of pepsi and h&m made her and jay z the world 's first billion dollar couple in the music industry . 
beyoncé 's vocal range spans four octaves . 
jody rosen highlights her tone and timbre as particularly distinctive , describing her voice as `` one of the most compelling instruments in popular music '' . 
the daily mail calls beyoncé 's voice `` versatile '' , capable of exploring power ballads , soul , rock belting , operatic flourishes , and hip hop . 
the daily mail calls beyoncé 's voice `` versatile '' , capable of exploring power ballads , soul , rock belting , operatic flourishes , and hip hop . 
beyoncé 's vocal range spans four octaves . 
the daily mail calls beyoncé 's voice `` versatile '' , capable of exploring power ballads , soul , rock belting , operatic flourishes , and hip hop . 
rosen notes that the hip hop era highly influenced beyoncé 's strange rhythmic vocal style , but also finds her quite traditionalist in her use of balladry , gospel and falsetto . 
other critics praise her range and power , with chris richards of the washington post saying she was `` capable of punctuating any beat with goose-bump-inducing whispers or full-bore diva-roars . '' 
beyoncé 's vocal range spans four octaves . 
her vocal abilities mean she is identified as the centerpiece of destiny 's child . 
jon pareles of the new york times commented that her voice is `` velvety yet tart , with an insistent flutter and reserves of soul belting '' . 
rosen notes that the hip hop era highly influenced beyoncé 's strange rhythmic vocal style , but also finds her quite traditionalist in her use of balladry , gospel and falsetto . 
beyoncé 's music is generally r&b , but she also incorporates pop , soul and funk into her songs . 
beyoncé 's music is generally r&b , but she also incorporates pop , soul and funk into her songs . 
while she almost exclusively releases english songs , beyoncé recorded several spanish songs for irreemplazable -lrb- re-recordings of songs from b'day for a spanish-language audience -rrb- , and the re-release of b'day . 
while she almost exclusively releases english songs , beyoncé recorded several spanish songs for irreemplazable -lrb- re-recordings of songs from b'day for a spanish-language audience -rrb- , and the re-release of b'day . 
to record these , beyoncé was coached phonetically by american record producer rudy perez . 
beyoncé 's music is generally r&b , but she also incorporates pop , soul and funk into her songs . 
while she almost exclusively releases english songs , beyoncé recorded several spanish songs for irreemplazable -lrb- re-recordings of songs from b'day for a spanish-language audience -rrb- , and the re-release of b'day . 
while she almost exclusively releases english songs , beyoncé recorded several spanish songs for irreemplazable -lrb- re-recordings of songs from b'day for a spanish-language audience -rrb- , and the re-release of b'day . 
while she almost exclusively releases english songs , beyoncé recorded several spanish songs for irreemplazable -lrb- re-recordings of songs from b'day for a spanish-language audience -rrb- , and the re-release of b'day . 
beyoncé 's music is generally r&b , but she also incorporates pop , soul and funk into her songs . 
while she almost exclusively releases english songs , beyoncé recorded several spanish songs for irreemplazable -lrb- re-recordings of songs from b'day for a spanish-language audience -rrb- , and the re-release of b'day . 
to record these , beyoncé was coached phonetically by american record producer rudy perez . 
while she almost exclusively releases english songs , beyoncé recorded several spanish songs for irreemplazable -lrb- re-recordings of songs from b'day for a spanish-language audience -rrb- , and the re-release of b'day . 
however , she does not formulate beats herself , but typically comes up with melodies and ideas during production , sharing them with producers . 
her early songs were personally driven and female-empowerment themed compositions like `` independent women '' and `` survivor '' , but after the start of her relationship with jay z she transitioned to more man-tending anthems such as `` cater 2 u '' . 
her early songs were personally driven and female-empowerment themed compositions like `` independent women '' and `` survivor '' , but after the start of her relationship with jay z she transitioned to more man-tending anthems such as `` cater 2 u '' . 
her early songs were personally driven and female-empowerment themed compositions like `` independent women '' and `` survivor '' , but after the start of her relationship with jay z she transitioned to more man-tending anthems such as `` cater 2 u '' . 
beyoncé has also received co-producing credits for most of the records in which she has been involved , especially during her solo efforts . 
however , she does not formulate beats herself , but typically comes up with melodies and ideas during production , sharing them with producers . 
her early songs were personally driven and female-empowerment themed compositions like `` independent women '' and `` survivor '' , but after the start of her relationship with jay z she transitioned to more man-tending anthems such as `` cater 2 u '' . 
beyoncé has also received co-producing credits for most of the records in which she has been involved , especially during her solo efforts . 
however , she does not formulate beats herself , but typically comes up with melodies and ideas during production , sharing them with producers . 
beyoncé was the third woman to have writing credits on three number one songs -lrb- `` irreplaceable '' , `` grillz '' and `` check on it '' -rrb- in the same year , after carole king in 1971 and mariah carey in 1991 . 
in 2001 , she became the first african-american woman and second woman songwriter to win the pop songwriter of the year award at the american society of composers , authors , and publishers pop music awards . 
she is tied with american songwriter diane warren at third with nine songwriting credits on number-one singles . 
in may 2011 , billboard magazine listed beyoncé at number 17 on their list of the `` top 20 hot 100 songwriters '' , for having co-written eight singles that hit number one on the billboard hot 100 chart . 
in 2001 , she became the first african-american woman and second woman songwriter to win the pop songwriter of the year award at the american society of composers , authors , and publishers pop music awards . 
beyoncé was the third woman to have writing credits on three number one songs -lrb- `` irreplaceable '' , `` grillz '' and `` check on it '' -rrb- in the same year , after carole king in 1971 and mariah carey in 1991 . 
in may 2011 , billboard magazine listed beyoncé at number 17 on their list of the `` top 20 hot 100 songwriters '' , for having co-written eight singles that hit number one on the billboard hot 100 chart . 
beyoncé was the third woman to have writing credits on three number one songs -lrb- `` irreplaceable '' , `` grillz '' and `` check on it '' -rrb- in the same year , after carole king in 1971 and mariah carey in 1991 . 
in 2001 , she became the first african-american woman and second woman songwriter to win the pop songwriter of the year award at the american society of composers , authors , and publishers pop music awards . 
in 2001 , she became the first african-american woman and second woman songwriter to win the pop songwriter of the year award at the american society of composers , authors , and publishers pop music awards . 
beyoncé was the third woman to have writing credits on three number one songs -lrb- `` irreplaceable '' , `` grillz '' and `` check on it '' -rrb- in the same year , after carole king in 1971 and mariah carey in 1991 . 
in may 2011 , billboard magazine listed beyoncé at number 17 on their list of the `` top 20 hot 100 songwriters '' , for having co-written eight singles that hit number one on the billboard hot 100 chart . 
beyoncé names michael jackson as her major musical influence . 
aged five , beyoncé attended her first ever concert where jackson performed and she claims to have realised her purpose . 
beyoncé names michael jackson as her major musical influence . 
she credits mariah carey 's singing and her song `` vision of love '' as influencing her to begin practicing vocal runs as a child . 
beyoncé names michael jackson as her major musical influence . 
she credits mariah carey 's singing and her song `` vision of love '' as influencing her to begin practicing vocal runs as a child . 
beyoncé names michael jackson as her major musical influence . 
beyoncé names michael jackson as her major musical influence . 
she admires diana ross as an `` all-around entertainer '' and whitney houston , who she said `` inspired me to get up there and do what she did . '' 
she admires diana ross as an `` all-around entertainer '' and whitney houston , who she said `` inspired me to get up there and do what she did . '' 
she credits mariah carey 's singing and her song `` vision of love '' as influencing her to begin practicing vocal runs as a child . 
the feminism and female empowerment themes on beyoncé 's second solo album b'day were inspired by her role in dreamgirls and by singer josephine baker . 
the feminism and female empowerment themes on beyoncé 's second solo album b'day were inspired by her role in dreamgirls and by singer josephine baker . 
beyoncé 's third solo album i am ... sasha fierce was inspired by jay z and especially by etta james , whose `` boldness '' inspired beyoncé to explore other musical genres and styles . 
the feminism and female empowerment themes on beyoncé 's second solo album b'day were inspired by her role in dreamgirls and by singer josephine baker . 
beyoncé 's third solo album i am ... sasha fierce was inspired by jay z and especially by etta james , whose `` boldness '' inspired beyoncé to explore other musical genres and styles . 
beyoncé paid homage to baker by performing `` déjà vu '' at the 2006 fashion rocks concert wearing baker 's trademark mini-hula skirt embellished with fake bananas . 
the feminism and female empowerment themes on beyoncé 's second solo album b'day were inspired by her role in dreamgirls and by singer josephine baker . 
beyoncé paid homage to baker by performing `` déjà vu '' at the 2006 fashion rocks concert wearing baker 's trademark mini-hula skirt embellished with fake bananas . 
beyoncé has stated that she is personally inspired by us first lady michelle obama , saying `` she proves you can do it all '' and she has described oprah winfrey as `` the definition of inspiration and a strong woman '' . 
in february 2013 , beyoncé said that madonna inspired her to take control of her own career . 
beyoncé has stated that she is personally inspired by us first lady michelle obama , saying `` she proves you can do it all '' and she has described oprah winfrey as `` the definition of inspiration and a strong woman '' . 
beyoncé has stated that she is personally inspired by us first lady michelle obama , saying `` she proves you can do it all '' and she has described oprah winfrey as `` the definition of inspiration and a strong woman '' . 
beyoncé has stated that she is personally inspired by us first lady michelle obama , saying `` she proves you can do it all '' and she has described oprah winfrey as `` the definition of inspiration and a strong woman '' . 
beyoncé has expressed admiration for the artist jean-michel basquiat , posting in a letter `` what i find in the work of jean-michel basquiat , i search for in every day in music ... he is lyrical and raw '' . 
in february 2013 , beyoncé said that madonna inspired her to take control of her own career . 
she has also discussed how jay z is a continuing inspiration to her , both with what she describes as his lyrical genius and in the obstacles he has overcome in his life . 
beyoncé has stated that she is personally inspired by us first lady michelle obama , saying `` she proves you can do it all '' and she has described oprah winfrey as `` the definition of inspiration and a strong woman '' . 
beyoncé has stated that she is personally inspired by us first lady michelle obama , saying `` she proves you can do it all '' and she has described oprah winfrey as `` the definition of inspiration and a strong woman '' . 
beyoncé has expressed admiration for the artist jean-michel basquiat , posting in a letter `` what i find in the work of jean-michel basquiat , i search for in every day in music ... he is lyrical and raw '' . 
in february 2013 , beyoncé said that madonna inspired her to take control of her own career . 
in 2006 , beyoncé introduced her all-female tour band suga mama -lrb- also the name of a song in b'day -rrb- which includes bassists , drummers , guitarists , horn players , keyboardists and percussionists . 
her background singers , the mamas , consist of montina cooper-donnell , crystal collins and tiffany moniqué riddick . 
her background singers , the mamas , consist of montina cooper-donnell , crystal collins and tiffany moniqué riddick . 
in 2006 , beyoncé introduced her all-female tour band suga mama -lrb- also the name of a song in b'day -rrb- which includes bassists , drummers , guitarists , horn players , keyboardists and percussionists . 
in 2006 , beyoncé introduced her all-female tour band suga mama -lrb- also the name of a song in b'day -rrb- which includes bassists , drummers , guitarists , horn players , keyboardists and percussionists . 
in 2006 , beyoncé introduced her all-female tour band suga mama -lrb- also the name of a song in b'day -rrb- which includes bassists , drummers , guitarists , horn players , keyboardists and percussionists . 
they made their debut appearance at the 2006 bet awards and re-appeared in the music videos for `` irreplaceable '' and `` green light '' . 
in 2006 , beyoncé introduced her all-female tour band suga mama -lrb- also the name of a song in b'day -rrb- which includes bassists , drummers , guitarists , horn players , keyboardists and percussionists . 
in 2006 , beyoncé introduced her all-female tour band suga mama -lrb- also the name of a song in b'day -rrb- which includes bassists , drummers , guitarists , horn players , keyboardists and percussionists . 
in 2006 , beyoncé introduced her all-female tour band suga mama -lrb- also the name of a song in b'day -rrb- which includes bassists , drummers , guitarists , horn players , keyboardists and percussionists . 
her background singers , the mamas , consist of montina cooper-donnell , crystal collins and tiffany moniqué riddick . 
they made their debut appearance at the 2006 bet awards and re-appeared in the music videos for `` irreplaceable '' and `` green light '' . 
beyoncé has received praise for her stage presence and voice during live performances . 
the ex-president of def jam l.a. reid has described beyoncé as the greatest entertainer alive . 
beyoncé has received praise for her stage presence and voice during live performances . 
jarett wieselman of the new york post placed her at number one on her list of the five best singer/dancers . 
the ex-president of def jam l.a. reid has described beyoncé as the greatest entertainer alive . 
according to barbara ellen of the guardian beyoncé is the most in-charge female artist she 's seen onstage , while alice jones of the independent wrote she `` takes her role as entertainer so seriously she 's almost too good . '' 
jarett wieselman of the new york post placed her at number one on her list of the five best singer/dancers . 
the ex-president of def jam l.a. reid has described beyoncé as the greatest entertainer alive . 
described as being `` sexy , seductive and provocative '' when performing on stage , beyoncé has said that she originally created the alter ego `` sasha fierce '' to keep that stage persona separate from who she really is . 
sasha was conceived during the making of `` crazy in love '' , and beyoncé introduced her with the release of her 2008 album i am ... sasha fierce . 
in february 2010 , she announced in an interview with allure magazine that she was comfortable enough with herself to no longer need sasha fierce . 
however , beyoncé announced in may 2012 that she would bring her back for her revel presents : beyoncé live shows later that month . 
she described sasha as being `` too aggressive , too strong , too sassy -lsb- and -rsb- too sexy '' , stating , `` i 'm not like her in real life at all . '' 
however , beyoncé announced in may 2012 that she would bring her back for her revel presents : beyoncé live shows later that month . 
sasha was conceived during the making of `` crazy in love '' , and beyoncé introduced her with the release of her 2008 album i am ... sasha fierce . 
sasha was conceived during the making of `` crazy in love '' , and beyoncé introduced her with the release of her 2008 album i am ... sasha fierce . 
sasha was conceived during the making of `` crazy in love '' , and beyoncé introduced her with the release of her 2008 album i am ... sasha fierce . 
in february 2010 , she announced in an interview with allure magazine that she was comfortable enough with herself to no longer need sasha fierce . 
beyoncé has been described as a having a wide-ranging sex appeal , with music journalist touré writing that since the release of dangerously in love , she has `` become a crossover sex symbol '' . 
beyoncé has been described as a having a wide-ranging sex appeal , with music journalist touré writing that since the release of dangerously in love , she has `` become a crossover sex symbol '' . 
due to her curves and the term 's catchiness , in the 2000s , the media often used the term `` bootylicious '' -lrb- a portmanteau of the words booty and delicious -rrb- to describe beyoncé , the term popularized by destiny 's child 's single of the same name . 
due to her curves and the term 's catchiness , in the 2000s , the media often used the term `` bootylicious '' -lrb- a portmanteau of the words booty and delicious -rrb- to describe beyoncé , the term popularized by destiny 's child 's single of the same name . 
due to her curves and the term 's catchiness , in the 2000s , the media often used the term `` bootylicious '' -lrb- a portmanteau of the words booty and delicious -rrb- to describe beyoncé , the term popularized by destiny 's child 's single of the same name . 
due to her curves and the term 's catchiness , in the 2000s , the media often used the term `` bootylicious '' -lrb- a portmanteau of the words booty and delicious -rrb- to describe beyoncé , the term popularized by destiny 's child 's single of the same name . 
in 2006 , it was added to the oxford english dictionary . 
beyoncé has been described as a having a wide-ranging sex appeal , with music journalist touré writing that since the release of dangerously in love , she has `` become a crossover sex symbol '' . 
due to her curves and the term 's catchiness , in the 2000s , the media often used the term `` bootylicious '' -lrb- a portmanteau of the words booty and delicious -rrb- to describe beyoncé , the term popularized by destiny 's child 's single of the same name . 
in 2006 , it was added to the oxford english dictionary . 
offstage beyoncé says that while she likes to dress sexily , her onstage dress `` is absolutely for the stage . '' 
in september 2010 , beyoncé made her runway modelling debut at tom ford 's spring/summer 2011 fashion show . 
in september 2010 , beyoncé made her runway modelling debut at tom ford 's spring/summer 2011 fashion show . 
she was named `` world 's most beautiful woman '' by people and the `` hottest female singer of all time '' by complex in 2012 . 
in january 2013 , gq placed her on its cover , featuring her atop its `` 100 sexiest women of the 21st century '' list . 
vh1 listed her at number 1 on its 100 sexiest artists list . 
she was named `` world 's most beautiful woman '' by people and the `` hottest female singer of all time '' by complex in 2012 . 
she was named `` world 's most beautiful woman '' by people and the `` hottest female singer of all time '' by complex in 2012 . 
in january 2013 , gq placed her on its cover , featuring her atop its `` 100 sexiest women of the 21st century '' list . 
vh1 listed her at number 1 on its 100 sexiest artists list . 
in september 2010 , beyoncé made her runway modelling debut at tom ford 's spring/summer 2011 fashion show . 
she was named `` world 's most beautiful woman '' by people and the `` hottest female singer of all time '' by complex in 2012 . 
she was named `` world 's most beautiful woman '' by people and the `` hottest female singer of all time '' by complex in 2012 . 
several wax figures of beyoncé are found at madame tussauds wax museums in major cities around the world , including new york , washington , d.c. , amsterdam , bangkok , hollywood and sydney . 
her mother co-wrote a book , published in 2002 , titled destiny 's style an account of how fashion had an impact on the trio 's success . 
in 2007 , beyoncé was featured on the cover of the sports illustrated swimsuit issue , becoming the second african american woman after tyra banks , and people magazine recognized beyoncé as the best-dressed celebrity . 
her mother co-wrote a book , published in 2002 , titled destiny 's style an account of how fashion had an impact on the trio 's success . 
in 2007 , beyoncé was featured on the cover of the sports illustrated swimsuit issue , becoming the second african american woman after tyra banks , and people magazine recognized beyoncé as the best-dressed celebrity . 
in 2007 , beyoncé was featured on the cover of the sports illustrated swimsuit issue , becoming the second african american woman after tyra banks , and people magazine recognized beyoncé as the best-dressed celebrity . 
in 2007 , beyoncé was featured on the cover of the sports illustrated swimsuit issue , becoming the second african american woman after tyra banks , and people magazine recognized beyoncé as the best-dressed celebrity . 
in 2007 , beyoncé was featured on the cover of the sports illustrated swimsuit issue , becoming the second african american woman after tyra banks , and people magazine recognized beyoncé as the best-dressed celebrity . 
the bey hive is the name given to beyoncé 's fan base . 
fans were previously titled `` the beyontourage '' , -lrb- a portmanteau of beyoncé and entourage -rrb- . 
the name bey hive derives from the word beehive , purposely misspelled to resemble her first name , and was penned by fans after petitions on the online social networking service twitter and online news reports during competitions . 
the bey hive is the name given to beyoncé 's fan base . 
fans were previously titled `` the beyontourage '' , -lrb- a portmanteau of beyoncé and entourage -rrb- . 
the bey hive is the name given to beyoncé 's fan base . 
fans were previously titled `` the beyontourage '' , -lrb- a portmanteau of beyoncé and entourage -rrb- . 
the name bey hive derives from the word beehive , purposely misspelled to resemble her first name , and was penned by fans after petitions on the online social networking service twitter and online news reports during competitions . 
in 2006 , the animal rights organization people for the ethical treatment of animals -lrb- peta -rrb- , criticized beyoncé for wearing and using fur in her clothing line house of deréon . 
in 2011 , she appeared on the cover of french fashion magazine l'officiel , in blackface and tribal makeup that drew criticism from the media . 
in 2011 , she appeared on the cover of french fashion magazine l'officiel , in blackface and tribal makeup that drew criticism from the media . 
in 2006 , the animal rights organization people for the ethical treatment of animals -lrb- peta -rrb- , criticized beyoncé for wearing and using fur in her clothing line house of deréon . 
in 2006 , the animal rights organization people for the ethical treatment of animals -lrb- peta -rrb- , criticized beyoncé for wearing and using fur in her clothing line house of deréon . 
in 2011 , she appeared on the cover of french fashion magazine l'officiel , in blackface and tribal makeup that drew criticism from the media . 
in 2011 , she appeared on the cover of french fashion magazine l'officiel , in blackface and tribal makeup that drew criticism from the media . 
in 2011 , she appeared on the cover of french fashion magazine l'officiel , in blackface and tribal makeup that drew criticism from the media . 
in 2006 , the animal rights organization people for the ethical treatment of animals -lrb- peta -rrb- , criticized beyoncé for wearing and using fur in her clothing line house of deréon . 
in 2011 , she appeared on the cover of french fashion magazine l'officiel , in blackface and tribal makeup that drew criticism from the media . 
beyoncé 's lighter skin color and costuming has drawn criticism from some in the african-american community . 
emmett price , a professor of music at northeastern university , wrote in 2007 , that he thinks race plays a role in many of these criticisms , saying white celebrities who dress similarly do not attract as many comments . 
in 2008 , l'oréal was accused of whitening her skin in their feria hair color advertisements , responding that `` it is categorically untrue '' , and in 2013 , beyoncé herself criticized h&m for their proposed `` retouching '' of promotional images of her , and according to vogue requested that only `` natural pictures be used '' . 
in 2008 , l'oréal was accused of whitening her skin in their feria hair color advertisements , responding that `` it is categorically untrue '' , and in 2013 , beyoncé herself criticized h&m for their proposed `` retouching '' of promotional images of her , and according to vogue requested that only `` natural pictures be used '' . 
in 2008 , l'oréal was accused of whitening her skin in their feria hair color advertisements , responding that `` it is categorically untrue '' , and in 2013 , beyoncé herself criticized h&m for their proposed `` retouching '' of promotional images of her , and according to vogue requested that only `` natural pictures be used '' . 
beyoncé 's lighter skin color and costuming has drawn criticism from some in the african-american community . 
emmett price , a professor of music at northeastern university , wrote in 2007 , that he thinks race plays a role in many of these criticisms , saying white celebrities who dress similarly do not attract as many comments . 
in 2008 , l'oréal was accused of whitening her skin in their feria hair color advertisements , responding that `` it is categorically untrue '' , and in 2013 , beyoncé herself criticized h&m for their proposed `` retouching '' of promotional images of her , and according to vogue requested that only `` natural pictures be used '' . 
in 2008 , l'oréal was accused of whitening her skin in their feria hair color advertisements , responding that `` it is categorically untrue '' , and in 2013 , beyoncé herself criticized h&m for their proposed `` retouching '' of promotional images of her , and according to vogue requested that only `` natural pictures be used '' . 
in 2008 , l'oréal was accused of whitening her skin in their feria hair color advertisements , responding that `` it is categorically untrue '' , and in 2013 , beyoncé herself criticized h&m for their proposed `` retouching '' of promotional images of her , and according to vogue requested that only `` natural pictures be used '' . 
when the guardian named her artist of the decade , llewyn-smith wrote , `` why beyoncé ? 
in 2013 , beyoncé made the time 100 list , baz luhrmann writing `` no one has that voice , no one moves the way she moves , no one can hold an audience the way she does ... when beyoncé does an album , when beyoncé sings a song , when beyoncé does anything , it 's an event , and it 's broadly influential . 
in 2014 , beyoncé was listed again on the time 100 and also featured on the cover of the issue . 
when the guardian named her artist of the decade , llewyn-smith wrote , `` why beyoncé ? 
in 2013 , beyoncé made the time 100 list , baz luhrmann writing `` no one has that voice , no one moves the way she moves , no one can hold an audience the way she does ... when beyoncé does an album , when beyoncé sings a song , when beyoncé does anything , it 's an event , and it 's broadly influential . 
in 2014 , beyoncé was listed again on the time 100 and also featured on the cover of the issue . 
in 2013 , beyoncé made the time 100 list , baz luhrmann writing `` no one has that voice , no one moves the way she moves , no one can hold an audience the way she does ... when beyoncé does an album , when beyoncé sings a song , when beyoncé does anything , it 's an event , and it 's broadly influential . 
in the new yorker music critic jody rosen described beyoncé as `` the most important and compelling popular musician of the twenty-first century ... . 
when the guardian named her artist of the decade , llewyn-smith wrote , `` why beyoncé ? 
in 2013 , beyoncé made the time 100 list , baz luhrmann writing `` no one has that voice , no one moves the way she moves , no one can hold an audience the way she does ... when beyoncé does an album , when beyoncé sings a song , when beyoncé does anything , it 's an event , and it 's broadly influential . 
in 2013 , beyoncé made the time 100 list , baz luhrmann writing `` no one has that voice , no one moves the way she moves , no one can hold an audience the way she does ... when beyoncé does an album , when beyoncé sings a song , when beyoncé does anything , it 's an event , and it 's broadly influential . 
in 2014 , beyoncé was listed again on the time 100 and also featured on the cover of the issue . 
american indie rock band white rabbits also cited her an inspiration for their third album milk famous -lrb- 2012 -rrb- , friend gwyneth paltrow studied beyoncé at her live concerts while learning to become a musical performer for the 2010 film country strong . 
american indie rock band white rabbits also cited her an inspiration for their third album milk famous -lrb- 2012 -rrb- , friend gwyneth paltrow studied beyoncé at her live concerts while learning to become a musical performer for the 2010 film country strong . 
nicki minaj has stated that seeing beyoncé 's pepsi commercial influenced her decision to appear in the company 's 2012 global campaign . 
nicki minaj has stated that seeing beyoncé 's pepsi commercial influenced her decision to appear in the company 's 2012 global campaign . 
american indie rock band white rabbits also cited her an inspiration for their third album milk famous -lrb- 2012 -rrb- , friend gwyneth paltrow studied beyoncé at her live concerts while learning to become a musical performer for the 2010 film country strong . 
beyoncé 's work has influenced numerous artists including adele , ariana grande , lady gaga , bridgit mendler , rihanna , kelly rowland , sam smith , meghan trainor , nicole scherzinger , rita ora , zendaya , cheryl cole , jojo , alexis jordan , jessica sanchez , and azealia banks . 
american indie rock band white rabbits also cited her an inspiration for their third album milk famous -lrb- 2012 -rrb- , friend gwyneth paltrow studied beyoncé at her live concerts while learning to become a musical performer for the 2010 film country strong . 
american indie rock band white rabbits also cited her an inspiration for their third album milk famous -lrb- 2012 -rrb- , friend gwyneth paltrow studied beyoncé at her live concerts while learning to become a musical performer for the 2010 film country strong . 
american indie rock band white rabbits also cited her an inspiration for their third album milk famous -lrb- 2012 -rrb- , friend gwyneth paltrow studied beyoncé at her live concerts while learning to become a musical performer for the 2010 film country strong . 
american indie rock band white rabbits also cited her an inspiration for their third album milk famous -lrb- 2012 -rrb- , friend gwyneth paltrow studied beyoncé at her live concerts while learning to become a musical performer for the 2010 film country strong . 
american indie rock band white rabbits also cited her an inspiration for their third album milk famous -lrb- 2012 -rrb- , friend gwyneth paltrow studied beyoncé at her live concerts while learning to become a musical performer for the 2010 film country strong . 
nicki minaj has stated that seeing beyoncé 's pepsi commercial influenced her decision to appear in the company 's 2012 global campaign . 
her debut single , `` crazy in love '' was named vh1 's `` greatest song of the 2000s '' , nme 's `` best track of the 00s '' and `` pop song of the century '' , considered by rolling stone to be one of the 500 greatest songs of all time , earned two grammy awards and is one of the best-selling singles of all time at around 8 million copies . 
her debut single , `` crazy in love '' was named vh1 's `` greatest song of the 2000s '' , nme 's `` best track of the 00s '' and `` pop song of the century '' , considered by rolling stone to be one of the 500 greatest songs of all time , earned two grammy awards and is one of the best-selling singles of all time at around 8 million copies . 
her debut single , `` crazy in love '' was named vh1 's `` greatest song of the 2000s '' , nme 's `` best track of the 00s '' and `` pop song of the century '' , considered by rolling stone to be one of the 500 greatest songs of all time , earned two grammy awards and is one of the best-selling singles of all time at around 8 million copies . 
in january 2012 , research scientist bryan lessard named scaptia beyonceae , a species of horse fly found in northern queensland , australia after beyoncé due to the fly 's unique golden hairs on its abdomen . 
in july 2014 , a beyoncé exhibit was introduced into the `` legends of rock '' section of the rock and roll hall of fame . 
her debut single , `` crazy in love '' was named vh1 's `` greatest song of the 2000s '' , nme 's `` best track of the 00s '' and `` pop song of the century '' , considered by rolling stone to be one of the 500 greatest songs of all time , earned two grammy awards and is one of the best-selling singles of all time at around 8 million copies . 
her debut single , `` crazy in love '' was named vh1 's `` greatest song of the 2000s '' , nme 's `` best track of the 00s '' and `` pop song of the century '' , considered by rolling stone to be one of the 500 greatest songs of all time , earned two grammy awards and is one of the best-selling singles of all time at around 8 million copies . 
her debut single , `` crazy in love '' was named vh1 's `` greatest song of the 2000s '' , nme 's `` best track of the 00s '' and `` pop song of the century '' , considered by rolling stone to be one of the 500 greatest songs of all time , earned two grammy awards and is one of the best-selling singles of all time at around 8 million copies . 
in 2013 , drake released a single titled `` girls love beyoncé '' , which featured an interpolation from destiny child 's `` say my name '' and discussed his relationship with women . 
her debut single , `` crazy in love '' was named vh1 's `` greatest song of the 2000s '' , nme 's `` best track of the 00s '' and `` pop song of the century '' , considered by rolling stone to be one of the 500 greatest songs of all time , earned two grammy awards and is one of the best-selling singles of all time at around 8 million copies . 
in 2013 , drake released a single titled `` girls love beyoncé '' , which featured an interpolation from destiny child 's `` say my name '' and discussed his relationship with women . 
in january 2012 , research scientist bryan lessard named scaptia beyonceae , a species of horse fly found in northern queensland , australia after beyoncé due to the fly 's unique golden hairs on its abdomen . 
as a solo artist she has sold over 15 million albums in the us , and over 118 million records worldwide -lrb- a further 60 million additionally with destiny 's child -rrb- , making her one of the best-selling music artists of all time . 
as a solo artist she has sold over 15 million albums in the us , and over 118 million records worldwide -lrb- a further 60 million additionally with destiny 's child -rrb- , making her one of the best-selling music artists of all time . 
the recording industry association of america -lrb- riaa -rrb- listed beyoncé as the top certified artist of the 2000s , with a total of 64 certifications . 
as a solo artist she has sold over 15 million albums in the us , and over 118 million records worldwide -lrb- a further 60 million additionally with destiny 's child -rrb- , making her one of the best-selling music artists of all time . 
beyoncé has received numerous awards . 
as a solo artist she has sold over 15 million albums in the us , and over 118 million records worldwide -lrb- a further 60 million additionally with destiny 's child -rrb- , making her one of the best-selling music artists of all time . 
as a solo artist she has sold over 15 million albums in the us , and over 118 million records worldwide -lrb- a further 60 million additionally with destiny 's child -rrb- , making her one of the best-selling music artists of all time . 
as a solo artist she has sold over 15 million albums in the us , and over 118 million records worldwide -lrb- a further 60 million additionally with destiny 's child -rrb- , making her one of the best-selling music artists of all time . 
she has also received the legend award at the 2008 world music awards and the billboard millennium award at the 2011 billboard music awards . 
the recording industry association of america -lrb- riaa -rrb- listed beyoncé as the top certified artist of the 2000s , with a total of 64 certifications . 
as a solo artist she has sold over 15 million albums in the us , and over 118 million records worldwide -lrb- a further 60 million additionally with destiny 's child -rrb- , making her one of the best-selling music artists of all time . 
as a solo artist she has sold over 15 million albums in the us , and over 118 million records worldwide -lrb- a further 60 million additionally with destiny 's child -rrb- , making her one of the best-selling music artists of all time . 
the recording industry association of america -lrb- riaa -rrb- listed beyoncé as the top certified artist of the 2000s , with a total of 64 certifications . 
the recording industry association of america -lrb- riaa -rrb- listed beyoncé as the top certified artist of the 2000s , with a total of 64 certifications . 
she has also received the legend award at the 2008 world music awards and the billboard millennium award at the 2011 billboard music awards . 
beyoncé has won 20 grammy awards , both as a solo artist and member of destiny 's child , making her the second most honored female artist by the grammys , behind alison krauss and the most nominated woman in grammy award history with 52 nominations . 
beyoncé has won 20 grammy awards , both as a solo artist and member of destiny 's child , making her the second most honored female artist by the grammys , behind alison krauss and the most nominated woman in grammy award history with 52 nominations . 
beyoncé has won 20 grammy awards , both as a solo artist and member of destiny 's child , making her the second most honored female artist by the grammys , behind alison krauss and the most nominated woman in grammy award history with 52 nominations . 
beyoncé set the record for the most grammy awards won by a female artist in one night in 2010 when she won six awards , breaking the tie she previously held with alicia keys , norah jones , alison krauss , and amy winehouse , with adele equaling this in 2012 . 
beyoncé won two awards at the broadcast film critics association awards 2006 ; best song for `` listen '' and best original soundtrack for dreamgirls : music from the motion picture . 
beyoncé has won 20 grammy awards , both as a solo artist and member of destiny 's child , making her the second most honored female artist by the grammys , behind alison krauss and the most nominated woman in grammy award history with 52 nominations . 
beyoncé has won 20 grammy awards , both as a solo artist and member of destiny 's child , making her the second most honored female artist by the grammys , behind alison krauss and the most nominated woman in grammy award history with 52 nominations . 
`` single ladies -lrb- put a ring on it -rrb- '' won song of the year in 2010 while `` say my name '' and `` crazy in love '' had previously won best r&b song . 
beyoncé set the record for the most grammy awards won by a female artist in one night in 2010 when she won six awards , breaking the tie she previously held with alicia keys , norah jones , alison krauss , and amy winehouse , with adele equaling this in 2012 . 
beyoncé has won 20 grammy awards , both as a solo artist and member of destiny 's child , making her the second most honored female artist by the grammys , behind alison krauss and the most nominated woman in grammy award history with 52 nominations . 
beyoncé has won 20 grammy awards , both as a solo artist and member of destiny 's child , making her the second most honored female artist by the grammys , behind alison krauss and the most nominated woman in grammy award history with 52 nominations . 
`` single ladies -lrb- put a ring on it -rrb- '' won song of the year in 2010 while `` say my name '' and `` crazy in love '' had previously won best r&b song . 
following her role in dreamgirls she was nominated for best original song for `` listen '' and best actress at the golden globe awards , and outstanding actress in a motion picture at the naacp image awards . 
beyoncé has worked with pepsi since 2002 , and in 2004 appeared in a gladiator-themed commercial with britney spears , pink , and enrique iglesias . 
in 2012 , beyoncé signed a $ 50 million deal to endorse pepsi . 
the center for science in the public interest -lrb- cspinet -rrb- wrote beyoncé an open letter asking her to reconsider the deal because of the unhealthiness of the product and to donate the proceeds to a medical organisation . 
nevertheless , netbase found that beyoncé 's campaign was the most talked about endorsement in april 2013 , with a 70 per cent positive audience response to the commercial and print ads . 
beyoncé has worked with pepsi since 2002 , and in 2004 appeared in a gladiator-themed commercial with britney spears , pink , and enrique iglesias . 
beyoncé has worked with pepsi since 2002 , and in 2004 appeared in a gladiator-themed commercial with britney spears , pink , and enrique iglesias . 
in 2012 , beyoncé signed a $ 50 million deal to endorse pepsi . 
the center for science in the public interest -lrb- cspinet -rrb- wrote beyoncé an open letter asking her to reconsider the deal because of the unhealthiness of the product and to donate the proceeds to a medical organisation . 
beyoncé has worked with pepsi since 2002 , and in 2004 appeared in a gladiator-themed commercial with britney spears , pink , and enrique iglesias . 
in 2012 , beyoncé signed a $ 50 million deal to endorse pepsi . 
the center for science in the public interest -lrb- cspinet -rrb- wrote beyoncé an open letter asking her to reconsider the deal because of the unhealthiness of the product and to donate the proceeds to a medical organisation . 
nevertheless , netbase found that beyoncé 's campaign was the most talked about endorsement in april 2013 , with a 70 per cent positive audience response to the commercial and print ads . 
beyoncé has worked with tommy hilfiger for the fragrances true star -lrb- singing a cover version of `` wishing on a star '' -rrb- and true star gold ; she also promoted emporio armani 's diamonds fragrance in 2007 . 
beyoncé has worked with tommy hilfiger for the fragrances true star -lrb- singing a cover version of `` wishing on a star '' -rrb- and true star gold ; she also promoted emporio armani 's diamonds fragrance in 2007 . 
beyoncé launched her first official fragrance , heat in 2010 . 
in 2013 , the mrs. carter show limited edition version of heat was released . 
the six editions of heat are the world 's best-selling celebrity fragrance line , with sales of over $ 400 million . 
beyoncé launched her first official fragrance , heat in 2010 . 
in february 2011 , beyoncé launched her second fragrance , heat rush . 
beyoncé 's third fragrance , pulse , was launched in september 2011 . 
the six editions of heat are the world 's best-selling celebrity fragrance line , with sales of over $ 400 million . 
beyoncé has worked with tommy hilfiger for the fragrances true star -lrb- singing a cover version of `` wishing on a star '' -rrb- and true star gold ; she also promoted emporio armani 's diamonds fragrance in 2007 . 
beyoncé launched her first official fragrance , heat in 2010 . 
beyoncé launched her first official fragrance , heat in 2010 . 
the six editions of heat are the world 's best-selling celebrity fragrance line , with sales of over $ 400 million . 
beyoncé also has had deals with american express , nintendo ds and l'oréal since the age of 18 . 
the release of a video-game starpower : beyoncé was cancelled after beyoncé pulled out of a $ 100 million with gatefive who alleged the cancellation meant the sacking of 70 staff and millions of pounds lost in development . 
beyoncé also has had deals with american express , nintendo ds and l'oréal since the age of 18 . 
the release of a video-game starpower : beyoncé was cancelled after beyoncé pulled out of a $ 100 million with gatefive who alleged the cancellation meant the sacking of 70 staff and millions of pounds lost in development . 
it was settled out of court by her lawyers in june 2013 who said that they had cancelled because gatefive had lost its financial backers . 
the release of a video-game starpower : beyoncé was cancelled after beyoncé pulled out of a $ 100 million with gatefive who alleged the cancellation meant the sacking of 70 staff and millions of pounds lost in development . 
the release of a video-game starpower : beyoncé was cancelled after beyoncé pulled out of a $ 100 million with gatefive who alleged the cancellation meant the sacking of 70 staff and millions of pounds lost in development . 
the release of a video-game starpower : beyoncé was cancelled after beyoncé pulled out of a $ 100 million with gatefive who alleged the cancellation meant the sacking of 70 staff and millions of pounds lost in development . 
the release of a video-game starpower : beyoncé was cancelled after beyoncé pulled out of a $ 100 million with gatefive who alleged the cancellation meant the sacking of 70 staff and millions of pounds lost in development . 
it was settled out of court by her lawyers in june 2013 who said that they had cancelled because gatefive had lost its financial backers . 
in october 2014 , it was announced that beyoncé with her management company parkwood entertainment would be partnering with london-based fashion retailer topshop , in a new 50/50 split subsidiary business named parkwood topshop athletic ltd. . 
in october 2014 , it was announced that beyoncé with her management company parkwood entertainment would be partnering with london-based fashion retailer topshop , in a new 50/50 split subsidiary business named parkwood topshop athletic ltd. . 
the new division was created for topshop to break into the activewear market , with an athletic , street wear brand being produced . 
the company and collection is set to launch and hit stores in the fall of 2015 . 
in october 2014 , it was announced that beyoncé with her management company parkwood entertainment would be partnering with london-based fashion retailer topshop , in a new 50/50 split subsidiary business named parkwood topshop athletic ltd. . 
the company and collection is set to launch and hit stores in the fall of 2015 . 
in october 2014 , it was announced that beyoncé with her management company parkwood entertainment would be partnering with london-based fashion retailer topshop , in a new 50/50 split subsidiary business named parkwood topshop athletic ltd. . 
in october 2014 , it was announced that beyoncé with her management company parkwood entertainment would be partnering with london-based fashion retailer topshop , in a new 50/50 split subsidiary business named parkwood topshop athletic ltd. . 
in october 2014 , it was announced that beyoncé with her management company parkwood entertainment would be partnering with london-based fashion retailer topshop , in a new 50/50 split subsidiary business named parkwood topshop athletic ltd. . 
the new division was created for topshop to break into the activewear market , with an athletic , street wear brand being produced . 
on march 30 , 2015 , it was announced that beyoncé is a co-owner , with various other music artists , in the music streaming service tidal . 
beyoncé 's husband jay z acquired the parent company of tidal , aspiro , in the first quarter of 2015 . 
on march 30 , 2015 , it was announced that beyoncé is a co-owner , with various other music artists , in the music streaming service tidal . 
on march 30 , 2015 , it was announced that beyoncé is a co-owner , with various other music artists , in the music streaming service tidal . 
the idea of having an all artist owned streaming service was created by those involved to adapt to the increased demand for streaming within the current music industry , and to rival other streaming services such as spotify , which have been criticised for their low payout of royalties . 
on march 30 , 2015 , it was announced that beyoncé is a co-owner , with various other music artists , in the music streaming service tidal . 
beyoncé 's husband jay z acquired the parent company of tidal , aspiro , in the first quarter of 2015 . 
beyoncé 's husband jay z acquired the parent company of tidal , aspiro , in the first quarter of 2015 . 
the idea of having an all artist owned streaming service was created by those involved to adapt to the increased demand for streaming within the current music industry , and to rival other streaming services such as spotify , which have been criticised for their low payout of royalties . 
beyoncé and her mother introduced house of deréon , a contemporary women 's fashion line , in 2005 . 
the concept is inspired by three generations of women in their family , the name paying tribute to beyoncé 's grandmother , agnèz deréon , a respected seamstress . 
beyoncé and her mother founded their family 's company beyond productions , which provides the licensing and brand management for house of deréon , and its junior collection , deréon . 
the collection features sportswear , denim offerings with fur , outerwear and accessories that include handbags and footwear , and are available at department and specialty stores across the us and canada . 
the collection features sportswear , denim offerings with fur , outerwear and accessories that include handbags and footwear , and are available at department and specialty stores across the us and canada . 
beyoncé and her mother introduced house of deréon , a contemporary women 's fashion line , in 2005 . 
beyoncé and her mother introduced house of deréon , a contemporary women 's fashion line , in 2005 . 
the concept is inspired by three generations of women in their family , the name paying tribute to beyoncé 's grandmother , agnèz deréon , a respected seamstress . 
house of deréon pieces were exhibited in destiny 's child 's shows and tours , during their destiny fulfilled era . 
beyoncé and her mother introduced house of deréon , a contemporary women 's fashion line , in 2005 . 
beyoncé and her mother founded their family 's company beyond productions , which provides the licensing and brand management for house of deréon , and its junior collection , deréon . 
in 2005 , beyoncé teamed up with house of brands , a shoe company , to produce a range of footwear for house of deréon . 
on may 27 , 2010 , beyoncé teamed up with clothing store c&a to launch deréon by beyoncé at their stores in brazil . 
in july 2009 , beyoncé and her mother launched a new junior apparel label , sasha fierce for deréon , for back-to-school selling . 
in january 2008 , starwave mobile launched beyoncé fashion diva , a `` high-style '' mobile game with a social networking component , featuring the house of deréon collection . 
in july 2009 , beyoncé and her mother launched a new junior apparel label , sasha fierce for deréon , for back-to-school selling . 
on may 27 , 2010 , beyoncé teamed up with clothing store c&a to launch deréon by beyoncé at their stores in brazil . 
in 2005 , beyoncé teamed up with house of brands , a shoe company , to produce a range of footwear for house of deréon . 
in january 2008 , starwave mobile launched beyoncé fashion diva , a `` high-style '' mobile game with a social networking component , featuring the house of deréon collection . 
in july 2009 , beyoncé and her mother launched a new junior apparel label , sasha fierce for deréon , for back-to-school selling . 
on may 27 , 2010 , beyoncé teamed up with clothing store c&a to launch deréon by beyoncé at their stores in brazil . 
it was available at department stores including macy 's and dillard 's , and specialty stores jimmy jazz and against all odds . 
in october 2014 , beyoncé signed a deal to launch an activewear line of clothing with british fashion retailer topshop . 
the 50-50 venture is called parkwood topshop athletic ltd and is scheduled to launch its first dance , fitness and sports ranges in autumn 2015 . 
the 50-50 venture is called parkwood topshop athletic ltd and is scheduled to launch its first dance , fitness and sports ranges in autumn 2015 . 
the 50-50 venture is called parkwood topshop athletic ltd and is scheduled to launch its first dance , fitness and sports ranges in autumn 2015 . 
the line will launch in april 2016 . 
in october 2014 , beyoncé signed a deal to launch an activewear line of clothing with british fashion retailer topshop . 
the 50-50 venture is called parkwood topshop athletic ltd and is scheduled to launch its first dance , fitness and sports ranges in autumn 2015 . 
in october 2014 , beyoncé signed a deal to launch an activewear line of clothing with british fashion retailer topshop . 
after hurricane katrina in 2005 , beyoncé and rowland founded the survivor foundation to provide transitional housing for victims in the houston area , to which beyoncé contributed an initial $ 250,000 . 
after hurricane katrina in 2005 , beyoncé and rowland founded the survivor foundation to provide transitional housing for victims in the houston area , to which beyoncé contributed an initial $ 250,000 . 
the foundation has since expanded to work with other charities in the city , and also provided relief following hurricane ike three years later . 
after hurricane katrina in 2005 , beyoncé and rowland founded the survivor foundation to provide transitional housing for victims in the houston area , to which beyoncé contributed an initial $ 250,000 . 
after hurricane katrina in 2005 , beyoncé and rowland founded the survivor foundation to provide transitional housing for victims in the houston area , to which beyoncé contributed an initial $ 250,000 . 
the foundation has since expanded to work with other charities in the city , and also provided relief following hurricane ike three years later . 
after hurricane katrina in 2005 , beyoncé and rowland founded the survivor foundation to provide transitional housing for victims in the houston area , to which beyoncé contributed an initial $ 250,000 . 
after hurricane katrina in 2005 , beyoncé and rowland founded the survivor foundation to provide transitional housing for victims in the houston area , to which beyoncé contributed an initial $ 250,000 . 
the foundation has since expanded to work with other charities in the city , and also provided relief following hurricane ike three years later . 
beyoncé participated in george clooney and wyclef jean 's hope for haiti now : a global benefit for earthquake relief telethon and was named the official face of the limited edition cfda `` fashion for haiti '' t-shirt , made by theory which raised a total of $ 1 million . 
on march 5 , 2010 , beyoncé and her mother tina opened the beyoncé cosmetology center at the brooklyn phoenix house , offering a seven-month cosmetology training course for men and women . 
following the death of osama bin laden , beyoncé released her cover of the lee greenwood song `` god bless the usa '' , as a charity single to help raise funds for the new york police and fire widows ' and children 's benefit fund . 
beyoncé participated in george clooney and wyclef jean 's hope for haiti now : a global benefit for earthquake relief telethon and was named the official face of the limited edition cfda `` fashion for haiti '' t-shirt , made by theory which raised a total of $ 1 million . 
on march 5 , 2010 , beyoncé and her mother tina opened the beyoncé cosmetology center at the brooklyn phoenix house , offering a seven-month cosmetology training course for men and women . 
following the death of osama bin laden , beyoncé released her cover of the lee greenwood song `` god bless the usa '' , as a charity single to help raise funds for the new york police and fire widows ' and children 's benefit fund . 
beyoncé participated in george clooney and wyclef jean 's hope for haiti now : a global benefit for earthquake relief telethon and was named the official face of the limited edition cfda `` fashion for haiti '' t-shirt , made by theory which raised a total of $ 1 million . 
beyoncé participated in george clooney and wyclef jean 's hope for haiti now : a global benefit for earthquake relief telethon and was named the official face of the limited edition cfda `` fashion for haiti '' t-shirt , made by theory which raised a total of $ 1 million . 
on march 5 , 2010 , beyoncé and her mother tina opened the beyoncé cosmetology center at the brooklyn phoenix house , offering a seven-month cosmetology training course for men and women . 
following the death of osama bin laden , beyoncé released her cover of the lee greenwood song `` god bless the usa '' , as a charity single to help raise funds for the new york police and fire widows ' and children 's benefit fund . 
in december , beyoncé along with a variety of other celebrities teamed up and produced a video campaign for `` demand a plan '' , a bipartisan effort by a group of 950 us mayors and others designed to influence the federal government into rethinking its gun control laws , following the sandy hook elementary school shooting . 
beyoncé became an ambassador for the 2012 world humanitarian day campaign donating her song `` i was here '' and its music video , shot in the un , to the campaign . 
beyoncé is also taking part in `` miss a meal '' , a food-donation campaign , and supporting goodwill charity through online charity auctions at charitybuzz that support job creation throughout europe and the u.s. 
a concert for the cause took place on june 1 , 2013 in london and included other acts like ellie goulding , florence and the machine , and rita ora . 
beyoncé said about her mother tina knowles that her gift was `` finding the best qualities in every human being . '' 
in december , beyoncé along with a variety of other celebrities teamed up and produced a video campaign for `` demand a plan '' , a bipartisan effort by a group of 950 us mayors and others designed to influence the federal government into rethinking its gun control laws , following the sandy hook elementary school shooting . 
in 2013 , it was announced that beyoncé would work with salma hayek and frida giannini on a gucci `` chime for change '' campaign that aims to spread female empowerment . 
with help of the crowdfunding platform catapult , visitors of the concert could choose between several projects promoting education of women and girls . 
in december , beyoncé along with a variety of other celebrities teamed up and produced a video campaign for `` demand a plan '' , a bipartisan effort by a group of 950 us mayors and others designed to influence the federal government into rethinking its gun control laws , following the sandy hook elementary school shooting . 
in december , beyoncé along with a variety of other celebrities teamed up and produced a video campaign for `` demand a plan '' , a bipartisan effort by a group of 950 us mayors and others designed to influence the federal government into rethinking its gun control laws , following the sandy hook elementary school shooting . 
beyoncé became an ambassador for the 2012 world humanitarian day campaign donating her song `` i was here '' and its music video , shot in the un , to the campaign . 
in 2013 , it was announced that beyoncé would work with salma hayek and frida giannini on a gucci `` chime for change '' campaign that aims to spread female empowerment . 
the state 's name is derived from the spanish word montaña -lrb- mountain -rrb- . 
montana is ranked 4th in size , but 44th in population and 48th in population density of the 50 united states . 
montana is ranked 4th in size , but 44th in population and 48th in population density of the 50 united states . 
in total , 77 named ranges are part of the rocky mountains . 
the state 's name is derived from the spanish word montaña -lrb- mountain -rrb- . 
the state tree , the ponderosa pine , was selected by montana schoolchildren as the preferred state tree by an overwhelming majority in a referendum held in 1908 . 
however , the legislature did not designate a state tree until 1949 , when the montana federation of garden clubs , with the support of the state forester , lobbied for formal recognition . 
similarly , the secretary of state sponsored a children 's vote in 1981 to choose a state animal , and after 74 animals were nominated , the grizzly bear won over the elk by a 2 -- 1 margin . 
similarly , the secretary of state sponsored a children 's vote in 1981 to choose a state animal , and after 74 animals were nominated , the grizzly bear won over the elk by a 2 -- 1 margin . 
the students of livingston started a statewide school petition drive plus lobbied the governor and the state legislature to name the maiasaura as the state fossil in 1985 . 
the state song was not composed until 21 years after statehood , when a musical troupe led by joseph e. howard stopped in butte in september 1910 . 
montana 's motto , oro y plata , spanish for `` gold and silver '' , recognizing the significant role of mining , was first adopted in 1865 , when montana was still a territory . 
montana 's motto , oro y plata , spanish for `` gold and silver '' , recognizing the significant role of mining , was first adopted in 1865 , when montana was still a territory . 
montana 's motto , oro y plata , spanish for `` gold and silver '' , recognizing the significant role of mining , was first adopted in 1865 , when montana was still a territory . 
the state flower , the bitterroot , was adopted in 1895 with the support of a group called the floral emblem association , which formed after montana 's women 's christian temperance union adopted the bitterroot as the organization 's state flower . 
the state flower , the bitterroot , was adopted in 1895 with the support of a group called the floral emblem association , which formed after montana 's women 's christian temperance union adopted the bitterroot as the organization 's state flower . 
based on 2013 census numbers , they collectively contain 35 percent of montana 's population . 
montana has 56 counties with the united states census bureau stating montana 's contains 364 `` places '' , broken down into 129 incorporated places and 235 census-designated places . 
montana has one city , billings , with a population over 100,000 ; and two cities with populations over 50,000 , missoula and great falls . 
montana has one city , billings , with a population over 100,000 ; and two cities with populations over 50,000 , missoula and great falls . 
the name montana comes from the spanish word montaña , meaning `` mountain '' , or more broadly , `` mountainous country '' . 
montaña del norte was the name given by early spanish explorers to the entire mountainous region of the west . 
with a total area of 147,040 square miles -lrb- 380,800 km2 -rrb- , montana is slightly larger than japan . 
it borders north dakota and south dakota to the east , wyoming to the south and idaho to the west and southwest . 
it borders north dakota and south dakota to the east , wyoming to the south and idaho to the west and southwest . 
most of montana 's 100 or more named mountain ranges are concentrated in the western half of the state , most of which is geologically and geographically part of the northern rocky mountains . 
about 60 percent of the state is prairie , part of the northern great plains . 
it causes the waterton river , belly , and saint mary rivers to flow north into alberta , canada . 
there they join the saskatchewan river , which ultimately empties into hudson bay . 
the beartooth plateau is the largest continuous land mass over 10,000 feet -lrb- 3,000 m -rrb- high in the continental united states . 
it contains the highest point in the state , granite peak , 12,799 feet -lrb- 3,901 m -rrb- high . 
it contains the highest point in the state , granite peak , 12,799 feet -lrb- 3,901 m -rrb- high . 
democrats currently hold one of the state 's u.s. senate seats , as well as four of the five statewide offices -lrb- governor , superintendent of public instruction , secretary of state and state auditor -rrb- . 
the lone congressional district has been republican since 1996 and in 2014 steve daines won one of the state 's senate seats for the gop . 
the state senate is , as of 2015 , controlled by the republicans 29 to 21 , and the state house of representatives at 59 to 41 . 
the state senate is , as of 2015 , controlled by the republicans 29 to 21 , and the state house of representatives at 59 to 41 . 
in presidential elections , montana was long classified as a swing state , though the state has voted for the republican candidate in all but two elections from 1952 to the present . 
the state last supported a democrat for president in 1992 , when bill clinton won a plurality victory . 
overall , since 1889 the state has voted for democratic governors 60 percent of the time and democratic presidents 40 percent of the time , with these numbers being 40/60 for republican candidates . 
overall , since 1889 the state has voted for democratic governors 60 percent of the time and democratic presidents 40 percent of the time , with these numbers being 40/60 for republican candidates . 
bozeman yellowstone international airport is the busiest airport in the state of montana , surpassing billings logan international airport in the spring of 2013 . 
bozeman yellowstone international airport is the busiest airport in the state of montana , surpassing billings logan international airport in the spring of 2013 . 
today , the bnsf railway is the state 's largest railroad , its main transcontinental route incorporating the former great northern main line across the state . 
railroads have been an important method of transportation in montana since the 1880s . 
montana is home to the rocky mountain elk foundation and has a historic big game hunting tradition . 
there is a spring hunting season for black bear and in most years , limited hunting of bison that leave yellowstone national park is allowed . 
current law allows both hunting and trapping of a specific number of wolves and mountain lions . 
montana has been a destination for its world-class trout fisheries since the 1930s . 
montana is the home of the federation of fly fishers and hosts many of the organizations annual conclaves . 
the state has robust recreational lake trout and kokanee salmon fisheries in the west , walleye can be found in many parts of the state , while northern pike , smallmouth and largemouth bass fisheries as well as catfish and paddlefish can be found in the waters of eastern montana . 
robert redford 's 1992 film of norman mclean 's novel , a river runs through it , was filmed in montana and brought national attention to fly fishing and the state . 
the montana territory was formed on april 26 , 1864 , when the u.s. passed the organic act . 
the first formal school on record was at fort owen in bitterroot valley in 1862 . 
in this school students were charged $ 1.75 per week . 
madison county was the first to take advantage of the newly authorized taxes and it formed fhe first public school in virginia city in 1886 . 
montana contains thousands of named rivers and creeks , 450 miles -lrb- 720 km -rrb- of which are known for `` blue-ribbon '' trout fishing . 
its rivers feed the pacific ocean , the gulf of mexico , and hudson bay . 
the watersheds divide at triple divide peak in glacier national park . 
its rivers feed the pacific ocean , the gulf of mexico , and hudson bay . 
east of the divide the missouri river , which is formed by the confluence of the jefferson , madison and gallatin rivers near three forks , flows due north through the west-central part of the state to great falls . 
east of the divide the missouri river , which is formed by the confluence of the jefferson , madison and gallatin rivers near three forks , flows due north through the west-central part of the state to great falls . 
east of the divide the missouri river , which is formed by the confluence of the jefferson , madison and gallatin rivers near three forks , flows due north through the west-central part of the state to great falls . 
the stretch of river between fort benton and the fred robinson bridge at the western boundary of fort peck reservoir was designated a national wild and scenic river in 1976 . 
it flows north through yellowstone national park , enters montana near gardiner , and passes through the paradise valley to livingston . 
the yellowstone joins the missouri in north dakota just east of fort union . 
there are at least 3,223 named lakes and reservoirs in montana , including flathead lake , the largest natural freshwater lake in the western united states . 
there are at least 3,223 named lakes and reservoirs in montana , including flathead lake , the largest natural freshwater lake in the western united states . 
the largest reservoir in the state is fort peck reservoir on the missouri river , which is contained by the second largest earthen dam and largest hydraulically filled dam in the world . 
the largest reservoir in the state is fort peck reservoir on the missouri river , which is contained by the second largest earthen dam and largest hydraulically filled dam in the world . 
forests cover approximately 25 percent of the state . 
montana is home to a diverse array of fauna that includes 14 amphibian , 90 fish , 117 mammal , 20 reptile and 427 bird species . 
montana has the largest grizzly bear population in the lower 48 states . 
montana hosts five federally endangered species -- black-footed ferret , whooping crane , least tern , pallid sturgeon and white sturgeon and seven threatened species including the grizzly bear , canadian lynx and bull trout . 
the montana department of fish , wildlife and parks manages fishing and hunting seasons for at least 17 species of game fish including seven species of trout , walleye and smallmouth bass and at least 29 species of game birds and animals including ring-neck pheasant , grey partridge , elk , pronghorn antelope , mule deer , whitetail deer , gray wolf and bighorn sheep . 
average annual precipitation is 15 inches -lrb- 380 mm -rrb- , but great variations are seen . 
heron , in the west , receives the most precipitation , 34.70 inches -lrb- 881 mm -rrb- . 
the mountains themselves can receive over 100 inches -lrb- 2,500 mm -rrb- , for example the grinnell glacier in glacier national park gets 105 inches -lrb- 2,700 mm -rrb- . 
montana 's personal income tax contains 7 brackets , with rates ranging from 1 percent to 6.9 percent . 
montana 's personal income tax contains 7 brackets , with rates ranging from 1 percent to 6.9 percent . 
montana has no sales tax . 
approximately 66,000 people of native american heritage live in montana . 
stemming from multiple treaties and federal legislation , including the indian appropriations act -lrb- 1851 -rrb- , the dawes act -lrb- 1887 -rrb- , and the indian reorganization act -lrb- 1934 -rrb- , seven indian reservations , encompassing eleven tribal nations , were created in montana . 
stemming from multiple treaties and federal legislation , including the indian appropriations act -lrb- 1851 -rrb- , the dawes act -lrb- 1887 -rrb- , and the indian reorganization act -lrb- 1934 -rrb- , seven indian reservations , encompassing eleven tribal nations , were created in montana . 
a twelfth nation , the little shell chippewa is a `` landless '' people headquartered in great falls , recognized by the state of montana but not by the u.s. government . 
approximately 63 % of all native people live off the reservations , concentrated in the larger montana cities with the largest concentration of urban indians in great falls . 
while the largest european-american population in montana overall is german , pockets of significant scandinavian ancestry are prevalent in some of the farming-dominated northern and eastern prairie regions , parallel to nearby regions of north dakota and minnesota . 
the nearby city of helena , also founded as a mining camp , had a similar mix in addition to a small chinatown . 
native people constituted 6.5 percent of the state 's total population , the sixth highest percentage of all 50 states . 
montana has three counties in which native americans are a majority : big horn , glacier , and roosevelt . 
the state 's native american population grew by 27.9 percent between 1980 and 1990 -lrb- at a time when montana 's entire population rose just 1.6 percent -rrb- , and by 18.5 percent between 2000 and 2010 . 
many montana cities set heat records during july 2007 , the hottest month ever recorded in montana . 
many montana cities set heat records during july 2007 , the hottest month ever recorded in montana . 
the combination of warmer weather , attack by beetles , and mismanagement during past years has led to a substantial increase in the severity of forest fires in montana . 
in 1855 , washington territorial governor isaac stevens negotiated the hellgate treaty between the united states government and the salish , pend d'oreille , and the kootenai people of western montana , which established boundaries for the tribal nations . 
in 1855 , washington territorial governor isaac stevens negotiated the hellgate treaty between the united states government and the salish , pend d'oreille , and the kootenai people of western montana , which established boundaries for the tribal nations . 
the treaty was ratified in 1859 . 
while the treaty established what later became the flathead indian reservation , trouble with interpreters and confusion over the terms of the treaty led whites to believe that the bitterroot valley was opened to settlement , but the tribal nations disputed those provisions . 
the first u.s. army post established in montana was camp cooke on the missouri river in 1866 to protect steamboat traffic going to fort benton , montana . 
the first u.s. army post established in montana was camp cooke on the missouri river in 1866 to protect steamboat traffic going to fort benton , montana . 
major battles occurred in montana during red cloud 's war , the great sioux war of 1876 , the nez perce war and in conflicts with piegan blackfeet . 
the most notable of these were the marias massacre -lrb- 1870 -rrb- , battle of the little bighorn -lrb- 1876 -rrb- , battle of the big hole -lrb- 1877 -rrb- and battle of bear paw -lrb- 1877 -rrb- . 
english is the official language in the state of montana , as it is in many u.s. states . 
according to the 2000 u.s. census , 94.8 percent of the population aged 5 and older speak english at home . 
spanish is the language most commonly spoken at home other than english . 
there were about 13,040 spanish-language speakers in the state -lrb- 1.4 percent of the population -rrb- in 2011 . 
other languages spoken in montana -lrb- as of 2013 -rrb- include assiniboine -lrb- about 150 speakers in the montana and canada -rrb- , blackfoot -lrb- about 100 speakers -rrb- , cheyenne -lrb- about 1,700 speakers -rrb- , plains cree -lrb- about 100 speakers -rrb- , crow -lrb- about 3,000 speakers -rrb- , dakota -lrb- about 18,800 speakers in minnesota , montana , nebraska , north dakota , and south dakota -rrb- , german hutterite -lrb- about 5,600 speakers -rrb- , gros ventre -lrb- about 10 speakers -rrb- , kalispel-pend d'oreille -lrb- about 64 speakers -rrb- , kutenai -lrb- about 6 speakers -rrb- , and lakota -lrb- about 6,000 speakers in minnesota , montana , nebraska , north dakota , south dakota -rrb- . 
according to the 2010 census , 89.4 percent of the population was white -lrb- 87.8 percent non-hispanic white -rrb- , 6.3 percent american indian and alaska native , 2.9 percent hispanics and latinos of any race , 0.6 percent asian , 0.4 percent black or african american , 0.1 percent native hawaiian and other pacific islander , 0.6 percent from some other race , and 2.5 percent from two or more races . 
according to the 2010 census , 89.4 percent of the population was white -lrb- 87.8 percent non-hispanic white -rrb- , 6.3 percent american indian and alaska native , 2.9 percent hispanics and latinos of any race , 0.6 percent asian , 0.4 percent black or african american , 0.1 percent native hawaiian and other pacific islander , 0.6 percent from some other race , and 2.5 percent from two or more races . 
according to the 2010 census , 89.4 percent of the population was white -lrb- 87.8 percent non-hispanic white -rrb- , 6.3 percent american indian and alaska native , 2.9 percent hispanics and latinos of any race , 0.6 percent asian , 0.4 percent black or african american , 0.1 percent native hawaiian and other pacific islander , 0.6 percent from some other race , and 2.5 percent from two or more races . 
the united states census bureau estimates that the population of montana was 1,032,949 on july 1 , 2015 , a 4.40 % increase since the 2010 united states census . 
the united states census bureau estimates that the population of montana was 1,032,949 on july 1 , 2015 , a 4.40 % increase since the 2010 united states census . 
during the first decade of the new century , growth was mainly concentrated in montana 's seven largest counties , with the highest percentage growth in gallatin county , which saw a 32 percent increase in its population from 2000-2010 . 
the city seeing the largest percentage growth was kalispell with 40.1 percent , and the city with the largest increase in actual residents was billings with an increase in population of 14,323 from 2000-2010 . 
in 1940 , jeannette rankin had once again been elected to congress , and in 1941 , as she did in 1917 , she voted against the united states ' declaration of war . 
in 1940 , jeannette rankin had once again been elected to congress , and in 1941 , as she did in 1917 , she voted against the united states ' declaration of war . 
many individuals from throughout the u.s. who claimed conscientious objector status were sent to montana during the war as smokejumpers and for other forest fire-fighting duties . 
some estimates say there were over 13 million bison in montana in 1870 . 
by 1884 , commercial hunting had brought bison to the verge of extinction ; only about 325 bison remained in the entire united states . 
in 1875 , general philip sheridan pleaded to a joint session of congress to authorize the slaughtering of herds in order to deprive the indians of their source of food . 
in 1875 , general philip sheridan pleaded to a joint session of congress to authorize the slaughtering of herds in order to deprive the indians of their source of food . 
tracks of the northern pacific railroad -lrb- npr -rrb- reached montana from the west in 1881 and from the east in 1882 . 
tracks of the northern pacific railroad -lrb- npr -rrb- reached montana from the west in 1881 and from the east in 1882 . 
jay cooke , the npr president launched major surveys into the yellowstone valley in 1871 , 1872 and 1873 which were challenged forcefully by the sioux under chief sitting bull . 
surveys in 1874 , 1875 and 1876 helped spark the great sioux war of 1876 . 
the transcontinental npr was completed on september 8 , 1883 , at gold creek . 
under territorial governor thomas meagher , montanans held a constitutional convention in 1866 in a failed bid for statehood . 
under territorial governor thomas meagher , montanans held a constitutional convention in 1866 in a failed bid for statehood . 
a second constitutional convention was held in helena in 1884 that produced a constitution ratified 3:1 by montana citizens in november 1884 . 
congress approved montana statehood in february 1889 and president grover cleveland signed an omnibus bill granting statehood to montana , north dakota , south dakota and washington once the appropriate state constitutions were crafted . 
congress approved montana statehood in february 1889 and president grover cleveland signed an omnibus bill granting statehood to montana , north dakota , south dakota and washington once the appropriate state constitutions were crafted . 
the homestead act of 1862 provided free land to settlers who could claim and `` prove-up '' 160 acres -lrb- 0.65 km2 -rrb- of federal land in the midwest and western united states . 
the homestead act of 1862 provided free land to settlers who could claim and `` prove-up '' 160 acres -lrb- 0.65 km2 -rrb- of federal land in the midwest and western united states . 
the first homestead claim under the act in montana was made by david carpenter near helena in 1868 . 
the desert land act of 1877 was passed to allow settlement of arid lands in the west and allotted 640 acres -lrb- 2.6 km2 -rrb- to settlers for a fee of $ .25 per acre and a promise to irrigate the land . 
the desert land act of 1877 was passed to allow settlement of arid lands in the west and allotted 640 acres -lrb- 2.6 km2 -rrb- to settlers for a fee of $ .25 per acre and a promise to irrigate the land . 
the desert land act of 1877 was passed to allow settlement of arid lands in the west and allotted 640 acres -lrb- 2.6 km2 -rrb- to settlers for a fee of $ .25 per acre and a promise to irrigate the land . 
in the early 1900s , james j. hill of the great northern began promoting settlement in the montana prairie to fill his trains with settlers and goods . 
in 1902 , the reclamation act was passed , allowing irrigation projects to be built in montana 's eastern river valleys . 
in 1909 , congress passed the enlarged homestead act that expanded the amount of free land from 160 to 320 acres -lrb- 0.6 to 1.3 km2 -rrb- per family and in 1912 reduced the time to `` prove up '' on a claim to three years . 
in 1909 , congress passed the enlarged homestead act that expanded the amount of free land from 160 to 320 acres -lrb- 0.6 to 1.3 km2 -rrb- per family and in 1912 reduced the time to `` prove up '' on a claim to three years . 
in june 1917 , the u.s. congress passed the espionage act of 1917 which was later extended by the sedition act of 1918 , enacted in may 1918 . 
in june 1917 , the u.s. congress passed the espionage act of 1917 which was later extended by the sedition act of 1918 , enacted in may 1918 . 
in combination , these laws criminalized criticism of the u.s. government , military , or symbols through speech or other means . 
the montana act led to the arrest of over 200 individuals and the conviction of 78 , mostly of german or austrian descent . 
the montana act led to the arrest of over 200 individuals and the conviction of 78 , mostly of german or austrian descent . 
another 40,000-plus montanans entered the armed forces in the first year following the declaration of war , and over 57,000 joined up before the war ended . 
another 40,000-plus montanans entered the armed forces in the first year following the declaration of war , and over 57,000 joined up before the war ended . 
at least 1500 montanans died in the war . 
montana also was the training ground for the first special service force or `` devil 's brigade , '' a joint u.s-canadian commando-style force that trained at fort william henry harrison for experience in mountainous and winter conditions before deployment . 
air bases were built in great falls , lewistown , cut bank and glasgow , some of which were used as staging areas to prepare planes to be sent to allied forces in the soviet union . 
the aim of the genocide convention is to prevent the intentional destruction of entire human groups , and the part targeted must be significant enough to have an impact on the group as a whole . '' 
in prosecutor v. radislav krstic -- appeals chamber -- judgment -- it-98-33 -lrb- 2004 -rrb- icty 7 -lrb- 19 april 2004 -rrb- paragraphs 8 , 9 , 10 , and 11 addressed the issue of in part and found that `` the part must be a substantial part of that group . 
the phrase `` in whole or in part '' has been subject to much discussion by scholars of international humanitarian law . 
the international criminal tribunal for the former yugoslavia found in prosecutor v. radislav krstic -- trial chamber i -- judgment -- it-98-33 -lrb- 2001 -rrb- icty8 -lrb- 2 august 2001 -rrb- that genocide had been committed . 
the appeals chamber goes into details of other cases and the opinions of respected commentators on the genocide convention to explain how they came to this conclusion . 
it noted that international criminal tribunal for the former yugoslavia and the international court of justice had agreed with the narrow interpretation , that biological-physical destruction was necessary for an act to qualify as genocide . 
the echr also noted that at the time of its judgement , apart from courts in germany which had taken a broad view , that there had been few cases of genocide under other convention states municipal laws and that `` there are no reported cases in which the courts of these states have defined the type of group destruction the perpetrator must have intended in order to be found guilty of genocide '' . 
the echr also noted that at the time of its judgement , apart from courts in germany which had taken a broad view , that there had been few cases of genocide under other convention states municipal laws and that `` there are no reported cases in which the courts of these states have defined the type of group destruction the perpetrator must have intended in order to be found guilty of genocide '' . 
the echr also noted that at the time of its judgement , apart from courts in germany which had taken a broad view , that there had been few cases of genocide under other convention states municipal laws and that `` there are no reported cases in which the courts of these states have defined the type of group destruction the perpetrator must have intended in order to be found guilty of genocide '' . 
in the same judgement the echr reviewed the judgements of several international and municipal courts judgements . 
in 1948 , the un general assembly adopted the convention on the prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide -lrb- cppcg -rrb- which defined the crime of genocide for the first time . 
after the holocaust , which had been perpetrated by the nazi germany and its allies prior to and during world war ii , lemkin successfully campaigned for the universal acceptance of international laws defining and forbidding genocides . 
after the holocaust , which had been perpetrated by the nazi germany and its allies prior to and during world war ii , lemkin successfully campaigned for the universal acceptance of international laws defining and forbidding genocides . 
in 1946 , the first session of the united nations general assembly adopted a resolution that `` affirmed '' that genocide was a crime under international law , but did not provide a legal definition of the crime . 
in 1946 , the first session of the united nations general assembly adopted a resolution that `` affirmed '' that genocide was a crime under international law , but did not provide a legal definition of the crime . 
the first draft of the convention included political killings , but these provisions were removed in a political and diplomatic compromise following objections from some countries , including the ussr , a permanent security council member . 
the first draft of the convention included political killings , but these provisions were removed in a political and diplomatic compromise following objections from some countries , including the ussr , a permanent security council member . 
other nations feared that including political groups in the definition would invite international intervention in domestic politics . 
however leading genocide scholar william schabas states : `` rigorous examination of the travaux fails to confirm a popular impression in the literature that the opposition to inclusion of political genocide was some soviet machination . 
the ussr argued that the convention 's definition should follow the etymology of the term , and may have feared greater international scrutiny of its own great purge . 
in 2007 the european court of human rights -lrb- echr -rrb- , noted in its judgement on jorgic v. germany case that in 1992 the majority of legal scholars took the narrow view that `` intent to destroy '' in the cppcg meant the intended physical-biological destruction of the protected group and that this was still the majority opinion . 
but the echr also noted that a minority took a broader view and did not consider biological-physical destruction was necessary as the intent to destroy a national , racial , religious or ethnic group was enough to qualify as genocide . 
in 2007 the european court of human rights -lrb- echr -rrb- , noted in its judgement on jorgic v. germany case that in 1992 the majority of legal scholars took the narrow view that `` intent to destroy '' in the cppcg meant the intended physical-biological destruction of the protected group and that this was still the majority opinion . 
but the echr also noted that a minority took a broader view and did not consider biological-physical destruction was necessary as the intent to destroy a national , racial , religious or ethnic group was enough to qualify as genocide . 
the word genocide was later included as a descriptive term to the process of indictment , but not yet as a formal legal term according to lemming , genocide was defined as `` a coordinated strategy to destroy a group of people , a process that could be accomplished through total annihilation as well as strategies that eliminate key elements of the group 's basic existence , including language , culture , and economic infrastructure . '' 
the word genocide was later included as a descriptive term to the process of indictment , but not yet as a formal legal term according to lemming , genocide was defined as `` a coordinated strategy to destroy a group of people , a process that could be accomplished through total annihilation as well as strategies that eliminate key elements of the group 's basic existence , including language , culture , and economic infrastructure . '' 
he created a concept of mobilizing much of the international relations and community , to working together and preventing the occurrence of such events happening within history and the international society . 
australian anthropologist peg levine coined the term `` ritualcide '' to describe the destruction of a group 's cultural identity without necessarily destroying its members . 
australian anthropologist peg levine coined the term `` ritualcide '' to describe the destruction of a group 's cultural identity without necessarily destroying its members . 
australian anthropologist peg levine coined the term `` ritualcide '' to describe the destruction of a group 's cultural identity without necessarily destroying its members . 
australian anthropologist peg levine coined the term `` ritualcide '' to describe the destruction of a group 's cultural identity without necessarily destroying its members . 
the word genocide was later included as a descriptive term to the process of indictment , but not yet as a formal legal term according to lemming , genocide was defined as `` a coordinated strategy to destroy a group of people , a process that could be accomplished through total annihilation as well as strategies that eliminate key elements of the group 's basic existence , including language , culture , and economic infrastructure . '' 
the study of genocide has mainly been focused towards the legal aspect of the term . 
by formally recognizing the act of genocide as a crime , involves the undergoing prosecution that begins with not only seeing genocide as outrageous past any moral standpoint but also may be a legal liability within international relations . 
when genocide is looked at in a general aspect it is viewed as the deliberate killing of a certain group . 
yet is commonly seen to escape the process of trial and prosecution due to the fact that genocide is more often than not committed by the officials in power of a state or area . 
in 1648 before the term genocide had been coined , the peace of westphalia was established to protect ethnic , national , racial and in some instances religious groups . 
yet is commonly seen to escape the process of trial and prosecution due to the fact that genocide is more often than not committed by the officials in power of a state or area . 
in 1648 before the term genocide had been coined , the peace of westphalia was established to protect ethnic , national , racial and in some instances religious groups . 
in 1648 before the term genocide had been coined , the peace of westphalia was established to protect ethnic , national , racial and in some instances religious groups . 
the word genocide was not in use before 1944 . 
the word genocide is the combination of the greek prefix geno - -lrb- meaning tribe or race -rrb- and caedere -lrb- the latin word for to kill -rrb- . 
the word is defined as a specific set of violent crimes that are committed against a certain group with the attempt to remove the entire group from existence or to destroy them . 
in that year , a polish-jewish lawyer named raphael lemkin , described the policies of systematic murder founded by the nazis as genocide . 
before this , in 1941 , winston churchill described the mass killing of russian prisoners of war and civilians as `` a crime without a name '' . 
the word genocide was not in use before 1944 . 
before this , in 1941 , winston churchill described the mass killing of russian prisoners of war and civilians as `` a crime without a name '' . 
in that year , a polish-jewish lawyer named raphael lemkin , described the policies of systematic murder founded by the nazis as genocide . 
the word genocide is the combination of the greek prefix geno - -lrb- meaning tribe or race -rrb- and caedere -lrb- the latin word for to kill -rrb- . 
the word is defined as a specific set of violent crimes that are committed against a certain group with the attempt to remove the entire group from existence or to destroy them . 
the judges continue in paragraph 12 , `` the determination of when the targeted part is substantial enough to meet this requirement may involve a number of considerations . 
the numeric size of the targeted part of the group is the necessary and important starting point , though not in all cases the ending point of the inquiry . 
the number of individuals targeted should be evaluated not only in absolute terms , but also in relation to the overall size of the entire group . 
in addition to the numeric size of the targeted portion , its prominence within the group can be a useful consideration . 
in paragraph 13 the judges raise the issue of the perpetrators ' access to the victims : `` the historical examples of genocide also suggest that the area of the perpetrators ' activity and control , as well as the possible extent of their reach , should be considered . 
in paragraph 13 the judges raise the issue of the perpetrators ' access to the victims : `` the historical examples of genocide also suggest that the area of the perpetrators ' activity and control , as well as the possible extent of their reach , should be considered . 
in paragraph 13 the judges raise the issue of the perpetrators ' access to the victims : `` the historical examples of genocide also suggest that the area of the perpetrators ' activity and control , as well as the possible extent of their reach , should be considered . 
... the intent to destroy formed by a perpetrator of genocide will always be limited by the opportunity presented to him . 
while this factor alone will not indicate whether the targeted group is substantial , it can -- in combination with other factors -- inform the analysis . '' 
the convention came into force as international law on 12 january 1951 after the minimum 20 countries became parties . 
the convention came into force as international law on 12 january 1951 after the minimum 20 countries became parties . 
at that time however , only two of the five permanent members of the un security council were parties to the treaty : france and the republic of china . 
the soviet union ratified in 1954 , the united kingdom in 1970 , the people 's republic of china in 1983 -lrb- having replaced the taiwan-based republic of china on the unsc in 1971 -rrb- , and the united states in 1988 . 
this long delay in support for the convention by the world 's most powerful nations caused the convention to languish for over four decades . 
writing in 1998 kurt jonassohn and karin björnson stated that the cppcg was a legal instrument resulting from a diplomatic compromise . 
as such the wording of the treaty is not intended to be a definition suitable as a research tool , and although it is used for this purpose , as it has an international legal credibility that others lack , other definitions have also been postulated . 
as such the wording of the treaty is not intended to be a definition suitable as a research tool , and although it is used for this purpose , as it has an international legal credibility that others lack , other definitions have also been postulated . 
jonassohn and björnson go on to say that none of these alternative definitions have gained widespread support for various reasons . 
jonassohn and björnson postulate that the major reason why no single generally accepted genocide definition has emerged is because academics have adjusted their focus to emphasise different periods and have found it expedient to use slightly different definitions to help them interpret events . 
jonassohn and björnson postulate that the major reason why no single generally accepted genocide definition has emerged is because academics have adjusted their focus to emphasise different periods and have found it expedient to use slightly different definitions to help them interpret events . 
for example , frank chalk and kurt jonassohn studied the whole of human history , while leo kuper and r. j. rummel in their more recent works concentrated on the 20th century , and helen fein , barbara harff and ted gurr have looked at post world war ii events . 
for example , frank chalk and kurt jonassohn studied the whole of human history , while leo kuper and r. j. rummel in their more recent works concentrated on the 20th century , and helen fein , barbara harff and ted gurr have looked at post world war ii events . 
for example , frank chalk and kurt jonassohn studied the whole of human history , while leo kuper and r. j. rummel in their more recent works concentrated on the 20th century , and helen fein , barbara harff and ted gurr have looked at post world war ii events . 
the exclusion of social and political groups as targets of genocide in the cppcg legal definition has been criticized by some historians and sociologists , for example m. hassan kakar in his book the soviet invasion and the afghan response , 1979 -- 1982 argues that the international definition of genocide is too restricted , and that it should include political groups or any group so defined by the perpetrator and quotes chalk and jonassohn : `` genocide is a form of one-sided mass killing in which a state or other authority intends to destroy a group , as that group and membership in it are defined by the perpetrator . '' 
the exclusion of social and political groups as targets of genocide in the cppcg legal definition has been criticized by some historians and sociologists , for example m. hassan kakar in his book the soviet invasion and the afghan response , 1979 -- 1982 argues that the international definition of genocide is too restricted , and that it should include political groups or any group so defined by the perpetrator and quotes chalk and jonassohn : `` genocide is a form of one-sided mass killing in which a state or other authority intends to destroy a group , as that group and membership in it are defined by the perpetrator . '' 
the exclusion of social and political groups as targets of genocide in the cppcg legal definition has been criticized by some historians and sociologists , for example m. hassan kakar in his book the soviet invasion and the afghan response , 1979 -- 1982 argues that the international definition of genocide is too restricted , and that it should include political groups or any group so defined by the perpetrator and quotes chalk and jonassohn : `` genocide is a form of one-sided mass killing in which a state or other authority intends to destroy a group , as that group and membership in it are defined by the perpetrator . '' 
the exclusion of social and political groups as targets of genocide in the cppcg legal definition has been criticized by some historians and sociologists , for example m. hassan kakar in his book the soviet invasion and the afghan response , 1979 -- 1982 argues that the international definition of genocide is too restricted , and that it should include political groups or any group so defined by the perpetrator and quotes chalk and jonassohn : `` genocide is a form of one-sided mass killing in which a state or other authority intends to destroy a group , as that group and membership in it are defined by the perpetrator . '' 
the exclusion of social and political groups as targets of genocide in the cppcg legal definition has been criticized by some historians and sociologists , for example m. hassan kakar in his book the soviet invasion and the afghan response , 1979 -- 1982 argues that the international definition of genocide is too restricted , and that it should include political groups or any group so defined by the perpetrator and quotes chalk and jonassohn : `` genocide is a form of one-sided mass killing in which a state or other authority intends to destroy a group , as that group and membership in it are defined by the perpetrator . '' 
barbara harff and ted gurr defined genocide as `` the promotion and execution of policies by a state or its agents which result in the deaths of a substantial portion of a group ... -lsb- when -rsb- the victimized groups are defined primarily in terms of their communal characteristics , i.e. , ethnicity , religion or nationality . '' 
barbara harff and ted gurr defined genocide as `` the promotion and execution of policies by a state or its agents which result in the deaths of a substantial portion of a group ... -lsb- when -rsb- the victimized groups are defined primarily in terms of their communal characteristics , i.e. , ethnicity , religion or nationality . '' 
harff and gurr also differentiate between genocides and politicides by the characteristics by which members of a group are identified by the state . 
in genocides , the victimized groups are defined primarily in terms of their communal characteristics , i.e. , ethnicity , religion or nationality . 
daniel d. polsby and don b. kates , jr. state that '' ... we follow harff 's distinction between genocides and ` pogroms , ' which she describes as ` short-lived outbursts by mobs , which , although often condoned by authorities , rarely persist . ' 
the ordinary meaning is murder by government of people due to their national , ethnic , racial , or religious group membership . 
the ordinary meaning is murder by government of people due to their national , ethnic , racial , or religious group membership . 
the legal meaning of genocide refers to the international treaty , the convention on the prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide . 
this also includes non-killings that in the end eliminate the group , such as preventing births or forcibly transferring children out of the group to another group . 
this also includes non-killings that in the end eliminate the group , such as preventing births or forcibly transferring children out of the group to another group . 
highlighting the potential for state and non-state actors to commit genocide in the 21st century , for example , in failed states or as non-state actors acquire weapons of mass destruction , adrian gallagher defined genocide as ` when a source of collective power -lrb- usually a state -rrb- intentionally uses its power base to implement a process of destruction in order to destroy a group -lrb- as defined by the perpetrator -rrb- , in whole or in substantial part , dependent upon relative group size ' . 
highlighting the potential for state and non-state actors to commit genocide in the 21st century , for example , in failed states or as non-state actors acquire weapons of mass destruction , adrian gallagher defined genocide as ` when a source of collective power -lrb- usually a state -rrb- intentionally uses its power base to implement a process of destruction in order to destroy a group -lrb- as defined by the perpetrator -rrb- , in whole or in substantial part , dependent upon relative group size ' . 
the definition upholds the centrality of intent , the multidimensional understanding of destroy , broadens the definition of group identity beyond that of the 1948 definition yet argues that a substantial part of a group has to be destroyed before it can be classified as genocide -lrb- dependent on relative group size -rrb- . 
the definition upholds the centrality of intent , the multidimensional understanding of destroy , broadens the definition of group identity beyond that of the 1948 definition yet argues that a substantial part of a group has to be destroyed before it can be classified as genocide -lrb- dependent on relative group size -rrb- . 
the definition upholds the centrality of intent , the multidimensional understanding of destroy , broadens the definition of group identity beyond that of the 1948 definition yet argues that a substantial part of a group has to be destroyed before it can be classified as genocide -lrb- dependent on relative group size -rrb- . 
all signatories to the cppcg are required to prevent and punish acts of genocide , both in peace and wartime , though some barriers make this enforcement difficult . 
all signatories to the cppcg are required to prevent and punish acts of genocide , both in peace and wartime , though some barriers make this enforcement difficult . 
in particular , some of the signatories -- namely , bahrain , bangladesh , india , malaysia , the philippines , singapore , the united states , vietnam , yemen , and former yugoslavia -- signed with the proviso that no claim of genocide could be brought against them at the international court of justice without their consent . 
in particular , some of the signatories -- namely , bahrain , bangladesh , india , malaysia , the philippines , singapore , the united states , vietnam , yemen , and former yugoslavia -- signed with the proviso that no claim of genocide could be brought against them at the international court of justice without their consent . 
despite official protests from other signatories -lrb- notably cyprus and norway -rrb- on the ethics and legal standing of these reservations , the immunity from prosecution they grant has been invoked from time to time , as when the united states refused to allow a charge of genocide brought against it by former yugoslavia following the 1999 kosovo war . 
because the universal acceptance of international laws which in 1948 defined and forbade genocide with the promulgation of the convention on the prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide -lrb- cppcg -rrb- , those criminals who were prosecuted after the war in international courts for taking part in the holocaust were found guilty of crimes against humanity and other more specific crimes like murder . 
because the universal acceptance of international laws which in 1948 defined and forbade genocide with the promulgation of the convention on the prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide -lrb- cppcg -rrb- , those criminals who were prosecuted after the war in international courts for taking part in the holocaust were found guilty of crimes against humanity and other more specific crimes like murder . 
because the universal acceptance of international laws which in 1948 defined and forbade genocide with the promulgation of the convention on the prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide -lrb- cppcg -rrb- , those criminals who were prosecuted after the war in international courts for taking part in the holocaust were found guilty of crimes against humanity and other more specific crimes like murder . 
because the universal acceptance of international laws which in 1948 defined and forbade genocide with the promulgation of the convention on the prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide -lrb- cppcg -rrb- , those criminals who were prosecuted after the war in international courts for taking part in the holocaust were found guilty of crimes against humanity and other more specific crimes like murder . 
nevertheless , the holocaust is universally recognized to have been a genocide and the term , that had been coined the year before by raphael lemkin , appeared in the indictment of the 24 nazi leaders , count 3 , which stated that all the defendants had `` conducted deliberate and systematic genocide -- namely , the extermination of racial and national groups ... '' 
on 12 july 2007 , european court of human rights when dismissing the appeal by nikola jorgić against his conviction for genocide by a german court -lrb- jorgic v. germany -rrb- noted that the german courts wider interpretation of genocide has since been rejected by international courts considering similar cases . 
on 12 july 2007 , european court of human rights when dismissing the appeal by nikola jorgić against his conviction for genocide by a german court -lrb- jorgic v. germany -rrb- noted that the german courts wider interpretation of genocide has since been rejected by international courts considering similar cases . 
the echr also noted that in the 21st century `` amongst scholars , the majority have taken the view that ethnic cleansing , in the way in which it was carried out by the serb forces in bosnia and herzegovina in order to expel muslims and croats from their homes , did not constitute genocide . 
the echr also noted that in the 21st century `` amongst scholars , the majority have taken the view that ethnic cleansing , in the way in which it was carried out by the serb forces in bosnia and herzegovina in order to expel muslims and croats from their homes , did not constitute genocide . 
however , there are also a considerable number of scholars who have suggested that these acts did amount to genocide , and the icty has found in the momcilo krajisnik case that the actus reu , of genocide was met in prijedor `` with regard to the charge of genocide , the chamber found that in spite of evidence of acts perpetrated in the municipalities which constituted the actus reus of genocide '' . 
about 30 people have been indicted for participating in genocide or complicity in genocide during the early 1990s in bosnia . 
to date , after several plea bargains and some convictions that were successfully challenged on appeal two men , vujadin popović and ljubiša beara , have been found guilty of committing genocide , zdravko tolimir has been found guilty of committing genocide and conspiracy to commit genocide , and two others , radislav krstić and drago nikolić , have been found guilty of aiding and abetting genocide . 
to date , after several plea bargains and some convictions that were successfully challenged on appeal two men , vujadin popović and ljubiša beara , have been found guilty of committing genocide , zdravko tolimir has been found guilty of committing genocide and conspiracy to commit genocide , and two others , radislav krstić and drago nikolić , have been found guilty of aiding and abetting genocide . 
to date , after several plea bargains and some convictions that were successfully challenged on appeal two men , vujadin popović and ljubiša beara , have been found guilty of committing genocide , zdravko tolimir has been found guilty of committing genocide and conspiracy to commit genocide , and two others , radislav krstić and drago nikolić , have been found guilty of aiding and abetting genocide . 
three others have been found guilty of participating in genocides in bosnia by german courts , one of whom nikola jorgić lost an appeal against his conviction in the european court of human rights . 
he died on 11 march 2006 during his trial where he was accused of genocide or complicity in genocide in territories within bosnia and herzegovina , so no verdict was returned . 
on 21 july 2008 , karadžić was arrested in belgrade , and he is currently in the hague on trial accused of genocide among other crimes . 
in 1995 , the icty issued a warrant for the arrest of bosnian serbs radovan karadžić and ratko mladić on several charges including genocide . 
he died on 11 march 2006 during his trial where he was accused of genocide or complicity in genocide in territories within bosnia and herzegovina , so no verdict was returned . 
slobodan milošević , as the former president of serbia and of yugoslavia , was the most senior political figure to stand trial at the icty . 
the international criminal tribunal for rwanda -lrb- ictr -rrb- is a court under the auspices of the united nations for the prosecution of offenses committed in rwanda during the genocide which occurred there during april 1994 , commencing on 6 april . 
the international criminal tribunal for rwanda -lrb- ictr -rrb- is a court under the auspices of the united nations for the prosecution of offenses committed in rwanda during the genocide which occurred there during april 1994 , commencing on 6 april . 
the ictr was created on 8 november 1994 by the security council of the united nations in order to judge those people responsible for the acts of genocide and other serious violations of the international law performed in the territory of rwanda , or by rwandan citizens in nearby states , between 1 january and 31 december 1994 . 
the ictr was created on 8 november 1994 by the security council of the united nations in order to judge those people responsible for the acts of genocide and other serious violations of the international law performed in the territory of rwanda , or by rwandan citizens in nearby states , between 1 january and 31 december 1994 . 
the ictr was created on 8 november 1994 by the security council of the united nations in order to judge those people responsible for the acts of genocide and other serious violations of the international law performed in the territory of rwanda , or by rwandan citizens in nearby states , between 1 january and 31 december 1994 . 
there has been much debate over categorizing the situation in darfur as genocide . 
the ongoing conflict in darfur , sudan , which started in 2003 , was declared a `` genocide '' by united states secretary of state colin powell on 9 september 2004 in testimony before the senate foreign relations committee . 
the ongoing conflict in darfur , sudan , which started in 2003 , was declared a `` genocide '' by united states secretary of state colin powell on 9 september 2004 in testimony before the senate foreign relations committee . 
in fact , in january 2005 , an international commission of inquiry on darfur , authorized by un security council resolution 1564 of 2004 , issued a report to the secretary-general stating that `` the government of the sudan has not pursued a policy of genocide . '' 
nevertheless , the commission cautioned that `` the conclusion that no genocidal policy has been pursued and implemented in darfur by the government authorities , directly or through the militias under their control , should not be taken in any way as detracting from the gravity of the crimes perpetrated in that region . 
in march 2005 , the security council formally referred the situation in darfur to the prosecutor of the international criminal court , taking into account the commission report but without mentioning any specific crimes . 
in march 2005 , the security council formally referred the situation in darfur to the prosecutor of the international criminal court , taking into account the commission report but without mentioning any specific crimes . 
two permanent members of the security council , the united states and china , abstained from the vote on the referral resolution . 
as of his fourth report to the security council , the prosecutor has found `` reasonable grounds to believe that the individuals identified -lsb- in the un security council resolution 1593 -rsb- have committed crimes against humanity and war crimes , '' but did not find sufficient evidence to prosecute for genocide . 
other authors have focused on the structural conditions leading up to genocide and the psychological and social processes that create an evolution toward genocide . 
other authors have focused on the structural conditions leading up to genocide and the psychological and social processes that create an evolution toward genocide . 
ervin staub showed that economic deterioration and political confusion and disorganization were starting points of increasing discrimination and violence in many instances of genocides and mass killing . 
a history of devaluation of the group that becomes the victim , past violence against the group that becomes the perpetrator leading to psychological wounds , authoritarian cultures and political systems , and the passivity of internal and external witnesses -lrb- bystanders -rrb- all contribute to the probability that the violence develops into genocide . 
the conditions that lead to genocide provide guidance to early prevention , such as humanizing a devalued group , creating ideologies that embrace all groups , and activating bystander responses . 
the emergence of resistance of bacteria to antibiotics is a common phenomenon . 
emergence of resistance often reflects evolutionary processes that take place during antibiotic therapy . 
for example , antibacterial selection for strains having previously acquired antibacterial-resistance genes was demonstrated in 1943 by the luria -- delbrück experiment . 
antibiotics such as penicillin and erythromycin , which used to have a high efficacy against many bacterial species and strains , have become less effective , due to the increased resistance of many bacterial strains . 
emergence of resistance often reflects evolutionary processes that take place during antibiotic therapy . 
the antibiotic treatment may select for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to survive high doses of antibiotics . 
for example , antibacterial selection for strains having previously acquired antibacterial-resistance genes was demonstrated in 1943 by the luria -- delbrück experiment . 
for example , antibacterial selection for strains having previously acquired antibacterial-resistance genes was demonstrated in 1943 by the luria -- delbrück experiment . 
since the activity of antibacterials depends frequently on its concentration , in vitro characterization of antibacterial activity commonly includes the determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration of an antibacterial . 
these findings are based on laboratory studies , and in clinical settings have also been shown to eliminate bacterial infection . 
a bactericidal activity of antibacterials may depend on the bacterial growth phase , and it often requires ongoing metabolic activity and division of bacterial cells . 
a bactericidal activity of antibacterials may depend on the bacterial growth phase , and it often requires ongoing metabolic activity and division of bacterial cells . 
since the activity of antibacterials depends frequently on its concentration , in vitro characterization of antibacterial activity commonly includes the determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration of an antibacterial . 
these include host defense mechanisms , the location of infection , and the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the antibacterial . 
to predict clinical outcome , the antimicrobial activity of an antibacterial is usually combined with its pharmacokinetic profile , and several pharmacological parameters are used as markers of drug efficacy . 
most target bacterial functions or growth processes . 
those that target the bacterial cell wall -lrb- penicillins and cephalosporins -rrb- or the cell membrane -lrb- polymyxins -rrb- , or interfere with essential bacterial enzymes -lrb- rifamycins , lipiarmycins , quinolones , and sulfonamides -rrb- have bactericidal activities . 
those that target the bacterial cell wall -lrb- penicillins and cephalosporins -rrb- or the cell membrane -lrb- polymyxins -rrb- , or interfere with essential bacterial enzymes -lrb- rifamycins , lipiarmycins , quinolones , and sulfonamides -rrb- have bactericidal activities . 
those that target protein synthesis -lrb- macrolides , lincosamides and tetracyclines -rrb- are usually bacteriostatic -lrb- with the exception of bactericidal aminoglycosides -rrb- . 
antibacterial antibiotics are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action , chemical structure , or spectrum of activity . 
those that target the bacterial cell wall -lrb- penicillins and cephalosporins -rrb- or the cell membrane -lrb- polymyxins -rrb- , or interfere with essential bacterial enzymes -lrb- rifamycins , lipiarmycins , quinolones , and sulfonamides -rrb- have bactericidal activities . 
those that target the bacterial cell wall -lrb- penicillins and cephalosporins -rrb- or the cell membrane -lrb- polymyxins -rrb- , or interfere with essential bacterial enzymes -lrb- rifamycins , lipiarmycins , quinolones , and sulfonamides -rrb- have bactericidal activities . 
following a 40-year hiatus in discovering new classes of antibacterial compounds , four new classes of antibacterial antibiotics have been brought into clinical use in the late 2000s and early 2010s : cyclic lipopeptides -lrb- such as daptomycin -rrb- , glycylcyclines -lrb- such as tigecycline -rrb- , oxazolidinones -lrb- such as linezolid -rrb- , and lipiarmycins -lrb- such as fidaxomicin -rrb- . 
antibacterial antibiotics are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action , chemical structure , or spectrum of activity . 
with advances in medicinal chemistry , most modern antibacterials are semisynthetic modifications of various natural compounds . 
these include , for example , the beta-lactam antibiotics , which include the penicillins -lrb- produced by fungi in the genus penicillium -rrb- , the cephalosporins , and the carbapenems . 
compounds that are still isolated from living organisms are the aminoglycosides , whereas other antibacterials -- for example , the sulfonamides , the quinolones , and the oxazolidinones -- are produced solely by chemical synthesis . 
compounds that are still isolated from living organisms are the aminoglycosides , whereas other antibacterials -- for example , the sulfonamides , the quinolones , and the oxazolidinones -- are produced solely by chemical synthesis . 
with advances in medicinal chemistry , most modern antibacterials are semisynthetic modifications of various natural compounds . 
many antibacterial compounds are relatively small molecules with a molecular weight of less than 2000 atomic mass units . 
these include , for example , the beta-lactam antibiotics , which include the penicillins -lrb- produced by fungi in the genus penicillium -rrb- , the cephalosporins , and the carbapenems . 
these include , for example , the beta-lactam antibiotics , which include the penicillins -lrb- produced by fungi in the genus penicillium -rrb- , the cephalosporins , and the carbapenems . 
antibiotics revolutionized medicine in the 20th century , and have together with vaccination led to the near eradication of diseases such as tuberculosis in the developed world . 
their effectiveness and easy access led to overuse , especially in livestock raising , prompting bacteria to develop resistance . 
this has led to widespread problems with antimicrobial and antibiotic resistance , so much as to prompt the world health organization to classify antimicrobial resistance as a `` serious threat -lsb- that -rsb- is no longer a prediction for the future , it is happening right now in every region of the world and has the potential to affect anyone , of any age , in any country '' . 
antibiotics revolutionized medicine in the 20th century , and have together with vaccination led to the near eradication of diseases such as tuberculosis in the developed world . 
this has led to widespread problems with antimicrobial and antibiotic resistance , so much as to prompt the world health organization to classify antimicrobial resistance as a `` serious threat -lsb- that -rsb- is no longer a prediction for the future , it is happening right now in every region of the world and has the potential to affect anyone , of any age , in any country '' . 
their effectiveness and easy access led to overuse , especially in livestock raising , prompting bacteria to develop resistance . 
this has led to widespread problems with antimicrobial and antibiotic resistance , so much as to prompt the world health organization to classify antimicrobial resistance as a `` serious threat -lsb- that -rsb- is no longer a prediction for the future , it is happening right now in every region of the world and has the potential to affect anyone , of any age , in any country '' . 
antibiotics revolutionized medicine in the 20th century , and have together with vaccination led to the near eradication of diseases such as tuberculosis in the developed world . 
this has led to widespread problems with antimicrobial and antibiotic resistance , so much as to prompt the world health organization to classify antimicrobial resistance as a `` serious threat -lsb- that -rsb- is no longer a prediction for the future , it is happening right now in every region of the world and has the potential to affect anyone , of any age , in any country '' . 
antibiotics revolutionized medicine in the 20th century , and have together with vaccination led to the near eradication of diseases such as tuberculosis in the developed world . 
antibiotics revolutionized medicine in the 20th century , and have together with vaccination led to the near eradication of diseases such as tuberculosis in the developed world . 
their effectiveness and easy access led to overuse , especially in livestock raising , prompting bacteria to develop resistance . 
this has led to widespread problems with antimicrobial and antibiotic resistance , so much as to prompt the world health organization to classify antimicrobial resistance as a `` serious threat -lsb- that -rsb- is no longer a prediction for the future , it is happening right now in every region of the world and has the potential to affect anyone , of any age , in any country '' . 
this has led to widespread problems with antimicrobial and antibiotic resistance , so much as to prompt the world health organization to classify antimicrobial resistance as a `` serious threat -lsb- that -rsb- is no longer a prediction for the future , it is happening right now in every region of the world and has the potential to affect anyone , of any age , in any country '' . 
antibiotics revolutionized medicine in the 20th century , and have together with vaccination led to the near eradication of diseases such as tuberculosis in the developed world . 
this has led to widespread problems with antimicrobial and antibiotic resistance , so much as to prompt the world health organization to classify antimicrobial resistance as a `` serious threat -lsb- that -rsb- is no longer a prediction for the future , it is happening right now in every region of the world and has the potential to affect anyone , of any age , in any country '' . 
their effectiveness and easy access led to overuse , especially in livestock raising , prompting bacteria to develop resistance . 
antibiotics revolutionized medicine in the 20th century , and have together with vaccination led to the near eradication of diseases such as tuberculosis in the developed world . 
in empirical therapy , a patient has proven or suspected infection , but the responsible microorganism is not yet unidentified . 
empirical therapy is usually initiated before the doctor knows the exact identification of microorgansim causing the infection as the identification process make take several days in the laboratory . 
while the microorgainsim is being identified the doctor will usually administer the best choice of antibiotic that will be most active against the likely cause of infection usually a broad spectrum antibiotic . 
while the microorgainsim is being identified the doctor will usually administer the best choice of antibiotic that will be most active against the likely cause of infection usually a broad spectrum antibiotic . 
empirical therapy is usually initiated before the doctor knows the exact identification of microorgansim causing the infection as the identification process make take several days in the laboratory . 
while the microorgainsim is being identified the doctor will usually administer the best choice of antibiotic that will be most active against the likely cause of infection usually a broad spectrum antibiotic . 
in empirical therapy , a patient has proven or suspected infection , but the responsible microorganism is not yet unidentified . 
empirical therapy is usually initiated before the doctor knows the exact identification of microorgansim causing the infection as the identification process make take several days in the laboratory . 
adverse effects range from fever and nausea to major allergic reactions , including photodermatitis and anaphylaxis . 
common side-effects include diarrhea , resulting from disruption of the species composition in the intestinal flora , resulting , for example , in overgrowth of pathogenic bacteria , such as clostridium difficile . 
antibacterials can also affect the vaginal flora , and may lead to overgrowth of yeast species of the genus candida in the vulvo-vaginal area . 
additional side-effects can result from interaction with other drugs , such as elevated risk of tendon damage from administration of a quinolone antibiotic with a systemic corticosteroid . 
some scientists have hypothesized that the indiscriminate use of antibiotics alter the host microbiota and this has been associated with chronic disease . 
antibiotics are screened for any negative effects on humans or other mammals before approval for clinical use , and are usually considered safe and most are well tolerated . 
antibiotics are screened for any negative effects on humans or other mammals before approval for clinical use , and are usually considered safe and most are well tolerated . 
side-effects range from mild to very serious depending on the antibiotics used , the microbial organisms targeted , and the individual patient . 
adverse effects range from fever and nausea to major allergic reactions , including photodermatitis and anaphylaxis . 
some scientists have hypothesized that the indiscriminate use of antibiotics alter the host microbiota and this has been associated with chronic disease . 
antibiotics are screened for any negative effects on humans or other mammals before approval for clinical use , and are usually considered safe and most are well tolerated . 
adverse effects range from fever and nausea to major allergic reactions , including photodermatitis and anaphylaxis . 
common side-effects include diarrhea , resulting from disruption of the species composition in the intestinal flora , resulting , for example , in overgrowth of pathogenic bacteria , such as clostridium difficile . 
antibacterials can also affect the vaginal flora , and may lead to overgrowth of yeast species of the genus candida in the vulvo-vaginal area . 
additional side-effects can result from interaction with other drugs , such as elevated risk of tendon damage from administration of a quinolone antibiotic with a systemic corticosteroid . 
exposure to antibiotics early in life is associated with increased body mass in humans and mouse models . 
mice exposed to subtherapeutic antibiotic treatment -lrb- stat -rrb- -- with either penicillin , vancomycin , penicillin and vancomycin , or chlortetracycline had altered composition of the gut microbiota as well as its metabolic capabilities . 
mice exposed to subtherapeutic antibiotic treatment -lrb- stat -rrb- -- with either penicillin , vancomycin , penicillin and vancomycin , or chlortetracycline had altered composition of the gut microbiota as well as its metabolic capabilities . 
however , it is unclear whether or not antibiotics cause obesity in humans . 
although there is a correlation between antibiotic use in early life and obesity , the effect of antibiotics on obesity in humans needs to be weighed against the beneficial effects of clinically indicated treatment with antibiotics in infancy . 
exposure to antibiotics early in life is associated with increased body mass in humans and mouse models . 
early life is a critical period for the establishment of the intestinal microbiota and for metabolic development . 
however , it is unclear whether or not antibiotics cause obesity in humans . 
the majority of studies indicate antibiotics do interfere with contraceptive pills , such as clinical studies that suggest the failure rate of contraceptive pills caused by antibiotics is very low -lrb- about 1 % -rrb- . 
the majority of studies indicate antibiotics do interfere with contraceptive pills , such as clinical studies that suggest the failure rate of contraceptive pills caused by antibiotics is very low -lrb- about 1 % -rrb- . 
effects on the intestinal flora , which might result in reduced absorption of estrogens in the colon , have also been suggested , but such suggestions have been inconclusive and controversial . 
effects on the intestinal flora , which might result in reduced absorption of estrogens in the colon , have also been suggested , but such suggestions have been inconclusive and controversial . 
clinicians have recommended that extra contraceptive measures be applied during therapies using antibacterials that are suspected to interact with oral contraceptives . 
the majority of studies indicate antibiotics do interfere with contraceptive pills , such as clinical studies that suggest the failure rate of contraceptive pills caused by antibiotics is very low -lrb- about 1 % -rrb- . 
the majority of studies indicate antibiotics do interfere with contraceptive pills , such as clinical studies that suggest the failure rate of contraceptive pills caused by antibiotics is very low -lrb- about 1 % -rrb- . 
effects on the intestinal flora , which might result in reduced absorption of estrogens in the colon , have also been suggested , but such suggestions have been inconclusive and controversial . 
clinicians have recommended that extra contraceptive measures be applied during therapies using antibacterials that are suspected to interact with oral contraceptives . 
the majority of studies indicate antibiotics do interfere with contraceptive pills , such as clinical studies that suggest the failure rate of contraceptive pills caused by antibiotics is very low -lrb- about 1 % -rrb- . 
clinicians have recommended that extra contraceptive measures be applied during therapies using antibacterials that are suspected to interact with oral contraceptives . 
the majority of studies indicate antibiotics do interfere with contraceptive pills , such as clinical studies that suggest the failure rate of contraceptive pills caused by antibiotics is very low -lrb- about 1 % -rrb- . 
interactions between alcohol and certain antibiotics may occur and may cause side-effects and decreased effectiveness of antibiotic therapy . 
while moderate alcohol consumption is unlikely to interfere with many common antibiotics , there are specific types of antibiotics with which alcohol consumption may cause serious side-effects . 
while moderate alcohol consumption is unlikely to interfere with many common antibiotics , there are specific types of antibiotics with which alcohol consumption may cause serious side-effects . 
despite the lack of a categorical counterindication , the belief that alcohol and antibiotics should never be mixed is widespread . 
interactions between alcohol and certain antibiotics may occur and may cause side-effects and decreased effectiveness of antibiotic therapy . 
while moderate alcohol consumption is unlikely to interfere with many common antibiotics , there are specific types of antibiotics with which alcohol consumption may cause serious side-effects . 
despite the lack of a categorical counterindication , the belief that alcohol and antibiotics should never be mixed is widespread . 
interactions between alcohol and certain antibiotics may occur and may cause side-effects and decreased effectiveness of antibiotic therapy . 
while moderate alcohol consumption is unlikely to interfere with many common antibiotics , there are specific types of antibiotics with which alcohol consumption may cause serious side-effects . 
despite the lack of a categorical counterindication , the belief that alcohol and antibiotics should never be mixed is widespread . 
intrinsic antibacterial resistance may be part of the genetic makeup of bacterial strains . 
for instance , antibacterial resistance genes can be exchanged between different bacterial strains or species via plasmids that carry these resistance genes . 
for example , an antibiotic target may be absent from the bacterial genome . 
the spread of antibacterial resistance often occurs through vertical transmission of mutations during growth and by genetic recombination of dna by horizontal genetic exchange . 
acquired resistance results from a mutation in the bacterial chromosome or the acquisition of extra-chromosomal dna . 
the spread of antibacterial resistance often occurs through vertical transmission of mutations during growth and by genetic recombination of dna by horizontal genetic exchange . 
plasmids that carry several different resistance genes can confer resistance to multiple antibacterials . 
antibacterial-resistant strains and species , sometimes referred to as `` superbugs '' , now contribute to the emergence of diseases that were for a while well controlled . 
for example , emergent bacterial strains causing tuberculosis -lrb- tb -rrb- that are resistant to previously effective antibacterial treatments pose many therapeutic challenges . 
every year , nearly half a million new cases of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis -lrb- mdr-tb -rrb- are estimated to occur worldwide . 
every year , nearly half a million new cases of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis -lrb- mdr-tb -rrb- are estimated to occur worldwide . 
inappropriate antibiotic treatment and overuse of antibiotics have contributed to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria . 
self prescription of antibiotics is an example of misuse . 
the overuse of antibiotics , like penicillin and erythromycin , has been associated with emerging antibiotic resistance since the 1950s . 
common forms of antibiotic misuse include excessive use of prophylactic antibiotics in travelers and failure of medical professionals to prescribe the correct dosage of antibiotics on the basis of the patient 's weight and history of prior use . 
common forms of antibiotic misuse include excessive use of prophylactic antibiotics in travelers and failure of medical professionals to prescribe the correct dosage of antibiotics on the basis of the patient 's weight and history of prior use . 
other forms of misuse include failure to take the entire prescribed course of the antibiotic , incorrect dosage and administration , or failure to rest for sufficient recovery . 
inappropriate antibiotic treatment , for example , is their prescription to treat viral infections such as the common cold . 
one study on respiratory tract infections found `` physicians were more likely to prescribe antibiotics to patients who appeared to expect them '' . 
the issues of misuse and overuse of antibiotics have been addressed by the formation of the us interagency task force on antimicrobial resistance . 
this task force aims to actively address antimicrobial resistance , and is coordinated by the us centers for disease control and prevention , the food and drug administration -lrb- fda -rrb- , and the national institutes of health -lrb- nih -rrb- , as well as other us agencies . 
in france , an `` antibiotics are not automatic '' government campaign started in 2002 and led to a marked reduction of unnecessary antibiotic prescriptions , especially in children . 
the emergence of antibiotic resistance has prompted restrictions on their use in the uk in 1970 -lrb- swann report 1969 -rrb- , and the eu has banned the use of antibiotics as growth-promotional agents since 2003 . 
the emergence of antibiotic resistance has prompted restrictions on their use in the uk in 1970 -lrb- swann report 1969 -rrb- , and the eu has banned the use of antibiotics as growth-promotional agents since 2003 . 
moreover , several organizations -lrb- e.g. , the american society for microbiology -lrb- asm -rrb- , american public health association -lrb- apha -rrb- and the american medical association -lrb- ama -rrb- -rrb- have called for restrictions on antibiotic use in food animal production and an end to all nontherapeutic uses . 
two federal bills -lrb- s. 742 and h.r. 2562 -rrb- aimed at phasing out nontherapeutic use of antibiotics in us food animals were proposed , but have not passed . 
these bills were endorsed by public health and medical organizations , including the american holistic nurses ' association , the american medical association , and the american public health association -lrb- apha -rrb- . 
there has been extensive use of antibiotics in animal husbandry . 
in the united states , the question of emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains due to use of antibiotics in livestock was raised by the us food and drug administration -lrb- fda -rrb- in 1977 . 
in march 2012 , the united states district court for the southern district of new york , ruling in an action brought by the natural resources defense council and others , ordered the fda to revoke approvals for the use of antibiotics in livestock , which violated fda regulations . 
before the early 20th century , treatments for infections were based primarily on medicinal folklore . 
mixtures with antimicrobial properties that were used in treatments of infections were described over 2000 years ago . 
many ancient cultures , including the ancient egyptians and ancient greeks , used specially selected mold and plant materials and extracts to treat infections . 
the term ` antibiosis ' , meaning `` against life '' , was introduced by the french bacteriologist jean paul vuillemin as a descriptive name of the phenomenon exhibited by these early antibacterial drugs . 
the term ` antibiosis ' , meaning `` against life '' , was introduced by the french bacteriologist jean paul vuillemin as a descriptive name of the phenomenon exhibited by these early antibacterial drugs . 
the effects of some types of mold on infection had been noticed many times over the course of history -lrb- see : history of penicillin -rrb- . 
in 1928 , alexander fleming noticed the same effect in a petri dish , where a number of disease-causing bacteria were killed by a fungus of the genus penicillium . 
fleming postulated that the effect is mediated by an antibacterial compound he named penicillin , and that its antibacterial properties could be exploited for chemotherapy . 
fleming postulated that the effect is mediated by an antibacterial compound he named penicillin , and that its antibacterial properties could be exploited for chemotherapy . 
the first sulfonamide and first commercially available antibacterial , prontosil , was developed by a research team led by gerhard domagk in 1932 at the bayer laboratories of the ig farben conglomerate in germany . 
the first sulfonamide and first commercially available antibacterial , prontosil , was developed by a research team led by gerhard domagk in 1932 at the bayer laboratories of the ig farben conglomerate in germany . 
the first sulfonamide and first commercially available antibacterial , prontosil , was developed by a research team led by gerhard domagk in 1932 at the bayer laboratories of the ig farben conglomerate in germany . 
domagk received the 1939 nobel prize for medicine for his efforts . 
in 1939 , coinciding with the start of world war ii , rene dubos reported the discovery of the first naturally derived antibiotic , tyrothricin , a compound of 20 % gramicidin and 80 % tyrocidine , from b. brevis . 
in 1939 , coinciding with the start of world war ii , rene dubos reported the discovery of the first naturally derived antibiotic , tyrothricin , a compound of 20 % gramicidin and 80 % tyrocidine , from b. brevis . 
in 1939 , coinciding with the start of world war ii , rene dubos reported the discovery of the first naturally derived antibiotic , tyrothricin , a compound of 20 % gramicidin and 80 % tyrocidine , from b. brevis . 
in 1939 , coinciding with the start of world war ii , rene dubos reported the discovery of the first naturally derived antibiotic , tyrothricin , a compound of 20 % gramicidin and 80 % tyrocidine , from b. brevis . 
it was one of the first commercially manufactured antibiotics universally and was very effective in treating wounds and ulcers during world war ii . 
florey and chain succeeded in purifying the first penicillin , penicillin g , in 1942 , but it did not become widely available outside the allied military before 1945 . 
florey and chain succeeded in purifying the first penicillin , penicillin g , in 1942 , but it did not become widely available outside the allied military before 1945 . 
later , norman heatley developed the back extraction technique for efficiently purifying penicillin in bulk . 
the chemical structure of penicillin was determined by dorothy crowfoot hodgkin in 1945 . 
the chemical structure of penicillin was determined by dorothy crowfoot hodgkin in 1945 . 
vaccines rely on immune modulation or augmentation . 
antibacterial vaccines have been responsible for a drastic reduction in global bacterial diseases . 
vaccines made from attenuated whole cells or lysates have been replaced largely by less reactogenic , cell-free vaccines consisting of purified components , including capsular polysaccharides and their conjugates , to protein carriers , as well as inactivated toxins -lrb- toxoids -rrb- and proteins . 
phage therapy is another option that is being looked into for treating resistant strains of bacteria . 
the way that researchers are doing this is by infecting pathogenic bacteria with their own viruses , more specifically , bacteriophages . 
one of the worries about using phages to fight pathogens is that the phages will infect `` good '' bacteria , or the bacteria that are important in the everyday function of human beings . 
since 2009 , only 2 new antibiotics were approved in the united states . 
the report identified seven antibiotics against the gram-negative bacilli -lrb- gnb -rrb- currently in phase 2 or phase 3 clinical trials . 
in april 2013 , the infectious disease society of america -lrb- idsa -rrb- reported that the weak antibiotic pipeline does not match bacteria 's increasing ability to develop resistance . 
possible improvements include clarification of clinical trial regulations by fda . 
furthermore , appropriate economic incentives could persuade pharmaceutical companies to invest in this endeavor . 
antibiotic development to advance patient treatment -lrb- adapt -rrb- act aims to fast track the drug development to combat the growing threat of ` superbugs ' . 
according to allan coukell , senior director for health programs at the pew charitable trusts , `` by allowing drug developers to rely on smaller datasets , and clarifying fda 's authority to tolerate a higher level of uncertainty for these drugs when making a risk/benefit calculation , adapt would make the clinical trials more feasible . '' 
frédéric françois chopin -lrb- / ˈʃoʊpæn / ; french pronunciation : -lsb- fʁe.de.ʁik fʁɑ̃.swa ʃɔ.pɛ̃ -rsb- ; 22 february or 1 march 1810 -- 17 october 1849 -rrb- , born fryderyk franciszek chopin , -lsb- n 1 -rsb- was a polish and french -lrb- by citizenship and birth of father -rrb- composer and a virtuoso pianist of the romantic era , who wrote primarily for the solo piano . 
frédéric françois chopin -lrb- / ˈʃoʊpæn / ; french pronunciation : -lsb- fʁe.de.ʁik fʁɑ̃.swa ʃɔ.pɛ̃ -rsb- ; 22 february or 1 march 1810 -- 17 october 1849 -rrb- , born fryderyk franciszek chopin , -lsb- n 1 -rsb- was a polish and french -lrb- by citizenship and birth of father -rrb- composer and a virtuoso pianist of the romantic era , who wrote primarily for the solo piano . 
frédéric françois chopin -lrb- / ˈʃoʊpæn / ; french pronunciation : -lsb- fʁe.de.ʁik fʁɑ̃.swa ʃɔ.pɛ̃ -rsb- ; 22 february or 1 march 1810 -- 17 october 1849 -rrb- , born fryderyk franciszek chopin , -lsb- n 1 -rsb- was a polish and french -lrb- by citizenship and birth of father -rrb- composer and a virtuoso pianist of the romantic era , who wrote primarily for the solo piano . 
chopin was born in what was then the duchy of warsaw , and grew up in warsaw , which after 1815 became part of congress poland . 
a child prodigy , he completed his musical education and composed his earlier works in warsaw before leaving poland at the age of 20 , less than a month before the outbreak of the november 1830 uprising . 
frédéric françois chopin -lrb- / ˈʃoʊpæn / ; french pronunciation : -lsb- fʁe.de.ʁik fʁɑ̃.swa ʃɔ.pɛ̃ -rsb- ; 22 february or 1 march 1810 -- 17 october 1849 -rrb- , born fryderyk franciszek chopin , -lsb- n 1 -rsb- was a polish and french -lrb- by citizenship and birth of father -rrb- composer and a virtuoso pianist of the romantic era , who wrote primarily for the solo piano . 
frédéric françois chopin -lrb- / ˈʃoʊpæn / ; french pronunciation : -lsb- fʁe.de.ʁik fʁɑ̃.swa ʃɔ.pɛ̃ -rsb- ; 22 february or 1 march 1810 -- 17 october 1849 -rrb- , born fryderyk franciszek chopin , -lsb- n 1 -rsb- was a polish and french -lrb- by citizenship and birth of father -rrb- composer and a virtuoso pianist of the romantic era , who wrote primarily for the solo piano . 
chopin was born in what was then the duchy of warsaw , and grew up in warsaw , which after 1815 became part of congress poland . 
frédéric françois chopin -lrb- / ˈʃoʊpæn / ; french pronunciation : -lsb- fʁe.de.ʁik fʁɑ̃.swa ʃɔ.pɛ̃ -rsb- ; 22 february or 1 march 1810 -- 17 october 1849 -rrb- , born fryderyk franciszek chopin , -lsb- n 1 -rsb- was a polish and french -lrb- by citizenship and birth of father -rrb- composer and a virtuoso pianist of the romantic era , who wrote primarily for the solo piano . 
a child prodigy , he completed his musical education and composed his earlier works in warsaw before leaving poland at the age of 20 , less than a month before the outbreak of the november 1830 uprising . 
frédéric françois chopin -lrb- / ˈʃoʊpæn / ; french pronunciation : -lsb- fʁe.de.ʁik fʁɑ̃.swa ʃɔ.pɛ̃ -rsb- ; 22 february or 1 march 1810 -- 17 october 1849 -rrb- , born fryderyk franciszek chopin , -lsb- n 1 -rsb- was a polish and french -lrb- by citizenship and birth of father -rrb- composer and a virtuoso pianist of the romantic era , who wrote primarily for the solo piano . 
frédéric françois chopin -lrb- / ˈʃoʊpæn / ; french pronunciation : -lsb- fʁe.de.ʁik fʁɑ̃.swa ʃɔ.pɛ̃ -rsb- ; 22 february or 1 march 1810 -- 17 october 1849 -rrb- , born fryderyk franciszek chopin , -lsb- n 1 -rsb- was a polish and french -lrb- by citizenship and birth of father -rrb- composer and a virtuoso pianist of the romantic era , who wrote primarily for the solo piano . 
frédéric françois chopin -lrb- / ˈʃoʊpæn / ; french pronunciation : -lsb- fʁe.de.ʁik fʁɑ̃.swa ʃɔ.pɛ̃ -rsb- ; 22 february or 1 march 1810 -- 17 october 1849 -rrb- , born fryderyk franciszek chopin , -lsb- n 1 -rsb- was a polish and french -lrb- by citizenship and birth of father -rrb- composer and a virtuoso pianist of the romantic era , who wrote primarily for the solo piano . 
frédéric françois chopin -lrb- / ˈʃoʊpæn / ; french pronunciation : -lsb- fʁe.de.ʁik fʁɑ̃.swa ʃɔ.pɛ̃ -rsb- ; 22 february or 1 march 1810 -- 17 october 1849 -rrb- , born fryderyk franciszek chopin , -lsb- n 1 -rsb- was a polish and french -lrb- by citizenship and birth of father -rrb- composer and a virtuoso pianist of the romantic era , who wrote primarily for the solo piano . 
frédéric françois chopin -lrb- / ˈʃoʊpæn / ; french pronunciation : -lsb- fʁe.de.ʁik fʁɑ̃.swa ʃɔ.pɛ̃ -rsb- ; 22 february or 1 march 1810 -- 17 october 1849 -rrb- , born fryderyk franciszek chopin , -lsb- n 1 -rsb- was a polish and french -lrb- by citizenship and birth of father -rrb- composer and a virtuoso pianist of the romantic era , who wrote primarily for the solo piano . 
chopin was born in what was then the duchy of warsaw , and grew up in warsaw , which after 1815 became part of congress poland . 
a child prodigy , he completed his musical education and composed his earlier works in warsaw before leaving poland at the age of 20 , less than a month before the outbreak of the november 1830 uprising . 
frédéric françois chopin -lrb- / ˈʃoʊpæn / ; french pronunciation : -lsb- fʁe.de.ʁik fʁɑ̃.swa ʃɔ.pɛ̃ -rsb- ; 22 february or 1 march 1810 -- 17 october 1849 -rrb- , born fryderyk franciszek chopin , -lsb- n 1 -rsb- was a polish and french -lrb- by citizenship and birth of father -rrb- composer and a virtuoso pianist of the romantic era , who wrote primarily for the solo piano . 
frédéric françois chopin -lrb- / ˈʃoʊpæn / ; french pronunciation : -lsb- fʁe.de.ʁik fʁɑ̃.swa ʃɔ.pɛ̃ -rsb- ; 22 february or 1 march 1810 -- 17 october 1849 -rrb- , born fryderyk franciszek chopin , -lsb- n 1 -rsb- was a polish and french -lrb- by citizenship and birth of father -rrb- composer and a virtuoso pianist of the romantic era , who wrote primarily for the solo piano . 
at the age of 21 he settled in paris . 
thereafter , during the last 18 years of his life , he gave only some 30 public performances , preferring the more intimate atmosphere of the salon . 
in 1835 he obtained french citizenship . 
a brief and unhappy visit to majorca with sand in 1838 -- 39 was one of his most productive periods of composition . 
he died in paris in 1849 , probably of tuberculosis . 
at the age of 21 he settled in paris . 
thereafter , during the last 18 years of his life , he gave only some 30 public performances , preferring the more intimate atmosphere of the salon . 
chopin formed a friendship with franz liszt and was admired by many of his musical contemporaries , including robert schumann . 
in 1835 he obtained french citizenship . 
after a failed engagement to maria wodzińska , from 1837 to 1847 he maintained an often troubled relationship with the french writer george sand . 
at the age of 21 he settled in paris . 
thereafter , during the last 18 years of his life , he gave only some 30 public performances , preferring the more intimate atmosphere of the salon . 
in 1835 he obtained french citizenship . 
in his last years , he was financially supported by his admirer jane stirling , who also arranged for him to visit scotland in 1848 . 
in 1835 he obtained french citizenship . 
in his last years , he was financially supported by his admirer jane stirling , who also arranged for him to visit scotland in 1848 . 
he died in paris in 1849 , probably of tuberculosis . 
all of chopin 's compositions include the piano . 
chopin invented the concept of instrumental ballade . 
influences on his compositional style include polish folk music , the classical tradition of j. s. bach , mozart and schubert , the music of all of whom he admired , as well as the paris salons where he was a frequent guest . 
his keyboard style is highly individual and often technically demanding ; his own performances were noted for their nuance and sensitivity . 
influences on his compositional style include polish folk music , the classical tradition of j. s. bach , mozart and schubert , the music of all of whom he admired , as well as the paris salons where he was a frequent guest . 
all of chopin 's compositions include the piano . 
chopin invented the concept of instrumental ballade . 
his keyboard style is highly individual and often technically demanding ; his own performances were noted for their nuance and sensitivity . 
influences on his compositional style include polish folk music , the classical tradition of j. s. bach , mozart and schubert , the music of all of whom he admired , as well as the paris salons where he was a frequent guest . 
most are for solo piano , though he also wrote two piano concertos , a few chamber pieces , and some songs to polish lyrics . 
all of chopin 's compositions include the piano . 
most are for solo piano , though he also wrote two piano concertos , a few chamber pieces , and some songs to polish lyrics . 
his keyboard style is highly individual and often technically demanding ; his own performances were noted for their nuance and sensitivity . 
influences on his compositional style include polish folk music , the classical tradition of j. s. bach , mozart and schubert , the music of all of whom he admired , as well as the paris salons where he was a frequent guest . 
all of chopin 's compositions include the piano . 
most are for solo piano , though he also wrote two piano concertos , a few chamber pieces , and some songs to polish lyrics . 
influences on his compositional style include polish folk music , the classical tradition of j. s. bach , mozart and schubert , the music of all of whom he admired , as well as the paris salons where he was a frequent guest . 
in his native poland , in france , where he composed most of his works , and beyond , chopin 's music , his status as one of music 's earliest superstars , his association -lrb- if only indirect -rrb- with political insurrection , his love life and his early death have made him , in the public consciousness , a leading symbol of the romantic era . 
in his native poland , in france , where he composed most of his works , and beyond , chopin 's music , his status as one of music 's earliest superstars , his association -lrb- if only indirect -rrb- with political insurrection , his love life and his early death have made him , in the public consciousness , a leading symbol of the romantic era . 
in his native poland , in france , where he composed most of his works , and beyond , chopin 's music , his status as one of music 's earliest superstars , his association -lrb- if only indirect -rrb- with political insurrection , his love life and his early death have made him , in the public consciousness , a leading symbol of the romantic era . 
his works remain popular , and he has been the subject of numerous films and biographies of varying degrees of historical accuracy . 
in his native poland , in france , where he composed most of his works , and beyond , chopin 's music , his status as one of music 's earliest superstars , his association -lrb- if only indirect -rrb- with political insurrection , his love life and his early death have made him , in the public consciousness , a leading symbol of the romantic era . 
in his native poland , in france , where he composed most of his works , and beyond , chopin 's music , his status as one of music 's earliest superstars , his association -lrb- if only indirect -rrb- with political insurrection , his love life and his early death have made him , in the public consciousness , a leading symbol of the romantic era . 
in his native poland , in france , where he composed most of his works , and beyond , chopin 's music , his status as one of music 's earliest superstars , his association -lrb- if only indirect -rrb- with political insurrection , his love life and his early death have made him , in the public consciousness , a leading symbol of the romantic era . 
in his native poland , in france , where he composed most of his works , and beyond , chopin 's music , his status as one of music 's earliest superstars , his association -lrb- if only indirect -rrb- with political insurrection , his love life and his early death have made him , in the public consciousness , a leading symbol of the romantic era . 
in his native poland , in france , where he composed most of his works , and beyond , chopin 's music , his status as one of music 's earliest superstars , his association -lrb- if only indirect -rrb- with political insurrection , his love life and his early death have made him , in the public consciousness , a leading symbol of the romantic era . 
in his native poland , in france , where he composed most of his works , and beyond , chopin 's music , his status as one of music 's earliest superstars , his association -lrb- if only indirect -rrb- with political insurrection , his love life and his early death have made him , in the public consciousness , a leading symbol of the romantic era . 
in his native poland , in france , where he composed most of his works , and beyond , chopin 's music , his status as one of music 's earliest superstars , his association -lrb- if only indirect -rrb- with political insurrection , his love life and his early death have made him , in the public consciousness , a leading symbol of the romantic era . 
fryderyk chopin was born in żelazowa wola , 46 kilometres -lrb- 29 miles -rrb- west of warsaw , in what was then the duchy of warsaw , a polish state established by napoleon . 
the parish baptismal record gives his birthday as 22 february 1810 , and cites his given names in the latin form fridericus franciscus -lrb- in polish , he was fryderyk franciszek -rrb- . 
however , the composer and his family used the birthdate 1 march , -lsb- n 2 -rsb- which is now generally accepted as the correct date . 
the parish baptismal record gives his birthday as 22 february 1810 , and cites his given names in the latin form fridericus franciscus -lrb- in polish , he was fryderyk franciszek -rrb- . 
fryderyk chopin was born in żelazowa wola , 46 kilometres -lrb- 29 miles -rrb- west of warsaw , in what was then the duchy of warsaw , a polish state established by napoleon . 
fryderyk chopin was born in żelazowa wola , 46 kilometres -lrb- 29 miles -rrb- west of warsaw , in what was then the duchy of warsaw , a polish state established by napoleon . 
fryderyk chopin was born in żelazowa wola , 46 kilometres -lrb- 29 miles -rrb- west of warsaw , in what was then the duchy of warsaw , a polish state established by napoleon . 
the parish baptismal record gives his birthday as 22 february 1810 , and cites his given names in the latin form fridericus franciscus -lrb- in polish , he was fryderyk franciszek -rrb- . 
however , the composer and his family used the birthdate 1 march , -lsb- n 2 -rsb- which is now generally accepted as the correct date . 
the parish baptismal record gives his birthday as 22 february 1810 , and cites his given names in the latin form fridericus franciscus -lrb- in polish , he was fryderyk franciszek -rrb- . 
fryderyk chopin was born in żelazowa wola , 46 kilometres -lrb- 29 miles -rrb- west of warsaw , in what was then the duchy of warsaw , a polish state established by napoleon . 
the parish baptismal record gives his birthday as 22 february 1810 , and cites his given names in the latin form fridericus franciscus -lrb- in polish , he was fryderyk franciszek -rrb- . 
however , the composer and his family used the birthdate 1 march , -lsb- n 2 -rsb- which is now generally accepted as the correct date . 
the parish baptismal record gives his birthday as 22 february 1810 , and cites his given names in the latin form fridericus franciscus -lrb- in polish , he was fryderyk franciszek -rrb- . 
fryderyk chopin was born in żelazowa wola , 46 kilometres -lrb- 29 miles -rrb- west of warsaw , in what was then the duchy of warsaw , a polish state established by napoleon . 
fryderyk chopin was born in żelazowa wola , 46 kilometres -lrb- 29 miles -rrb- west of warsaw , in what was then the duchy of warsaw , a polish state established by napoleon . 
nicolas tutored children of the polish aristocracy , and in 1806 married justyna krzyżanowska , a poor relative of the skarbeks , one of the families for whom he worked . 
fryderyk was baptized on easter sunday , 23 april 1810 , in the same church where his parents had married , in brochów . 
nicolas tutored children of the polish aristocracy , and in 1806 married justyna krzyżanowska , a poor relative of the skarbeks , one of the families for whom he worked . 
fryderyk 's father , nicolas chopin , was a frenchman from lorraine who had emigrated to poland in 1787 at the age of sixteen . 
fryderyk 's father , nicolas chopin , was a frenchman from lorraine who had emigrated to poland in 1787 at the age of sixteen . 
nicolas tutored children of the polish aristocracy , and in 1806 married justyna krzyżanowska , a poor relative of the skarbeks , one of the families for whom he worked . 
his eighteen-year-old godfather , for whom he was named , was fryderyk skarbek , a pupil of nicolas chopin . 
fryderyk was the couple 's second child and only son ; he had an elder sister , ludwika -lrb- 1807 -- 55 -rrb- , and two younger sisters , izabela -lrb- 1811 -- 81 -rrb- and emilia -lrb- 1812 -- 27 -rrb- . 
fryderyk 's father , nicolas chopin , was a frenchman from lorraine who had emigrated to poland in 1787 at the age of sixteen . 
fryderyk 's father , nicolas chopin , was a frenchman from lorraine who had emigrated to poland in 1787 at the age of sixteen . 
fryderyk was the couple 's second child and only son ; he had an elder sister , ludwika -lrb- 1807 -- 55 -rrb- , and two younger sisters , izabela -lrb- 1811 -- 81 -rrb- and emilia -lrb- 1812 -- 27 -rrb- . 
in october 1810 , six months after fryderyk 's birth , the family moved to warsaw , where his father acquired a post teaching french at the warsaw lyceum , then housed in the saxon palace . 
in october 1810 , six months after fryderyk 's birth , the family moved to warsaw , where his father acquired a post teaching french at the warsaw lyceum , then housed in the saxon palace . 
fryderyk lived with his family in the palace grounds . 
the father played the flute and violin ; the mother played the piano and gave lessons to boys in the boarding house that the chopins kept . 
chopin was of slight build , and even in early childhood was prone to illnesses . 
in october 1810 , six months after fryderyk 's birth , the family moved to warsaw , where his father acquired a post teaching french at the warsaw lyceum , then housed in the saxon palace . 
in october 1810 , six months after fryderyk 's birth , the family moved to warsaw , where his father acquired a post teaching french at the warsaw lyceum , then housed in the saxon palace . 
the father played the flute and violin ; the mother played the piano and gave lessons to boys in the boarding house that the chopins kept . 
the father played the flute and violin ; the mother played the piano and gave lessons to boys in the boarding house that the chopins kept . 
in october 1810 , six months after fryderyk 's birth , the family moved to warsaw , where his father acquired a post teaching french at the warsaw lyceum , then housed in the saxon palace . 
in october 1810 , six months after fryderyk 's birth , the family moved to warsaw , where his father acquired a post teaching french at the warsaw lyceum , then housed in the saxon palace . 
the father played the flute and violin ; the mother played the piano and gave lessons to boys in the boarding house that the chopins kept . 
the father played the flute and violin ; the mother played the piano and gave lessons to boys in the boarding house that the chopins kept . 
in october 1810 , six months after fryderyk 's birth , the family moved to warsaw , where his father acquired a post teaching french at the warsaw lyceum , then housed in the saxon palace . 
fryderyk may have had some piano instruction from his mother , but his first professional music tutor , from 1816 to 1821 , was the czech pianist wojciech żywny . 
his elder sister ludwika also took lessons from żywny , and occasionally played duets with her brother . 
by the age of seven fryderyk had begun giving public concerts , and in 1817 he composed two polonaises , in g minor and b-flat major . 
by the age of seven fryderyk had begun giving public concerts , and in 1817 he composed two polonaises , in g minor and b-flat major . 
his next work , a polonaise in a-flat major of 1821 , dedicated to żywny , is his earliest surviving musical manuscript . 
fryderyk may have had some piano instruction from his mother , but his first professional music tutor , from 1816 to 1821 , was the czech pianist wojciech żywny . 
his elder sister ludwika also took lessons from żywny , and occasionally played duets with her brother . 
by the age of seven fryderyk had begun giving public concerts , and in 1817 he composed two polonaises , in g minor and b-flat major . 
by the age of seven fryderyk had begun giving public concerts , and in 1817 he composed two polonaises , in g minor and b-flat major . 
fryderyk may have had some piano instruction from his mother , but his first professional music tutor , from 1816 to 1821 , was the czech pianist wojciech żywny . 
fryderyk may have had some piano instruction from his mother , but his first professional music tutor , from 1816 to 1821 , was the czech pianist wojciech żywny . 
his elder sister ludwika also took lessons from żywny , and occasionally played duets with her brother . 
by the age of seven fryderyk had begun giving public concerts , and in 1817 he composed two polonaises , in g minor and b-flat major . 
fryderyk may have had some piano instruction from his mother , but his first professional music tutor , from 1816 to 1821 , was the czech pianist wojciech żywny . 
in 1817 the saxon palace was requisitioned by warsaw 's russian governor for military use , and the warsaw lyceum was reestablished in the kazimierz palace -lrb- today the rectorate of warsaw university -rrb- . 
in 1817 the saxon palace was requisitioned by warsaw 's russian governor for military use , and the warsaw lyceum was reestablished in the kazimierz palace -lrb- today the rectorate of warsaw university -rrb- . 
in 1817 the saxon palace was requisitioned by warsaw 's russian governor for military use , and the warsaw lyceum was reestablished in the kazimierz palace -lrb- today the rectorate of warsaw university -rrb- . 
during this period , fryderyk was sometimes invited to the belweder palace as playmate to the son of the ruler of russian poland , grand duke constantine ; he played the piano for the duke and composed a march for him . 
julian ursyn niemcewicz , in his dramatic eclogue , `` nasze przebiegi '' -lrb- `` our discourses '' , 1818 -rrb- , attested to `` little chopin 's '' popularity . 
in 1817 the saxon palace was requisitioned by warsaw 's russian governor for military use , and the warsaw lyceum was reestablished in the kazimierz palace -lrb- today the rectorate of warsaw university -rrb- . 
in 1817 the saxon palace was requisitioned by warsaw 's russian governor for military use , and the warsaw lyceum was reestablished in the kazimierz palace -lrb- today the rectorate of warsaw university -rrb- . 
during this period , fryderyk was sometimes invited to the belweder palace as playmate to the son of the ruler of russian poland , grand duke constantine ; he played the piano for the duke and composed a march for him . 
during this period , fryderyk was sometimes invited to the belweder palace as playmate to the son of the ruler of russian poland , grand duke constantine ; he played the piano for the duke and composed a march for him . 
julian ursyn niemcewicz , in his dramatic eclogue , `` nasze przebiegi '' -lrb- `` our discourses '' , 1818 -rrb- , attested to `` little chopin 's '' popularity . 
during this period , fryderyk was sometimes invited to the belweder palace as playmate to the son of the ruler of russian poland , grand duke constantine ; he played the piano for the duke and composed a march for him . 
during this period , fryderyk was sometimes invited to the belweder palace as playmate to the son of the ruler of russian poland , grand duke constantine ; he played the piano for the duke and composed a march for him . 
during this period , fryderyk was sometimes invited to the belweder palace as playmate to the son of the ruler of russian poland , grand duke constantine ; he played the piano for the duke and composed a march for him . 
julian ursyn niemcewicz , in his dramatic eclogue , `` nasze przebiegi '' -lrb- `` our discourses '' , 1818 -rrb- , attested to `` little chopin 's '' popularity . 
from september 1823 to 1826 chopin attended the warsaw lyceum , where he received organ lessons from the czech musician wilhelm würfel during his first year . 
in the autumn of 1826 he began a three-year course under the silesian composer józef elsner at the warsaw conservatory , studying music theory , figured bass and composition . 
he was engaged by the inventors of a mechanical organ , the `` eolomelodicon '' , and on this instrument in may 1825 he performed his own improvisation and part of a concerto by moscheles . 
the success of this concert led to an invitation to give a similar recital on the instrument before tsar alexander i , who was visiting warsaw ; the tsar presented him with a diamond ring . 
at a subsequent eolomelodicon concert on 10 june 1825 , chopin performed his rondo op. 1 . 
from september 1823 to 1826 chopin attended the warsaw lyceum , where he received organ lessons from the czech musician wilhelm würfel during his first year . 
in the autumn of 1826 he began a three-year course under the silesian composer józef elsner at the warsaw conservatory , studying music theory , figured bass and composition . 
he was engaged by the inventors of a mechanical organ , the `` eolomelodicon '' , and on this instrument in may 1825 he performed his own improvisation and part of a concerto by moscheles . 
the success of this concert led to an invitation to give a similar recital on the instrument before tsar alexander i , who was visiting warsaw ; the tsar presented him with a diamond ring . 
at a subsequent eolomelodicon concert on 10 june 1825 , chopin performed his rondo op. 1 . 
from september 1823 to 1826 chopin attended the warsaw lyceum , where he received organ lessons from the czech musician wilhelm würfel during his first year . 
in the autumn of 1826 he began a three-year course under the silesian composer józef elsner at the warsaw conservatory , studying music theory , figured bass and composition . 
he was engaged by the inventors of a mechanical organ , the `` eolomelodicon '' , and on this instrument in may 1825 he performed his own improvisation and part of a concerto by moscheles . 
the success of this concert led to an invitation to give a similar recital on the instrument before tsar alexander i , who was visiting warsaw ; the tsar presented him with a diamond ring . 
at a subsequent eolomelodicon concert on 10 june 1825 , chopin performed his rondo op. 1 . 
-lsb- n 4 -rsb- in 1824 and 1825 , at szafarnia , he was a guest of dominik dziewanowski , the father of a schoolmate . 
-lsb- n 4 -rsb- in 1824 and 1825 , at szafarnia , he was a guest of dominik dziewanowski , the father of a schoolmate . 
his letters home from szafarnia -lrb- to which he gave the title `` the szafarnia courier '' -rrb- , written in a very modern and lively polish , amused his family with their spoofing of the warsaw newspapers and demonstrated the youngster 's literary gift . 
his letters home from szafarnia -lrb- to which he gave the title `` the szafarnia courier '' -rrb- , written in a very modern and lively polish , amused his family with their spoofing of the warsaw newspapers and demonstrated the youngster 's literary gift . 
-lsb- n 4 -rsb- in 1824 and 1825 , at szafarnia , he was a guest of dominik dziewanowski , the father of a schoolmate . 
here for the first time he encountered polish rural folk music . 
-lsb- n 4 -rsb- in 1824 and 1825 , at szafarnia , he was a guest of dominik dziewanowski , the father of a schoolmate . 
his letters home from szafarnia -lrb- to which he gave the title `` the szafarnia courier '' -rrb- , written in a very modern and lively polish , amused his family with their spoofing of the warsaw newspapers and demonstrated the youngster 's literary gift . 
-lsb- n 4 -rsb- in 1824 and 1825 , at szafarnia , he was a guest of dominik dziewanowski , the father of a schoolmate . 
in 1827 , soon after the death of chopin 's youngest sister emilia , the family moved from the warsaw university building , adjacent to the kazimierz palace , to lodgings just across the street from the university , in the south annex of the krasiński palace on krakowskie przedmieście , -lsb- n 5 -rsb- where chopin lived until he left warsaw in 1830 . 
in 1827 , soon after the death of chopin 's youngest sister emilia , the family moved from the warsaw university building , adjacent to the kazimierz palace , to lodgings just across the street from the university , in the south annex of the krasiński palace on krakowskie przedmieście , -lsb- n 5 -rsb- where chopin lived until he left warsaw in 1830 . 
in 1827 , soon after the death of chopin 's youngest sister emilia , the family moved from the warsaw university building , adjacent to the kazimierz palace , to lodgings just across the street from the university , in the south annex of the krasiński palace on krakowskie przedmieście , -lsb- n 5 -rsb- where chopin lived until he left warsaw in 1830 . 
-lsb- n 6 -rsb- here his parents continued running their boarding house for male students ; the chopin family parlour -lrb- salonik chopinów -rrb- became a museum in the 20th century . 
in 1829 the artist ambroży mieroszewski executed a set of portraits of chopin family members , including the first known portrait of the composer . 
in 1827 , soon after the death of chopin 's youngest sister emilia , the family moved from the warsaw university building , adjacent to the kazimierz palace , to lodgings just across the street from the university , in the south annex of the krasiński palace on krakowskie przedmieście , -lsb- n 5 -rsb- where chopin lived until he left warsaw in 1830 . 
in 1827 , soon after the death of chopin 's youngest sister emilia , the family moved from the warsaw university building , adjacent to the kazimierz palace , to lodgings just across the street from the university , in the south annex of the krasiński palace on krakowskie przedmieście , -lsb- n 5 -rsb- where chopin lived until he left warsaw in 1830 . 
-lsb- n 6 -rsb- here his parents continued running their boarding house for male students ; the chopin family parlour -lrb- salonik chopinów -rrb- became a museum in the 20th century . 
in 1829 the artist ambroży mieroszewski executed a set of portraits of chopin family members , including the first known portrait of the composer . 
in 1827 , soon after the death of chopin 's youngest sister emilia , the family moved from the warsaw university building , adjacent to the kazimierz palace , to lodgings just across the street from the university , in the south annex of the krasiński palace on krakowskie przedmieście , -lsb- n 5 -rsb- where chopin lived until he left warsaw in 1830 . 
in 1827 , soon after the death of chopin 's youngest sister emilia , the family moved from the warsaw university building , adjacent to the kazimierz palace , to lodgings just across the street from the university , in the south annex of the krasiński palace on krakowskie przedmieście , -lsb- n 5 -rsb- where chopin lived until he left warsaw in 1830 . 
-lsb- n 6 -rsb- here his parents continued running their boarding house for male students ; the chopin family parlour -lrb- salonik chopinów -rrb- became a museum in the 20th century . 
in 1829 the artist ambroży mieroszewski executed a set of portraits of chopin family members , including the first known portrait of the composer . 
-lsb- n 6 -rsb- here his parents continued running their boarding house for male students ; the chopin family parlour -lrb- salonik chopinów -rrb- became a museum in the 20th century . 
four boarders at his parents ' apartments became chopin 's intimates : tytus woyciechowski , jan nepomucen białobłocki , jan matuszyński and julian fontana ; the latter two would become part of his paris milieu . 
he was also attracted to the singing student konstancja gładkowska . 
four boarders at his parents ' apartments became chopin 's intimates : tytus woyciechowski , jan nepomucen białobłocki , jan matuszyński and julian fontana ; the latter two would become part of his paris milieu . 
he was also attracted to the singing student konstancja gładkowska . 
in letters to woyciechowski , he indicated which of his works , and even which of their passages , were influenced by his fascination with her ; his letter of 15 may 1830 revealed that the slow movement -lrb- larghetto -rrb- of his piano concerto no. 1 -lrb- in e minor -rrb- was secretly dedicated to her -- `` it should be like dreaming in beautiful springtime -- by moonlight . '' 
his final conservatory report -lrb- july 1829 -rrb- read : `` chopin f. , third-year student , exceptional talent , musical genius . '' 
four boarders at his parents ' apartments became chopin 's intimates : tytus woyciechowski , jan nepomucen białobłocki , jan matuszyński and julian fontana ; the latter two would become part of his paris milieu . 
he was also attracted to the singing student konstancja gładkowska . 
four boarders at his parents ' apartments became chopin 's intimates : tytus woyciechowski , jan nepomucen białobłocki , jan matuszyński and julian fontana ; the latter two would become part of his paris milieu . 
in letters to woyciechowski , he indicated which of his works , and even which of their passages , were influenced by his fascination with her ; his letter of 15 may 1830 revealed that the slow movement -lrb- larghetto -rrb- of his piano concerto no. 1 -lrb- in e minor -rrb- was secretly dedicated to her -- `` it should be like dreaming in beautiful springtime -- by moonlight . '' 
four boarders at his parents ' apartments became chopin 's intimates : tytus woyciechowski , jan nepomucen białobłocki , jan matuszyński and julian fontana ; the latter two would become part of his paris milieu . 
in september 1828 chopin , while still a student , visited berlin with a family friend , zoologist feliks jarocki , enjoying operas directed by gaspare spontini and attending concerts by carl friedrich zelter , felix mendelssohn and other celebrities . 
in september 1828 chopin , while still a student , visited berlin with a family friend , zoologist feliks jarocki , enjoying operas directed by gaspare spontini and attending concerts by carl friedrich zelter , felix mendelssohn and other celebrities . 
on an 1829 return trip to berlin , he was a guest of prince antoni radziwiłł , governor of the grand duchy of posen -- himself an accomplished composer and aspiring cellist . 
for the prince and his pianist daughter wanda , he composed his introduction and polonaise brillante in c major for cello and piano , op. 3 . 
in september 1828 chopin , while still a student , visited berlin with a family friend , zoologist feliks jarocki , enjoying operas directed by gaspare spontini and attending concerts by carl friedrich zelter , felix mendelssohn and other celebrities . 
in september 1828 chopin , while still a student , visited berlin with a family friend , zoologist feliks jarocki , enjoying operas directed by gaspare spontini and attending concerts by carl friedrich zelter , felix mendelssohn and other celebrities . 
in september 1828 chopin , while still a student , visited berlin with a family friend , zoologist feliks jarocki , enjoying operas directed by gaspare spontini and attending concerts by carl friedrich zelter , felix mendelssohn and other celebrities . 
on an 1829 return trip to berlin , he was a guest of prince antoni radziwiłł , governor of the grand duchy of posen -- himself an accomplished composer and aspiring cellist . 
for the prince and his pianist daughter wanda , he composed his introduction and polonaise brillante in c major for cello and piano , op. 3 . 
in september 1828 chopin , while still a student , visited berlin with a family friend , zoologist feliks jarocki , enjoying operas directed by gaspare spontini and attending concerts by carl friedrich zelter , felix mendelssohn and other celebrities . 
in september 1828 chopin , while still a student , visited berlin with a family friend , zoologist feliks jarocki , enjoying operas directed by gaspare spontini and attending concerts by carl friedrich zelter , felix mendelssohn and other celebrities . 
in september 1828 chopin , while still a student , visited berlin with a family friend , zoologist feliks jarocki , enjoying operas directed by gaspare spontini and attending concerts by carl friedrich zelter , felix mendelssohn and other celebrities . 
in september 1828 chopin , while still a student , visited berlin with a family friend , zoologist feliks jarocki , enjoying operas directed by gaspare spontini and attending concerts by carl friedrich zelter , felix mendelssohn and other celebrities . 
on an 1829 return trip to berlin , he was a guest of prince antoni radziwiłł , governor of the grand duchy of posen -- himself an accomplished composer and aspiring cellist . 
back in warsaw that year , chopin heard niccolò paganini play the violin , and composed a set of variations , souvenir de paganini . 
on 11 august , three weeks after completing his studies at the warsaw conservatory , he made his debut in vienna . 
he gave two piano concerts and received many favourable reviews -- in addition to some commenting -lrb- in chopin 's own words -rrb- that he was `` too delicate for those accustomed to the piano-bashing of local artists '' . 
he returned to warsaw in september 1829 , where he premiered his piano concerto no. 2 in f minor , op. 21 on 17 march 1830 . 
back in warsaw that year , chopin heard niccolò paganini play the violin , and composed a set of variations , souvenir de paganini . 
on 11 august , three weeks after completing his studies at the warsaw conservatory , he made his debut in vienna . 
he returned to warsaw in september 1829 , where he premiered his piano concerto no. 2 in f minor , op. 21 on 17 march 1830 . 
he returned to warsaw in september 1829 , where he premiered his piano concerto no. 2 in f minor , op. 21 on 17 march 1830 . 
he gave two piano concerts and received many favourable reviews -- in addition to some commenting -lrb- in chopin 's own words -rrb- that he was `` too delicate for those accustomed to the piano-bashing of local artists '' . 
back in warsaw that year , chopin heard niccolò paganini play the violin , and composed a set of variations , souvenir de paganini . 
on 11 august , three weeks after completing his studies at the warsaw conservatory , he made his debut in vienna . 
he gave two piano concerts and received many favourable reviews -- in addition to some commenting -lrb- in chopin 's own words -rrb- that he was `` too delicate for those accustomed to the piano-bashing of local artists '' . 
on 11 august , three weeks after completing his studies at the warsaw conservatory , he made his debut in vienna . 
chopin 's successes as a composer and performer opened the door to western europe for him , and on 2 november 1830 , he set out , in the words of zdzisław jachimecki , `` into the wide world , with no very clearly defined aim , forever . '' 
with woyciechowski , he headed for austria , intending to go on to italy . 
later that month , in warsaw , the november 1830 uprising broke out , and woyciechowski returned to poland to enlist . 
chopin 's successes as a composer and performer opened the door to western europe for him , and on 2 november 1830 , he set out , in the words of zdzisław jachimecki , `` into the wide world , with no very clearly defined aim , forever . '' 
chopin 's successes as a composer and performer opened the door to western europe for him , and on 2 november 1830 , he set out , in the words of zdzisław jachimecki , `` into the wide world , with no very clearly defined aim , forever . '' 
with woyciechowski , he headed for austria , intending to go on to italy . 
with woyciechowski , he headed for austria , intending to go on to italy . 
later that month , in warsaw , the november 1830 uprising broke out , and woyciechowski returned to poland to enlist . 
chopin 's successes as a composer and performer opened the door to western europe for him , and on 2 november 1830 , he set out , in the words of zdzisław jachimecki , `` into the wide world , with no very clearly defined aim , forever . '' 
with woyciechowski , he headed for austria , intending to go on to italy . 
chopin 's successes as a composer and performer opened the door to western europe for him , and on 2 november 1830 , he set out , in the words of zdzisław jachimecki , `` into the wide world , with no very clearly defined aim , forever . '' 
chopin , now alone in vienna , was nostalgic for his homeland , and wrote to a friend , `` i curse the moment of my departure . '' 
when in september 1831 he learned , while travelling from vienna to paris , that the uprising had been crushed , he expressed his anguish in the pages of his private journal : `` oh god ! 
chopin arrived in paris in late september 1831 ; he would never return to poland , thus becoming one of many expatriates of the polish great emigration . 
in france he used the french versions of his given names , and after receiving french citizenship in 1835 , he travelled on a french passport . 
in france he used the french versions of his given names , and after receiving french citizenship in 1835 , he travelled on a french passport . 
however , chopin remained close to his fellow poles in exile as friends and confidants and he never felt fully comfortable speaking french . 
chopin arrived in paris in late september 1831 ; he would never return to poland , thus becoming one of many expatriates of the polish great emigration . 
chopin arrived in paris in late september 1831 ; he would never return to poland , thus becoming one of many expatriates of the polish great emigration . 
chopin arrived in paris in late september 1831 ; he would never return to poland , thus becoming one of many expatriates of the polish great emigration . 
in france he used the french versions of his given names , and after receiving french citizenship in 1835 , he travelled on a french passport . 
chopin 's biographer adam zamoyski writes that he never considered himself to be french , despite his father 's french origins , and always saw himself as a pole . 
chopin arrived in paris in late september 1831 ; he would never return to poland , thus becoming one of many expatriates of the polish great emigration . 
in france he used the french versions of his given names , and after receiving french citizenship in 1835 , he travelled on a french passport . 
in france he used the french versions of his given names , and after receiving french citizenship in 1835 , he travelled on a french passport . 
chopin 's biographer adam zamoyski writes that he never considered himself to be french , despite his father 's french origins , and always saw himself as a pole . 
chopin arrived in paris in late september 1831 ; he would never return to poland , thus becoming one of many expatriates of the polish great emigration . 
in paris , chopin encountered artists and other distinguished figures , and found many opportunities to exercise his talents and achieve celebrity . 
chopin was also acquainted with the poet adam mickiewicz , principal of the polish literary society , some of whose verses he set as songs . 
chopin was also acquainted with the poet adam mickiewicz , principal of the polish literary society , some of whose verses he set as songs . 
chopin was also acquainted with the poet adam mickiewicz , principal of the polish literary society , some of whose verses he set as songs . 
during his years in paris he was to become acquainted with , among many others , hector berlioz , franz liszt , ferdinand hiller , heinrich heine , eugène delacroix , and alfred de vigny . 
chopin was also acquainted with the poet adam mickiewicz , principal of the polish literary society , some of whose verses he set as songs . 
chopin was also acquainted with the poet adam mickiewicz , principal of the polish literary society , some of whose verses he set as songs . 
his fellow student at the warsaw conservatory , julian fontana , had originally tried unsuccessfully to establish himself in england ; albert grzymała , who in paris became a wealthy financier and society figure , often acted as chopin 's adviser and `` gradually began to fill the role of elder brother in -lsb- his -rsb- life . '' 
his fellow student at the warsaw conservatory , julian fontana , had originally tried unsuccessfully to establish himself in england ; albert grzymała , who in paris became a wealthy financier and society figure , often acted as chopin 's adviser and `` gradually began to fill the role of elder brother in -lsb- his -rsb- life . '' 
his fellow student at the warsaw conservatory , julian fontana , had originally tried unsuccessfully to establish himself in england ; albert grzymała , who in paris became a wealthy financier and society figure , often acted as chopin 's adviser and `` gradually began to fill the role of elder brother in -lsb- his -rsb- life . '' 
his fellow student at the warsaw conservatory , julian fontana , had originally tried unsuccessfully to establish himself in england ; albert grzymała , who in paris became a wealthy financier and society figure , often acted as chopin 's adviser and `` gradually began to fill the role of elder brother in -lsb- his -rsb- life . '' 
two polish friends in paris were also to play important roles in chopin 's life there . 
his fellow student at the warsaw conservatory , julian fontana , had originally tried unsuccessfully to establish himself in england ; albert grzymała , who in paris became a wealthy financier and society figure , often acted as chopin 's adviser and `` gradually began to fill the role of elder brother in -lsb- his -rsb- life . '' 
his fellow student at the warsaw conservatory , julian fontana , had originally tried unsuccessfully to establish himself in england ; albert grzymała , who in paris became a wealthy financier and society figure , often acted as chopin 's adviser and `` gradually began to fill the role of elder brother in -lsb- his -rsb- life . '' 
his fellow student at the warsaw conservatory , julian fontana , had originally tried unsuccessfully to establish himself in england ; albert grzymała , who in paris became a wealthy financier and society figure , often acted as chopin 's adviser and `` gradually began to fill the role of elder brother in -lsb- his -rsb- life . '' 
his fellow student at the warsaw conservatory , julian fontana , had originally tried unsuccessfully to establish himself in england ; albert grzymała , who in paris became a wealthy financier and society figure , often acted as chopin 's adviser and `` gradually began to fill the role of elder brother in -lsb- his -rsb- life . '' 
his fellow student at the warsaw conservatory , julian fontana , had originally tried unsuccessfully to establish himself in england ; albert grzymała , who in paris became a wealthy financier and society figure , often acted as chopin 's adviser and `` gradually began to fill the role of elder brother in -lsb- his -rsb- life . '' 
his fellow student at the warsaw conservatory , julian fontana , had originally tried unsuccessfully to establish himself in england ; albert grzymała , who in paris became a wealthy financier and society figure , often acted as chopin 's adviser and `` gradually began to fill the role of elder brother in -lsb- his -rsb- life . '' 
at the end of 1831 , chopin received the first major endorsement from an outstanding contemporary when robert schumann , reviewing the op. 2 variations in the allgemeine musikalische zeitung -lrb- his first published article on music -rrb- , declared : `` hats off , gentlemen ! 
on 26 february 1832 chopin gave a debut paris concert at the salle pleyel which drew universal admiration . 
the critic françois-joseph fétis wrote in the revue et gazette musicale : `` here is a young man who ... taking no model , has found , if not a complete renewal of piano music , ... an abundance of original ideas of a kind to be found nowhere else ... '' after this concert , chopin realized that his essentially intimate keyboard technique was not optimal for large concert spaces . 
he no longer depended financially upon his father , and in the winter of 1832 he began earning a handsome income from publishing his works and teaching piano to affluent students from all over europe . 
at the end of 1831 , chopin received the first major endorsement from an outstanding contemporary when robert schumann , reviewing the op. 2 variations in the allgemeine musikalische zeitung -lrb- his first published article on music -rrb- , declared : `` hats off , gentlemen ! 
on 26 february 1832 chopin gave a debut paris concert at the salle pleyel which drew universal admiration . 
later that year he was introduced to the wealthy rothschild banking family , whose patronage also opened doors for him to other private salons -lrb- social gatherings of the aristocracy and artistic and literary elite -rrb- . 
at the end of 1831 , chopin received the first major endorsement from an outstanding contemporary when robert schumann , reviewing the op. 2 variations in the allgemeine musikalische zeitung -lrb- his first published article on music -rrb- , declared : `` hats off , gentlemen ! 
the critic françois-joseph fétis wrote in the revue et gazette musicale : `` here is a young man who ... taking no model , has found , if not a complete renewal of piano music , ... an abundance of original ideas of a kind to be found nowhere else ... '' after this concert , chopin realized that his essentially intimate keyboard technique was not optimal for large concert spaces . 
he no longer depended financially upon his father , and in the winter of 1832 he began earning a handsome income from publishing his works and teaching piano to affluent students from all over europe . 
he played more frequently at salons , but preferred playing at his own paris apartment for small groups of friends . 
examples include a concert on 23 march 1833 , in which chopin , liszt and hiller performed -lrb- on pianos -rrb- a concerto by j.s. bach for three keyboards ; and , on 3 march 1838 , a concert in which chopin , his pupil adolphe gutmann , charles-valentin alkan , and alkan 's teacher joseph zimmermann performed alkan 's arrangement , for eight hands , of two movements from beethoven 's 7th symphony . 
in later years he generally gave a single annual concert at the salle pleyel , a venue that seated three hundred . 
chopin was also involved in the composition of liszt 's hexameron ; he wrote the sixth -lrb- and final -rrb- variation on bellini 's theme . 
chopin 's music soon found success with publishers , and in 1833 he contracted with maurice schlesinger , who arranged for it to be published not only in france but , through his family connections , also in germany and england . 
examples include a concert on 23 march 1833 , in which chopin , liszt and hiller performed -lrb- on pianos -rrb- a concerto by j.s. bach for three keyboards ; and , on 3 march 1838 , a concert in which chopin , his pupil adolphe gutmann , charles-valentin alkan , and alkan 's teacher joseph zimmermann performed alkan 's arrangement , for eight hands , of two movements from beethoven 's 7th symphony . 
he played more frequently at salons , but preferred playing at his own paris apartment for small groups of friends . 
examples include a concert on 23 march 1833 , in which chopin , liszt and hiller performed -lrb- on pianos -rrb- a concerto by j.s. bach for three keyboards ; and , on 3 march 1838 , a concert in which chopin , his pupil adolphe gutmann , charles-valentin alkan , and alkan 's teacher joseph zimmermann performed alkan 's arrangement , for eight hands , of two movements from beethoven 's 7th symphony . 
chopin 's music soon found success with publishers , and in 1833 he contracted with maurice schlesinger , who arranged for it to be published not only in france but , through his family connections , also in germany and england . 
in the spring of 1834 , chopin attended the lower rhenish music festival in aix-la-chapelle with hiller , and it was there that chopin met felix mendelssohn . 
they spent what mendelssohn described as `` a very agreeable day '' , playing and discussing music at his piano , and met friedrich wilhelm schadow , director of the academy of art , and some of his eminent pupils such as lessing , bendemann , hildebrandt and sohn . 
they spent what mendelssohn described as `` a very agreeable day '' , playing and discussing music at his piano , and met friedrich wilhelm schadow , director of the academy of art , and some of his eminent pupils such as lessing , bendemann , hildebrandt and sohn . 
in 1835 chopin went to carlsbad , where he spent time with his parents ; it was the last time he would see them . 
in the spring of 1834 , chopin attended the lower rhenish music festival in aix-la-chapelle with hiller , and it was there that chopin met felix mendelssohn . 
in the spring of 1834 , chopin attended the lower rhenish music festival in aix-la-chapelle with hiller , and it was there that chopin met felix mendelssohn . 
in 1835 chopin went to carlsbad , where he spent time with his parents ; it was the last time he would see them . 
in july 1836 chopin travelled to marienbad and dresden to be with the wodziński family , and in september he proposed to maria , whose mother countess wodzińska approved in principle . 
in july 1836 chopin travelled to marienbad and dresden to be with the wodziński family , and in september he proposed to maria , whose mother countess wodzińska approved in principle . 
in the spring of 1834 , chopin attended the lower rhenish music festival in aix-la-chapelle with hiller , and it was there that chopin met felix mendelssohn . 
after the festival , the three visited düsseldorf , where mendelssohn had been appointed musical director . 
they spent what mendelssohn described as `` a very agreeable day '' , playing and discussing music at his piano , and met friedrich wilhelm schadow , director of the academy of art , and some of his eminent pupils such as lessing , bendemann , hildebrandt and sohn . 
he had made the acquaintance of their daughter maria in poland five years earlier , when she was eleven . 
although it is not known exactly when chopin first met liszt after arriving in paris , on 12 december 1831 he mentioned in a letter to his friend woyciechowski that `` i have met rossini , cherubini , baillot , etc. -- also kalkbrenner . 
you would not believe how curious i was about herz , liszt , hiller , etc. '' liszt was in attendance at chopin 's parisian debut on 26 february 1832 at the salle pleyel , which led him to remark : `` the most vigorous applause seemed not to suffice to our enthusiasm in the presence of this talented musician , who revealed a new phase of poetic sentiment combined with such happy innovation in the form of his art . '' 
although it is not known exactly when chopin first met liszt after arriving in paris , on 12 december 1831 he mentioned in a letter to his friend woyciechowski that `` i have met rossini , cherubini , baillot , etc. -- also kalkbrenner . 
you would not believe how curious i was about herz , liszt , hiller , etc. '' liszt was in attendance at chopin 's parisian debut on 26 february 1832 at the salle pleyel , which led him to remark : `` the most vigorous applause seemed not to suffice to our enthusiasm in the presence of this talented musician , who revealed a new phase of poetic sentiment combined with such happy innovation in the form of his art . '' 
although it is not known exactly when chopin first met liszt after arriving in paris , on 12 december 1831 he mentioned in a letter to his friend woyciechowski that `` i have met rossini , cherubini , baillot , etc. -- also kalkbrenner . 
you would not believe how curious i was about herz , liszt , hiller , etc. '' liszt was in attendance at chopin 's parisian debut on 26 february 1832 at the salle pleyel , which led him to remark : `` the most vigorous applause seemed not to suffice to our enthusiasm in the presence of this talented musician , who revealed a new phase of poetic sentiment combined with such happy innovation in the form of his art . '' 
the two became friends , and for many years lived in close proximity in paris , chopin at 38 rue de la chaussée-d'antin , and liszt at the hôtel de france on the rue lafitte , a few blocks away . 
the two became friends , and for many years lived in close proximity in paris , chopin at 38 rue de la chaussée-d'antin , and liszt at the hôtel de france on the rue lafitte , a few blocks away . 
they performed together on seven occasions between 1833 and 1841 . 
the first , on 2 april 1833 , was at a benefit concert organized by hector berlioz for his bankrupt shakespearean actress wife harriet smithson , during which they played george onslow 's sonata in f minor for piano duet . 
their last appearance together in public was for a charity concert conducted for the beethoven memorial in bonn , held at the salle pleyel and the paris conservatory on 25 and 26 april 1841 . 
the first , on 2 april 1833 , was at a benefit concert organized by hector berlioz for his bankrupt shakespearean actress wife harriet smithson , during which they played george onslow 's sonata in f minor for piano duet . 
their last appearance together in public was for a charity concert conducted for the beethoven memorial in bonn , held at the salle pleyel and the paris conservatory on 25 and 26 april 1841 . 
their last appearance together in public was for a charity concert conducted for the beethoven memorial in bonn , held at the salle pleyel and the paris conservatory on 25 and 26 april 1841 . 
the two became friends , and for many years lived in close proximity in paris , chopin at 38 rue de la chaussée-d'antin , and liszt at the hôtel de france on the rue lafitte , a few blocks away . 
they performed together on seven occasions between 1833 and 1841 . 
the first , on 2 april 1833 , was at a benefit concert organized by hector berlioz for his bankrupt shakespearean actress wife harriet smithson , during which they played george onslow 's sonata in f minor for piano duet . 
although the two displayed great respect and admiration for each other , their friendship was uneasy and had some qualities of a love-hate relationship . 
harold c. schonberg believes that chopin displayed a `` tinge of jealousy and spite '' towards liszt 's virtuosity on the piano , and others have also argued that he had become enchanted with liszt 's theatricality , showmanship and success . 
however , chopin expressed annoyance in 1843 when liszt performed one of his nocturnes with the addition of numerous intricate embellishments , at which chopin remarked that he should play the music as written or not play it at all , forcing an apology . 
most biographers of chopin state that after this the two had little to do with each other , although in his letters dated as late as 1848 he still referred to him as `` my friend liszt '' . 
liszt was the dedicatee of chopin 's op. 10 études , and his performance of them prompted the composer to write to hiller , `` i should like to rob him of the way he plays my studies . '' 
some commentators point to events in the two men 's romantic lives which led to a rift between them ; there are claims that liszt had displayed jealousy of his mistress marie d'agoult 's obsession with chopin , while others believe that chopin had become concerned about liszt 's growing relationship with george sand . 
harold c. schonberg believes that chopin displayed a `` tinge of jealousy and spite '' towards liszt 's virtuosity on the piano , and others have also argued that he had become enchanted with liszt 's theatricality , showmanship and success . 
harold c. schonberg believes that chopin displayed a `` tinge of jealousy and spite '' towards liszt 's virtuosity on the piano , and others have also argued that he had become enchanted with liszt 's theatricality , showmanship and success . 
some commentators point to events in the two men 's romantic lives which led to a rift between them ; there are claims that liszt had displayed jealousy of his mistress marie d'agoult 's obsession with chopin , while others believe that chopin had become concerned about liszt 's growing relationship with george sand . 
liszt was the dedicatee of chopin 's op. 10 études , and his performance of them prompted the composer to write to hiller , `` i should like to rob him of the way he plays my studies . '' 
some commentators point to events in the two men 's romantic lives which led to a rift between them ; there are claims that liszt had displayed jealousy of his mistress marie d'agoult 's obsession with chopin , while others believe that chopin had become concerned about liszt 's growing relationship with george sand . 
in 1836 , at a party hosted by marie d'agoult , chopin met the french author george sand -lrb- born -lsb- amantine -rsb- aurore -lsb- lucile -rsb- dupin -rrb- . 
chopin finally placed the letters from maria and her mother in a package on which he wrote , in polish , `` my tragedy '' . 
sand , in a letter to grzymała of june 1838 , admitted strong feelings for the composer and debated whether to abandon a current affair in order to begin a relationship with chopin ; she asked grzymała to assess chopin 's relationship with maria wodzińska , without realising that the affair , at least from maria 's side , was over . 
in 1836 , at a party hosted by marie d'agoult , chopin met the french author george sand -lrb- born -lsb- amantine -rsb- aurore -lsb- lucile -rsb- dupin -rrb- . 
it is thought that she was influenced by his poor health and possibly also by rumours about his associations with women such as d'agoult and sand . 
chopin finally placed the letters from maria and her mother in a package on which he wrote , in polish , `` my tragedy '' . 
in 1836 , at a party hosted by marie d'agoult , chopin met the french author george sand -lrb- born -lsb- amantine -rsb- aurore -lsb- lucile -rsb- dupin -rrb- . 
however , by early 1837 maria wodzińska 's mother had made it clear to chopin in correspondence that a marriage with her daughter was unlikely to proceed . 
chopin finally placed the letters from maria and her mother in a package on which he wrote , in polish , `` my tragedy '' . 
sand , in a letter to grzymała of june 1838 , admitted strong feelings for the composer and debated whether to abandon a current affair in order to begin a relationship with chopin ; she asked grzymała to assess chopin 's relationship with maria wodzińska , without realising that the affair , at least from maria 's side , was over . 
in june 1837 chopin visited london incognito in the company of the piano manufacturer camille pleyel where he played at a musical soirée at the house of english piano maker james broadwood . 
on his return to paris , his association with sand began in earnest , and by the end of june 1838 they had become lovers . 
sand , who was six years older than the composer , and who had had a series of lovers , wrote at this time : `` i must say i was confused and amazed at the effect this little creature had on me ... i have still not recovered from my astonishment , and if i were a proud person i should be feeling humiliated at having been carried away ... '' the two spent a miserable winter on majorca -lrb- 8 november 1838 to 13 february 1839 -rrb- , where , together with sand 's two children , they had journeyed in the hope of improving the health of chopin and that of sand 's 15-year-old son maurice , and also to escape the threats of sand 's former lover félicien mallefille . 
sand , who was six years older than the composer , and who had had a series of lovers , wrote at this time : `` i must say i was confused and amazed at the effect this little creature had on me ... i have still not recovered from my astonishment , and if i were a proud person i should be feeling humiliated at having been carried away ... '' the two spent a miserable winter on majorca -lrb- 8 november 1838 to 13 february 1839 -rrb- , where , together with sand 's two children , they had journeyed in the hope of improving the health of chopin and that of sand 's 15-year-old son maurice , and also to escape the threats of sand 's former lover félicien mallefille . 
this compelled the group to take lodgings in a former carthusian monastery in valldemossa , which gave little shelter from the cold winter weather . 
in june 1837 chopin visited london incognito in the company of the piano manufacturer camille pleyel where he played at a musical soirée at the house of english piano maker james broadwood . 
in june 1837 chopin visited london incognito in the company of the piano manufacturer camille pleyel where he played at a musical soirée at the house of english piano maker james broadwood . 
sand , who was six years older than the composer , and who had had a series of lovers , wrote at this time : `` i must say i was confused and amazed at the effect this little creature had on me ... i have still not recovered from my astonishment , and if i were a proud person i should be feeling humiliated at having been carried away ... '' the two spent a miserable winter on majorca -lrb- 8 november 1838 to 13 february 1839 -rrb- , where , together with sand 's two children , they had journeyed in the hope of improving the health of chopin and that of sand 's 15-year-old son maurice , and also to escape the threats of sand 's former lover félicien mallefille . 
sand , who was six years older than the composer , and who had had a series of lovers , wrote at this time : `` i must say i was confused and amazed at the effect this little creature had on me ... i have still not recovered from my astonishment , and if i were a proud person i should be feeling humiliated at having been carried away ... '' the two spent a miserable winter on majorca -lrb- 8 november 1838 to 13 february 1839 -rrb- , where , together with sand 's two children , they had journeyed in the hope of improving the health of chopin and that of sand 's 15-year-old son maurice , and also to escape the threats of sand 's former lover félicien mallefille . 
this compelled the group to take lodgings in a former carthusian monastery in valldemossa , which gave little shelter from the cold winter weather . 
on his return to paris , his association with sand began in earnest , and by the end of june 1838 they had become lovers . 
sand , who was six years older than the composer , and who had had a series of lovers , wrote at this time : `` i must say i was confused and amazed at the effect this little creature had on me ... i have still not recovered from my astonishment , and if i were a proud person i should be feeling humiliated at having been carried away ... '' the two spent a miserable winter on majorca -lrb- 8 november 1838 to 13 february 1839 -rrb- , where , together with sand 's two children , they had journeyed in the hope of improving the health of chopin and that of sand 's 15-year-old son maurice , and also to escape the threats of sand 's former lover félicien mallefille . 
sand , who was six years older than the composer , and who had had a series of lovers , wrote at this time : `` i must say i was confused and amazed at the effect this little creature had on me ... i have still not recovered from my astonishment , and if i were a proud person i should be feeling humiliated at having been carried away ... '' the two spent a miserable winter on majorca -lrb- 8 november 1838 to 13 february 1839 -rrb- , where , together with sand 's two children , they had journeyed in the hope of improving the health of chopin and that of sand 's 15-year-old son maurice , and also to escape the threats of sand 's former lover félicien mallefille . 
sand , who was six years older than the composer , and who had had a series of lovers , wrote at this time : `` i must say i was confused and amazed at the effect this little creature had on me ... i have still not recovered from my astonishment , and if i were a proud person i should be feeling humiliated at having been carried away ... '' the two spent a miserable winter on majorca -lrb- 8 november 1838 to 13 february 1839 -rrb- , where , together with sand 's two children , they had journeyed in the hope of improving the health of chopin and that of sand 's 15-year-old son maurice , and also to escape the threats of sand 's former lover félicien mallefille . 
this compelled the group to take lodgings in a former carthusian monastery in valldemossa , which gave little shelter from the cold winter weather . 
on 3 december , chopin complained about his bad health and the incompetence of the doctors in majorca : `` three doctors have visited me ... the first said i was dead ; the second said i was dying ; and the third said i was about to die . '' 
he also had problems having his pleyel piano sent to him . 
i finished them on your little piano , which arrived in the best possible condition in spite of the sea , the bad weather and the palma customs . '' 
on 3 december , chopin complained about his bad health and the incompetence of the doctors in majorca : `` three doctors have visited me ... the first said i was dead ; the second said i was dying ; and the third said i was about to die . '' 
on 3 december , chopin complained about his bad health and the incompetence of the doctors in majorca : `` three doctors have visited me ... the first said i was dead ; the second said i was dying ; and the third said i was about to die . '' 
on 3 december , chopin complained about his bad health and the incompetence of the doctors in majorca : `` three doctors have visited me ... the first said i was dead ; the second said i was dying ; and the third said i was about to die . '' 
he also had problems having his pleyel piano sent to him . 
on 3 december , chopin complained about his bad health and the incompetence of the doctors in majorca : `` three doctors have visited me ... the first said i was dead ; the second said i was dying ; and the third said i was about to die . '' 
he also had problems having his pleyel piano sent to him . 
although this period had been productive , the bad weather had such a detrimental effect on chopin 's health that sand determined to leave the island . 
to avoid further customs duties , sand sold the piano to a local french couple , the canuts . 
-lsb- n 8 -rsb- the group traveled first to barcelona , then to marseilles , where they stayed for a few months while chopin convalesced . 
in may 1839 they headed for the summer to sand 's estate at nohant , where they spent most summers until 1846 . 
in 1842 he and sand moved to the square d'orléans , living in adjacent buildings . 
to avoid further customs duties , sand sold the piano to a local french couple , the canuts . 
-lsb- n 8 -rsb- the group traveled first to barcelona , then to marseilles , where they stayed for a few months while chopin convalesced . 
in may 1839 they headed for the summer to sand 's estate at nohant , where they spent most summers until 1846 . 
in autumn they returned to paris , where chopin 's apartment at 5 rue tronchet was close to sand 's rented accommodation at the rue pigalle . 
in 1842 he and sand moved to the square d'orléans , living in adjacent buildings . 
although this period had been productive , the bad weather had such a detrimental effect on chopin 's health that sand determined to leave the island . 
to avoid further customs duties , sand sold the piano to a local french couple , the canuts . 
-lsb- n 8 -rsb- the group traveled first to barcelona , then to marseilles , where they stayed for a few months while chopin convalesced . 
in 1842 he and sand moved to the square d'orléans , living in adjacent buildings . 
in may 1839 they headed for the summer to sand 's estate at nohant , where they spent most summers until 1846 . 
on 26 july 1840 chopin and sand were present at the dress rehearsal of berlioz 's grande symphonie funèbre et triomphale , composed to commemorate the tenth anniversary of the july revolution . 
on 26 july 1840 chopin and sand were present at the dress rehearsal of berlioz 's grande symphonie funèbre et triomphale , composed to commemorate the tenth anniversary of the july revolution . 
at the funeral of the tenor adolphe nourrit in paris in 1839 , chopin made a rare appearance at the organ , playing a transcription of franz schubert 's lied die gestirne . 
at the funeral of the tenor adolphe nourrit in paris in 1839 , chopin made a rare appearance at the organ , playing a transcription of franz schubert 's lied die gestirne . 
at the funeral of the tenor adolphe nourrit in paris in 1839 , chopin made a rare appearance at the organ , playing a transcription of franz schubert 's lied die gestirne . 
at the funeral of the tenor adolphe nourrit in paris in 1839 , chopin made a rare appearance at the organ , playing a transcription of franz schubert 's lied die gestirne . 
at the funeral of the tenor adolphe nourrit in paris in 1839 , chopin made a rare appearance at the organ , playing a transcription of franz schubert 's lied die gestirne . 
on 26 july 1840 chopin and sand were present at the dress rehearsal of berlioz 's grande symphonie funèbre et triomphale , composed to commemorate the tenth anniversary of the july revolution . 
on 26 july 1840 chopin and sand were present at the dress rehearsal of berlioz 's grande symphonie funèbre et triomphale , composed to commemorate the tenth anniversary of the july revolution . 
during the summers at nohant , particularly in the years 1839 -- 43 , chopin found quiet , productive days during which he composed many works , including his polonaise in a-flat major , op. 53 . 
among the visitors to nohant were delacroix and the mezzo-soprano pauline viardot , whom chopin had advised on piano technique and composition . 
delacroix gives an account of staying at nohant in a letter of 7 june 1842 : 
among the visitors to nohant were delacroix and the mezzo-soprano pauline viardot , whom chopin had advised on piano technique and composition . 
among the visitors to nohant were delacroix and the mezzo-soprano pauline viardot , whom chopin had advised on piano technique and composition . 
among the visitors to nohant were delacroix and the mezzo-soprano pauline viardot , whom chopin had advised on piano technique and composition . 
among the visitors to nohant were delacroix and the mezzo-soprano pauline viardot , whom chopin had advised on piano technique and composition . 
from 1842 onwards , chopin showed signs of serious illness . 
after a solo recital in paris on 21 february 1842 , he wrote to grzymała : `` i have to lie in bed all day long , my mouth and tonsils are aching so much . '' 
he was forced by illness to decline a written invitation from alkan to participate in a repeat performance of the beethoven seventh symphony arrangement at erard 's on 1 march 1843 . 
late in 1844 , charles hallé visited chopin and found him `` hardly able to move , bent like a half-opened penknife and evidently in great pain '' , although his spirits returned when he started to play the piano for his visitor . 
modern research suggests that apart from any other illnesses , he may also have suffered from temporal lobe epilepsy . 
from 1842 onwards , chopin showed signs of serious illness . 
he was forced by illness to decline a written invitation from alkan to participate in a repeat performance of the beethoven seventh symphony arrangement at erard 's on 1 march 1843 . 
modern research suggests that apart from any other illnesses , he may also have suffered from temporal lobe epilepsy . 
from 1842 onwards , chopin showed signs of serious illness . 
after a solo recital in paris on 21 february 1842 , he wrote to grzymała : `` i have to lie in bed all day long , my mouth and tonsils are aching so much . '' 
he was forced by illness to decline a written invitation from alkan to participate in a repeat performance of the beethoven seventh symphony arrangement at erard 's on 1 march 1843 . 
late in 1844 , charles hallé visited chopin and found him `` hardly able to move , bent like a half-opened penknife and evidently in great pain '' , although his spirits returned when he started to play the piano for his visitor . 
modern research suggests that apart from any other illnesses , he may also have suffered from temporal lobe epilepsy . 
chopin 's relations with sand were soured in 1846 by problems involving her daughter solange and solange 's fiancé , the young fortune-hunting sculptor auguste clésinger . 
chopin was utterly indifferent to sand 's radical political pursuits , while sand looked on his society friends with disdain . 
as the composer 's illness progressed , sand had become less of a lover and more of a nurse to chopin , whom she called her `` third child '' . 
in 1847 sand published her novel lucrezia floriani , whose main characters -- a rich actress and a prince in weak health -- could be interpreted as sand and chopin ; the story was uncomplimentary to chopin , who could not have missed the allusions as he helped sand correct the printer 's galleys . 
in 1847 sand published her novel lucrezia floriani , whose main characters -- a rich actress and a prince in weak health -- could be interpreted as sand and chopin ; the story was uncomplimentary to chopin , who could not have missed the allusions as he helped sand correct the printer 's galleys . 
chopin 's relations with sand were soured in 1846 by problems involving her daughter solange and solange 's fiancé , the young fortune-hunting sculptor auguste clésinger . 
chopin 's relations with sand were soured in 1846 by problems involving her daughter solange and solange 's fiancé , the young fortune-hunting sculptor auguste clésinger . 
in 1847 sand published her novel lucrezia floriani , whose main characters -- a rich actress and a prince in weak health -- could be interpreted as sand and chopin ; the story was uncomplimentary to chopin , who could not have missed the allusions as he helped sand correct the printer 's galleys . 
chopin 's relations with sand were soured in 1846 by problems involving her daughter solange and solange 's fiancé , the young fortune-hunting sculptor auguste clésinger . 
as the composer 's illness progressed , sand had become less of a lover and more of a nurse to chopin , whom she called her `` third child '' . 
in 1847 sand published her novel lucrezia floriani , whose main characters -- a rich actress and a prince in weak health -- could be interpreted as sand and chopin ; the story was uncomplimentary to chopin , who could not have missed the allusions as he helped sand correct the printer 's galleys . 
in 1847 sand published her novel lucrezia floriani , whose main characters -- a rich actress and a prince in weak health -- could be interpreted as sand and chopin ; the story was uncomplimentary to chopin , who could not have missed the allusions as he helped sand correct the printer 's galleys . 
in 1844 he wrote only the op. 58 sonata . 
although these works were more refined than many of his earlier compositions , zamoyski opines that `` his powers of concentration were failing and his inspiration was beset by anguish , both emotional and intellectual . '' 
whereas in 1841 he had written a dozen works , only six were written in 1842 and six shorter pieces in 1843 . 
whereas in 1841 he had written a dozen works , only six were written in 1842 and six shorter pieces in 1843 . 
in 1844 he wrote only the op. 58 sonata . 
whereas in 1841 he had written a dozen works , only six were written in 1842 and six shorter pieces in 1843 . 
whereas in 1841 he had written a dozen works , only six were written in 1842 and six shorter pieces in 1843 . 
1845 saw the completion of three mazurkas -lrb- op. 59 -rrb- . 
in february 1848 , with the cellist auguste franchomme , he gave his last paris concert , which included three movements of the cello sonata op. 65 . 
in february 1848 , with the cellist auguste franchomme , he gave his last paris concert , which included three movements of the cello sonata op. 65 . 
in february 1848 , with the cellist auguste franchomme , he gave his last paris concert , which included three movements of the cello sonata op. 65 . 
in february 1848 , with the cellist auguste franchomme , he gave his last paris concert , which included three movements of the cello sonata op. 65 . 
chopin 's public popularity as a virtuoso began to wane , as did the number of his pupils , and this , together with the political strife and instability of the time , caused him to struggle financially . 
in february 1848 , with the cellist auguste franchomme , he gave his last paris concert , which included three movements of the cello sonata op. 65 . 
in february 1848 , with the cellist auguste franchomme , he gave his last paris concert , which included three movements of the cello sonata op. 65 . 
chopin 's life was covered in a bbc tv documentary chopin -- the women behind the music -lrb- 2010 -rrb- , and in a 2010 documentary realised by angelo bozzolini and roberto prosseda for italian television . 
chopin 's life was covered in a bbc tv documentary chopin -- the women behind the music -lrb- 2010 -rrb- , and in a 2010 documentary realised by angelo bozzolini and roberto prosseda for italian television . 
chopin 's life was covered in a bbc tv documentary chopin -- the women behind the music -lrb- 2010 -rrb- , and in a 2010 documentary realised by angelo bozzolini and roberto prosseda for italian television . 
chopin 's life was covered in a bbc tv documentary chopin -- the women behind the music -lrb- 2010 -rrb- , and in a 2010 documentary realised by angelo bozzolini and roberto prosseda for italian television . 
chopin 's life was covered in a bbc tv documentary chopin -- the women behind the music -lrb- 2010 -rrb- , and in a 2010 documentary realised by angelo bozzolini and roberto prosseda for italian television . 
chopin 's life was covered in a bbc tv documentary chopin -- the women behind the music -lrb- 2010 -rrb- , and in a 2010 documentary realised by angelo bozzolini and roberto prosseda for italian television . 
chopin 's life was covered in a bbc tv documentary chopin -- the women behind the music -lrb- 2010 -rrb- , and in a 2010 documentary realised by angelo bozzolini and roberto prosseda for italian television . 
the 1945 biographical film a song to remember earned cornel wilde an academy award nomination as best actor for his portrayal of the composer . 
the 1945 biographical film a song to remember earned cornel wilde an academy award nomination as best actor for his portrayal of the composer . 
other film treatments have included : la valse de l'adieu -lrb- france , 1928 -rrb- by henry roussel , with pierre blanchar as chopin ; impromptu -lrb- 1991 -rrb- , starring hugh grant as chopin ; la note bleue -lrb- 1991 -rrb- ; and chopin : desire for love -lrb- 2002 -rrb- . 
other film treatments have included : la valse de l'adieu -lrb- france , 1928 -rrb- by henry roussel , with pierre blanchar as chopin ; impromptu -lrb- 1991 -rrb- , starring hugh grant as chopin ; la note bleue -lrb- 1991 -rrb- ; and chopin : desire for love -lrb- 2002 -rrb- . 
chopin 's life and his relations with george sand have been fictionalized in numerous films . 
the 1945 biographical film a song to remember earned cornel wilde an academy award nomination as best actor for his portrayal of the composer . 
the 1945 biographical film a song to remember earned cornel wilde an academy award nomination as best actor for his portrayal of the composer . 
other film treatments have included : la valse de l'adieu -lrb- france , 1928 -rrb- by henry roussel , with pierre blanchar as chopin ; impromptu -lrb- 1991 -rrb- , starring hugh grant as chopin ; la note bleue -lrb- 1991 -rrb- ; and chopin : desire for love -lrb- 2002 -rrb- . 
other film treatments have included : la valse de l'adieu -lrb- france , 1928 -rrb- by henry roussel , with pierre blanchar as chopin ; impromptu -lrb- 1991 -rrb- , starring hugh grant as chopin ; la note bleue -lrb- 1991 -rrb- ; and chopin : desire for love -lrb- 2002 -rrb- . 
chopin was written by giacomo orefice and produced in milan in 1901 . 
chopin was written by giacomo orefice and produced in milan in 1901 . 
chopin was written by giacomo orefice and produced in milan in 1901 . 
possibly the first venture into fictional treatments of chopin 's life was a fanciful operatic version of some of its events . 
possibly the first venture into fictional treatments of chopin 's life was a fanciful operatic version of some of its events . 
chopin was written by giacomo orefice and produced in milan in 1901 . 
chopin was written by giacomo orefice and produced in milan in 1901 . 
chopin was written by giacomo orefice and produced in milan in 1901 . 
the earliest manifestation was probably an 1830 sonnet on chopin by leon ulrich . 
french writers on chopin -lrb- apart from sand -rrb- have included marcel proust and andré gide ; and he has also featured in works of gottfried benn and boris pasternak . 
the earliest manifestation was probably an 1830 sonnet on chopin by leon ulrich . 
the earliest manifestation was probably an 1830 sonnet on chopin by leon ulrich . 
the earliest manifestation was probably an 1830 sonnet on chopin by leon ulrich . 
there are numerous biographies of chopin in english -lrb- see bibliography for some of these -rrb- . 
the warsaw chopin society organizes the grand prix du disque de f. chopin for notable chopin recordings , held every five years . 
the warsaw chopin society organizes the grand prix du disque de f. chopin for notable chopin recordings , held every five years . 
on the occasion of the composer 's bicentenary , the critics of the new york times recommended performances by the following contemporary pianists -lrb- among many others -rrb- : martha argerich , vladimir ashkenazy , emanuel ax , evgeny kissin , murray perahia , maurizio pollini and krystian zimerman . 
the warsaw chopin society organizes the grand prix du disque de f. chopin for notable chopin recordings , held every five years . 
the warsaw chopin society organizes the grand prix du disque de f. chopin for notable chopin recordings , held every five years . 
on the occasion of the composer 's bicentenary , the critics of the new york times recommended performances by the following contemporary pianists -lrb- among many others -rrb- : martha argerich , vladimir ashkenazy , emanuel ax , evgeny kissin , murray perahia , maurizio pollini and krystian zimerman . 
the earliest recording was an 1895 performance by paul pabst of the nocturne in e major op. 62 no. 2 . 
the earliest recording was an 1895 performance by paul pabst of the nocturne in e major op. 62 no. 2 . 
the earliest recording was an 1895 performance by paul pabst of the nocturne in e major op. 62 no. 2 . 
the british library notes that `` chopin 's works have been recorded by all the great pianists of the recording era . '' 
the earliest recording was an 1895 performance by paul pabst of the nocturne in e major op. 62 no. 2 . 
a select discography of recordings of chopin works by pianists representing the various pedagogic traditions stemming from chopin is given by methuen-campbell in his work tracing the lineage and character of those traditions . 
the world 's oldest monographic music competition , the international chopin piano competition , founded in 1927 , is held every five years in warsaw . 
the world 's oldest monographic music competition , the international chopin piano competition , founded in 1927 , is held every five years in warsaw . 
the world 's oldest monographic music competition , the international chopin piano competition , founded in 1927 , is held every five years in warsaw . 
the world 's oldest monographic music competition , the international chopin piano competition , founded in 1927 , is held every five years in warsaw . 
the institute site also lists nearly 1,500 performances of chopin works on youtube as of january 2014 . 
the world 's oldest monographic music competition , the international chopin piano competition , founded in 1927 , is held every five years in warsaw . 
the world 's oldest monographic music competition , the international chopin piano competition , founded in 1927 , is held every five years in warsaw . 
the fryderyk chopin institute of poland lists on its website over eighty societies world-wide devoted to the composer and his music . 
the institute site also lists nearly 1,500 performances of chopin works on youtube as of january 2014 . 
chopin 's music was used in the 1909 ballet chopiniana , choreographed by michel fokine and orchestrated by alexander glazunov . 
chopin 's music was used in the 1909 ballet chopiniana , choreographed by michel fokine and orchestrated by alexander glazunov . 
sergei diaghilev commissioned additional orchestrations -- from stravinsky , anatoly lyadov , sergei taneyev and nikolai tcherepnin -- for later productions , which used the title les sylphides . 
chopin 's music was used in the 1909 ballet chopiniana , choreographed by michel fokine and orchestrated by alexander glazunov . 
chopin 's music was used in the 1909 ballet chopiniana , choreographed by michel fokine and orchestrated by alexander glazunov . 
chopin 's music was used in the 1909 ballet chopiniana , choreographed by michel fokine and orchestrated by alexander glazunov . 
chopin 's music was used in the 1909 ballet chopiniana , choreographed by michel fokine and orchestrated by alexander glazunov . 
chopin 's music was used in the 1909 ballet chopiniana , choreographed by michel fokine and orchestrated by alexander glazunov . 
sergei diaghilev commissioned additional orchestrations -- from stravinsky , anatoly lyadov , sergei taneyev and nikolai tcherepnin -- for later productions , which used the title les sylphides . 
in april , during the revolution of 1848 in paris , he left for london , where he performed at several concerts and at numerous receptions in great houses . 
this tour was suggested to him by his scottish pupil jane stirling and her elder sister . 
in april , during the revolution of 1848 in paris , he left for london , where he performed at several concerts and at numerous receptions in great houses . 
this tour was suggested to him by his scottish pupil jane stirling and her elder sister . 
this tour was suggested to him by his scottish pupil jane stirling and her elder sister . 
in april , during the revolution of 1848 in paris , he left for london , where he performed at several concerts and at numerous receptions in great houses . 
this tour was suggested to him by his scottish pupil jane stirling and her elder sister . 
in london chopin took lodgings at dover street , where the firm of broadwood provided him with a grand piano . 
in london chopin took lodgings at dover street , where the firm of broadwood provided him with a grand piano . 
at his first engagement , on 15 may at stafford house , the audience included queen victoria and prince albert . 
at his first engagement , on 15 may at stafford house , the audience included queen victoria and prince albert . 
at a concert on 7 july he shared the platform with viardot , who sang arrangements of some of his mazurkas to spanish texts . 
in london chopin took lodgings at dover street , where the firm of broadwood provided him with a grand piano . 
in london chopin took lodgings at dover street , where the firm of broadwood provided him with a grand piano . 
at his first engagement , on 15 may at stafford house , the audience included queen victoria and prince albert . 
chopin was also sought after for piano lessons , for which he charged the high fee of one guinea -lrb- # 1.05 in present british currency -rrb- per hour , and for private recitals for which the fee was 20 guineas . 
at a concert on 7 july he shared the platform with viardot , who sang arrangements of some of his mazurkas to spanish texts . 
in late summer he was invited by jane stirling to visit scotland , where he stayed at calder house near edinburgh and at johnstone castle in renfrewshire , both owned by members of stirling 's family . 
in late october 1848 , while staying at 10 warriston crescent in edinburgh with the polish physician adam łyszczyński , he wrote out his last will and testament -- `` a kind of disposition to be made of my stuff in the future , if i should drop dead somewhere '' , he wrote to grzymała . 
in late summer he was invited by jane stirling to visit scotland , where he stayed at calder house near edinburgh and at johnstone castle in renfrewshire , both owned by members of stirling 's family . 
he gave a public concert in glasgow on 27 september , and another in edinburgh , at the hopetoun rooms on queen street -lrb- now erskine house -rrb- on 4 october . 
in late october 1848 , while staying at 10 warriston crescent in edinburgh with the polish physician adam łyszczyński , he wrote out his last will and testament -- `` a kind of disposition to be made of my stuff in the future , if i should drop dead somewhere '' , he wrote to grzymała . 
chopin made his last public appearance on a concert platform at london 's guildhall on 16 november 1848 , when , in a final patriotic gesture , he played for the benefit of polish refugees . 
chopin made his last public appearance on a concert platform at london 's guildhall on 16 november 1848 , when , in a final patriotic gesture , he played for the benefit of polish refugees . 
chopin made his last public appearance on a concert platform at london 's guildhall on 16 november 1848 , when , in a final patriotic gesture , he played for the benefit of polish refugees . 
by this time he was very seriously ill , weighing under 99 pounds -lrb- i.e. less than 45 kg -rrb- , and his doctors were aware that his sickness was at a terminal stage . 
chopin made his last public appearance on a concert platform at london 's guildhall on 16 november 1848 , when , in a final patriotic gesture , he played for the benefit of polish refugees . 
occasionally he played , or accompanied the singing of delfina potocka , for his friends . 
during the summer of 1849 , his friends found him an apartment in chaillot , out of the centre of the city , for which the rent was secretly subsidised by an admirer , princess obreskoff . 
during the summer of 1849 , his friends found him an apartment in chaillot , out of the centre of the city , for which the rent was secretly subsidised by an admirer , princess obreskoff . 
at the end of november , chopin returned to paris . 
occasionally he played , or accompanied the singing of delfina potocka , for his friends . 
during the summer of 1849 , his friends found him an apartment in chaillot , out of the centre of the city , for which the rent was secretly subsidised by an admirer , princess obreskoff . 
during the summer of 1849 , his friends found him an apartment in chaillot , out of the centre of the city , for which the rent was secretly subsidised by an admirer , princess obreskoff . 
here in june 1849 he was visited by jenny lind . 
in june 1849 his sister ludwika came to paris with her husband and daughter , and in september , supported by a loan from jane stirling , he took an apartment at place vendôme 12 . 
in june 1849 his sister ludwika came to paris with her husband and daughter , and in september , supported by a loan from jane stirling , he took an apartment at place vendôme 12 . 
in june 1849 his sister ludwika came to paris with her husband and daughter , and in september , supported by a loan from jane stirling , he took an apartment at place vendôme 12 . 
in june 1849 his sister ludwika came to paris with her husband and daughter , and in september , supported by a loan from jane stirling , he took an apartment at place vendôme 12 . 
in june 1849 his sister ludwika came to paris with her husband and daughter , and in september , supported by a loan from jane stirling , he took an apartment at place vendôme 12 . 
after 15 october , when his condition took a marked turn for the worse , only a handful of his closest friends remained with him , although viardot remarked sardonically that `` all the grand parisian ladies considered it de rigueur to faint in his room . '' 
chopin requested that his body be opened after death -lrb- for fear of being buried alive -rrb- and his heart returned to warsaw where it rests at the church of the holy cross . 
`` no longer '' , he replied . 
later that morning , solange 's husband clésinger made chopin 's death mask and a cast of his left hand . 
chopin requested that his body be opened after death -lrb- for fear of being buried alive -rrb- and his heart returned to warsaw where it rests at the church of the holy cross . 
later that morning , solange 's husband clésinger made chopin 's death mask and a cast of his left hand . 
his death certificate gave the cause as tuberculosis , and his physician , jean cruveilhier , was then the leading french authority on this disease . 
his death certificate gave the cause as tuberculosis , and his physician , jean cruveilhier , was then the leading french authority on this disease . 
permission for dna testing , which could put the matter to rest , has been denied by the polish government . 
his death certificate gave the cause as tuberculosis , and his physician , jean cruveilhier , was then the leading french authority on this disease . 
his death certificate gave the cause as tuberculosis , and his physician , jean cruveilhier , was then the leading french authority on this disease . 
other possibilities have been advanced including cystic fibrosis , cirrhosis and alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency . 
permission for dna testing , which could put the matter to rest , has been denied by the polish government . 
the funeral , held at the church of the madeleine in paris , was delayed almost two weeks , until 30 october . 
the funeral , held at the church of the madeleine in paris , was delayed almost two weeks , until 30 october . 
over 3,000 people arrived without invitations , from as far as london , berlin and vienna , and were excluded . 
the funeral , held at the church of the madeleine in paris , was delayed almost two weeks , until 30 october . 
the funeral , held at the church of the madeleine in paris , was delayed almost two weeks , until 30 october . 
over 3,000 people arrived without invitations , from as far as london , berlin and vienna , and were excluded . 
mozart 's requiem was sung at the funeral ; the soloists were the soprano jeanne-anais castellan , the mezzo-soprano pauline viardot , the tenor alexis dupont , and the bass luigi lablache ; chopin 's preludes no. 4 in e minor and no. 6 in b minor were also played . 
the organist at the funeral was louis lefébure-wély . 
the funeral procession to père lachaise cemetery , which included chopin 's sister ludwika , was led by the aged prince adam czartoryski . 
at the graveside , the funeral march from chopin 's piano sonata no. 2 was played , in reber 's instrumentation . 
mozart 's requiem was sung at the funeral ; the soloists were the soprano jeanne-anais castellan , the mezzo-soprano pauline viardot , the tenor alexis dupont , and the bass luigi lablache ; chopin 's preludes no. 4 in e minor and no. 6 in b minor were also played . 
the organist at the funeral was louis lefébure-wély . 
the funeral procession to père lachaise cemetery , which included chopin 's sister ludwika , was led by the aged prince adam czartoryski . 
the funeral procession to père lachaise cemetery , which included chopin 's sister ludwika , was led by the aged prince adam czartoryski . 
at the graveside , the funeral march from chopin 's piano sonata no. 2 was played , in reber 's instrumentation . 
chopin 's tombstone , featuring the muse of music , euterpe , weeping over a broken lyre , was designed and sculpted by clésinger . 
chopin 's tombstone , featuring the muse of music , euterpe , weeping over a broken lyre , was designed and sculpted by clésinger . 
the expenses of the funeral and monument , amounting to 5,000 francs , were covered by jane stirling , who also paid for the return of the composer 's sister ludwika to warsaw . 
the expenses of the funeral and monument , amounting to 5,000 francs , were covered by jane stirling , who also paid for the return of the composer 's sister ludwika to warsaw . 
ludwika took chopin 's heart in an urn , preserved in alcohol , back to poland in 1850 . 
chopin 's tombstone , featuring the muse of music , euterpe , weeping over a broken lyre , was designed and sculpted by clésinger . 
the expenses of the funeral and monument , amounting to 5,000 francs , were covered by jane stirling , who also paid for the return of the composer 's sister ludwika to warsaw . 
the expenses of the funeral and monument , amounting to 5,000 francs , were covered by jane stirling , who also paid for the return of the composer 's sister ludwika to warsaw . 
the expenses of the funeral and monument , amounting to 5,000 francs , were covered by jane stirling , who also paid for the return of the composer 's sister ludwika to warsaw . 
-lsb- n 9 -rsb- she also took a collection of two hundred letters from sand to chopin ; after 1851 these were returned to sand , who seems to have destroyed them . 
over 230 works of chopin survive ; some compositions from early childhood have been lost . 
all his known works involve the piano , and only a few range beyond solo piano music , as either piano concertos , songs or chamber music . 
over 230 works of chopin survive ; some compositions from early childhood have been lost . 
all his known works involve the piano , and only a few range beyond solo piano music , as either piano concertos , songs or chamber music . 
chopin was educated in the tradition of beethoven , haydn , mozart and clementi ; he used clementi 's piano method with his own students . 
chopin was educated in the tradition of beethoven , haydn , mozart and clementi ; he used clementi 's piano method with his own students . 
he cited bach and mozart as the two most important composers in shaping his musical outlook . 
chopin was educated in the tradition of beethoven , haydn , mozart and clementi ; he used clementi 's piano method with his own students . 
chopin took the new salon genre of the nocturne , invented by the irish composer john field , to a deeper level of sophistication . 
he was the first to write ballades and scherzi as individual concert pieces . 
chopin took the new salon genre of the nocturne , invented by the irish composer john field , to a deeper level of sophistication . 
he was the first to write ballades and scherzi as individual concert pieces . 
he exploited the poetic potential of the concept of the concert étude , already being developed in the 1820s and 1830s by liszt , clementi and moscheles , in his two sets of studies -lrb- op. 10 published in 1833 , op. 25 in 1837 -rrb- . 
he exploited the poetic potential of the concept of the concert étude , already being developed in the 1820s and 1830s by liszt , clementi and moscheles , in his two sets of studies -lrb- op. 10 published in 1833 , op. 25 in 1837 -rrb- . 
the series of seven polonaises published in his lifetime -lrb- another nine were published posthumously -rrb- , beginning with the op. 26 pair -lrb- published 1836 -rrb- , set a new standard for music in the form . 
the series of seven polonaises published in his lifetime -lrb- another nine were published posthumously -rrb- , beginning with the op. 26 pair -lrb- published 1836 -rrb- , set a new standard for music in the form . 
chopin 's mazurkas , while originating in the traditional polish dance -lrb- the mazurek -rrb- , differed from the traditional variety in that they were written for the concert hall rather than the dance hall ; `` it was chopin who put the mazurka on the european musical map . '' 
his waltzes were also written specifically for the salon recital rather than the ballroom and are frequently at rather faster tempos than their dance-floor equivalents . 
chopin also endowed popular dance forms with a greater range of melody and expression . 
chopin 's mazurkas , while originating in the traditional polish dance -lrb- the mazurek -rrb- , differed from the traditional variety in that they were written for the concert hall rather than the dance hall ; `` it was chopin who put the mazurka on the european musical map . '' 
chopin 's mazurkas , while originating in the traditional polish dance -lrb- the mazurek -rrb- , differed from the traditional variety in that they were written for the concert hall rather than the dance hall ; `` it was chopin who put the mazurka on the european musical map . '' 
the series of seven polonaises published in his lifetime -lrb- another nine were published posthumously -rrb- , beginning with the op. 26 pair -lrb- published 1836 -rrb- , set a new standard for music in the form . 
his waltzes were also written specifically for the salon recital rather than the ballroom and are frequently at rather faster tempos than their dance-floor equivalents . 
some of chopin 's well-known pieces have acquired descriptive titles , such as the revolutionary étude -lrb- op. 10 , no. 12 -rrb- , and the minute waltz -lrb- op. 64 , no. 1 -rrb- . 
however , with the exception of his funeral march , the composer never named an instrumental work beyond genre and number , leaving all potential extramusical associations to the listener ; the names by which many of his pieces are known were invented by others . 
the funeral march , the third movement of his sonata no. 2 -lrb- op. 35 -rrb- , the one case where he did give a title , was written before the rest of the sonata , but no specific event or death is known to have inspired it . 
the funeral march , the third movement of his sonata no. 2 -lrb- op. 35 -rrb- , the one case where he did give a title , was written before the rest of the sonata , but no specific event or death is known to have inspired it . 
some of chopin 's well-known pieces have acquired descriptive titles , such as the revolutionary étude -lrb- op. 10 , no. 12 -rrb- , and the minute waltz -lrb- op. 64 , no. 1 -rrb- . 
some of chopin 's well-known pieces have acquired descriptive titles , such as the revolutionary étude -lrb- op. 10 , no. 12 -rrb- , and the minute waltz -lrb- op. 64 , no. 1 -rrb- . 
the last opus number that chopin himself used was 65 , allocated to the cello sonata in g minor . 
at the request of the composer 's mother and sisters , however , his musical executor julian fontana selected 23 unpublished piano pieces and grouped them into eight further opus numbers -lrb- opp . 
at the request of the composer 's mother and sisters , however , his musical executor julian fontana selected 23 unpublished piano pieces and grouped them into eight further opus numbers -lrb- opp . 
in 1857 , 17 polish songs that chopin wrote at various stages of his life were collected and published as op. 74 , though their order within the opus did not reflect the order of composition . 
the last opus number that chopin himself used was 65 , allocated to the cello sonata in g minor . 
at the request of the composer 's mother and sisters , however , his musical executor julian fontana selected 23 unpublished piano pieces and grouped them into eight further opus numbers -lrb- opp . 
in 1857 , 17 polish songs that chopin wrote at various stages of his life were collected and published as op. 74 , though their order within the opus did not reflect the order of composition . 
the present standard musicological reference for chopin 's works is the kobylańska catalogue -lrb- usually represented by the initials ` kk ' -rrb- , named for its compiler , the polish musicologist krystyna kobylańska . 
works published since 1857 have received alternative catalogue designations instead of opus numbers . 
works published since 1857 have received alternative catalogue designations instead of opus numbers . 
the present standard musicological reference for chopin 's works is the kobylańska catalogue -lrb- usually represented by the initials ` kk ' -rrb- , named for its compiler , the polish musicologist krystyna kobylańska . 
the present standard musicological reference for chopin 's works is the kobylańska catalogue -lrb- usually represented by the initials ` kk ' -rrb- , named for its compiler , the polish musicologist krystyna kobylańska . 
the present standard musicological reference for chopin 's works is the kobylańska catalogue -lrb- usually represented by the initials ` kk ' -rrb- , named for its compiler , the polish musicologist krystyna kobylańska . 
the first collected edition was by breitkopf & härtel -lrb- 1878 -- 1902 -rrb- . 
among modern scholarly editions of chopin 's works are the version under the name of paderewski published between 1937 and 1966 and the more recent polish `` national edition '' , edited by jan ekier , both of which contain detailed explanations and discussions regarding choices and sources . 
chopin 's original publishers included maurice schlesinger and camille pleyel . 
his works soon began to appear in popular 19th-century piano anthologies . 
among modern scholarly editions of chopin 's works are the version under the name of paderewski published between 1937 and 1966 and the more recent polish `` national edition '' , edited by jan ekier , both of which contain detailed explanations and discussions regarding choices and sources . 
among modern scholarly editions of chopin 's works are the version under the name of paderewski published between 1937 and 1966 and the more recent polish `` national edition '' , edited by jan ekier , both of which contain detailed explanations and discussions regarding choices and sources . 
improvisation stands at the centre of chopin 's creative processes . 
rosen suggests that an important aspect of chopin 's individuality is his flexible handling of the four-bar phrase as a structural unit . 
improvisation stands at the centre of chopin 's creative processes . 
however , this does not imply impulsive rambling : nicholas temperley writes that `` improvisation is designed for an audience , and its starting-point is that audience 's expectations , which include the current conventions of musical form . '' 
rosen suggests that an important aspect of chopin 's individuality is his flexible handling of the four-bar phrase as a structural unit . 
j. barrie jones suggests that `` amongst the works that chopin intended for concert use , the four ballades and four scherzos stand supreme '' , and adds that `` the barcarolle op. 60 stands apart as an example of chopin 's rich harmonic palette coupled with an italianate warmth of melody . '' 
j. barrie jones suggests that `` amongst the works that chopin intended for concert use , the four ballades and four scherzos stand supreme '' , and adds that `` the barcarolle op. 60 stands apart as an example of chopin 's rich harmonic palette coupled with an italianate warmth of melody . '' 
temperley opines that these works , which contain `` immense variety of mood , thematic material and structural detail '' , are based on an extended `` departure and return '' form ; `` the more the middle section is extended , and the further it departs in key , mood and theme , from the opening idea , the more important and dramatic is the reprise when it at last comes . '' 
the mazurkas often show more folk features than many of his other works , sometimes including modal scales and harmonies and the use of drone basses . 
chopin 's mazurkas and waltzes are all in straightforward ternary or episodic form , sometimes with a coda . 
chopin 's mazurkas and waltzes are all in straightforward ternary or episodic form , sometimes with a coda . 
the mazurkas often show more folk features than many of his other works , sometimes including modal scales and harmonies and the use of drone basses . 
however , some also show unusual sophistication , for example op. 63 no. 3 , which includes a canon at one beat 's distance , a great rarity in music . 
as with the traditional polonaise , chopin 's works are in triple time and typically display a martial rhythm in their melodies , accompaniments and cadences . 
chopin 's polonaises show a marked advance on those of his polish predecessors in the form -lrb- who included his teachers zywny and elsner -rrb- . 
as with the traditional polonaise , chopin 's works are in triple time and typically display a martial rhythm in their melodies , accompaniments and cadences . 
unlike most of their precursors , they also require a formidable playing technique . 
the 21 nocturnes are more structured , and of greater emotional depth , than those of field -lrb- whom chopin met in 1833 -rrb- . 
many of the chopin nocturnes have middle sections marked by agitated expression -lrb- and often making very difficult demands on the performer -rrb- which heightens their dramatic character . 
the 21 nocturnes are more structured , and of greater emotional depth , than those of field -lrb- whom chopin met in 1833 -rrb- . 
the 21 nocturnes are more structured , and of greater emotional depth , than those of field -lrb- whom chopin met in 1833 -rrb- . 
the 21 nocturnes are more structured , and of greater emotional depth , than those of field -lrb- whom chopin met in 1833 -rrb- . 
chopin 's études are largely in straightforward ternary form . 
chopin 's études are largely in straightforward ternary form . 
chopin 's études are largely in straightforward ternary form . 
inspired by j.s. bach 's the well-tempered clavier , chopin 's preludes move up the circle of fifths -lrb- rather than bach 's chromatic scale sequence -rrb- to create a prelude in each major and minor tonality . 
the preludes were perhaps not intended to be played as a group , and may even have been used by him and later pianists as generic preludes to others of his pieces , or even to music by other composers , as kenneth hamilton suggests : he has noted a recording by ferruccio busoni of 1922 , in which the prelude op. 28 no. 7 is followed by the étude op. 10 no. 5 . 
the preludes , many of which are very brief -lrb- some consisting of simple statements and developments of a single theme or figure -rrb- , were described by schumann as `` the beginnings of studies '' . 
inspired by j.s. bach 's the well-tempered clavier , chopin 's preludes move up the circle of fifths -lrb- rather than bach 's chromatic scale sequence -rrb- to create a prelude in each major and minor tonality . 
the preludes were perhaps not intended to be played as a group , and may even have been used by him and later pianists as generic preludes to others of his pieces , or even to music by other composers , as kenneth hamilton suggests : he has noted a recording by ferruccio busoni of 1922 , in which the prelude op. 28 no. 7 is followed by the étude op. 10 no. 5 . 
the preludes were perhaps not intended to be played as a group , and may even have been used by him and later pianists as generic preludes to others of his pieces , or even to music by other composers , as kenneth hamilton suggests : he has noted a recording by ferruccio busoni of 1922 , in which the prelude op. 28 no. 7 is followed by the étude op. 10 no. 5 . 
the two mature piano sonatas -lrb- no. 2 , op. 35 , written in 1839 and no. 3 , op. 58 , written in 1844 -rrb- are in four movements . 
the op. 58 sonata is closer to the german tradition , including many passages of complex counterpoint , `` worthy of brahms '' according to the music historians kornel michałowski and jim samson . 
the two mature piano sonatas -lrb- no. 2 , op. 35 , written in 1839 and no. 3 , op. 58 , written in 1844 -rrb- are in four movements . 
the last movement , a brief -lrb- 75-bar -rrb- perpetuum mobile in which the hands play in unmodified octave unison throughout , was found shocking and unmusical by contemporaries , including schumann . 
the two mature piano sonatas -lrb- no. 2 , op. 35 , written in 1839 and no. 3 , op. 58 , written in 1844 -rrb- are in four movements . 
chord progressions sometimes anticipate the shifting tonality of later composers such as claude debussy , as does chopin 's use of modal harmony . 
chopin 's harmonic innovations may have arisen partly from his keyboard improvisation technique . 
temperley says that in his works `` novel harmonic effects frequently result from the combination of ordinary appoggiaturas or passing notes with melodic figures of accompaniment '' , and cadences are delayed by the use of chords outside the home key -lrb- neapolitan sixths and diminished sevenths -rrb- , or by sudden shifts to remote keys . 
his style was based extensively on his use of very independent finger technique . 
in 1841 , léon escudier wrote of a recital given by chopin that year , `` one may say that chopin is the creator of a school of piano and a school of composition . 
in his projet de méthode he wrote : `` everything is a matter of knowing good fingering ... we need no less to use the rest of the hand , the wrist , the forearm and the upper arm . '' 
polish composers of the following generation included virtuosi such as moritz moszkowski , but , in the opinion of j. barrie jones , his `` one worthy successor '' among his compatriots was karol szymanowski -lrb- 1882 -- 1937 -rrb- . 
edvard grieg , antonín dvořák , isaac albéniz , pyotr ilyich tchaikovsky and sergei rachmaninoff , among others , are regarded by critics as having been influenced by chopin 's use of national modes and idioms . 
alexander scriabin was devoted to the music of chopin , and his early published works include nineteen mazurkas , as well as numerous études and preludes ; his teacher nikolai zverev drilled him in chopin 's works to improve his virtuosity as a performer . 
polish composers of the following generation included virtuosi such as moritz moszkowski , but , in the opinion of j. barrie jones , his `` one worthy successor '' among his compatriots was karol szymanowski -lrb- 1882 -- 1937 -rrb- . 
alexander scriabin was devoted to the music of chopin , and his early published works include nineteen mazurkas , as well as numerous études and preludes ; his teacher nikolai zverev drilled him in chopin 's works to improve his virtuosity as a performer . 
alexander scriabin was devoted to the music of chopin , and his early published works include nineteen mazurkas , as well as numerous études and preludes ; his teacher nikolai zverev drilled him in chopin 's works to improve his virtuosity as a performer . 
jonathan bellman writes that modern concert performance style -- set in the `` conservatory '' tradition of late 19th - and 20th-century music schools , and suitable for large auditoria or recordings -- militates against what is known of chopin 's more intimate performance technique . 
contemporary accounts indicate that in performance , chopin avoided rigid procedures sometimes incorrectly attributed to him , such as `` always crescendo to a high note '' , but that he was concerned with expressive phrasing , rhythmic consistency and sensitive colouring . 
contemporary accounts indicate that in performance , chopin avoided rigid procedures sometimes incorrectly attributed to him , such as `` always crescendo to a high note '' , but that he was concerned with expressive phrasing , rhythmic consistency and sensitive colouring . 
the composer himself said to a pupil that `` concerts are never real music , you have to give up the idea of hearing in them all the most beautiful things of art . '' 
berlioz wrote in 1853 that chopin `` has created a kind of chromatic embroidery ... whose effect is so strange and piquant as to be impossible to describe ... virtually nobody but chopin himself can play this music and give it this unusual turn '' . 
hiller wrote that `` what in the hands of others was elegant embellishment , in his hands became a colourful wreath of flowers . '' 
chopin 's music is frequently played with rubato , `` the practice in performance of disregarding strict time , ` robbing ' some note-values for expressive effect '' . 
chopin 's music is frequently played with rubato , `` the practice in performance of disregarding strict time , ` robbing ' some note-values for expressive effect '' . 
chopin 's music is frequently played with rubato , `` the practice in performance of disregarding strict time , ` robbing ' some note-values for expressive effect '' . 
charles rosen comments that `` most of the written-out indications of rubato in chopin are to be found in his mazurkas ... it is probable that chopin used the older form of rubato so important to mozart ... -lsb- where -rsb- the melody note in the right hand is delayed until after the note in the bass ... an allied form of this rubato is the arpeggiation of the chords thereby delaying the melody note ; according to chopin 's pupil , karol mikuli , chopin was firmly opposed to this practice . '' 
friederike müller , a pupil of chopin , wrote : '' -lsb- his -rsb- playing was always noble and beautiful ; his tones sang , whether in full forte or softest piano . 
friederike müller , a pupil of chopin , wrote : '' -lsb- his -rsb- playing was always noble and beautiful ; his tones sang , whether in full forte or softest piano . 
he also demanded the strictest adherence to rhythm . 
with his mazurkas and polonaises , chopin has been credited with introducing to music a new sense of nationalism . 
schumann , in his 1836 review of the piano concertos , highlighted the composer 's strong feelings for his native poland , writing that `` now that the poles are in deep mourning -lsb- after the failure of the november 1830 rising -rsb- , their appeal to us artists is even stronger ... if the mighty autocrat in the north -lsb- i.e. nicholas i of russia -rsb- could know that in chopin 's works , in the simple strains of his mazurkas , there lurks a dangerous enemy , he would place a ban on his music . 
schumann , in his 1836 review of the piano concertos , highlighted the composer 's strong feelings for his native poland , writing that `` now that the poles are in deep mourning -lsb- after the failure of the november 1830 rising -rsb- , their appeal to us artists is even stronger ... if the mighty autocrat in the north -lsb- i.e. nicholas i of russia -rsb- could know that in chopin 's works , in the simple strains of his mazurkas , there lurks a dangerous enemy , he would place a ban on his music . 
schumann , in his 1836 review of the piano concertos , highlighted the composer 's strong feelings for his native poland , writing that `` now that the poles are in deep mourning -lsb- after the failure of the november 1830 rising -rsb- , their appeal to us artists is even stronger ... if the mighty autocrat in the north -lsb- i.e. nicholas i of russia -rsb- could know that in chopin 's works , in the simple strains of his mazurkas , there lurks a dangerous enemy , he would place a ban on his music . 
the biography of chopin published in 1863 under the name of franz liszt -lrb- but probably written by carolyne zu sayn-wittgenstein -rrb- claims that chopin `` must be ranked first among the first musicians ... individualizing in themselves the poetic sense of an entire nation . '' 
with his mazurkas and polonaises , chopin has been credited with introducing to music a new sense of nationalism . 
schumann , in his 1836 review of the piano concertos , highlighted the composer 's strong feelings for his native poland , writing that `` now that the poles are in deep mourning -lsb- after the failure of the november 1830 rising -rsb- , their appeal to us artists is even stronger ... if the mighty autocrat in the north -lsb- i.e. nicholas i of russia -rsb- could know that in chopin 's works , in the simple strains of his mazurkas , there lurks a dangerous enemy , he would place a ban on his music . 
chopin 's works are cannon buried in flowers ! '' 
the biography of chopin published in 1863 under the name of franz liszt -lrb- but probably written by carolyne zu sayn-wittgenstein -rrb- claims that chopin `` must be ranked first among the first musicians ... individualizing in themselves the poetic sense of an entire nation . '' 
barbara milewski suggests that chopin 's experience of polish music came more from `` urbanised '' warsaw versions than from folk music , and that attempts -lrb- by jachimecki and others -rrb- to demonstrate genuine folk music in his works are without basis . 
george golos refers to earlier `` nationalist '' composers in central europe , including poland 's michał kleofas ogiński and franciszek lessel , who utilised polonaise and mazurka forms . 
richard taruskin impugns schumann 's attitude toward chopin 's works as patronizing and comments that chopin `` felt his polish patriotism deeply and sincerely '' but consciously modelled his works on the tradition of bach , beethoven , schubert and field . 
although chopin 's music undoubtedly came to him intuitively rather than through any conscious patriotic design , it served all the same to symbolize the will of the polish people ... '' 
a reconciliation of these views is suggested by william atwood : `` undoubtedly -lsb- chopin 's -rsb- use of traditional musical forms like the polonaise and mazurka roused nationalistic sentiments and a sense of cohesiveness amongst those poles scattered across europe and the new world ... while some sought solace in -lsb- them -rsb- , others found them a source of strength in their continuing struggle for freedom . 
a reconciliation of these views is suggested by william atwood : `` undoubtedly -lsb- chopin 's -rsb- use of traditional musical forms like the polonaise and mazurka roused nationalistic sentiments and a sense of cohesiveness amongst those poles scattered across europe and the new world ... while some sought solace in -lsb- them -rsb- , others found them a source of strength in their continuing struggle for freedom . 
while his illness and his love-affairs conform to some of the stereotypes of romanticism , the rarity of his public recitals -lrb- as opposed to performances at fashionable paris soirées -rrb- led arthur hutchings to suggest that `` his lack of byronic flamboyance -lsb- and -rsb- his aristocratic reclusiveness make him exceptional '' among his romantic contemporaries , such as liszt and henri herz . 
while his illness and his love-affairs conform to some of the stereotypes of romanticism , the rarity of his public recitals -lrb- as opposed to performances at fashionable paris soirées -rrb- led arthur hutchings to suggest that `` his lack of byronic flamboyance -lsb- and -rsb- his aristocratic reclusiveness make him exceptional '' among his romantic contemporaries , such as liszt and henri herz . 
he also notes that chopin was fortunate to arrive in paris in 1831 -- `` the artistic environment , the publishers who were willing to print his music , the wealthy and aristocratic who paid what chopin asked for their lessons '' -- and these factors , as well as his musical genius , also fuelled his contemporary and later reputation . 
while his illness and his love-affairs conform to some of the stereotypes of romanticism , the rarity of his public recitals -lrb- as opposed to performances at fashionable paris soirées -rrb- led arthur hutchings to suggest that `` his lack of byronic flamboyance -lsb- and -rsb- his aristocratic reclusiveness make him exceptional '' among his romantic contemporaries , such as liszt and henri herz . 
schumann named a piece for him in his suite carnaval , and chopin later dedicated his ballade no. 2 in f major to schumann . 
schumann named a piece for him in his suite carnaval , and chopin later dedicated his ballade no. 2 in f major to schumann . 
liszt later transcribed for piano six of chopin 's polish songs . 
a less fraught friendship was with alkan , with whom he discussed elements of folk music , and who was deeply affected by chopin 's death . 
chopin 's qualities as a pianist and composer were recognized by many of his fellow musicians . 
schumann named a piece for him in his suite carnaval , and chopin later dedicated his ballade no. 2 in f major to schumann . 
schumann named a piece for him in his suite carnaval , and chopin later dedicated his ballade no. 2 in f major to schumann . 
elements of chopin 's music can be traced in many of liszt 's later works . 
debussy dedicated his own 1915 piano études to the memory of chopin ; he frequently played chopin 's music during his studies at the paris conservatoire , and undertook the editing of chopin 's piano music for the publisher jacques durand . 
debussy dedicated his own 1915 piano études to the memory of chopin ; he frequently played chopin 's music during his studies at the paris conservatoire , and undertook the editing of chopin 's piano music for the publisher jacques durand . 
two of chopin 's long-standing pupils , karol mikuli -lrb- 1821 -- 1897 -rrb- and georges mathias , were themselves piano teachers and passed on details of his playing to their own students , some of whom -lrb- such as raoul koczalski -rrb- were to make recordings of his music . 
two of chopin 's long-standing pupils , karol mikuli -lrb- 1821 -- 1897 -rrb- and georges mathias , were themselves piano teachers and passed on details of his playing to their own students , some of whom -lrb- such as raoul koczalski -rrb- were to make recordings of his music . 
some mainland chinese scholars , such as wang jiawei and nyima gyaincain , assert that the ming dynasty had unquestioned sovereignty over tibet , pointing to the ming court 's issuing of various titles to tibetan leaders , tibetans ' full acceptance of these titles , and a renewal process for successors of these titles that involved traveling to the ming capital . 
some scholars underscore the commercial aspect of the ming-tibetan relationship , noting the ming dynasty 's shortage of horses for warfare and thus the importance of the horse trade with tibet . 
in hopes of reviving the unique relationship of the earlier mongol leader kublai khan -lrb- r. 1260 -- 1294 -rrb- and his spiritual superior drogön chögyal phagpa -lrb- 1235 -- 1280 -rrb- of the sakya school of tibetan buddhism , the yongle emperor -lrb- r. 1402 -- 1424 -rrb- made a concerted effort to build a secular and religious alliance with deshin shekpa -lrb- 1384 -- 1415 -rrb- , the karmapa of the karma kagyu school . 
in hopes of reviving the unique relationship of the earlier mongol leader kublai khan -lrb- r. 1260 -- 1294 -rrb- and his spiritual superior drogön chögyal phagpa -lrb- 1235 -- 1280 -rrb- of the sakya school of tibetan buddhism , the yongle emperor -lrb- r. 1402 -- 1424 -rrb- made a concerted effort to build a secular and religious alliance with deshin shekpa -lrb- 1384 -- 1415 -rrb- , the karmapa of the karma kagyu school . 
in hopes of reviving the unique relationship of the earlier mongol leader kublai khan -lrb- r. 1260 -- 1294 -rrb- and his spiritual superior drogön chögyal phagpa -lrb- 1235 -- 1280 -rrb- of the sakya school of tibetan buddhism , the yongle emperor -lrb- r. 1402 -- 1424 -rrb- made a concerted effort to build a secular and religious alliance with deshin shekpa -lrb- 1384 -- 1415 -rrb- , the karmapa of the karma kagyu school . 
some scholars note that tibetan leaders during the ming frequently engaged in civil war and conducted their own foreign diplomacy with neighboring states such as nepal . 
at times the tibetans also used armed resistance against ming forays . 
by the late 16th century , the mongols were successful armed protectors of the gelug dalai lama , after increasing their presence in the amdo region . 
this culminated in güshi khan 's -lrb- 1582 -- 1655 -rrb- conquest of tibet from 1637 -- 1642 and the establishment of the ganden phodrang regime by the 5th dalai lama with his help . 
the wanli emperor -lrb- r. 1572 -- 1620 -rrb- made attempts to reestablish sino-tibetan relations after the mongol-tibetan alliance initiated in 1578 , which affected the foreign policy of the subsequent qing dynasty -lrb- 1644 -- 1912 -rrb- of china in their support for the dalai lama of the gelug school . 
until the tibetan empire 's collapse in the 9th century , it was the tang 's major rival in dominating inner asia . 
the yarlung rulers of tibet also signed various peace treaties with the tang , culminating in a treaty in 821 that fixed the borders between tibet and china . 
the yarlung rulers of tibet also signed various peace treaties with the tang , culminating in a treaty in 821 that fixed the borders between tibet and china . 
tibet was once a strong power contemporaneous with tang china -lrb- 618 -- 907 -rrb- . 
the yarlung rulers of tibet also signed various peace treaties with the tang , culminating in a treaty in 821 that fixed the borders between tibet and china . 
during the five dynasties and ten kingdoms period of china -lrb- 907 -- 960 -rrb- , while the fractured political realm of china saw no threat in a tibet which was in just as much political disarray , there was little in the way of sino-tibetan relations . 
few documents involving sino-tibetan contacts survive from the song dynasty -lrb- 960 -- 1279 -rrb- . 
few documents involving sino-tibetan contacts survive from the song dynasty -lrb- 960 -- 1279 -rrb- . 
the song were far more concerned with countering northern enemy states of the khitan-ruled liao dynasty -lrb- 907 -- 1125 -rrb- and jurchen-ruled jin dynasty -lrb- 1115 -- 1234 -rrb- . 
the song were far more concerned with countering northern enemy states of the khitan-ruled liao dynasty -lrb- 907 -- 1125 -rrb- and jurchen-ruled jin dynasty -lrb- 1115 -- 1234 -rrb- . 
in 1207 , the mongol ruler genghis khan -lrb- r. 1206 -- 1227 -rrb- conquered and subjugated the ethnic tangut state of the western xia -lrb- 1038 -- 1227 -rrb- . 
however , when they ceased to pay tribute after genghis khan 's death , his successor ögedei khan -lrb- r. 1229 -- 1241 -rrb- launched an invasion into tibet . 
however , when they ceased to pay tribute after genghis khan 's death , his successor ögedei khan -lrb- r. 1229 -- 1241 -rrb- launched an invasion into tibet . 
however , when they ceased to pay tribute after genghis khan 's death , his successor ögedei khan -lrb- r. 1229 -- 1241 -rrb- launched an invasion into tibet . 
the mongol prince godan , a grandson of genghis khan , raided as far as lhasa . 
during his attack in 1240 , prince godan summoned sakya pandita -lrb- 1182 -- 1251 -rrb- , leader of the sakya school of tibetan buddhism , to his court in what is now gansu in western china . 
with sakya pandita 's submission to godan in 1247 , tibet was officially incorporated into the mongol empire during the regency of töregene khatun -lrb- 1241 -- 1246 -rrb- . 
with sakya pandita 's submission to godan in 1247 , tibet was officially incorporated into the mongol empire during the regency of töregene khatun -lrb- 1241 -- 1246 -rrb- . 
kublai also made drogön chögyal phagpa the director of the government agency known as the bureau of buddhist and tibetan affairs and the ruling priest-king of tibet , which comprised thirteen different states ruled by myriarchies . 
starting in 1236 , the mongol prince kublai , who later ruled as khagan from 1260 -- 1294 , was granted a large appanage in north china by his superior , ögedei khan . 
starting in 1236 , the mongol prince kublai , who later ruled as khagan from 1260 -- 1294 , was granted a large appanage in north china by his superior , ögedei khan . 
karma pakshi , 2nd karmapa lama -lrb- 1203 -- 1283 -rrb- -- the head lama of the karma kagyu lineage of tibetan buddhism -- rejected kublai 's invitation , so instead kublai invited drogön chögyal phagpa -lrb- 1235 -- 1280 -rrb- , successor and nephew of sakya pandita , who came to his court in 1253 . 
kublai instituted a unique relationship with the phagpa lama , which recognized kublai as a superior sovereign in political affairs and the phagpa lama as the senior instructor to kublai in religious affairs . 
kublai khan did not conquer the song dynasty in south china until 1279 , so tibet was a component of the early mongol empire before it was combined into one of its descendant empires with the whole of china under the yuan dynasty -lrb- 1271 -- 1368 -rrb- . 
kublai khan did not conquer the song dynasty in south china until 1279 , so tibet was a component of the early mongol empire before it was combined into one of its descendant empires with the whole of china under the yuan dynasty -lrb- 1271 -- 1368 -rrb- . 
kublai khan did not conquer the song dynasty in south china until 1279 , so tibet was a component of the early mongol empire before it was combined into one of its descendant empires with the whole of china under the yuan dynasty -lrb- 1271 -- 1368 -rrb- . 
though he had , by the early 1260s , become closely identified with china , he still , for a time , claimed universal rule '' , and yet `` despite his successes in china and korea , khubilai was unable to have himself accepted as the great khan '' . 
kublai khan did not conquer the song dynasty in south china until 1279 , so tibet was a component of the early mongol empire before it was combined into one of its descendant empires with the whole of china under the yuan dynasty -lrb- 1271 -- 1368 -rrb- . 
in 1358 , the sakya viceregal regime installed by the mongols in tibet was overthrown in a rebellion by the phagmodru myriarch tai situ changchub gyaltsen -lrb- 1302 -- 1364 -rrb- . 
in 1358 , the sakya viceregal regime installed by the mongols in tibet was overthrown in a rebellion by the phagmodru myriarch tai situ changchub gyaltsen -lrb- 1302 -- 1364 -rrb- . 
in 1358 , the sakya viceregal regime installed by the mongols in tibet was overthrown in a rebellion by the phagmodru myriarch tai situ changchub gyaltsen -lrb- 1302 -- 1364 -rrb- . 
the mongol yuan court was forced to accept him as the new viceroy , and changchub gyaltsen and his successors , the phagmodrupa dynasty , gained de facto rule over tibet . 
zhu yuanzhang then established the ming dynasty , ruling as the hongwu emperor -lrb- r. 1368 -- 1398 -rrb- . 
in 1368 , a han chinese revolt known as the red turban rebellion toppled the mongol yuan dynasty in china . 
zhu yuanzhang then established the ming dynasty , ruling as the hongwu emperor -lrb- r. 1368 -- 1398 -rrb- . 
zhu yuanzhang then established the ming dynasty , ruling as the hongwu emperor -lrb- r. 1368 -- 1398 -rrb- . 
instead of recognizing the phagmodru ruler , the hongwu emperor sided with the karmapa of the nearer kham region and southeastern tibet , sending envoys out in the winter of 1372 -- 1373 to ask the yuan officeholders to renew their titles for the new ming court . 
rolpe dorje , 4th karmapa lama -lrb- 1340 -- 1383 -rrb- rejected the hongwu emperor 's invitation , although he did send some disciples as envoys to the court in nanjing . 
rolpe dorje , 4th karmapa lama -lrb- 1340 -- 1383 -rrb- rejected the hongwu emperor 's invitation , although he did send some disciples as envoys to the court in nanjing . 
as evident in his imperial edicts , the hongwu emperor was well aware of the buddhist link between tibet and china and wanted to foster it . 
rolpe dorje , 4th karmapa lama -lrb- 1340 -- 1383 -rrb- rejected the hongwu emperor 's invitation , although he did send some disciples as envoys to the court in nanjing . 
however , the early ming government enacted a law , later rescinded , which forbade han chinese to learn the tenets of tibetan buddhism . 
despite these missions on behalf of the hongwu emperor , morris rossabi writes that the yongle emperor -lrb- r. 1402 -- 1424 -rrb- `` was the first ming ruler actively to seek an extension of relations with tibet . '' 
despite these missions on behalf of the hongwu emperor , morris rossabi writes that the yongle emperor -lrb- r. 1402 -- 1424 -rrb- `` was the first ming ruler actively to seek an extension of relations with tibet . '' 
according to the official twenty-four histories , the history of ming compiled in 1739 by the subsequent qing dynasty -lrb- 1644 -- 1912 -rrb- , the ming dynasty established the '' é-lì-sī army-civilian marshal office '' -lrb- chinese : 俄力思軍民元帥府 -rrb- in western tibet and installed the '' ü-tsang itinerant high commandery '' and `` amdo-kham itinerant high commandery '' to administer kham . 
according to the official twenty-four histories , the history of ming compiled in 1739 by the subsequent qing dynasty -lrb- 1644 -- 1912 -rrb- , the ming dynasty established the '' é-lì-sī army-civilian marshal office '' -lrb- chinese : 俄力思軍民元帥府 -rrb- in western tibet and installed the '' ü-tsang itinerant high commandery '' and `` amdo-kham itinerant high commandery '' to administer kham . 
according to the official twenty-four histories , the history of ming compiled in 1739 by the subsequent qing dynasty -lrb- 1644 -- 1912 -rrb- , the ming dynasty established the '' é-lì-sī army-civilian marshal office '' -lrb- chinese : 俄力思軍民元帥府 -rrb- in western tibet and installed the '' ü-tsang itinerant high commandery '' and `` amdo-kham itinerant high commandery '' to administer kham . 
the mingshi states that administrative offices were set up under these high commanderies , including one itinerant commandery , three pacification commissioner 's offices , six expedition commissioner 's offices , four wanhu offices -lrb- myriarchies , in command of 10,000 households each -rrb- and seventeen qianhu offices -lrb- chiliarchies , each in command of 1,000 households -rrb- . 
according to the official twenty-four histories , the history of ming compiled in 1739 by the subsequent qing dynasty -lrb- 1644 -- 1912 -rrb- , the ming dynasty established the '' é-lì-sī army-civilian marshal office '' -lrb- chinese : 俄力思軍民元帥府 -rrb- in western tibet and installed the '' ü-tsang itinerant high commandery '' and `` amdo-kham itinerant high commandery '' to administer kham . 
the ming court appointed three princes of dharma -lrb- 法王 -rrb- and five princes -lrb- 王 -rrb- , and granted many other titles , such as grand state tutors -lrb- 大國師 -rrb- and state tutors -lrb- 國師 -rrb- , to the important schools of tibetan buddhism , including the karma kagyu , sakya , and gelug . 
yet van praag describes the distinct and long-lasting tibetan law code established by the phagmodru ruler tai situ changchub gyaltsen as one of many reforms to revive old imperial tibetan traditions . 
yet van praag describes the distinct and long-lasting tibetan law code established by the phagmodru ruler tai situ changchub gyaltsen as one of many reforms to revive old imperial tibetan traditions . 
the late turrell v. wylie , a former professor of the university of washington , and li tieh-tseng argue that the reliability of the heavily censored history of ming as a credible source on sino-tibetan relations is questionable , in the light of modern scholarship . 
the late turrell v. wylie , a former professor of the university of washington , and li tieh-tseng argue that the reliability of the heavily censored history of ming as a credible source on sino-tibetan relations is questionable , in the light of modern scholarship . 
morris rossabi also writes that `` tibet , which had extensive contacts with china during the yuan , scarcely had diplomatic relations with the ming . '' 
the historian tsepon w. d. shakabpa supports van praag 's position . 
however , wang jiawei and nyima gyaincain state that these assertions by van praag and shakabpa are `` fallacies '' . 
wang and nyima argue that the ming emperor sent edicts to tibet twice in the second year of the ming dynasty , and demonstrated that he viewed tibet as a significant region to pacify by urging various tibetan tribes to submit to the authority of the ming court . 
they note that at the same time , the mongol prince punala , who had inherited his position as ruler of areas of tibet , went to nanjing in 1371 to pay tribute and show his allegiance to the ming court , bringing with him the seal of authority issued by the yuan court . 
they also state that since successors of lamas granted the title of `` prince '' had to travel to the ming court to renew this title , and since lamas called themselves princes , the ming court therefore had `` full sovereignty over tibet . '' 
they state that the ming dynasty , by issuing imperial edicts to invite ex-yuan officials to the court for official positions in the early years of its founding , won submission from ex-yuan religious and administrative leaders in the tibetan areas , and thereby incorporated tibetan areas into the rule of the ming court . 
journalist and author thomas laird , in his book the story of tibet : conversations with the dalai lama , writes that wang and nyima present the government viewpoint of the people 's republic of china in their historical status of china 's tibet , and fail to realize that china was `` absorbed into a larger , non-chinese political unit '' during the mongol yuan dynasty , which wang and nyima paint as a characteristic chinese dynasty succeeded by the ming . 
laird asserts that the ruling mongol khans never administered tibet as part of china and instead ruled them as separate territories , comparing the mongols with the british who colonized india and new zealand , yet stating this does not make india part of new zealand as a consequence . 
journalist and author thomas laird , in his book the story of tibet : conversations with the dalai lama , writes that wang and nyima present the government viewpoint of the people 's republic of china in their historical status of china 's tibet , and fail to realize that china was `` absorbed into a larger , non-chinese political unit '' during the mongol yuan dynasty , which wang and nyima paint as a characteristic chinese dynasty succeeded by the ming . 
it describes the yuan dynasty as `` a mongol dynasty of china that ruled from 1271 to 1368 , and a division of the great empire conquered by the mongols . 
the encyclopedia americana describes the yuan dynasty as `` the line of mongol rulers in china '' and adds that the mongols `` proclaimed a chinese-style yüan dynasty at khanbaliq -lrb- beijing -rrb- . '' 
the metropolitan museum of art writes that the mongol rulers of the yuan dynasty `` adopted chinese political and cultural models ; ruling from their capitals in dadu , they assumed the role of chinese emperors , '' although tibetologist thomas laird dismissed the yuan dynasty as a non-chinese polity and plays down its chinese characteristics . 
in his kublai khan : his life and times , rossabi explains that kublai `` created government institutions that either resembled or were the same as the traditional chinese ones '' , and he `` wished to signal to the chinese that he intended to adopt the trappings and style of a chinese ruler '' . 
it describes the yuan dynasty as `` a mongol dynasty of china that ruled from 1271 to 1368 , and a division of the great empire conquered by the mongols . 
kublai also abolished the imperial examinations of china 's civil service legacy , which was not reinstated until ayurbarwada buyantu khan 's reign -lrb- 1311 -- 1320 -rrb- . 
van praag writes that `` tibet remained a unique part of the empire and was never fully integrated into it , '' citing examples such as a licensed border market that existed between china and tibet during the yuan . 
nevertheless , the ethno-geographic caste hierarchy favoring the mongols and other ethnicities were accorded higher status than the han chinese majority . 
the official position of the ministry of foreign affairs of the people 's republic of china is that the ming implemented a policy of managing tibet according to conventions and customs , granting titles and setting up administrative organs over tibet . 
for example , an edict of the hongwu emperor in 1373 appointed the tibetan leader choskunskyabs as the general of the ngari military and civil wanhu office , stating : 
the state council information office of the people 's republic states that the ming dynasty 's ü-tsang commanding office governed most areas of tibet . 
chen qingying , professor of history and director of the history studies institute under the china tibetology research center in beijing , writes that the ming court conferred new official positions on ex-yuan tibetan leaders of the phachu kargyu and granted them lower-ranking positions . 
chen qingying , professor of history and director of the history studies institute under the china tibetology research center in beijing , writes that the ming court conferred new official positions on ex-yuan tibetan leaders of the phachu kargyu and granted them lower-ranking positions . 
the official posts that the ming court established in tibet , such as senior and junior commanders , offices of qianhu -lrb- in charge of 1,000 households -rrb- , and offices of wanhu -lrb- in charge of 10,000 households -rrb- , were all hereditary positions according to chen , but he asserts that `` the succession of some important posts still had to be approved by the emperor , '' while old imperial mandates had to be returned to the ming court for renewal . 
the official posts that the ming court established in tibet , such as senior and junior commanders , offices of qianhu -lrb- in charge of 1,000 households -rrb- , and offices of wanhu -lrb- in charge of 10,000 households -rrb- , were all hereditary positions according to chen , but he asserts that `` the succession of some important posts still had to be approved by the emperor , '' while old imperial mandates had to be returned to the ming court for renewal . 
according to tibetologist john powers , tibetan sources counter this narrative of titles granted by the chinese to tibetans with various titles which the tibetans gave to the chinese emperors and their officials . 
the ming emperors sent invitations to ruling lamas , but the lamas sent subordinates rather than coming themselves , and no tibetan ruler ever explicitly accepted the role of being a vassal of the ming . 
the ming emperors sent invitations to ruling lamas , but the lamas sent subordinates rather than coming themselves , and no tibetan ruler ever explicitly accepted the role of being a vassal of the ming . 
hans bielenstein writes that as far back as the han dynasty -lrb- 202 bce -- 220 ce -rrb- , the han chinese government `` maintained the fiction '' that the foreign officials administering the various `` dependent states '' and oasis city-states of the western regions -lrb- composed of the tarim basin and oasis of turpan -rrb- were true han representatives due to the han government 's conferral of chinese seals and seal cords to them . 
hans bielenstein writes that as far back as the han dynasty -lrb- 202 bce -- 220 ce -rrb- , the han chinese government `` maintained the fiction '' that the foreign officials administering the various `` dependent states '' and oasis city-states of the western regions -lrb- composed of the tarim basin and oasis of turpan -rrb- were true han representatives due to the han government 's conferral of chinese seals and seal cords to them . 
wang and nyima state that after the official title `` education minister '' was granted to tai situ changchub gyaltsen -lrb- 1302 -- 1364 -rrb- by the yuan court , this title appeared frequently with his name in various tibetan texts , while his tibetan title `` degsi '' -lrb- sic properly sde-srid or desi -rrb- is seldom mentioned . 
wang and nyima state that after the official title `` education minister '' was granted to tai situ changchub gyaltsen -lrb- 1302 -- 1364 -rrb- by the yuan court , this title appeared frequently with his name in various tibetan texts , while his tibetan title `` degsi '' -lrb- sic properly sde-srid or desi -rrb- is seldom mentioned . 
wang and nyima take this to mean that `` even in the later period of the yuan dynasty , the yuan imperial court and the phagmodrupa dynasty maintained a central-local government relation . '' 
wang and nyima state that after the official title `` education minister '' was granted to tai situ changchub gyaltsen -lrb- 1302 -- 1364 -rrb- by the yuan court , this title appeared frequently with his name in various tibetan texts , while his tibetan title `` degsi '' -lrb- sic properly sde-srid or desi -rrb- is seldom mentioned . 
the tai situpa is even supposed to have written in his will : `` in the past i received loving care from the emperor in the east . 
however , lok-ham chan , a professor of history at the university of washington , writes that changchub gyaltsen 's aims were to recreate the old tibetan kingdom that existed during the chinese tang dynasty , to build `` nationalist sentiment '' amongst tibetans , and to `` remove all traces of mongol suzerainty . '' 
van praag asserts that changchub gyaltsen 's ambitions were to `` restore to tibet the glories of its imperial age '' by reinstating secular administration , promoting `` national culture and traditions , '' and installing a law code that survived into the 20th century . 
however , lok-ham chan , a professor of history at the university of washington , writes that changchub gyaltsen 's aims were to recreate the old tibetan kingdom that existed during the chinese tang dynasty , to build `` nationalist sentiment '' amongst tibetans , and to `` remove all traces of mongol suzerainty . '' 
however , lok-ham chan , a professor of history at the university of washington , writes that changchub gyaltsen 's aims were to recreate the old tibetan kingdom that existed during the chinese tang dynasty , to build `` nationalist sentiment '' amongst tibetans , and to `` remove all traces of mongol suzerainty . '' 
according to the records of the founding emperor , the hongwu emperor issued an edict granting the title `` initiation state master '' to sagya gyaincain , while the latter sent envoys to the ming court to hand over his jade seal of authority along with tribute of colored silk and satin , statues of the buddha , buddhist scriptures , and sarira . 
according to chen , the ming officer of hezhou -lrb- modern day linxia -rrb- informed the hongwu emperor that the general situation in dbus and gtsang `` was under control , '' and so he suggested to the emperor that he offer the second phagmodru ruler , jamyang shakya gyaltsen , an official title . 
according to chen , the ming officer of hezhou -lrb- modern day linxia -rrb- informed the hongwu emperor that the general situation in dbus and gtsang `` was under control , '' and so he suggested to the emperor that he offer the second phagmodru ruler , jamyang shakya gyaltsen , an official title . 
according to chen , the ming officer of hezhou -lrb- modern day linxia -rrb- informed the hongwu emperor that the general situation in dbus and gtsang `` was under control , '' and so he suggested to the emperor that he offer the second phagmodru ruler , jamyang shakya gyaltsen , an official title . 
according to the records of the founding emperor , the hongwu emperor issued an edict granting the title `` initiation state master '' to sagya gyaincain , while the latter sent envoys to the ming court to hand over his jade seal of authority along with tribute of colored silk and satin , statues of the buddha , buddhist scriptures , and sarira . 
dreyfus writes that after the phagmodrupa lost its centralizing power over tibet in 1434 , several attempts by other families to establish hegemonies failed over the next two centuries until 1642 with the 5th dalai lama 's effective hegemony over tibet . 
dreyfus writes that after the phagmodrupa lost its centralizing power over tibet in 1434 , several attempts by other families to establish hegemonies failed over the next two centuries until 1642 with the 5th dalai lama 's effective hegemony over tibet . 
dreyfus writes that after the phagmodrupa lost its centralizing power over tibet in 1434 , several attempts by other families to establish hegemonies failed over the next two centuries until 1642 with the 5th dalai lama 's effective hegemony over tibet . 
dreyfus writes that after the phagmodrupa lost its centralizing power over tibet in 1434 , several attempts by other families to establish hegemonies failed over the next two centuries until 1642 with the 5th dalai lama 's effective hegemony over tibet . 
the ming dynasty granted titles to lamas of schools such as the karmapa kargyu , but the latter had previously declined mongol invitations to receive titles . 
the ming dynasty granted titles to lamas of schools such as the karmapa kargyu , but the latter had previously declined mongol invitations to receive titles . 
when the ming yongle emperor invited je tsongkhapa -lrb- 1357 -- 1419 -rrb- , founder of the gelug school , to come to the ming court and pay tribute , the latter declined . 
when the ming yongle emperor invited je tsongkhapa -lrb- 1357 -- 1419 -rrb- , founder of the gelug school , to come to the ming court and pay tribute , the latter declined . 
when the ming yongle emperor invited je tsongkhapa -lrb- 1357 -- 1419 -rrb- , founder of the gelug school , to come to the ming court and pay tribute , the latter declined . 
this first request by the ming was made in 1407 , but the ming court sent another embassy in 1413 , this one led by the eunuch hou xian -lrb- 候顯 ; fl . 
this first request by the ming was made in 1407 , but the ming court sent another embassy in 1413 , this one led by the eunuch hou xian -lrb- 候顯 ; fl . 
rossabi writes that tsongkhapa did not want to entirely alienate the ming court , so he sent his disciple chosrje shākya yeshes to nanjing in 1414 on his behalf , and upon his arrival in 1415 the yongle emperor bestowed upon him the title of `` state teacher '' -- the same title earlier awarded the phagmodrupa ruler of tibet . 
rossabi writes that tsongkhapa did not want to entirely alienate the ming court , so he sent his disciple chosrje shākya yeshes to nanjing in 1414 on his behalf , and upon his arrival in 1415 the yongle emperor bestowed upon him the title of `` state teacher '' -- the same title earlier awarded the phagmodrupa ruler of tibet . 
dawa norbu argues that modern chinese communist historians tend to be in favor of the view that the ming simply reappointed old yuan dynasty officials in tibet and perpetuated their rule of tibet in this manner . 
laird writes that the ming appointed titles to eastern tibetan princes , and that `` these alliances with eastern tibetan principalities are the evidence china now produces for its assertion that the ming ruled tibet , '' despite the fact that the ming did not send an army to replace the mongols after they left tibet . 
laird writes that the ming appointed titles to eastern tibetan princes , and that `` these alliances with eastern tibetan principalities are the evidence china now produces for its assertion that the ming ruled tibet , '' despite the fact that the ming did not send an army to replace the mongols after they left tibet . 
laird writes that the ming appointed titles to eastern tibetan princes , and that `` these alliances with eastern tibetan principalities are the evidence china now produces for its assertion that the ming ruled tibet , '' despite the fact that the ming did not send an army to replace the mongols after they left tibet . 
shih-shan henry tsai writes that the yongle emperor sent his eunuch yang sanbao into tibet in 1413 to gain the allegiance of various tibetan princes , while the yongle emperor paid a small fortune in return gifts for tributes in order to maintain the loyalty of neighboring vassal states such as nepal and tibet . 
shih-shan henry tsai writes that the yongle emperor sent his eunuch yang sanbao into tibet in 1413 to gain the allegiance of various tibetan princes , while the yongle emperor paid a small fortune in return gifts for tributes in order to maintain the loyalty of neighboring vassal states such as nepal and tibet . 
shih-shan henry tsai writes that the yongle emperor sent his eunuch yang sanbao into tibet in 1413 to gain the allegiance of various tibetan princes , while the yongle emperor paid a small fortune in return gifts for tributes in order to maintain the loyalty of neighboring vassal states such as nepal and tibet . 
shih-shan henry tsai writes that the yongle emperor sent his eunuch yang sanbao into tibet in 1413 to gain the allegiance of various tibetan princes , while the yongle emperor paid a small fortune in return gifts for tributes in order to maintain the loyalty of neighboring vassal states such as nepal and tibet . 
shih-shan henry tsai writes that the yongle emperor sent his eunuch yang sanbao into tibet in 1413 to gain the allegiance of various tibetan princes , while the yongle emperor paid a small fortune in return gifts for tributes in order to maintain the loyalty of neighboring vassal states such as nepal and tibet . 
even though the gelug exchanged gifts with and sent missions to the ming court up until the 1430s , the gelug was not mentioned in the mingshi or the mingshi lu . 
even though the gelug exchanged gifts with and sent missions to the ming court up until the 1430s , the gelug was not mentioned in the mingshi or the mingshi lu . 
even though the gelug exchanged gifts with and sent missions to the ming court up until the 1430s , the gelug was not mentioned in the mingshi or the mingshi lu . 
wylie asserts that this type of censorship of the history of ming distorts the true picture of the history of sino-tibetan relations , while the ming court granted titles to various lamas regardless of their sectarian affiliations in an ongoing civil war in tibet between competing buddhist factions . 
wylie argues that ming titles of `` king '' granted indiscriminately to various tibetan lamas or even their disciples should not be viewed as reappointments to earlier yuan dynasty offices , since the viceregal sakya regime established by the mongols in tibet was overthrown by the phagmodru myriarchy before the ming existed . 
melvyn c. goldstein writes that the ming had no real administrative authority over tibet , as the various titles given to tibetan leaders did not confer authority as the earlier mongol yuan titles had . 
hugh edward richardson writes that the ming dynasty exercised no authority over the succession of tibetan ruling families , the phagmodru -lrb- 1354 -- 1435 -rrb- , rinpungpa -lrb- 1435 -- 1565 -rrb- , and tsangpa -lrb- 1565 -- 1642 -rrb- . 
melvyn c. goldstein writes that the ming had no real administrative authority over tibet , as the various titles given to tibetan leaders did not confer authority as the earlier mongol yuan titles had . 
hugh edward richardson writes that the ming dynasty exercised no authority over the succession of tibetan ruling families , the phagmodru -lrb- 1354 -- 1435 -rrb- , rinpungpa -lrb- 1435 -- 1565 -rrb- , and tsangpa -lrb- 1565 -- 1642 -rrb- . 
in his usurpation of the throne from the jianwen emperor -lrb- r. 1398 -- 1402 -rrb- , the yongle emperor was aided by the buddhist monk yao guangxiao , and like his father , the hongwu emperor , the yongle emperor was `` well-disposed towards buddhism '' , claims rossabi . 
in his usurpation of the throne from the jianwen emperor -lrb- r. 1398 -- 1402 -rrb- , the yongle emperor was aided by the buddhist monk yao guangxiao , and like his father , the hongwu emperor , the yongle emperor was `` well-disposed towards buddhism '' , claims rossabi . 
in his usurpation of the throne from the jianwen emperor -lrb- r. 1398 -- 1402 -rrb- , the yongle emperor was aided by the buddhist monk yao guangxiao , and like his father , the hongwu emperor , the yongle emperor was `` well-disposed towards buddhism '' , claims rossabi . 
on march 10 , 1403 , the yongle emperor invited deshin shekpa , 5th karmapa lama -lrb- 1384 -- 1415 -rrb- , to his court , even though the fourth karmapa had rejected the invitation of the hongwu emperor . 
in order to seek out the karmapa , the yongle emperor dispatched his eunuch hou xian and the buddhist monk zhi guang -lrb- d. 1435 -rrb- to tibet . 
in order to seek out the karmapa , the yongle emperor dispatched his eunuch hou xian and the buddhist monk zhi guang -lrb- d. 1435 -rrb- to tibet . 
traveling to lhasa either through qinghai or via the silk road to khotan , hou xian and zhi guang did not return to nanjing until 1407 . 
traveling to lhasa either through qinghai or via the silk road to khotan , hou xian and zhi guang did not return to nanjing until 1407 . 
during his travels beginning in 1403 , deshin shekpa was induced by further exhortations by the ming court to visit nanjing by april 10 , 1407 . 
during his travels beginning in 1403 , deshin shekpa was induced by further exhortations by the ming court to visit nanjing by april 10 , 1407 . 
the yongle emperor came out of the palace in nanjing to greet the karmapa and did not require him to kowtow like a tributary vassal . 
rossabi and others describe a similar arrangement made by kublai khan and the sakya phagpa lama , writing that kublai would `` sit on a lower platform than the tibetan cleric '' when receiving religious instructions from him . 
norbu writes that the yongle emperor , following the tradition of mongol emperors and their reverence for the sakya lamas , showed an enormous amount of deference towards deshin shekpa . 
at linggu temple in nanjing , he presided over the religious ceremonies for the yongle emperor 's deceased parents , while twenty-two days of his stay were marked by religious miracles that were recorded in five languages on a gigantic scroll that bore the emperor 's seal . 
at linggu temple in nanjing , he presided over the religious ceremonies for the yongle emperor 's deceased parents , while twenty-two days of his stay were marked by religious miracles that were recorded in five languages on a gigantic scroll that bore the emperor 's seal . 
during his stay in nanjing , deshin shekpa was bestowed the title `` great treasure prince of dharma '' by the yongle emperor . 
in fact , this was the same title that kublai khan had offered the sakya phagpa lama , but deshin shekpa persuaded the yongle emperor to grant the title to religious leaders of other tibetan buddhist sects . 
tibetan sources say deshin shekpa also persuaded the yongle emperor not to impose his military might on tibet as the mongols had previously done . 
however , hok-lam chan states that `` there is little evidence that this was ever the emperor 's intention '' and that evidence indicates that deshin skekpa was invited strictly for religious purposes . 
thinley writes that before the karmapa returned to tibet , the yongle emperor began planning to send a military force into tibet to forcibly give the karmapa authority over all the tibetan buddhist schools but deshin shekpa dissuaded him . 
thinley writes that before the karmapa returned to tibet , the yongle emperor began planning to send a military force into tibet to forcibly give the karmapa authority over all the tibetan buddhist schools but deshin shekpa dissuaded him . 
tibetan sources say deshin shekpa also persuaded the yongle emperor not to impose his military might on tibet as the mongols had previously done . 
marsha weidner states that deshin shekpa 's miracles `` testified to the power of both the emperor and his guru and served as a legitimizing tool for the emperor 's problematic succession to the throne , '' referring to the yongle emperor 's conflict with the previous jianwen emperor . 
marsha weidner states that deshin shekpa 's miracles `` testified to the power of both the emperor and his guru and served as a legitimizing tool for the emperor 's problematic succession to the throne , '' referring to the yongle emperor 's conflict with the previous jianwen emperor . 
marsha weidner states that deshin shekpa 's miracles `` testified to the power of both the emperor and his guru and served as a legitimizing tool for the emperor 's problematic succession to the throne , '' referring to the yongle emperor 's conflict with the previous jianwen emperor . 
with the example of the ming court 's relationship with the fifth karmapa and other tibetan leaders , norbu states that chinese communist historians have failed to realize the significance of the religious aspect of the ming-tibetan relationship . 
he also notes that the items of tribute were buddhist artifacts which symbolized `` the religious nature of the relationship . '' 
josef kolmaš writes that the ming dynasty did not exercise any direct political control over tibet , content with their tribute relations that were `` almost entirely of a religious character . '' 
the information office of the state council of the prc preserves an edict of the zhengtong emperor -lrb- r. 1435 -- 1449 -rrb- addressed to the karmapa in 1445 , written after the latter 's agent had brought holy relics to the ming court . 
the information office of the state council of the prc preserves an edict of the zhengtong emperor -lrb- r. 1435 -- 1449 -rrb- addressed to the karmapa in 1445 , written after the latter 's agent had brought holy relics to the ming court . 
the information office of the state council of the prc preserves an edict of the zhengtong emperor -lrb- r. 1435 -- 1449 -rrb- addressed to the karmapa in 1445 , written after the latter 's agent had brought holy relics to the ming court . 
zhengtong had the following message delivered to the great treasure prince of dharma , the karmapa : 
the information office of the state council of the prc preserves an edict of the zhengtong emperor -lrb- r. 1435 -- 1449 -rrb- addressed to the karmapa in 1445 , written after the latter 's agent had brought holy relics to the ming court . 
despite this glowing message by the emperor , chan writes that a year later in 1446 , the ming court cut off all relations with the karmapa hierarchs . 
despite this glowing message by the emperor , chan writes that a year later in 1446 , the ming court cut off all relations with the karmapa hierarchs . 
until then , the court was unaware that deshin shekpa had died in 1415 . 
despite this glowing message by the emperor , chan writes that a year later in 1446 , the ming court cut off all relations with the karmapa hierarchs . 
tsai writes that shortly after the visit by deshin shekpa , the yongle emperor ordered the construction of a road and of trading posts in the upper reaches of the yangzi and mekong rivers in order to facilitate trade with tibet in tea , horses , and salt . 
tsai writes that shortly after the visit by deshin shekpa , the yongle emperor ordered the construction of a road and of trading posts in the upper reaches of the yangzi and mekong rivers in order to facilitate trade with tibet in tea , horses , and salt . 
the trade route passed through sichuan and crossed shangri-la county in yunnan . 
van praag states that the ming court established diplomatic delegations with tibet merely to secure urgently needed horses . 
silk workshops during the ming also catered specifically to the tibetan market with silk clothes and furnishings featuring tibetan buddhist iconography . 
silk workshops during the ming also catered specifically to the tibetan market with silk clothes and furnishings featuring tibetan buddhist iconography . 
van praag states that the ming court established diplomatic delegations with tibet merely to secure urgently needed horses . 
wang and nyima argue that these were not diplomatic delegations at all , that tibetan areas were ruled by the ming since tibetan leaders were granted positions as ming officials , that horses were collected from tibet as a mandatory `` corvée '' tax , and therefore tibetans were `` undertaking domestic affairs , not foreign diplomacy '' . 
while the ming dynasty traded horses with tibet , it upheld a policy of outlawing border markets in the north , which laird sees as an effort to punish the mongols for their raids and to `` drive them from the frontiers of china . '' 
however , after altan khan -lrb- 1507 -- 1582 -rrb- -- leader of the tümed mongols who overthrew the oirat mongol confederation 's hegemony over the steppes -- made peace with the ming dynasty in 1571 , he persuaded the ming to reopen their border markets in 1573 . 
however , after altan khan -lrb- 1507 -- 1582 -rrb- -- leader of the tümed mongols who overthrew the oirat mongol confederation 's hegemony over the steppes -- made peace with the ming dynasty in 1571 , he persuaded the ming to reopen their border markets in 1573 . 
while the ming dynasty traded horses with tibet , it upheld a policy of outlawing border markets in the north , which laird sees as an effort to punish the mongols for their raids and to `` drive them from the frontiers of china . '' 
however , after altan khan -lrb- 1507 -- 1582 -rrb- -- leader of the tümed mongols who overthrew the oirat mongol confederation 's hegemony over the steppes -- made peace with the ming dynasty in 1571 , he persuaded the ming to reopen their border markets in 1573 . 
however , there were instances in the 14th century when the hongwu emperor did use military force to quell unrest in tibet . 
john d. langlois writes that there was unrest in tibet and western sichuan , which the marquis mu ying -lrb- 沐英 -rrb- was commissioned to quell in november 1378 after he established a taozhou garrison in gansu . 
langlois notes that by october 1379 , mu ying had allegedly captured 30,000 tibetan prisoners and 200,000 domesticated animals . 
langlois notes that by october 1379 , mu ying had allegedly captured 30,000 tibetan prisoners and 200,000 domesticated animals . 
yet invasion went both ways ; the ming general qu neng , under the command of lan yu , was ordered to repel a tibetan assault into sichuan in 1390 . 
discussions of strategy in the mid ming dynasty focused primarily on recovery of the ordos region , which the mongols used as a rallying base to stage raids into ming china . 
discussions of strategy in the mid ming dynasty focused primarily on recovery of the ordos region , which the mongols used as a rallying base to stage raids into ming china . 
discussions of strategy in the mid ming dynasty focused primarily on recovery of the ordos region , which the mongols used as a rallying base to stage raids into ming china . 
p. christiaan klieger argues that the ming court 's patronage of high tibetan lamas `` was designed to help stabilize border regions and protect trade routes . '' 
historians luciano petech and sato hisashi argue that the ming upheld a `` divide-and-rule '' policy towards a weak and politically fragmented tibet after the sakya regime had fallen . 
historians luciano petech and sato hisashi argue that the ming upheld a `` divide-and-rule '' policy towards a weak and politically fragmented tibet after the sakya regime had fallen . 
rossabi also discounts the `` divide-and-rule '' theory on the grounds of the yongle emperor 's failed attempt to build a strong relationship with the fifth karmapa -- one which he hoped would parallel kublai khan 's earlier relationship with the sakya phagpa lama . 
instead , the yongle emperor followed the karmapa 's advice of giving patronage to many different tibetan lamas . 
the rinpungpa leaders were relatives of the phagmodrupa , yet their authority shifted over time from simple governors to rulers in their own right over large areas of ü-tsang . 
the prince of rinbung occupied lhasa in 1498 and excluded the gelug from attending new years ceremonies and prayers , the most important event in the gelug . 
the prince of rinbung occupied lhasa in 1498 and excluded the gelug from attending new years ceremonies and prayers , the most important event in the gelug . 
however , it was not until 1518 that the secular phagmodru ruler captured lhasa from the rinbung , and thereafter the gelug was given rights to conduct the new years prayer . 
the zhengde emperor -lrb- r. 1505 -- 1521 -rrb- , who enjoyed the company of lamas at court despite protests from the censorate , had heard tales of a `` living buddha '' which he desired to host at the ming capital ; this was none other than the rinpung-supported mikyö dorje , 8th karmapa lama then occupying lhasa . 
the zhengde emperor -lrb- r. 1505 -- 1521 -rrb- , who enjoyed the company of lamas at court despite protests from the censorate , had heard tales of a `` living buddha '' which he desired to host at the ming capital ; this was none other than the rinpung-supported mikyö dorje , 8th karmapa lama then occupying lhasa . 
the zhengde emperor -lrb- r. 1505 -- 1521 -rrb- , who enjoyed the company of lamas at court despite protests from the censorate , had heard tales of a `` living buddha '' which he desired to host at the ming capital ; this was none other than the rinpung-supported mikyö dorje , 8th karmapa lama then occupying lhasa . 
he writes that chinese writers of the early 20th century were of the view that tibet was not annexed by china until the manchu qing dynasty invasion during the 18th century . 
sperling states that this is because `` tibet was ruled as such , within the empires of the mongols and the manchus '' and also that `` china 's intervening ming dynasty ... had no control over tibet . '' 
elliot sperling , a specialist of indian studies and the director of the tibetan studies program at indiana university 's department of central eurasia studies , writes that `` the idea that tibet became part of china in the 13th century is a very recent construction . '' 
he writes that chinese writers of the early 20th century were of the view that tibet was not annexed by china until the manchu qing dynasty invasion during the 18th century . 
josef kolmaš , a sinologist , tibetologist , and professor of oriental studies at the academy of sciences of the czech republic , writes that it was during the qing dynasty `` that developments took place on the basis of which tibet came to be considered an organic part of china , both practically and theoretically subject to the chinese central government . '' 
josef kolmaš , a sinologist , tibetologist , and professor of oriental studies at the academy of sciences of the czech republic , writes that it was during the qing dynasty `` that developments took place on the basis of which tibet came to be considered an organic part of china , both practically and theoretically subject to the chinese central government . '' 
according to him , the tibetan lamas and mongol khans upheld a `` mutual role of religious prelate and secular patron , '' respectively . 
he adds that `` although agreements were made between tibetan leaders and mongol khans , ming and qing emperors , it was the republic of china and its communist successors that assumed the former imperial tributaries and subject states as integral parts of the chinese nation-state . '' 
p. christiaan klieger , an anthropologist and scholar of the california academy of sciences in san francisco , writes that the vice royalty of the sakya regime installed by the mongols established a patron and priest relationship between tibetans and mongol converts to tibetan buddhism . 
p. christiaan klieger , an anthropologist and scholar of the california academy of sciences in san francisco , writes that the vice royalty of the sakya regime installed by the mongols established a patron and priest relationship between tibetans and mongol converts to tibetan buddhism . 
p. christiaan klieger , an anthropologist and scholar of the california academy of sciences in san francisco , writes that the vice royalty of the sakya regime installed by the mongols established a patron and priest relationship between tibetans and mongol converts to tibetan buddhism . 
china daily , a ccp-controlled news organization since 1981 , states in a 2008 article that although there were dynastic changes after tibet was incorporated into the territory of yuan dynasty 's china in the 13th century , `` tibet has remained under the jurisdiction of the central government of china . '' 
it also states that the ming dynasty `` inherited the right to rule tibet '' from the yuan dynasty , and repeats the claims in the mingshi about the ming establishing two itinerant high commands over tibet . 
china daily , a ccp-controlled news organization since 1981 , states in a 2008 article that although there were dynastic changes after tibet was incorporated into the territory of yuan dynasty 's china in the 13th century , `` tibet has remained under the jurisdiction of the central government of china . '' 
it also states that the ming dynasty `` inherited the right to rule tibet '' from the yuan dynasty , and repeats the claims in the mingshi about the ming establishing two itinerant high commands over tibet . 
china daily , a ccp-controlled news organization since 1981 , states in a 2008 article that although there were dynastic changes after tibet was incorporated into the territory of yuan dynasty 's china in the 13th century , `` tibet has remained under the jurisdiction of the central government of china . '' 
during the reign of the jiajing emperor -lrb- r. 1521 -- 1567 -rrb- , the native chinese ideology of daoism was fully sponsored at the ming court , while tibetan vajrayana and even chinese buddhism were ignored or suppressed . 
during the reign of the jiajing emperor -lrb- r. 1521 -- 1567 -rrb- , the native chinese ideology of daoism was fully sponsored at the ming court , while tibetan vajrayana and even chinese buddhism were ignored or suppressed . 
even the history of ming states that the tibetan lamas discontinued their trips to ming china and its court at this point . 
grand secretary yang tinghe under jiajing was determined to break the eunuch influence at court which typified the zhengde era , an example being the costly escort of the eunuch liu yun as described above in his failed mission to tibet . 
grand secretary yang tinghe under jiajing was determined to break the eunuch influence at court which typified the zhengde era , an example being the costly escort of the eunuch liu yun as described above in his failed mission to tibet . 
with the death of zhengde and ascension of jiajing , the politics at court shifted in favor of the neo-confucian establishment which not only rejected the portuguese embassy of fernão pires de andrade -lrb- d. 1523 -rrb- , but had a predisposed animosity towards tibetan buddhism and lamas . 
with the death of zhengde and ascension of jiajing , the politics at court shifted in favor of the neo-confucian establishment which not only rejected the portuguese embassy of fernão pires de andrade -lrb- d. 1523 -rrb- , but had a predisposed animosity towards tibetan buddhism and lamas . 
with the death of zhengde and ascension of jiajing , the politics at court shifted in favor of the neo-confucian establishment which not only rejected the portuguese embassy of fernão pires de andrade -lrb- d. 1523 -rrb- , but had a predisposed animosity towards tibetan buddhism and lamas . 
with the death of zhengde and ascension of jiajing , the politics at court shifted in favor of the neo-confucian establishment which not only rejected the portuguese embassy of fernão pires de andrade -lrb- d. 1523 -rrb- , but had a predisposed animosity towards tibetan buddhism and lamas . 
with the death of zhengde and ascension of jiajing , the politics at court shifted in favor of the neo-confucian establishment which not only rejected the portuguese embassy of fernão pires de andrade -lrb- d. 1523 -rrb- , but had a predisposed animosity towards tibetan buddhism and lamas . 
meanwhile , the tumed mongols began moving into the kokonor region -lrb- modern qinghai -rrb- , raiding the ming chinese frontier and even as far as the suburbs of beijing under altan khan -lrb- 1507 -- 1582 -rrb- . 
meanwhile , the tumed mongols began moving into the kokonor region -lrb- modern qinghai -rrb- , raiding the ming chinese frontier and even as far as the suburbs of beijing under altan khan -lrb- 1507 -- 1582 -rrb- . 
meanwhile , the tumed mongols began moving into the kokonor region -lrb- modern qinghai -rrb- , raiding the ming chinese frontier and even as far as the suburbs of beijing under altan khan -lrb- 1507 -- 1582 -rrb- . 
after altan khan made peace with the ming dynasty in 1571 , he invited the third hierarch of the gelug -- sönam gyatso -lrb- 1543 -- 1588 -rrb- -- to meet him in amdo -lrb- modern qinghai -rrb- in 1578 , where he accidentally bestowed him and his two predecessors with the title of dalai lama -- `` ocean teacher '' . 
after altan khan made peace with the ming dynasty in 1571 , he invited the third hierarch of the gelug -- sönam gyatso -lrb- 1543 -- 1588 -rrb- -- to meet him in amdo -lrb- modern qinghai -rrb- in 1578 , where he accidentally bestowed him and his two predecessors with the title of dalai lama -- `` ocean teacher '' . 
laird writes that altan khan abolished the native mongol practices of shamanism and blood sacrifice , while the mongol princes and subjects were coerced by altan to convert to gelug buddhism -- or face execution if they persisted in their shamanistic ways . 
laird writes that altan khan abolished the native mongol practices of shamanism and blood sacrifice , while the mongol princes and subjects were coerced by altan to convert to gelug buddhism -- or face execution if they persisted in their shamanistic ways . 
laird writes that altan khan abolished the native mongol practices of shamanism and blood sacrifice , while the mongol princes and subjects were coerced by altan to convert to gelug buddhism -- or face execution if they persisted in their shamanistic ways . 
committed to their religious leader , mongol princes began requesting the dalai lama to bestow titles on them , which demonstrated `` the unique fusion of religious and political power '' wielded by the dalai lama , as laird writes . 
committed to their religious leader , mongol princes began requesting the dalai lama to bestow titles on them , which demonstrated `` the unique fusion of religious and political power '' wielded by the dalai lama , as laird writes . 
rawski writes that altan khan 's conversion to the gelug `` can be interpreted as an attempt to expand his authority in his conflict with his nominal superior , tümen khan . '' 
to further cement the mongol-tibetan alliance , the great-grandson of altan khan -- the 4th dalai lama -lrb- 1589 -- 1616 -rrb- -- was made the fourth dalai lama . 
in 1642 , the 5th dalai lama -lrb- 1617 -- 1682 -rrb- became the first to wield effective political control over tibet . 
in 1642 , the 5th dalai lama -lrb- 1617 -- 1682 -rrb- became the first to wield effective political control over tibet . 
sonam gyatso , after being granted the grandiose title by altan khan , departed for tibet . 
sonam gyatso , after being granted the grandiose title by altan khan , departed for tibet . 
before he left , he sent a letter and gifts to the ming chinese official zhang juzheng -lrb- 1525 -- 1582 -rrb- , which arrived on march 12 , 1579 . 
before he left , he sent a letter and gifts to the ming chinese official zhang juzheng -lrb- 1525 -- 1582 -rrb- , which arrived on march 12 , 1579 . 
although not recorded in any official chinese records , sonam gyatso 's biography states that wanli again conferred titles on sonam gyatso in 1588 , and invited him to beijing for a second time , but sonam gyatso was unable to visit china as he died the same year in mongolia working with altan khan 's son to further the spread of buddhism . 
of the third dalai lama , china daily states that the `` ming dynasty showed him special favor by allowing him to pay tribute . '' 
of the third dalai lama , china daily states that the `` ming dynasty showed him special favor by allowing him to pay tribute . '' 
china daily then says that sonam gyatso was granted the title dorjichang or vajradhara dalai lama in 1587 -lsb- sic ! -rsb- 
without mentioning the role of the mongols , china daily states that it was the successive qing dynasty which established the title of dalai lama and his power in tibet : `` in 1653 , the qing emperor granted an honorific title to the fifth dalai lama and then did the same for the fifth panchen lama in 1713 , officially establishing the titles of the dalai lama and the panchen erdeni , and their political and religious status in tibet . '' 
without mentioning the role of the mongols , china daily states that it was the successive qing dynasty which established the title of dalai lama and his power in tibet : `` in 1653 , the qing emperor granted an honorific title to the fifth dalai lama and then did the same for the fifth panchen lama in 1713 , officially establishing the titles of the dalai lama and the panchen erdeni , and their political and religious status in tibet . '' 
chen states that the fourth dalai lama yonten gyatso was granted the title `` master of vajradhara '' and an official seal by the wanli emperor in 1616 . 
chen states that the fourth dalai lama yonten gyatso was granted the title `` master of vajradhara '' and an official seal by the wanli emperor in 1616 . 
chen states that the fourth dalai lama yonten gyatso was granted the title `` master of vajradhara '' and an official seal by the wanli emperor in 1616 . 
chen states that the fourth dalai lama yonten gyatso was granted the title `` master of vajradhara '' and an official seal by the wanli emperor in 1616 . 
the wanli emperor had invited yonten gyatso to beijing in 1616 , but just like his predecessor he died before being able to make the journey . 
he adds that the ming court 's lack of concern for tibet was one of the reasons why the mongols pounced on the chance to reclaim their old vassal of tibet and `` fill once more the political vacuum in that country . '' 
he adds that the ming court 's lack of concern for tibet was one of the reasons why the mongols pounced on the chance to reclaim their old vassal of tibet and `` fill once more the political vacuum in that country . '' 
kolmaš writes that , as the mongol presence in tibet increased , culminating in the conquest of tibet by a mongol leader in 1642 , the ming emperors `` viewed with apparent unconcern these developments in tibet . '' 
he adds that the ming court 's lack of concern for tibet was one of the reasons why the mongols pounced on the chance to reclaim their old vassal of tibet and `` fill once more the political vacuum in that country . '' 
in 1565 , the powerful rinbung princes were overthrown by one of their own ministers , karma tseten who styled himself as the tsangpa , `` the one of tsang '' , and established his base of power at shigatse . 
the second successor of this first tsang king , karma phuntsok namgyal , took control of the whole of central tibet -lrb- ü-tsang -rrb- , reigning from 1611 -- 1621 . 
the second successor of this first tsang king , karma phuntsok namgyal , took control of the whole of central tibet -lrb- ü-tsang -rrb- , reigning from 1611 -- 1621 . 
despite this , the leaders of lhasa still claimed their allegiance to the phagmodru as well as the gelug , while the ü-tsang king allied with the karmapa . 
the fourth dalai lama refused to give an audience to the ü-tsang king , which sparked a conflict as the latter began assaulting gelug monasteries . 
when an ally of the ü-tsang ruler threatened destruction of the gelugpas again , the fifth dalai lama lozang gyatso pleaded for help from the mongol prince güshi khan -lrb- 1582 -- 1655 -rrb- , leader of the khoshut -lrb- qoshot -rrb- tribe of the oirat mongols , who was then on a pilgrimage to lhasa . 
güshi khan accepted his role as protector , and from 1637 -- 1640 he not only defeated the gelugpas ' enemies in the amdo and kham regions , but also resettled his entire tribe into amdo . 
when an ally of the ü-tsang ruler threatened destruction of the gelugpas again , the fifth dalai lama lozang gyatso pleaded for help from the mongol prince güshi khan -lrb- 1582 -- 1655 -rrb- , leader of the khoshut -lrb- qoshot -rrb- tribe of the oirat mongols , who was then on a pilgrimage to lhasa . 
güshi khan accepted his role as protector , and from 1637 -- 1640 he not only defeated the gelugpas ' enemies in the amdo and kham regions , but also resettled his entire tribe into amdo . 
in 1642 , after a year 's siege of shigatse , the ü-tsang forces surrendered . 
soon after the victory in ü-tsang , güshi khan organized a welcoming ceremony for lozang gyatso once he arrived a day 's ride from shigatse , presenting his conquest of tibet as a gift to the dalai lama . 
soon after the victory in ü-tsang , güshi khan organized a welcoming ceremony for lozang gyatso once he arrived a day 's ride from shigatse , presenting his conquest of tibet as a gift to the dalai lama . 
soon after the victory in ü-tsang , güshi khan organized a welcoming ceremony for lozang gyatso once he arrived a day 's ride from shigatse , presenting his conquest of tibet as a gift to the dalai lama . 
in a second ceremony held within the main hall of the shigatse fortress , güshi khan enthroned the dalai lama as the ruler of tibet , but conferred the actual governing authority to the regent sonam chöpel . 
soon after the victory in ü-tsang , güshi khan organized a welcoming ceremony for lozang gyatso once he arrived a day 's ride from shigatse , presenting his conquest of tibet as a gift to the dalai lama . 
meanwhile , the chinese ming dynasty fell to the rebellion of li zicheng -lrb- 1606 -- 1645 -rrb- in 1644 , yet his short-lived shun dynasty was crushed by the manchu invasion and the han chinese general wu sangui -lrb- 1612 -- 1678 -rrb- . 
however , kolmaš states that the dalai lama was very observant of what was going on in china and accepted a manchu invitation in 1640 to send envoys to their capital at mukden in 1642 , before the ming collapsed . 
dawa norbu , william rockhill , and george n. patterson write that when the shunzhi emperor -lrb- r. 1644 -- 1661 -rrb- of the subsequent qing dynasty invited the fifth dalai lama lozang gyatso to beijing in 1652 , shunzhi treated the dalai lama as an independent sovereign of tibet . 
when the dzungar mongols attempted to spread their territory from what is now xinjiang into tibet , the kangxi emperor -lrb- r. 1661 -- 1722 -rrb- responded to tibetan pleas for aid with his own expedition to tibet , occupying lhasa in 1720 . 
when the dzungar mongols attempted to spread their territory from what is now xinjiang into tibet , the kangxi emperor -lrb- r. 1661 -- 1722 -rrb- responded to tibetan pleas for aid with his own expedition to tibet , occupying lhasa in 1720 . 
when the dzungar mongols attempted to spread their territory from what is now xinjiang into tibet , the kangxi emperor -lrb- r. 1661 -- 1722 -rrb- responded to tibetan pleas for aid with his own expedition to tibet , occupying lhasa in 1720 . 
by 1751 , during the reign of the qianlong emperor -lrb- r. 1735 -- 1796 -rrb- , a protectorate and permanent qing dynasty garrison was established in tibet . 
by 1751 , during the reign of the qianlong emperor -lrb- r. 1735 -- 1796 -rrb- , a protectorate and permanent qing dynasty garrison was established in tibet . 
the ipod is a line of portable media players and multi-purpose pocket computers designed and marketed by apple inc. . 
the first line was released on october 23 , 2001 , about 8 1/2 months after itunes -lrb- macintosh version -rrb- was released . 
there are three current versions of the ipod : the ultra-compact ipod shuffle , the compact ipod nano and the touchscreen ipod touch . 
the ipod is a line of portable media players and multi-purpose pocket computers designed and marketed by apple inc. . 
there are three current versions of the ipod : the ultra-compact ipod shuffle , the compact ipod nano and the touchscreen ipod touch . 
the first line was released on october 23 , 2001 , about 8 1/2 months after itunes -lrb- macintosh version -rrb- was released . 
the ipod is a line of portable media players and multi-purpose pocket computers designed and marketed by apple inc. . 
the first line was released on october 23 , 2001 , about 8 1/2 months after itunes -lrb- macintosh version -rrb- was released . 
there are three current versions of the ipod : the ultra-compact ipod shuffle , the compact ipod nano and the touchscreen ipod touch . 
the most recent ipod redesigns were announced on july 15 , 2015 . 
like other digital music players , ipods can serve as external data storage devices . 
storage capacity varies by model , ranging from 2 gb for the ipod shuffle to 128 gb for the ipod touch -lrb- previously 160 gb for the ipod classic , which is now discontinued -rrb- . 
storage capacity varies by model , ranging from 2 gb for the ipod shuffle to 128 gb for the ipod touch -lrb- previously 160 gb for the ipod classic , which is now discontinued -rrb- . 
storage capacity varies by model , ranging from 2 gb for the ipod shuffle to 128 gb for the ipod touch -lrb- previously 160 gb for the ipod classic , which is now discontinued -rrb- . 
storage capacity varies by model , ranging from 2 gb for the ipod shuffle to 128 gb for the ipod touch -lrb- previously 160 gb for the ipod classic , which is now discontinued -rrb- . 
storage capacity varies by model , ranging from 2 gb for the ipod shuffle to 128 gb for the ipod touch -lrb- previously 160 gb for the ipod classic , which is now discontinued -rrb- . 
storage capacity varies by model , ranging from 2 gb for the ipod shuffle to 128 gb for the ipod touch -lrb- previously 160 gb for the ipod classic , which is now discontinued -rrb- . 
apple 's itunes software -lrb- and other alternative software -rrb- can be used to transfer music , photos , videos , games , contact information , e-mail settings , web bookmarks , and calendars , to the devices supporting these features from computers using certain versions of apple macintosh and microsoft windows operating systems . 
apple 's itunes software -lrb- and other alternative software -rrb- can be used to transfer music , photos , videos , games , contact information , e-mail settings , web bookmarks , and calendars , to the devices supporting these features from computers using certain versions of apple macintosh and microsoft windows operating systems . 
apple 's itunes software -lrb- and other alternative software -rrb- can be used to transfer music , photos , videos , games , contact information , e-mail settings , web bookmarks , and calendars , to the devices supporting these features from computers using certain versions of apple macintosh and microsoft windows operating systems . 
before the release of ios 5 , the ipod branding was used for the media player included with the iphone and ipad , a combination of the music and videos apps on the ipod touch . 
before the release of ios 5 , the ipod branding was used for the media player included with the iphone and ipad , a combination of the music and videos apps on the ipod touch . 
before the release of ios 5 , the ipod branding was used for the media player included with the iphone and ipad , a combination of the music and videos apps on the ipod touch . 
during the middle of 2010 , iphone sales overtook those of the ipod . 
as of ios 5 , separate apps named `` music '' and `` videos '' are standardized across all ios-powered products . 
the sixth generation ipod touch includes a wide variety of spec improvements such as the upgraded a8 processor and higher-quality screen . 
the sixth generation ipod touch includes a wide variety of spec improvements such as the upgraded a8 processor and higher-quality screen . 
the sixth generation ipod touch includes a wide variety of spec improvements such as the upgraded a8 processor and higher-quality screen . 
in mid-2015 , a new model of the ipod touch was announced by apple , and was officially released on the apple store on july 15 , 2015 . 
the sixth generation ipod touch includes a wide variety of spec improvements such as the upgraded a8 processor and higher-quality screen . 
in mid-2015 , a new model of the ipod touch was announced by apple , and was officially released on the apple store on july 15 , 2015 . 
though the ipod was released in 2001 , its price and mac-only compatibility caused sales to be relatively slow until 2004 . 
though the ipod was released in 2001 , its price and mac-only compatibility caused sales to be relatively slow until 2004 . 
as ordered by ceo steve jobs , apple 's hardware engineering chief jon rubinstein assembled a team of engineers to design the ipod line , including hardware engineers tony fadell and michael dhuey , and design engineer sir jonathan ive . 
the aesthetic was inspired by the 1958 braun t3 transistor radio designed by dieter rams , while the wheel based user interface was prompted by bang & olufsen 's beocom 6000 telephone . 
jobs announced it as a mac-compatible product with a 5 gb hard drive that put `` 1,000 songs in your pocket . '' 
though the ipod was released in 2001 , its price and mac-only compatibility caused sales to be relatively slow until 2004 . 
jobs announced it as a mac-compatible product with a 5 gb hard drive that put `` 1,000 songs in your pocket . '' 
the product -lrb- `` the walkman of the twenty-first century '' -rrb- was developed in less than one year and unveiled on october 23 , 2001 . 
as ordered by ceo steve jobs , apple 's hardware engineering chief jon rubinstein assembled a team of engineers to design the ipod line , including hardware engineers tony fadell and michael dhuey , and design engineer sir jonathan ive . 
rubinstein had already discovered the toshiba disk drive when meeting with an apple supplier in japan , and purchased the rights to it for apple , and had also already worked out how the screen , battery , and other key elements would work . 
apple contracted another company , pixo , to help design and implement the user interface under the direct supervision of steve jobs . 
starting with the ipod mini , the chicago font was replaced with espy sans . 
in 2007 , apple modified the ipod interface again with the introduction of the sixth-generation ipod classic and third-generation ipod nano by changing the font to helvetica and , in most cases , splitting the screen in half by displaying the menus on the left and album artwork , photos , or videos on the right -lrb- whichever was appropriate for the selected item -rrb- . 
in 2007 , apple modified the ipod interface again with the introduction of the sixth-generation ipod classic and third-generation ipod nano by changing the font to helvetica and , in most cases , splitting the screen in half by displaying the menus on the left and album artwork , photos , or videos on the right -lrb- whichever was appropriate for the selected item -rrb- . 
apple contracted another company , pixo , to help design and implement the user interface under the direct supervision of steve jobs . 
apple did not develop the ipod software entirely in-house , instead using portalplayer 's reference platform based on two arm cores . 
in 2007 , apple modified the ipod interface again with the introduction of the sixth-generation ipod classic and third-generation ipod nano by changing the font to helvetica and , in most cases , splitting the screen in half by displaying the menus on the left and album artwork , photos , or videos on the right -lrb- whichever was appropriate for the selected item -rrb- . 
in 2006 apple presented a special edition for ipod 5g of irish rock band u2 . 
in 2006 apple presented a special edition for ipod 5g of irish rock band u2 . 
like its predecessor , this ipod has engraved the signatures of the four members of the band on its back , but this one was the first time the company changed the colour of the metal -lrb- not silver but black -rrb- . 
the special edition entitled purchasers to an exclusive video with 33 minutes of interviews and performance by u2 , downloadable from the itunes store . 
in 2006 apple presented a special edition for ipod 5g of irish rock band u2 . 
like its predecessor , this ipod has engraved the signatures of the four members of the band on its back , but this one was the first time the company changed the colour of the metal -lrb- not silver but black -rrb- . 
in 2006 apple presented a special edition for ipod 5g of irish rock band u2 . 
in september 2007 , during a lawsuit with patent holding company burst.com , apple drew attention to a patent for a similar device that was developed in 1979 . 
kane kramer applied for a uk patent for his design of a `` plastic music box '' in 1981 , which he called the ixi . 
kane kramer applied for a uk patent for his design of a `` plastic music box '' in 1981 , which he called the ixi . 
kane kramer applied for a uk patent for his design of a `` plastic music box '' in 1981 , which he called the ixi . 
kane kramer applied for a uk patent for his design of a `` plastic music box '' in 1981 , which he called the ixi . 
in september 2007 , during a lawsuit with patent holding company burst.com , apple drew attention to a patent for a similar device that was developed in 1979 . 
kane kramer applied for a uk patent for his design of a `` plastic music box '' in 1981 , which he called the ixi . 
kane kramer applied for a uk patent for his design of a `` plastic music box '' in 1981 , which he called the ixi . 
the name ipod was proposed by vinnie chieco , a freelance copywriter , who -lrb- with others -rrb- was called by apple to figure out how to introduce the new player to the public . 
the name ipod was proposed by vinnie chieco , a freelance copywriter , who -lrb- with others -rrb- was called by apple to figure out how to introduce the new player to the public . 
after chieco saw a prototype , he thought of the movie 2001 : a space odyssey and the phrase `` open the pod bay door , hal ! '' 
joseph n. grasso of new jersey had originally listed an `` ipod '' trademark with the u.s. patent and trademark office -lrb- uspto -rrb- in july 2000 for internet kiosks . 
the trademark was registered by the uspto in november 2003 , and grasso assigned it to apple computer , inc. in 2005 . 
after chieco saw a prototype , he thought of the movie 2001 : a space odyssey and the phrase `` open the pod bay door , hal ! '' 
the name ipod was proposed by vinnie chieco , a freelance copywriter , who -lrb- with others -rrb- was called by apple to figure out how to introduce the new player to the public . 
joseph n. grasso of new jersey had originally listed an `` ipod '' trademark with the u.s. patent and trademark office -lrb- uspto -rrb- in july 2000 for internet kiosks . 
in mid-2015 , several new color schemes for all of the current ipod models were spotted in the latest version of itunes , 12.2 . 
belgian website belgium iphone originally found the images when plugging in an ipod for the first time , and subsequent leaked photos were found by pierre dandumont . 
in mid-2015 , several new color schemes for all of the current ipod models were spotted in the latest version of itunes , 12.2 . 
in mid-2015 , several new color schemes for all of the current ipod models were spotted in the latest version of itunes , 12.2 . 
belgian website belgium iphone originally found the images when plugging in an ipod for the first time , and subsequent leaked photos were found by pierre dandumont . 
the third-generation ipod had a weak bass response , as shown in audio tests . 
the problem is reduced when using high-impedance headphones and is completely masked when driving high-impedance -lrb- line level -rrb- loads , such as an external headphone amplifier . 
the problem is reduced when using high-impedance headphones and is completely masked when driving high-impedance -lrb- line level -rrb- loads , such as an external headphone amplifier . 
the third-generation ipod had a weak bass response , as shown in audio tests . 
the combination of the undersized dc-blocking capacitors and the typical low-impedance of most consumer headphones form a high-pass filter , which attenuates the low-frequency bass output . 
this would happen for eq settings like r&b , rock , acoustic , and bass booster , because the equalizer amplified the digital audio level beyond the software 's limit , causing distortion -lrb- clipping -rrb- on bass instruments . 
this would happen for eq settings like r&b , rock , acoustic , and bass booster , because the equalizer amplified the digital audio level beyond the software 's limit , causing distortion -lrb- clipping -rrb- on bass instruments . 
this would happen for eq settings like r&b , rock , acoustic , and bass booster , because the equalizer amplified the digital audio level beyond the software 's limit , causing distortion -lrb- clipping -rrb- on bass instruments . 
for all ipods released in 2006 and earlier , some equalizer -lrb- eq -rrb- sound settings would distort the bass sound far too easily , even on undemanding songs . 
this would happen for eq settings like r&b , rock , acoustic , and bass booster , because the equalizer amplified the digital audio level beyond the software 's limit , causing distortion -lrb- clipping -rrb- on bass instruments . 
from the fifth-generation ipod on , apple introduced a user-configurable volume limit in response to concerns about hearing loss . 
users report that in the sixth-generation ipod , the maximum volume output level is limited to 100 db in eu markets . 
users report that in the sixth-generation ipod , the maximum volume output level is limited to 100 db in eu markets . 
apple previously had to remove ipods from shelves in france for exceeding this legal limit . 
users report that in the sixth-generation ipod , the maximum volume output level is limited to 100 db in eu markets . 
apple previously had to remove ipods from shelves in france for exceeding this legal limit . 
originally , a firewire connection to the host computer was used to update songs or recharge the battery . 
the battery could also be charged with a power adapter that was included with the first four generations . 
originally , a firewire connection to the host computer was used to update songs or recharge the battery . 
the third generation began including a 30-pin dock connector , allowing for firewire or usb connectivity . 
the third generation began including a 30-pin dock connector , allowing for firewire or usb connectivity . 
as of the first-generation ipod nano and the fifth-generation ipod classic , apple discontinued using firewire for data transfer -lrb- while still allowing for use of firewire to charge the device -rrb- in an attempt to reduce cost and form factor . 
as of the second-generation ipod touch and the fourth-generation ipod nano , firewire charging ability has been removed . 
the second - , third - , and fourth-generation ipod shuffle uses a single 3.5 mm minijack phone connector which acts as both a headphone jack and a data port for the dock . 
the third generation began including a 30-pin dock connector , allowing for firewire or usb connectivity . 
the second - , third - , and fourth-generation ipod shuffle uses a single 3.5 mm minijack phone connector which acts as both a headphone jack and a data port for the dock . 
the third generation began including a 30-pin dock connector , allowing for firewire or usb connectivity . 
the third generation began including a 30-pin dock connector , allowing for firewire or usb connectivity . 
apple sells a few accessories , such as the now-discontinued ipod hi-fi , but most are manufactured by third parties such as belkin and griffin . 
apple sells a few accessories , such as the now-discontinued ipod hi-fi , but most are manufactured by third parties such as belkin and griffin . 
the dock connector also allowed the ipod to connect to accessories , which often supplement the ipod 's music , video , and photo playback . 
because the dock connector is a proprietary interface , the implementation of the interface requires paying royalties to apple . 
apple sells a few accessories , such as the now-discontinued ipod hi-fi , but most are manufactured by third parties such as belkin and griffin . 
apple sells a few accessories , such as the now-discontinued ipod hi-fi , but most are manufactured by third parties such as belkin and griffin . 
apple introduced a new 8-pin dock connector , named lightning , on september 12 , 2012 with their announcement of the iphone 5 , the fifth generation ipod touch , and the seventh generation ipod nano , which all feature it . 
apple introduced a new 8-pin dock connector , named lightning , on september 12 , 2012 with their announcement of the iphone 5 , the fifth generation ipod touch , and the seventh generation ipod nano , which all feature it . 
the new connector replaces the older 30-pin dock connector used by older ipods , iphones , and ipads . 
apple introduced a new 8-pin dock connector , named lightning , on september 12 , 2012 with their announcement of the iphone 5 , the fifth generation ipod touch , and the seventh generation ipod nano , which all feature it . 
apple lightning cables have pins on both sides of the plug so it can be inserted with either side facing up . 
apple introduced a new 8-pin dock connector , named lightning , on september 12 , 2012 with their announcement of the iphone 5 , the fifth generation ipod touch , and the seventh generation ipod nano , which all feature it . 
apple introduced a new 8-pin dock connector , named lightning , on september 12 , 2012 with their announcement of the iphone 5 , the fifth generation ipod touch , and the seventh generation ipod nano , which all feature it . 
a large number are made by third party companies , although many , such as the ipod hi-fi , are made by apple . 
other accessories offer unique features like the nike + ipod pedometer and the ipod camera connector . 
among the first accessory manufacturers were griffin technology , belkin , jbl , bose , monster cable , and sendstation . 
some accessories add extra features that other music players have , such as sound recorders , fm radio tuners , wired remote controls , and audio/visual cables for tv connections . 
other accessories offer unique features like the nike + ipod pedometer and the ipod camera connector . 
a large number are made by third party companies , although many , such as the ipod hi-fi , are made by apple . 
bmw released the first ipod automobile interface , allowing drivers of newer bmw vehicles to control an ipod using either the built-in steering wheel controls or the radio head-unit buttons . 
apple announced in 2005 that similar systems would be available for other vehicle brands , including mercedes-benz , volvo , nissan , toyota , alfa romeo , ferrari , acura , audi , honda , renault , infiniti and volkswagen . 
scion offers standard ipod connectivity on all their cars . 
bmw released the first ipod automobile interface , allowing drivers of newer bmw vehicles to control an ipod using either the built-in steering wheel controls or the radio head-unit buttons . 
scion offers standard ipod connectivity on all their cars . 
some independent stereo manufacturers including jvc , pioneer , kenwood , alpine , sony , and harman kardon also have ipod-specific integration solutions . 
alternative connection methods include adapter kits -lrb- that use the cassette deck or the cd changer port -rrb- , audio input jacks , and fm transmitters such as the itrip -- although personal fm transmitters are illegal in some countries . 
alternative connection methods include adapter kits -lrb- that use the cassette deck or the cd changer port -rrb- , audio input jacks , and fm transmitters such as the itrip -- although personal fm transmitters are illegal in some countries . 
alternative connection methods include adapter kits -lrb- that use the cassette deck or the cd changer port -rrb- , audio input jacks , and fm transmitters such as the itrip -- although personal fm transmitters are illegal in some countries . 
alternative connection methods include adapter kits -lrb- that use the cassette deck or the cd changer port -rrb- , audio input jacks , and fm transmitters such as the itrip -- although personal fm transmitters are illegal in some countries . 
beginning in mid-2007 , four major airlines , united , continental , delta , and emirates , reached agreements to install ipod seat connections . 
the free service will allow passengers to power and charge an ipod , and view video and music libraries on individual seat-back displays . 
originally klm and air france were reported to be part of the deal with apple , but they later released statements explaining that they were only contemplating the possibility of incorporating such systems . 
beginning in mid-2007 , four major airlines , united , continental , delta , and emirates , reached agreements to install ipod seat connections . 
beginning in mid-2007 , four major airlines , united , continental , delta , and emirates , reached agreements to install ipod seat connections . 
the ipod line can play several audio file formats including mp3 , aac/m4a , protected aac , aiff , wav , audible audiobook , and apple lossless . 
the ipod photo introduced the ability to display jpeg , bmp , gif , tiff , and png image file formats . 
unlike most other media players , apple does not support microsoft 's wma audio format -- but a converter for wma files without digital rights management -lrb- drm -rrb- is provided with the windows version of itunes . 
unlike most other media players , apple does not support microsoft 's wma audio format -- but a converter for wma files without digital rights management -lrb- drm -rrb- is provided with the windows version of itunes . 
originally , ipod software only worked with mac os ; ipod software for microsoft windows was launched with the second generation model . 
the ipod line can play several audio file formats including mp3 , aac/m4a , protected aac , aiff , wav , audible audiobook , and apple lossless . 
the ipod photo introduced the ability to display jpeg , bmp , gif , tiff , and png image file formats . 
during installation , an ipod is associated with one host computer . 
song ratings can be set on an ipod and synchronized later to the itunes library , and vice versa . 
during installation , an ipod is associated with one host computer . 
all ipods -lrb- except the 3rd-generation ipod shuffle , the 6th & 7th generation ipod nano , and ipod touch -rrb- have five buttons and the later generations have the buttons integrated into the click wheel -- an innovation that gives an uncluttered , minimalist interface . 
all ipods -lrb- except the 3rd-generation ipod shuffle , the 6th & 7th generation ipod nano , and ipod touch -rrb- have five buttons and the later generations have the buttons integrated into the click wheel -- an innovation that gives an uncluttered , minimalist interface . 
the 3rd-generation ipod shuffle does not have any controls on the actual player ; instead it has a small control on the earphone cable , with volume-up and - down buttons and a single button for play and pause , next track , etc. . 
the ipod touch has no click-wheel ; instead it uses a 3.5 '' touch screen along with a home button , sleep/wake button and -lrb- on the second and third generations of the ipod touch -rrb- volume-up and - down buttons . 
the user interface for the ipod touch is identical to that of the iphone . 
all ipods -lrb- except the 3rd-generation ipod shuffle , the 6th & 7th generation ipod nano , and ipod touch -rrb- have five buttons and the later generations have the buttons integrated into the click wheel -- an innovation that gives an uncluttered , minimalist interface . 
all ipods -lrb- except the 3rd-generation ipod shuffle , the 6th & 7th generation ipod nano , and ipod touch -rrb- have five buttons and the later generations have the buttons integrated into the click wheel -- an innovation that gives an uncluttered , minimalist interface . 
the user interface for the ipod touch is identical to that of the iphone . 
the itunes store -lrb- introduced april 29 , 2003 -rrb- is an online media store run by apple and accessed through itunes . 
the itunes store -lrb- introduced april 29 , 2003 -rrb- is an online media store run by apple and accessed through itunes . 
the store became the market leader soon after its launch and apple announced the sale of videos through the store on october 12 , 2005 . 
full-length movies became available on september 12 , 2006 . 
the itunes store -lrb- introduced april 29 , 2003 -rrb- is an online media store run by apple and accessed through itunes . 
the store became the market leader soon after its launch and apple announced the sale of videos through the store on october 12 , 2005 . 
full-length movies became available on september 12 , 2006 . 
at the time the store was introduced , purchased audio files used the aac format with added encryption , based on the fairplay drm system . 
up to five authorized computers and an unlimited number of ipods could play the files . 
however , in a deal with apple , emi began selling drm-free , higher-quality songs on the itunes stores , in a category called `` itunes plus . '' 
on january 6 , 2009 , apple announced that drm has been removed from 80 % of the music catalog , and that it would be removed from all music by april 2009 . 
on january 6 , 2009 , apple announced that drm has been removed from 80 % of the music catalog , and that it would be removed from all music by april 2009 . 
at the time the store was introduced , purchased audio files used the aac format with added encryption , based on the fairplay drm system . 
at the time the store was introduced , purchased audio files used the aac format with added encryption , based on the fairplay drm system . 
however , in a deal with apple , emi began selling drm-free , higher-quality songs on the itunes stores , in a category called `` itunes plus . '' 
on january 6 , 2009 , apple announced that drm has been removed from 80 % of the music catalog , and that it would be removed from all music by april 2009 . 
example stores include napster and msn music . 
ipods can not play music files from competing music stores that use rival-drm technologies like microsoft 's protected wma or realnetworks ' helix drm . 
ipods can not play music files from competing music stores that use rival-drm technologies like microsoft 's protected wma or realnetworks ' helix drm . 
universal music group decided not to renew their contract with the itunes store on july 3 , 2007 . 
universal music group decided not to renew their contract with the itunes store on july 3 , 2007 . 
universal music group decided not to renew their contract with the itunes store on july 3 , 2007 . 
apple debuted the itunes wi-fi music store on september 5 , 2007 , in its media event entitled `` the beat goes on ... '' . 
apple debuted the itunes wi-fi music store on september 5 , 2007 , in its media event entitled `` the beat goes on ... '' . 
apple debuted the itunes wi-fi music store on september 5 , 2007 , in its media event entitled `` the beat goes on ... '' . 
this service allows users to access the music store from either an iphone or an ipod touch and download songs directly to the device that can be synced to the user 's itunes library over a wifi connection , or , in the case of an iphone , the telephone network . 
video games are playable on various versions of ipods . 
the original ipod had the game brick -lrb- originally invented by apple 's co-founder steve wozniak -rrb- included as an easter egg hidden feature ; later firmware versions added it as a menu option . 
the original ipod had the game brick -lrb- originally invented by apple 's co-founder steve wozniak -rrb- included as an easter egg hidden feature ; later firmware versions added it as a menu option . 
later revisions of the ipod added three more games : parachute , solitaire , and music quiz . 
the original ipod had the game brick -lrb- originally invented by apple 's co-founder steve wozniak -rrb- included as an easter egg hidden feature ; later firmware versions added it as a menu option . 
the original ipod had the game brick -lrb- originally invented by apple 's co-founder steve wozniak -rrb- included as an easter egg hidden feature ; later firmware versions added it as a menu option . 
later revisions of the ipod added three more games : parachute , solitaire , and music quiz . 
in september 2006 , the itunes store began to offer additional games for purchase with the launch of itunes 7 , compatible with the fifth generation ipod with ipod software 1.2 or later . 
in september 2006 , the itunes store began to offer additional games for purchase with the launch of itunes 7 , compatible with the fifth generation ipod with ipod software 1.2 or later . 
these games work on the 6th and 5th generation ipod classic and the 5th and 4th generation ipod nano . 
these games work on the 6th and 5th generation ipod classic and the 5th and 4th generation ipod nano . 
in september 2006 , the itunes store began to offer additional games for purchase with the launch of itunes 7 , compatible with the fifth generation ipod with ipod software 1.2 or later . 
in september 2006 , the itunes store began to offer additional games for purchase with the launch of itunes 7 , compatible with the fifth generation ipod with ipod software 1.2 or later . 
with third parties like namco , square enix , electronic arts , sega , and hudson soft all making games for the ipod , apple 's mp3 player has taken steps towards entering the video game handheld console market . 
with third parties like namco , square enix , electronic arts , sega , and hudson soft all making games for the ipod , apple 's mp3 player has taken steps towards entering the video game handheld console market . 
even video game magazines like gamepro and egm have reviewed and rated most of their games as of late . 
the games are in the form of . 
ipg files , which are actually . 
apple has not publicly released a software development kit -lrb- sdk -rrb- for ipod-specific development . 
apps produced with the iphone sdk are compatible only with the ios on the ipod touch and iphone , which can not run clickwheel-based games . 
the games are in the form of . 
apps produced with the iphone sdk are compatible only with the ios on the ipod touch and iphone , which can not run clickwheel-based games . 
apple has not publicly released a software development kit -lrb- sdk -rrb- for ipod-specific development . 
usually itunes is used to transfer media to an ipod , though several alternative third-party applications are available on a number of different platforms . 
usually itunes is used to transfer media to an ipod , though several alternative third-party applications are available on a number of different platforms . 
usually itunes is used to transfer media to an ipod , though several alternative third-party applications are available on a number of different platforms . 
itunes 7 and above can transfer purchased media of the itunes store from an ipod to a computer , provided that computer containing the drm protected media is authorized to play it . 
itunes 7 and above can transfer purchased media of the itunes store from an ipod to a computer , provided that computer containing the drm protected media is authorized to play it . 
media files are stored on an ipod in a hidden folder , along with a proprietary database file . 
the hidden content can be accessed on the host operating system by enabling hidden files to be shown . 
the media files can then be recovered manually by copying the files or folders off the ipod . 
in 2005 , apple faced two lawsuits claiming patent infringement by the ipod line and its associated technologies : advanced audio devices claimed the ipod line breached its patent on a `` music jukebox '' , while a hong kong-based ip portfolio company called pat-rights filed a suit claiming that apple 's fairplay technology breached a patent issued to inventor ho keung tse . 
in 2005 , apple faced two lawsuits claiming patent infringement by the ipod line and its associated technologies : advanced audio devices claimed the ipod line breached its patent on a `` music jukebox '' , while a hong kong-based ip portfolio company called pat-rights filed a suit claiming that apple 's fairplay technology breached a patent issued to inventor ho keung tse . 
the latter case also includes the online music stores of sony , realnetworks , napster , and musicmatch as defendants . 
in 2005 , apple faced two lawsuits claiming patent infringement by the ipod line and its associated technologies : advanced audio devices claimed the ipod line breached its patent on a `` music jukebox '' , while a hong kong-based ip portfolio company called pat-rights filed a suit claiming that apple 's fairplay technology breached a patent issued to inventor ho keung tse . 
in 2005 , apple faced two lawsuits claiming patent infringement by the ipod line and its associated technologies : advanced audio devices claimed the ipod line breached its patent on a `` music jukebox '' , while a hong kong-based ip portfolio company called pat-rights filed a suit claiming that apple 's fairplay technology breached a patent issued to inventor ho keung tse . 
in 2005 , apple faced two lawsuits claiming patent infringement by the ipod line and its associated technologies : advanced audio devices claimed the ipod line breached its patent on a `` music jukebox '' , while a hong kong-based ip portfolio company called pat-rights filed a suit claiming that apple 's fairplay technology breached a patent issued to inventor ho keung tse . 
apple 's application to the united states patent and trademark office for a patent on `` rotational user inputs '' , as used on the ipod interface , received a third `` non-final rejection '' -lrb- nfr -rrb- in august 2005 . 
apple 's application to the united states patent and trademark office for a patent on `` rotational user inputs '' , as used on the ipod interface , received a third `` non-final rejection '' -lrb- nfr -rrb- in august 2005 . 
also in august 2005 , creative technology , one of apple 's main rivals in the mp3 player market , announced that it held a patent on part of the music selection interface used by the ipod line , which creative technology dubbed the `` zen patent '' , granted on august 9 , 2005 . 
also in august 2005 , creative technology , one of apple 's main rivals in the mp3 player market , announced that it held a patent on part of the music selection interface used by the ipod line , which creative technology dubbed the `` zen patent '' , granted on august 9 , 2005 . 
creative also asked the united states international trade commission to investigate whether apple was breaching u.s. trade laws by importing ipods into the united states . 
apple 's application to the united states patent and trademark office for a patent on `` rotational user inputs '' , as used on the ipod interface , received a third `` non-final rejection '' -lrb- nfr -rrb- in august 2005 . 
also in august 2005 , creative technology , one of apple 's main rivals in the mp3 player market , announced that it held a patent on part of the music selection interface used by the ipod line , which creative technology dubbed the `` zen patent '' , granted on august 9 , 2005 . 
on august 24 , 2006 , apple and creative announced a broad settlement to end their legal disputes . 
apple will pay creative us$ 100 million for a paid-up license , to use creative 's awarded patent in all apple products . 
creative then announced its intention to produce ipod accessories by joining the made for ipod program . 
apple will pay creative us$ 100 million for a paid-up license , to use creative 's awarded patent in all apple products . 
creative then announced its intention to produce ipod accessories by joining the made for ipod program . 
since october 2004 , the ipod line has dominated digital music player sales in the united states , with over 90 % of the market for hard drive-based players and over 70 % of the market for all types of players . 
since october 2004 , the ipod line has dominated digital music player sales in the united states , with over 90 % of the market for hard drive-based players and over 70 % of the market for all types of players . 
in january 2007 the ipod market share reached 72.7 % according to bloomberg online . 
in january 2007 the ipod market share reached 72.7 % according to bloomberg online . 
since october 2004 , the ipod line has dominated digital music player sales in the united states , with over 90 % of the market for hard drive-based players and over 70 % of the market for all types of players . 
since october 2004 , the ipod line has dominated digital music player sales in the united states , with over 90 % of the market for hard drive-based players and over 70 % of the market for all types of players . 
during the year from january 2004 to january 2005 , the high rate of sales caused its u.s. market share to increase from 31 % to 65 % and in july 2005 , this market share was measured at 74 % . 
on january 8 , 2004 , hewlett-packard -lrb- hp -rrb- announced that they would sell hp-branded ipods under a license agreement from apple . 
on january 8 , 2004 , hewlett-packard -lrb- hp -rrb- announced that they would sell hp-branded ipods under a license agreement from apple . 
several new retail channels were used -- including wal-mart -- and these ipods eventually made up 5 % of all ipod sales . 
several new retail channels were used -- including wal-mart -- and these ipods eventually made up 5 % of all ipod sales . 
in july 2005 , hp stopped selling ipods due to unfavorable terms and conditions imposed by apple . 
on january 8 , 2004 , hewlett-packard -lrb- hp -rrb- announced that they would sell hp-branded ipods under a license agreement from apple . 
on april 9 , 2007 , it was announced that apple had sold its one-hundred millionth ipod , making it the biggest selling digital music player of all time . 
in april 2007 , apple reported second quarter revenue of us$ 5.2 billion , of which 32 % was made from ipod sales . 
apple and several industry analysts suggest that ipod users are likely to purchase other apple products such as mac computers . 
in april 2007 , apple reported second quarter revenue of us$ 5.2 billion , of which 32 % was made from ipod sales . 
on april 9 , 2007 , it was announced that apple had sold its one-hundred millionth ipod , making it the biggest selling digital music player of all time . 
in april 2007 , apple reported second quarter revenue of us$ 5.2 billion , of which 32 % was made from ipod sales . 
on october 22 , 2007 , apple reported quarterly revenue of us$ 6.22 billion , of which 30.69 % came from apple notebook sales , 19.22 % from desktop sales and 26 % from ipod sales . 
on october 22 , 2007 , apple reported quarterly revenue of us$ 6.22 billion , of which 30.69 % came from apple notebook sales , 19.22 % from desktop sales and 26 % from ipod sales . 
apple 's 2007 year revenue increased to us$ 24.01 billion with us$ 3.5 billion in profits . 
apple ended the fiscal year 2007 with us$ 15.4 billion in cash and no debt . 
apple 's 2007 year revenue increased to us$ 24.01 billion with us$ 3.5 billion in profits . 
on january 22 , 2008 , apple reported the best quarter revenue and earnings in apple 's history so far . 
apple posted record revenue of us$ 9.6 billion and record net quarterly profit of us$ 1.58 billion . 
42 % of apple 's revenue for the first fiscal quarter of 2008 came from ipod sales , followed by 21 % from notebook sales and 16 % from desktop sales . 
42 % of apple 's revenue for the first fiscal quarter of 2008 came from ipod sales , followed by 21 % from notebook sales and 16 % from desktop sales . 
the continual decline of ipod sales since 2009 has not been a surprising trend for the apple corporation , as apple cfo peter oppenheimer explained in june 2009 : `` we expect our traditional mp3 players to decline over time as we cannibalize ourselves with the ipod touch and the iphone . '' 
at the september 9 , 2009 keynote presentation at the apple event , phil schiller announced total cumulative sales of ipods exceeded 220 million . 
on october 21 , 2008 , apple reported that only 14.21 % of total revenue for fiscal quarter 4 of year 2008 came from ipods . 
at the september 9 , 2009 keynote presentation at the apple event , phil schiller announced total cumulative sales of ipods exceeded 220 million . 
since 2009 , the company 's ipod sales have continually decreased every financial quarter and in 2013 a new model was not introduced onto the market . 
ipods have won several awards ranging from engineering excellence , -lsb- not in citation given -rsb- to most innovative audio product , to fourth best computer product of 2006 . 
ipods often receive favorable reviews ; scoring on looks , clean design , and ease of use . 
examples include cd copy-protection schemes , and mobile phones , such as phones from sony ericsson and nokia , which play aac files rather than wma . 
examples include cd copy-protection schemes , and mobile phones , such as phones from sony ericsson and nokia , which play aac files rather than wma . 
pc world says that ipod line has `` altered the landscape for portable audio players '' . 
examples include cd copy-protection schemes , and mobile phones , such as phones from sony ericsson and nokia , which play aac files rather than wma . 
pc world says that ipod line has `` altered the landscape for portable audio players '' . 
besides earning a reputation as a respected entertainment device , the ipod has also been accepted as a business device . 
government departments , major institutions and international organisations have turned to the ipod line as a delivery mechanism for business communication and training , such as the royal and western infirmaries in glasgow , scotland , where ipods are used to train new staff . 
government departments , major institutions and international organisations have turned to the ipod line as a delivery mechanism for business communication and training , such as the royal and western infirmaries in glasgow , scotland , where ipods are used to train new staff . 
government departments , major institutions and international organisations have turned to the ipod line as a delivery mechanism for business communication and training , such as the royal and western infirmaries in glasgow , scotland , where ipods are used to train new staff . 
duke university provided ipods to all incoming freshmen in the fall of 2004 , and the ipod program continues today with modifications . 
entertainment weekly put it on its end-of-the-decade , `` best-of '' list , saying , `` yes , children , there really was a time when we roamed the earth without thousands of our favorite jams tucked comfortably into our hip pockets . 
duke university provided ipods to all incoming freshmen in the fall of 2004 , and the ipod program continues today with modifications . 
entertainment weekly put it on its end-of-the-decade , `` best-of '' list , saying , `` yes , children , there really was a time when we roamed the earth without thousands of our favorite jams tucked comfortably into our hip pockets . 
the ipod 's popularization of digital music storage allows users to abandon listening to entire albums and instead be able to choose specific singles which hastened the end of the album era in popular music . 
the ipod has also been credited with accelerating shifts within the music industry . 
the ipod 's popularization of digital music storage allows users to abandon listening to entire albums and instead be able to choose specific singles which hastened the end of the album era in popular music . 
the ipod 's popularization of digital music storage allows users to abandon listening to entire albums and instead be able to choose specific singles which hastened the end of the album era in popular music . 
for example , the fifth generation 30 gb ipod is advertised as having up to 14 hours of music playback . 
an mp3.com report stated that this was virtually unachievable under real-life usage conditions , with a writer for mp3.com getting on average less than 8 hours from an ipod . 
in 2003 , class action lawsuits were brought against apple complaining that the battery charges lasted for shorter lengths of time than stated and that the battery degraded over time . 
the advertised battery life on most models is different from the real-world achievable life . 
an mp3.com report stated that this was virtually unachievable under real-life usage conditions , with a writer for mp3.com getting on average less than 8 hours from an ipod . 
ipod batteries are not designed to be removed or replaced by the user , although some users have been able to open the case themselves , usually following instructions from third-party vendors of ipod replacement batteries . 
the official policy was that the customer should buy a refurbished replacement ipod , at a cost almost equivalent to a brand new one . 
all lithium-ion batteries lose capacity during their lifetime even when not in use -lrb- guidelines are available for prolonging life-span -rrb- and this situation led to a market for third-party battery replacement kits . 
ipod batteries are not designed to be removed or replaced by the user , although some users have been able to open the case themselves , usually following instructions from third-party vendors of ipod replacement batteries . 
all lithium-ion batteries lose capacity during their lifetime even when not in use -lrb- guidelines are available for prolonging life-span -rrb- and this situation led to a market for third-party battery replacement kits . 
apple announced a battery replacement program on november 14 , 2003 , a week before a high publicity stunt and website by the neistat brothers . 
the initial cost was us$ 99 , and it was lowered to us$ 59 in 2005 . 
for the ipod nano , soldering tools are needed because the battery is soldered onto the main board . 
fifth generation ipods have their battery attached to the backplate with adhesive . 
apple announced a battery replacement program on november 14 , 2003 , a week before a high publicity stunt and website by the neistat brothers . 
the initial cost was us$ 99 , and it was lowered to us$ 59 in 2005 . 
for the ipod nano , soldering tools are needed because the battery is soldered onto the main board . 
this is due to a flawed battery used by apple from a single battery manufacturer . 
under an apple product replacement program , affected nanos were replaced with current generation nanos free of charge . 
ipods have been criticized for alleged short life-span and fragile hard drives . 
a 2005 survey conducted on the macintouch website found that the ipod line had an average failure rate of 13.7 % -lrb- although they note that comments from respondents indicate that `` the true ipod failure rate may be lower than it appears '' -rrb- . 
a 2005 survey conducted on the macintouch website found that the ipod line had an average failure rate of 13.7 % -lrb- although they note that comments from respondents indicate that `` the true ipod failure rate may be lower than it appears '' -rrb- . 
in late 2005 , many users complained that the surface of the first generation ipod nano can become scratched easily , rendering the screen unusable . 
apple initially considered the issue a minor defect , but later began shipping these ipods with protective sleeves . 
in particular , failure rates for ipods employing hard drives was usually above 20 % while those with flash memory had a failure rate below 10 % . 
in late 2005 , many users complained that the surface of the first generation ipod nano can become scratched easily , rendering the screen unusable . 
on june 11 , 2006 , the british tabloid the mail on sunday reported that ipods are mainly manufactured by workers who earn no more than us$ 50 per month and work 15-hour shifts . 
apple investigated the case with independent auditors and found that , while some of the plant 's labour practices met apple 's code of conduct , others did not : employees worked over 60 hours a week for 35 % of the time , and worked more than six consecutive days for 25 % of the time . 
apple investigated the case with independent auditors and found that , while some of the plant 's labour practices met apple 's code of conduct , others did not : employees worked over 60 hours a week for 35 % of the time , and worked more than six consecutive days for 25 % of the time . 
on june 11 , 2006 , the british tabloid the mail on sunday reported that ipods are mainly manufactured by workers who earn no more than us$ 50 per month and work 15-hour shifts . 
apple investigated the case with independent auditors and found that , while some of the plant 's labour practices met apple 's code of conduct , others did not : employees worked over 60 hours a week for 35 % of the time , and worked more than six consecutive days for 25 % of the time . 
apple hired a workplace standards auditing company , verité , and joined the electronic industry code of conduct implementation group to oversee the measures . 
apple hired a workplace standards auditing company , verité , and joined the electronic industry code of conduct implementation group to oversee the measures . 
foxconn , apple 's manufacturer , initially denied the abuses , but when an auditing team from apple found that workers had been working longer hours than were allowed under chinese law , they promised to prevent workers working more hours than the code allowed . 
on december 31 , 2006 , workers at the foxconn factory in longhua , shenzhen formed a union affiliated with the all-china federation of trade unions , the chinese government-approved union umbrella organization . 
foxconn , apple 's manufacturer , initially denied the abuses , but when an auditing team from apple found that workers had been working longer hours than were allowed under chinese law , they promised to prevent workers working more hours than the code allowed . 
apple hired a workplace standards auditing company , verité , and joined the electronic industry code of conduct implementation group to oversee the measures . 
on december 31 , 2006 , workers at the foxconn factory in longhua , shenzhen formed a union affiliated with the all-china federation of trade unions , the chinese government-approved union umbrella organization . 
in 2010 , a number of workers committed suicide at a foxconn operations in china . 
another employee killed himself in 2009 when an apple prototype went missing , and claimed in messages to friends , that he had been beaten and interrogated . 
in 2010 , a number of workers committed suicide at a foxconn operations in china . 
one interpretation of this result is that u.s. innovation can create more jobs overseas than domestically . 
-lsb- citation needed -rsb- if an ipod is formatted on a mac os computer , it uses the hfs + file system format , which allows it to serve as a boot disk for a mac computer . 
if it is formatted on windows , the fat32 format is used . 
is an action-adventure game developed and published by nintendo for the gamecube and wii home video game consoles . 
is an action-adventure game developed and published by nintendo for the gamecube and wii home video game consoles . 
the wii version was released alongside the console in north america in november 2006 , and in japan , europe , and australia the following month . 
the gamecube version was released worldwide in december 2006 . 
is an action-adventure game developed and published by nintendo for the gamecube and wii home video game consoles . 
originally planned for release on the gamecube in november 2005 , twilight princess was delayed by nintendo to allow its developers to refine the game , add more content , and port it to the wii . 
the wii version was released alongside the console in north america in november 2006 , and in japan , europe , and australia the following month . 
the story focuses on series protagonist link , who tries to prevent hyrule from being engulfed by a corrupted parallel dimension known as the twilight realm . 
the story focuses on series protagonist link , who tries to prevent hyrule from being engulfed by a corrupted parallel dimension known as the twilight realm . 
to do so , he takes the form of both a hylian and a wolf , and is assisted by a mysterious creature named midna . 
the story focuses on series protagonist link , who tries to prevent hyrule from being engulfed by a corrupted parallel dimension known as the twilight realm . 
to do so , he takes the form of both a hylian and a wolf , and is assisted by a mysterious creature named midna . 
the game takes place hundreds of years after ocarina of time and majora 's mask , in an alternate timeline from the wind waker . 
it received several game of the year awards , and was the most critically acclaimed game of 2006 . 
in 2011 , the wii version was rereleased under the nintendo selects label . 
a high-definition port for the wii u , the legend of zelda : twilight princess hd , will be released in march 2016 . 
at the time of its release , twilight princess was considered the greatest entry in the zelda series by many critics , including writers for 1up . 
it received several game of the year awards , and was the most critically acclaimed game of 2006 . 
it received several game of the year awards , and was the most critically acclaimed game of 2006 . 
a high-definition port for the wii u , the legend of zelda : twilight princess hd , will be released in march 2016 . 
the legend of zelda : twilight princess is an action-adventure game focused on combat , exploration , and item collection . 
it uses the basic control scheme introduced in ocarina of time , including context-sensitive action buttons and l-targeting -lrb- z-targeting on the wii -rrb- , a system that allows the player to keep link 's view focused on an enemy or important object while moving and attacking . 
it uses the basic control scheme introduced in ocarina of time , including context-sensitive action buttons and l-targeting -lrb- z-targeting on the wii -rrb- , a system that allows the player to keep link 's view focused on an enemy or important object while moving and attacking . 
-lsb- c -rsb- link uses a sword and shield in combat , complemented with secondary weapons and items , including a bow and arrows , a boomerang , bombs , and the clawshot -lrb- similar to the hookshot introduced earlier in the the legend of zelda series -rrb- . 
-lsb- c -rsb- link uses a sword and shield in combat , complemented with secondary weapons and items , including a bow and arrows , a boomerang , bombs , and the clawshot -lrb- similar to the hookshot introduced earlier in the the legend of zelda series -rrb- . 
the legend of zelda : twilight princess is an action-adventure game focused on combat , exploration , and item collection . 
it uses the basic control scheme introduced in ocarina of time , including context-sensitive action buttons and l-targeting -lrb- z-targeting on the wii -rrb- , a system that allows the player to keep link 's view focused on an enemy or important object while moving and attacking . 
-lsb- c -rsb- link uses a sword and shield in combat , complemented with secondary weapons and items , including a bow and arrows , a boomerang , bombs , and the clawshot -lrb- similar to the hookshot introduced earlier in the the legend of zelda series -rrb- . 
it uses the basic control scheme introduced in ocarina of time , including context-sensitive action buttons and l-targeting -lrb- z-targeting on the wii -rrb- , a system that allows the player to keep link 's view focused on an enemy or important object while moving and attacking . 
the context-sensitive button mechanic allows one button to serve a variety of functions , such as talking , opening doors , and pushing , pulling , and throwing objects . 
-lsb- e -rsb- the on-screen display shows what action , if any , the button will trigger , determined by the situation . 
for example , if link is holding a rock , the context-sensitive button will cause link to throw the rock if he is moving or targeting an object or enemy , or place the rock on the ground if he is standing still . 
the context-sensitive button mechanic allows one button to serve a variety of functions , such as talking , opening doors , and pushing , pulling , and throwing objects . 
-lsb- e -rsb- the on-screen display shows what action , if any , the button will trigger , determined by the situation . 
the wii version of the game makes use of the motion sensors and built-in speaker of the wii remote . 
the speaker emits the sounds of a bowstring when shooting an arrow , midna 's laugh when she gives advice to link , and the series ' trademark `` chime '' when discovering secrets . 
the wii version of the game makes use of the motion sensors and built-in speaker of the wii remote . 
other attacks are triggered using similar gestures with the nunchuk . 
unique to the gamecube version is the ability for the player to control the camera freely , without entering a special `` lookaround '' mode required by the wii ; however , in the gamecube version , only two of link 's secondary weapons can be equipped at a time , as opposed to four in the wii version . 
the wii version of the game makes use of the motion sensors and built-in speaker of the wii remote . 
the wii version of the game makes use of the motion sensors and built-in speaker of the wii remote . 
the game features nine dungeons -- large , contained areas where link battles enemies , collects items , and solves puzzles . 
the game features nine dungeons -- large , contained areas where link battles enemies , collects items , and solves puzzles . 
the dungeons are connected by a large overworld , across which link can travel on foot ; on his horse , epona ; or by teleporting . 
the dungeons are connected by a large overworld , across which link can travel on foot ; on his horse , epona ; or by teleporting . 
the game features nine dungeons -- large , contained areas where link battles enemies , collects items , and solves puzzles . 
link navigates these dungeons and fights a boss at the end in order to obtain an item or otherwise advance the plot . 
the dungeons are connected by a large overworld , across which link can travel on foot ; on his horse , epona ; or by teleporting . 
however , `` wolf link '' gains several key advantages in return -- he moves faster than he does as a human -lrb- though riding epona is still faster -rrb- and digs holes to create new passages and uncover buried items , and has improved senses , including the ability to follow scent trails . 
as a wolf , link loses the ability to use his sword , shield , or any secondary items ; he instead attacks by biting , and defends primarily by dodging attacks . 
-lsb- j -rsb- using link 's wolf senses , the player can see and listen to the wandering spirits of those affected by the twilight , as well as hunt for enemy ghosts named poes . 
-lsb- i -rsb- he also carries midna , a small imp-like creature who gives him hints , uses an energy field to attack enemies , helps him jump long distances , and eventually allows link to `` warp '' to any of several preset locations throughout the overworld . 
however , `` wolf link '' gains several key advantages in return -- he moves faster than he does as a human -lrb- though riding epona is still faster -rrb- and digs holes to create new passages and uncover buried items , and has improved senses , including the ability to follow scent trails . 
however , `` wolf link '' gains several key advantages in return -- he moves faster than he does as a human -lrb- though riding epona is still faster -rrb- and digs holes to create new passages and uncover buried items , and has improved senses , including the ability to follow scent trails . 
-lsb- i -rsb- he also carries midna , a small imp-like creature who gives him hints , uses an energy field to attack enemies , helps him jump long distances , and eventually allows link to `` warp '' to any of several preset locations throughout the overworld . 
-lsb- j -rsb- using link 's wolf senses , the player can see and listen to the wandering spirits of those affected by the twilight , as well as hunt for enemy ghosts named poes . 
the artificial intelligence -lrb- ai -rrb- of enemies in twilight princess is more advanced than that of enemies in the wind waker . 
the artificial intelligence -lrb- ai -rrb- of enemies in twilight princess is more advanced than that of enemies in the wind waker . 
enemies react to defeated companions and to arrows or slingshot pellets that pass by , and can detect link from a greater distance than was possible in previous games . 
the artificial intelligence -lrb- ai -rrb- of enemies in twilight princess is more advanced than that of enemies in the wind waker . 
enemies react to defeated companions and to arrows or slingshot pellets that pass by , and can detect link from a greater distance than was possible in previous games . 
his emotions and responses are largely indicated visually by nods and facial expressions . 
the character of midna has the most voice acting -- her on-screen dialog is often accompanied by a babble of pseudo-speech , which was produced by scrambling the phonemes of english phrases -lsb- better source needed -rsb- sampled by japanese voice actress akiko kōmoto . 
the character of midna has the most voice acting -- her on-screen dialog is often accompanied by a babble of pseudo-speech , which was produced by scrambling the phonemes of english phrases -lsb- better source needed -rsb- sampled by japanese voice actress akiko kōmoto . 
the character of midna has the most voice acting -- her on-screen dialog is often accompanied by a babble of pseudo-speech , which was produced by scrambling the phonemes of english phrases -lsb- better source needed -rsb- sampled by japanese voice actress akiko kōmoto . 
link remains silent in conversation , but grunts when attacking or injured and gasps when surprised . 
his emotions and responses are largely indicated visually by nods and facial expressions . 
the character of midna has the most voice acting -- her on-screen dialog is often accompanied by a babble of pseudo-speech , which was produced by scrambling the phonemes of english phrases -lsb- better source needed -rsb- sampled by japanese voice actress akiko kōmoto . 
the character of midna has the most voice acting -- her on-screen dialog is often accompanied by a babble of pseudo-speech , which was produced by scrambling the phonemes of english phrases -lsb- better source needed -rsb- sampled by japanese voice actress akiko kōmoto . 
twilight princess takes place several centuries after ocarina of time and majora 's mask , and begins with a youth named link who is working as a ranch hand in ordon village . 
one day , the village is attacked by bulblins , who carry off the village 's children with link in pursuit before he encounters a wall of twilight . 
link is soon freed by an imp-like twilight being named midna , who dislikes link but agrees to help him if he obeys her unconditionally . 
he must do this by collecting the multiple `` tears of light '' ; once all the tears of light are collected for one area , he restores that area 's light spirit . 
twilight princess takes place several centuries after ocarina of time and majora 's mask , and begins with a youth named link who is working as a ranch hand in ordon village . 
one day , the village is attacked by bulblins , who carry off the village 's children with link in pursuit before he encounters a wall of twilight . 
he must do this by collecting the multiple `` tears of light '' ; once all the tears of light are collected for one area , he restores that area 's light spirit . 
during this time , link also helps midna find the fused shadows , fragments of a relic containing powerful dark magic . 
once link has restored the light spirits and midna has all the fused shadows , they are ambushed by zant . 
bringing a dying midna to zelda , link learns he needs the master sword to return to human form . 
bringing a dying midna to zelda , link learns he needs the master sword to return to human form . 
in return , she helps link find ordon village 's children while helping the monkeys of faron , the gorons of eldin , and the zoras of lanayru . 
during this time , link also helps midna find the fused shadows , fragments of a relic containing powerful dark magic . 
once link has restored the light spirits and midna has all the fused shadows , they are ambushed by zant . 
bringing a dying midna to zelda , link learns he needs the master sword to return to human form . 
bringing a dying midna to zelda , link learns he needs the master sword to return to human form . 
after gaining the master sword , link is cleansed of the magic that kept him in wolf form , obtaining the shadow crystal . 
now able to use it to switch between both forms at will , link is led by midna to the mirror of twilight located deep within the gerudo desert , the only known gateway between the twilight realm and hyrule . 
they also reveal that they used it a century ago to banish ganondorf , the gerudo leader who attempted to steal the triforce , to the twilight realm when executing him failed . 
returning to hyrule , link and midna find ganondorf in hyrule castle , with a lifeless zelda suspended above his head . 
ganondorf fights link by possessing zelda 's body and eventually by transforming into a beast , but link defeats him and midna is able to resurrect zelda . 
after gaining the master sword , link is cleansed of the magic that kept him in wolf form , obtaining the shadow crystal . 
now able to use it to switch between both forms at will , link is led by midna to the mirror of twilight located deep within the gerudo desert , the only known gateway between the twilight realm and hyrule . 
now able to use it to switch between both forms at will , link is led by midna to the mirror of twilight located deep within the gerudo desert , the only known gateway between the twilight realm and hyrule . 
they also reveal that they used it a century ago to banish ganondorf , the gerudo leader who attempted to steal the triforce , to the twilight realm when executing him failed . 
ganondorf fights link by possessing zelda 's body and eventually by transforming into a beast , but link defeats him and midna is able to resurrect zelda . 
however , as hyrule castle collapses , it is revealed that ganondorf was victorious as he crushes midna 's helmet . 
near the end , as hyrule castle is rebuilt , link is shown leaving ordon village heading to parts unknown . 
ganondorf then revives , and midna teleports link and zelda outside the castle so she can hold him off with the fused shadows . 
ganondorf engages link on horseback , and , assisted by zelda and the light spirits , link eventually knocks ganondorf off his horse and they duel on foot before link strikes down ganondorf and plunges the master sword into his chest . 
ganondorf engages link on horseback , and , assisted by zelda and the light spirits , link eventually knocks ganondorf off his horse and they duel on foot before link strikes down ganondorf and plunges the master sword into his chest . 
ganondorf then revives , and midna teleports link and zelda outside the castle so she can hold him off with the fused shadows . 
however , as hyrule castle collapses , it is revealed that ganondorf was victorious as he crushes midna 's helmet . 
after bidding farewell to link and zelda , midna returns home before destroying the mirror of twilight with a tear to maintain balance between hyrule and the twilight realm . 
in 2003 , nintendo announced that a new the legend of zelda game was in the works for the gamecube by the same team that had created the cel-shaded the wind waker . 
at the following year 's game developers conference , director eiji aonuma unintentionally revealed that the game 's sequel was in development under the working title the wind waker 2 ; it was set to use a similar graphical style to that of its predecessor . 
nintendo of america told aonuma that north american sales of the wind waker were sluggish because its cartoon appearance created the impression that the game was designed for a young audience . 
he advised that aonuma should start by doing what could not be done in ocarina of time , particularly horseback combat . 
in 2003 , nintendo announced that a new the legend of zelda game was in the works for the gamecube by the same team that had created the cel-shaded the wind waker . 
at the following year 's game developers conference , director eiji aonuma unintentionally revealed that the game 's sequel was in development under the working title the wind waker 2 ; it was set to use a similar graphical style to that of its predecessor . 
he advised that aonuma should start by doing what could not be done in ocarina of time , particularly horseback combat . 
in four months , aonuma 's team managed to present realistic horseback riding , -lsb- l -rsb- which nintendo later revealed to the public with a trailer at electronic entertainment expo 2004 . 
in four months , aonuma 's team managed to present realistic horseback riding , -lsb- l -rsb- which nintendo later revealed to the public with a trailer at electronic entertainment expo 2004 . 
the game was scheduled to be released the next year , and was no longer a follow-up to the wind waker ; a true sequel to it was released for the nintendo ds in 2007 , in the form of phantom hourglass . 
the game was scheduled to be released the next year , and was no longer a follow-up to the wind waker ; a true sequel to it was released for the nintendo ds in 2007 , in the form of phantom hourglass . 
in four months , aonuma 's team managed to present realistic horseback riding , -lsb- l -rsb- which nintendo later revealed to the public with a trailer at electronic entertainment expo 2004 . 
it was suggested that link transform into a wolf , much like he metamorphoses into a rabbit in the dark world of a link to the past . 
aonuma left his team working on the new idea while he directed the minish cap for the game boy advance . 
at the same time , the wii was under development with the code name `` revolution '' . 
miyamoto thought that the revolution 's pointing device , the wii remote , was well suited for aiming arrows in zelda , and suggested that aonuma consider using it . 
-lsb- m -rsb- the story of the game was created by aonuma , and later underwent several changes by scenario writers mitsuhiro takano and aya kyogoku . 
miyamoto thought that the revolution 's pointing device , the wii remote , was well suited for aiming arrows in zelda , and suggested that aonuma consider using it . 
his team began work developing a pointing-based interface for the bow and arrow , and aonuma found that aiming directly at the screen gave the game a new feel , just like the ds control scheme for phantom hourglass . 
developing two versions would mean delaying the previously announced 2005 release , still disappointing the consumer . 
satoru iwata felt that having both versions would satisfy users in the end , even though they would have to wait for the finished product . 
developing two versions would mean delaying the previously announced 2005 release , still disappointing the consumer . 
transferring gamecube development to the wii was relatively simple , since the wii was being created to be compatible with the gamecube . 
-lsb- o -rsb- at e3 2005 , nintendo released a small number of nintendo ds game cards containing a preview trailer for twilight princess . 
transferring gamecube development to the wii was relatively simple , since the wii was being created to be compatible with the gamecube . 
-lsb- o -rsb- at e3 2005 , nintendo released a small number of nintendo ds game cards containing a preview trailer for twilight princess . 
a prototype was created that used a swinging gesture to control the sword from a first-person viewpoint , but was unable to show the variety of link 's movements . 
-lsb- p -rsb- details about wii controls began to surface in december 2005 when british publication ngc magazine claimed that when a gamecube copy of twilight princess was played on the revolution , it would give the player the option of using the revolution controller . 
however , support for the wii controller did not make it into the gamecube release . 
at e3 2006 , nintendo announced that both versions would be available at the wii launch , and had a playable version of twilight princess for the wii . 
-lsb- p -rsb- later , the gamecube release was pushed back to a month after the launch of the wii . 
-lsb- p -rsb- details about wii controls began to surface in december 2005 when british publication ngc magazine claimed that when a gamecube copy of twilight princess was played on the revolution , it would give the player the option of using the revolution controller . 
at e3 2006 , nintendo announced that both versions would be available at the wii launch , and had a playable version of twilight princess for the wii . 
nintendo staff members reported that demo users complained about the difficulty of the control scheme . 
-lsb- r -rsb- in addition , the new item system required use of the button that had previously been used for the sword . 
to solve this , sword controls were transferred back to gestures -- something e3 attendees had commented they would like to see . 
this reintroduced the problem of using a right-handed swing to control a left-handed sword attack . 
he began rethinking the controls with miyamoto to focus on comfort and ease . 
the game 's score was composed by toru minegishi and asuka ohta , with series regular koji kondo serving as the sound supervisor . 
the game 's score was composed by toru minegishi and asuka ohta , with series regular koji kondo serving as the sound supervisor . 
michiru ōshima created orchestral arrangements for the three compositions , later to be performed by an ensemble conducted by yasuzo takemoto . 
the game 's score was composed by toru minegishi and asuka ohta , with series regular koji kondo serving as the sound supervisor . 
michiru ōshima created orchestral arrangements for the three compositions , later to be performed by an ensemble conducted by yasuzo takemoto . 
michiru ōshima created orchestral arrangements for the three compositions , later to be performed by an ensemble conducted by yasuzo takemoto . 
media requests at the trade show prompted kondo to consider using orchestral music for the other tracks in the game as well , a notion reinforced by his preference for live instruments . 
he originally envisioned a full 50-person orchestra for action sequences and a string quartet for more `` lyrical moments '' , though the final product used sequenced music instead . 
both six - and seven-track versions of the game 's soundtrack were released on november 19 , 2006 , as part of a nintendo power promotion and bundled with replicas of the master sword and the hylian shield . 
both six - and seven-track versions of the game 's soundtrack were released on november 19 , 2006 , as part of a nintendo power promotion and bundled with replicas of the master sword and the hylian shield . 
media requests at the trade show prompted kondo to consider using orchestral music for the other tracks in the game as well , a notion reinforced by his preference for live instruments . 
both six - and seven-track versions of the game 's soundtrack were released on november 19 , 2006 , as part of a nintendo power promotion and bundled with replicas of the master sword and the hylian shield . 
both six - and seven-track versions of the game 's soundtrack were released on november 19 , 2006 , as part of a nintendo power promotion and bundled with replicas of the master sword and the hylian shield . 
following the discovery of a buffer overflow vulnerability in the wii version of twilight princess , an exploit known as the `` twilight hack '' was developed , allowing the execution of custom code from a secure digital -lrb- sd -rrb- card on the console . 
a properly designed save file would cause the game to load unsigned code , which could include executable and linkable format -lrb- elf -rrb- programs and homebrew wii applications . 
versions 3.3 and 3.4 of the wii menu prevented copying exploited save files onto the console until circumvention methods were discovered , and version 4.0 of the wii menu patched the vulnerability . 
following the discovery of a buffer overflow vulnerability in the wii version of twilight princess , an exploit known as the `` twilight hack '' was developed , allowing the execution of custom code from a secure digital -lrb- sd -rrb- card on the console . 
versions 3.3 and 3.4 of the wii menu prevented copying exploited save files onto the console until circumvention methods were discovered , and version 4.0 of the wii menu patched the vulnerability . 
versions 3.3 and 3.4 of the wii menu prevented copying exploited save files onto the console until circumvention methods were discovered , and version 4.0 of the wii menu patched the vulnerability . 
a high-definition remaster of the game , the legend of zelda : twilight princess hd , is being developed by tantalus media for the wii u. officially announced during a nintendo direct presentation on november 12 , 2015 , it features enhanced graphics and amiibo functionality . 
a high-definition remaster of the game , the legend of zelda : twilight princess hd , is being developed by tantalus media for the wii u. officially announced during a nintendo direct presentation on november 12 , 2015 , it features enhanced graphics and amiibo functionality . 
a high-definition remaster of the game , the legend of zelda : twilight princess hd , is being developed by tantalus media for the wii u. officially announced during a nintendo direct presentation on november 12 , 2015 , it features enhanced graphics and amiibo functionality . 
the game will be released in north america and europe on march 4 , 2016 ; in australia on march 5 , 2016 ; and in japan on march 10 , 2016 . 
a high-definition remaster of the game , the legend of zelda : twilight princess hd , is being developed by tantalus media for the wii u. officially announced during a nintendo direct presentation on november 12 , 2015 , it features enhanced graphics and amiibo functionality . 
a high-definition remaster of the game , the legend of zelda : twilight princess hd , is being developed by tantalus media for the wii u. officially announced during a nintendo direct presentation on november 12 , 2015 , it features enhanced graphics and amiibo functionality . 
a high-definition remaster of the game , the legend of zelda : twilight princess hd , is being developed by tantalus media for the wii u. officially announced during a nintendo direct presentation on november 12 , 2015 , it features enhanced graphics and amiibo functionality . 
the game will be released in north america and europe on march 4 , 2016 ; in australia on march 5 , 2016 ; and in japan on march 10 , 2016 . 
special bundles of the game contain a wolf link amiibo figurine , which unlocks a wii u-exclusive dungeon called the `` cave of shadows '' and can carry data over to the upcoming 2016 zelda game . 
other zelda-related amiibo figurines have distinct functions : link and toon link replenish arrows , zelda and sheik restore link 's health , and ganondorf causes link to take twice as much damage . 
other zelda-related amiibo figurines have distinct functions : link and toon link replenish arrows , zelda and sheik restore link 's health , and ganondorf causes link to take twice as much damage . 
other zelda-related amiibo figurines have distinct functions : link and toon link replenish arrows , zelda and sheik restore link 's health , and ganondorf causes link to take twice as much damage . 
special bundles of the game contain a wolf link amiibo figurine , which unlocks a wii u-exclusive dungeon called the `` cave of shadows '' and can carry data over to the upcoming 2016 zelda game . 
special bundles of the game contain a wolf link amiibo figurine , which unlocks a wii u-exclusive dungeon called the `` cave of shadows '' and can carry data over to the upcoming 2016 zelda game . 
special bundles of the game contain a wolf link amiibo figurine , which unlocks a wii u-exclusive dungeon called the `` cave of shadows '' and can carry data over to the upcoming 2016 zelda game . 
other zelda-related amiibo figurines have distinct functions : link and toon link replenish arrows , zelda and sheik restore link 's health , and ganondorf causes link to take twice as much damage . 
other zelda-related amiibo figurines have distinct functions : link and toon link replenish arrows , zelda and sheik restore link 's health , and ganondorf causes link to take twice as much damage . 
a cd containing 20 musical selections from the game was available as a gamestop preorder bonus in the united states ; it is included in all bundles in japan , europe , and australia . 
a cd containing 20 musical selections from the game was available as a gamestop preorder bonus in the united states ; it is included in all bundles in japan , europe , and australia . 
a cd containing 20 musical selections from the game was available as a gamestop preorder bonus in the united states ; it is included in all bundles in japan , europe , and australia . 
a cd containing 20 musical selections from the game was available as a gamestop preorder bonus in the united states ; it is included in all bundles in japan , europe , and australia . 
it received perfect scores from major publications such as 1up . 
on the review aggregators gamerankings and metacritic , twilight princess has average scores of 95 % and 95 for the wii version and scores of 95 % and 96 for the gamecube version . 
gametrailers in their review called it one of the greatest games ever created . 
twilight princess was released to universal critical acclaim and commercial success . 
it received perfect scores from major publications such as 1up . 
on the review aggregators gamerankings and metacritic , twilight princess has average scores of 95 % and 95 for the wii version and scores of 95 % and 96 for the gamecube version . 
gametrailers in their review called it one of the greatest games ever created . 
both ign and gamespy pointed out the existence of blurry textures and low-resolution characters . 
regarding the wii version , gamespot 's jeff gerstmann said the wii controls felt `` tacked-on '' , although 1up . 
regarding the wii version , gamespot 's jeff gerstmann said the wii controls felt `` tacked-on '' , although 1up . 
hyper 's javier glickman commended the game for its `` very long quests , superb wii controls and being able to save anytime '' . 
hyper 's javier glickman commended the game for its `` very long quests , superb wii controls and being able to save anytime '' . 
both ign and gamespy pointed out the existence of blurry textures and low-resolution characters . 
gaming nexus considered twilight princess 's soundtrack to be the best of this generation , though ign criticized its midi-formatted songs for lacking `` the punch and crispness '' of their orchestrated counterparts . 
hyper 's javier glickman commended the game for its `` very long quests , superb wii controls and being able to save anytime '' . 
twilight princess received the awards for best artistic design , best original score , and best use of sound from ign for its gamecube version . 
the game placed 16th in official nintendo magazine 's list of the 100 greatest nintendo games of all time . 
ign ranked the game as the 4th-best wii game . 
nintendo power ranked the game as the third-best game to be released on a nintendo system in the 2000s decade . 
both ign and nintendo power gave twilight princess the awards for best graphics and best story . 
the game was considered the best console game by the game critics awards and gamespy . 
the game placed 16th in official nintendo magazine 's list of the 100 greatest nintendo games of all time . 
ign ranked the game as the 4th-best wii game . 
in the pal region , which covers most of africa , asia , europe , and oceania , twilight princess is the best-selling entry in the zelda series . 
the game had sold 5.82 million copies on the wii as of march 31 , 2011 -lsb- update -rsb- , and 1.32 million on the gamecube as of march 31 , 2007 -lsb- update -rsb- . 
the game had sold 5.82 million copies on the wii as of march 31 , 2011 -lsb- update -rsb- , and 1.32 million on the gamecube as of march 31 , 2007 -lsb- update -rsb- . 
in the pal region , which covers most of africa , asia , europe , and oceania , twilight princess is the best-selling entry in the zelda series . 
the game had sold 5.82 million copies on the wii as of march 31 , 2011 -lsb- update -rsb- , and 1.32 million on the gamecube as of march 31 , 2007 -lsb- update -rsb- . 
the game had sold 5.82 million copies on the wii as of march 31 , 2011 -lsb- update -rsb- , and 1.32 million on the gamecube as of march 31 , 2007 -lsb- update -rsb- . 
a japan-exclusive manga series based on twilight princess , penned and illustrated by akira himekawa , was first released on february 8 , 2016 . 
a japan-exclusive manga series based on twilight princess , penned and illustrated by akira himekawa , was first released on february 8 , 2016 . 
the series is available solely via publisher shogakukan 's mangaone mobile application . 
the series is available solely via publisher shogakukan 's mangaone mobile application . 
spectre -lrb- 2015 -rrb- is the twenty-fourth james bond film produced by eon productions . 
it features daniel craig in his fourth performance as james bond , and christoph waltz as ernst stavro blofeld , with the film marking the character 's re-introduction into the series . 
spectre -lrb- 2015 -rrb- is the twenty-fourth james bond film produced by eon productions . 
it was directed by sam mendes as his second james bond film following skyfall , and was written by john logan , neal purvis , robert wade and jez butterworth . 
with a budget around $ 245 million , it is the most expensive bond film and one of the most expensive films ever made . 
spectre -lrb- 2015 -rrb- is the twenty-fourth james bond film produced by eon productions . 
spectre -lrb- 2015 -rrb- is the twenty-fourth james bond film produced by eon productions . 
spectre -lrb- 2015 -rrb- is the twenty-fourth james bond film produced by eon productions . 
it is distributed by metro-goldwyn-mayer and columbia pictures . 
it was directed by sam mendes as his second james bond film following skyfall , and was written by john logan , neal purvis , robert wade and jez butterworth . 
the story sees bond pitted against the global criminal organisation spectre , marking the group 's first appearance in an eon productions film since 1971 's diamonds are forever , -lsb- n 2 -rsb- and tying craig 's series of films together with an overarching storyline . 
the story sees bond pitted against the global criminal organisation spectre , marking the group 's first appearance in an eon productions film since 1971 's diamonds are forever , -lsb- n 2 -rsb- and tying craig 's series of films together with an overarching storyline . 
several recurring james bond characters , including m , q and eve moneypenny return , with the new additions of léa seydoux as dr. madeleine swann , dave bautista as mr. hinx , andrew scott as max denbigh and monica bellucci as lucia sciarra . 
several recurring james bond characters , including m , q and eve moneypenny return , with the new additions of léa seydoux as dr. madeleine swann , dave bautista as mr. hinx , andrew scott as max denbigh and monica bellucci as lucia sciarra . 
several recurring james bond characters , including m , q and eve moneypenny return , with the new additions of léa seydoux as dr. madeleine swann , dave bautista as mr. hinx , andrew scott as max denbigh and monica bellucci as lucia sciarra . 
several recurring james bond characters , including m , q and eve moneypenny return , with the new additions of léa seydoux as dr. madeleine swann , dave bautista as mr. hinx , andrew scott as max denbigh and monica bellucci as lucia sciarra . 
several recurring james bond characters , including m , q and eve moneypenny return , with the new additions of léa seydoux as dr. madeleine swann , dave bautista as mr. hinx , andrew scott as max denbigh and monica bellucci as lucia sciarra . 
several recurring james bond characters , including m , q and eve moneypenny return , with the new additions of léa seydoux as dr. madeleine swann , dave bautista as mr. hinx , andrew scott as max denbigh and monica bellucci as lucia sciarra . 
the story sees bond pitted against the global criminal organisation spectre , marking the group 's first appearance in an eon productions film since 1971 's diamonds are forever , -lsb- n 2 -rsb- and tying craig 's series of films together with an overarching storyline . 
spectre was released on 26 october 2015 in the united kingdom on the same night as the world premiere at the royal albert hall in london , followed by a worldwide release . 
spectre was released on 26 october 2015 in the united kingdom on the same night as the world premiere at the royal albert hall in london , followed by a worldwide release . 
it was released in the united states on 6 november 2015 . 
spectre received mixed reviews upon its release ; although criticised for its length , lack of screen time for new characters , and writing , it received praise for its action sequences and cinematography . 
the theme song , `` writing 's on the wall '' , received mixed reviews , particularly compared to the previous theme ; nevertheless , it won the golden globe for best original song and was nominated for the academy award in the same category . 
it became the second james bond film to be screened in imax venues after skyfall , although it was not filmed with imax cameras . 
the theme song , `` writing 's on the wall '' , received mixed reviews , particularly compared to the previous theme ; nevertheless , it won the golden globe for best original song and was nominated for the academy award in the same category . 
following garreth mallory 's promotion to m , on a mission in mexico city unofficially ordered by a posthumous message from the previous m , 007 james bond kills three men plotting a terrorist bombing during the day of the dead and gives chase to marco sciarra , an assassin who survived the attack . 
following garreth mallory 's promotion to m , on a mission in mexico city unofficially ordered by a posthumous message from the previous m , 007 james bond kills three men plotting a terrorist bombing during the day of the dead and gives chase to marco sciarra , an assassin who survived the attack . 
following garreth mallory 's promotion to m , on a mission in mexico city unofficially ordered by a posthumous message from the previous m , 007 james bond kills three men plotting a terrorist bombing during the day of the dead and gives chase to marco sciarra , an assassin who survived the attack . 
c campaigns for britain to form alongside 8 other countries `` nine eyes '' , a global surveillance and intelligence co-operation initiative between nine member states , and uses his influence to close down the ' 00 ' section , believing it to be outdated . 
following garreth mallory 's promotion to m , on a mission in mexico city unofficially ordered by a posthumous message from the previous m , 007 james bond kills three men plotting a terrorist bombing during the day of the dead and gives chase to marco sciarra , an assassin who survived the attack . 
following garreth mallory 's promotion to m , on a mission in mexico city unofficially ordered by a posthumous message from the previous m , 007 james bond kills three men plotting a terrorist bombing during the day of the dead and gives chase to marco sciarra , an assassin who survived the attack . 
upon returning to london , bond is indefinitely suspended from field duty by m , who is in the midst of a power struggle with c , the head of the privately-backed joint intelligence service , consisting of the recently merged mi5 and mi6 . 
in the ensuing struggle , bond steals his ring , which is emblazoned with a stylised octopus , and then kills sciarra by kicking him out of a helicopter . 
bond disobeys m 's order and travels to rome to attend sciarra 's funeral . 
that evening he visits sciarra 's widow lucia , who tells him about spectre , a criminal organisation to which her husband belonged . 
bond infiltrates a spectre meeting , where he identifies the leader , franz oberhauser . 
when oberhauser addresses bond by name , he escapes and is pursued by mr. hinx , a spectre assassin . 
moneypenny informs bond that the information he collected leads to mr. white , former member of quantum , a subsidiary of spectre . 
bond disobeys m 's order and travels to rome to attend sciarra 's funeral . 
bond infiltrates a spectre meeting , where he identifies the leader , franz oberhauser . 
when oberhauser addresses bond by name , he escapes and is pursued by mr. hinx , a spectre assassin . 
bond infiltrates a spectre meeting , where he identifies the leader , franz oberhauser . 
bond travels to austria to find white , who is dying of thallium poisoning . 
he admits to growing disenchanted with quantum and tells bond to find and protect his daughter , dr. madeline swann , who will take him to l'américain ; this will in turn lead him to spectre . 
white then commits suicide . 
bond locates swann at the hoffler klinik , but she is abducted by hinx . 
swann reveals that l'américain is a hotel in tangier . 
bond travels to austria to find white , who is dying of thallium poisoning . 
he admits to growing disenchanted with quantum and tells bond to find and protect his daughter , dr. madeline swann , who will take him to l'américain ; this will in turn lead him to spectre . 
swann reveals that l'américain is a hotel in tangier . 
bond locates swann at the hoffler klinik , but she is abducted by hinx . 
they travel by train to the nearest station , but are once again confronted by hinx ; they engage in a fight throughout the train in which mr hinx is eventually thrown off the train by bond with swann 's assistance . 
bond is tortured as oberhauser discusses their shared history : after the younger bond was orphaned , oberhauser 's father , hannes , became his temporary guardian . 
believing that bond supplanted his role as son , oberhauser killed his father and staged his own death , subsequently adopting the name ernst stavro blofeld and going on to form spectre . 
believing that bond supplanted his role as son , oberhauser killed his father and staged his own death , subsequently adopting the name ernst stavro blofeld and going on to form spectre . 
meanwhile , bond is taken to the old mi6 building , which is scheduled for demolition , and frees himself . 
moving throughout the ruined labyrinth , he encounters a disfigured blofeld , who tells him that he has three minutes to escape the building before explosives are detonated or die trying to save swann . 
bond shoots down blofeld 's helicopter , which crashes onto westminster bridge . 
bond and swann return to london where they meet m , bill tanner , q , and moneypenny ; they intend to arrest c and stop nine eyes from going online . 
bond and swann return to london where they meet m , bill tanner , q , and moneypenny ; they intend to arrest c and stop nine eyes from going online . 
bond and swann return to london where they meet m , bill tanner , q , and moneypenny ; they intend to arrest c and stop nine eyes from going online . 
the ownership of the spectre organisation -- originally stylised `` spectre '' as an acronym of special executive for counter-intelligence , terrorism , revenge and extortion -- and its characters , had been at the centre of long-standing litigation starting in 1961 between ian fleming and kevin mcclory over the film rights to the novel thunderball . 
the ownership of the spectre organisation -- originally stylised `` spectre '' as an acronym of special executive for counter-intelligence , terrorism , revenge and extortion -- and its characters , had been at the centre of long-standing litigation starting in 1961 between ian fleming and kevin mcclory over the film rights to the novel thunderball . 
in 1963 , fleming settled out of court with mcclory , in an agreement which awarded mcclory the film rights . 
this enabled him to become a producer for the 1965 film thunderball -- with albert r. broccoli and harry saltzman as executive producers -- and the non-eon film never say never again , an updated remake of thunderball , in 1983 . 
-lsb- n 3 -rsb- a second remake , entitled warhead 2000 a.d. , was planned for production and release in the 1990s before being abandoned . 
in 1963 , fleming settled out of court with mcclory , in an agreement which awarded mcclory the film rights . 
this enabled him to become a producer for the 1965 film thunderball -- with albert r. broccoli and harry saltzman as executive producers -- and the non-eon film never say never again , an updated remake of thunderball , in 1983 . 
the ownership of the spectre organisation -- originally stylised `` spectre '' as an acronym of special executive for counter-intelligence , terrorism , revenge and extortion -- and its characters , had been at the centre of long-standing litigation starting in 1961 between ian fleming and kevin mcclory over the film rights to the novel thunderball . 
in november 2013 mgm and the mcclory estate formally settled the issue with danjaq , llc -- sister company of eon productions -- with mgm acquiring the full copyright film rights to the concept of spectre and all of the characters associated with it . 
with the acquisition of the film rights and the organisation 's re-introduction to the series ' continuity , the spectre acronym was discarded and the organisation reimagined as `` spectre '' . 
in november 2013 mgm and the mcclory estate formally settled the issue with danjaq , llc -- sister company of eon productions -- with mgm acquiring the full copyright film rights to the concept of spectre and all of the characters associated with it . 
in november 2013 mgm and the mcclory estate formally settled the issue with danjaq , llc -- sister company of eon productions -- with mgm acquiring the full copyright film rights to the concept of spectre and all of the characters associated with it . 
in november 2013 mgm and the mcclory estate formally settled the issue with danjaq , llc -- sister company of eon productions -- with mgm acquiring the full copyright film rights to the concept of spectre and all of the characters associated with it . 
in november 2013 mgm and the mcclory estate formally settled the issue with danjaq , llc -- sister company of eon productions -- with mgm acquiring the full copyright film rights to the concept of spectre and all of the characters associated with it . 
in november 2013 mgm and the mcclory estate formally settled the issue with danjaq , llc -- sister company of eon productions -- with mgm acquiring the full copyright film rights to the concept of spectre and all of the characters associated with it . 
in november 2014 , sony pictures entertainment was targeted by hackers who released details of confidential e-mails between sony executives regarding several high-profile film projects . 
in november 2014 , sony pictures entertainment was targeted by hackers who released details of confidential e-mails between sony executives regarding several high-profile film projects . 
included within these were several memos relating to the production of spectre , claiming that the film was over budget , detailing early drafts of the script written by john logan , and expressing sony 's frustration with the project . 
eon productions later issued a statement confirming the leak of what they called `` an early version of the screenplay '' . 
in november 2014 , sony pictures entertainment was targeted by hackers who released details of confidential e-mails between sony executives regarding several high-profile film projects . 
included within these were several memos relating to the production of spectre , claiming that the film was over budget , detailing early drafts of the script written by john logan , and expressing sony 's frustration with the project . 
eon productions later issued a statement confirming the leak of what they called `` an early version of the screenplay '' . 
despite being an original story , spectre draws on ian fleming 's source material , most notably in the character of franz oberhauser , played by christoph waltz . 
oberhauser shares his name with hannes oberhauser , a background character in the short story `` octopussy '' from the octopussy and the living daylights collection , and who is named in the film as having been a temporary legal guardian of a young bond in 1983 . 
with the acquisition of the rights to spectre and its associated characters , screenwriters neal purvis and robert wade revealed that the film would provide a minor retcon to the continuity of the previous films , with the quantum organisation alluded to in casino royale and introduced in quantum of solace reimagined as a division within spectre rather than an independent organisation . 
with the acquisition of the rights to spectre and its associated characters , screenwriters neal purvis and robert wade revealed that the film would provide a minor retcon to the continuity of the previous films , with the quantum organisation alluded to in casino royale and introduced in quantum of solace reimagined as a division within spectre rather than an independent organisation . 
oberhauser shares his name with hannes oberhauser , a background character in the short story `` octopussy '' from the octopussy and the living daylights collection , and who is named in the film as having been a temporary legal guardian of a young bond in 1983 . 
similarly , charmian bond is shown to have been his full-time guardian , observing the back story established by fleming . 
oberhauser shares his name with hannes oberhauser , a background character in the short story `` octopussy '' from the octopussy and the living daylights collection , and who is named in the film as having been a temporary legal guardian of a young bond in 1983 . 
despite being an original story , spectre draws on ian fleming 's source material , most notably in the character of franz oberhauser , played by christoph waltz . 
with the acquisition of the rights to spectre and its associated characters , screenwriters neal purvis and robert wade revealed that the film would provide a minor retcon to the continuity of the previous films , with the quantum organisation alluded to in casino royale and introduced in quantum of solace reimagined as a division within spectre rather than an independent organisation . 
despite being an original story , spectre draws on ian fleming 's source material , most notably in the character of franz oberhauser , played by christoph waltz . 
further references to fleming 's material can be found throughout the film ; an mi6 safehouse is called `` hildebrand rarities and antiques '' , a reference to the short story `` the hildebrand rarity '' from the for your eyes only short story collection . 
-lsb- citation needed -rsb- bond 's torture by blofeld mirrors his torture by the title character of kingsley amis ' continuation novel colonel sun . 
further references to fleming 's material can be found throughout the film ; an mi6 safehouse is called `` hildebrand rarities and antiques '' , a reference to the short story `` the hildebrand rarity '' from the for your eyes only short story collection . 
further references to fleming 's material can be found throughout the film ; an mi6 safehouse is called `` hildebrand rarities and antiques '' , a reference to the short story `` the hildebrand rarity '' from the for your eyes only short story collection . 
-lsb- citation needed -rsb- bond 's torture by blofeld mirrors his torture by the title character of kingsley amis ' continuation novel colonel sun . 
further references to fleming 's material can be found throughout the film ; an mi6 safehouse is called `` hildebrand rarities and antiques '' , a reference to the short story `` the hildebrand rarity '' from the for your eyes only short story collection . 
the main cast was revealed in december 2014 at the 007 stage at pinewood studios . 
daniel craig returned for his fourth appearance as james bond , while ralph fiennes , naomie harris and ben whishaw reprised their roles as m , eve moneypenny and q respectively , having been established in skyfall . 
daniel craig returned for his fourth appearance as james bond , while ralph fiennes , naomie harris and ben whishaw reprised their roles as m , eve moneypenny and q respectively , having been established in skyfall . 
daniel craig returned for his fourth appearance as james bond , while ralph fiennes , naomie harris and ben whishaw reprised their roles as m , eve moneypenny and q respectively , having been established in skyfall . 
rory kinnear also reprised his role as bill tanner in his third appearance in the series . 
daniel craig returned for his fourth appearance as james bond , while ralph fiennes , naomie harris and ben whishaw reprised their roles as m , eve moneypenny and q respectively , having been established in skyfall . 
rory kinnear also reprised his role as bill tanner in his third appearance in the series . 
daniel craig returned for his fourth appearance as james bond , while ralph fiennes , naomie harris and ben whishaw reprised their roles as m , eve moneypenny and q respectively , having been established in skyfall . 
christoph waltz was cast in the role of franz oberhauser , though he refused to comment on the nature of the part . 
it was later revealed with the film 's release that he is ernst stavro blofeld . 
after casting bérénice lim marlohe , a relative newcomer , as sévérine in skyfall , mendes consciously sought out a more experienced actor for the role of madeleine swann , ultimately casting léa seydoux in the role . 
in a separate interview with danish website euroman , jesper christensen revealed he would be reprising his role as mr. white from casino royale and quantum of solace . 
monica bellucci joined the cast as lucia sciarra , becoming , at the age of fifty , the oldest actress to be cast as a bond girl . 
after casting bérénice lim marlohe , a relative newcomer , as sévérine in skyfall , mendes consciously sought out a more experienced actor for the role of madeleine swann , ultimately casting léa seydoux in the role . 
in a separate interview with danish website euroman , jesper christensen revealed he would be reprising his role as mr. white from casino royale and quantum of solace . 
in february 2015 over fifteen hundred extras were hired for the pre-title sequence set in mexico , though they were duplicated in the film , giving the effect of around ten thousand extras . 
in addition to the principal cast , alessandro cremona was cast as marco sciarra , stephanie sigman was cast as estrella , and detlef bothe was cast as a villain for scenes shot in austria . 
in addition to the principal cast , alessandro cremona was cast as marco sciarra , stephanie sigman was cast as estrella , and detlef bothe was cast as a villain for scenes shot in austria . 
in february 2015 over fifteen hundred extras were hired for the pre-title sequence set in mexico , though they were duplicated in the film , giving the effect of around ten thousand extras . 
in february 2015 over fifteen hundred extras were hired for the pre-title sequence set in mexico , though they were duplicated in the film , giving the effect of around ten thousand extras . 
in addition to the principal cast , alessandro cremona was cast as marco sciarra , stephanie sigman was cast as estrella , and detlef bothe was cast as a villain for scenes shot in austria . 
in addition to the principal cast , alessandro cremona was cast as marco sciarra , stephanie sigman was cast as estrella , and detlef bothe was cast as a villain for scenes shot in austria . 
in addition to the principal cast , alessandro cremona was cast as marco sciarra , stephanie sigman was cast as estrella , and detlef bothe was cast as a villain for scenes shot in austria . 
in directing skyfall and spectre , mendes became the first director to oversee two consecutive bond films since john glen directed the living daylights and licence to kill in 1987 and 1989 . 
dennis gassner returned as the film 's production designer , while cinematographer hoyte van hoytema took over from roger deakins . 
dennis gassner returned as the film 's production designer , while cinematographer hoyte van hoytema took over from roger deakins . 
in directing skyfall and spectre , mendes became the first director to oversee two consecutive bond films since john glen directed the living daylights and licence to kill in 1987 and 1989 . 
in directing skyfall and spectre , mendes became the first director to oversee two consecutive bond films since john glen directed the living daylights and licence to kill in 1987 and 1989 . 
in directing skyfall and spectre , mendes became the first director to oversee two consecutive bond films since john glen directed the living daylights and licence to kill in 1987 and 1989 . 
in directing skyfall and spectre , mendes became the first director to oversee two consecutive bond films since john glen directed the living daylights and licence to kill in 1987 and 1989 . 
skyfall writer john logan resumed his role of scriptwriter , collaborating with neal purvis and robert wade , who returned for their sixth bond film . 
mendes also confirmed several filming locations , including london , mexico city and rome . 
van hoytema shot the film on kodak 35 mm film stock . 
mendes revealed that production would begin on 8 december 2014 at pinewood studios , with filming taking seven months . 
mendes revealed that production would begin on 8 december 2014 at pinewood studios , with filming taking seven months . 
van hoytema shot the film on kodak 35 mm film stock . 
mendes revealed that production would begin on 8 december 2014 at pinewood studios , with filming taking seven months . 
filming started in austria in december 2014 , with production taking in the area around sölden -- including the ötztal glacier road , rettenbach glacier and the adjacent ski resort and cable car station -- and obertilliach and lake altaussee , before concluding in february 2015 . 
filming started in austria in december 2014 , with production taking in the area around sölden -- including the ötztal glacier road , rettenbach glacier and the adjacent ski resort and cable car station -- and obertilliach and lake altaussee , before concluding in february 2015 . 
scenes filmed in austria centred on the ice q restaurant , standing in for the fictional hoffler klinik , a private medical clinic in the austrian alps . 
production was temporarily halted first by an injury to craig , who sprained his knee whilst shooting a fight scene , and later by an accident involving a filming vehicle that saw three crew members injured , at least one of them seriously . 
scenes filmed in austria centred on the ice q restaurant , standing in for the fictional hoffler klinik , a private medical clinic in the austrian alps . 
scenes filmed in austria centred on the ice q restaurant , standing in for the fictional hoffler klinik , a private medical clinic in the austrian alps . 
filming started in austria in december 2014 , with production taking in the area around sölden -- including the ötztal glacier road , rettenbach glacier and the adjacent ski resort and cable car station -- and obertilliach and lake altaussee , before concluding in february 2015 . 
filming temporarily returned to england to shoot scenes at blenheim palace in oxfordshire , which stood in for a location in rome , before moving on to the city itself for a five-week shoot across the city , with locations including the ponte sisto bridge and the roman forum . 
the c-x75s used for filming were developed by the engineering division of formula one racing team williams , who built the original c-x75 prototype for jaguar . 
a car chase scene set along the banks of the tiber river and through the streets of rome featured an aston martin db10 and a jaguar c-x75 . 
the c-x75 was originally developed as a hybrid electric vehicle with four independent electric engines powered by two jet turbines , before the project was cancelled . 
filming temporarily returned to england to shoot scenes at blenheim palace in oxfordshire , which stood in for a location in rome , before moving on to the city itself for a five-week shoot across the city , with locations including the ponte sisto bridge and the roman forum . 
filming temporarily returned to england to shoot scenes at blenheim palace in oxfordshire , which stood in for a location in rome , before moving on to the city itself for a five-week shoot across the city , with locations including the ponte sisto bridge and the roman forum . 
a car chase scene set along the banks of the tiber river and through the streets of rome featured an aston martin db10 and a jaguar c-x75 . 
the c-x75s used for filming were developed by the engineering division of formula one racing team williams , who built the original c-x75 prototype for jaguar . 
the c-x75s used for filming were developed by the engineering division of formula one racing team williams , who built the original c-x75 prototype for jaguar . 
with filming completed in rome , production moved to mexico city in late march to shoot the film 's opening sequence , with scenes to include the day of the dead festival filmed in and around the zócalo and the centro histórico district . 
with filming completed in rome , production moved to mexico city in late march to shoot the film 's opening sequence , with scenes to include the day of the dead festival filmed in and around the zócalo and the centro histórico district . 
with filming completed in rome , production moved to mexico city in late march to shoot the film 's opening sequence , with scenes to include the day of the dead festival filmed in and around the zócalo and the centro histórico district . 
this particular scene in mexico required 1,500 extras , 10 giant skeletons and 250,000 paper flowers . 
reports in the mexican media added that the film 's second unit would move to palenque in the state of chiapas , to film aerial manoeuvres considered too dangerous to shoot in an urban area . 
with filming completed in rome , production moved to mexico city in late march to shoot the film 's opening sequence , with scenes to include the day of the dead festival filmed in and around the zócalo and the centro histórico district . 
the planned scenes required the city square to be closed for filming a sequence involving a fight aboard a messerschmitt-bölkow-blohm bo 105 helicopter flown by stunt pilot chuck aaron , which called for modifications to be made to several buildings to prevent damage . 
with filming completed in rome , production moved to mexico city in late march to shoot the film 's opening sequence , with scenes to include the day of the dead festival filmed in and around the zócalo and the centro histórico district . 
following filming in mexico , and during a scheduled break , craig was flown to new york to undergo minor surgery to fix his knee injury . 
it was reported that filming was not affected and he had returned to filming at pinewood studios as planned on 22 april . 
following filming in mexico , and during a scheduled break , craig was flown to new york to undergo minor surgery to fix his knee injury . 
stunt scenes involving craig and seydoux on a speedboat as well as a low flying helicopter near westminster bridge were shot at night , with filming temporarily closing both westminster and lambeth bridges . 
the london fire brigade was on set to simulate rain as well as monitor smoke used for filming . 
on 17 may 2015 filming took place on the thames in london . 
scenes were also shot on the river near mi6 's headquarters at vauxhall cross . 
stunt scenes involving craig and seydoux on a speedboat as well as a low flying helicopter near westminster bridge were shot at night , with filming temporarily closing both westminster and lambeth bridges . 
the london fire brigade was on set to simulate rain as well as monitor smoke used for filming . 
prior to this , scenes involving fiennes were shot at a restaurant in covent garden . 
stunt scenes involving craig and seydoux on a speedboat as well as a low flying helicopter near westminster bridge were shot at night , with filming temporarily closing both westminster and lambeth bridges . 
after wrapping up in england , production travelled to morocco in june , with filming taking place in oujda , tangier and erfoud , after preliminary work was completed by the production 's second unit . 
an explosion filmed in morocco holds a guinness world record for the `` largest film stunt explosion '' in cinematic history , with the record credited to production designer chris corbould . 
an explosion filmed in morocco holds a guinness world record for the `` largest film stunt explosion '' in cinematic history , with the record credited to production designer chris corbould . 
filming took 128 days . 
after wrapping up in england , production travelled to morocco in june , with filming taking place in oujda , tangier and erfoud , after preliminary work was completed by the production 's second unit . 
an explosion filmed in morocco holds a guinness world record for the `` largest film stunt explosion '' in cinematic history , with the record credited to production designer chris corbould . 
filming took 128 days . 
an explosion filmed in morocco holds a guinness world record for the `` largest film stunt explosion '' in cinematic history , with the record credited to production designer chris corbould . 
whilst filming in mexico city , speculation in the media claimed that the script had been altered to accommodate the demands of mexican authorities -- reportedly influencing details of the scene and characters , casting choices , and modifying the script in order to portray the country in a `` positive light '' -- in order to secure tax concessions and financial support worth up to $ 20 million for the film . 
this was denied by producer michael g. wilson , who stated that the scene had always been intended to be shot in mexico as production had been attracted to the imagery of the day of the dead , and that the script had been developed from there . 
production of skyfall had previously faced similar problems while attempting to secure permits to shoot the film 's pre-title sequence in india before moving to istanbul . 
production of skyfall had previously faced similar problems while attempting to secure permits to shoot the film 's pre-title sequence in india before moving to istanbul . 
thomas newman returned as spectre 's composer . 
the soundtrack album was released on 23 october 2015 in the uk and 6 november 2015 in the usa on the decca records label . 
the soundtrack album was released on 23 october 2015 in the uk and 6 november 2015 in the usa on the decca records label . 
thomas newman returned as spectre 's composer . 
the soundtrack album was released on 23 october 2015 in the uk and 6 november 2015 in the usa on the decca records label . 
rather than composing the score once the film had moved into post-production , newman worked during filming . 
the theatrical trailer released in july 2015 contained a rendition of john barry 's on her majesty 's secret service theme . 
in september 2015 it was announced that sam smith and regular collaborator jimmy napes had written the film 's title theme , `` writing 's on the wall '' , with smith performing it for the film . 
smith said the song came together in one session and that he and napes wrote it in under half an hour before recording a demo . 
smith said the song came together in one session and that he and napes wrote it in under half an hour before recording a demo . 
in september 2015 it was announced that sam smith and regular collaborator jimmy napes had written the film 's title theme , `` writing 's on the wall '' , with smith performing it for the film . 
the song was released as a digital download on 25 september 2015 . 
it received mixed reviews from critics and fans , particularly in comparison to adele 's `` skyfall '' . 
the mixed reception to the song led to shirley bassey trending on twitter on the day it was released . 
the english band radiohead also composed a song for the film , which went unused . 
it received mixed reviews from critics and fans , particularly in comparison to adele 's `` skyfall '' . 
the mixed reception to the song led to shirley bassey trending on twitter on the day it was released . 
the english band radiohead also composed a song for the film , which went unused . 
during the december 2014 press conference announcing the start of filming , aston martin and eon unveiled the new db10 as the official car for the film . 
during the december 2014 press conference announcing the start of filming , aston martin and eon unveiled the new db10 as the official car for the film . 
after modifying the jaguar c-x75 for the film , williams f1 carried the 007 logo on their cars at the 2015 mexican grand prix , with the team playing host to the cast and crew ahead of the mexican premiere of the film . 
only eight of those 10 were used for the film , however ; the remaining two were used for promotional work . 
during the december 2014 press conference announcing the start of filming , aston martin and eon unveiled the new db10 as the official car for the film . 
after modifying the jaguar c-x75 for the film , williams f1 carried the 007 logo on their cars at the 2015 mexican grand prix , with the team playing host to the cast and crew ahead of the mexican premiere of the film . 
to promote the film , production continued the trend established during skyfall 's production of releasing still images of clapperboards and video blogs on eon 's official social media accounts . 
to promote the film , production continued the trend established during skyfall 's production of releasing still images of clapperboards and video blogs on eon 's official social media accounts . 
to promote the film , production continued the trend established during skyfall 's production of releasing still images of clapperboards and video blogs on eon 's official social media accounts . 
to promote the film , production continued the trend established during skyfall 's production of releasing still images of clapperboards and video blogs on eon 's official social media accounts . 
on 13 march 2015 , several members of the cast and crew , including craig , whishaw , wilson and mendes , as well as previous james bond actor , sir roger moore , appeared in a sketch written by david walliams and the dawson brothers for comic relief 's red nose day on bbc one . 
on 13 march 2015 , several members of the cast and crew , including craig , whishaw , wilson and mendes , as well as previous james bond actor , sir roger moore , appeared in a sketch written by david walliams and the dawson brothers for comic relief 's red nose day on bbc one . 
the first teaser trailer for spectre was released worldwide in march 2015 , followed by the theatrical trailer in july and the final trailer in october . 
on 13 march 2015 , several members of the cast and crew , including craig , whishaw , wilson and mendes , as well as previous james bond actor , sir roger moore , appeared in a sketch written by david walliams and the dawson brothers for comic relief 's red nose day on bbc one . 
on 13 march 2015 , several members of the cast and crew , including craig , whishaw , wilson and mendes , as well as previous james bond actor , sir roger moore , appeared in a sketch written by david walliams and the dawson brothers for comic relief 's red nose day on bbc one . 
on 13 march 2015 , several members of the cast and crew , including craig , whishaw , wilson and mendes , as well as previous james bond actor , sir roger moore , appeared in a sketch written by david walliams and the dawson brothers for comic relief 's red nose day on bbc one . 
spectre had its world premiere in london on 26 october 2015 at the royal albert hall , the same day as its general release in the united kingdom and republic of ireland . 
spectre had its world premiere in london on 26 october 2015 at the royal albert hall , the same day as its general release in the united kingdom and republic of ireland . 
in march 2015 imax corporation announced that spectre would be screened in its cinemas , following skyfall 's success with the company . 
following the announcement of the start of filming , paramount pictures brought forward the release of mission : impossible -- rogue nation to avoid competing with spectre . 
following the announcement of the start of filming , paramount pictures brought forward the release of mission : impossible -- rogue nation to avoid competing with spectre . 
as of 21 february 2016 -lsb- update -rsb- spectre has grossed $ 879.3 million worldwide ; $ 138.1 million of the takings have been generated from the uk market and $ 199.8 million from north america . 
as of 21 february 2016 -lsb- update -rsb- spectre has grossed $ 879.3 million worldwide ; $ 138.1 million of the takings have been generated from the uk market and $ 199.8 million from north america . 
as of 21 february 2016 -lsb- update -rsb- spectre has grossed $ 879.3 million worldwide ; $ 138.1 million of the takings have been generated from the uk market and $ 199.8 million from north america . 
in the film 's first seven days it grossed # 41.7 million -lrb- $ 63.8 million -rrb- , breaking the uk record for highest first-week opening , set by harry potter and the prisoner of azkaban 's # 23.88 million -lrb- $ 36.9 million -rrb- in 2004 . 
in the film 's first seven days it grossed # 41.7 million -lrb- $ 63.8 million -rrb- , breaking the uk record for highest first-week opening , set by harry potter and the prisoner of azkaban 's # 23.88 million -lrb- $ 36.9 million -rrb- in 2004 . 
in the u.k. , it surpassed avatar to become the country 's highest-grossing imax release ever with $ 10.09 million . 
it grossed # 6.3 million -lrb- $ 9.2 million -rrb- on its opening day and then # 5.7 million -lrb- $ 8.8 million -rrb- on wednesday , setting uk records for both days . 
in the film 's first seven days it grossed # 41.7 million -lrb- $ 63.8 million -rrb- , breaking the uk record for highest first-week opening , set by harry potter and the prisoner of azkaban 's # 23.88 million -lrb- $ 36.9 million -rrb- in 2004 . 
in the u.k. , it surpassed avatar to become the country 's highest-grossing imax release ever with $ 10.09 million . 
the film also broke the record for the best per-screen opening average with $ 110,000 , a record previously held by the dark knight with $ 100,200 . 
despite the 13 november paris attacks , which led to numerous theaters being closed down , the film opened with $ 14.6 million -lrb- including $ 2 million in previews -rrb- in france . 
in india , it opened at no. 1 with $ 4.8 million which is 4 % above the opening of skyfall . 
in paris , it has the second highest ticket sales of all time with $ 4.1 million tickets sold only behind spider-man 3 which sold over $ 6.32 million tickets in 2007 . 
spectre opened in germany with $ 22.45 million -lrb- including previews -rrb- , which included a new record for the biggest saturday of all time , australia with $ 8.7 million -lrb- including previews -rrb- and south korea opened to $ 8.2 million -lrb- including previews -rrb- . 
in paris , it has the second highest ticket sales of all time with $ 4.1 million tickets sold only behind spider-man 3 which sold over $ 6.32 million tickets in 2007 . 
it topped the german-speaking switzerland box office for four weeks and in the netherlands , it has held the no. 1 spot for seven weeks straight where it has topped minions to become the top movie of the year . 
imax generated $ 9.1 million for spectre at 374 screens , premium large format made $ 8 million from 429 cinemas , reaping 11 % of the film 's opening , which means that spectre earned $ 17.1 million -lrb- 23 % -rrb- of its opening weekend total in large-format venues . 
the film ended up grossing $ 70.4 million in its opening weekend -lrb- about $ 20 million less than skyfall 's $ 90.6 million debut , including imax previews -rrb- , but nevertheless finished first at the box office . 
however , after grossing $ 5.25 million from its early thursday night showings and $ 28 million on its opening day , weekend projections were increased to $ 75 -- 80 million . 
the film ended up grossing $ 70.4 million in its opening weekend -lrb- about $ 20 million less than skyfall 's $ 90.6 million debut , including imax previews -rrb- , but nevertheless finished first at the box office . 
imax generated $ 9.1 million for spectre at 374 screens , premium large format made $ 8 million from 429 cinemas , reaping 11 % of the film 's opening , which means that spectre earned $ 17.1 million -lrb- 23 % -rrb- of its opening weekend total in large-format venues . 
however , after grossing $ 5.25 million from its early thursday night showings and $ 28 million on its opening day , weekend projections were increased to $ 75 -- 80 million . 
in china , it opened on 12 november and earned $ 15 million on its opening day , which is the second biggest 2d single day gross for a hollywood film behind the $ 18.5 million opening day of mission : impossible -- rogue nation and occupying 43 % of all available screens which included $ 790,000 in advance night screenings . 
through its opening weekend , it earned $ 48.1 million from 14,700 screens which is 198 % ahead of skyfall , a new record for a hollywood 2d opening . 
in its second weekend , it added $ 12.1 million falling precipitously by 75 % which is the second worst second weekend drop for any major hollywood release in china of 2015 . 
it grossed a total of $ 84.7 million there after four weekends . 
in china , it opened on 12 november and earned $ 15 million on its opening day , which is the second biggest 2d single day gross for a hollywood film behind the $ 18.5 million opening day of mission : impossible -- rogue nation and occupying 43 % of all available screens which included $ 790,000 in advance night screenings . 
it grossed a total of $ 84.7 million there after four weekends . 
on metacritic , the film has a rating of 60 out of 100 , based on 48 critics , indicating `` mixed or average reviews '' . 
on metacritic , the film has a rating of 60 out of 100 , based on 48 critics , indicating `` mixed or average reviews '' . 
rotten tomatoes sampled 274 reviews and judged 64 % of the critiques to be positive , saying that the film `` nudges daniel craig 's rebooted bond closer to the glorious , action-driven spectacle of earlier entries , although it 's admittedly reliant on established 007 formula . '' 
audiences polled by cinemascore gave the film an average grade of `` a − '' on an a + to f scale . 
rotten tomatoes sampled 274 reviews and judged 64 % of the critiques to be positive , saying that the film `` nudges daniel craig 's rebooted bond closer to the glorious , action-driven spectacle of earlier entries , although it 's admittedly reliant on established 007 formula . '' 
on metacritic , the film has a rating of 60 out of 100 , based on 48 critics , indicating `` mixed or average reviews '' . 
in another five star review , the daily telegraph 's robbie collin described spectre as `` a swaggering show of confidence ' '' , lauding it as `` a feat of pure cinematic necromancy . '' 
in an otherwise positive , but overall less enthusiastic review , ign 's chris tilly considered spectre `` solid if unspectacular '' , and gave the film a 7.2 score -lrb- out of a possible 10 -rrb- , saying that `` the film falls frustratingly short of greatness . '' 
mark kermode , writing in the guardian , gave the film four out of five stars , observing that the film did not live up to the standard set by skyfall , but was able to tap into audience expectations . 
mark kermode , writing in the guardian , gave the film four out of five stars , observing that the film did not live up to the standard set by skyfall , but was able to tap into audience expectations . 
forbes ' scott mendelson also heavily criticised the film , denouncing spectre as `` the worst 007 movie in 30 years '' . 
other positive reviews from mick lasalle from the san francisco chronicle , gave it a perfect 100 score , stating : `` one of the great satisfactions of spectre is that , in addition to all the stirring action , and all the timely references to a secret organization out to steal everyone 's personal information , we get to believe in bond as a person . '' 
richard roeper from the chicago sun-times , gave it a 75 grade . 
guy lodge from variety , gave it a 70 score , stating : `` what 's missing is the unexpected emotional urgency of `` skyfall , '' as the film sustains its predecessor 's nostalgia kick with a less sentimental bent . '' 
christopher orr , writing in the atlantic , also criticised the film , saying that spectre `` backslides on virtually every -lsb- aspect -rsb- '' . 
lawrence toppman of the charlotte observer called craig 's performance `` bored , james bored . '' 
alyssa rosenberg , writing for the washington post , stated that the film turned into `` a disappointingly conventional bond film . '' 
lawrence toppman of the charlotte observer called craig 's performance `` bored , james bored . '' 
in india , it was reported that the indian central board of film certification -lrb- cbfc -rrb- censored kissing scenes featuring monica bellucci , daniel craig , and léa seydoux . 
this prompted criticism of the board online , especially on twitter . 
christoph waltz has signed on for two more films in the series , but his return depends on whether or not craig will again portray bond . 
a sequel to spectre will begin development in spring 2016 . 
a sequel to spectre will begin development in spring 2016 . 
the 2008 sichuan earthquake or the great sichuan earthquake , measured at 8.0 ms and 7.9 mw , and occurred at 02:28:01 pm china standard time at epicenter -lrb- 06:28:01 utc -rrb- on may 12 in sichuan province , killed 69,197 people and left 18,222 missing . 
the 2008 sichuan earthquake or the great sichuan earthquake , measured at 8.0 ms and 7.9 mw , and occurred at 02:28:01 pm china standard time at epicenter -lrb- 06:28:01 utc -rrb- on may 12 in sichuan province , killed 69,197 people and left 18,222 missing . 
the 2008 sichuan earthquake or the great sichuan earthquake , measured at 8.0 ms and 7.9 mw , and occurred at 02:28:01 pm china standard time at epicenter -lrb- 06:28:01 utc -rrb- on may 12 in sichuan province , killed 69,197 people and left 18,222 missing . 
the 2008 sichuan earthquake or the great sichuan earthquake , measured at 8.0 ms and 7.9 mw , and occurred at 02:28:01 pm china standard time at epicenter -lrb- 06:28:01 utc -rrb- on may 12 in sichuan province , killed 69,197 people and left 18,222 missing . 
the 2008 sichuan earthquake or the great sichuan earthquake , measured at 8.0 ms and 7.9 mw , and occurred at 02:28:01 pm china standard time at epicenter -lrb- 06:28:01 utc -rrb- on may 12 in sichuan province , killed 69,197 people and left 18,222 missing . 
the 2008 sichuan earthquake or the great sichuan earthquake , measured at 8.0 ms and 7.9 mw , and occurred at 02:28:01 pm china standard time at epicenter -lrb- 06:28:01 utc -rrb- on may 12 in sichuan province , killed 69,197 people and left 18,222 missing . 
the 2008 sichuan earthquake or the great sichuan earthquake , measured at 8.0 ms and 7.9 mw , and occurred at 02:28:01 pm china standard time at epicenter -lrb- 06:28:01 utc -rrb- on may 12 in sichuan province , killed 69,197 people and left 18,222 missing . 
the 2008 sichuan earthquake or the great sichuan earthquake , measured at 8.0 ms and 7.9 mw , and occurred at 02:28:01 pm china standard time at epicenter -lrb- 06:28:01 utc -rrb- on may 12 in sichuan province , killed 69,197 people and left 18,222 missing . 
the earthquake was also felt in nearby countries and as far away as both beijing and shanghai -- 1,500 km -lrb- 930 mi -rrb- and 1,700 km -lrb- 1,060 mi -rrb- away -- where office buildings swayed with the tremor . 
the epicenter was 80 kilometres -lrb- 50 mi -rrb- west-northwest of chengdu , the provincial capital , with a focal depth of 19 km -lrb- 12 mi -rrb- . 
strong aftershocks , some exceeding magnitude 6 , continued to hit the area even months after the main quake , causing new casualties and damage . 
it is also known as the wenchuan earthquake -lrb- chinese : 汶川大地震 ; pinyin : wènchuān dà dìzhèn ; literally : `` great wenchuan earthquake '' -rrb- , after the location of the earthquake 's epicenter , wenchuan county , sichuan . 
it is also known as the wenchuan earthquake -lrb- chinese : 汶川大地震 ; pinyin : wènchuān dà dìzhèn ; literally : `` great wenchuan earthquake '' -rrb- , after the location of the earthquake 's epicenter , wenchuan county , sichuan . 
the epicenter was 80 kilometres -lrb- 50 mi -rrb- west-northwest of chengdu , the provincial capital , with a focal depth of 19 km -lrb- 12 mi -rrb- . 
the epicenter was 80 kilometres -lrb- 50 mi -rrb- west-northwest of chengdu , the provincial capital , with a focal depth of 19 km -lrb- 12 mi -rrb- . 
official figures -lrb- as of july 21 , 2008 12:00 cst -rrb- stated that 69,197 were confirmed dead , including 68,636 in sichuan province , and 374,176 injured , with 18,222 listed as missing . 
official figures -lrb- as of july 21 , 2008 12:00 cst -rrb- stated that 69,197 were confirmed dead , including 68,636 in sichuan province , and 374,176 injured , with 18,222 listed as missing . 
the earthquake left about 4.8 million people homeless , though the number could be as high as 11 million . 
approximately 15 million people lived in the affected area . 
on november 6 , 2008 , the central government announced that it would spend 1 trillion rmb -lrb- about us $ 146.5 billion -rrb- over the next three years to rebuild areas ravaged by the earthquake , as part of the chinese economic stimulus program . 
official figures -lrb- as of july 21 , 2008 12:00 cst -rrb- stated that 69,197 were confirmed dead , including 68,636 in sichuan province , and 374,176 injured , with 18,222 listed as missing . 
official figures -lrb- as of july 21 , 2008 12:00 cst -rrb- stated that 69,197 were confirmed dead , including 68,636 in sichuan province , and 374,176 injured , with 18,222 listed as missing . 
official figures -lrb- as of july 21 , 2008 12:00 cst -rrb- stated that 69,197 were confirmed dead , including 68,636 in sichuan province , and 374,176 injured , with 18,222 listed as missing . 
the earthquake left about 4.8 million people homeless , though the number could be as high as 11 million . 
the earthquake left about 4.8 million people homeless , though the number could be as high as 11 million . 
the epicenter was in wenchuan county , ngawa tibetan and qiang autonomous prefecture , 80 km west/northwest of the provincial capital of chengdu , with its main tremor occurring at 14:28:01.42 china standard time -lrb- 06:28:01.42 utc -rrb- , on may 12 , 2008 lasting for around 2 minutes , in the quake almost 80 % of buildings were destroyed . 
the epicenter was in wenchuan county , ngawa tibetan and qiang autonomous prefecture , 80 km west/northwest of the provincial capital of chengdu , with its main tremor occurring at 14:28:01.42 china standard time -lrb- 06:28:01.42 utc -rrb- , on may 12 , 2008 lasting for around 2 minutes , in the quake almost 80 % of buildings were destroyed . 
the epicenter was in wenchuan county , ngawa tibetan and qiang autonomous prefecture , 80 km west/northwest of the provincial capital of chengdu , with its main tremor occurring at 14:28:01.42 china standard time -lrb- 06:28:01.42 utc -rrb- , on may 12 , 2008 lasting for around 2 minutes , in the quake almost 80 % of buildings were destroyed . 
the earthquake had a magnitude of 8.0 ms and 7.9 mw . 
the epicenter was in wenchuan county , ngawa tibetan and qiang autonomous prefecture , 80 km west/northwest of the provincial capital of chengdu , with its main tremor occurring at 14:28:01.42 china standard time -lrb- 06:28:01.42 utc -rrb- , on may 12 , 2008 lasting for around 2 minutes , in the quake almost 80 % of buildings were destroyed . 
the epicenter was in wenchuan county , ngawa tibetan and qiang autonomous prefecture , 80 km west/northwest of the provincial capital of chengdu , with its main tremor occurring at 14:28:01.42 china standard time -lrb- 06:28:01.42 utc -rrb- , on may 12 , 2008 lasting for around 2 minutes , in the quake almost 80 % of buildings were destroyed . 
according to a study by the china earthquake administration -lrb- cea -rrb- , the earthquake occurred along the longmenshan fault , a thrust structure along the border of the indo-australian plate and eurasian plate . 
according to a study by the china earthquake administration -lrb- cea -rrb- , the earthquake occurred along the longmenshan fault , a thrust structure along the border of the indo-australian plate and eurasian plate . 
the rupture lasted close to 120 sec , with the majority of energy released in the first 80 sec . 
the focus was deeper than 10 km . 
according to a study by the china earthquake administration -lrb- cea -rrb- , the earthquake occurred along the longmenshan fault , a thrust structure along the border of the indo-australian plate and eurasian plate . 
seismic activities concentrated on its mid-fracture -lrb- known as yingxiu-beichuan fracture -rrb- . 
the rupture lasted close to 120 sec , with the majority of energy released in the first 80 sec . 
maximum displacement amounted to 9 meters . 
malaysia-based yazhou zhoukan conducted an interview with former researcher at the china seismological bureau geng qingguo -lrb- 耿庆国 -rrb- , in which geng claimed that a confidential written report was sent to the state seismological bureau on april 30 , 2008 , warning about the possible occurrence of a significant earthquake in ngawa prefecture region of sichuan around may 8 , with a range of 10 days before or after the quake . 
geng 's drought-earthquake correlation theory was first released in 1972 , and said to have successfully predicted the 1975 haicheng and 1976 tangshan earthquakes . 
malaysia-based yazhou zhoukan conducted an interview with former researcher at the china seismological bureau geng qingguo -lrb- 耿庆国 -rrb- , in which geng claimed that a confidential written report was sent to the state seismological bureau on april 30 , 2008 , warning about the possible occurrence of a significant earthquake in ngawa prefecture region of sichuan around may 8 , with a range of 10 days before or after the quake . 
malaysia-based yazhou zhoukan conducted an interview with former researcher at the china seismological bureau geng qingguo -lrb- 耿庆国 -rrb- , in which geng claimed that a confidential written report was sent to the state seismological bureau on april 30 , 2008 , warning about the possible occurrence of a significant earthquake in ngawa prefecture region of sichuan around may 8 , with a range of 10 days before or after the quake . 
malaysia-based yazhou zhoukan conducted an interview with former researcher at the china seismological bureau geng qingguo -lrb- 耿庆国 -rrb- , in which geng claimed that a confidential written report was sent to the state seismological bureau on april 30 , 2008 , warning about the possible occurrence of a significant earthquake in ngawa prefecture region of sichuan around may 8 , with a range of 10 days before or after the quake . 
geng had long attempted to establish a correlation between the occurrence of droughts and earthquakes ; premier zhou enlai reportedly took an interest in geng 's work . 
the official also denied that the seismological bureau had received reports predicting the earthquake . 
in a united states geological survey -lrb- usgs -rrb- study , preliminary rupture models of the earthquake indicated displacement of up to 9 meters along a fault approximately 240 km long by 20 km deep . 
on may 20 , usgs seismologist tom parsons warned that there is `` high risk '' of a major m > 7 aftershock over the next weeks or months . 
in a united states geological survey -lrb- usgs -rrb- study , preliminary rupture models of the earthquake indicated displacement of up to 9 meters along a fault approximately 240 km long by 20 km deep . 
in a united states geological survey -lrb- usgs -rrb- study , preliminary rupture models of the earthquake indicated displacement of up to 9 meters along a fault approximately 240 km long by 20 km deep . 
in a united states geological survey -lrb- usgs -rrb- study , preliminary rupture models of the earthquake indicated displacement of up to 9 meters along a fault approximately 240 km long by 20 km deep . 
the earthquake generated deformations of the surface greater than 3 meters and increased the stress -lrb- and probability of occurrence of future events -rrb- at the northeastern and southwestern ends of the fault . 
on may 20 , usgs seismologist tom parsons warned that there is `` high risk '' of a major m > 7 aftershock over the next weeks or months . 
his data also showed that the earthquake lasted about two minutes and released 30 times the energy of the great hanshin earthquake of 1995 in japan , which killed over 6,000 people . 
japanese seismologist yuji yagi at the university of tsukuba said that the earthquake occurred in two stages : `` the 155-mile longmenshan fault tore in two sections , the first one ripping about seven yards , followed by a second one that sheared four yards . '' 
japanese seismologist yuji yagi at the university of tsukuba said that the earthquake occurred in two stages : `` the 155-mile longmenshan fault tore in two sections , the first one ripping about seven yards , followed by a second one that sheared four yards . '' 
he pointed out that the shallowness of the epicenter and the density of population greatly increased the severity of the earthquake . 
his data also showed that the earthquake lasted about two minutes and released 30 times the energy of the great hanshin earthquake of 1995 in japan , which killed over 6,000 people . 
teruyuki kato , a seismologist at the university of tokyo , said that the seismic waves of the quake traveled a long distance without losing their power because of the firmness of the terrain in central china . 
between 64 and 104 major aftershocks , ranging in magnitude from 4.0 to 6.1 , were recorded within 72 hours of the main quake . 
between 64 and 104 major aftershocks , ranging in magnitude from 4.0 to 6.1 , were recorded within 72 hours of the main quake . 
according to chinese official counts , `` by 12:00 cst , november 6 , 2008 there had been 42,719 total aftershocks , of which 246 ranged from 4.0 ms to 4.9 ms , 34 from 5.0 ms to 5.9 ms , and 8 from 6.0 ms to 6.4 ms ; the strongest aftershock measured 6.4 ms. '' the latest aftershock exceeding m6 occurred on august 5 , 2008 . 
between 64 and 104 major aftershocks , ranging in magnitude from 4.0 to 6.1 , were recorded within 72 hours of the main quake . 
according to chinese official counts , `` by 12:00 cst , november 6 , 2008 there had been 42,719 total aftershocks , of which 246 ranged from 4.0 ms to 4.9 ms , 34 from 5.0 ms to 5.9 ms , and 8 from 6.0 ms to 6.4 ms ; the strongest aftershock measured 6.4 ms. '' the latest aftershock exceeding m6 occurred on august 5 , 2008 . 
according to chinese official counts , `` by 12:00 cst , november 6 , 2008 there had been 42,719 total aftershocks , of which 246 ranged from 4.0 ms to 4.9 ms , 34 from 5.0 ms to 5.9 ms , and 8 from 6.0 ms to 6.4 ms ; the strongest aftershock measured 6.4 ms. '' the latest aftershock exceeding m6 occurred on august 5 , 2008 . 
according to chinese official counts , `` by 12:00 cst , november 6 , 2008 there had been 42,719 total aftershocks , of which 246 ranged from 4.0 ms to 4.9 ms , 34 from 5.0 ms to 5.9 ms , and 8 from 6.0 ms to 6.4 ms ; the strongest aftershock measured 6.4 ms. '' the latest aftershock exceeding m6 occurred on august 5 , 2008 . 
according to chinese official counts , `` by 12:00 cst , november 6 , 2008 there had been 42,719 total aftershocks , of which 246 ranged from 4.0 ms to 4.9 ms , 34 from 5.0 ms to 5.9 ms , and 8 from 6.0 ms to 6.4 ms ; the strongest aftershock measured 6.4 ms. '' the latest aftershock exceeding m6 occurred on august 5 , 2008 . 
-lrb- the ms 6.1 earthquake on august 30 , 2008 in southern sichuan was not part of this series because it was caused by a different fault . 
-lrb- the ms 6.1 earthquake on august 30 , 2008 in southern sichuan was not part of this series because it was caused by a different fault . 
-lrb- the ms 6.1 earthquake on august 30 , 2008 in southern sichuan was not part of this series because it was caused by a different fault . 
see 2008 panzhihua earthquake for details . -rrb- 
-lrb- the ms 6.1 earthquake on august 30 , 2008 in southern sichuan was not part of this series because it was caused by a different fault . 
-lrb- the ms 6.1 earthquake on august 30 , 2008 in southern sichuan was not part of this series because it was caused by a different fault . 
see 2008 panzhihua earthquake for details . -rrb- 
the map of earthquake intensity published by cea after surveying 500,000 km2 of the affected area shows a maximum liedu of xi on the china seismic intensity scale -lrb- csis -rrb- , described as `` very destructive '' on the european macroseismic scale -lrb- ems -rrb- from which csis drew reference . 
the map of earthquake intensity published by cea after surveying 500,000 km2 of the affected area shows a maximum liedu of xi on the china seismic intensity scale -lrb- csis -rrb- , described as `` very destructive '' on the european macroseismic scale -lrb- ems -rrb- from which csis drew reference . 
the map of earthquake intensity published by cea after surveying 500,000 km2 of the affected area shows a maximum liedu of xi on the china seismic intensity scale -lrb- csis -rrb- , described as `` very destructive '' on the european macroseismic scale -lrb- ems -rrb- from which csis drew reference . 
-lrb- usgs , using the modified mercalli intensity scale -lrb- cc -rrb- , also placed maximum intensity at xi , `` very disastrous '' . -rrb- 
two south-west-north-east stripes of liedu xi are centered around yingxiu , wenchuan -lrb- the town closest to the epicenter of the main quake -rrb- and beichuan -lrb- the town repeatedly struck by strong aftershocks including one registering ms 6.1 on aug 1 , 2008 -rrb- , both in sichuan province , occupying a total of 2,419 km2 . 
the longmen shan fault system is situated in the eastern border of the tibetan plateau and contains several faults . 
in the epicentral area , the average slip in beichuan fault was about 3.5 metres -lrb- 11 ft -rrb- vertical , 3.5 metres -lrb- 11 ft -rrb- horizontal-parallel to the fault , and 4.8 metres -lrb- 16 ft -rrb- horizontal-perpendicular to the fault . 
in the area about 30 kilometres -lrb- 19 mi -rrb- northeast of the epicenter , the surface slip on beichuan fault was almost purely dextral strike-slip up to about 3 metres -lrb- 9.8 ft -rrb- , while the average slip in guanxian -- anxian fault was about 2 metres -lrb- 6 ft 7 in -rrb- vertical and 2.3 metres -lrb- 7 ft 7 in -rrb- horizontal . 
in the area about 30 kilometres -lrb- 19 mi -rrb- northeast of the epicenter , the surface slip on beichuan fault was almost purely dextral strike-slip up to about 3 metres -lrb- 9.8 ft -rrb- , while the average slip in guanxian -- anxian fault was about 2 metres -lrb- 6 ft 7 in -rrb- vertical and 2.3 metres -lrb- 7 ft 7 in -rrb- horizontal . 
in the area about 30 kilometres -lrb- 19 mi -rrb- northeast of the epicenter , the surface slip on beichuan fault was almost purely dextral strike-slip up to about 3 metres -lrb- 9.8 ft -rrb- , while the average slip in guanxian -- anxian fault was about 2 metres -lrb- 6 ft 7 in -rrb- vertical and 2.3 metres -lrb- 7 ft 7 in -rrb- horizontal . 
the longmen shan fault system is situated in the eastern border of the tibetan plateau and contains several faults . 
the longmen shan fault system is situated in the eastern border of the tibetan plateau and contains several faults . 
in the epicentral area , the average slip in beichuan fault was about 3.5 metres -lrb- 11 ft -rrb- vertical , 3.5 metres -lrb- 11 ft -rrb- horizontal-parallel to the fault , and 4.8 metres -lrb- 16 ft -rrb- horizontal-perpendicular to the fault . 
in the epicentral area , the average slip in beichuan fault was about 3.5 metres -lrb- 11 ft -rrb- vertical , 3.5 metres -lrb- 11 ft -rrb- horizontal-parallel to the fault , and 4.8 metres -lrb- 16 ft -rrb- horizontal-perpendicular to the fault . 
in the epicentral area , the average slip in beichuan fault was about 3.5 metres -lrb- 11 ft -rrb- vertical , 3.5 metres -lrb- 11 ft -rrb- horizontal-parallel to the fault , and 4.8 metres -lrb- 16 ft -rrb- horizontal-perpendicular to the fault . 
office buildings in shanghai 's financial district , including the jin mao tower and the hong kong new world tower , were evacuated . 
a receptionist at the tibet hotel in chengdu said things were `` calm '' after the hotel evacuated its guests . 
meanwhile , workers at a ford plant in sichuan were evacuated for about 10 minutes . 
chengdu shuangliu international airport was shut down , and the control tower and regional radar control evacuated . 
chengdu shuangliu airport reopened later on the evening of may 12 , offering limited service as the airport began to be used as a staging area for relief operations . 
a receptionist at the tibet hotel in chengdu said things were `` calm '' after the hotel evacuated its guests . 
chengdu shuangliu international airport was shut down , and the control tower and regional radar control evacuated . 
cathay pacific delayed both legs of its quadruple daily hong kong to london route due to this disruption in air traffic services . 
chengdu shuangliu airport reopened later on the evening of may 12 , offering limited service as the airport began to be used as a staging area for relief operations . 
reporters in chengdu said they saw cracks on walls of some residential buildings in the downtown areas , but no buildings collapsed . 
many beijing office towers were evacuated , including the building housing the media offices for the organizers of the 2008 summer olympics . 
meanwhile , a cargo train carrying 13 petrol tanks derailed in hui county , gansu , and caught on fire after the rail was distorted . 
meanwhile , a cargo train carrying 13 petrol tanks derailed in hui county , gansu , and caught on fire after the rail was distorted . 
reporters in chengdu said they saw cracks on walls of some residential buildings in the downtown areas , but no buildings collapsed . 
many beijing office towers were evacuated , including the building housing the media offices for the organizers of the 2008 summer olympics . 
none of the olympic venues were damaged . 
meanwhile , a cargo train carrying 13 petrol tanks derailed in hui county , gansu , and caught on fire after the rail was distorted . 
meanwhile , a cargo train carrying 13 petrol tanks derailed in hui county , gansu , and caught on fire after the rail was distorted . 
all of the highways into wenchuan , and others throughout the province , were damaged , resulting in delayed arrival of the rescue troops . 
in beichuan county , 80 % of the buildings collapsed according to xinhua news . 
in the city of dujiangyan , south-east of the epicenter , a whole school collapsed with 900 students buried and fewer than 60 survived . 
in the city of dujiangyan , south-east of the epicenter , a whole school collapsed with 900 students buried and fewer than 60 survived . 
all of the highways into wenchuan , and others throughout the province , were damaged , resulting in delayed arrival of the rescue troops . 
all of the highways into wenchuan , and others throughout the province , were damaged , resulting in delayed arrival of the rescue troops . 
in beichuan county , 80 % of the buildings collapsed according to xinhua news . 
in the city of shifang , the collapse of two chemical plants led to leakage of some 80 tons of liquid ammonia , with hundreds of people reported buried . 
in the city of dujiangyan , south-east of the epicenter , a whole school collapsed with 900 students buried and fewer than 60 survived . 
both the shanghai stock exchange and the shenzhen stock exchange suspended trading of companies based in southwestern china . 
copper rose over speculations that production in southwestern china may be affected , and oil prices dropped over speculations that demand from china would fall . 
copper rose over speculations that production in southwestern china may be affected , and oil prices dropped over speculations that demand from china would fall . 
both the shanghai stock exchange and the shenzhen stock exchange suspended trading of companies based in southwestern china . 
both the shanghai stock exchange and the shenzhen stock exchange suspended trading of companies based in southwestern china . 
copper rose over speculations that production in southwestern china may be affected , and oil prices dropped over speculations that demand from china would fall . 
both the shanghai stock exchange and the shenzhen stock exchange suspended trading of companies based in southwestern china . 
immediately after the earthquake event , mobile and terrestrial telecommunications were cut to the affected and surrounding area , with all internet capabilities cut to the sichuan area too . 
immediately after the earthquake event , mobile and terrestrial telecommunications were cut to the affected and surrounding area , with all internet capabilities cut to the sichuan area too . 
elements of telecommunications were restored by the government piece by piece over the next number of months as the situation in the sichuan province gradually improved . 
immediately after the earthquake event , mobile and terrestrial telecommunications were cut to the affected and surrounding area , with all internet capabilities cut to the sichuan area too . 
immediately after the earthquake event , mobile and terrestrial telecommunications were cut to the affected and surrounding area , with all internet capabilities cut to the sichuan area too . 
elements of telecommunications were restored by the government piece by piece over the next number of months as the situation in the sichuan province gradually improved . 
eventually , a handful of major news and media websites were made accessible online in the region , albeit with dramatically pared back webpages . 
eventually , a handful of major news and media websites were made accessible online in the region , albeit with dramatically pared back webpages . 
china mobile had more than 2,300 base stations suspended due to power disruption or severe telecommunication traffic congestion . 
china unicom 's service in wenchuan and four nearby counties was cut off , with more than 700 towers suspended . 
china mobile had more than 2,300 base stations suspended due to power disruption or severe telecommunication traffic congestion . 
china mobile had more than 2,300 base stations suspended due to power disruption or severe telecommunication traffic congestion . 
half of the wireless communications were lost in the sichuan province . 
china unicom 's service in wenchuan and four nearby counties was cut off , with more than 700 towers suspended . 
china unicom 's service in wenchuan and four nearby counties was cut off , with more than 700 towers suspended . 
initially , officials were unable to contact the wolong national nature reserve , home to around 280 giant pandas . 
initially , officials were unable to contact the wolong national nature reserve , home to around 280 giant pandas . 
however , the foreign ministry later said that a group of 31 british tourists visiting the wolong panda reserve in the quake-hit area returned safe and uninjured to chengdu . 
initially , officials were unable to contact the wolong national nature reserve , home to around 280 giant pandas . 
initially , officials were unable to contact the wolong national nature reserve , home to around 280 giant pandas . 
six pandas escaped after their enclosures were damaged . 
nine-year-old mao mao , a mother of five at the breeding center , was discovered on monday , her body crushed by a wall in her enclosure . 
nine-year-old mao mao , a mother of five at the breeding center , was discovered on monday , her body crushed by a wall in her enclosure . 
the zipingpu hydropower plant -lrb- simplified chinese : 紫坪铺水库 ; traditional chinese : 紫坪鋪水庫 -rrb- located 20 km east of the epicenter was damaged . 
the zipingpu hydropower plant -lrb- simplified chinese : 紫坪铺水库 ; traditional chinese : 紫坪鋪水庫 -rrb- located 20 km east of the epicenter was damaged . 
about 2,000 troops have been allocated to zipingpu , trying to release the pressure through spillway . 
in total , 391 dams , most of them small , were reported damaged by the quake . 
the zipingpu hydropower plant -lrb- simplified chinese : 紫坪铺水库 ; traditional chinese : 紫坪鋪水庫 -rrb- located 20 km east of the epicenter was damaged . 
the zipingpu hydropower plant -lrb- simplified chinese : 紫坪铺水库 ; traditional chinese : 紫坪鋪水庫 -rrb- located 20 km east of the epicenter was damaged . 
a recent inspection indicated that the damage was less severe than initially feared , and it remains structurally stable and safe . 
the tulong reservoir upstream is in danger of collapse . 
in total , 391 dams , most of them small , were reported damaged by the quake . 
according to chinese state officials , the quake caused 69,180 known deaths including 68,636 in sichuan province ; 18,498 people are listed as missing , and 374,176 injured , but these figures may further increase as more reports come in . 
according to chinese state officials , the quake caused 69,180 known deaths including 68,636 in sichuan province ; 18,498 people are listed as missing , and 374,176 injured , but these figures may further increase as more reports come in . 
according to chinese state officials , the quake caused 69,180 known deaths including 68,636 in sichuan province ; 18,498 people are listed as missing , and 374,176 injured , but these figures may further increase as more reports come in . 
according to chinese state officials , the quake caused 69,180 known deaths including 68,636 in sichuan province ; 18,498 people are listed as missing , and 374,176 injured , but these figures may further increase as more reports come in . 
-lsb- dated info -rsb- this estimate includes 158 earthquake relief workers who were killed in landslides as they tried to repair roads . 
according to chinese state officials , the quake caused 69,180 known deaths including 68,636 in sichuan province ; 18,498 people are listed as missing , and 374,176 injured , but these figures may further increase as more reports come in . 
according to chinese state officials , the quake caused 69,180 known deaths including 68,636 in sichuan province ; 18,498 people are listed as missing , and 374,176 injured , but these figures may further increase as more reports come in . 
according to chinese state officials , the quake caused 69,180 known deaths including 68,636 in sichuan province ; 18,498 people are listed as missing , and 374,176 injured , but these figures may further increase as more reports come in . 
according to chinese state officials , the quake caused 69,180 known deaths including 68,636 in sichuan province ; 18,498 people are listed as missing , and 374,176 injured , but these figures may further increase as more reports come in . 
-lsb- dated info -rsb- this estimate includes 158 earthquake relief workers who were killed in landslides as they tried to repair roads . 
one rescue team reported only 2,300 survivors from the town of yingxiu in wenchuan county , out of a total population of about 9,000 . 
one rescue team reported only 2,300 survivors from the town of yingxiu in wenchuan county , out of a total population of about 9,000 . 
one rescue team reported only 2,300 survivors from the town of yingxiu in wenchuan county , out of a total population of about 9,000 . 
3,000 to 5,000 people were killed in beichuan county , sichuan alone ; in the same location , 10,000 people were injured and 80 % of the buildings were destroyed . 
3,000 to 5,000 people were killed in beichuan county , sichuan alone ; in the same location , 10,000 people were injured and 80 % of the buildings were destroyed . 
one rescue team reported only 2,300 survivors from the town of yingxiu in wenchuan county , out of a total population of about 9,000 . 
one rescue team reported only 2,300 survivors from the town of yingxiu in wenchuan county , out of a total population of about 9,000 . 
3,000 to 5,000 people were killed in beichuan county , sichuan alone ; in the same location , 10,000 people were injured and 80 % of the buildings were destroyed . 
3,000 to 5,000 people were killed in beichuan county , sichuan alone ; in the same location , 10,000 people were injured and 80 % of the buildings were destroyed . 
eight schools were toppled in dujiangyan . 
health care is poor in inland areas such as sichuan , highlighting the widening gap between prosperous urban dwellers and struggling rural people . 
vice minister of health gao qiang told reporters in beijing that the `` public health care system in china is insufficient . '' 
vice minister of health gao qiang told reporters in beijing that the `` public health care system in china is insufficient . '' 
experts point out that the earthquake hit an area that has been largely neglected and untouched by china 's economic rise . 
health care is poor in inland areas such as sichuan , highlighting the widening gap between prosperous urban dwellers and struggling rural people . 
vice minister of health gao qiang told reporters in beijing that the `` public health care system in china is insufficient . '' 
the vice minister of health also suggested that the government would pick up the costs of care to earthquake victims , many of whom have little or no insurance : `` the government should be responsible for providing medical treatment to them , '' he said . 
in terms of school casualties , thousands of school children died due to shoddy construction . 
in mianyang city , seven schools collapsed , burying at least 1,700 people . 
in mianyang city , seven schools collapsed , burying at least 1,700 people . 
at least 7,000 school buildings throughout the province collapsed . 
in mianyang city , seven schools collapsed , burying at least 1,700 people . 
in terms of school casualties , thousands of school children died due to shoddy construction . 
in mianyang city , seven schools collapsed , burying at least 1,700 people . 
in mianyang city , seven schools collapsed , burying at least 1,700 people . 
at least 7,000 school buildings throughout the province collapsed . 
at least 600 students and staff died at juyuan elementary school . 
details of school casualties had been under non-governmental investigation since december 2008 by volunteers including artist and architect ai weiwei , who had been constantly posting updates on his blog since march 2009 . 
the official tally of students killed in the earthquake was not released until may 7 , 2009 , almost a year after the earthquake . 
according to the state-run xinhua news agency , the earthquake killed 5,335 students and left another 546 children disabled . 
according to the state-run xinhua news agency , the earthquake killed 5,335 students and left another 546 children disabled . 
the official tally of students killed in the earthquake was not released until may 7 , 2009 , almost a year after the earthquake . 
details of school casualties had been under non-governmental investigation since december 2008 by volunteers including artist and architect ai weiwei , who had been constantly posting updates on his blog since march 2009 . 
according to the state-run xinhua news agency , the earthquake killed 5,335 students and left another 546 children disabled . 
according to the state-run xinhua news agency , the earthquake killed 5,335 students and left another 546 children disabled . 
in the aftermath of the earthquake , the chinese government declared that parents who had lost their only children would get free treatment from fertility clinics to reverse vasectomies and tubal ligations conducted by family planning authorities . 
the earthquake left at least 5 million people without housing , although the number could be as high as 11 million . 
the earthquake left at least 5 million people without housing , although the number could be as high as 11 million . 
millions of livestock and a significant amount of agriculture were also destroyed , including 12.5 million animals , mainly birds . 
the earthquake left at least 5 million people without housing , although the number could be as high as 11 million . 
the earthquake left at least 5 million people without housing , although the number could be as high as 11 million . 
the earthquake left at least 5 million people without housing , although the number could be as high as 11 million . 
millions of livestock and a significant amount of agriculture were also destroyed , including 12.5 million animals , mainly birds . 
in the sichuan province a million pigs died out of 60 million total . 
reginald desroches , a professor of civil and environmental engineering at georgia tech , pointed out that the massive damage of properties and houses in the earthquake area was because china did not create an adequate seismic design code until after the devastating 1976 tangshan earthquake . 
reginald desroches , a professor of civil and environmental engineering at georgia tech , pointed out that the massive damage of properties and houses in the earthquake area was because china did not create an adequate seismic design code until after the devastating 1976 tangshan earthquake . 
reginald desroches , a professor of civil and environmental engineering at georgia tech , pointed out that the massive damage of properties and houses in the earthquake area was because china did not create an adequate seismic design code until after the devastating 1976 tangshan earthquake . 
reginald desroches , a professor of civil and environmental engineering at georgia tech , pointed out that the massive damage of properties and houses in the earthquake area was because china did not create an adequate seismic design code until after the devastating 1976 tangshan earthquake . 
in the days following the disaster , an international reconnaissance team of engineers was dispatched to the region to make a detailed preliminary survey of damaged buildings . 
in the days following the disaster , an international reconnaissance team of engineers was dispatched to the region to make a detailed preliminary survey of damaged buildings . 
their findings show a variety of reasons why many constructions failed to withstand the earthquake . 
in the days following the disaster , an international reconnaissance team of engineers was dispatched to the region to make a detailed preliminary survey of damaged buildings . 
in the days following the disaster , an international reconnaissance team of engineers was dispatched to the region to make a detailed preliminary survey of damaged buildings . 
their findings show a variety of reasons why many constructions failed to withstand the earthquake . 
news reports indicate that the poorer , rural villages were hardest hit . 
swaminathan krishnan , assistant professor of civil engineering and geophysics at the california institute of technology said : `` the earthquake occurred in the rural part of china . 
swaminathan krishnan , assistant professor of civil engineering and geophysics at the california institute of technology said : `` the earthquake occurred in the rural part of china . 
presumably , many of the buildings were just built ; they were not designed , so to speak . '' 
swaminathan krishnan further added : `` there are very strong building codes in china , which take care of earthquake issues and seismic design issues . 
but many of these buildings presumably were quite old and probably were not built with any regulations overseeing them . '' 
even with the five largest cities in sichuan suffering only minor damage from the quake , some estimates of the economic loss run higher than us$ 75 billion , making the earthquake one of the costliest natural disasters in chinese history . 
even with the five largest cities in sichuan suffering only minor damage from the quake , some estimates of the economic loss run higher than us$ 75 billion , making the earthquake one of the costliest natural disasters in chinese history . 
even with the five largest cities in sichuan suffering only minor damage from the quake , some estimates of the economic loss run higher than us$ 75 billion , making the earthquake one of the costliest natural disasters in chinese history . 
even with the five largest cities in sichuan suffering only minor damage from the quake , some estimates of the economic loss run higher than us$ 75 billion , making the earthquake one of the costliest natural disasters in chinese history . 
even with the five largest cities in sichuan suffering only minor damage from the quake , some estimates of the economic loss run higher than us$ 75 billion , making the earthquake one of the costliest natural disasters in chinese history . 
on may 27 , two aftershocks , one 5.2 mw in qingchuan county and one 5.7 mw in ningqiang county , shaanxi , led to the collapse of more than 420,000 homes and injured 63 people . 
on may 25 , an aftershock of 6.0 mw -lrb- 6.4 ms according to cea -rrb- hit northeast of the original earthquake 's epicenter , in qingchuan county , sichuan , causing eight deaths , 1000 injuries , and destroying thousands of buildings . 
on may 25 , an aftershock of 6.0 mw -lrb- 6.4 ms according to cea -rrb- hit northeast of the original earthquake 's epicenter , in qingchuan county , sichuan , causing eight deaths , 1000 injuries , and destroying thousands of buildings . 
on may 27 , two aftershocks , one 5.2 mw in qingchuan county and one 5.7 mw in ningqiang county , shaanxi , led to the collapse of more than 420,000 homes and injured 63 people . 
on may 27 , two aftershocks , one 5.2 mw in qingchuan county and one 5.7 mw in ningqiang county , shaanxi , led to the collapse of more than 420,000 homes and injured 63 people . 
as late as august 5 , yet another aftershock of 6.1 ms -lrb- 6.2 mw according to usgs -rrb- hit qingchuan , sichuan , causing 1 death , 32 injuries , telecommunication interruptions , and widespread hill slides blocking roads in the area including a national highway . 
executive vice governor wei hong confirmed on november 21 , 2008 that more than 90,000 people in total were dead or missing in the earthquake . 
he stated that 200,000 homes had been rebuilt , and 685,000 were under reconstruction , but 1.94 million households were still without permanent shelter . 
he stated that 200,000 homes had been rebuilt , and 685,000 were under reconstruction , but 1.94 million households were still without permanent shelter . 
1,300 schools had been reconstructed , with initial relocation of 25 townships , including beichuan and wenchuan , two of the most devastated areas . 
executive vice governor wei hong confirmed on november 21 , 2008 that more than 90,000 people in total were dead or missing in the earthquake . 
executive vice governor wei hong confirmed on november 21 , 2008 that more than 90,000 people in total were dead or missing in the earthquake . 
he stated that 200,000 homes had been rebuilt , and 685,000 were under reconstruction , but 1.94 million households were still without permanent shelter . 
he stated that 200,000 homes had been rebuilt , and 685,000 were under reconstruction , but 1.94 million households were still without permanent shelter . 
he stated that 200,000 homes had been rebuilt , and 685,000 were under reconstruction , but 1.94 million households were still without permanent shelter . 
just 90 minutes after the earthquake , premier wen jiabao , who has an academic background in geomechanics , flew to the earthquake area to oversee the rescue work . 
just 90 minutes after the earthquake , premier wen jiabao , who has an academic background in geomechanics , flew to the earthquake area to oversee the rescue work . 
just 90 minutes after the earthquake , premier wen jiabao , who has an academic background in geomechanics , flew to the earthquake area to oversee the rescue work . 
on the same day , the chengdu military region command dispatched 50,000 troops and armed police to help with disaster relief work in wenchuan county . 
just 90 minutes after the earthquake , premier wen jiabao , who has an academic background in geomechanics , flew to the earthquake area to oversee the rescue work . 
soon afterward , the ministry of health said that it had sent ten emergency medical teams to wenchuan county . 
on the same day , the chengdu military region command dispatched 50,000 troops and armed police to help with disaster relief work in wenchuan county . 
however , due to the rough terrain and close proximity of the quake 's epicenter , the soldiers found it very difficult to get help to the rural regions of the province . 
the national disaster relief commission initiated a `` level ii emergency contingency plan '' , which covers the most serious class of natural disasters . 
the national disaster relief commission initiated a `` level ii emergency contingency plan '' , which covers the most serious class of natural disasters . 
the plan rose to level i at 22:15 cst , may 12 . 
the national disaster relief commission initiated a `` level ii emergency contingency plan '' , which covers the most serious class of natural disasters . 
the national disaster relief commission initiated a `` level ii emergency contingency plan '' , which covers the most serious class of natural disasters . 
the national disaster relief commission initiated a `` level ii emergency contingency plan '' , which covers the most serious class of natural disasters . 
the national disaster relief commission initiated a `` level ii emergency contingency plan '' , which covers the most serious class of natural disasters . 
an earthquake emergency relief team of 184 people -lrb- consisting of 12 people from the state seismological bureau , 150 from the beijing military area command , and 22 from the armed police general hospital -rrb- left beijing from nanyuan airport late may 12 in two military transport planes to travel to wenchuan county . 
an earthquake emergency relief team of 184 people -lrb- consisting of 12 people from the state seismological bureau , 150 from the beijing military area command , and 22 from the armed police general hospital -rrb- left beijing from nanyuan airport late may 12 in two military transport planes to travel to wenchuan county . 
an earthquake emergency relief team of 184 people -lrb- consisting of 12 people from the state seismological bureau , 150 from the beijing military area command , and 22 from the armed police general hospital -rrb- left beijing from nanyuan airport late may 12 in two military transport planes to travel to wenchuan county . 
an earthquake emergency relief team of 184 people -lrb- consisting of 12 people from the state seismological bureau , 150 from the beijing military area command , and 22 from the armed police general hospital -rrb- left beijing from nanyuan airport late may 12 in two military transport planes to travel to wenchuan county . 
an earthquake emergency relief team of 184 people -lrb- consisting of 12 people from the state seismological bureau , 150 from the beijing military area command , and 22 from the armed police general hospital -rrb- left beijing from nanyuan airport late may 12 in two military transport planes to travel to wenchuan county . 
an earthquake emergency relief team of 184 people -lrb- consisting of 12 people from the state seismological bureau , 150 from the beijing military area command , and 22 from the armed police general hospital -rrb- left beijing from nanyuan airport late may 12 in two military transport planes to travel to wenchuan county . 
an earthquake emergency relief team of 184 people -lrb- consisting of 12 people from the state seismological bureau , 150 from the beijing military area command , and 22 from the armed police general hospital -rrb- left beijing from nanyuan airport late may 12 in two military transport planes to travel to wenchuan county . 
an earthquake emergency relief team of 184 people -lrb- consisting of 12 people from the state seismological bureau , 150 from the beijing military area command , and 22 from the armed police general hospital -rrb- left beijing from nanyuan airport late may 12 in two military transport planes to travel to wenchuan county . 
an earthquake emergency relief team of 184 people -lrb- consisting of 12 people from the state seismological bureau , 150 from the beijing military area command , and 22 from the armed police general hospital -rrb- left beijing from nanyuan airport late may 12 in two military transport planes to travel to wenchuan county . 
in the china digital times an article reports a close analysis by an alleged chinese construction engineer known online as `` book blade '' -lrb- 书剑子 -rrb- , who stated : 
in the china digital times an article reports a close analysis by an alleged chinese construction engineer known online as `` book blade '' -lrb- 书剑子 -rrb- , who stated : 
in the china digital times an article reports a close analysis by an alleged chinese construction engineer known online as `` book blade '' -lrb- 书剑子 -rrb- , who stated : 
in the china digital times an article reports a close analysis by an alleged chinese construction engineer known online as `` book blade '' -lrb- 书剑子 -rrb- , who stated : 
on children 's day , june 1 , 2008 , many parents went to the rubble of schools to mourn for their children . 
the surviving children , who were mostly living in relief centres , performed ceremonies marking the special day , but also acknowledging the earthquake . 
the surviving children , who were mostly living in relief centres , performed ceremonies marking the special day , but also acknowledging the earthquake . 
on children 's day , june 1 , 2008 , many parents went to the rubble of schools to mourn for their children . 
on children 's day , june 1 , 2008 , many parents went to the rubble of schools to mourn for their children . 
the surviving children , who were mostly living in relief centres , performed ceremonies marking the special day , but also acknowledging the earthquake . 
central state-owned enterprises have accumulatively donated more than $ 48.6 million . 
china national petroleum corp and sinopec donated 10 million yuan each to the disaster area . 
central state-owned enterprises have accumulatively donated more than $ 48.6 million . 
china national petroleum corp and sinopec donated 10 million yuan each to the disaster area . 
on may 16 china stated it had also received $ 457 million in donated money and goods for rescue efforts so far , including $ 83 million from 19 countries and four international organizations . 
on may 16 china stated it had also received $ 457 million in donated money and goods for rescue efforts so far , including $ 83 million from 19 countries and four international organizations . 
on may 16 china stated it had also received $ 457 million in donated money and goods for rescue efforts so far , including $ 83 million from 19 countries and four international organizations . 
saudi arabia was the largest aid donor to china , providing close to $ 40,000,000 in financial assistance , and an additional $ 8,000,000 worth of relief materials . 
saudi arabia was the largest aid donor to china , providing close to $ 40,000,000 in financial assistance , and an additional $ 8,000,000 worth of relief materials . 
on may 16 china stated it had also received $ 457 million in donated money and goods for rescue efforts so far , including $ 83 million from 19 countries and four international organizations . 
saudi arabia was the largest aid donor to china , providing close to $ 40,000,000 in financial assistance , and an additional $ 8,000,000 worth of relief materials . 
on may 16 china stated it had also received $ 457 million in donated money and goods for rescue efforts so far , including $ 83 million from 19 countries and four international organizations . 
in 2008 , state council established a counterpart support plan -lrb- 汶川地震灾后恢复重建对口支援方案 -rrb- . 
the plan spanned 3 years , and cost no less than one percent of the province or municipality 's budget . 
in 2008 , state council established a counterpart support plan -lrb- 汶川地震灾后恢复重建对口支援方案 -rrb- . 
the plan is to arrange 19 eastern and central province and municipalitie to help 18 counties , on `` one province to one affected county '' basis . 
the plan spanned 3 years , and cost no less than one percent of the province or municipality 's budget . 
the plan spanned 3 years , and cost no less than one percent of the province or municipality 's budget . 
the chief engineer of the sichuan geology and mineral bureau said that the sudden shift of a huge quantity of water into the region could have relaxed the tension between the two sides of the fault , allowing them to move apart , and could have increased the direct pressure on it , causing a violent rupture . 
an article in science suggested that the construction and filling of the zipingpu dam may have triggered the earthquake . 
the effect was `` 25 times more '' than a year 's worth of natural stress from tectonic movement . 
the government had disregarded warnings about so many large-scale dam projects in a seismically active area . 
the government had disregarded warnings about so many large-scale dam projects in a seismically active area . 
researchers have been denied access to seismological and geological data to examine the cause of the quake further . 
the earthquake also provided opportunities for researchers to retrofit data in order to model future earthquake predictions . 
using this method , they were said to have predicted the time of the 2008 sichuan earthquake with an accuracy of ± 1 day . 
cyril and methodius university of skopje in macedonia and strachimir mavrodiev from the bulgarian academy of sciences attempted to establish a `` time prediction method '' through collecting statistics on geomagnetism with tidal gravitational potential . 
cyril and methodius university of skopje in macedonia and strachimir mavrodiev from the bulgarian academy of sciences attempted to establish a `` time prediction method '' through collecting statistics on geomagnetism with tidal gravitational potential . 
in a press conference held by the state council information office the day after the earthquake , geologist zhang xiaodong , deputy director of cea 's seismic monitoring network center , restated that earthquake prediction was a global issue , in the sense that no proven methods exist , and that no prediction notification was received before the earthquake . 
in a press conference held by the state council information office the day after the earthquake , geologist zhang xiaodong , deputy director of cea 's seismic monitoring network center , restated that earthquake prediction was a global issue , in the sense that no proven methods exist , and that no prediction notification was received before the earthquake . 
in a press conference held by the state council information office the day after the earthquake , geologist zhang xiaodong , deputy director of cea 's seismic monitoring network center , restated that earthquake prediction was a global issue , in the sense that no proven methods exist , and that no prediction notification was received before the earthquake . 
in a press conference held by the state council information office the day after the earthquake , geologist zhang xiaodong , deputy director of cea 's seismic monitoring network center , restated that earthquake prediction was a global issue , in the sense that no proven methods exist , and that no prediction notification was received before the earthquake . 
seismologist gary gibson of monash university in australia told deutsche presse-agentur that he also did not see anything that could be regarded as having ` predicted ' the earthquake 's occurrence . 
in 2002 , chinese geologist chen xuezhong published a seismic risk analysis study in which he came to the conclusion that beginning with 2003 , attention should be paid to the possibility of an earthquake with a magnitude of over 7.0 occurring in sichuan region . 
in 2002 , chinese geologist chen xuezhong published a seismic risk analysis study in which he came to the conclusion that beginning with 2003 , attention should be paid to the possibility of an earthquake with a magnitude of over 7.0 occurring in sichuan region . 
in 2002 , chinese geologist chen xuezhong published a seismic risk analysis study in which he came to the conclusion that beginning with 2003 , attention should be paid to the possibility of an earthquake with a magnitude of over 7.0 occurring in sichuan region . 
in 2002 , chinese geologist chen xuezhong published a seismic risk analysis study in which he came to the conclusion that beginning with 2003 , attention should be paid to the possibility of an earthquake with a magnitude of over 7.0 occurring in sichuan region . 
in 2002 , chinese geologist chen xuezhong published a seismic risk analysis study in which he came to the conclusion that beginning with 2003 , attention should be paid to the possibility of an earthquake with a magnitude of over 7.0 occurring in sichuan region . 
the earthquake was the worst to strike the sichuan area in over 30 years . 
the earthquake was the worst to strike the sichuan area in over 30 years . 
earthquake prediction is not yet established science ; there was no consensus within the scientific community that earthquake `` prediction '' is possible . 
following the quake , experts and the general public sought information on whether or not the earthquake could have been predicted in advance , and whether or not studying statistics related to the quake could result in better prediction of earthquakes in the future . 
earthquake prediction is not yet established science ; there was no consensus within the scientific community that earthquake `` prediction '' is possible . 
many rescue teams , including that of the taipei fire department from taiwan , were reported ready to join the rescue effort in sichuan as early as wednesday . 
the extreme terrain conditions precluded the use of helicopter evacuation , and over 300 of the tibetan villagers were stranded in their demolished village for five days without food and water before the rescue group finally arrived to help the injured and stranded villagers down the mountain . 
however , the red cross society of china said that -lrb- on may 13 -rrb- `` it was inconvenient currently due to the traffic problem to the hardest hit areas closest to the epicenter . '' 
the red cross society of china also stated that the disaster areas need tents , medical supplies , drinking water and food ; however it recommended donating cash instead of other items , as it had not been possible to reach roads that were completely damaged or places that were blocked off by landslides . 
the red cross society of china also stated that the disaster areas need tents , medical supplies , drinking water and food ; however it recommended donating cash instead of other items , as it had not been possible to reach roads that were completely damaged or places that were blocked off by landslides . 
landslides continuously threatened the progress of a search and rescue group of 80 men , each carrying about 40 kg of relief supplies , from a motorized infantry brigade under commander yang wenyao , as they tried to reach the ethnically tibetan village of sier at a height of 4000 m above sea level in pingwu county . 
persistent heavy rain and landslides in wenchuan county and the nearby area badly affected rescue efforts . 
at the start of rescue operations on may 12 , 20 helicopters were deployed for the delivery of food , water , and emergency aid , and also the evacuation of the injured and reconnaissance of quake-stricken areas . 
by 17:37 cst on may 13 , a total of over 15,600 troops and militia reservists from the chengdu military region had joined the rescue force in the heavily affected areas . 
a commander reported from yingxiu town , wenchuan , that around 3,000 survivors were found , while the status of the other inhabitants -lrb- around 9,000 -rrb- remained unclear . 
by 17:37 cst on may 13 , a total of over 15,600 troops and militia reservists from the chengdu military region had joined the rescue force in the heavily affected areas . 
persistent heavy rain and landslides in wenchuan county and the nearby area badly affected rescue efforts . 
at the start of rescue operations on may 12 , 20 helicopters were deployed for the delivery of food , water , and emergency aid , and also the evacuation of the injured and reconnaissance of quake-stricken areas . 
by 17:37 cst on may 13 , a total of over 15,600 troops and militia reservists from the chengdu military region had joined the rescue force in the heavily affected areas . 
a commander reported from yingxiu town , wenchuan , that around 3,000 survivors were found , while the status of the other inhabitants -lrb- around 9,000 -rrb- remained unclear . 
a commander reported from yingxiu town , wenchuan , that around 3,000 survivors were found , while the status of the other inhabitants -lrb- around 9,000 -rrb- remained unclear . 
by may 15 , premier wen jiabao ordered the deployment of an additional 90 helicopters , of which 60 were to be provided by the plaaf , and 30 were to be provided by the civil aviation industry , bringing the total of number of aircraft deployed in relief operations by the air force , army , and civil aviation to over 150 , resulting in the largest non-combat airlifting operation in people 's liberation army history . 
by may 15 , premier wen jiabao ordered the deployment of an additional 90 helicopters , of which 60 were to be provided by the plaaf , and 30 were to be provided by the civil aviation industry , bringing the total of number of aircraft deployed in relief operations by the air force , army , and civil aviation to over 150 , resulting in the largest non-combat airlifting operation in people 's liberation army history . 
by may 15 , premier wen jiabao ordered the deployment of an additional 90 helicopters , of which 60 were to be provided by the plaaf , and 30 were to be provided by the civil aviation industry , bringing the total of number of aircraft deployed in relief operations by the air force , army , and civil aviation to over 150 , resulting in the largest non-combat airlifting operation in people 's liberation army history . 
by may 15 , premier wen jiabao ordered the deployment of an additional 90 helicopters , of which 60 were to be provided by the plaaf , and 30 were to be provided by the civil aviation industry , bringing the total of number of aircraft deployed in relief operations by the air force , army , and civil aviation to over 150 , resulting in the largest non-combat airlifting operation in people 's liberation army history . 
by may 15 , premier wen jiabao ordered the deployment of an additional 90 helicopters , of which 60 were to be provided by the plaaf , and 30 were to be provided by the civil aviation industry , bringing the total of number of aircraft deployed in relief operations by the air force , army , and civil aviation to over 150 , resulting in the largest non-combat airlifting operation in people 's liberation army history . 
by may 15 , premier wen jiabao ordered the deployment of an additional 90 helicopters , of which 60 were to be provided by the plaaf , and 30 were to be provided by the civil aviation industry , bringing the total of number of aircraft deployed in relief operations by the air force , army , and civil aviation to over 150 , resulting in the largest non-combat airlifting operation in people 's liberation army history . 
by may 15 , premier wen jiabao ordered the deployment of an additional 90 helicopters , of which 60 were to be provided by the plaaf , and 30 were to be provided by the civil aviation industry , bringing the total of number of aircraft deployed in relief operations by the air force , army , and civil aviation to over 150 , resulting in the largest non-combat airlifting operation in people 's liberation army history . 
by may 15 , premier wen jiabao ordered the deployment of an additional 90 helicopters , of which 60 were to be provided by the plaaf , and 30 were to be provided by the civil aviation industry , bringing the total of number of aircraft deployed in relief operations by the air force , army , and civil aviation to over 150 , resulting in the largest non-combat airlifting operation in people 's liberation army history . 
beijing accepted the aid of the tzu chi foundation from taiwan late on may 13 . 
beijing accepted the aid of the tzu chi foundation from taiwan late on may 13 . 
beijing accepted the aid of the tzu chi foundation from taiwan late on may 13 . 
beijing accepted the aid of the tzu chi foundation from taiwan late on may 13 . 
china stated it would gratefully accept international help to cope with the quake . 
china stated it would gratefully accept international help to cope with the quake . 
a direct chartered cargo flight was made by china airlines from taiwan taoyuan international airport to chengdu shuangliu international airport sending some 100 tons of relief supplies donated by the tzu chi foundation and the red cross society of taiwan to the affected areas . 
approval from mainland chinese authorities was sought , and the chartered flight departed taipei at 17:00 cst , may 15 and arrived in chengdu by 20:30 cst . 
a rescue team from the red cross in taiwan was also scheduled to depart taipei on a mandarin airlines direct chartered flight to chengdu at 15:00 cst on may 16 . 
a direct chartered cargo flight was made by china airlines from taiwan taoyuan international airport to chengdu shuangliu international airport sending some 100 tons of relief supplies donated by the tzu chi foundation and the red cross society of taiwan to the affected areas . 
a direct chartered cargo flight was made by china airlines from taiwan taoyuan international airport to chengdu shuangliu international airport sending some 100 tons of relief supplies donated by the tzu chi foundation and the red cross society of taiwan to the affected areas . 
a direct chartered cargo flight was made by china airlines from taiwan taoyuan international airport to chengdu shuangliu international airport sending some 100 tons of relief supplies donated by the tzu chi foundation and the red cross society of taiwan to the affected areas . 
a rescue team from the red cross in taiwan was also scheduled to depart taipei on a mandarin airlines direct chartered flight to chengdu at 15:00 cst on may 16 . 
a direct chartered cargo flight was made by china airlines from taiwan taoyuan international airport to chengdu shuangliu international airport sending some 100 tons of relief supplies donated by the tzu chi foundation and the red cross society of taiwan to the affected areas . 
the united states shared some of its satellite images of the quake-stricken areas with chinese authorities . 
the united states shared some of its satellite images of the quake-stricken areas with chinese authorities . 
xinhua reported 135,000 chinese troops and medics were involved in the rescue effort across 58 counties and cities . 
on may 16 , rescue groups from south korea , japan , singapore , russia and taiwan arrived to join the rescue effort . 
the united states shared some of its satellite images of the quake-stricken areas with chinese authorities . 
during the weekend , the us sent into china two u.s. air force c-17 's carrying supplies , which included tents and generators . 
xinhua reported 135,000 chinese troops and medics were involved in the rescue effort across 58 counties and cities . 
the internet was extensively used for passing information to aid rescue and recovery efforts . 
for example , the official news agency xinhua set up an online rescue request center in order to find the blind spots of disaster recovery . 
for example , the official news agency xinhua set up an online rescue request center in order to find the blind spots of disaster recovery . 
after knowing that rescue helicopters had trouble landing into the epicenter area in wenchuan , a student proposed a landing spot online and it was chosen as the first touchdown place for the helicopters -lsb- not in citation given -rsb- . 
the internet was extensively used for passing information to aid rescue and recovery efforts . 
for example , the official news agency xinhua set up an online rescue request center in order to find the blind spots of disaster recovery . 
after knowing that rescue helicopters had trouble landing into the epicenter area in wenchuan , a student proposed a landing spot online and it was chosen as the first touchdown place for the helicopters -lsb- not in citation given -rsb- . 
volunteers also set up several websites to help store contact information for victims and evacuees . 
on may 31 , a rescue helicopter carrying earthquake survivors and crew members crashed in fog and turbulence in wenchuan county . 
on may 12 , 2009 , china marked the first anniversary of the quake with a moment of silence as people across the nation remembered the dead . 
the government also opened access to the sealed ruins of the beichuan county seat for three days , after which it will be frozen in time as a state earthquake relic museum , to remind people of the terrible disaster . 
the government also opened access to the sealed ruins of the beichuan county seat for three days , after which it will be frozen in time as a state earthquake relic museum , to remind people of the terrible disaster . 
on may 12 , 2009 , china marked the first anniversary of the quake with a moment of silence as people across the nation remembered the dead . 
the government also opened access to the sealed ruins of the beichuan county seat for three days , after which it will be frozen in time as a state earthquake relic museum , to remind people of the terrible disaster . 
there were also several concerts across the country to raise money for the survivors of the quake . 
the government also opened access to the sealed ruins of the beichuan county seat for three days , after which it will be frozen in time as a state earthquake relic museum , to remind people of the terrible disaster . 
people also donated blood , resulting in according to xinhua long line-ups in most major chinese cities . 
many donated through text messaging on mobile phones to accounts set up by china unicom and china mobile by may 16 , the chinese government had allocated a total of $ 772 million for earthquake relief so far , up sharply from $ 159 million from may 14 . 
following the earthquake , donations were made by people from all over mainland china , with booths set up in schools , at banks , and around gas stations . 
people also donated blood , resulting in according to xinhua long line-ups in most major chinese cities . 
following the earthquake , donations were made by people from all over mainland china , with booths set up in schools , at banks , and around gas stations . 
many donated through text messaging on mobile phones to accounts set up by china unicom and china mobile by may 16 , the chinese government had allocated a total of $ 772 million for earthquake relief so far , up sharply from $ 159 million from may 14 . 
many donated through text messaging on mobile phones to accounts set up by china unicom and china mobile by may 16 , the chinese government had allocated a total of $ 772 million for earthquake relief so far , up sharply from $ 159 million from may 14 . 
the red cross society of china flew 557 tents and 2,500 quilts valued at 788,000 yuan -lrb- us$ 113,000 -rrb- to wenchuan county . 
the red cross society of china flew 557 tents and 2,500 quilts valued at 788,000 yuan -lrb- us$ 113,000 -rrb- to wenchuan county . 
the red cross society of china flew 557 tents and 2,500 quilts valued at 788,000 yuan -lrb- us$ 113,000 -rrb- to wenchuan county . 
the red cross society of china flew 557 tents and 2,500 quilts valued at 788,000 yuan -lrb- us$ 113,000 -rrb- to wenchuan county . 
the sichuan ministry of civil affairs said that they have provided 30,000 tents for those left homeless . 
the red cross society of china flew 557 tents and 2,500 quilts valued at 788,000 yuan -lrb- us$ 113,000 -rrb- to wenchuan county . 
the amity foundation already began relief work in the region and has earmarked us$ 143,000 for disaster relief . 
the sichuan ministry of civil affairs said that they have provided 30,000 tents for those left homeless . 
the sichuan ministry of civil affairs said that they have provided 30,000 tents for those left homeless . 
the amity foundation already began relief work in the region and has earmarked us$ 143,000 for disaster relief . 
the central government estimates that over 7,000 inadequately engineered schoolrooms collapsed in the earthquake . 
chinese citizens have since invented a catch phrase : `` tofu-dregs schoolhouses '' -lrb- chinese : 豆腐渣校舍 -rrb- , to mock both the quality and the quantity of these inferior constructions that killed so many school children . 
the central government estimates that over 7,000 inadequately engineered schoolrooms collapsed in the earthquake . 
the central government estimates that over 7,000 inadequately engineered schoolrooms collapsed in the earthquake . 
chinese citizens have since invented a catch phrase : `` tofu-dregs schoolhouses '' -lrb- chinese : 豆腐渣校舍 -rrb- , to mock both the quality and the quantity of these inferior constructions that killed so many school children . 
so-called `` illegal children '' under 18 years of age may be registered as legal replacements for their dead siblings ; if the dead child was illegal , no further outstanding fines would apply . 
on the evening of may 18 , cctv-1 hosted a special four-hour program called the giving of love -lrb- simplified chinese : 爱的奉献 ; traditional chinese : 愛的奉獻 -rrb- , hosted by regulars from the cctv new year 's gala and round-the-clock coverage anchor bai yansong . 
on the evening of may 18 , cctv-1 hosted a special four-hour program called the giving of love -lrb- simplified chinese : 爱的奉献 ; traditional chinese : 愛的奉獻 -rrb- , hosted by regulars from the cctv new year 's gala and round-the-clock coverage anchor bai yansong . 
donations of the evening totalled 1.5 billion chinese yuan -lrb- ~ us$ 208 million -rrb- . 
in june , hong kong actor jackie chan , who donated $ 1.57 million to the victims , made a music video alongside other artists entitled `` promise '' ; the song was composed by andy lau . 
in june , hong kong actor jackie chan , who donated $ 1.57 million to the victims , made a music video alongside other artists entitled `` promise '' ; the song was composed by andy lau . 
on the evening of may 18 , cctv-1 hosted a special four-hour program called the giving of love -lrb- simplified chinese : 爱的奉献 ; traditional chinese : 愛的奉獻 -rrb- , hosted by regulars from the cctv new year 's gala and round-the-clock coverage anchor bai yansong . 
donations of the evening totalled 1.5 billion chinese yuan -lrb- ~ us$ 208 million -rrb- . 
on the evening of may 18 , cctv-1 hosted a special four-hour program called the giving of love -lrb- simplified chinese : 爱的奉献 ; traditional chinese : 愛的奉獻 -rrb- , hosted by regulars from the cctv new year 's gala and round-the-clock coverage anchor bai yansong . 
in june , hong kong actor jackie chan , who donated $ 1.57 million to the victims , made a music video alongside other artists entitled `` promise '' ; the song was composed by andy lau . 
in june , hong kong actor jackie chan , who donated $ 1.57 million to the victims , made a music video alongside other artists entitled `` promise '' ; the song was composed by andy lau . 
china 's openness during the media coverage of the sichuan earthquake led a professor at the peking university to say , `` this is the first time -lsb- that -rsb- the chinese media has lived up to international standards '' . 
rescue efforts performed by the chinese government were praised by western media , especially in comparison with myanmar 's blockage of foreign aid during cyclone nargis , as well as china 's previous performance during the 1976 tangshan earthquake . 
china 's openness during the media coverage of the sichuan earthquake led a professor at the peking university to say , `` this is the first time -lsb- that -rsb- the chinese media has lived up to international standards '' . 
los angeles times praised china 's media coverage of the quake of being `` democratic '' . 
rescue efforts performed by the chinese government were praised by western media , especially in comparison with myanmar 's blockage of foreign aid during cyclone nargis , as well as china 's previous performance during the 1976 tangshan earthquake . 
as a result of the magnitude 7.9 earthquake and the many strong aftershocks , many rivers became blocked by large landslides , which resulted in the formation of `` quake lakes '' behind the blockages ; these massive amounts of water were pooling up at a very high rate behind the natural landslide dams and it was feared that the blockages would eventually crumble under the weight of the ever-increasing water mass , potentially endangering the lives of millions of people living downstream . 
as of may 27 , 2008 , 34 lakes had formed due to earthquake debris blocking and damming rivers , and it was estimated that 28 of them were still of potential danger to the local people . 
as of may 27 , 2008 , 34 lakes had formed due to earthquake debris blocking and damming rivers , and it was estimated that 28 of them were still of potential danger to the local people . 
as a result of the magnitude 7.9 earthquake and the many strong aftershocks , many rivers became blocked by large landslides , which resulted in the formation of `` quake lakes '' behind the blockages ; these massive amounts of water were pooling up at a very high rate behind the natural landslide dams and it was feared that the blockages would eventually crumble under the weight of the ever-increasing water mass , potentially endangering the lives of millions of people living downstream . 
as a result of the magnitude 7.9 earthquake and the many strong aftershocks , many rivers became blocked by large landslides , which resulted in the formation of `` quake lakes '' behind the blockages ; these massive amounts of water were pooling up at a very high rate behind the natural landslide dams and it was feared that the blockages would eventually crumble under the weight of the ever-increasing water mass , potentially endangering the lives of millions of people living downstream . 
as a result of the magnitude 7.9 earthquake and the many strong aftershocks , many rivers became blocked by large landslides , which resulted in the formation of `` quake lakes '' behind the blockages ; these massive amounts of water were pooling up at a very high rate behind the natural landslide dams and it was feared that the blockages would eventually crumble under the weight of the ever-increasing water mass , potentially endangering the lives of millions of people living downstream . 
as of may 27 , 2008 , 34 lakes had formed due to earthquake debris blocking and damming rivers , and it was estimated that 28 of them were still of potential danger to the local people . 
entire villages had to be evacuated because of the resultant flooding . 
the most precarious of these quake-lakes was the one located in the extremely difficult terrain at mount tangjia in beichuan county , sichuan , accessible only by foot or air ; an mi-26t heavy lift helicopter belonging to the china flying dragon special aviation company was used to bring heavy earthmoving tractors to the affected location . 
the most precarious of these quake-lakes was the one located in the extremely difficult terrain at mount tangjia in beichuan county , sichuan , accessible only by foot or air ; an mi-26t heavy lift helicopter belonging to the china flying dragon special aviation company was used to bring heavy earthmoving tractors to the affected location . 
the most precarious of these quake-lakes was the one located in the extremely difficult terrain at mount tangjia in beichuan county , sichuan , accessible only by foot or air ; an mi-26t heavy lift helicopter belonging to the china flying dragon special aviation company was used to bring heavy earthmoving tractors to the affected location . 
downstream , more than 200,000 people were evacuated from mianyang by june 1 in anticipation of the dam bursting . 
downstream , more than 200,000 people were evacuated from mianyang by june 1 in anticipation of the dam bursting . 
the most precarious of these quake-lakes was the one located in the extremely difficult terrain at mount tangjia in beichuan county , sichuan , accessible only by foot or air ; an mi-26t heavy lift helicopter belonging to the china flying dragon special aviation company was used to bring heavy earthmoving tractors to the affected location . 
the most precarious of these quake-lakes was the one located in the extremely difficult terrain at mount tangjia in beichuan county , sichuan , accessible only by foot or air ; an mi-26t heavy lift helicopter belonging to the china flying dragon special aviation company was used to bring heavy earthmoving tractors to the affected location . 
this operation was coupled with the work done by plaaf mi-17 helicopters bringing in pla engineering corps , explosive specialists and other personnel to join 1,200 soldiers who arrived on site by foot . 
the state council declared a three-day period of national mourning for the quake victims starting from may 19 , 2008 ; the prc 's national flag and regional flags of hong kong and macau special administrative regions flown at half mast . 
the state council declared a three-day period of national mourning for the quake victims starting from may 19 , 2008 ; the prc 's national flag and regional flags of hong kong and macau special administrative regions flown at half mast . 
it was the first time that a national mourning period had been declared for something other than the death of a state leader , and many have called it the biggest display of mourning since the death of mao zedong . 
the state council declared a three-day period of national mourning for the quake victims starting from may 19 , 2008 ; the prc 's national flag and regional flags of hong kong and macau special administrative regions flown at half mast . 
cars and trucks on beijing 's roads also came to a halt . 
the state council declared a three-day period of national mourning for the quake victims starting from may 19 , 2008 ; the prc 's national flag and regional flags of hong kong and macau special administrative regions flown at half mast . 
the ningbo organizing committee of the beijing olympic torch relay announced that the relay , scheduled to take place in ningbo during national morning , would be suspended for the duration of the mourning period . 
the ningbo organizing committee of the beijing olympic torch relay announced that the relay , scheduled to take place in ningbo during national morning , would be suspended for the duration of the mourning period . 
the ningbo organizing committee of the beijing olympic torch relay announced that the relay , scheduled to take place in ningbo during national morning , would be suspended for the duration of the mourning period . 
the ningbo organizing committee of the beijing olympic torch relay announced that the relay , scheduled to take place in ningbo during national morning , would be suspended for the duration of the mourning period . 
the route of the torch through the country was scaled down , and there was a minute of silence when the next leg started in city of ruijin , jiangxi on the wednesday after the quake . 
the route of the torch through the country was scaled down , and there was a minute of silence when the next leg started in city of ruijin , jiangxi on the wednesday after the quake . 
many websites converted their home page to black and white ; sina.com and sohu , major internet portals , limited their homepages to news items and removed all advertisements . 
many websites converted their home page to black and white ; sina.com and sohu , major internet portals , limited their homepages to news items and removed all advertisements . 
other entertainment websites , including various gaming sites , such as the chinese servers for world of warcraft , had shut down altogether , or had corresponding links to earthquake donations . 
after the moments of silence , in tiananmen square , crowds spontaneously burst out cheering various slogans , including `` long live china '' . 
casinos in macau closed down . 
ye zhiping , the principal of sangzao middle school in sangzao , one of the largest in an county , has been credited with proactive action that spared the lives of all 2,323 pupils in attendance when the earthquake happened . 
ye zhiping , the principal of sangzao middle school in sangzao , one of the largest in an county , has been credited with proactive action that spared the lives of all 2,323 pupils in attendance when the earthquake happened . 
ye zhiping , the principal of sangzao middle school in sangzao , one of the largest in an county , has been credited with proactive action that spared the lives of all 2,323 pupils in attendance when the earthquake happened . 
during that time he obtained more than 400,000 yuan -lrb- us$ 60,000 -rrb- from the county education department , money used to widen and strengthen concrete pillars and the balcony railing of all four storeys of his school , as well as secure its concrete floors . 
ye zhiping , the principal of sangzao middle school in sangzao , one of the largest in an county , has been credited with proactive action that spared the lives of all 2,323 pupils in attendance when the earthquake happened . 
ye zhiping , the principal of sangzao middle school in sangzao , one of the largest in an county , has been credited with proactive action that spared the lives of all 2,323 pupils in attendance when the earthquake happened . 
ye zhiping , the principal of sangzao middle school in sangzao , one of the largest in an county , has been credited with proactive action that spared the lives of all 2,323 pupils in attendance when the earthquake happened . 
during a three-year period that ended in 2007 , he oversaw a major overhaul of his school . 
however , reuters reported in june that , to date , chinese prosecutors have joined an official inquiry into ten collapsed schools during may 's devastating earthquake to gain first-hand material of construction quality at the collapsed schools , launch preliminary inquiries and prepare for possible investigations into professional crime . 
it was also reported that safety checks were to be carried out at schools across china after last month 's earthquake . 
however , reuters reported in june that , to date , chinese prosecutors have joined an official inquiry into ten collapsed schools during may 's devastating earthquake to gain first-hand material of construction quality at the collapsed schools , launch preliminary inquiries and prepare for possible investigations into professional crime . 
however , reuters reported in june that , to date , chinese prosecutors have joined an official inquiry into ten collapsed schools during may 's devastating earthquake to gain first-hand material of construction quality at the collapsed schools , launch preliminary inquiries and prepare for possible investigations into professional crime . 
it was also reported that safety checks were to be carried out at schools across china after last month 's earthquake . 
however , reuters reported in june that , to date , chinese prosecutors have joined an official inquiry into ten collapsed schools during may 's devastating earthquake to gain first-hand material of construction quality at the collapsed schools , launch preliminary inquiries and prepare for possible investigations into professional crime . 
to limit protests , officials pushed parents to sign a document , which forbade them from holding protests , in exchange of money , but some who refused to sign were threatened . 
furthermore , officials used other methods of silencing : riot police officers broke up protests by parents ; the authorities set up cordons around the schools ; and officials ordered the chinese news media to stop reporting on school collapses . 
the new york times reported that `` government officials in beijing and sichuan have said they are investigating the collapses . 
to limit protests , officials pushed parents to sign a document , which forbade them from holding protests , in exchange of money , but some who refused to sign were threatened . 
to limit protests , officials pushed parents to sign a document , which forbade them from holding protests , in exchange of money , but some who refused to sign were threatened . 
to limit protests , officials pushed parents to sign a document , which forbade them from holding protests , in exchange of money , but some who refused to sign were threatened . 
furthermore , officials used other methods of silencing : riot police officers broke up protests by parents ; the authorities set up cordons around the schools ; and officials ordered the chinese news media to stop reporting on school collapses . 
besides parents , liu shaokun -lrb- 刘绍坤 -rrb- , a sichuan school teacher , was detained on june 25 , 2008 for `` disseminating rumors and destroying social order '' about the sichuan earthquake . 
liu 's family was later told that he was being investigated on suspicion of the crime of inciting subversion . 
besides parents , liu shaokun -lrb- 刘绍坤 -rrb- , a sichuan school teacher , was detained on june 25 , 2008 for `` disseminating rumors and destroying social order '' about the sichuan earthquake . 
liu 's family was later told that he was being investigated on suspicion of the crime of inciting subversion . 
liu had travelled to the shifang , taken photos of collapsed school buildings , and put them online . 
he had also expressed his anger at `` the shoddy tofu-dregs buildings '' -lrb- 豆腐渣工程 -rrb- in a media interview . 
he was ordered to serve one year of re-education through labor -lrb- rtl -rrb- . 
in january 2010 , hong kong-based english newspaper the standard reported that writer tan zuoren attempted to document shoddy construction that may have led to massive casualties in schools , was sentenced to in prison ostensibly for his writing an article in 2007 in support of the pro-democracy movement in 1989 . 
in january 2010 , hong kong-based english newspaper the standard reported that writer tan zuoren attempted to document shoddy construction that may have led to massive casualties in schools , was sentenced to in prison ostensibly for his writing an article in 2007 in support of the pro-democracy movement in 1989 . 
in january 2010 , hong kong-based english newspaper the standard reported that writer tan zuoren attempted to document shoddy construction that may have led to massive casualties in schools , was sentenced to in prison ostensibly for his writing an article in 2007 in support of the pro-democracy movement in 1989 . 
on may 14 , unicef reported that china formally requested the support of the international community to respond to the needs of affected families . 
because of the magnitude of the quake , and the media attention on china , foreign nations and organizations immediately responded to the disaster by offering condolences and assistance . 
on may 14 , unicef reported that china formally requested the support of the international community to respond to the needs of affected families . 
on may 14 , unicef reported that china formally requested the support of the international community to respond to the needs of affected families . 
because of the magnitude of the quake , and the media attention on china , foreign nations and organizations immediately responded to the disaster by offering condolences and assistance . 
houston rockets center yao ming , one of the country 's most popular sports icons , gave $ 214,000 and $ 71,000 to the red cross society of china . 
the association has also collected a total of $ 26 million in donations so far . 
by may 14 , the ministry of civil affairs stated that 10.7 billion yuan -lrb- approximately us$ 1.5 billion -rrb- had been donated by the chinese public . 
by may 14 , the ministry of civil affairs stated that 10.7 billion yuan -lrb- approximately us$ 1.5 billion -rrb- had been donated by the chinese public . 
houston rockets center yao ming , one of the country 's most popular sports icons , gave $ 214,000 and $ 71,000 to the red cross society of china . 
the association has also collected a total of $ 26 million in donations so far . 
francis marcus of the international federation of the red cross praised the chinese rescue effort as `` swift and very efficient '' in beijing on tuesday . 
the economist noted that china reacted to the disaster `` rapidly and with uncharacteristic openness '' , contrasting it with burma 's secretive response to cyclone nargis , which devastated that country 10 days before the earthquake . 
the economist noted that china reacted to the disaster `` rapidly and with uncharacteristic openness '' , contrasting it with burma 's secretive response to cyclone nargis , which devastated that country 10 days before the earthquake . 
the economist noted that china reacted to the disaster `` rapidly and with uncharacteristic openness '' , contrasting it with burma 's secretive response to cyclone nargis , which devastated that country 10 days before the earthquake . 
francis marcus of the international federation of the red cross praised the chinese rescue effort as `` swift and very efficient '' in beijing on tuesday . 
all mainland chinese television stations -lrb- along with some stations in hong kong and expatriate communities -rrb- cancelled all regularly-scheduled programming , displayed their logo in grayscale , and replaced their cancelled programmes with live earthquake footage from cctv-1 for multiple days after the quake . 
all mainland chinese television stations -lrb- along with some stations in hong kong and expatriate communities -rrb- cancelled all regularly-scheduled programming , displayed their logo in grayscale , and replaced their cancelled programmes with live earthquake footage from cctv-1 for multiple days after the quake . 
even pay television channels -lrb- such as channel v -rrb- had their programmes suspended . 
although the chinese government was initially praised for its response to the quake -lrb- especially in comparison to myanmar 's ruling military junta 's blockade of aid during cyclone nargis -rrb- , it then saw an erosion in confidence over the school construction scandal . 
although the chinese government was initially praised for its response to the quake -lrb- especially in comparison to myanmar 's ruling military junta 's blockade of aid during cyclone nargis -rrb- , it then saw an erosion in confidence over the school construction scandal . 
although the chinese government was initially praised for its response to the quake -lrb- especially in comparison to myanmar 's ruling military junta 's blockade of aid during cyclone nargis -rrb- , it then saw an erosion in confidence over the school construction scandal . 
thousands of parents around the province have accused local officials and builders of cutting corners in school construction , citing that after the quake other nearby buildings were little damaged . 
in the aftermath of the quake , many local governments promised to formally investigate the school collapses , but as of july 17 , 2008 across sichuan , parents of children lost in collapsed schools complained they had yet to receive any reports . 
furthermore , censors discouraged stories of poorly built schools from being published in the media and there was an incident where police drove the protestors away . 
the ap reported that `` the state-controlled media has largely ignored the issue , apparently under the propaganda bureau 's instructions . 
the ap reported that `` the state-controlled media has largely ignored the issue , apparently under the propaganda bureau 's instructions . 
the ap reported that `` the state-controlled media has largely ignored the issue , apparently under the propaganda bureau 's instructions . 
on may 15 , 2008 geoffery york of the globeandmail.com reported that the shoddily constructed buildings are commonly called `` tofu buildings '' because builders cut corners by replacing steel rods with thin iron wires for concrete re-inforcement ; using inferior grade cement , if any at all ; and using fewer bricks than they should . 
on may 15 , 2008 geoffery york of the globeandmail.com reported that the shoddily constructed buildings are commonly called `` tofu buildings '' because builders cut corners by replacing steel rods with thin iron wires for concrete re-inforcement ; using inferior grade cement , if any at all ; and using fewer bricks than they should . 
one local was quoted in the article as saying that `` the supervising agencies did not check to see if it met the national standards . '' 
however questions still remain , as some of the corrupt government officials have still not been brought to justice , while the many families who lost their only child , are still seeking compensation and justice to what had happened . 
however questions still remain , as some of the corrupt government officials have still not been brought to justice , while the many families who lost their only child , are still seeking compensation and justice to what had happened . 
according to the times , many parents were warned by the government not to stage a protest under the threat of arrest . 
according to the times , many parents were warned by the government not to stage a protest under the threat of arrest . 
however questions still remain , as some of the corrupt government officials have still not been brought to justice , while the many families who lost their only child , are still seeking compensation and justice to what had happened . 
new york -- often called new york city or the city of new york to distinguish it from the state of new york , of which it is a part -- is the most populous city in the united states and the center of the new york metropolitan area , the premier gateway for legal immigration to the united states and one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world . 
new york -- often called new york city or the city of new york to distinguish it from the state of new york , of which it is a part -- is the most populous city in the united states and the center of the new york metropolitan area , the premier gateway for legal immigration to the united states and one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world . 
new york -- often called new york city or the city of new york to distinguish it from the state of new york , of which it is a part -- is the most populous city in the united states and the center of the new york metropolitan area , the premier gateway for legal immigration to the united states and one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world . 
new york -- often called new york city or the city of new york to distinguish it from the state of new york , of which it is a part -- is the most populous city in the united states and the center of the new york metropolitan area , the premier gateway for legal immigration to the united states and one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world . 
new york -- often called new york city or the city of new york to distinguish it from the state of new york , of which it is a part -- is the most populous city in the united states and the center of the new york metropolitan area , the premier gateway for legal immigration to the united states and one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world . 
new york -- often called new york city or the city of new york to distinguish it from the state of new york , of which it is a part -- is the most populous city in the united states and the center of the new york metropolitan area , the premier gateway for legal immigration to the united states and one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world . 
situated on one of the world 's largest natural harbors , new york city consists of five boroughs , each of which is a separate county of new york state . 
the five boroughs -- brooklyn , queens , manhattan , the bronx , and staten island -- were consolidated into a single city in 1898 . 
with a census-estimated 2014 population of 8,491,079 distributed over a land area of just 305 square miles -lrb- 790 km2 -rrb- , new york is the most densely populated major city in the united states . 
with a census-estimated 2014 population of 8,491,079 distributed over a land area of just 305 square miles -lrb- 790 km2 -rrb- , new york is the most densely populated major city in the united states . 
by 2014 census estimates , the new york city metropolitan region remains by a significant margin the most populous in the united states , as defined by both the metropolitan statistical area -lrb- 20.1 million residents -rrb- and the combined statistical area -lrb- 23.6 million residents -rrb- . 
situated on one of the world 's largest natural harbors , new york city consists of five boroughs , each of which is a separate county of new york state . 
the five boroughs -- brooklyn , queens , manhattan , the bronx , and staten island -- were consolidated into a single city in 1898 . 
the five boroughs -- brooklyn , queens , manhattan , the bronx , and staten island -- were consolidated into a single city in 1898 . 
with a census-estimated 2014 population of 8,491,079 distributed over a land area of just 305 square miles -lrb- 790 km2 -rrb- , new york is the most densely populated major city in the united states . 
as many as 800 languages are spoken in new york , making it the most linguistically diverse city in the world . 
new york city traces its roots to its 1624 founding as a trading post by colonists of the dutch republic and was named new amsterdam in 1626 . 
new york city traces its roots to its 1624 founding as a trading post by colonists of the dutch republic and was named new amsterdam in 1626 . 
new york served as the capital of the united states from 1785 until 1790 . 
the city and its surroundings came under english control in 1664 . 
new york served as the capital of the united states from 1785 until 1790 . 
new york city traces its roots to its 1624 founding as a trading post by colonists of the dutch republic and was named new amsterdam in 1626 . 
new york city traces its roots to its 1624 founding as a trading post by colonists of the dutch republic and was named new amsterdam in 1626 . 
the city and its surroundings came under english control in 1664 . 
new york served as the capital of the united states from 1785 until 1790 . 
many districts and landmarks in new york city have become well known , and the city received a record 56 million tourists in 2014 , hosting three of the world 's ten most visited tourist attractions in 2013 . 
providing continuous 24/7 service , the new york city subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide , with 469 stations in operation . 
anchored by wall street in the financial district of lower manhattan , new york city has been called both the most economically powerful city and the leading financial center of the world , and the city is home to the world 's two largest stock exchanges by total market capitalization , the new york stock exchange and nasdaq . 
new york city 's higher education network comprises over 120 colleges and universities , including columbia university , new york university , and rockefeller university , which have been ranked among the top 35 in the world . 
anchored by wall street in the financial district of lower manhattan , new york city has been called both the most economically powerful city and the leading financial center of the world , and the city is home to the world 's two largest stock exchanges by total market capitalization , the new york stock exchange and nasdaq . 
later on , the ice sheet would help split apart what are now long island and staten island . 
during the wisconsinan glaciation , the new york city region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth . 
during the wisconsinan glaciation , the new york city region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth . 
in the precolonial era , the area of present-day new york city was inhabited by various bands of algonquian tribes of native americans , including the lenape , whose homeland , known as lenapehoking , included staten island ; the western portion of long island , including the area that would become brooklyn and queens ; manhattan ; the bronx ; and the lower hudson valley . 
the first documented visit by a european was in 1524 by giovanni da verrazzano , a florentine explorer in the service of the french crown , who sailed his ship la dauphine into new york harbor . 
the first documented visit by a european was in 1524 by giovanni da verrazzano , a florentine explorer in the service of the french crown , who sailed his ship la dauphine into new york harbor . 
the first documented visit by a european was in 1524 by giovanni da verrazzano , a florentine explorer in the service of the french crown , who sailed his ship la dauphine into new york harbor . 
he claimed the area for france and named it `` nouvelle angoulême '' -lrb- new angoulême -rrb- . 
he claimed the area for france and named it `` nouvelle angoulême '' -lrb- new angoulême -rrb- . 
the first documented visit by a european was in 1524 by giovanni da verrazzano , a florentine explorer in the service of the french crown , who sailed his ship la dauphine into new york harbor . 
the first documented visit by a european was in 1524 by giovanni da verrazzano , a florentine explorer in the service of the french crown , who sailed his ship la dauphine into new york harbor . 
he claimed the area for france and named it `` nouvelle angoulême '' -lrb- new angoulême -rrb- . 
a spanish expedition led by captain estêvão gomes , a portuguese sailing for emperor charles v , arrived in new york harbor in january 1525 aboard the purpose-built caravel `` la anunciada '' and charted the mouth of the hudson river , which he named rio de san antonio . 
a spanish expedition led by captain estêvão gomes , a portuguese sailing for emperor charles v , arrived in new york harbor in january 1525 aboard the purpose-built caravel `` la anunciada '' and charted the mouth of the hudson river , which he named rio de san antonio . 
a spanish expedition led by captain estêvão gomes , a portuguese sailing for emperor charles v , arrived in new york harbor in january 1525 aboard the purpose-built caravel `` la anunciada '' and charted the mouth of the hudson river , which he named rio de san antonio . 
a spanish expedition led by captain estêvão gomes , a portuguese sailing for emperor charles v , arrived in new york harbor in january 1525 aboard the purpose-built caravel `` la anunciada '' and charted the mouth of the hudson river , which he named rio de san antonio . 
a spanish expedition led by captain estêvão gomes , a portuguese sailing for emperor charles v , arrived in new york harbor in january 1525 aboard the purpose-built caravel `` la anunciada '' and charted the mouth of the hudson river , which he named rio de san antonio . 
a spanish expedition led by captain estêvão gomes , a portuguese sailing for emperor charles v , arrived in new york harbor in january 1525 aboard the purpose-built caravel `` la anunciada '' and charted the mouth of the hudson river , which he named rio de san antonio . 
the first scientific map to show the north american east coast continuously , the 1527 world map known as the padrón real , was informed by gomes ' expedition , and labeled the northeast as tierra de esteban gómez in his honor . 
in 1609 , english explorer henry hudson re-discovered the region when he sailed his ship the halve maen -lrb- `` half moon '' in dutch -rrb- into new york harbor while searching for the northwest passage to the orient for his employer , the dutch east india company . 
in 1609 , english explorer henry hudson re-discovered the region when he sailed his ship the halve maen -lrb- `` half moon '' in dutch -rrb- into new york harbor while searching for the northwest passage to the orient for his employer , the dutch east india company . 
in 1614 , the area between cape cod and delaware bay would be claimed by the netherlands and called nieuw-nederland -lrb- new netherland -rrb- . 
he made a ten-day exploration of the area and claimed the region for his employer . 
he proceeded to sail up what he named the north river , also called the mauritis river , and now known as the hudson river , to the site of the present-day new york state capital of albany in the belief that it might represent an oceanic tributary . 
in 1609 , english explorer henry hudson re-discovered the region when he sailed his ship the halve maen -lrb- `` half moon '' in dutch -rrb- into new york harbor while searching for the northwest passage to the orient for his employer , the dutch east india company . 
in 1614 , the area between cape cod and delaware bay would be claimed by the netherlands and called nieuw-nederland -lrb- new netherland -rrb- . 
in 1609 , english explorer henry hudson re-discovered the region when he sailed his ship the halve maen -lrb- `` half moon '' in dutch -rrb- into new york harbor while searching for the northwest passage to the orient for his employer , the dutch east india company . 
born in santo domingo of portuguese and african descent , he arrived in manhattan during the winter of 1613 -- 1614 , trapping for pelts and trading with the local population as a representative of the dutch . 
the first non-native american inhabitant of what would eventually become new york city was dominican trader juan rodriguez -lrb- transliterated to dutch as jan rodrigues -rrb- . 
the first non-native american inhabitant of what would eventually become new york city was dominican trader juan rodriguez -lrb- transliterated to dutch as jan rodrigues -rrb- . 
broadway , from 159th street to 218th street , is named juan rodriguez way in his honor . 
born in santo domingo of portuguese and african descent , he arrived in manhattan during the winter of 1613 -- 1614 , trapping for pelts and trading with the local population as a representative of the dutch . 
the first non-native american inhabitant of what would eventually become new york city was dominican trader juan rodriguez -lrb- transliterated to dutch as jan rodrigues -rrb- . 
broadway , from 159th street to 218th street , is named juan rodriguez way in his honor . 
a permanent european presence in new netherland began in 1624 -- making new york the 12th oldest continuously occupied european-established settlement in the continental united states -- with the founding of a dutch fur trading settlement on governors island . 
in 1625 , construction was started on a citadel and a fort amsterdam on manhattan island , later called new amsterdam -lrb- nieuw amsterdam -rrb- . 
in 1625 , construction was started on a citadel and a fort amsterdam on manhattan island , later called new amsterdam -lrb- nieuw amsterdam -rrb- . 
the dutch colonial director-general peter minuit purchased the island of manhattan from the canarsie , a small band of the lenape , in 1626 for a value of 60 guilders -lrb- about $ 1000 in 2006 -rrb- ; a disproved legend says that manhattan was purchased for $ 24 worth of glass beads . 
the dutch colonial director-general peter minuit purchased the island of manhattan from the canarsie , a small band of the lenape , in 1626 for a value of 60 guilders -lrb- about $ 1000 in 2006 -rrb- ; a disproved legend says that manhattan was purchased for $ 24 worth of glass beads . 
a permanent european presence in new netherland began in 1624 -- making new york the 12th oldest continuously occupied european-established settlement in the continental united states -- with the founding of a dutch fur trading settlement on governors island . 
in 1625 , construction was started on a citadel and a fort amsterdam on manhattan island , later called new amsterdam -lrb- nieuw amsterdam -rrb- . 
the dutch colonial director-general peter minuit purchased the island of manhattan from the canarsie , a small band of the lenape , in 1626 for a value of 60 guilders -lrb- about $ 1000 in 2006 -rrb- ; a disproved legend says that manhattan was purchased for $ 24 worth of glass beads . 
the english promptly renamed the fledgling city `` new york '' after the duke of york -lrb- later king james ii -rrb- . 
the english promptly renamed the fledgling city `` new york '' after the duke of york -lrb- later king james ii -rrb- . 
in 1664 , peter stuyvesant , the director-general of the colony of new netherland , surrendered new amsterdam to the english without bloodshed . 
in 1664 , peter stuyvesant , the director-general of the colony of new netherland , surrendered new amsterdam to the english without bloodshed . 
in 1664 , peter stuyvesant , the director-general of the colony of new netherland , surrendered new amsterdam to the english without bloodshed . 
in 1664 , peter stuyvesant , the director-general of the colony of new netherland , surrendered new amsterdam to the english without bloodshed . 
on august 24 , 1673 , dutch captain anthonio colve took over the colony of new york from england and rechristened it `` new orange '' to honor the prince of orange , king william iii . 
on august 24 , 1673 , dutch captain anthonio colve took over the colony of new york from england and rechristened it `` new orange '' to honor the prince of orange , king william iii . 
on august 24 , 1673 , dutch captain anthonio colve took over the colony of new york from england and rechristened it `` new orange '' to honor the prince of orange , king william iii . 
however , facing defeat from the british and french , who had teamed up to destroy dutch trading routes , the dutch returned the island to england in 1674 . 
on august 24 , 1673 , dutch captain anthonio colve took over the colony of new york from england and rechristened it `` new orange '' to honor the prince of orange , king william iii . 
on august 24 , 1673 , dutch captain anthonio colve took over the colony of new york from england and rechristened it `` new orange '' to honor the prince of orange , king william iii . 
on august 24 , 1673 , dutch captain anthonio colve took over the colony of new york from england and rechristened it `` new orange '' to honor the prince of orange , king william iii . 
at the end of the second anglo-dutch war , the english gained new amsterdam -lrb- new york -rrb- in north america in exchange for dutch control of run , an indonesian island . 
by 1700 , the lenape population had diminished to 200 . 
at the end of the second anglo-dutch war , the english gained new amsterdam -lrb- new york -rrb- in north america in exchange for dutch control of run , an indonesian island . 
by 1700 , the lenape population had diminished to 200 . 
at the end of the second anglo-dutch war , the english gained new amsterdam -lrb- new york -rrb- in north america in exchange for dutch control of run , an indonesian island . 
it also became a center of slavery , with 42 % of households holding slaves by 1730 , more than any other city other than charleston , south carolina . 
it also became a center of slavery , with 42 % of households holding slaves by 1730 , more than any other city other than charleston , south carolina . 
discovery of the african burying ground in the 1990s , during construction of a new federal courthouse near foley square , revealed that tens of thousands of africans had been buried in the area in the colonial years . 
discovery of the african burying ground in the 1990s , during construction of a new federal courthouse near foley square , revealed that tens of thousands of africans had been buried in the area in the colonial years . 
it also became a center of slavery , with 42 % of households holding slaves by 1730 , more than any other city other than charleston , south carolina . 
discovery of the african burying ground in the 1990s , during construction of a new federal courthouse near foley square , revealed that tens of thousands of africans had been buried in the area in the colonial years . 
the trial in manhattan of john peter zenger in 1735 helped to establish the freedom of the press in north america . 
the trial in manhattan of john peter zenger in 1735 helped to establish the freedom of the press in north america . 
in 1754 , columbia university was founded under charter by king george ii as king 's college in lower manhattan . 
in 1754 , columbia university was founded under charter by king george ii as king 's college in lower manhattan . 
in 1754 , columbia university was founded under charter by king george ii as king 's college in lower manhattan . 
the trial in manhattan of john peter zenger in 1735 helped to establish the freedom of the press in north america . 
in 1754 , columbia university was founded under charter by king george ii as king 's college in lower manhattan . 
the stamp act congress met in new york in october 1765 as the sons of liberty organized in the city , skirmishing over the next ten years with british troops stationed there . 
the battle of long island , the largest battle of the american revolutionary war , was fought in august 1776 entirely within the modern-day borough of brooklyn . 
the battle of long island , the largest battle of the american revolutionary war , was fought in august 1776 entirely within the modern-day borough of brooklyn . 
the battle of long island , the largest battle of the american revolutionary war , was fought in august 1776 entirely within the modern-day borough of brooklyn . 
as many as 10,000 escaped slaves crowded into the city during the british occupation . 
when the british forces evacuated at the close of the war in 1783 , they transported 3,000 freedmen for resettlement in nova scotia . 
the battle of long island , the largest battle of the american revolutionary war , was fought in august 1776 entirely within the modern-day borough of brooklyn . 
the battle of long island , the largest battle of the american revolutionary war , was fought in august 1776 entirely within the modern-day borough of brooklyn . 
when the british forces evacuated at the close of the war in 1783 , they transported 3,000 freedmen for resettlement in nova scotia . 
the only attempt at a peaceful solution to the war took place at the conference house on staten island between american delegates , including benjamin franklin , and british general lord howe on september 11 , 1776 . 
the only attempt at a peaceful solution to the war took place at the conference house on staten island between american delegates , including benjamin franklin , and british general lord howe on september 11 , 1776 . 
shortly after the british occupation began , the great fire of new york occurred , a large conflagration on the west side of lower manhattan , which destroyed about a quarter of the buildings in the city , including trinity church . 
shortly after the british occupation began , the great fire of new york occurred , a large conflagration on the west side of lower manhattan , which destroyed about a quarter of the buildings in the city , including trinity church . 
shortly after the british occupation began , the great fire of new york occurred , a large conflagration on the west side of lower manhattan , which destroyed about a quarter of the buildings in the city , including trinity church . 
the only attempt at a peaceful solution to the war took place at the conference house on staten island between american delegates , including benjamin franklin , and british general lord howe on september 11 , 1776 . 
shortly after the british occupation began , the great fire of new york occurred , a large conflagration on the west side of lower manhattan , which destroyed about a quarter of the buildings in the city , including trinity church . 
in 1785 , the assembly of the congress of the confederation made new york the national capital shortly after the war . 
in 1789 , the first president of the united states , george washington , was inaugurated ; the first united states congress and the supreme court of the united states each assembled for the first time , and the united states bill of rights was drafted , all at federal hall on wall street . 
in 1789 , the first president of the united states , george washington , was inaugurated ; the first united states congress and the supreme court of the united states each assembled for the first time , and the united states bill of rights was drafted , all at federal hall on wall street . 
in 1789 , the first president of the united states , george washington , was inaugurated ; the first united states congress and the supreme court of the united states each assembled for the first time , and the united states bill of rights was drafted , all at federal hall on wall street . 
by 1790 , new york had surpassed philadelphia as the largest city in the united states . 
in 1785 , the assembly of the congress of the confederation made new york the national capital shortly after the war . 
in 1785 , the assembly of the congress of the confederation made new york the national capital shortly after the war . 
in 1789 , the first president of the united states , george washington , was inaugurated ; the first united states congress and the supreme court of the united states each assembled for the first time , and the united states bill of rights was drafted , all at federal hall on wall street . 
by 1790 , new york had surpassed philadelphia as the largest city in the united states . 
under new york state 's gradual abolition act of 1799 , children of slave mothers were born to be eventually liberated but were held in indentured servitude until their mid-to-late twenties . 
together with slaves freed by their masters after the revolutionary war and escaped slaves , a significant free-black population gradually developed in manhattan . 
under such influential united states founders as alexander hamilton and john jay , the new york manumission society worked for abolition and established the african free school to educate black children . 
it was not until 1827 that slavery was completely abolished in the state , and free blacks struggled afterward with discrimination . 
the city 's black population reached more than 16,000 in 1840 . 
under new york state 's gradual abolition act of 1799 , children of slave mothers were born to be eventually liberated but were held in indentured servitude until their mid-to-late twenties . 
it was not until 1827 that slavery was completely abolished in the state , and free blacks struggled afterward with discrimination . 
the city adopted the commissioners ' plan of 1811 , which expanded the city street grid to encompass all of manhattan . 
the 1825 completion of the erie canal through central new york connected the atlantic port to the agricultural markets and commodities of the north american interior via the hudson river and the great lakes . 
local politics became dominated by tammany hall , a political machine supported by irish and german immigrants . 
local politics became dominated by tammany hall , a political machine supported by irish and german immigrants . 
the 1825 completion of the erie canal through central new york connected the atlantic port to the agricultural markets and commodities of the north american interior via the hudson river and the great lakes . 
public-minded members of the contemporaneous business elite lobbied for the establishment of central park , which in 1857 became the first landscaped park in an american city . 
public-minded members of the contemporaneous business elite lobbied for the establishment of central park , which in 1857 became the first landscaped park in an american city . 
public-minded members of the contemporaneous business elite lobbied for the establishment of central park , which in 1857 became the first landscaped park in an american city . 
the great irish famine brought a large influx of irish immigrants . 
over 200,000 were living in new york by 1860 , upwards of a quarter of the city 's population . 
over 200,000 were living in new york by 1860 , upwards of a quarter of the city 's population . 
there was also extensive immigration from the german provinces , where revolutions had disrupted societies , and germans comprised another 25 % of new york 's population by 1860 . 
there was also extensive immigration from the german provinces , where revolutions had disrupted societies , and germans comprised another 25 % of new york 's population by 1860 . 
the great irish famine brought a large influx of irish immigrants . 
over 200,000 were living in new york by 1860 , upwards of a quarter of the city 's population . 
in 1861 , mayor fernando wood called on the aldermen to declare independence from albany and the united states after the south seceded , but his proposal was not acted on . 
anger at new military conscription laws during the american civil war -lrb- 1861 -- 1865 -rrb- , which spared wealthier men who could afford to pay a $ 300 -lrb- equivalent to $ 5,766 in 2016 -rrb- commutation fee to hire a substitute , led to the draft riots of 1863 , whose most visible participants were ethnic irish working class . 
anger at new military conscription laws during the american civil war -lrb- 1861 -- 1865 -rrb- , which spared wealthier men who could afford to pay a $ 300 -lrb- equivalent to $ 5,766 in 2016 -rrb- commutation fee to hire a substitute , led to the draft riots of 1863 , whose most visible participants were ethnic irish working class . 
according to historian james m. mcpherson -lrb- 2001 -rrb- , at least 120 people were killed . 
in all , eleven black men were lynched over five days , and the riots forced hundreds of blacks to flee the city for williamsburg , brooklyn , as well as new jersey ; the black population in manhattan fell below 10,000 by 1865 , which it had last been in 1820 . 
rioters burned the colored orphan asylum to the ground , but more than 200 children escaped harm due to efforts of the new york city police department , which was mainly made up of irish immigrants . 
in 1898 , the modern city of new york was formed with the consolidation of brooklyn -lrb- until then a separate city -rrb- , the county of new york -lrb- which then included parts of the bronx -rrb- , the county of richmond , and the western portion of the county of queens . 
the opening of the subway in 1904 , first built as separate private systems , helped bind the new city together . 
in 1898 , the modern city of new york was formed with the consolidation of brooklyn -lrb- until then a separate city -rrb- , the county of new york -lrb- which then included parts of the bronx -rrb- , the county of richmond , and the western portion of the county of queens . 
the opening of the subway in 1904 , first built as separate private systems , helped bind the new city together . 
in 1904 , the steamship general slocum caught fire in the east river , killing 1,021 people on board . 
in 1904 , the steamship general slocum caught fire in the east river , killing 1,021 people on board . 
in 1911 , the triangle shirtwaist factory fire , the city 's worst industrial disaster , took the lives of 146 garment workers and spurred the growth of the international ladies ' garment workers ' union and major improvements in factory safety standards . 
in 1911 , the triangle shirtwaist factory fire , the city 's worst industrial disaster , took the lives of 146 garment workers and spurred the growth of the international ladies ' garment workers ' union and major improvements in factory safety standards . 
in 1911 , the triangle shirtwaist factory fire , the city 's worst industrial disaster , took the lives of 146 garment workers and spurred the growth of the international ladies ' garment workers ' union and major improvements in factory safety standards . 
in 1911 , the triangle shirtwaist factory fire , the city 's worst industrial disaster , took the lives of 146 garment workers and spurred the growth of the international ladies ' garment workers ' union and major improvements in factory safety standards . 
new york 's non-white population was 36,620 in 1890 . 
the harlem renaissance of literary and cultural life flourished during the era of prohibition . 
new york 's non-white population was 36,620 in 1890 . 
new york became the most populous urbanized area in the world in the early 1920s , overtaking london . 
the metropolitan area surpassed the 10 million mark in the early 1930s , becoming the first megacity in human history . 
the difficult years of the great depression saw the election of reformer fiorello la guardia as mayor and the fall of tammany hall after eighty years of political dominance . 
the difficult years of the great depression saw the election of reformer fiorello la guardia as mayor and the fall of tammany hall after eighty years of political dominance . 
the metropolitan area surpassed the 10 million mark in the early 1930s , becoming the first megacity in human history . 
the united nations headquarters was completed in 1952 , solidifying new york 's global geopolitical influence , and the rise of abstract expressionism in the city precipitated new york 's displacement of paris as the center of the art world . 
the united nations headquarters was completed in 1952 , solidifying new york 's global geopolitical influence , and the rise of abstract expressionism in the city precipitated new york 's displacement of paris as the center of the art world . 
the united nations headquarters was completed in 1952 , solidifying new york 's global geopolitical influence , and the rise of abstract expressionism in the city precipitated new york 's displacement of paris as the center of the art world . 
the united nations headquarters was completed in 1952 , solidifying new york 's global geopolitical influence , and the rise of abstract expressionism in the city precipitated new york 's displacement of paris as the center of the art world . 
the stonewall riots were a series of spontaneous , violent demonstrations by members of the gay community against a police raid that took place in the early morning hours of june 28 , 1969 , at the stonewall inn in the greenwich village neighborhood of lower manhattan . 
the stonewall riots were a series of spontaneous , violent demonstrations by members of the gay community against a police raid that took place in the early morning hours of june 28 , 1969 , at the stonewall inn in the greenwich village neighborhood of lower manhattan . 
the stonewall riots were a series of spontaneous , violent demonstrations by members of the gay community against a police raid that took place in the early morning hours of june 28 , 1969 , at the stonewall inn in the greenwich village neighborhood of lower manhattan . 
the stonewall riots were a series of spontaneous , violent demonstrations by members of the gay community against a police raid that took place in the early morning hours of june 28 , 1969 , at the stonewall inn in the greenwich village neighborhood of lower manhattan . 
the stonewall riots were a series of spontaneous , violent demonstrations by members of the gay community against a police raid that took place in the early morning hours of june 28 , 1969 , at the stonewall inn in the greenwich village neighborhood of lower manhattan . 
the stonewall riots were a series of spontaneous , violent demonstrations by members of the gay community against a police raid that took place in the early morning hours of june 28 , 1969 , at the stonewall inn in the greenwich village neighborhood of lower manhattan . 
new york 's population reached all-time highs in the 2000 census and then again in the 2010 census . 
new york 's population reached all-time highs in the 2000 census and then again in the 2010 census . 
important new sectors , such as silicon alley , emerged in the city 's economy . 
while a resurgence in the financial industry greatly improved the city 's economic health in the 1980s , new york 's crime rate continued to increase through that decade and into the beginning of the 1990s . 
in the 1970s , job losses due to industrial restructuring caused new york city to suffer from economic problems and rising crime rates . 
in the 1970s , job losses due to industrial restructuring caused new york city to suffer from economic problems and rising crime rates . 
the city and surrounding area suffered the bulk of the economic damage and largest loss of human life in the aftermath of the september 11 , 2001 attacks when 10 of the 19 terrorists associated with al-qaeda piloted american airlines flight 11 into the north tower of the world trade center and united airlines flight 175 into the south tower of the world trade center , and later destroyed them , killing 2,192 civilians , 343 firefighters , and 71 law enforcement officers who were in the towers and in the surrounding area . 
the city and surrounding area suffered the bulk of the economic damage and largest loss of human life in the aftermath of the september 11 , 2001 attacks when 10 of the 19 terrorists associated with al-qaeda piloted american airlines flight 11 into the north tower of the world trade center and united airlines flight 175 into the south tower of the world trade center , and later destroyed them , killing 2,192 civilians , 343 firefighters , and 71 law enforcement officers who were in the towers and in the surrounding area . 
the city and surrounding area suffered the bulk of the economic damage and largest loss of human life in the aftermath of the september 11 , 2001 attacks when 10 of the 19 terrorists associated with al-qaeda piloted american airlines flight 11 into the north tower of the world trade center and united airlines flight 175 into the south tower of the world trade center , and later destroyed them , killing 2,192 civilians , 343 firefighters , and 71 law enforcement officers who were in the towers and in the surrounding area . 
the world trade center path station , which opened on july 19 , 1909 as the hudson terminal , was also destroyed in the attack . 
the new one world trade center is the tallest skyscraper in the western hemisphere and the fourth-tallest building in the world by pinnacle height , with its spire reaching a symbolic 1,776 feet -lrb- 541.3 m -rrb- in reference to the year of american independence . 
the world trade center path station , which opened on july 19 , 1909 as the hudson terminal , was also destroyed in the attack . 
the city and surrounding area suffered the bulk of the economic damage and largest loss of human life in the aftermath of the september 11 , 2001 attacks when 10 of the 19 terrorists associated with al-qaeda piloted american airlines flight 11 into the north tower of the world trade center and united airlines flight 175 into the south tower of the world trade center , and later destroyed them , killing 2,192 civilians , 343 firefighters , and 71 law enforcement officers who were in the towers and in the surrounding area . 
the city and surrounding area suffered the bulk of the economic damage and largest loss of human life in the aftermath of the september 11 , 2001 attacks when 10 of the 19 terrorists associated with al-qaeda piloted american airlines flight 11 into the north tower of the world trade center and united airlines flight 175 into the south tower of the world trade center , and later destroyed them , killing 2,192 civilians , 343 firefighters , and 71 law enforcement officers who were in the towers and in the surrounding area . 
the occupy wall street protests in zuccotti park in the financial district of lower manhattan began on september 17 , 2011 , receiving global attention and spawning the occupy movement against social and economic inequality worldwide . 
the occupy wall street protests in zuccotti park in the financial district of lower manhattan began on september 17 , 2011 , receiving global attention and spawning the occupy movement against social and economic inequality worldwide . 
the occupy wall street protests in zuccotti park in the financial district of lower manhattan began on september 17 , 2011 , receiving global attention and spawning the occupy movement against social and economic inequality worldwide . 
the occupy wall street protests in zuccotti park in the financial district of lower manhattan began on september 17 , 2011 , receiving global attention and spawning the occupy movement against social and economic inequality worldwide . 
the occupy wall street protests in zuccotti park in the financial district of lower manhattan began on september 17 , 2011 , receiving global attention and spawning the occupy movement against social and economic inequality worldwide . 
the national review , a conservative magazine published in the city since its founding by william f. buckley , jr. in 1955 , commented , `` by hearkening back to new york 's heart after 9/11 , for a moment trump transcended politics . 
the national review , a conservative magazine published in the city since its founding by william f. buckley , jr. in 1955 , commented , `` by hearkening back to new york 's heart after 9/11 , for a moment trump transcended politics . 
when one republican presidential candidate for the 2016 election ridiculed the liberalism of `` new york values '' in january 2016 , donald trump , leading in the polls , vigorously defended his city . 
when one republican presidential candidate for the 2016 election ridiculed the liberalism of `` new york values '' in january 2016 , donald trump , leading in the polls , vigorously defended his city . 
new york city is situated in the northeastern united states , in southeastern new york state , approximately halfway between washington , d.c. and boston . 
new york city is situated in the northeastern united states , in southeastern new york state , approximately halfway between washington , d.c. and boston . 
new york city is situated in the northeastern united states , in southeastern new york state , approximately halfway between washington , d.c. and boston . 
the location at the mouth of the hudson river , which feeds into a naturally sheltered harbor and then into the atlantic ocean , has helped the city grow in significance as a trading port . 
the location at the mouth of the hudson river , which feeds into a naturally sheltered harbor and then into the atlantic ocean , has helped the city grow in significance as a trading port . 
the location at the mouth of the hudson river , which feeds into a naturally sheltered harbor and then into the atlantic ocean , has helped the city grow in significance as a trading port . 
the location at the mouth of the hudson river , which feeds into a naturally sheltered harbor and then into the atlantic ocean , has helped the city grow in significance as a trading port . 
most of new york city is built on the three islands of long island , manhattan , and staten island . 
the hudson river separates the city from the u.s. state of new jersey . 
the harlem river , another tidal strait between the east and hudson rivers , separates most of manhattan from the bronx . 
the bronx river , which flows through the bronx and westchester county , is the only entirely fresh water river in the city . 
the hudson river flows through the hudson valley into new york bay . 
between new york city and troy , new york , the river is an estuary . 
the hudson river separates the city from the u.s. state of new jersey . 
the bronx river , which flows through the bronx and westchester county , is the only entirely fresh water river in the city . 
the harlem river , another tidal strait between the east and hudson rivers , separates most of manhattan from the bronx . 
the city 's land has been altered substantially by human intervention , with considerable land reclamation along the waterfronts since dutch colonial times ; reclamation is most prominent in lower manhattan , with developments such as battery park city in the 1970s and 1980s . 
the city 's total area is 468.9 square miles -lrb- 1,214 km2 -rrb- . 
164.1 sq mi -lrb- 425 km2 -rrb- of this is water and 304.8 sq mi -lrb- 789 km2 -rrb- is land . 
164.1 sq mi -lrb- 425 km2 -rrb- of this is water and 304.8 sq mi -lrb- 789 km2 -rrb- is land . 
the highest point in the city is todt hill on staten island , which , at 409.8 feet -lrb- 124.9 m -rrb- above sea level , is the highest point on the eastern seaboard south of maine . 
the highest point in the city is todt hill on staten island , which , at 409.8 feet -lrb- 124.9 m -rrb- above sea level , is the highest point on the eastern seaboard south of maine . 
the city 's total area is 468.9 square miles -lrb- 1,214 km2 -rrb- . 
164.1 sq mi -lrb- 425 km2 -rrb- of this is water and 304.8 sq mi -lrb- 789 km2 -rrb- is land . 
164.1 sq mi -lrb- 425 km2 -rrb- of this is water and 304.8 sq mi -lrb- 789 km2 -rrb- is land . 
the highest point in the city is todt hill on staten island , which , at 409.8 feet -lrb- 124.9 m -rrb- above sea level , is the highest point on the eastern seaboard south of maine . 
the highest point in the city is todt hill on staten island , which , at 409.8 feet -lrb- 124.9 m -rrb- above sea level , is the highest point on the eastern seaboard south of maine . 
new york has architecturally noteworthy buildings in a wide range of styles and from distinct time periods , from the saltbox style pieter claesen wyckoff house in brooklyn , the oldest section of which dates to 1656 , to the modern one world trade center , the skyscraper at ground zero in lower manhattan and currently the most expensive new office tower in the world . 
new york has architecturally noteworthy buildings in a wide range of styles and from distinct time periods , from the saltbox style pieter claesen wyckoff house in brooklyn , the oldest section of which dates to 1656 , to the modern one world trade center , the skyscraper at ground zero in lower manhattan and currently the most expensive new office tower in the world . 
new york has architecturally noteworthy buildings in a wide range of styles and from distinct time periods , from the saltbox style pieter claesen wyckoff house in brooklyn , the oldest section of which dates to 1656 , to the modern one world trade center , the skyscraper at ground zero in lower manhattan and currently the most expensive new office tower in the world . 
new york has architecturally noteworthy buildings in a wide range of styles and from distinct time periods , from the saltbox style pieter claesen wyckoff house in brooklyn , the oldest section of which dates to 1656 , to the modern one world trade center , the skyscraper at ground zero in lower manhattan and currently the most expensive new office tower in the world . 
new york has architecturally noteworthy buildings in a wide range of styles and from distinct time periods , from the saltbox style pieter claesen wyckoff house in brooklyn , the oldest section of which dates to 1656 , to the modern one world trade center , the skyscraper at ground zero in lower manhattan and currently the most expensive new office tower in the world . 
new york has architecturally noteworthy buildings in a wide range of styles and from distinct time periods , from the saltbox style pieter claesen wyckoff house in brooklyn , the oldest section of which dates to 1656 , to the modern one world trade center , the skyscraper at ground zero in lower manhattan and currently the most expensive new office tower in the world . 
as of 2011 , new york city had 5,937 high-rise buildings , of which 550 completed structures were at least 330 feet -lrb- 100 m -rrb- high , both second in the world after hong kong , with over 50 completed skyscrapers taller than 656 feet -lrb- 200 m -rrb- . 
as of 2011 , new york city had 5,937 high-rise buildings , of which 550 completed structures were at least 330 feet -lrb- 100 m -rrb- high , both second in the world after hong kong , with over 50 completed skyscrapers taller than 656 feet -lrb- 200 m -rrb- . 
as of 2011 , new york city had 5,937 high-rise buildings , of which 550 completed structures were at least 330 feet -lrb- 100 m -rrb- high , both second in the world after hong kong , with over 50 completed skyscrapers taller than 656 feet -lrb- 200 m -rrb- . 
these include the woolworth building -lrb- 1913 -rrb- , an early gothic revival skyscraper built with massively scaled gothic detailing . 
as of 2011 , new york city had 5,937 high-rise buildings , of which 550 completed structures were at least 330 feet -lrb- 100 m -rrb- high , both second in the world after hong kong , with over 50 completed skyscrapers taller than 656 feet -lrb- 200 m -rrb- . 
as of 2011 , new york city had 5,937 high-rise buildings , of which 550 completed structures were at least 330 feet -lrb- 100 m -rrb- high , both second in the world after hong kong , with over 50 completed skyscrapers taller than 656 feet -lrb- 200 m -rrb- . 
as of 2011 , new york city had 5,937 high-rise buildings , of which 550 completed structures were at least 330 feet -lrb- 100 m -rrb- high , both second in the world after hong kong , with over 50 completed skyscrapers taller than 656 feet -lrb- 200 m -rrb- . 
the art deco style of the chrysler building -lrb- 1930 -rrb- and empire state building -lrb- 1931 -rrb- , with their tapered tops and steel spires , reflected the zoning requirements . 
the art deco style of the chrysler building -lrb- 1930 -rrb- and empire state building -lrb- 1931 -rrb- , with their tapered tops and steel spires , reflected the zoning requirements . 
the buildings have distinctive ornamentation , such as the eagles at the corners of the 61st floor on the chrysler building , and are considered some of the finest examples of the art deco style . 
a highly influential example of the international style in the united states is the seagram building -lrb- 1957 -rrb- , distinctive for its façade using visible bronze-toned i-beams to evoke the building 's structure . 
the condé nast building -lrb- 2000 -rrb- is a prominent example of green design in american skyscrapers and has received an award from the american institute of architects as well as aia new york state for its design . 
the buildings have distinctive ornamentation , such as the eagles at the corners of the 61st floor on the chrysler building , and are considered some of the finest examples of the art deco style . 
the art deco style of the chrysler building -lrb- 1930 -rrb- and empire state building -lrb- 1931 -rrb- , with their tapered tops and steel spires , reflected the zoning requirements . 
the art deco style of the chrysler building -lrb- 1930 -rrb- and empire state building -lrb- 1931 -rrb- , with their tapered tops and steel spires , reflected the zoning requirements . 
in neighborhoods such as riverdale -lrb- in the bronx -rrb- , ditmas park -lrb- in brooklyn -rrb- , and douglaston -lrb- in queens -rrb- , large single-family homes are common in various architectural styles such as tudor revival and victorian . 
in neighborhoods such as riverdale -lrb- in the bronx -rrb- , ditmas park -lrb- in brooklyn -rrb- , and douglaston -lrb- in queens -rrb- , large single-family homes are common in various architectural styles such as tudor revival and victorian . 
in neighborhoods such as riverdale -lrb- in the bronx -rrb- , ditmas park -lrb- in brooklyn -rrb- , and douglaston -lrb- in queens -rrb- , large single-family homes are common in various architectural styles such as tudor revival and victorian . 
the character of new york 's large residential districts is often defined by the elegant brownstone rowhouses and townhouses and shabby tenements that were built during a period of rapid expansion from 1870 to 1930 . 
in neighborhoods such as riverdale -lrb- in the bronx -rrb- , ditmas park -lrb- in brooklyn -rrb- , and douglaston -lrb- in queens -rrb- , large single-family homes are common in various architectural styles such as tudor revival and victorian . 
the character of new york 's large residential districts is often defined by the elegant brownstone rowhouses and townhouses and shabby tenements that were built during a period of rapid expansion from 1870 to 1930 . 
stone and brick became the city 's building materials of choice after the construction of wood-frame houses was limited in the aftermath of the great fire of 1835 . 
in the 1800s , the city required their installation on buildings higher than six stories to prevent the need for excessively high water pressures at lower elevations , which could break municipal water pipes . 
garden apartments became popular during the 1920s in outlying areas , such as jackson heights . 
stone and brick became the city 's building materials of choice after the construction of wood-frame houses was limited in the aftermath of the great fire of 1835 . 
a distinctive feature of many of the city 's buildings is the wooden roof-mounted water towers . 
according to the united states geological survey , an updated analysis of seismic hazard in july 2014 revealed a `` slightly lower hazard for tall buildings '' in new york city than previously assessed . 
if the boroughs were each independent cities , four of the boroughs -lrb- brooklyn , queens , manhattan , and the bronx -rrb- would be among the ten most populous cities in the united states . 
there are hundreds of distinct neighborhoods throughout the five boroughs of new york city , many with a definable history and character to call their own . 
if the boroughs were each independent cities , four of the boroughs -lrb- brooklyn , queens , manhattan , and the bronx -rrb- would be among the ten most populous cities in the united states . 
under the köppen climate classification , using the 0 °c -lrb- 32 °f -rrb- coldest month -lrb- january -rrb- isotherm , new york city itself experiences a humid subtropical climate -lrb- cfa -rrb- and is thus the northernmost major city on the north american continent with this categorization . 
the area averages 234 days with at least some sunshine annually , and averages 57 % of possible sunshine annually , accumulating 2,535 hours of sunshine per annum . 
the area averages 234 days with at least some sunshine annually , and averages 57 % of possible sunshine annually , accumulating 2,535 hours of sunshine per annum . 
the suburbs to the immediate north and west lie in the transition zone from a humid subtropical -lrb- cfa -rrb- to a humid continental climate -lrb- dfa -rrb- . 
under the köppen climate classification , using the 0 °c -lrb- 32 °f -rrb- coldest month -lrb- january -rrb- isotherm , new york city itself experiences a humid subtropical climate -lrb- cfa -rrb- and is thus the northernmost major city on the north american continent with this categorization . 
under the köppen climate classification , using the 0 °c -lrb- 32 °f -rrb- coldest month -lrb- january -rrb- isotherm , new york city itself experiences a humid subtropical climate -lrb- cfa -rrb- and is thus the northernmost major city on the north american continent with this categorization . 
the area averages 234 days with at least some sunshine annually , and averages 57 % of possible sunshine annually , accumulating 2,535 hours of sunshine per annum . 
the city falls under usda 7b plant hardiness zone . 
winters are cold and damp , and prevailing wind patterns that blow offshore minimize the moderating effects of the atlantic ocean ; yet the atlantic and the partial shielding from colder air by the appalachians keep the city warmer in the winter than inland north american cities at similar or lesser latitudes such as pittsburgh , cincinnati , and indianapolis . 
the daily mean temperature in january , the area 's coldest month , is 32.6 °f -lrb- 0.3 °c -rrb- ; however , temperatures usually drop to 10 °f -lrb- − 12 °c -rrb- several times per winter , and reach 50 °f -lrb- 10 °c -rrb- several days each winter month . 
summers are typically warm to hot and humid , with a daily mean temperature of 76.5 °f -lrb- 24.7 °c -rrb- in july and an average humidity level of 72 % . 
nighttime conditions are often exacerbated by the urban heat island phenomenon , while daytime temperatures exceed 90 °f -lrb- 32 °c -rrb- on average of 17 days each summer and in some years exceed 100 °f -lrb- 38 °c -rrb- . 
extreme temperatures have ranged from − 15 °f -lrb- − 26 °c -rrb- , recorded on february 9 , 1934 , up to 106 °f -lrb- 41 °c -rrb- on july 9 , 1936 . 
extreme temperatures have ranged from − 15 °f -lrb- − 26 °c -rrb- , recorded on february 9 , 1934 , up to 106 °f -lrb- 41 °c -rrb- on july 9 , 1936 . 
extreme temperatures have ranged from − 15 °f -lrb- − 26 °c -rrb- , recorded on february 9 , 1934 , up to 106 °f -lrb- 41 °c -rrb- on july 9 , 1936 . 
extreme temperatures have ranged from − 15 °f -lrb- − 26 °c -rrb- , recorded on february 9 , 1934 , up to 106 °f -lrb- 41 °c -rrb- on july 9 , 1936 . 
the city receives 49.9 inches -lrb- 1,270 mm -rrb- of precipitation annually , which is fairly spread throughout the year . 
average winter snowfall between 1981 and 2010 has been 25.8 inches -lrb- 66 cm -rrb- , but this varies considerably from year to year . 
hurricane sandy brought a destructive storm surge to new york city on the evening of october 29 , 2012 , flooding numerous streets , tunnels , and subway lines in lower manhattan and other areas of the city and cutting off electricity in many parts of the city and its suburbs . 
the city receives 49.9 inches -lrb- 1,270 mm -rrb- of precipitation annually , which is fairly spread throughout the year . 
hurricane sandy brought a destructive storm surge to new york city on the evening of october 29 , 2012 , flooding numerous streets , tunnels , and subway lines in lower manhattan and other areas of the city and cutting off electricity in many parts of the city and its suburbs . 
average winter snowfall between 1981 and 2010 has been 25.8 inches -lrb- 66 cm -rrb- , but this varies considerably from year to year . 
the city of new york has a complex park system , with various lands operated by the national park service , the new york state office of parks , recreation and historic preservation , and the new york city department of parks and recreation . 
the city of new york has a complex park system , with various lands operated by the national park service , the new york state office of parks , recreation and historic preservation , and the new york city department of parks and recreation . 
the city of new york has a complex park system , with various lands operated by the national park service , the new york state office of parks , recreation and historic preservation , and the new york city department of parks and recreation . 
in its 2013 parkscore ranking , the trust for public land reported that the park system in new york city was the second best park system among the 50 most populous u.s. cities , behind the park system of minneapolis . 
in its 2013 parkscore ranking , the trust for public land reported that the park system in new york city was the second best park system among the 50 most populous u.s. cities , behind the park system of minneapolis . 
in its 2013 parkscore ranking , the trust for public land reported that the park system in new york city was the second best park system among the 50 most populous u.s. cities , behind the park system of minneapolis . 
gateway national recreation area contains over 26,000 acres -lrb- 10,521.83 ha -rrb- in total , most of it surrounded by new york city , including the jamaica bay wildlife refuge in brooklyn and queens , over 9,000 acres -lrb- 36 km2 -rrb- of salt marsh , islands , and water , including most of jamaica bay . 
gateway national recreation area contains over 26,000 acres -lrb- 10,521.83 ha -rrb- in total , most of it surrounded by new york city , including the jamaica bay wildlife refuge in brooklyn and queens , over 9,000 acres -lrb- 36 km2 -rrb- of salt marsh , islands , and water , including most of jamaica bay . 
also in queens , the park includes a significant portion of the western rockaway peninsula , most notably jacob riis park and fort tilden . 
also in queens , the park includes a significant portion of the western rockaway peninsula , most notably jacob riis park and fort tilden . 
gateway national recreation area contains over 26,000 acres -lrb- 10,521.83 ha -rrb- in total , most of it surrounded by new york city , including the jamaica bay wildlife refuge in brooklyn and queens , over 9,000 acres -lrb- 36 km2 -rrb- of salt marsh , islands , and water , including most of jamaica bay . 
gateway national recreation area contains over 26,000 acres -lrb- 10,521.83 ha -rrb- in total , most of it surrounded by new york city , including the jamaica bay wildlife refuge in brooklyn and queens , over 9,000 acres -lrb- 36 km2 -rrb- of salt marsh , islands , and water , including most of jamaica bay . 
the statue of liberty national monument and ellis island immigration museum are managed by the national park service and are in both the states of new york and new jersey . 
historic sites under federal management on manhattan island include castle clinton national monument ; federal hall national memorial ; theodore roosevelt birthplace national historic site ; general grant national memorial -lrb- `` grant 's tomb '' -rrb- ; african burial ground national monument ; and hamilton grange national memorial . 
hundreds of private properties are listed on the national register of historic places or as a national historic landmark such as , for example , the stonewall inn in greenwich village as the catalyst of the modern gay rights movement . 
hundreds of private properties are listed on the national register of historic places or as a national historic landmark such as , for example , the stonewall inn in greenwich village as the catalyst of the modern gay rights movement . 
the statue of liberty national monument and ellis island immigration museum are managed by the national park service and are in both the states of new york and new jersey . 
the statue of liberty national monument and ellis island immigration museum are managed by the national park service and are in both the states of new york and new jersey . 
the statue of liberty national monument and ellis island immigration museum are managed by the national park service and are in both the states of new york and new jersey . 
hundreds of private properties are listed on the national register of historic places or as a national historic landmark such as , for example , the stonewall inn in greenwich village as the catalyst of the modern gay rights movement . 
historic sites under federal management on manhattan island include castle clinton national monument ; federal hall national memorial ; theodore roosevelt birthplace national historic site ; general grant national memorial -lrb- `` grant 's tomb '' -rrb- ; african burial ground national monument ; and hamilton grange national memorial . 
there are seven state parks within the confines of new york city , including clay pit ponds state park preserve , a natural area which includes extensive riding trails , and riverbank state park , a 28-acre -lrb- 110,000 m2 -rrb- facility that rises 69 feet -lrb- 21 m -rrb- over the hudson river . 
there are seven state parks within the confines of new york city , including clay pit ponds state park preserve , a natural area which includes extensive riding trails , and riverbank state park , a 28-acre -lrb- 110,000 m2 -rrb- facility that rises 69 feet -lrb- 21 m -rrb- over the hudson river . 
there are seven state parks within the confines of new york city , including clay pit ponds state park preserve , a natural area which includes extensive riding trails , and riverbank state park , a 28-acre -lrb- 110,000 m2 -rrb- facility that rises 69 feet -lrb- 21 m -rrb- over the hudson river . 
there are seven state parks within the confines of new york city , including clay pit ponds state park preserve , a natural area which includes extensive riding trails , and riverbank state park , a 28-acre -lrb- 110,000 m2 -rrb- facility that rises 69 feet -lrb- 21 m -rrb- over the hudson river . 
there are seven state parks within the confines of new york city , including clay pit ponds state park preserve , a natural area which includes extensive riding trails , and riverbank state park , a 28-acre -lrb- 110,000 m2 -rrb- facility that rises 69 feet -lrb- 21 m -rrb- over the hudson river . 
new york city has over 28,000 acres -lrb- 110 km2 -rrb- of municipal parkland and 14 miles -lrb- 23 km -rrb- of public beaches . 
new york city has over 28,000 acres -lrb- 110 km2 -rrb- of municipal parkland and 14 miles -lrb- 23 km -rrb- of public beaches . 
the largest municipal park in the city is pelham bay park with 2,700 acres -lrb- 1,093 ha -rrb- . 
the largest municipal park in the city is pelham bay park with 2,700 acres -lrb- 1,093 ha -rrb- . 
new york city has over 28,000 acres -lrb- 110 km2 -rrb- of municipal parkland and 14 miles -lrb- 23 km -rrb- of public beaches . 
new york city has over 28,000 acres -lrb- 110 km2 -rrb- of municipal parkland and 14 miles -lrb- 23 km -rrb- of public beaches . 
the largest municipal park in the city is pelham bay park with 2,700 acres -lrb- 1,093 ha -rrb- . 
the largest municipal park in the city is pelham bay park with 2,700 acres -lrb- 1,093 ha -rrb- . 
new york city is home to fort hamilton , the u.s. military 's only active duty installation within the city . 
established in 1825 in brooklyn on the site of a small battery utilized during the american revolution , it is one of america 's longest serving military forts . 
established in 1825 in brooklyn on the site of a small battery utilized during the american revolution , it is one of america 's longest serving military forts . 
today fort hamilton serves as the headquarters of the north atlantic division of the united states army corps of engineers as well as for the new york city recruiting battalion . 
it also houses the 1179th transportation brigade , the 722nd aeromedical staging squadron , and a military entrance processing station . 
new york city is home to fort hamilton , the u.s. military 's only active duty installation within the city . 
established in 1825 in brooklyn on the site of a small battery utilized during the american revolution , it is one of america 's longest serving military forts . 
established in 1825 in brooklyn on the site of a small battery utilized during the american revolution , it is one of america 's longest serving military forts . 
other formerly active military reservations still utilized for national guard and military training or reserve operations in the city include fort wadsworth in staten island and fort totten in queens . 
new york city is the most-populous city in the united states , with an estimated record high of 8,491,079 residents as of 2014 , incorporating more immigration into the city than outmigration since the 2010 united states census . 
more than twice as many people live in new york city as in the second-most populous u.s. city -lrb- los angeles -rrb- , and within a smaller area . 
new york city gained more residents between april 2010 and july 2014 -lrb- 316,000 -rrb- than any other u.s. city . 
new york city 's population amounts to about 40 % of new york state 's population and a similar percentage of the new york metropolitan area population . 
new york city 's population amounts to about 40 % of new york state 's population and a similar percentage of the new york metropolitan area population . 
new york city is the most-populous city in the united states , with an estimated record high of 8,491,079 residents as of 2014 , incorporating more immigration into the city than outmigration since the 2010 united states census . 
more than twice as many people live in new york city as in the second-most populous u.s. city -lrb- los angeles -rrb- , and within a smaller area . 
new york city 's population amounts to about 40 % of new york state 's population and a similar percentage of the new york metropolitan area population . 
in 2014 , the city had an estimated population density of 27,858 people per square mile -lrb- 10,756 / km ² -rrb- , rendering it the most densely populated of all municipalities housing over 100,000 residents in the united states ; however , several small cities -lrb- of fewer than 100,000 -rrb- in adjacent hudson county , new jersey are more dense overall , as per the 2000 census . 
geographically co-extensive with new york county , the borough of manhattan 's population density of 71,672 people per square mile -lrb- 27,673 / km ² -rrb- makes it the highest of any county in the united states and higher than the density of any individual american city . 
in 2014 , the city had an estimated population density of 27,858 people per square mile -lrb- 10,756 / km ² -rrb- , rendering it the most densely populated of all municipalities housing over 100,000 residents in the united states ; however , several small cities -lrb- of fewer than 100,000 -rrb- in adjacent hudson county , new jersey are more dense overall , as per the 2000 census . 
the city 's population in 2010 was 44 % white -lrb- 33.3 % non-hispanic white -rrb- , 25.5 % black -lrb- 23 % non-hispanic black -rrb- , 0.7 % native american , and 12.7 % asian . 
the city 's population in 2010 was 44 % white -lrb- 33.3 % non-hispanic white -rrb- , 25.5 % black -lrb- 23 % non-hispanic black -rrb- , 0.7 % native american , and 12.7 % asian . 
hispanics of any race represented 28.6 % of the population , while asians constituted the fastest-growing segment of the city 's population between 2000 and 2010 ; the non-hispanic white population declined 3 percent , the smallest recorded decline in decades ; and for the first time since the civil war , the number of blacks declined over a decade . 
hispanics of any race represented 28.6 % of the population , while asians constituted the fastest-growing segment of the city 's population between 2000 and 2010 ; the non-hispanic white population declined 3 percent , the smallest recorded decline in decades ; and for the first time since the civil war , the number of blacks declined over a decade . 
the city 's population in 2010 was 44 % white -lrb- 33.3 % non-hispanic white -rrb- , 25.5 % black -lrb- 23 % non-hispanic black -rrb- , 0.7 % native american , and 12.7 % asian . 
the city 's population in 2010 was 44 % white -lrb- 33.3 % non-hispanic white -rrb- , 25.5 % black -lrb- 23 % non-hispanic black -rrb- , 0.7 % native american , and 12.7 % asian . 
hispanics of any race represented 28.6 % of the population , while asians constituted the fastest-growing segment of the city 's population between 2000 and 2010 ; the non-hispanic white population declined 3 percent , the smallest recorded decline in decades ; and for the first time since the civil war , the number of blacks declined over a decade . 
hispanics of any race represented 28.6 % of the population , while asians constituted the fastest-growing segment of the city 's population between 2000 and 2010 ; the non-hispanic white population declined 3 percent , the smallest recorded decline in decades ; and for the first time since the civil war , the number of blacks declined over a decade . 
the city 's population in 2010 was 44 % white -lrb- 33.3 % non-hispanic white -rrb- , 25.5 % black -lrb- 23 % non-hispanic black -rrb- , 0.7 % native american , and 12.7 % asian . 
throughout its history , the city has been a major port of entry for immigrants into the united states ; more than 12 million european immigrants were received at ellis island between 1892 and 1924 . 
the term `` melting pot '' was first coined to describe densely populated immigrant neighborhoods on the lower east side . 
by 1900 , germans constituted the largest immigrant group , followed by the irish , jews , and italians . 
in 1940 , whites represented 92 % of the city 's population . 
by 1900 , germans constituted the largest immigrant group , followed by the irish , jews , and italians . 
throughout its history , the city has been a major port of entry for immigrants into the united states ; more than 12 million european immigrants were received at ellis island between 1892 and 1924 . 
throughout its history , the city has been a major port of entry for immigrants into the united states ; more than 12 million european immigrants were received at ellis island between 1892 and 1924 . 
approximately 37 % of the city 's population is foreign born . 
the ten largest sources of foreign-born individuals in the city as of 2011 were the dominican republic , china , mexico , guyana , jamaica , ecuador , haiti , india , russia , and trinidad and tobago , while the bangladeshi immigrant population has since become one of the fastest growing in the city , counting over 74,000 by 2013 . 
the ten largest sources of foreign-born individuals in the city as of 2011 were the dominican republic , china , mexico , guyana , jamaica , ecuador , haiti , india , russia , and trinidad and tobago , while the bangladeshi immigrant population has since become one of the fastest growing in the city , counting over 74,000 by 2013 . 
the ten largest sources of foreign-born individuals in the city as of 2011 were the dominican republic , china , mexico , guyana , jamaica , ecuador , haiti , india , russia , and trinidad and tobago , while the bangladeshi immigrant population has since become one of the fastest growing in the city , counting over 74,000 by 2013 . 
approximately 37 % of the city 's population is foreign born . 
the new york city borough of queens is home to the state 's largest asian american population and the largest andean -lrb- colombian , ecuadorian , peruvian , and bolivian -rrb- populations in the united states , and is also the most ethnically diverse urban area in the world . 
the chinese population constitutes the fastest-growing nationality in new york state ; multiple satellites of the original manhattan chinatown -lrb- 紐約華埠 -rrb- , in brooklyn -lrb- 布鲁克林華埠 -rrb- , and around flushing , queens -lrb- 法拉盛華埠 -rrb- , are thriving as traditionally urban enclaves , while also expanding rapidly eastward into suburban nassau county -lrb- 拿騷縣 -rrb- on long island -lrb- 長島 -rrb- , as the new york metropolitan region and new york state have become the top destinations for new chinese immigrants , respectively , and large-scale chinese immigration continues into new york city and surrounding areas . 
in 2012 , 6.3 % of new york city was of chinese ethnicity , with nearly three-fourths living in either queens or brooklyn , geographically on long island . 
the new york city borough of queens is home to the state 's largest asian american population and the largest andean -lrb- colombian , ecuadorian , peruvian , and bolivian -rrb- populations in the united states , and is also the most ethnically diverse urban area in the world . 
koreans made up 1.2 % of the city 's population , and japanese 0.3 % . 
at 2.7 million in 2012 , new york 's non-hispanic white population is larger than the non-hispanic white populations of los angeles -lrb- 1.1 million -rrb- , chicago -lrb- 865,000 -rrb- , and houston -lrb- 550,000 -rrb- combined . 
at 2.7 million in 2012 , new york 's non-hispanic white population is larger than the non-hispanic white populations of los angeles -lrb- 1.1 million -rrb- , chicago -lrb- 865,000 -rrb- , and houston -lrb- 550,000 -rrb- combined . 
according to 2012 census estimates , there were roughly 560,000 italian americans , 385,000 irish americans , 253,000 german americans , 223,000 russian americans , 201,000 polish americans , and 137,000 english americans . 
at 2.7 million in 2012 , new york 's non-hispanic white population is larger than the non-hispanic white populations of los angeles -lrb- 1.1 million -rrb- , chicago -lrb- 865,000 -rrb- , and houston -lrb- 550,000 -rrb- combined . 
albanian americans are most highly concentrated in the bronx . 
at 2.7 million in 2012 , new york 's non-hispanic white population is larger than the non-hispanic white populations of los angeles -lrb- 1.1 million -rrb- , chicago -lrb- 865,000 -rrb- , and houston -lrb- 550,000 -rrb- combined . 
the wider new york city metropolitan area , with over 20 million people , about 50 % greater than the second-place los angeles metropolitan area in the united states , is also ethnically diverse . 
it is home to the largest jewish as well as israeli communities outside israel , with the jewish population in the region numbering over 1.5 million in 2012 and including many diverse jewish sects from around the middle east and eastern europe . 
the metropolitan area is also home to 20 % of the nation 's indian americans and at least 20 little india enclaves , as well as 15 % of all korean americans and four koreatowns ; the largest asian indian population in the western hemisphere ; the largest russian american , italian american , and african american populations ; the largest dominican american , puerto rican american , and south american and second-largest overall hispanic population in the united states , numbering 4.8 million ; and includes at least 6 established chinatowns within new york city alone , with the urban agglomeration comprising a population of 779,269 overseas chinese as of 2013 census estimates , the largest outside of asia . 
the metropolitan area is also home to 20 % of the nation 's indian americans and at least 20 little india enclaves , as well as 15 % of all korean americans and four koreatowns ; the largest asian indian population in the western hemisphere ; the largest russian american , italian american , and african american populations ; the largest dominican american , puerto rican american , and south american and second-largest overall hispanic population in the united states , numbering 4.8 million ; and includes at least 6 established chinatowns within new york city alone , with the urban agglomeration comprising a population of 779,269 overseas chinese as of 2013 census estimates , the largest outside of asia . 
the metropolitan area is also home to 20 % of the nation 's indian americans and at least 20 little india enclaves , as well as 15 % of all korean americans and four koreatowns ; the largest asian indian population in the western hemisphere ; the largest russian american , italian american , and african american populations ; the largest dominican american , puerto rican american , and south american and second-largest overall hispanic population in the united states , numbering 4.8 million ; and includes at least 6 established chinatowns within new york city alone , with the urban agglomeration comprising a population of 779,269 overseas chinese as of 2013 census estimates , the largest outside of asia . 
amidst a resurgence of puerto rican migration to new york city , this population had increased to approximately 1.3 million in the metropolitan area as of 2013 . 
ecuador , colombia , guyana , peru , and brazil were the top source countries from south america for legal immigrants to the new york city region in 2013 ; the dominican republic , jamaica , haiti , and trinidad and tobago in the caribbean ; egypt , ghana , and nigeria from africa ; and el salvador , honduras , and guatemala in central america . 
ecuador , colombia , guyana , peru , and brazil were the top source countries from south america for legal immigrants to the new york city region in 2013 ; the dominican republic , jamaica , haiti , and trinidad and tobago in the caribbean ; egypt , ghana , and nigeria from africa ; and el salvador , honduras , and guatemala in central america . 
ecuador , colombia , guyana , peru , and brazil were the top source countries from south america for legal immigrants to the new york city region in 2013 ; the dominican republic , jamaica , haiti , and trinidad and tobago in the caribbean ; egypt , ghana , and nigeria from africa ; and el salvador , honduras , and guatemala in central america . 
ecuador , colombia , guyana , peru , and brazil were the top source countries from south america for legal immigrants to the new york city region in 2013 ; the dominican republic , jamaica , haiti , and trinidad and tobago in the caribbean ; egypt , ghana , and nigeria from africa ; and el salvador , honduras , and guatemala in central america . 
the new york metropolitan area is home to a self-identifying gay and bisexual community estimated at 568,903 individuals , the largest in the united states and one of the world 's largest . 
same-sex marriages in new york were legalized on june 24 , 2011 and were authorized to take place beginning 30 days thereafter . 
same-sex marriages in new york were legalized on june 24 , 2011 and were authorized to take place beginning 30 days thereafter . 
the new york metropolitan area is home to a self-identifying gay and bisexual community estimated at 568,903 individuals , the largest in the united states and one of the world 's largest . 
same-sex marriages in new york were legalized on june 24 , 2011 and were authorized to take place beginning 30 days thereafter . 
same-sex marriages in new york were legalized on june 24 , 2011 and were authorized to take place beginning 30 days thereafter . 
christianity -lrb- 59 % -rrb- , particularly catholicism -lrb- 33 % -rrb- , was the most prevalently practiced religion in new york as of 2014 , followed by judaism , with approximately 1.1 million jews in new york city , over half living in brooklyn . 
christianity -lrb- 59 % -rrb- , particularly catholicism -lrb- 33 % -rrb- , was the most prevalently practiced religion in new york as of 2014 , followed by judaism , with approximately 1.1 million jews in new york city , over half living in brooklyn . 
christianity -lrb- 59 % -rrb- , particularly catholicism -lrb- 33 % -rrb- , was the most prevalently practiced religion in new york as of 2014 , followed by judaism , with approximately 1.1 million jews in new york city , over half living in brooklyn . 
christianity -lrb- 59 % -rrb- , particularly catholicism -lrb- 33 % -rrb- , was the most prevalently practiced religion in new york as of 2014 , followed by judaism , with approximately 1.1 million jews in new york city , over half living in brooklyn . 
islam ranks third in new york city , with official estimates ranging between 600,000 and 1,000,000 observers and including 10 % of the city 's public schoolchildren , followed by hinduism , buddhism , and a variety of other religions , as well as atheism . 
christianity -lrb- 59 % -rrb- , particularly catholicism -lrb- 33 % -rrb- , was the most prevalently practiced religion in new york as of 2014 , followed by judaism , with approximately 1.1 million jews in new york city , over half living in brooklyn . 
christianity -lrb- 59 % -rrb- , particularly catholicism -lrb- 33 % -rrb- , was the most prevalently practiced religion in new york as of 2014 , followed by judaism , with approximately 1.1 million jews in new york city , over half living in brooklyn . 
christianity -lrb- 59 % -rrb- , particularly catholicism -lrb- 33 % -rrb- , was the most prevalently practiced religion in new york as of 2014 , followed by judaism , with approximately 1.1 million jews in new york city , over half living in brooklyn . 
in 2014 , 24 % self-identified with no organized religious affiliation . 
islam ranks third in new york city , with official estimates ranging between 600,000 and 1,000,000 observers and including 10 % of the city 's public schoolchildren , followed by hinduism , buddhism , and a variety of other religions , as well as atheism . 
new york city has a high degree of income disparity as indicated by its gini coefficient of 0.5 for the city overall and 0.6 for manhattan . 
new york city has a high degree of income disparity as indicated by its gini coefficient of 0.5 for the city overall and 0.6 for manhattan . 
in 2013 , new york city had the highest number of billionaires of any city in the world , higher than the next five u.s. cities combined , including former mayor michael r. bloomberg . 
new york also had the highest density of millionaires per capita among major u.s. cities in 2014 , at 4.6 % of residents . 
in the first quarter of 2014 , the average weekly wage in new york county -lrb- manhattan -rrb- was $ 2,749 , representing the highest total among large counties in the united states . 
in the first quarter of 2014 , the average weekly wage in new york county -lrb- manhattan -rrb- was $ 2,749 , representing the highest total among large counties in the united states . 
new york city has a high degree of income disparity as indicated by its gini coefficient of 0.5 for the city overall and 0.6 for manhattan . 
the city is a major center for banking and finance , retailing , world trade , transportation , tourism , real estate , new media as well as traditional media , advertising , legal services , accountancy , insurance , theater , fashion , and the arts in the united states ; while silicon alley , metonymous for new york 's broad-spectrum high technology sphere , continues to expand . 
in 2012 , new york city topped the first global economic power index , published by the atlantic -lrb- to be differentiated from a namesake list published by the martin prosperity institute -rrb- , with cities ranked according to criteria reflecting their presence on similar lists as published by other entities . 
the port of new york and new jersey is also a major economic engine , handling record cargo volume in the first half of 2014 . 
in 2012 , new york city topped the first global economic power index , published by the atlantic -lrb- to be differentiated from a namesake list published by the martin prosperity institute -rrb- , with cities ranked according to criteria reflecting their presence on similar lists as published by other entities . 
one out of ten private sector jobs in the city is with a foreign company . 
this ability to attract foreign investment helped new york city top the fdi magazine american cities of the future ranking for 2013 . 
real estate is a major force in the city 's economy , as the total value of all new york city property was assessed at us$ 914.8 billion for the 2015 fiscal year . 
the time warner center is the property with the highest-listed market value in the city , at us$ 1.1 billion in 2006 . 
450 park avenue was sold on july 2 , 2007 for us$ 510 million , about $ 1,589 per square foot -lrb- $ 17,104 / m ² -rrb- , breaking the barely month-old record for an american office building of $ 1,476 per square foot -lrb- $ 15,887 / m ² -rrb- set in the june 2007 sale of 660 madison avenue . 
450 park avenue was sold on july 2 , 2007 for us$ 510 million , about $ 1,589 per square foot -lrb- $ 17,104 / m ² -rrb- , breaking the barely month-old record for an american office building of $ 1,476 per square foot -lrb- $ 15,887 / m ² -rrb- set in the june 2007 sale of 660 madison avenue . 
according to forbes , in 2014 , manhattan was home to six of the top ten zip codes in the united states by median housing price . 
the time warner center is the property with the highest-listed market value in the city , at us$ 1.1 billion in 2006 . 
450 park avenue was sold on july 2 , 2007 for us$ 510 million , about $ 1,589 per square foot -lrb- $ 17,104 / m ² -rrb- , breaking the barely month-old record for an american office building of $ 1,476 per square foot -lrb- $ 15,887 / m ² -rrb- set in the june 2007 sale of 660 madison avenue . 
as of 2013 , the global advertising agencies of omnicom group and interpublic group , both based in manhattan , had combined annual revenues of approximately us$ 21 billion , reflecting new york city 's role as the top global center for the advertising industry , which is metonymously referred to as `` madison avenue '' . 
the city 's fashion industry provides approximately 180,000 employees with $ 11 billion in annual wages . 
the city 's fashion industry provides approximately 180,000 employees with $ 11 billion in annual wages . 
as of 2013 , the global advertising agencies of omnicom group and interpublic group , both based in manhattan , had combined annual revenues of approximately us$ 21 billion , reflecting new york city 's role as the top global center for the advertising industry , which is metonymously referred to as `` madison avenue '' . 
the city 's fashion industry provides approximately 180,000 employees with $ 11 billion in annual wages . 
as of 2013 , the global advertising agencies of omnicom group and interpublic group , both based in manhattan , had combined annual revenues of approximately us$ 21 billion , reflecting new york city 's role as the top global center for the advertising industry , which is metonymously referred to as `` madison avenue '' . 
food processing is a us$ 5 billion industry that employs more than 19,000 residents . 
food processing is a us$ 5 billion industry that employs more than 19,000 residents . 
manufacturing accounts for a significant but declining share of employment , although the city 's garment industry is showing a resurgence in brooklyn . 
chocolate is new york city 's leading specialty-food export , with up to us$ 234 million worth of exports each year . 
entrepreneurs were forming a `` chocolate district '' in brooklyn as of 2014 , while godiva , one of the world 's largest chocolatiers , continues to be headquartered in manhattan . 
entrepreneurs were forming a `` chocolate district '' in brooklyn as of 2014 , while godiva , one of the world 's largest chocolatiers , continues to be headquartered in manhattan . 
chocolate is new york city 's leading specialty-food export , with up to us$ 234 million worth of exports each year . 
chocolate is new york city 's leading specialty-food export , with up to us$ 234 million worth of exports each year . 
entrepreneurs were forming a `` chocolate district '' in brooklyn as of 2014 , while godiva , one of the world 's largest chocolatiers , continues to be headquartered in manhattan . 
the city 's securities industry , enumerating 163,400 jobs in august 2013 , continues to form the largest segment of the city 's financial sector and an important economic engine , accounting in 2012 for 5 percent of the city 's private sector jobs , 8.5 percent -lrb- us$ 3.8 billion -rrb- of its tax revenue , and 22 percent of the city 's total wages , including an average salary of us$ 360,700 . 
the city 's securities industry , enumerating 163,400 jobs in august 2013 , continues to form the largest segment of the city 's financial sector and an important economic engine , accounting in 2012 for 5 percent of the city 's private sector jobs , 8.5 percent -lrb- us$ 3.8 billion -rrb- of its tax revenue , and 22 percent of the city 's total wages , including an average salary of us$ 360,700 . 
the city 's securities industry , enumerating 163,400 jobs in august 2013 , continues to form the largest segment of the city 's financial sector and an important economic engine , accounting in 2012 for 5 percent of the city 's private sector jobs , 8.5 percent -lrb- us$ 3.8 billion -rrb- of its tax revenue , and 22 percent of the city 's total wages , including an average salary of us$ 360,700 . 
the city 's securities industry , enumerating 163,400 jobs in august 2013 , continues to form the largest segment of the city 's financial sector and an important economic engine , accounting in 2012 for 5 percent of the city 's private sector jobs , 8.5 percent -lrb- us$ 3.8 billion -rrb- of its tax revenue , and 22 percent of the city 's total wages , including an average salary of us$ 360,700 . 
the city 's securities industry , enumerating 163,400 jobs in august 2013 , continues to form the largest segment of the city 's financial sector and an important economic engine , accounting in 2012 for 5 percent of the city 's private sector jobs , 8.5 percent -lrb- us$ 3.8 billion -rrb- of its tax revenue , and 22 percent of the city 's total wages , including an average salary of us$ 360,700 . 
the city 's securities industry , enumerating 163,400 jobs in august 2013 , continues to form the largest segment of the city 's financial sector and an important economic engine , accounting in 2012 for 5 percent of the city 's private sector jobs , 8.5 percent -lrb- us$ 3.8 billion -rrb- of its tax revenue , and 22 percent of the city 's total wages , including an average salary of us$ 360,700 . 
lower manhattan is the third-largest central business district in the united states and is home to the new york stock exchange , on wall street , and the nasdaq , at 165 broadway , representing the world 's largest and second largest stock exchanges , respectively , when measured both by overall average daily trading volume and by total market capitalization of their listed companies in 2013 . 
lower manhattan is the third-largest central business district in the united states and is home to the new york stock exchange , on wall street , and the nasdaq , at 165 broadway , representing the world 's largest and second largest stock exchanges , respectively , when measured both by overall average daily trading volume and by total market capitalization of their listed companies in 2013 . 
investment banking fees on wall street totaled approximately $ 40 billion in 2012 , while in 2013 , senior new york city bank officers who manage risk and compliance functions earned as much as $ 324,000 annually . 
in fiscal year 2013 -- 14 , wall street 's securities industry generated 19 % of new york state 's tax revenue . 
new york city remains the largest global center for trading in public equity and debt capital markets , driven in part by the size and financial development of the u.s. economy. :31 -- 32 in july 2013 , nyse euronext , the operator of the new york stock exchange , took over the administration of the london interbank offered rate from the british bankers association . 
lower manhattan is the third-largest central business district in the united states and is home to the new york stock exchange , on wall street , and the nasdaq , at 165 broadway , representing the world 's largest and second largest stock exchanges , respectively , when measured both by overall average daily trading volume and by total market capitalization of their listed companies in 2013 . 
lower manhattan is the third-largest central business district in the united states and is home to the new york stock exchange , on wall street , and the nasdaq , at 165 broadway , representing the world 's largest and second largest stock exchanges , respectively , when measured both by overall average daily trading volume and by total market capitalization of their listed companies in 2013 . 
manhattan contained over 500 million square feet -lrb- 46.5 million m2 -rrb- of office space in 2015 , making it the largest office market in the united states , while midtown manhattan , with nearly 400 million square feet -lrb- 37.2 million m2 -rrb- in 2015 , is the largest central business district in the world . 
manhattan contained over 500 million square feet -lrb- 46.5 million m2 -rrb- of office space in 2015 , making it the largest office market in the united states , while midtown manhattan , with nearly 400 million square feet -lrb- 37.2 million m2 -rrb- in 2015 , is the largest central business district in the world . 
manhattan contained over 500 million square feet -lrb- 46.5 million m2 -rrb- of office space in 2015 , making it the largest office market in the united states , while midtown manhattan , with nearly 400 million square feet -lrb- 37.2 million m2 -rrb- in 2015 , is the largest central business district in the world . 
silicon alley , centered in manhattan , has evolved into a metonym for the sphere encompassing the new york city metropolitan region 's high technology industries involving the internet , new media , telecommunications , digital media , software development , biotechnology , game design , financial technology -lrb- `` fintech '' -rrb- , and other fields within information technology that are supported by its entrepreneurship ecosystem and venture capital investments . 
verizon communications , headquartered at 140 west street in lower manhattan , was at the final stages in 2014 of completing a us$ 3 billion fiberoptic telecommunications upgrade throughout new york city . 
verizon communications , headquartered at 140 west street in lower manhattan , was at the final stages in 2014 of completing a us$ 3 billion fiberoptic telecommunications upgrade throughout new york city . 
as of 2014 , new york city hosted 300,000 employees in the tech sector . 
as of 2014 , new york city hosted 300,000 employees in the tech sector . 
on december 19 , 2011 , then mayor michael r. bloomberg announced his choice of cornell university and technion-israel institute of technology to build a us$ 2 billion graduate school of applied sciences called cornell tech on roosevelt island with the goal of transforming new york city into the world 's premier technology capital . 
on december 19 , 2011 , then mayor michael r. bloomberg announced his choice of cornell university and technion-israel institute of technology to build a us$ 2 billion graduate school of applied sciences called cornell tech on roosevelt island with the goal of transforming new york city into the world 's premier technology capital . 
on december 19 , 2011 , then mayor michael r. bloomberg announced his choice of cornell university and technion-israel institute of technology to build a us$ 2 billion graduate school of applied sciences called cornell tech on roosevelt island with the goal of transforming new york city into the world 's premier technology capital . 
by mid-2014 , accelerator , a biotech investment firm , had raised more than us$ 30 million from investors , including eli lilly and company , pfizer , and johnson & johnson , for initial funding to create biotechnology startups at the alexandria center for life science , which encompasses more than 700,000 square feet -lrb- 65,000 m2 -rrb- on east 29th street and promotes collaboration among scientists and entrepreneurs at the center and with nearby academic , medical , and research institutions . 
by mid-2014 , accelerator , a biotech investment firm , had raised more than us$ 30 million from investors , including eli lilly and company , pfizer , and johnson & johnson , for initial funding to create biotechnology startups at the alexandria center for life science , which encompasses more than 700,000 square feet -lrb- 65,000 m2 -rrb- on east 29th street and promotes collaboration among scientists and entrepreneurs at the center and with nearby academic , medical , and research institutions . 
on december 19 , 2011 , then mayor michael r. bloomberg announced his choice of cornell university and technion-israel institute of technology to build a us$ 2 billion graduate school of applied sciences called cornell tech on roosevelt island with the goal of transforming new york city into the world 's premier technology capital . 
tourism is a vital industry for new york city , which has witnessed a growing combined volume of international and domestic tourists -- receiving approximately 51 million tourists in 2011 , 54 million in 2013 , and a record 56.4 million in 2014 . 
tourism is a vital industry for new york city , which has witnessed a growing combined volume of international and domestic tourists -- receiving approximately 51 million tourists in 2011 , 54 million in 2013 , and a record 56.4 million in 2014 . 
tourism is a vital industry for new york city , which has witnessed a growing combined volume of international and domestic tourists -- receiving approximately 51 million tourists in 2011 , 54 million in 2013 , and a record 56.4 million in 2014 . 
tourism generated an all-time high us$ 61.3 billion in overall economic impact for new york city in 2014 . 
tourism is a vital industry for new york city , which has witnessed a growing combined volume of international and domestic tourists -- receiving approximately 51 million tourists in 2011 , 54 million in 2013 , and a record 56.4 million in 2014 . 
tourism is a vital industry for new york city , which has witnessed a growing combined volume of international and domestic tourists -- receiving approximately 51 million tourists in 2011 , 54 million in 2013 , and a record 56.4 million in 2014 . 
i love new york -lrb- stylized i ❤ ny -rrb- is both a logo and a song that are the basis of an advertising campaign and have been used since 1977 to promote tourism in new york city , and later to promote new york state as well . 
i love new york -lrb- stylized i ❤ ny -rrb- is both a logo and a song that are the basis of an advertising campaign and have been used since 1977 to promote tourism in new york city , and later to promote new york state as well . 
the trademarked logo , owned by new york state empire state development , appears in souvenir shops and brochures throughout the city and state , some licensed , many not . 
i love new york -lrb- stylized i ❤ ny -rrb- is both a logo and a song that are the basis of an advertising campaign and have been used since 1977 to promote tourism in new york city , and later to promote new york state as well . 
i love new york -lrb- stylized i ❤ ny -rrb- is both a logo and a song that are the basis of an advertising campaign and have been used since 1977 to promote tourism in new york city , and later to promote new york state as well . 
i love new york -lrb- stylized i ❤ ny -rrb- is both a logo and a song that are the basis of an advertising campaign and have been used since 1977 to promote tourism in new york city , and later to promote new york state as well . 
major tourist destinations include times square ; broadway theater productions ; the empire state building ; the statue of liberty ; ellis island ; the united nations headquarters ; museums such as the metropolitan museum of art ; greenspaces such as central park and washington square park ; rockefeller center ; the manhattan chinatown ; luxury shopping along fifth and madison avenues ; and events such as the halloween parade in greenwich village ; the macy 's thanksgiving day parade ; the lighting of the rockefeller center christmas tree ; the st. patrick 's day parade ; seasonal activities such as ice skating in central park in the wintertime ; the tribeca film festival ; and free performances in central park at summerstage . 
major tourist destinations include times square ; broadway theater productions ; the empire state building ; the statue of liberty ; ellis island ; the united nations headquarters ; museums such as the metropolitan museum of art ; greenspaces such as central park and washington square park ; rockefeller center ; the manhattan chinatown ; luxury shopping along fifth and madison avenues ; and events such as the halloween parade in greenwich village ; the macy 's thanksgiving day parade ; the lighting of the rockefeller center christmas tree ; the st. patrick 's day parade ; seasonal activities such as ice skating in central park in the wintertime ; the tribeca film festival ; and free performances in central park at summerstage . 
major tourist destinations include times square ; broadway theater productions ; the empire state building ; the statue of liberty ; ellis island ; the united nations headquarters ; museums such as the metropolitan museum of art ; greenspaces such as central park and washington square park ; rockefeller center ; the manhattan chinatown ; luxury shopping along fifth and madison avenues ; and events such as the halloween parade in greenwich village ; the macy 's thanksgiving day parade ; the lighting of the rockefeller center christmas tree ; the st. patrick 's day parade ; seasonal activities such as ice skating in central park in the wintertime ; the tribeca film festival ; and free performances in central park at summerstage . 
major tourist destinations include times square ; broadway theater productions ; the empire state building ; the statue of liberty ; ellis island ; the united nations headquarters ; museums such as the metropolitan museum of art ; greenspaces such as central park and washington square park ; rockefeller center ; the manhattan chinatown ; luxury shopping along fifth and madison avenues ; and events such as the halloween parade in greenwich village ; the macy 's thanksgiving day parade ; the lighting of the rockefeller center christmas tree ; the st. patrick 's day parade ; seasonal activities such as ice skating in central park in the wintertime ; the tribeca film festival ; and free performances in central park at summerstage . 
major attractions in the boroughs outside manhattan include flushing meadows-corona park and the unisphere in queens ; the bronx zoo ; coney island , brooklyn ; and the new york botanical garden in the bronx . 
manhattan was on track to have an estimated 90,000 hotel rooms at the end of 2014 , a 10 % increase from 2013 . 
manhattan was on track to have an estimated 90,000 hotel rooms at the end of 2014 , a 10 % increase from 2013 . 
in october 2014 , the anbang insurance group , based in china , purchased the waldorf astoria new york for us$ 1.95 billion , making it the world 's most expensive hotel ever sold . 
in october 2014 , the anbang insurance group , based in china , purchased the waldorf astoria new york for us$ 1.95 billion , making it the world 's most expensive hotel ever sold . 
in october 2014 , the anbang insurance group , based in china , purchased the waldorf astoria new york for us$ 1.95 billion , making it the world 's most expensive hotel ever sold . 
manhattan was on track to have an estimated 90,000 hotel rooms at the end of 2014 , a 10 % increase from 2013 . 
in october 2014 , the anbang insurance group , based in china , purchased the waldorf astoria new york for us$ 1.95 billion , making it the world 's most expensive hotel ever sold . 
in october 2014 , the anbang insurance group , based in china , purchased the waldorf astoria new york for us$ 1.95 billion , making it the world 's most expensive hotel ever sold . 
as of 2012 , new york city was the second largest center for filmmaking and television production in the united states , producing about 200 feature films annually , employing 130,000 individuals , and generating an estimated $ 7.1 billion in direct expenditures , and by volume , new york is the world leader in independent film production ; one-third of all american independent films are produced in new york city . 
as of 2012 , new york city was the second largest center for filmmaking and television production in the united states , producing about 200 feature films annually , employing 130,000 individuals , and generating an estimated $ 7.1 billion in direct expenditures , and by volume , new york is the world leader in independent film production ; one-third of all american independent films are produced in new york city . 
as of 2012 , new york city was the second largest center for filmmaking and television production in the united states , producing about 200 feature films annually , employing 130,000 individuals , and generating an estimated $ 7.1 billion in direct expenditures , and by volume , new york is the world leader in independent film production ; one-third of all american independent films are produced in new york city . 
in the first five months of 2014 alone , location filming for television pilots in new york city exceeded the record production levels for all of 2013 , with new york surpassing los angeles as the top north american city for the same distinction during the 2013/2014 cycle . 
two of the top three record labels ' headquarters are in new york : sony music entertainment and warner music group . 
new york city is additionally a center for the advertising , music , newspaper , digital media , and publishing industries and is also the largest media market in north america . 
seven of the world 's top eight global advertising agency networks have their headquarters in new york . 
more than 200 newspapers and 350 consumer magazines have an office in the city , and the publishing industry employs about 25,000 people . 
two of the three national daily newspapers in the united states are new york papers : the wall street journal and the new york times , which has won the most pulitzer prizes for journalism . 
two of the three national daily newspapers in the united states are new york papers : the wall street journal and the new york times , which has won the most pulitzer prizes for journalism . 
major tabloid newspapers in the city include : the new york daily news , which was founded in 1919 by joseph medill patterson and the new york post , founded in 1801 by alexander hamilton . 
major tabloid newspapers in the city include : the new york daily news , which was founded in 1919 by joseph medill patterson and the new york post , founded in 1801 by alexander hamilton . 
more than 200 newspapers and 350 consumer magazines have an office in the city , and the publishing industry employs about 25,000 people . 
more than 200 newspapers and 350 consumer magazines have an office in the city , and the publishing industry employs about 25,000 people . 
more than 200 newspapers and 350 consumer magazines have an office in the city , and the publishing industry employs about 25,000 people . 
two of the three national daily newspapers in the united states are new york papers : the wall street journal and the new york times , which has won the most pulitzer prizes for journalism . 
major tabloid newspapers in the city include : the new york daily news , which was founded in 1919 by joseph medill patterson and the new york post , founded in 1801 by alexander hamilton . 
the three major american broadcast networks are all headquartered in new york : abc , cbs , and nbc . 
the city of new york operates a public broadcast service , nyctv , that has produced several original emmy award-winning shows covering music and culture in city neighborhoods and city government . 
many cable networks are based in the city as well , including mtv , fox news , hbo , showtime , bravo , food network , amc , and comedy central . 
many cable networks are based in the city as well , including mtv , fox news , hbo , showtime , bravo , food network , amc , and comedy central . 
the oldest public-access television channel in the united states is the manhattan neighborhood network , founded in 1971 . 
the oldest public-access television channel in the united states is the manhattan neighborhood network , founded in 1971 . 
wnet is the city 's major public television station and a primary source of national public broadcasting service -lrb- pbs -rrb- television programming . 
wnyc , a public radio station owned by the city until 1997 , has the largest public radio audience in the united states . 
wnyc , a public radio station owned by the city until 1997 , has the largest public radio audience in the united states . 
the oldest public-access television channel in the united states is the manhattan neighborhood network , founded in 1971 . 
the oldest public-access television channel in the united states is the manhattan neighborhood network , founded in 1971 . 
wnyc , a public radio station owned by the city until 1997 , has the largest public radio audience in the united states . 
the new york city public schools system , managed by the new york city department of education , is the largest public school system in the united states , serving about 1.1 million students in more than 1,700 separate primary and secondary schools . 
the new york city public schools system , managed by the new york city department of education , is the largest public school system in the united states , serving about 1.1 million students in more than 1,700 separate primary and secondary schools . 
the new york city public schools system , managed by the new york city department of education , is the largest public school system in the united states , serving about 1.1 million students in more than 1,700 separate primary and secondary schools . 
the city 's public school system includes nine specialized high schools to serve academically and artistically gifted students . 
the new york city public schools system , managed by the new york city department of education , is the largest public school system in the united states , serving about 1.1 million students in more than 1,700 separate primary and secondary schools . 
the city 's public school system includes nine specialized high schools to serve academically and artistically gifted students . 
the new york city charter school center assists the setup of new charter schools . 
there are approximately 900 additional privately run secular and religious schools in the city . 
over 600,000 students are enrolled in new york city 's over 120 higher education institutions , the highest number of any city in the united states , including over half million in the city university of new york -lrb- cuny -rrb- system alone in 2014 . 
in 2005 , three out of five manhattan residents were college graduates , and one out of four had a postgraduate degree , forming one of the highest concentrations of highly educated people in any american city . 
in 2005 , three out of five manhattan residents were college graduates , and one out of four had a postgraduate degree , forming one of the highest concentrations of highly educated people in any american city . 
the public cuny system is one of the largest universities in the nation , comprising 24 institutions across all five boroughs : senior colleges , community colleges , and other graduate/professional schools . 
over 600,000 students are enrolled in new york city 's over 120 higher education institutions , the highest number of any city in the united states , including over half million in the city university of new york -lrb- cuny -rrb- system alone in 2014 . 
the new york public library , which has the largest collection of any public library system in the united states , serves manhattan , the bronx , and staten island . 
queens is served by the queens borough public library , the nation 's second largest public library system , while the brooklyn public library serves brooklyn . 
queens is served by the queens borough public library , the nation 's second largest public library system , while the brooklyn public library serves brooklyn . 
queens is served by the queens borough public library , the nation 's second largest public library system , while the brooklyn public library serves brooklyn . 
the new york public library , which has the largest collection of any public library system in the united states , serves manhattan , the bronx , and staten island . 
the new york city health and hospitals corporation -lrb- hhc -rrb- operates the public hospitals and clinics in new york city . 
hhc operates 11 acute care hospitals , five nursing homes , six diagnostic and treatment centers , and more than 70 community-based primary care sites , serving primarily the poor and working class . 
a public benefit corporation with $ 6.7 billion in annual revenues , hhc is the largest municipal healthcare system in the united states serving 1.4 million patients , including more than 475,000 uninsured city residents . 
a public benefit corporation with $ 6.7 billion in annual revenues , hhc is the largest municipal healthcare system in the united states serving 1.4 million patients , including more than 475,000 uninsured city residents . 
a public benefit corporation with $ 6.7 billion in annual revenues , hhc is the largest municipal healthcare system in the united states serving 1.4 million patients , including more than 475,000 uninsured city residents . 
hhc was created in 1969 by the new york state legislature as a public benefit corporation -lrb- chapter 1016 of the laws 1969 -rrb- . 
hhc operates 11 acute care hospitals , five nursing homes , six diagnostic and treatment centers , and more than 70 community-based primary care sites , serving primarily the poor and working class . 
the most well-known hospital in the hhc system is bellevue hospital , the oldest public hospital in the united states . 
the president of hhc is ramanathan raju , md , a surgeon and former ceo of the cook county health system in illinois . 
the most well-known hospital in the hhc system is bellevue hospital , the oldest public hospital in the united states . 
the most well-known hospital in the hhc system is bellevue hospital , the oldest public hospital in the united states . 
the president of hhc is ramanathan raju , md , a surgeon and former ceo of the cook county health system in illinois . 
the president of hhc is ramanathan raju , md , a surgeon and former ceo of the cook county health system in illinois . 
the president of hhc is ramanathan raju , md , a surgeon and former ceo of the cook county health system in illinois . 
the new york city police department -lrb- nypd -rrb- has been the largest police force in the united states by a significant margin , with over 35,000 sworn officers . 
members of the nypd are frequently referred to by politicians , the media , and their own police cars by the nickname , new york 's finest . 
the new york city police department -lrb- nypd -rrb- has been the largest police force in the united states by a significant margin , with over 35,000 sworn officers . 
the new york city police department -lrb- nypd -rrb- has been the largest police force in the united states by a significant margin , with over 35,000 sworn officers . 
members of the nypd are frequently referred to by politicians , the media , and their own police cars by the nickname , new york 's finest . 
new york experienced a record low of 328 homicides in 2014 and has a far lower murder rate than other major american cities . 
violent crime in new york city decreased more than 75 % from 1993 to 2005 , and continued decreasing during periods when the nation as a whole saw increases . 
by 2002 , new york city 's crime rate was similar to that of provo , utah , and was ranked 197th in crime among the 216 u.s. cities with populations greater than 100,000 . 
in 2005 the homicide rate was at its lowest level since 1966 , and in 2007 the city recorded fewer than 500 homicides for the first time ever since crime statistics were first published in 1963 . 
new york experienced a record low of 328 homicides in 2014 and has a far lower murder rate than other major american cities . 
in the first six months of 2010 , 95.1 % of all murder victims and 95.9 % of all shooting victims in new york city were black or hispanic ; additionally , 90.2 percent of those arrested for murder and 96.7 percent of those arrested for shooting someone were black or hispanic . 
organized crime has long been associated with new york city , beginning with the forty thieves and the roach guards in the five points in the 1820s . 
the 20th century saw a rise in the mafia , dominated by the five families , as well as in gangs , including the black spades . 
organized crime has long been associated with new york city , beginning with the forty thieves and the roach guards in the five points in the 1820s . 
the 20th century saw a rise in the mafia , dominated by the five families , as well as in gangs , including the black spades . 
the new york city fire department is the largest municipal fire department in the united states and the second largest in the world after the tokyo fire department . 
the new york city fire department -lrb- fdny -rrb- , provides fire protection , technical rescue , primary response to biological , chemical , and radioactive hazards , and emergency medical services for the five boroughs of new york city . 
the fdny 's motto is new york 's bravest . 
the new york city fire department -lrb- fdny -rrb- , provides fire protection , technical rescue , primary response to biological , chemical , and radioactive hazards , and emergency medical services for the five boroughs of new york city . 
the new york city fire department is the largest municipal fire department in the united states and the second largest in the world after the tokyo fire department . 
the fdny employs approximately 11,080 uniformed firefighters and over 3,300 uniformed emts and paramedics . 
the fdny employs approximately 11,080 uniformed firefighters and over 3,300 uniformed emts and paramedics . 
the fdny 's motto is new york 's bravest . 
new york is also home to one of the largest subway systems in the world , consisting of hundreds of miles of tunnel with electrified track . 
in addition to responding to building types that range from wood-frame single family homes to high-rise structures , there are many secluded bridges and tunnels , as well as large parks and wooded areas that can give rise to brush fires . 
the fdny headquarters is located at 9 metrotech center in downtown brooklyn , and the fdny fire academy is located on randalls island . 
the fdny headquarters is located at 9 metrotech center in downtown brooklyn , and the fdny fire academy is located on randalls island . 
the fdny headquarters is located at 9 metrotech center in downtown brooklyn , and the fdny fire academy is located on randalls island . 
the fdny headquarters is located at 9 metrotech center in downtown brooklyn , and the fdny fire academy is located on randalls island . 
the fdny headquarters is located at 9 metrotech center in downtown brooklyn , and the fdny fire academy is located on randalls island . 
the fdny headquarters is located at 9 metrotech center in downtown brooklyn , and the fdny fire academy is located on randalls island . 
one office , at 11 metrotech center in brooklyn , houses manhattan/citywide , brooklyn , and staten island fire communications . 
the city was a center of jazz in the 1940s , abstract expressionism in the 1950s , and the birthplace of hip hop in the 1970s . 
the city was a center of jazz in the 1940s , abstract expressionism in the 1950s , and the birthplace of hip hop in the 1970s . 
numerous major american cultural movements began in the city , such as the harlem renaissance , which established the african-american literary canon in the united states . 
the city was a center of jazz in the 1940s , abstract expressionism in the 1950s , and the birthplace of hip hop in the 1970s . 
the city was a center of jazz in the 1940s , abstract expressionism in the 1950s , and the birthplace of hip hop in the 1970s . 
the city was a center of jazz in the 1940s , abstract expressionism in the 1950s , and the birthplace of hip hop in the 1970s . 
new york city has been considered the dance capital of the world . 
new york fashion week is one of the world 's preeminent fashion events and is afforded extensive coverage by the media . 
the city is the birthplace of many cultural movements , including the harlem renaissance in literature and visual art ; abstract expressionism -lrb- also known as the new york school -rrb- in painting ; and hip hop , punk , salsa , disco , freestyle , tin pan alley , and jazz in music . 
new york fashion week is one of the world 's preeminent fashion events and is afforded extensive coverage by the media . 
new york has also frequently been ranked the top fashion capital of the world on the annual list compiled by the global language monitor . 
the advent of electric lighting led to elaborate theater productions , and in the 1880s , new york city theaters on broadway and along 42nd street began featuring a new stage form that became known as the broadway musical . 
new york city has more than 2,000 arts and cultural organizations and more than 500 art galleries of all sizes . 
the advent of electric lighting led to elaborate theater productions , and in the 1880s , new york city theaters on broadway and along 42nd street began featuring a new stage form that became known as the broadway musical . 
strongly influenced by the city 's immigrants , productions such as those of harrigan and hart , george m. cohan , and others used song in narratives that often reflected themes of hope and ambition . 
new york city has more than 2,000 arts and cultural organizations and more than 500 art galleries of all sizes . 
the advent of electric lighting led to elaborate theater productions , and in the 1880s , new york city theaters on broadway and along 42nd street began featuring a new stage form that became known as the broadway musical . 
attendance in 2013 -- 2014 stood at 12.21 million , representing a 5.5 % increase from the 2012 -- 2013 season 's 11.57 million . 
forty of the city 's theaters , with more than 500 seats each , are collectively known as broadway , after the major thoroughfare that crosses the times square theater district , sometimes referred to as `` the great white way '' . 
according to the broadway league , broadway shows sold approximately us$ 1.27 billion worth of tickets in the 2013 -- 2014 season , an 11.4 % increase from us$ 1.139 billion in the 2012 -- 2013 season . 
according to the broadway league , broadway shows sold approximately us$ 1.27 billion worth of tickets in the 2013 -- 2014 season , an 11.4 % increase from us$ 1.139 billion in the 2012 -- 2013 season . 
attendance in 2013 -- 2014 stood at 12.21 million , representing a 5.5 % increase from the 2012 -- 2013 season 's 11.57 million . 
attendance in 2013 -- 2014 stood at 12.21 million , representing a 5.5 % increase from the 2012 -- 2013 season 's 11.57 million . 
the new york city department of health and mental hygiene assigns letter grades to the city 's 24,000 restaurants based upon their inspection results . 
some 4,000 mobile food vendors licensed by the city , many immigrant-owned , have made middle eastern foods such as falafel and kebabs popular examples of modern new york street food . 
the new york city department of health and mental hygiene assigns letter grades to the city 's 24,000 restaurants based upon their inspection results . 
the new york city department of health and mental hygiene assigns letter grades to the city 's 24,000 restaurants based upon their inspection results . 
the city is also home to nearly one thousand of the finest and most diverse haute cuisine restaurants in the world , according to michelin . 
participation in professional sports in the city predates all professional leagues , and the city has been continuously hosting professional sports since the birth of the brooklyn dodgers in 1882 . 
four of the ten most expensive stadiums ever built worldwide -lrb- metlife stadium , the new yankee stadium , madison square garden , and citi field -rrb- are located in the new york metropolitan area . 
madison square garden , its predecessor , as well as the original yankee stadium and ebbets field , are some of the most famous sporting venues in the world , the latter two having been commemorated on u.s. postage stamps . 
participation in professional sports in the city predates all professional leagues , and the city has been continuously hosting professional sports since the birth of the brooklyn dodgers in 1882 . 
new york city is home to the headquarters of the national football league , major league baseball , the national basketball association , the national hockey league , and major league soccer . 
the new york metropolitan area hosts the most sports teams in these five professional leagues . 
the city has played host to over forty major professional teams in the five sports and their respective competing leagues , both current and historic . 
new york has been described as the `` capital of baseball '' . 
there have been 35 major league baseball world series and 73 pennants won by new york teams . 
new york has been described as the `` capital of baseball '' . 
it is one of only five metro areas -lrb- los angeles , chicago , baltimore -- washington , and the san francisco bay area being the others -rrb- to have two baseball teams . 
there have been 35 major league baseball world series and 73 pennants won by new york teams . 
there have been 35 major league baseball world series and 73 pennants won by new york teams . 
it is one of only five metro areas -lrb- los angeles , chicago , baltimore -- washington , and the san francisco bay area being the others -rrb- to have two baseball teams . 
additionally , there have been 14 world series in which two new york city teams played each other , known as a subway series and occurring most recently in 2000 . 
additionally , there have been 14 world series in which two new york city teams played each other , known as a subway series and occurring most recently in 2000 . 
the city is represented in the national football league by the new york giants and the new york jets , although both teams play their home games at metlife stadium in nearby east rutherford , new jersey , which hosted super bowl xlviii in 2014 . 
the city is represented in the national football league by the new york giants and the new york jets , although both teams play their home games at metlife stadium in nearby east rutherford , new jersey , which hosted super bowl xlviii in 2014 . 
the city is represented in the national football league by the new york giants and the new york jets , although both teams play their home games at metlife stadium in nearby east rutherford , new jersey , which hosted super bowl xlviii in 2014 . 
the city is represented in the national football league by the new york giants and the new york jets , although both teams play their home games at metlife stadium in nearby east rutherford , new jersey , which hosted super bowl xlviii in 2014 . 
the city is represented in the national football league by the new york giants and the new york jets , although both teams play their home games at metlife stadium in nearby east rutherford , new jersey , which hosted super bowl xlviii in 2014 . 
the city is represented in the national football league by the new york giants and the new york jets , although both teams play their home games at metlife stadium in nearby east rutherford , new jersey , which hosted super bowl xlviii in 2014 . 
the city is represented in the national football league by the new york giants and the new york jets , although both teams play their home games at metlife stadium in nearby east rutherford , new jersey , which hosted super bowl xlviii in 2014 . 
the new york islanders and the new york rangers represent the city in the national hockey league . 
also within the metropolitan area are the new jersey devils , who play in nearby newark , new jersey . 
also within the metropolitan area are the new jersey devils , who play in nearby newark , new jersey . 
the new york islanders and the new york rangers represent the city in the national hockey league . 
the new york islanders and the new york rangers represent the city in the national hockey league . 
the city 's national basketball association teams are the brooklyn nets and the new york knicks , while the new york liberty is the city 's women 's national basketball association . 
the city 's national basketball association teams are the brooklyn nets and the new york knicks , while the new york liberty is the city 's women 's national basketball association . 
the first national college-level basketball championship , the national invitation tournament , was held in new york in 1938 and remains in the city . 
the city 's national basketball association teams are the brooklyn nets and the new york knicks , while the new york liberty is the city 's women 's national basketball association . 
the first national college-level basketball championship , the national invitation tournament , was held in new york in 1938 and remains in the city . 
the first national college-level basketball championship , the national invitation tournament , was held in new york in 1938 and remains in the city . 
the city 's national basketball association teams are the brooklyn nets and the new york knicks , while the new york liberty is the city 's women 's national basketball association . 
the annual united states open tennis championships is one of the world 's four grand slam tennis tournaments and is held at the national tennis center in flushing meadows-corona park , queens . 
the millrose games is an annual track and field meet whose featured event is the wanamaker mile . 
the city is also considered the host of the belmont stakes , the last , longest and oldest of horse racing 's triple crown races , held just over the city 's border at belmont park on the first or second sunday of june . 
the city also hosted the 1932 u.s. open golf tournament and the 1930 and 1939 pga championships , and has been host city for both events several times , most notably for nearby winged foot golf club . 
boxing is also a prominent part of the city 's sporting scene , with events like the amateur boxing golden gloves being held at madison square garden each year . 
the annual united states open tennis championships is one of the world 's four grand slam tennis tournaments and is held at the national tennis center in flushing meadows-corona park , queens . 
the annual united states open tennis championships is one of the world 's four grand slam tennis tournaments and is held at the national tennis center in flushing meadows-corona park , queens . 
the new york marathon is one of the world 's largest , and the 2004 -- 2006 events hold the top three places in the marathons with the largest number of finishers , including 37,866 finishers in 2006 . 
the millrose games is an annual track and field meet whose featured event is the wanamaker mile . 
boxing is also a prominent part of the city 's sporting scene , with events like the amateur boxing golden gloves being held at madison square garden each year . 
stickball , a street version of baseball , was popularized by youths in the 1930s , and a street in the bronx was renamed stickball boulevard in the late 2000s to memorialize this . 
stickball , a street version of baseball , was popularized by youths in the 1930s , and a street in the bronx was renamed stickball boulevard in the late 2000s to memorialize this . 
stickball , a street version of baseball , was popularized by youths in the 1930s , and a street in the bronx was renamed stickball boulevard in the late 2000s to memorialize this . 
the iconic new york city subway system is the largest rapid transit system in the world when measured by stations in operation , with 469 , and by length of routes . 
the iconic new york city subway system is the largest rapid transit system in the world when measured by stations in operation , with 469 , and by length of routes . 
the new york city subway is also the busiest metropolitan rail transit system in the western hemisphere , with 1.75 billion passengers rides in 2014 , while grand central terminal , also popularly referred to as `` grand central station '' , is the world 's largest railway station by number of train platforms . 
the new york city subway is also the busiest metropolitan rail transit system in the western hemisphere , with 1.75 billion passengers rides in 2014 , while grand central terminal , also popularly referred to as `` grand central station '' , is the world 's largest railway station by number of train platforms . 
the new york city subway is also the busiest metropolitan rail transit system in the western hemisphere , with 1.75 billion passengers rides in 2014 , while grand central terminal , also popularly referred to as `` grand central station '' , is the world 's largest railway station by number of train platforms . 
according to the us census bureau , new york city residents spend an average of 38.4 minutes a day getting to work , the longest commute time in the nation among large cities . 
54.6 % of new yorkers commuted to work in 2005 using mass transit . 
new york is the only us city in which a majority -lrb- 52 % -rrb- of households do not have a car ; only 22 % of manhattanites own a car . 
54.6 % of new yorkers commuted to work in 2005 using mass transit . 
this is in contrast to the rest of the united states , where about 90 % of commuters drive automobiles to their workplace . 
according to the us census bureau , new york city residents spend an average of 38.4 minutes a day getting to work , the longest commute time in the nation among large cities . 
new york is the only us city in which a majority -lrb- 52 % -rrb- of households do not have a car ; only 22 % of manhattanites own a car . 
new york is the only us city in which a majority -lrb- 52 % -rrb- of households do not have a car ; only 22 % of manhattanites own a car . 
new york city 's public bus fleet is the largest in north america , and the port authority bus terminal , the main intercity bus terminal of the city , serves 7,000 buses and 200,000 commuters daily , making it the busiest bus station in the world . 
new york city 's public bus fleet is the largest in north america , and the port authority bus terminal , the main intercity bus terminal of the city , serves 7,000 buses and 200,000 commuters daily , making it the busiest bus station in the world . 
new york city 's public bus fleet is the largest in north america , and the port authority bus terminal , the main intercity bus terminal of the city , serves 7,000 buses and 200,000 commuters daily , making it the busiest bus station in the world . 
new york city 's public bus fleet is the largest in north america , and the port authority bus terminal , the main intercity bus terminal of the city , serves 7,000 buses and 200,000 commuters daily , making it the busiest bus station in the world . 
the three busiest airports in the new york metropolitan area include john f. kennedy international airport , newark liberty international airport , and laguardia airport ; 109 million travelers used these three airports in 2012 , and the city 's airspace is the busiest in the nation . 
the three busiest airports in the new york metropolitan area include john f. kennedy international airport , newark liberty international airport , and laguardia airport ; 109 million travelers used these three airports in 2012 , and the city 's airspace is the busiest in the nation . 
the three busiest airports in the new york metropolitan area include john f. kennedy international airport , newark liberty international airport , and laguardia airport ; 109 million travelers used these three airports in 2012 , and the city 's airspace is the busiest in the nation . 
plans have advanced to expand passenger volume at a fourth airport , stewart international airport near newburgh , new york , by the port authority of new york and new jersey . 
the three busiest airports in the new york metropolitan area include john f. kennedy international airport , newark liberty international airport , and laguardia airport ; 109 million travelers used these three airports in 2012 , and the city 's airspace is the busiest in the nation . 
the staten island ferry is the world 's busiest ferry route , carrying approximately 20 million passengers on the 5.2-mile -lrb- 8.4 km -rrb- route between staten island and lower manhattan and running 24 hours a day . 
the staten island ferry is the world 's busiest ferry route , carrying approximately 20 million passengers on the 5.2-mile -lrb- 8.4 km -rrb- route between staten island and lower manhattan and running 24 hours a day . 
the staten island ferry is the world 's busiest ferry route , carrying approximately 20 million passengers on the 5.2-mile -lrb- 8.4 km -rrb- route between staten island and lower manhattan and running 24 hours a day . 
the staten island ferry is the world 's busiest ferry route , carrying approximately 20 million passengers on the 5.2-mile -lrb- 8.4 km -rrb- route between staten island and lower manhattan and running 24 hours a day . 
the staten island ferry is the world 's busiest ferry route , carrying approximately 20 million passengers on the 5.2-mile -lrb- 8.4 km -rrb- route between staten island and lower manhattan and running 24 hours a day . 
the george washington bridge is the world 's busiest motor vehicle bridge , connecting manhattan to bergen county , new jersey . 
the verrazano-narrows bridge is the longest suspension bridge in the americas and one of the world 's longest . 
the brooklyn bridge is an icon of the city itself . 
this bridge was also the longest suspension bridge in the world from its opening until 1903 , and is the first steel-wire suspension bridge . 
the george washington bridge is the world 's busiest motor vehicle bridge , connecting manhattan to bergen county , new jersey . 
the george washington bridge is the world 's busiest motor vehicle bridge , connecting manhattan to bergen county , new jersey . 
the verrazano-narrows bridge is the longest suspension bridge in the americas and one of the world 's longest . 
the towers of the brooklyn bridge are built of limestone , granite , and rosendale cement , and their architectural style is neo-gothic , with characteristic pointed arches above the passageways through the stone towers . 
this bridge was also the longest suspension bridge in the world from its opening until 1903 , and is the first steel-wire suspension bridge . 
the lincoln tunnel , which carries 120,000 vehicles a day under the hudson river between new jersey and midtown manhattan , is the busiest vehicular tunnel in the world . 
the holland tunnel , connecting lower manhattan to jersey city , new jersey , was the world 's first mechanically ventilated vehicular tunnel when it opened in 1927 . 
the queens-midtown tunnel , built to relieve congestion on the bridges connecting manhattan with queens and brooklyn , was the largest non-federal project in its time when it was completed in 1940 . 
president franklin d. roosevelt was the first person to drive through it . 
the lincoln tunnel , which carries 120,000 vehicles a day under the hudson river between new jersey and midtown manhattan , is the busiest vehicular tunnel in the world . 
the lincoln tunnel , which carries 120,000 vehicles a day under the hudson river between new jersey and midtown manhattan , is the busiest vehicular tunnel in the world . 
manhattan island is linked to new york city 's outer boroughs and new jersey by several tunnels as well . 
the holland tunnel , connecting lower manhattan to jersey city , new jersey , was the world 's first mechanically ventilated vehicular tunnel when it opened in 1927 . 
president franklin d. roosevelt was the first person to drive through it . 
new york 's high rate of public transit use , over 200,000 daily cyclists as of 2014 , and many pedestrian commuters make it the most energy-efficient major city in the united states . 
new york 's high rate of public transit use , over 200,000 daily cyclists as of 2014 , and many pedestrian commuters make it the most energy-efficient major city in the united states . 
walk and bicycle modes of travel account for 21 % of all modes for trips in the city ; nationally the rate for metro regions is about 8 % . 
citibank sponsored the introduction of 10,000 public bicycles for the city 's bike-share project in the summer of 2013 . 
research conducted by quinnipiac university showed that a majority of new yorkers support the initiative . 
in both its 2011 and 2015 rankings , walk score named new york city the most walkable large city in the united states . 
new york city is supplied with drinking water by the protected catskill mountains watershed . 
new york city is supplied with drinking water by the protected catskill mountains watershed . 
the croton watershed north of the city is undergoing construction of a us$ 3.2 billion water purification plant to augment new york city 's water supply by an estimated 290 million gallons daily , representing a greater than 20 % addition to the city 's current availability of water . 
the croton watershed north of the city is undergoing construction of a us$ 3.2 billion water purification plant to augment new york city 's water supply by an estimated 290 million gallons daily , representing a greater than 20 % addition to the city 's current availability of water . 
the croton watershed north of the city is undergoing construction of a us$ 3.2 billion water purification plant to augment new york city 's water supply by an estimated 290 million gallons daily , representing a greater than 20 % addition to the city 's current availability of water . 
the croton watershed north of the city is undergoing construction of a us$ 3.2 billion water purification plant to augment new york city 's water supply by an estimated 290 million gallons daily , representing a greater than 20 % addition to the city 's current availability of water . 
the city council is a unicameral body consisting of 51 council members whose districts are defined by geographic population boundaries . 
each term for the mayor and council members lasts four years and has a three consecutive-term limit , but can resume after a four-year break . 
the mayor and council members are elected to four-year terms . 
the city council is a unicameral body consisting of 51 council members whose districts are defined by geographic population boundaries . 
each term for the mayor and council members lasts four years and has a three consecutive-term limit , but can resume after a four-year break . 
the new york city administrative code , the new york city rules , and the city record are the code of local laws , compilation of regulations , and official journal , respectively . 
the mayor and council members are elected to four-year terms . 
as of november 2008 , 67 % of registered voters in the city are democrats . 
as of november 2008 , 67 % of registered voters in the city are democrats . 
in 2012 , democrat barack obama became the first presidential candidate of any party to receive more than 80 % of the overall vote in new york city , sweeping all five boroughs . 
new york city has not been carried by a republican in a statewide or presidential election since president calvin coolidge won the five boroughs in 1924 . 
new york city has not been carried by a republican in a statewide or presidential election since president calvin coolidge won the five boroughs in 1924 . 
the democratic party holds the majority of public offices . 
as of november 2008 , 67 % of registered voters in the city are democrats . 
new york city has not been carried by a republican in a statewide or presidential election since president calvin coolidge won the five boroughs in 1924 . 
new york city has not been carried by a republican in a statewide or presidential election since president calvin coolidge won the five boroughs in 1924 . 
new york city has not been carried by a republican in a statewide or presidential election since president calvin coolidge won the five boroughs in 1924 . 
new york city has the most post-graduate life sciences degrees awarded annually in the united states , with 127 nobel laureates having roots in local institutions as of 2004 ; while in 2012 , 43,523 licensed physicians were practicing in new york city . 
major biomedical research institutions include memorial sloan -- kettering cancer center , rockefeller university , suny downstate medical center , albert einstein college of medicine , mount sinai school of medicine , and weill cornell medical college , being joined by the cornell university/technion-israel institute of technology venture on roosevelt island . 
new york city has the most post-graduate life sciences degrees awarded annually in the united states , with 127 nobel laureates having roots in local institutions as of 2004 ; while in 2012 , 43,523 licensed physicians were practicing in new york city . 
each year hhc 's facilities provide about 225,000 admissions , one million emergency room visits and five million clinic visits to new yorkers . 
each year hhc 's facilities provide about 225,000 admissions , one million emergency room visits and five million clinic visits to new yorkers . 
each year hhc 's facilities provide about 225,000 admissions , one million emergency room visits and five million clinic visits to new yorkers . 
hhc facilities treat nearly one-fifth of all general hospital discharges and more than one third of emergency room and hospital-based clinic visits in new york city . 
hhc facilities treat nearly one-fifth of all general hospital discharges and more than one third of emergency room and hospital-based clinic visits in new york city . 
another theory is that widespread exposure to lead pollution from automobile exhaust , which can lower intelligence and increase aggression levels , incited the initial crime wave in the mid-20th century , most acutely affecting heavily trafficked cities like new york . 
others cite the end of the crack epidemic and demographic changes , including from immigration . 
in describing new york , author tom wolfe said , `` culture just seems to be in the air , like part of the weather . '' 
a book containing a series of essays titled new york , culture capital of the world , 1940 -- 1965 has also been published as showcased by the national library of australia . 
new york city has been described as the cultural capital of the world by the diplomatic consulates of iceland and latvia and by new york 's baruch college . 
new york city has been described as the cultural capital of the world by the diplomatic consulates of iceland and latvia and by new york 's baruch college . 
lincoln center for the performing arts , anchoring lincoln square on the upper west side of manhattan , is home to numerous influential arts organizations , including the metropolitan opera , new york city opera , new york philharmonic , and new york city ballet , as well as the vivian beaumont theater , the juilliard school , jazz at lincoln center , and alice tully hall . 
lincoln center for the performing arts , anchoring lincoln square on the upper west side of manhattan , is home to numerous influential arts organizations , including the metropolitan opera , new york city opera , new york philharmonic , and new york city ballet , as well as the vivian beaumont theater , the juilliard school , jazz at lincoln center , and alice tully hall . 
the lee strasberg theatre and film institute is in union square , and tisch school of the arts is based at new york university , while central park summerstage presents performances of free plays and music in central park . 
the lee strasberg theatre and film institute is in union square , and tisch school of the arts is based at new york university , while central park summerstage presents performances of free plays and music in central park . 
the lee strasberg theatre and film institute is in union square , and tisch school of the arts is based at new york university , while central park summerstage presents performances of free plays and music in central park . 
museum mile is the name for a section of fifth avenue running from 82nd to 105th streets on the upper east side of manhattan , in an area sometimes called upper carnegie hill . 
museum mile is the name for a section of fifth avenue running from 82nd to 105th streets on the upper east side of manhattan , in an area sometimes called upper carnegie hill . 
the tenth museum , the museum for african art , joined the ensemble in 2009 , however its museum at 110th street , the first new museum constructed on the mile since the guggenheim in 1959 , opened in late 2012 . 
the tenth museum , the museum for african art , joined the ensemble in 2009 , however its museum at 110th street , the first new museum constructed on the mile since the guggenheim in 1959 , opened in late 2012 . 
museum mile is the name for a section of fifth avenue running from 82nd to 105th streets on the upper east side of manhattan , in an area sometimes called upper carnegie hill . 
the new york area is home to a distinctive regional speech pattern called the new york dialect , alternatively known as brooklynese or new yorkese . 
the character archie bunker from the 1970s sitcom all in the family -lrb- played by carroll o'connor -rrb- was a notable example of having used this pattern of speech , which continues to fade in its overall presence . 
the character archie bunker from the 1970s sitcom all in the family -lrb- played by carroll o'connor -rrb- was a notable example of having used this pattern of speech , which continues to fade in its overall presence . 
the traditional new york area accent is characterized as non-rhotic , so that the sound -lsb- ɹ -rsb- does not appear at the end of a syllable or immediately before a consonant ; hence the pronunciation of the city name as `` new yawk . '' 
in soccer , new york city is represented by new york city fc of major league soccer , who play their home games at yankee stadium . 
in soccer , new york city is represented by new york city fc of major league soccer , who play their home games at yankee stadium . 
the new york red bulls play their home games at red bull arena in nearby harrison , new jersey . 
historically , the city is known for the new york cosmos , the highly successful former professional soccer team which was the american home of pelé , one of the world 's most famous soccer players . 
the cosmos play their home games at james m. shuart stadium on the campus of hofstra university , just outside the new york city limits in hempstead , new york . 
mass transit in new york city , most of which runs 24 hours a day , accounts for one in every three users of mass transit in the united states , and two-thirds of the nation 's rail riders live in the new york city metropolitan area . 
the combined systems converge at grand central terminal and pennsylvania station and contain more than 250 stations and 20 rail lines . 
the combined systems converge at grand central terminal and pennsylvania station and contain more than 250 stations and 20 rail lines . 
in queens , the elevated airtrain people mover system connects jfk international airport to the new york city subway and the long island rail road ; a separate airtrain system is planned alongside the grand central parkway to connect laguardia airport to these transit systems . 
the combined systems converge at grand central terminal and pennsylvania station and contain more than 250 stations and 20 rail lines . 
for intercity rail , new york city is served by amtrak , whose busiest station by a significant margin is pennsylvania station on the west side of manhattan , from which amtrak provides connections to boston , philadelphia , and washington , d.c. along the northeast corridor , as well as long-distance train service to other north american cities . 
like the new york city subway , the path operates 24 hours a day ; meaning three of the six rapid transit systems in the world which operate on 24-hour schedules are wholly or partly in new york -lrb- the others are a portion of the chicago ` l' , the patco speedline serving philadelphia , and the copenhagen metro -rrb- . 
like the new york city subway , the path operates 24 hours a day ; meaning three of the six rapid transit systems in the world which operate on 24-hour schedules are wholly or partly in new york -lrb- the others are a portion of the chicago ` l' , the patco speedline serving philadelphia , and the copenhagen metro -rrb- . 
like the new york city subway , the path operates 24 hours a day ; meaning three of the six rapid transit systems in the world which operate on 24-hour schedules are wholly or partly in new york -lrb- the others are a portion of the chicago ` l' , the patco speedline serving philadelphia , and the copenhagen metro -rrb- . 
the port authority trans-hudson -lrb- path train -rrb- links midtown and lower manhattan to northeastern new jersey , primarily hoboken , jersey city , and newark . 
multibillion us$ heavy-rail transit projects under construction in new york city include the second avenue subway , the east side access project , and the 7 subway extension . 
other features of the city 's transportation infrastructure encompass more than 12,000 yellow taxicabs ; various competing startup transportation network companies ; and an aerial tramway that transports commuters between roosevelt island and manhattan island . 
other features of the city 's transportation infrastructure encompass more than 12,000 yellow taxicabs ; various competing startup transportation network companies ; and an aerial tramway that transports commuters between roosevelt island and manhattan island . 
several of the city 's streets and avenues , like broadway , wall street , madison avenue , and seventh avenue are also used as metonyms for national industries there : the theater , finance , advertising , and fashion organizations , respectively . 
several of the city 's streets and avenues , like broadway , wall street , madison avenue , and seventh avenue are also used as metonyms for national industries there : the theater , finance , advertising , and fashion organizations , respectively . 
several of the city 's streets and avenues , like broadway , wall street , madison avenue , and seventh avenue are also used as metonyms for national industries there : the theater , finance , advertising , and fashion organizations , respectively . 
several of the city 's streets and avenues , like broadway , wall street , madison avenue , and seventh avenue are also used as metonyms for national industries there : the theater , finance , advertising , and fashion organizations , respectively . 
because these highways serve millions of outer borough and suburban residents who commute into manhattan , it is quite common for motorists to be stranded for hours in traffic jams that are a daily occurrence , particularly during rush hour . 
new york city also has an extensive web of expressways and parkways , which link the city 's boroughs to each other as well as to northern new jersey , westchester county , long island , and southwestern connecticut through various bridges and tunnels . 
new york city also has an extensive web of expressways and parkways , which link the city 's boroughs to each other as well as to northern new jersey , westchester county , long island , and southwestern connecticut through various bridges and tunnels . 
new york city is located on one of the world 's largest natural harbors , and the boroughs of manhattan and staten island are -lrb- primarily -rrb- coterminous with islands of the same names , while queens and brooklyn are located at the west end of the larger long island , and the bronx is located at the southern tip of new york state 's mainland . 
new york city is located on one of the world 's largest natural harbors , and the boroughs of manhattan and staten island are -lrb- primarily -rrb- coterminous with islands of the same names , while queens and brooklyn are located at the west end of the larger long island , and the bronx is located at the southern tip of new york state 's mainland . 
new york city is located on one of the world 's largest natural harbors , and the boroughs of manhattan and staten island are -lrb- primarily -rrb- coterminous with islands of the same names , while queens and brooklyn are located at the west end of the larger long island , and the bronx is located at the southern tip of new york state 's mainland . 
the manhattan bridge , throgs neck bridge , triborough bridge , and verrazano-narrows bridge are all examples of structural expressionism . 
the queensboro bridge is an important piece of cantilever architecture . 
also , by 2010 , the city had 3,715 hybrid taxis and other clean diesel vehicles , representing around 28 % of new york 's taxi fleet in service , the most of any city in north america . 
also , by 2010 , the city had 3,715 hybrid taxis and other clean diesel vehicles , representing around 28 % of new york 's taxi fleet in service , the most of any city in north america . 
mayor bill de blasio has committed to an 80 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions between 2014 and 2050 to reduce the city 's contributions to climate change , beginning with a comprehensive `` green buildings '' plan . 
the city is also a leader in the construction of energy-efficient green office buildings , including the hearst tower among others . 
the city government was a petitioner in the landmark massachusetts v. environmental protection agency supreme court case forcing the epa to regulate greenhouse gases as pollutants . 
newtown creek , a 3.5-mile -lrb- 6-kilometer -rrb- a long estuary that forms part of the border between the boroughs of brooklyn and queens , has been designated a superfund site for environmental clean-up and remediation of the waterway 's recreational and economic resources for many communities . 
one of the most heavily used bodies of water in the port of new york and new jersey , it had been one of the most contaminated industrial sites in the country , containing years of discarded toxins , an estimated 30 million us gallons -lrb- 110,000 m3 -rrb- of spilled oil , including the greenpoint oil spill , raw sewage from new york city 's sewer system , and other accumulation . 
one of the most heavily used bodies of water in the port of new york and new jersey , it had been one of the most contaminated industrial sites in the country , containing years of discarded toxins , an estimated 30 million us gallons -lrb- 110,000 m3 -rrb- of spilled oil , including the greenpoint oil spill , raw sewage from new york city 's sewer system , and other accumulation . 
new york city has been a metropolitan municipality with a mayor-council form of government since its consolidation in 1898 . 
new york city has been a metropolitan municipality with a mayor-council form of government since its consolidation in 1898 . 
manhattan hosts the first department of the supreme court , appellate division while brooklyn hosts the second department . 
manhattan hosts the first department of the supreme court , appellate division while brooklyn hosts the second department . 
there are also several extrajudicial administrative courts , which are executive agencies and not part of the state unified court system . 
uniquely among major american cities , new york is divided between , and is host to the main branches of , two different us district courts : the district court for the southern district of new york , whose main courthouse is on foley square near city hall in manhattan and whose jurisdiction includes manhattan and the bronx , and the district court for the eastern district of new york , whose main courthouse is in brooklyn and whose jurisdiction includes brooklyn , queens , and staten island . 
uniquely among major american cities , new york is divided between , and is host to the main branches of , two different us district courts : the district court for the southern district of new york , whose main courthouse is on foley square near city hall in manhattan and whose jurisdiction includes manhattan and the bronx , and the district court for the eastern district of new york , whose main courthouse is in brooklyn and whose jurisdiction includes brooklyn , queens , and staten island . 
uniquely among major american cities , new york is divided between , and is host to the main branches of , two different us district courts : the district court for the southern district of new york , whose main courthouse is on foley square near city hall in manhattan and whose jurisdiction includes manhattan and the bronx , and the district court for the eastern district of new york , whose main courthouse is in brooklyn and whose jurisdiction includes brooklyn , queens , and staten island . 
uniquely among major american cities , new york is divided between , and is host to the main branches of , two different us district courts : the district court for the southern district of new york , whose main courthouse is on foley square near city hall in manhattan and whose jurisdiction includes manhattan and the bronx , and the district court for the eastern district of new york , whose main courthouse is in brooklyn and whose jurisdiction includes brooklyn , queens , and staten island . 
uniquely among major american cities , new york is divided between , and is host to the main branches of , two different us district courts : the district court for the southern district of new york , whose main courthouse is on foley square near city hall in manhattan and whose jurisdiction includes manhattan and the bronx , and the district court for the eastern district of new york , whose main courthouse is in brooklyn and whose jurisdiction includes brooklyn , queens , and staten island . 
new york is the most important source of political fundraising in the united states , as four of the top five zip codes in the nation for political contributions are in manhattan . 
the top zip code , 10021 on the upper east side , generated the most money for the 2004 presidential campaigns of george w. bush and john kerry . 
it receives 83 cents in services for every $ 1 it sends to the federal government in taxes -lrb- or annually sends $ 11.4 billion more than it receives back -rrb- . 
the city also sends an additional $ 11 billion more each year to the state of new york than it receives back . 
it receives 83 cents in services for every $ 1 it sends to the federal government in taxes -lrb- or annually sends $ 11.4 billion more than it receives back -rrb- . 
in 2006 , the sister city program of the city of new york , inc. was restructured and renamed new york city global partners . 
in 2006 , the sister city program of the city of new york , inc. was restructured and renamed new york city global partners . 
to kill a mockingbird is a novel by harper lee published in 1960 . 
it was immediately successful , winning the pulitzer prize , and has become a classic of modern american literature . 
to kill a mockingbird is a novel by harper lee published in 1960 . 
to kill a mockingbird is a novel by harper lee published in 1960 . 
to kill a mockingbird is a novel by harper lee published in 1960 . 
the plot and characters are loosely based on the author 's observations of her family and neighbors , as well as on an event that occurred near her hometown in 1936 , when she was 10 years old . 
the book is widely taught in schools in the united states with lessons that emphasize tolerance and decry prejudice . 
as a southern gothic novel and a bildungsroman , the primary themes of to kill a mockingbird involve racial injustice and the destruction of innocence . 
as a southern gothic novel and a bildungsroman , the primary themes of to kill a mockingbird involve racial injustice and the destruction of innocence . 
scholars have noted that lee also addresses issues of class , courage , compassion , and gender roles in the american deep south . 
despite its themes , to kill a mockingbird has been subject to campaigns for removal from public classrooms , often challenged for its use of racial epithets . 
author mary mcdonough murphy , who collected individual impressions of to kill a mockingbird by several authors and public figures , calls the book , `` an astonishing phenomenon '' . 
in 2006 , british librarians ranked the book ahead of the bible as one `` every adult should read before they die '' . 
it was adapted into an oscar-winning film in 1962 by director robert mulligan , with a screenplay by horton foote . 
since 1990 , a play based on the novel has been performed annually in harper lee 's hometown of monroeville , alabama . 
it was adapted into an oscar-winning film in 1962 by director robert mulligan , with a screenplay by horton foote . 
in 2006 , british librarians ranked the book ahead of the bible as one `` every adult should read before they die '' . 
it was adapted into an oscar-winning film in 1962 by director robert mulligan , with a screenplay by horton foote . 
it was adapted into an oscar-winning film in 1962 by director robert mulligan , with a screenplay by horton foote . 
since 1990 , a play based on the novel has been performed annually in harper lee 's hometown of monroeville , alabama . 
lee continued to respond to her work 's impact until her death in february 2016 , although she had refused any personal publicity for herself or the novel since 1964 . 
to kill a mockingbird was lee 's only published book until go set a watchman , an earlier draft of to kill a mockingbird , was published on july 14 , 2015 . 
to kill a mockingbird was lee 's only published book until go set a watchman , an earlier draft of to kill a mockingbird , was published on july 14 , 2015 . 
to kill a mockingbird was lee 's only published book until go set a watchman , an earlier draft of to kill a mockingbird , was published on july 14 , 2015 . 
lee continued to respond to her work 's impact until her death in february 2016 , although she had refused any personal publicity for herself or the novel since 1964 . 
born in 1926 , harper lee grew up in the southern town of monroeville , alabama , where she became close friends with soon-to-be famous writer truman capote . 
in 1950 , lee moved to new york city , where she worked as a reservation clerk for british overseas airways corporation ; there , she began writing a collection of essays and short stories about people in monroeville . 
in 1950 , lee moved to new york city , where she worked as a reservation clerk for british overseas airways corporation ; there , she began writing a collection of essays and short stories about people in monroeville . 
born in 1926 , harper lee grew up in the southern town of monroeville , alabama , where she became close friends with soon-to-be famous writer truman capote . 
born in 1926 , harper lee grew up in the southern town of monroeville , alabama , where she became close friends with soon-to-be famous writer truman capote . 
born in 1926 , harper lee grew up in the southern town of monroeville , alabama , where she became close friends with soon-to-be famous writer truman capote . 
she attended huntingdon college in montgomery -lrb- 1944 -- 45 -rrb- , and then studied law at the university of alabama -lrb- 1945 -- 49 -rrb- . 
she attended huntingdon college in montgomery -lrb- 1944 -- 45 -rrb- , and then studied law at the university of alabama -lrb- 1945 -- 49 -rrb- . 
an editor at j. b. lippincott , who bought the manuscript , advised her to quit the airline and concentrate on writing . 
after finishing the first draft and returning it to lippincott , the manuscript , at that point titled `` go set a watchman '' , fell into the hands of therese von hohoff torrey -- known professionally as tay hohoff -- a small , wiry veteran editor in her late 50s . 
after finishing the first draft and returning it to lippincott , the manuscript , at that point titled `` go set a watchman '' , fell into the hands of therese von hohoff torrey -- known professionally as tay hohoff -- a small , wiry veteran editor in her late 50s . 
after finishing the first draft and returning it to lippincott , the manuscript , at that point titled `` go set a watchman '' , fell into the hands of therese von hohoff torrey -- known professionally as tay hohoff -- a small , wiry veteran editor in her late 50s . 
lee had lost her mother , who suffered from mental illness , six years before she met hohoff at lippincott 's offices . 
her father , a lawyer on whom atticus was modeled , would die two years after the publication of to kill a mockingbird . 
her father , a lawyer on whom atticus was modeled , would die two years after the publication of to kill a mockingbird . 
the book was published on july 11 , 1960 . 
ultimately , lee spent over two and a half years writing to kill a mockingbird . 
instead of a `` quick and merciful death '' , reader 's digest condensed books chose the book for reprinting in part , which gave it a wide readership immediately . 
the story takes place during three years -lrb- 1933 -- 35 -rrb- of the great depression in the fictional `` tired old town '' of maycomb , alabama , the seat of maycomb county . 
the story takes place during three years -lrb- 1933 -- 35 -rrb- of the great depression in the fictional `` tired old town '' of maycomb , alabama , the seat of maycomb county . 
after two summers of friendship with dill , scout and jem find that someone leaves them small gifts in a tree outside the radley place . 
jem and scout befriend a boy named dill , who visits maycomb to stay with his aunt each summer . 
the story takes place during three years -lrb- 1933 -- 35 -rrb- of the great depression in the fictional `` tired old town '' of maycomb , alabama , the seat of maycomb county . 
the story takes place during three years -lrb- 1933 -- 35 -rrb- of the great depression in the fictional `` tired old town '' of maycomb , alabama , the seat of maycomb county . 
it focuses on six-year-old jean louise finch -lrb- scout -rrb- , who lives with her older brother , jem , and their widowed father , atticus , a middle-aged lawyer . 
judge taylor appoints atticus to defend tom robinson , a black man who has been accused of raping a young white woman , mayella ewell . 
judge taylor appoints atticus to defend tom robinson , a black man who has been accused of raping a young white woman , mayella ewell . 
this danger is averted when scout , jem , and dill shame the mob into dispersing by forcing them to view the situation from atticus ' and tom 's points of view . 
atticus does not want jem and scout to be present at tom robinson 's trial . 
no seat is available on the main floor , so by invitation of rev. sykes , jem , scout , and dill watch from the colored balcony . 
no seat is available on the main floor , so by invitation of rev. sykes , jem , scout , and dill watch from the colored balcony . 
jem 's faith in justice becomes badly shaken , as is atticus ' , when the hapless tom is shot and killed while trying to escape from prison . 
finally , he attacks the defenseless jem and scout while they walk home on a dark night after the school halloween pageant . 
finally , he attacks the defenseless jem and scout while they walk home on a dark night after the school halloween pageant . 
the mysterious man carries jem home , where scout realizes that he is boo radley . 
despite tom 's conviction , bob ewell is humiliated by the events of the trial , atticus explaining that he `` destroyed -lsb- ewell 's -rsb- last shred of credibility at that trial . '' 
the mysterious man carries jem home , where scout realizes that he is boo radley . 
sheriff tate arrives and discovers that bob ewell has died during the fight . 
atticus eventually accepts the sheriff 's story that ewell simply fell on his own knife . 
lee has said that to kill a mockingbird is not an autobiography , but rather an example of how an author `` should write about what he knows and write truthfully '' . 
lee 's father , amasa coleman lee , was an attorney , similar to atticus finch , and in 1919 , he defended two black men accused of murder . 
though scout 's mother died when she was a baby , lee was 25 when her mother , frances cunningham finch , died . 
lee 's father was also the editor and publisher of the monroeville newspaper . 
just as dill lived next door to scout during the summer , capote lived next door to lee with his aunts while his mother visited new york city . 
in 1960 , capote and lee traveled to kansas together to investigate the multiple murders that were the basis for capote 's nonfiction novel in cold blood . 
in 1960 , capote and lee traveled to kansas together to investigate the multiple murders that were the basis for capote 's nonfiction novel in cold blood . 
lee modeled the character of dill on her childhood friend , truman capote , known then as truman persons . 
she and capote made up and acted out stories they wrote on an old underwood typewriter lee 's father gave them . 
they became good friends when both felt alienated from their peers ; capote called the two of them `` apart people '' . 
when lee was 10 years old , a white woman near monroeville accused a black man named walter lett of raping her . 
when lee was 10 years old , a white woman near monroeville accused a black man named walter lett of raping her . 
emmett till , a black teenager who was murdered for flirting with a white woman in mississippi in 1955 , and whose death is credited as a catalyst for the civil rights movement , is also considered a model for tom robinson . 
emmett till , a black teenager who was murdered for flirting with a white woman in mississippi in 1955 , and whose death is credited as a catalyst for the civil rights movement , is also considered a model for tom robinson . 
however , in 2005 , lee stated that she had in mind something less sensational , although the scottsboro case served `` the same purpose '' to display southern prejudices . 
emmett till , a black teenager who was murdered for flirting with a white woman in mississippi in 1955 , and whose death is credited as a catalyst for the civil rights movement , is also considered a model for tom robinson . 
satire and irony are used to such an extent that tavernier-courbin suggests one interpretation for the book 's title : lee is doing the mocking -- of education , the justice system , and her own society by using them as subjects of her humorous disapproval . 
to address complex issues , however , tavernier-courbin notes that lee uses parody , satire , and irony effectively by using a child 's perspective . 
when atticus is out of town , jem locks a sunday school classmate in the church basement with the furnace during a game of shadrach . 
this prompts their black housekeeper calpurnia to escort scout and jem to her church , which allows the children a glimpse into her personal life , as well as tom robinson 's . 
she is so distracted and embarrassed that she prefers to go home in her ham costume , which saves her life . 
she is so distracted and embarrassed that she prefers to go home in her ham costume , which saves her life . 
scholars have characterized to kill a mockingbird as both a southern gothic and coming-of-age or bildungsroman novel . 
scholars have characterized to kill a mockingbird as both a southern gothic and coming-of-age or bildungsroman novel . 
despite challenging the town 's systems , scout reveres atticus as an authority above all others , because he believes that following one 's conscience is the highest priority , even when the result is social ostracism . 
jem says to their neighbor miss maudie the day after the trial , `` it 's like bein ' a caterpillar wrapped in a cocoon ... i always thought maycomb folks were the best folks in the world , least that 's what they seemed like '' . 
this leads him to struggle with understanding the separations of race and class . 
claudia durst johnson considers it `` reasonable to believe '' that the novel was shaped by two events involving racial issues in alabama : rosa parks ' refusal to yield her seat on a city bus to a white person , which sparked the 1955 montgomery bus boycott , and the 1956 riots at the university of alabama after autherine lucy and polly myers were admitted -lrb- myers eventually withdrew her application and lucy was expelled , but reinstated in 1980 -rrb- . 
in the years following its release , many reviewers considered to kill a mockingbird a novel primarily concerned with race relations . 
any transgressions by black males that merely hinted at sexual contact with white females during the time the novel was set often resulted in a punishment of death for the accused . 
although tom is spared from being lynched , he is killed with excessive violence during an attempted escape from prison , shot seventeen times . 
any transgressions by black males that merely hinted at sexual contact with white females during the time the novel was set often resulted in a punishment of death for the accused . 
tom robinson 's trial was juried by poor white farmers who convicted him despite overwhelming evidence of his innocence , as more educated and moderate white townspeople supported the jury 's decision . 
although tom is spared from being lynched , he is killed with excessive violence during an attempted escape from prison , shot seventeen times . 
for example , atticus must shoot a rabid dog , even though it is not his job to do so . 
carolyn jones argues that the dog represents prejudice within the town of maycomb , and atticus , who waits on a deserted street to shoot the dog , must fight against the town 's racism without help from other white citizens . 
when scout embarrasses her poorer classmate , walter cunningham , at the finch home one day , calpurnia , their black cook , chastises and punishes her for doing so . 
atticus respects calpurnia 's judgment , and later in the book even stands up to his sister , the formidable aunt alexandra , when she strongly suggests they fire calpurnia . 
when scout embarrasses her poorer classmate , walter cunningham , at the finch home one day , calpurnia , their black cook , chastises and punishes her for doing so . 
in a 1964 interview , lee remarked that her aspiration was `` to be ... the jane austen of south alabama . '' 
both austen and lee challenged the social status quo and valued individual worth over social standing . 
scholars argue that lee 's approach to class and race was more complex `` than ascribing racial prejudice primarily to ` poor white trash ' ... lee demonstrates how issues of gender and class intensify prejudice , silence the voices that might challenge the existing order , and greatly complicate many americans ' conception of the causes of racism and segregation . '' 
scholars argue that lee 's approach to class and race was more complex `` than ascribing racial prejudice primarily to ` poor white trash ' ... lee demonstrates how issues of gender and class intensify prejudice , silence the voices that might challenge the existing order , and greatly complicate many americans ' conception of the causes of racism and segregation . '' 
the children internalize atticus ' admonition not to judge someone until they have walked around in that person 's skin , gaining a greater understanding of people 's motives and behavior . 
in a statement that foreshadows atticus ' motivation for defending tom robinson and describes mrs. dubose , who is determined to break herself of a morphine addiction , atticus tells jem that courage is `` when you 're licked before you begin but you begin anyway and you see it through no matter what '' . 
scout 's impulsive inclination to fight students who insult atticus reflects her attempt to stand up for him and defend him . 
the novel has been noted for its poignant exploration of different forms of courage . 
charles shields , who has written the only book-length biography of harper lee to date , offers the reason for the novel 's enduring popularity and impact is that `` its lessons of human dignity and respect for others remain fundamental and universal '' . 
charles shields , who has written the only book-length biography of harper lee to date , offers the reason for the novel 's enduring popularity and impact is that `` its lessons of human dignity and respect for others remain fundamental and universal '' . 
charles shields , who has written the only book-length biography of harper lee to date , offers the reason for the novel 's enduring popularity and impact is that `` its lessons of human dignity and respect for others remain fundamental and universal '' . 
she ponders the comment when listening to mayella ewell 's testimony . 
by balancing the masculine influences of atticus and jem with the feminine influences of calpurnia and miss maudie , one scholar writes , `` lee gradually demonstrates that scout is becoming a feminist in the south , for with the use of first-person narration , she indicates that scout / jean louise still maintains the ambivalence about being a southern lady she possessed as a child . '' 
by balancing the masculine influences of atticus and jem with the feminine influences of calpurnia and miss maudie , one scholar writes , `` lee gradually demonstrates that scout is becoming a feminist in the south , for with the use of first-person narration , she indicates that scout / jean louise still maintains the ambivalence about being a southern lady she possessed as a child . '' 
for example , mrs. dubose chastises scout for not wearing a dress and camisole , and indicates she is ruining the family name by not doing so , in addition to insulting atticus ' intentions to defend tom robinson . 
by balancing the masculine influences of atticus and jem with the feminine influences of calpurnia and miss maudie , one scholar writes , `` lee gradually demonstrates that scout is becoming a feminist in the south , for with the use of first-person narration , she indicates that scout / jean louise still maintains the ambivalence about being a southern lady she possessed as a child . '' 
bob ewell , it is hinted , molested his daughter , and mr. radley imprisons his son in his house until boo is remembered only as a phantom . 
apart from atticus , the fathers described are abusers . 
many social codes are broken by people in symbolic courtrooms : mr. dolphus raymond has been exiled by society for taking a black woman as his common-law wife and having interracial children ; mayella ewell is beaten by her father in punishment for kissing tom robinson ; by being turned into a non-person , boo radley receives a punishment far greater than any court could have given him . 
the opening quote by the 19th-century essayist charles lamb reads : `` lawyers , i suppose , were children once . '' 
for example , she refuses to wear frilly clothes , saying that aunt alexandra 's `` fanatical '' attempts to place her in them made her feel `` a pink cotton penitentiary closing in on -lsb- her -rsb- '' . 
songbirds and their associated symbolism appear throughout the novel . 
the family 's last name of finch also shares lee 's mother 's maiden name . 
the titular mockingbird is a key motif of this theme , which first appears when atticus , having given his children air-rifles for christmas , allows their uncle jack to teach them to shoot . 
the titular mockingbird is a key motif of this theme , which first appears when atticus , having given his children air-rifles for christmas , allows their uncle jack to teach them to shoot . 
the titular mockingbird is a key motif of this theme , which first appears when atticus , having given his children air-rifles for christmas , allows their uncle jack to teach them to shoot . 
writer edwin bruell summarized the symbolism when he wrote in 1964 , '' ` to kill a mockingbird ' is to kill that which is innocent and harmless -- like tom robinson . '' 
the book went through numerous subsequent printings and became widely available through its inclusion in the book of the month club and editions released by reader 's digest condensed books . 
the book went through numerous subsequent printings and became widely available through its inclusion in the book of the month club and editions released by reader 's digest condensed books . 
one year after its publication to kill a mockingbird had been translated into ten languages . 
in the years since , it has sold more than 30 million copies and been translated into more than 40 languages . 
in the years since , it has sold more than 30 million copies and been translated into more than 40 languages . 
in the years since , it has sold more than 30 million copies and been translated into more than 40 languages . 
in the years since , it has sold more than 30 million copies and been translated into more than 40 languages . 
mary mcdonagh murphy interviewed celebrities including oprah winfrey , rosanne cash , tom brokaw , and harper 's sister alice lee , who read the novel and compiled their impressions of it as children and adults into a book titled scout , atticus , and boo . 
mary mcdonagh murphy interviewed celebrities including oprah winfrey , rosanne cash , tom brokaw , and harper 's sister alice lee , who read the novel and compiled their impressions of it as children and adults into a book titled scout , atticus , and boo . 
mary mcdonagh murphy interviewed celebrities including oprah winfrey , rosanne cash , tom brokaw , and harper 's sister alice lee , who read the novel and compiled their impressions of it as children and adults into a book titled scout , atticus , and boo . 
morris dees of the southern poverty law center cites atticus finch as the reason he became a lawyer , and richard matsch , the federal judge who presided over the timothy mcveigh trial , counts atticus as a major judicial influence . 
one of the most significant impacts to kill a mockingbird has had is atticus finch 's model of integrity for the legal profession . 
however , in 1997 , the alabama state bar erected a monument to atticus in monroeville , marking his existence as the `` first commemorative milestone in the state 's judicial history '' . 
however , in 1997 , the alabama state bar erected a monument to atticus in monroeville , marking his existence as the `` first commemorative milestone in the state 's judicial history '' . 
in 2008 , lee herself received an honorary special membership to the alabama state bar for creating atticus who `` has become the personification of the exemplary lawyer in serving the legal needs of the poor '' . 
to kill a mockingbird has been a source of significant controversy since its being the subject of classroom study as early as 1963 . 
the american library association reported that to kill a mockingbird was number 21 of the 100 most frequently challenged books of 2000 -- 2009 . 
to kill a mockingbird has been a source of significant controversy since its being the subject of classroom study as early as 1963 . 
the american library association reported that to kill a mockingbird was number 21 of the 100 most frequently challenged books of 2000 -- 2009 . 
one of the first incidents of the book being challenged was in hanover , virginia , in 1966 : a parent protested that the use of rape as a plot device was immoral . 
one of the first incidents of the book being challenged was in hanover , virginia , in 1966 : a parent protested that the use of rape as a plot device was immoral . 
johnson cites examples of letters to local newspapers , which ranged from amusement to fury ; those letters expressing the most outrage , however , complained about mayella ewell 's attraction to tom robinson over the depictions of rape . 
the national education association in 1968 placed the novel second on a list of books receiving the most complaints from private organizations -- after little black sambo . 
the novel is cited as a factor in the success of the civil rights movement in the 1960s , however , in that it `` arrived at the right moment to help the south and the nation grapple with the racial tensions -lrb- of -rrb- the accelerating civil rights movement '' . 
alabama author mark childress compares it to the impact of uncle tom 's cabin , a book that is popularly implicated in starting the u.s. civil war . 
alabama author mark childress compares it to the impact of uncle tom 's cabin , a book that is popularly implicated in starting the u.s. civil war . 
in 2003 , a tuscaloosa newspaper quoted capote 's biological father , archulus persons , as claiming that capote had written `` almost all '' of the book . 
lee 's childhood friend , author truman capote , wrote on the dust jacket of the first edition , `` someone rare has written this very fine first novel : a writer with the liveliest sense of life , and the warmest , most authentic sense of humor . 
lee 's older sister , alice , responded to the rumor , saying : `` that 's the biggest lie ever told . '' 
lee 's childhood friend , author truman capote , wrote on the dust jacket of the first edition , `` someone rare has written this very fine first novel : a writer with the liveliest sense of life , and the warmest , most authentic sense of humor . 
extensive notes between lee and her editor at lippincott also refute the rumor of capote 's authorship . 
in 1961 , when to kill a mockingbird was in its 41st week on the bestseller list , it was awarded the pulitzer prize , stunning lee . 
in 1961 , when to kill a mockingbird was in its 41st week on the bestseller list , it was awarded the pulitzer prize , stunning lee . 
it also won the brotherhood award of the national conference of christians and jews in the same year , and the paperback of the year award from bestsellers magazine in 1962 . 
starting in 1964 , lee began to turn down interviews , complaining that the questions were monotonous , and grew concerned that attention she received bordered on the kind of publicity celebrities sought . 
in 1961 , when to kill a mockingbird was in its 41st week on the bestseller list , it was awarded the pulitzer prize , stunning lee . 
starting in 1964 , lee began to turn down interviews , complaining that the questions were monotonous , and grew concerned that attention she received bordered on the kind of publicity celebrities sought . 
in 2001 , lee was inducted into the alabama academy of honor . 
by 2004 , the novel had been chosen by 25 communities for variations of the citywide reading program , more than any other novel . 
in the same year , chicago mayor richard m. daley initiated a reading program throughout the city 's libraries , and chose his favorite book , to kill a mockingbird , as the first title of the one city , one book program . 
in the same year , chicago mayor richard m. daley initiated a reading program throughout the city 's libraries , and chose his favorite book , to kill a mockingbird , as the first title of the one city , one book program . 
by 2004 , the novel had been chosen by 25 communities for variations of the citywide reading program , more than any other novel . 
in 2006 , lee was awarded an honorary doctorate from the university of notre dame . 
-lsb- note 5 -rsb- lee was awarded the presidential medal of freedom on november 5 , 2007 by president george w. bush . 
-lsb- note 5 -rsb- lee was awarded the presidential medal of freedom on november 5 , 2007 by president george w. bush . 
in 2006 , lee was awarded an honorary doctorate from the university of notre dame . 
-lsb- note 5 -rsb- lee was awarded the presidential medal of freedom on november 5 , 2007 by president george w. bush . 
the book was made into the well-received 1962 film with the same title , starring gregory peck as atticus finch . 
the book was made into the well-received 1962 film with the same title , starring gregory peck as atticus finch . 
the book was made into the well-received 1962 film with the same title , starring gregory peck as atticus finch . 
lee 's father died before the film 's release , and lee was so impressed with peck 's performance that she gave him her father 's pocketwatch , which he had with him the evening he was awarded the oscar for best actor . 
peck 's grandson was named `` harper '' in her honor . 
lee 's father died before the film 's release , and lee was so impressed with peck 's performance that she gave him her father 's pocketwatch , which he had with him the evening he was awarded the oscar for best actor . 
peck 's grandson was named `` harper '' in her honor . 
in may 2005 , lee made an uncharacteristic appearance at the los angeles public library at the request of peck 's widow veronique , who said of lee : `` she 's like a national treasure . 
in may 2005 , lee made an uncharacteristic appearance at the los angeles public library at the request of peck 's widow veronique , who said of lee : `` she 's like a national treasure . 
the book has also been adapted as a play by christopher sergel . 
it debuted in 1990 in monroeville , a town that labels itself `` the literary capital of alabama '' . 
it debuted in 1990 in monroeville , a town that labels itself `` the literary capital of alabama '' . 
the play runs every may on the county courthouse grounds and townspeople make up the cast . 
during the courtroom scene the production moves into the monroe county courthouse and the audience is racially segregated . 
sergel 's play toured in the uk starting at west yorkshire playhouse in leeds in 2006 , and again in 2011 starting at the york theatre royal , both productions featuring duncan preston as atticus finch . 
the play also opened the 2013 season at regent 's park open air theatre in london where it played to full houses and starred robert sean leonard as atticus finch , his first london appearance in 22 years . 
sergel 's play toured in the uk starting at west yorkshire playhouse in leeds in 2006 , and again in 2011 starting at the york theatre royal , both productions featuring duncan preston as atticus finch . 
an earlier draft of to kill a mockingbird , titled go set a watchman , was controversially released on july 14 , 2015 . 
this draft , which was completed in 1957 , is set 20 years after the time period depicted in to kill a mockingbird but is not a continuation of the narrative . 
an earlier draft of to kill a mockingbird , titled go set a watchman , was controversially released on july 14 , 2015 . 
the watchman manuscript was believed to have been lost until lee 's lawyer tonja carter discovered it ; although this claim has been widely disputed . 
an earlier draft of to kill a mockingbird , titled go set a watchman , was controversially released on july 14 , 2015 . 
this draft , which was completed in 1957 , is set 20 years after the time period depicted in to kill a mockingbird but is not a continuation of the narrative . 
an earlier draft of to kill a mockingbird , titled go set a watchman , was controversially released on july 14 , 2015 . 
the novel is renowned for its warmth and humor , despite dealing with the serious issues of rape and racial inequality . 
the narrator 's father , atticus finch , has served as a moral hero for many readers and as a model of integrity for lawyers . 
the strongest element of style noted by critics and reviewers is lee 's talent for narration , which in an early review in time was called `` tactile brilliance '' . 
lee combines the narrator 's voice of a child observing her surroundings with a grown woman 's reflecting on her childhood , using the ambiguity of this voice combined with the narrative technique of flashback to play intricately with perspectives . 
however , she gave some insight into her themes when , in a rare letter to the editor , she wrote in response to the passionate reaction her book caused : `` surely it is plain to the simplest intelligence that to kill a mockingbird spells out in words of seldom more than two syllables a code of honor and conduct , christian in its ethic , that is the heritage of all southerners . '' 
the first part of the novel concerns the children 's fascination with boo radley and their feelings of safety and comfort in the neighborhood . 
one writer was so impressed by lee 's detailed explanations of the people of maycomb that he categorized the book as southern romantic regionalism . 
this regionalist theme is further reflected in mayella ewell 's apparent powerlessness to admit her advances toward tom robinson , and scout 's definition of `` fine folks '' being people with good sense who do the best they can with what they have . 
the south itself , with its traditions and taboos , seems to drive the plot more than the characters . 
tom robinson is the chief example among several innocents destroyed carelessly or deliberately throughout the novel . 
however , scholar christopher metress connects the mockingbird to boo radley : `` instead of wanting to exploit boo for her own fun -lrb- as she does in the beginning of the novel by putting on gothic plays about his history -rrb- , scout comes to see him as a ` mockingbird ' -- that is , as someone with an inner goodness that must be cherished . '' 
the last pages of the book illustrate this as scout relates the moral of a story atticus has been reading to her , and in allusions to both boo radley and tom robinson states about a character who was misunderstood , `` when they finally saw him , why he had n't done any of those things ... atticus , he was real nice , '' to which he responds , `` most people are , scout , when you finally see them . '' 
the novel exposes the loss of innocence so frequently that reviewer r. a. dave claims that because every character has to face , or even suffer defeat , the book takes on elements of a classical tragedy . 
the chicago sunday tribune noted the even-handed approach to the narration of the novel 's events , writing : `` this is in no way a sociological novel . 
some lamented the use of poor white southerners , and one-dimensional black victims , and granville hicks labeled the book `` melodramatic and contrived '' . 
when the book was first released , southern writer flannery o'connor commented , `` i think for a child 's book it does all right . 
chimamanda ngozi adichie writing in the guardian states that lee , rare among american novelists , writes with `` a fiercely progressive ink , in which there is nothing inevitable about racism and its very foundation is open to question '' , comparing her to william faulkner , who wrote about racism as an inevitability . 
literary critic rosemary goring in scotland 's the herald notes the connections between lee and jane austen , stating the book 's central theme , that `` one 's moral convictions are worth fighting for , even at the risk of being reviled '' is eloquently discussed . 
native alabamian allen barra sharply criticized lee and the novel in the wall street journal calling atticus a `` repository of cracker-barrel epigrams '' and the novel represents a `` sugar-coated myth '' of alabama history . 
-lsb- note 2 -rsb- defending the book , akin ajayi writes that justice `` is often complicated , but must always be founded upon the notion of equality and fairness for all . '' 
in its use of racial epithets , stereotyped depictions of superstitious blacks , and calpurnia , who to some critics is an updated version of the `` contented slave '' motif and to others simply unexplored , the book is viewed as marginalizing black characters . 
a canadian language arts consultant found that the novel resonated well with white students , but that black students found it `` demoralizing '' . 
another criticism , articulated by michael lind , is that the novel indulges in classist stereotyping and demonization of poor rural `` white trash '' . 
diane mcwhorter , pulitzer prize-winning historian of the birmingham civil rights campaign , asserts that to kill a mockingbird condemns racism instead of racists , and states that every child in the south has moments of racial cognitive dissonance when they are faced with the harsh reality of inequality . 
mcwhorter writes of lee , `` for a white person from the south to write a book like this in the late 1950s is really unusual -- by its very existence an act of protest . '' 
according to a national geographic article , the novel is so revered in monroeville that people quote lines from it like scripture ; yet harper lee herself refused to attend any performances , because `` she abhors anything that trades on the book 's fame '' . 
local residents call them `` mockingbird groupies '' , and although lee was not reclusive , she refused publicity and interviews with an emphatic `` hell , no ! '' 
solar energy is radiant light and heat from the sun harnessed using a range of ever-evolving technologies such as solar heating , photovoltaics , solar thermal energy , solar architecture and artificial photosynthesis . 
solar energy is radiant light and heat from the sun harnessed using a range of ever-evolving technologies such as solar heating , photovoltaics , solar thermal energy , solar architecture and artificial photosynthesis . 
solar energy is radiant light and heat from the sun harnessed using a range of ever-evolving technologies such as solar heating , photovoltaics , solar thermal energy , solar architecture and artificial photosynthesis . 
solar energy is radiant light and heat from the sun harnessed using a range of ever-evolving technologies such as solar heating , photovoltaics , solar thermal energy , solar architecture and artificial photosynthesis . 
the earth receives 174,000 terawatts -lrb- tw -rrb- of incoming solar radiation -lrb- insolation -rrb- at the upper atmosphere . 
approximately 30 % is reflected back to space while the rest is absorbed by clouds , oceans and land masses . 
most people around the world live in areas with insolation levels of 150 to 300 watts per square meter or 3.5 to 7.0 kwh/m2 per day . 
the earth receives 174,000 terawatts -lrb- tw -rrb- of incoming solar radiation -lrb- insolation -rrb- at the upper atmosphere . 
approximately 30 % is reflected back to space while the rest is absorbed by clouds , oceans and land masses . 
most people around the world live in areas with insolation levels of 150 to 300 watts per square meter or 3.5 to 7.0 kwh/m2 per day . 
approximately 30 % is reflected back to space while the rest is absorbed by clouds , oceans and land masses . 
solar radiation is absorbed by the earth 's land surface , oceans -- which cover about 71 % of the globe -- and atmosphere . 
sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land masses keeps the surface at an average temperature of 14 °c . 
by photosynthesis green plants convert solar energy into chemically stored energy , which produces food , wood and the biomass from which fossil fuels are derived . 
solar radiation is absorbed by the earth 's land surface , oceans -- which cover about 71 % of the globe -- and atmosphere . 
warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises , causing atmospheric circulation or convection . 
when the air reaches a high altitude , where the temperature is low , water vapor condenses into clouds , which rain onto the earth 's surface , completing the water cycle . 
the latent heat of water condensation amplifies convection , producing atmospheric phenomena such as wind , cyclones and anti-cyclones . 
by photosynthesis green plants convert solar energy into chemically stored energy , which produces food , wood and the biomass from which fossil fuels are derived . 
the total solar energy absorbed by earth 's atmosphere , oceans and land masses is approximately 3,850,000 exajoules -lrb- ej -rrb- per year . 
in 2002 , this was more energy in one hour than the world used in one year . 
photosynthesis captures approximately 3,000 ej per year in biomass . 
in 2002 , this was more energy in one hour than the world used in one year . 
the total solar energy absorbed by earth 's atmosphere , oceans and land masses is approximately 3,850,000 exajoules -lrb- ej -rrb- per year . 
photosynthesis captures approximately 3,000 ej per year in biomass . 
the amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the planet is so vast that in one year it is about twice as much as will ever be obtained from all of the earth 's non-renewable resources of coal , oil , natural gas , and mined uranium combined , 
although solar energy refers primarily to the use of solar radiation for practical ends , all renewable energies , other than geothermal and tidal , derive their energy from the sun in a direct or indirect way . 
solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive or active depending on the way they capture , convert and distribute sunlight and enable solar energy to be harnessed at different levels around the world , mostly depending on distance from the equator . 
solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive or active depending on the way they capture , convert and distribute sunlight and enable solar energy to be harnessed at different levels around the world , mostly depending on distance from the equator . 
although solar energy refers primarily to the use of solar radiation for practical ends , all renewable energies , other than geothermal and tidal , derive their energy from the sun in a direct or indirect way . 
although solar energy refers primarily to the use of solar radiation for practical ends , all renewable energies , other than geothermal and tidal , derive their energy from the sun in a direct or indirect way . 
active solar techniques use photovoltaics , concentrated solar power , solar thermal collectors , pumps , and fans to convert sunlight into useful outputs . 
passive solar techniques include selecting materials with favorable thermal properties , designing spaces that naturally circulate air , and referencing the position of a building to the sun . 
active solar techniques use photovoltaics , concentrated solar power , solar thermal collectors , pumps , and fans to convert sunlight into useful outputs . 
passive solar techniques include selecting materials with favorable thermal properties , designing spaces that naturally circulate air , and referencing the position of a building to the sun . 
active solar technologies increase the supply of energy and are considered supply side technologies , while passive solar technologies reduce the need for alternate resources and are generally considered demand side technologies . 
active solar technologies increase the supply of energy and are considered supply side technologies , while passive solar technologies reduce the need for alternate resources and are generally considered demand side technologies . 
in 1897 , frank shuman , a u.s. inventor , engineer and solar energy pioneer built a small demonstration solar engine that worked by reflecting solar energy onto square boxes filled with ether , which has a lower boiling point than water , and were fitted internally with black pipes which in turn powered a steam engine . 
in 1908 shuman formed the sun power company with the intent of building larger solar power plants . 
shuman then constructed a full-scale steam engine powered by low-pressure water , enabling him to patent the entire solar engine system by 1912 . 
in 1897 , frank shuman , a u.s. inventor , engineer and solar energy pioneer built a small demonstration solar engine that worked by reflecting solar energy onto square boxes filled with ether , which has a lower boiling point than water , and were fitted internally with black pipes which in turn powered a steam engine . 
in 1897 , frank shuman , a u.s. inventor , engineer and solar energy pioneer built a small demonstration solar engine that worked by reflecting solar energy onto square boxes filled with ether , which has a lower boiling point than water , and were fitted internally with black pipes which in turn powered a steam engine . 
in 1897 , frank shuman , a u.s. inventor , engineer and solar energy pioneer built a small demonstration solar engine that worked by reflecting solar energy onto square boxes filled with ether , which has a lower boiling point than water , and were fitted internally with black pipes which in turn powered a steam engine . 
in 1908 shuman formed the sun power company with the intent of building larger solar power plants . 
shuman then constructed a full-scale steam engine powered by low-pressure water , enabling him to patent the entire solar engine system by 1912 . 
shuman built the world 's first solar thermal power station in maadi , egypt , between 1912 and 1913 . 
shuman 's plant used parabolic troughs to power a 45 -- 52 kilowatts -lrb- 60 -- 70 hp -rrb- engine that pumped more than 22,000 litres -lrb- 4,800 imp gal ; 5,800 us gal -rrb- of water per minute from the nile river to adjacent cotton fields . 
although the outbreak of world war i and the discovery of cheap oil in the 1930s discouraged the advancement of solar energy , shuman 's vision and basic design were resurrected in the 1970s with a new wave of interest in solar thermal energy . 
shuman built the world 's first solar thermal power station in maadi , egypt , between 1912 and 1913 . 
shuman 's plant used parabolic troughs to power a 45 -- 52 kilowatts -lrb- 60 -- 70 hp -rrb- engine that pumped more than 22,000 litres -lrb- 4,800 imp gal ; 5,800 us gal -rrb- of water per minute from the nile river to adjacent cotton fields . 
shuman 's plant used parabolic troughs to power a 45 -- 52 kilowatts -lrb- 60 -- 70 hp -rrb- engine that pumped more than 22,000 litres -lrb- 4,800 imp gal ; 5,800 us gal -rrb- of water per minute from the nile river to adjacent cotton fields . 
although the outbreak of world war i and the discovery of cheap oil in the 1930s discouraged the advancement of solar energy , shuman 's vision and basic design were resurrected in the 1970s with a new wave of interest in solar thermal energy . 
although the outbreak of world war i and the discovery of cheap oil in the 1930s discouraged the advancement of solar energy , shuman 's vision and basic design were resurrected in the 1970s with a new wave of interest in solar thermal energy . 
in low geographical latitudes -lrb- below 40 degrees -rrb- from 60 to 70 % of the domestic hot water use with temperatures up to 60 °c can be provided by solar heating systems . 
solar hot water systems use sunlight to heat water . 
in low geographical latitudes -lrb- below 40 degrees -rrb- from 60 to 70 % of the domestic hot water use with temperatures up to 60 °c can be provided by solar heating systems . 
the most common types of solar water heaters are evacuated tube collectors -lrb- 44 % -rrb- and glazed flat plate collectors -lrb- 34 % -rrb- generally used for domestic hot water ; and unglazed plastic collectors -lrb- 21 % -rrb- used mainly to heat swimming pools . 
the most common types of solar water heaters are evacuated tube collectors -lrb- 44 % -rrb- and glazed flat plate collectors -lrb- 34 % -rrb- generally used for domestic hot water ; and unglazed plastic collectors -lrb- 21 % -rrb- used mainly to heat swimming pools . 
as of 2007 , the total installed capacity of solar hot water systems is approximately 154 thermal gigawatt -lrb- gwth -rrb- . 
israel and cyprus are the per capita leaders in the use of solar hot water systems with over 90 % of homes using them . 
as of 2007 , the total installed capacity of solar hot water systems is approximately 154 thermal gigawatt -lrb- gwth -rrb- . 
china is the world leader in their deployment with 70 gwth installed as of 2006 and a long-term goal of 210 gwth by 2020 . 
israel and cyprus are the per capita leaders in the use of solar hot water systems with over 90 % of homes using them . 
in the united states , canada and australia heating swimming pools is the dominant application of solar hot water with an installed capacity of 18 gwth as of 2005 . 
in the united states , heating , ventilation and air conditioning -lrb- hvac -rrb- systems account for 30 % -lrb- 4.65 ej/yr -rrb- of the energy used in commercial buildings and nearly 50 % -lrb- 10.1 ej/yr -rrb- of the energy used in residential buildings . 
in the united states , heating , ventilation and air conditioning -lrb- hvac -rrb- systems account for 30 % -lrb- 4.65 ej/yr -rrb- of the energy used in commercial buildings and nearly 50 % -lrb- 10.1 ej/yr -rrb- of the energy used in residential buildings . 
in the united states , heating , ventilation and air conditioning -lrb- hvac -rrb- systems account for 30 % -lrb- 4.65 ej/yr -rrb- of the energy used in commercial buildings and nearly 50 % -lrb- 10.1 ej/yr -rrb- of the energy used in residential buildings . 
solar heating , cooling and ventilation technologies can be used to offset a portion of this energy . 
thermal mass is any material that can be used to store heat -- heat from the sun in the case of solar energy . 
thermal mass is any material that can be used to store heat -- heat from the sun in the case of solar energy . 
common thermal mass materials include stone , cement and water . 
historically they have been used in arid climates or warm temperate regions to keep buildings cool by absorbing solar energy during the day and radiating stored heat to the cooler atmosphere at night . 
historically they have been used in arid climates or warm temperate regions to keep buildings cool by absorbing solar energy during the day and radiating stored heat to the cooler atmosphere at night . 
when properly incorporated , thermal mass maintains space temperatures in a comfortable range and reduces the need for auxiliary heating and cooling equipment . 
a solar chimney -lrb- or thermal chimney , in this context -rrb- is a passive solar ventilation system composed of a vertical shaft connecting the interior and exterior of a building . 
a solar chimney -lrb- or thermal chimney , in this context -rrb- is a passive solar ventilation system composed of a vertical shaft connecting the interior and exterior of a building . 
a solar chimney -lrb- or thermal chimney , in this context -rrb- is a passive solar ventilation system composed of a vertical shaft connecting the interior and exterior of a building . 
performance can be improved by using glazing and thermal mass materials in a way that mimics greenhouses . 
when planted on the southern side of a building in the northern hemisphere or the northern side in the southern hemisphere , their leaves provide shade during the summer , while the bare limbs allow light to pass during the winter . 
deciduous trees and plants have been promoted as a means of controlling solar heating and cooling . 
since bare , leafless trees shade 1/3 to 1/2 of incident solar radiation , there is a balance between the benefits of summer shading and the corresponding loss of winter heating . 
in climates with significant heating loads , deciduous trees should not be planted on the equator facing side of a building because they will interfere with winter solar availability . 
they can , however , be used on the east and west sides to provide a degree of summer shading without appreciably affecting winter solar gain . 
the simplest solar cooker is the box cooker first built by horace de saussure in 1767 . 
these cookers reach temperatures of 315 °c -lrb- 599 °f -rrb- and above but require direct light to function properly and must be repositioned to track the sun . 
solar cookers use sunlight for cooking , drying and pasteurization . 
they can be grouped into three broad categories : box cookers , panel cookers and reflector cookers . 
the simplest solar cooker is the box cooker first built by horace de saussure in 1767 . 
it can be used effectively with partially overcast skies and will typically reach temperatures of 90 -- 150 °c -lrb- 194 -- 302 °f -rrb- . 
these cookers reach temperatures of 315 °c -lrb- 599 °f -rrb- and above but require direct light to function properly and must be repositioned to track the sun . 
the first commercial system was the solar total energy project -lrb- step -rrb- in shenandoah , georgia , usa where a field of 114 parabolic dishes provided 50 % of the process heating , air conditioning and electrical requirements for a clothing factory . 
the short payback period of transpired collectors -lrb- 3 to 12 years -rrb- makes them a more cost-effective alternative than glazed collection systems . 
solar concentrating technologies such as parabolic dish , trough and scheffler reflectors can provide process heat for commercial and industrial applications . 
the first commercial system was the solar total energy project -lrb- step -rrb- in shenandoah , georgia , usa where a field of 114 parabolic dishes provided 50 % of the process heating , air conditioning and electrical requirements for a clothing factory . 
the use of evaporation ponds to obtain salt from sea water is one of the oldest applications of solar energy . 
clothes lines , clotheshorses , and clothes racks dry clothes through evaporation by wind and sunlight without consuming electricity or gas . 
unglazed transpired collectors -lrb- utc -rrb- are perforated sun-facing walls used for preheating ventilation air . 
a large-scale solar distillation project was first constructed in 1872 in the chilean mining town of las salinas . 
solar distillation can be used to make saline or brackish water potable . 
the first recorded instance of this was by 16th-century arab alchemists . 
a large-scale solar distillation project was first constructed in 1872 in the chilean mining town of las salinas . 
the plant , which had solar collection area of 4,700 m2 -lrb- 51,000 sq ft -rrb- , could produce up to 22,700 l -lrb- 5,000 imp gal ; 6,000 us gal -rrb- per day and operate for 40 years . 
individual still designs include single-slope , double-slope -lrb- or greenhouse type -rrb- , vertical , conical , inverted absorber , multi-wick , and multiple effect . 
it is recommended by the world health organization as a viable method for household water treatment and safe storage . 
exposure times vary depending on weather and climate from a minimum of six hours to two days during fully overcast conditions . 
it is recommended by the world health organization as a viable method for household water treatment and safe storage . 
over two million people in developing countries use this method for their daily drinking water . 
a further environmental advantage is that algae grow in such ponds and consume carbon dioxide in photosynthesis , although algae may produce toxic chemicals that make the water unusable . 
solar energy may be used in a water stabilisation pond to treat waste water without chemicals or electricity . 
a further environmental advantage is that algae grow in such ponds and consume carbon dioxide in photosynthesis , although algae may produce toxic chemicals that make the water unusable . 
solar power is anticipated to become the world 's largest source of electricity by 2050 , with solar photovoltaics and concentrated solar power contributing 16 and 11 percent to the global overall consumption , respectively . 
solar power is anticipated to become the world 's largest source of electricity by 2050 , with solar photovoltaics and concentrated solar power contributing 16 and 11 percent to the global overall consumption , respectively . 
since 1985 the eventually 354 mw segs csp installation , in the mojave desert of california , is the largest solar power plant in the world . 
in 2013 solar generated less than 1 % of the worlds total grid electricity . 
since 1985 the eventually 354 mw segs csp installation , in the mojave desert of california , is the largest solar power plant in the world . 
since 1985 the eventually 354 mw segs csp installation , in the mojave desert of california , is the largest solar power plant in the world . 
the 250 mw agua caliente solar project , in the united states , and the 221 mw charanka solar park in india , are the world 's largest photovoltaic plants . 
the first solar cell was constructed by charles fritts in the 1880s . 
following the work of russell ohl in the 1940s , researchers gerald pearson , calvin fuller and daryl chapin created the crystalline silicon solar cell in 1954 . 
in the last two decades , photovoltaics -lrb- pv -rrb- , also known as solar pv , has evolved from a pure niche market of small scale applications towards becoming a mainstream electricity source . 
a solar cell is a device that converts light directly into electricity using the photoelectric effect . 
the first solar cell was constructed by charles fritts in the 1880s . 
in 1931 a german engineer , dr bruno lange , developed a photo cell using silver selenide in place of copper oxide . 
following the work of russell ohl in the 1940s , researchers gerald pearson , calvin fuller and daryl chapin created the crystalline silicon solar cell in 1954 . 
in all of these systems a working fluid is heated by the concentrated sunlight , and is then used for power generation or energy storage . 
concentrating solar power -lrb- csp -rrb- systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam . 
the concentrated heat is then used as a heat source for a conventional power plant . 
a wide range of concentrating technologies exists ; the most developed are the parabolic trough , the concentrating linear fresnel reflector , the stirling dish and the solar power tower . 
in all of these systems a working fluid is heated by the concentrated sunlight , and is then used for power generation or energy storage . 
socrates ' megaron house is a classic example of passive solar design . 
the common features of passive solar architecture are orientation relative to the sun , compact proportion -lrb- a low surface area to volume ratio -rrb- , selective shading -lrb- overhangs -rrb- and thermal mass . 
when these features are tailored to the local climate and environment they can produce well-lit spaces that stay in a comfortable temperature range . 
socrates ' megaron house is a classic example of passive solar design . 
active solar equipment such as pumps , fans and switchable windows can complement passive design and improve system performance . 
urban heat islands -lrb- uhi -rrb- are metropolitan areas with higher temperatures than that of the surrounding environment . 
using these methods , a hypothetical `` cool communities '' program in los angeles has projected that urban temperatures could be reduced by approximately 3 °c at an estimated cost of us$ 1 billion , giving estimated total annual benefits of us$ 530 million from reduced air-conditioning costs and healthcare savings . 
urban heat islands -lrb- uhi -rrb- are metropolitan areas with higher temperatures than that of the surrounding environment . 
the higher temperatures are a result of increased absorption of the solar light by urban materials such as asphalt and concrete , which have lower albedos and higher heat capacities than those in the natural environment . 
a straightforward method of counteracting the uhi effect is to paint buildings and roads white and plant trees . 
during the short growing seasons of the little ice age , french and english farmers employed fruit walls to maximize the collection of solar energy . 
more recently the technology has been embraced by vinters , who use the energy generated by solar panels to power grape presses . 
agriculture and horticulture seek to optimize the capture of solar energy in order to optimize the productivity of plants . 
techniques such as timed planting cycles , tailored row orientation , staggered heights between rows and the mixing of plant varieties can improve crop yields . 
during the short growing seasons of the little ice age , french and english farmers employed fruit walls to maximize the collection of solar energy . 
these walls acted as thermal masses and accelerated ripening by keeping plants warm . 
primitive greenhouses were first used during roman times to produce cucumbers year-round for the roman emperor tiberius . 
the first modern greenhouses were built in europe in the 16th century to keep exotic plants brought back from explorations abroad . 
greenhouses convert solar light to heat , enabling year-round production and the growth -lrb- in enclosed environments -rrb- of specialty crops and other plants not naturally suited to the local climate . 
greenhouses convert solar light to heat , enabling year-round production and the growth -lrb- in enclosed environments -rrb- of specialty crops and other plants not naturally suited to the local climate . 
primitive greenhouses were first used during roman times to produce cucumbers year-round for the roman emperor tiberius . 
the first modern greenhouses were built in europe in the 16th century to keep exotic plants brought back from explorations abroad . 
the world solar challenge is a biannual solar-powered car race , where teams from universities and enterprises compete over 3,021 kilometres -lrb- 1,877 mi -rrb- across central australia from darwin to adelaide . 
in 1987 , when it was founded , the winner 's average speed was 67 kilometres per hour -lrb- 42 mph -rrb- and by 2007 the winner 's average speed had improved to 90.87 kilometres per hour -lrb- 56.46 mph -rrb- . 
the world solar challenge is a biannual solar-powered car race , where teams from universities and enterprises compete over 3,021 kilometres -lrb- 1,877 mi -rrb- across central australia from darwin to adelaide . 
in 1987 , when it was founded , the winner 's average speed was 67 kilometres per hour -lrb- 42 mph -rrb- and by 2007 the winner 's average speed had improved to 90.87 kilometres per hour -lrb- 56.46 mph -rrb- . 
in 1987 , when it was founded , the winner 's average speed was 67 kilometres per hour -lrb- 42 mph -rrb- and by 2007 the winner 's average speed had improved to 90.87 kilometres per hour -lrb- 56.46 mph -rrb- . 
in 1987 , when it was founded , the winner 's average speed was 67 kilometres per hour -lrb- 42 mph -rrb- and by 2007 the winner 's average speed had improved to 90.87 kilometres per hour -lrb- 56.46 mph -rrb- . 
the north american solar challenge and the planned south african solar challenge are comparable competitions that reflect an international interest in the engineering and development of solar powered vehicles . 
in 1975 , the first practical solar boat was constructed in england . 
in 1975 , the first practical solar boat was constructed in england . 
in 1996 , kenichi horie made the first solar powered crossing of the pacific ocean , and the sun21 catamaran made the first solar powered crossing of the atlantic ocean in the winter of 2006 -- 2007 . 
in 1996 , kenichi horie made the first solar powered crossing of the pacific ocean , and the sun21 catamaran made the first solar powered crossing of the atlantic ocean in the winter of 2006 -- 2007 . 
on 29 april 1979 , the solar riser made the first flight in a solar-powered , fully controlled , man carrying flying machine , reaching an altitude of 40 feet -lrb- 12 m -rrb- . 
as of 2015 , solar impulse , an electric aircraft , is currently circumnavigating the globe . 
in 1974 , the unmanned astroflight sunrise plane made the first solar flight . 
on 29 april 1979 , the solar riser made the first flight in a solar-powered , fully controlled , man carrying flying machine , reaching an altitude of 40 feet -lrb- 12 m -rrb- . 
this was quickly followed by the solar challenger which crossed the english channel in july 1981 . 
in 1990 eric scott raymond in 21 hops flew from california to north carolina using solar power . 
the designed allows the aircraft to remain airborne for 36 hours . 
the multielectron catalytic chemistry involved in making carbon-based fuels -lrb- such as methanol -rrb- from reduction of carbon dioxide is challenging ; a feasible alternative is hydrogen production from protons , though use of water as the source of electrons -lrb- as plants do -rrb- requires mastering the multielectron oxidation of two water molecules to molecular oxygen . 
solar chemical processes use solar energy to drive chemical reactions . 
a variety of fuels can be produced by artificial photosynthesis . 
the solzinc process under development at the weizmann institute uses a 1 mw solar furnace to decompose zinc oxide -lrb- zno -rrb- at temperatures above 1,200 °c -lrb- 2,200 °f -rrb- . 
this initial reaction produces pure zinc , which can subsequently be reacted with water to produce hydrogen . 
hydrogen production technologies been a significant area of solar chemical research since the 1970s . 
one such route uses concentrators to split water into oxygen and hydrogen at high temperatures -lrb- 2,300 -- 2,600 °c or 4,200 -- 4,700 °f -rrb- . 
the solzinc process under development at the weizmann institute uses a 1 mw solar furnace to decompose zinc oxide -lrb- zno -rrb- at temperatures above 1,200 °c -lrb- 2,200 °f -rrb- . 
thermal mass systems can store solar energy in the form of heat at domestically useful temperatures for daily or interseasonal durations . 
thermal mass systems can store solar energy in the form of heat at domestically useful temperatures for daily or interseasonal durations . 
thermal storage systems generally use readily available materials with high specific heat capacities such as water , earth and stone . 
well-designed systems can lower peak demand , shift time-of-use to off-peak hours and reduce overall heating and cooling requirements . 
phase change materials such as paraffin wax and glauber 's salt are another thermal storage media . 
the `` dover house '' -lrb- in dover , massachusetts -rrb- was the first to use a glauber 's salt heating system , in 1948 . 
phase change materials such as paraffin wax and glauber 's salt are another thermal storage media . 
these materials are inexpensive , readily available , and can deliver domestically useful temperatures -lrb- approximately 64 °c or 147 °f -rrb- . 
the `` dover house '' -lrb- in dover , massachusetts -rrb- was the first to use a glauber 's salt heating system , in 1948 . 
salts are an effective storage medium because they are low-cost , have a high specific heat capacity and can deliver heat at temperatures compatible with conventional power systems . 
the solar two used this method of energy storage , allowing it to store 1.44 terajoules -lrb- 400,000 kwh -rrb- in its 68 cubic metres storage tank with an annual storage efficiency of about 99 % . 
off-grid pv systems have traditionally used rechargeable batteries to store excess electricity . 
off-grid pv systems have traditionally used rechargeable batteries to store excess electricity . 
net metering programs give household systems a credit for any electricity they deliver to the grid . 
this is handled by ` rolling back ' the meter whenever the home produces more electricity than it consumes . 
most standard meters accurately measure in both directions , making a second meter unnecessary . 
the energy is recovered when demand is high by releasing the water , with the pump becoming a hydroelectric power generator . 
pumped-storage hydroelectricity stores energy in the form of water pumped when energy is available from a lower elevation reservoir to a higher elevation one . 
the energy is recovered when demand is high by releasing the water , with the pump becoming a hydroelectric power generator . 
the 1973 oil embargo and 1979 energy crisis caused a reorganization of energy policies around the world and brought renewed attention to developing solar technologies . 
the 1973 oil embargo and 1979 energy crisis caused a reorganization of energy policies around the world and brought renewed attention to developing solar technologies . 
deployment strategies focused on incentive programs such as the federal photovoltaic utilization program in the us and the sunshine program in japan . 
other efforts included the formation of research facilities in the us -lrb- seri , now nrel -rrb- , japan -lrb- nedo -rrb- , and germany -lrb- fraunhofer institute for solar energy systems ise -rrb- . 
other efforts included the formation of research facilities in the us -lrb- seri , now nrel -rrb- , japan -lrb- nedo -rrb- , and germany -lrb- fraunhofer institute for solar energy systems ise -rrb- . 
other efforts included the formation of research facilities in the us -lrb- seri , now nrel -rrb- , japan -lrb- nedo -rrb- , and germany -lrb- fraunhofer institute for solar energy systems ise -rrb- . 
these systems saw increasing use until the 1920s but were gradually replaced by cheaper and more reliable heating fuels . 
development in the solar water heating sector progressed steadily throughout the 1990s and growth rates have averaged 20 % per year since 1999 . 
commercial solar water heaters began appearing in the united states in the 1890s . 
as with photovoltaics , solar water heating attracted renewed attention as a result of the oil crises in the 1970s but interest subsided in the 1980s due to falling petroleum prices . 
development in the solar water heating sector progressed steadily throughout the 1990s and growth rates have averaged 20 % per year since 1999 . 
although generally underestimated , solar water heating and cooling is by far the most widely deployed solar technology with an estimated capacity of 154 gw as of 2007 . 
the international energy agency has said that solar energy can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent problems the world now faces : 
the international energy agency has said that solar energy can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent problems the world now faces : 
for example , iso 9050 relates to glass in building while iso 10217 relates to the materials used in solar water heaters . 
for example , iso 9050 relates to glass in building while iso 10217 relates to the materials used in solar water heaters . 
for example , iso 9050 relates to glass in building while iso 10217 relates to the materials used in solar water heaters . 
for example , iso 9050 relates to glass in building while iso 10217 relates to the materials used in solar water heaters . 
it is an important source of renewable energy and its technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on the way they capture and distribute solar energy or convert it into solar power . 
active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic systems , concentrated solar power and solar water heating to harness the energy . 
passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the sun , selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties , and designing spaces that naturally circulate air . 
this is several times larger than the total world energy consumption , which was 559.8 ej in 2012 . 
the united nations development programme in its 2000 world energy assessment found that the annual potential of solar energy was 1,575 -- 49,837 exajoules -lrb- ej -rrb- . 
the large magnitude of solar energy available makes it a highly appealing source of electricity . 
the united nations development programme in its 2000 world energy assessment found that the annual potential of solar energy was 1,575 -- 49,837 exajoules -lrb- ej -rrb- . 
it will increase countries ' energy security through reliance on an indigenous , inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource , enhance sustainability , reduce pollution , lower the costs of mitigating global warming , and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise . 
it will increase countries ' energy security through reliance on an indigenous , inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource , enhance sustainability , reduce pollution , lower the costs of mitigating global warming , and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise . 
hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments ; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared '' . 
it will increase countries ' energy security through reliance on an indigenous , inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource , enhance sustainability , reduce pollution , lower the costs of mitigating global warming , and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise . 
the potential solar energy that could be used by humans differs from the amount of solar energy present near the surface of the planet because factors such as geography , time variation , cloud cover , and the land available to humans limits the amount of solar energy that we can acquire . 
geography effects solar energy potential because areas that are closer to the equator have a greater amount of solar radiation . 
however , the use of photovoltaics that can follow the position of the sun can significantly increase the solar energy potential in areas that are farther from the equator . 
time variation effects the potential of solar energy because during the nighttime there is little solar radiation on the surface of the earth for solar panels to absorb . 
cloud cover can effect the potential of solar panels because clouds block incoming light from the sun and reduce the light available for solar cells . 
in addition , land availability has a large effect on the available solar energy because solar panels can only be set up on land that is unowned and suitable for solar panels . 
roofs have been found to be a suitable place for solar cells , as many people have discovered that they can collect energy directly from their homes this way . 
in 2000 , the united nations development programme , un department of economic and social affairs , and world energy council published an estimate of the potential solar energy that could be used by humans each year that took into account factors such as insolation , cloud cover , and the land that is usable by humans . 
the estimate found that solar energy has a global potential of 1,575 -- 49,837 ej per year -lrb- see table below -rrb- . 
solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity , either directly using photovoltaics -lrb- pv -rrb- , or indirectly using concentrated solar power -lrb- csp -rrb- . 
solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity , either directly using photovoltaics -lrb- pv -rrb- , or indirectly using concentrated solar power -lrb- csp -rrb- . 
csp systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam . 
csp systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam . 
pv converts light into electric current using the photoelectric effect . 
sunlight has influenced building design since the beginning of architectural history . 
advanced solar architecture and urban planning methods were first employed by the greeks and chinese , who oriented their buildings toward the south to provide light and warmth . 
advanced solar architecture and urban planning methods were first employed by the greeks and chinese , who oriented their buildings toward the south to provide light and warmth . 
a solar balloon is a black balloon that is filled with ordinary air . 
as sunlight shines on the balloon , the air inside is heated and expands causing an upward buoyancy force , much like an artificially heated hot air balloon . 
some solar balloons are large enough for human flight , but usage is generally limited to the toy market as the surface-area to payload-weight ratio is relatively high . 
some solar balloons are large enough for human flight , but usage is generally limited to the toy market as the surface-area to payload-weight ratio is relatively high . 
the early development of solar technologies starting in the 1860s was driven by an expectation that coal would soon become scarce . 
however , development of solar technologies stagnated in the early 20th century in the face of the increasing availability , economy , and utility of coal and petroleum . 
in 2011 , a report by the international energy agency found that solar energy technologies such as photovoltaics , solar hot water and concentrated solar power could provide a third of the world 's energy by 2060 if politicians commit to limiting climate change . 
the energy from the sun could play a key role in de-carbonizing the global economy alongside improvements in energy efficiency and imposing costs on greenhouse gas emitters . 
the area has been ruled by numerous empires and dynasties , including the achaemenid empire , sassanian empire , hephthalite empire , samanid empire , mongol empire , timurid dynasty , and the russian empire . 
the territory that now constitutes tajikistan was previously home to several ancient cultures , including the city of sarazm of the neolithic and the bronze age , and was later home to kingdoms ruled by people of different faiths and cultures , including the oxus civilization , andronovo culture , buddhism , nestorian christianity , zoroastrianism , and manichaeism . 
the territory that now constitutes tajikistan was previously home to several ancient cultures , including the city of sarazm of the neolithic and the bronze age , and was later home to kingdoms ruled by people of different faiths and cultures , including the oxus civilization , andronovo culture , buddhism , nestorian christianity , zoroastrianism , and manichaeism . 
as a result of the breakup of the soviet union , tajikistan became an independent nation in 1991 . 
a civil war was fought almost immediately after independence , lasting from 1992 to 1997 . 
the territory that now constitutes tajikistan was previously home to several ancient cultures , including the city of sarazm of the neolithic and the bronze age , and was later home to kingdoms ruled by people of different faiths and cultures , including the oxus civilization , andronovo culture , buddhism , nestorian christianity , zoroastrianism , and manichaeism . 
the area has been ruled by numerous empires and dynasties , including the achaemenid empire , sassanian empire , hephthalite empire , samanid empire , mongol empire , timurid dynasty , and the russian empire . 
as a result of the breakup of the soviet union , tajikistan became an independent nation in 1991 . 
a civil war was fought almost immediately after independence , lasting from 1992 to 1997 . 
tajiks began to be conscripted into the soviet army in 1939 and during world war ii around 260,000 tajik citizens fought against germany , finland and japan . 
tajiks began to be conscripted into the soviet army in 1939 and during world war ii around 260,000 tajik citizens fought against germany , finland and japan . 
between 60,000 -lrb- 4 % -rrb- and 120,000 -lrb- 8 % -rrb- of tajikistan 's 1,530,000 citizens were killed during world war ii . 
during 1957 -- 58 nikita khrushchev 's virgin lands campaign focused attention on tajikistan , where living conditions , education and industry lagged behind the other soviet republics . 
the nation almost immediately fell into civil war that involved various factions fighting one another ; these factions were often distinguished by clan loyalties . 
the ceasefire guaranteed 30 % of ministerial positions would go to the opposition . 
emomali rahmon came to power in 1992 , defeating former prime minister abdumalik abdullajanov in a november presidential election with 58 % of the vote . 
more than 500,000 residents fled during this time because of persecution , increased poverty and better economic opportunities in the west or in other former soviet republics . 
russian border troops were stationed along the tajik -- afghan border until summer 2005 . 
since the september 11 , 2001 attacks , french troops have been stationed at the dushanbe airport in support of air operations of nato 's international security assistance force in afghanistan . 
the government of india rebuilt the ayni air base , a military airport located 15 km southwest of dushanbe , at a cost of $ 70 million , completing the repairs in september 2010 . 
united states army and marine corps personnel periodically visit tajikistan to conduct joint training missions of up to several weeks duration . 
in 2010 , there were concerns among tajik officials that islamic militarism in the east of the country was on the rise following the escape of 25 militants from a tajik prison in august , an ambush that killed 28 tajik soldiers in the rasht valley in september , and another ambush in the valley in october that killed 30 soldiers , followed by fighting outside gharm that left 3 militants dead . 
in 2015 russia will send more troops to tajikistan , as confirmed by a report of stratfor -lrb- magazine online -rrb- 
to date the country 's interior ministry asserts that the central government maintains full control over the country 's east , and the military operation in the rasht valley was concluded in november 2010 . 
in 2010 , there were concerns among tajik officials that islamic militarism in the east of the country was on the rise following the escape of 25 militants from a tajik prison in august , an ambush that killed 28 tajik soldiers in the rasht valley in september , and another ambush in the valley in october that killed 30 soldiers , followed by fighting outside gharm that left 3 militants dead . 
tajikistan is officially a republic , and holds elections for the presidency and parliament , operating under a presidential system . 
the prime minister is kokhir rasulzoda , the first deputy prime minister is matlubkhon davlatov and the two deputy prime ministers are murodali alimardon and ruqiya qurbanova . 
the prime minister is kokhir rasulzoda , the first deputy prime minister is matlubkhon davlatov and the two deputy prime ministers are murodali alimardon and ruqiya qurbanova . 
emomalii rahmon has held the office of president of tajikistan continually since november 1994 . 
it is , however , a dominant-party system , where the people 's democratic party of tajikistan routinely has a vast majority in parliament . 
freedom of the press is ostensibly officially guaranteed by the government , but independent press outlets remain restricted , as does a substantial amount of web content . 
in practice , no public criticism of the regime is tolerated and all direct protest is severely suppressed and does not receive coverage in the local media . 
in practice , no public criticism of the regime is tolerated and all direct protest is severely suppressed and does not receive coverage in the local media . 
according to the institute for war & peace reporting , access is blocked to local and foreign websites including avesta.tj , tjknews.com , ferghana.ru , centrasia.ru and journalists are often obstructed from reporting on controversial events . 
tajikistan is landlocked , and is the smallest nation in central asia by area . 
it is covered by mountains of the pamir range , and more than fifty percent of the country is over 3,000 meters -lrb- 9,800 ft -rrb- above sea level . 
dushanbe is located on the southern slopes above the kofarnihon valley . 
it lies mostly between latitudes 36 ° and 41 ° n -lrb- a small area is north of 41 ° -rrb- , and longitudes 67 ° and 75 ° e -lrb- a small area is east of 75 ° -rrb- . 
the only major areas of lower land are in the north -lrb- part of the fergana valley -rrb- , and in the southern kofarnihon and vakhsh river valleys , which form the amu darya . 
the suffix '' - stan '' -lrb- persian : ـستان - stān -rrb- is persian for `` place of '' or `` country '' and tajik is , most likely , the name of a pre-islamic -lrb- before the seventh century a.d. -rrb- tribe . 
tajikistan means the `` land of the tajiks '' . 
the suffix '' - stan '' -lrb- persian : ـستان - stān -rrb- is persian for `` place of '' or `` country '' and tajik is , most likely , the name of a pre-islamic -lrb- before the seventh century a.d. -rrb- tribe . 
according to the library of congress 's 1997 country study of tajikistan , it is difficult to definitively state the origins of the word `` tajik '' because the term is `` embroiled in twentieth-century political disputes about whether turkic or iranian peoples were the original inhabitants of central asia . '' 
it was temporarily under the control of the tibetan empire and chinese from 650 -- 680 and then under the control of the umayyads in 710 . 
it was temporarily under the control of the tibetan empire and chinese from 650 -- 680 and then under the control of the umayyads in 710 . 
the samanid empire , 819 to 999 , restored persian control of the region and enlarged the cities of samarkand and bukhara -lrb- both cities are today part of uzbekistan -rrb- which became the cultural centers of iran and the region was known as khorasan . 
the samanid empire , 819 to 999 , restored persian control of the region and enlarged the cities of samarkand and bukhara -lrb- both cities are today part of uzbekistan -rrb- which became the cultural centers of iran and the region was known as khorasan . 
it was temporarily under the control of the tibetan empire and chinese from 650 -- 680 and then under the control of the umayyads in 710 . 
it was temporarily under the control of the tibetan empire and chinese from 650 -- 680 and then under the control of the umayyads in 710 . 
it was temporarily under the control of the tibetan empire and chinese from 650 -- 680 and then under the control of the umayyads in 710 . 
the samanid empire , 819 to 999 , restored persian control of the region and enlarged the cities of samarkand and bukhara -lrb- both cities are today part of uzbekistan -rrb- which became the cultural centers of iran and the region was known as khorasan . 
it was temporarily under the control of the tibetan empire and chinese from 650 -- 680 and then under the control of the umayyads in 710 . 
the samanid empire , 819 to 999 , restored persian control of the region and enlarged the cities of samarkand and bukhara -lrb- both cities are today part of uzbekistan -rrb- which became the cultural centers of iran and the region was known as khorasan . 
the samanid empire , 819 to 999 , restored persian control of the region and enlarged the cities of samarkand and bukhara -lrb- both cities are today part of uzbekistan -rrb- which became the cultural centers of iran and the region was known as khorasan . 
the samanid empire , 819 to 999 , restored persian control of the region and enlarged the cities of samarkand and bukhara -lrb- both cities are today part of uzbekistan -rrb- which became the cultural centers of iran and the region was known as khorasan . 
it was temporarily under the control of the tibetan empire and chinese from 650 -- 680 and then under the control of the umayyads in 710 . 
it was temporarily under the control of the tibetan empire and chinese from 650 -- 680 and then under the control of the umayyads in 710 . 
the kara-khanid khanate conquered transoxania -lrb- which corresponds approximately with modern-day uzbekistan , tajikistan , southern kyrgyzstan and southwest kazakhstan -rrb- and ruled between 999 -- 1211 . 
the samanid empire , 819 to 999 , restored persian control of the region and enlarged the cities of samarkand and bukhara -lrb- both cities are today part of uzbekistan -rrb- which became the cultural centers of iran and the region was known as khorasan . 
russian imperialism led to the russian empire 's conquest of central asia during the late 19th century 's imperial era . 
between 1864 and 1885 russia gradually took control of the entire territory of russian turkestan , the tajikistan portion of which had been controlled by the emirate of bukhara and khanate of kokand . 
russia was interested in gaining access to a supply of cotton and in the 1870s attempted to switch cultivation in the region from grain to cotton -lrb- a strategy later copied and expanded by the soviets -rrb- . 
between 1864 and 1885 russia gradually took control of the entire territory of russian turkestan , the tajikistan portion of which had been controlled by the emirate of bukhara and khanate of kokand . 
-lsb- citation needed -rsb- by 1885 tajikistan 's territory was either ruled by the russian empire or its vassal state , the emirate of bukhara , nevertheless tajiks felt little russian influence . 
during the late 19th century the jadidists established themselves as an islamic social movement throughout the region . 
although the jadidists were pro-modernization and not necessarily anti-russian the russians viewed the movement as a threat . 
-lsb- citation needed -rsb- russian troops were required to restore order during uprisings against the khanate of kokand between 1910 and 1913 . 
further violence occurred in july 1916 when demonstrators attacked russian soldiers in khujand over the threat of forced conscription during world war i. despite russian troops quickly bringing khujand back under control , clashes continued throughout the year in various locations in tajikistan . 
after the russian revolution of 1917 guerrillas throughout central asia , known as basmachi , waged a war against bolshevik armies in a futile attempt to maintain independence . 
after the russian revolution of 1917 guerrillas throughout central asia , known as basmachi , waged a war against bolshevik armies in a futile attempt to maintain independence . 
the bolsheviks prevailed after a four-year war , in which mosques and villages were burned down and the population heavily suppressed . 
soviet authorities started a campaign of secularization , practicing islam , judaism , and christianity was discouraged and repressed , and many mosques , churches , and synagogues were closed . 
in 1924 , the tajik autonomous soviet socialist republic was created as a part of uzbekistan , but in 1929 the tajik soviet socialist republic -lrb- tajik ssr -rrb- was made a separate constituent republic , however the predominantly ethnic tajik cities of samarkand and bukhara remained in the uzbek ssr . 
between 1927 and 1934 , collectivization of agriculture and a rapid expansion of cotton production took place , especially in the southern region . 
between 1927 and 1934 , collectivization of agriculture and a rapid expansion of cotton production took place , especially in the southern region . 
soviet collectivization policy brought violence against peasants and forced resettlement occurred throughout tajikistan . 
two rounds of soviet purges directed by moscow -lrb- 1927 -- 1934 and 1937 -- 1938 -rrb- resulted in the expulsion of nearly 10,000 people , from all levels of the communist party of tajikistan . 
two rounds of soviet purges directed by moscow -lrb- 1927 -- 1934 and 1937 -- 1938 -rrb- resulted in the expulsion of nearly 10,000 people , from all levels of the communist party of tajikistan . 
ethnic russians were sent in to replace those expelled and subsequently russians dominated party positions at all levels , including the top position of first secretary . 
between 1926 and 1959 the proportion of russians among tajikistan 's population grew from less than 1 % to 13 % . 
ethnic russians were sent in to replace those expelled and subsequently russians dominated party positions at all levels , including the top position of first secretary . 
the most recent elections , in february 2010 , saw the ruling pdpt lose four seats in parliament , yet still maintain a comfortable majority . 
the parliamentary elections of 2005 aroused many accusations from opposition parties and international observers that president emomalii rahmon corruptly manipulates the election process and unemployment . 
the organization for security and co-operation in europe election observers said the 2010 polling `` failed to meet many key osce commitments '' and that `` these elections failed on many basic democratic standards . '' 
the government insisted that only minor violations had occurred , which would not affect the will of the tajik people . 
tajikistan -lrb- i/t ɑːˈdʒiːkᵻstɑːn / , / təˈdʒiːkᵻstæn / , or / tæˈdʒiːkiːstæn / ; persian : تاجيكستان тоҷикистон -lsb- tɔd͡ʒikɪsˈtɔn -rsb- -rrb- , officially the republic of tajikistan -lrb- persian : جمهورى تاجيكستان tajik : ҷумҳурии тоҷикистон , çumhuriji toçikiston / jumhuriyi tojikiston ; russian : респу́блика таджикистан , respublika tadzhikistan -rrb- , is a mountainous , landlocked country in central asia with an estimated 8 million people in 2013 , and an area of 143,100 km2 -lrb- 55,300 sq mi -rrb- . 
tajikistan -lrb- i/t ɑːˈdʒiːkᵻstɑːn / , / təˈdʒiːkᵻstæn / , or / tæˈdʒiːkiːstæn / ; persian : تاجيكستان тоҷикистон -lsb- tɔd͡ʒikɪsˈtɔn -rsb- -rrb- , officially the republic of tajikistan -lrb- persian : جمهورى تاجيكستان tajik : ҷумҳурии тоҷикистон , çumhuriji toçikiston / jumhuriyi tojikiston ; russian : респу́блика таджикистан , respublika tadzhikistan -rrb- , is a mountainous , landlocked country in central asia with an estimated 8 million people in 2013 , and an area of 143,100 km2 -lrb- 55,300 sq mi -rrb- . 
tajikistan -lrb- i/t ɑːˈdʒiːkᵻstɑːn / , / təˈdʒiːkᵻstæn / , or / tæˈdʒiːkiːstæn / ; persian : تاجيكستان тоҷикистон -lsb- tɔd͡ʒikɪsˈtɔn -rsb- -rrb- , officially the republic of tajikistan -lrb- persian : جمهورى تاجيكستان tajik : ҷумҳурии тоҷикистон , çumhuriji toçikiston / jumhuriyi tojikiston ; russian : респу́блика таджикистан , respublika tadzhikistan -rrb- , is a mountainous , landlocked country in central asia with an estimated 8 million people in 2013 , and an area of 143,100 km2 -lrb- 55,300 sq mi -rrb- . 
it is bordered by afghanistan to the south , uzbekistan to the west , kyrgyzstan to the north , and china to the east . 
pakistan lies to the south , separated by the narrow wakhan corridor . 
it is bordered by afghanistan to the south , uzbekistan to the west , kyrgyzstan to the north , and china to the east . 
tajikistan -lrb- i/t ɑːˈdʒiːkᵻstɑːn / , / təˈdʒiːkᵻstæn / , or / tæˈdʒiːkiːstæn / ; persian : تاجيكستان тоҷикистон -lsb- tɔd͡ʒikɪsˈtɔn -rsb- -rrb- , officially the republic of tajikistan -lrb- persian : جمهورى تاجيكستان tajik : ҷумҳурии тоҷикистон , çumhuriji toçikiston / jumhuriyi tojikiston ; russian : респу́блика таджикистан , respublika tadzhikistan -rrb- , is a mountainous , landlocked country in central asia with an estimated 8 million people in 2013 , and an area of 143,100 km2 -lrb- 55,300 sq mi -rrb- . 
tajikistan -lrb- i/t ɑːˈdʒiːkᵻstɑːn / , / təˈdʒiːkᵻstæn / , or / tæˈdʒiːkiːstæn / ; persian : تاجيكستان тоҷикистон -lsb- tɔd͡ʒikɪsˈtɔn -rsb- -rrb- , officially the republic of tajikistan -lrb- persian : جمهورى تاجيكستان tajik : ҷумҳурии тоҷикистон , çumhuriji toçikiston / jumhuriyi tojikiston ; russian : респу́блика таджикистан , respublika tadzhikistan -rrb- , is a mountainous , landlocked country in central asia with an estimated 8 million people in 2013 , and an area of 143,100 km2 -lrb- 55,300 sq mi -rrb- . 
it is bordered by afghanistan to the south , uzbekistan to the west , kyrgyzstan to the north , and china to the east . 
it is bordered by afghanistan to the south , uzbekistan to the west , kyrgyzstan to the north , and china to the east . 
the earliest recorded history of the region dates back to about 500 bce when much , if not all , of modern tajikistan was part of the achaemenid empire . 
the earliest recorded history of the region dates back to about 500 bce when much , if not all , of modern tajikistan was part of the achaemenid empire . 
after the region 's conquest by alexander the great it became part of the greco-bactrian kingdom , a successor state of alexander 's empire . 
the kushan empire , a collection of yuezhi tribes , took control of the region in the first century ce and ruled until the 4th century ce during which time buddhism , nestorian christianity , zoroastrianism , and manichaeism were all practiced in the region . 
later the hephthalite empire , a collection of nomadic tribes , moved into the region and arabs brought islam in the early eighth century . 
later the hephthalite empire , a collection of nomadic tribes , moved into the region and arabs brought islam in the early eighth century . 
the kushan empire , a collection of yuezhi tribes , took control of the region in the first century ce and ruled until the 4th century ce during which time buddhism , nestorian christianity , zoroastrianism , and manichaeism were all practiced in the region . 
the gdp of tajikistan expanded at an average rate of 9.6 % over the period of 2000 -- 2007 according to the world bank data . 
the primary sources of income in tajikistan are aluminium production , cotton growing and remittances from migrant workers . 
cotton accounts for 60 % of agricultural output , supporting 75 % of the rural population , and using 45 % of irrigated arable land . 
the aluminium industry is represented by the state-owned tajik aluminum company -- the biggest aluminium plant in central asia and one of the biggest in the world . 
tajikistan 's rivers , such as the vakhsh and the panj , have great hydropower potential , and the government has focused on attracting investment for projects for internal use and electricity exports . 
tajikistan 's rivers , such as the vakhsh and the panj , have great hydropower potential , and the government has focused on attracting investment for projects for internal use and electricity exports . 
tajikistan is home to the nurek dam , the highest dam in the world . 
a planned project , casa 1000 , will transmit 1000 mw of surplus electricity from tajikistan to pakistan with power transit through afghanistan . 
according to some estimates about 20 % of the population lives on less than us$ 1.25 per day . 
in 2010 , remittances from tajik labour migrants totaled an estimated $ 2.1 billion us dollars , an increase from 2009 . 
tajikistan has achieved transition from a planned to a market economy without substantial and protracted recourse to aid -lrb- of which it by now receives only negligible amounts -rrb- , and by purely market-based means , simply by exporting its main commodity of comparative advantage -- cheap labor . 
the world bank tajikistan policy note 2006 concludes that remittances have played an important role as one of the drivers of tajikistan 's robust economic growth during the past several years , have increased incomes , and as a result helped significantly reduce poverty . 
drug trafficking is the major illegal source of income in tajikistan as it is an important transit country for afghan narcotics bound for russian and , to a lesser extent , western european markets ; some opium poppy is also raised locally for the domestic market . 
however , with the increasing assistance from international organizations , such as unodc , and cooperation with the us , russian , eu and afghan authorities a level of progress on the fight against illegal drug-trafficking is being achieved . 
tajikistan holds third place in the world for heroin and raw opium confiscations -lrb- 1216.3 kg of heroin and 267.8 kg of raw opium in the first half of 2006 -rrb- . 
unodc is working with tajikistan to strengthen border crossings , provide training , and set up joint interdiction teams . 
as a landlocked country tajikistan has no ports and the majority of transportation is via roads , air , and rail . 
in recent years tajikistan has pursued agreements with iran and pakistan to gain port access in those countries via afghanistan . 
in 2009 , an agreement was made between tajikistan , pakistan , and afghanistan to improve and build a 1,300 km -lrb- 810 mi -rrb- highway and rail system connecting the three countries to pakistan 's ports . 
and in 2012 , the presidents of tajikistan , afghanistan , and iran signed an agreement to construct roads and railways as well as oil , gas , and water pipelines to connect the three countries . 
in 2009 tajikistan had 26 airports , 18 of which had paved runways , of which two had runways longer than 3,000 meters . 
the country 's main airport is dushanbe international airport which as of april 2015 , had regularly scheduled flights to major cities in russia , central asia , as well as delhi , dubai , frankfurt , istanbul , kabul , tehran , and ürümqi amongst others . 
the country 's main airport is dushanbe international airport which as of april 2015 , had regularly scheduled flights to major cities in russia , central asia , as well as delhi , dubai , frankfurt , istanbul , kabul , tehran , and ürümqi amongst others . 
khorog airport is a domestic airport and also the only airport in the sparsely populated eastern half of the country . 
tajikistan has a population of 7,349,145 -lrb- july 2009 est. -rrb- of which 70 % are under the age of 30 and 35 % are between the ages of 14 and 30 . 
tajikistan has a population of 7,349,145 -lrb- july 2009 est. -rrb- of which 70 % are under the age of 30 and 35 % are between the ages of 14 and 30 . 
tajikistan has a population of 7,349,145 -lrb- july 2009 est. -rrb- of which 70 % are under the age of 30 and 35 % are between the ages of 14 and 30 . 
tajiks who speak tajik -lrb- a dialect of persian -rrb- are the main ethnic group , although there are sizable minorities of uzbeks and russians , whose numbers are declining due to emigration . 
all citizens of tajikistan are called tajikistanis . 
the pamiri people of gorno-badakhshan autonomous province in the southeast , bordering afghanistan and china , though considered part of the tajik ethnicity , nevertheless are distinct linguistically and culturally from most tajiks . 
the pamiri people of gorno-badakhshan autonomous province in the southeast , bordering afghanistan and china , though considered part of the tajik ethnicity , nevertheless are distinct linguistically and culturally from most tajiks . 
isolated in the highest parts of the pamir mountains , they have preserved many ancient cultural traditions and folk arts that have been largely lost elsewhere in the country . 
sunni islam of the hanafi school has been officially recognized by the government since 2009 . 
tajikistan considers itself a secular state with a constitution providing for freedom of religion . 
the government has declared two islamic holidays , id al-fitr and idi qurbon , as state holidays . 
according to a u.s. state department release and pew research group , the population of tajikistan is 98 % muslim . 
that minority religious groups undermine national unity . 
there is a concern for religious institutions becoming active in the political sphere . 
membership in hizb ut-tahrir , a militant islamic party which today aims for an overthrow of secular governments and the unification of tajiks under one islamic state , is illegal and members are subject to arrest and imprisonment . 
membership in hizb ut-tahrir , a militant islamic party which today aims for an overthrow of secular governments and the unification of tajiks under one islamic state , is illegal and members are subject to arrest and imprisonment . 
by law , religious communities must register by the state committee on religious affairs -lrb- scra -rrb- and with local authorities . 
registration with the scra requires a charter , a list of 10 or more members , and evidence of local government approval prayer site location . 
religious groups who do not have a physical structure are not allowed to gather publicly for prayer . 
failure to register can result in large fines and closure of place of worship . 
despite repeated efforts by the tajik government to improve and expand health care , the system remains extremely underdeveloped and poor , with severe shortages of medical supplies . 
the state 's ministry of labor and social welfare reported that 104,272 disabled people are registered in tajikistan -lrb- 2000 -rrb- . 
public expenditure on health was at 1 % of the gdp in 2004 . 
the government of tajikistan and the world bank considered activities to support this part of the population described in the world bank 's poverty reduction strategy paper . 
public education in tajikistan consists of 11 years of primary and secondary education but the government has plans to implement a 12-year system in 2016 . 
public education in tajikistan consists of 11 years of primary and secondary education but the government has plans to implement a 12-year system in 2016 . 
there is a relatively large number of tertiary education institutions including khujand state university which has 76 departments in 15 faculties , tajikistan state university of law , business , & politics , khorugh state university , agricultural university of tajikistan , tajik state national university , and several other institutions . 
as of 2008 -lsb- update -rsb- tertiary education enrollment was 17 % , significantly below the sub-regional average of 37 % . 
anthropology is the study of humans and their societies in the past and present . 
its main subdivisions are social anthropology and cultural anthropology , which describes the workings of societies around the world , linguistic anthropology , which investigates the influence of language in social life , and biological or physical anthropology , which concerns long-term development of the human organism . 
its main subdivisions are social anthropology and cultural anthropology , which describes the workings of societies around the world , linguistic anthropology , which investigates the influence of language in social life , and biological or physical anthropology , which concerns long-term development of the human organism . 
its main subdivisions are social anthropology and cultural anthropology , which describes the workings of societies around the world , linguistic anthropology , which investigates the influence of language in social life , and biological or physical anthropology , which concerns long-term development of the human organism . 
archaeology , which studies past human cultures through investigation of physical evidence , is thought of as a branch of anthropology in the united states , while in europe , it is viewed as a discipline in its own right , or grouped under other related disciplines such as history . 
similar organizations in other countries followed : the american anthropological association in 1902 , the anthropological society of madrid -lrb- 1865 -rrb- , the anthropological society of vienna -lrb- 1870 -rrb- , the italian society of anthropology and ethnology -lrb- 1871 -rrb- , and many others subsequently . 
one notable exception was the berlin society of anthropology -lrb- 1869 -rrb- founded by rudolph virchow , known for his vituperative attacks on the evolutionists . 
similar organizations in other countries followed : the american anthropological association in 1902 , the anthropological society of madrid -lrb- 1865 -rrb- , the anthropological society of vienna -lrb- 1870 -rrb- , the italian society of anthropology and ethnology -lrb- 1871 -rrb- , and many others subsequently . 
similar organizations in other countries followed : the american anthropological association in 1902 , the anthropological society of madrid -lrb- 1865 -rrb- , the anthropological society of vienna -lrb- 1870 -rrb- , the italian society of anthropology and ethnology -lrb- 1871 -rrb- , and many others subsequently . 
not religious himself , he insisted that darwin 's conclusions lacked empirical foundation . 
during the last three decades of the 19th century a proliferation of anthropological societies and associations occurred , most independent , most publishing their own journals , and all international in membership and association . 
during the last three decades of the 19th century a proliferation of anthropological societies and associations occurred , most independent , most publishing their own journals , and all international in membership and association . 
the major theorists belonged to these organizations . 
by 1898 the american association for the advancement of science was able to report that 48 educational institutions in 13 countries had some curriculum in anthropology . 
by 1898 the american association for the advancement of science was able to report that 48 educational institutions in 13 countries had some curriculum in anthropology . 
since the work of franz boas and bronisław malinowski in the late 19th and early 20th centuries , social anthropology in great britain and cultural anthropology in the us have been distinguished from other social sciences by its emphasis on cross-cultural comparisons , long-term in-depth examination of context , and the importance it places on participant-observation or experiential immersion in the area of research . 
this has been particularly prominent in the united states , from boas ' arguments against 19th-century racial ideology , through margaret mead 's advocacy for gender equality and sexual liberation , to current criticisms of post-colonial oppression and promotion of multiculturalism . 
since the work of franz boas and bronisław malinowski in the late 19th and early 20th centuries , social anthropology in great britain and cultural anthropology in the us have been distinguished from other social sciences by its emphasis on cross-cultural comparisons , long-term in-depth examination of context , and the importance it places on participant-observation or experiential immersion in the area of research . 
this has been particularly prominent in the united states , from boas ' arguments against 19th-century racial ideology , through margaret mead 's advocacy for gender equality and sexual liberation , to current criticisms of post-colonial oppression and promotion of multiculturalism . 
cultural anthropology in particular has emphasized cultural relativism , holism , and the use of findings to frame cultural critiques . 
anthropology is a global discipline where humanities , social , and natural sciences are forced to confront one another . 
anthropology builds upon knowledge from natural sciences , including the discoveries about the origin and evolution of homo sapiens , human physical traits , human behavior , the variations among different groups of humans , how the evolutionary past of homo sapiens has influenced its social organization and culture , and from social sciences , including the organization of human social and cultural relations , institutions , social conflicts , etc. . 
anthropology is a global discipline where humanities , social , and natural sciences are forced to confront one another . 
early anthropology originated in classical greece and persia and studied and tried to understand observable cultural diversity . 
as such , anthropology has been central in the development of several new -lrb- late 20th century -rrb- interdisciplinary fields such as cognitive science , global studies , and various ethnic studies . 
sociocultural anthropology has been heavily influenced by structuralist and postmodern theories , as well as a shift toward the analysis of modern societies . 
during the 1970s and 1990s , there was an epistemological shift away from the positivist traditions that had largely informed the discipline . 
-lsb- page needed -rsb- during this shift , enduring questions about the nature and production of knowledge came to occupy a central place in cultural and social anthropology . 
in contrast , archaeology and biological anthropology remained largely positivist . 
due to this difference in epistemology , the four sub-fields of anthropology have lacked cohesion over the last several decades . 
sociocultural anthropology draws together the principle axes of cultural anthropology and social anthropology . 
cultural anthropology is the comparative study of the manifold ways in which people make sense of the world around them , while social anthropology is the study of the relationships among persons and groups . 
in that it helps develop understanding of social structures , typically of others and other populations -lrb- such as minorities , subgroups , dissidents , etc. -rrb- . 
there is no hard-and-fast distinction between them , and these categories overlap to a considerable degree . 
cultural anthropology is the comparative study of the manifold ways in which people make sense of the world around them , while social anthropology is the study of the relationships among persons and groups . 
inquiry in sociocultural anthropology is guided in part by cultural relativism , the attempt to understand other societies in terms of their own cultural symbols and values . 
ethnography can refer to both a methodology and the product of ethnographic research , i.e. an ethnographic monograph . 
participant observation is one of the foundational methods of social and cultural anthropology . 
the process of participant-observation can be especially helpful to understanding a culture from an emic -lrb- conceptual , vs. etic , or technical -rrb- point of view . 
accepting other cultures in their own terms moderates reductionism in cross-cultural comparison . 
sociocultural anthropology also covers economic and political organization , law and conflict resolution , patterns of consumption and exchange , material culture , technology , infrastructure , gender relations , ethnicity , childrearing and socialization , religion , myth , symbols , values , etiquette , worldview , sports , music , nutrition , recreation , games , food , festivals , and language -lrb- which is also the object of study in linguistic anthropology -rrb- . 
sociocultural anthropology also covers economic and political organization , law and conflict resolution , patterns of consumption and exchange , material culture , technology , infrastructure , gender relations , ethnicity , childrearing and socialization , religion , myth , symbols , values , etiquette , worldview , sports , music , nutrition , recreation , games , food , festivals , and language -lrb- which is also the object of study in linguistic anthropology -rrb- . 
the study of kinship and social organization is a central focus of sociocultural anthropology , as kinship is a human universal . 
sociocultural anthropology also covers economic and political organization , law and conflict resolution , patterns of consumption and exchange , material culture , technology , infrastructure , gender relations , ethnicity , childrearing and socialization , religion , myth , symbols , values , etiquette , worldview , sports , music , nutrition , recreation , games , food , festivals , and language -lrb- which is also the object of study in linguistic anthropology -rrb- . 
sociocultural anthropology also covers economic and political organization , law and conflict resolution , patterns of consumption and exchange , material culture , technology , infrastructure , gender relations , ethnicity , childrearing and socialization , religion , myth , symbols , values , etiquette , worldview , sports , music , nutrition , recreation , games , food , festivals , and language -lrb- which is also the object of study in linguistic anthropology -rrb- . 
archaeology is the study of the human past through its material remains . 
archaeologists examine these material remains in order to deduce patterns of past human behavior and cultural practices . 
ethnoarchaeology is a type of archaeology that studies the practices and material remains of living human groups in order to gain a better understanding of the evidence left behind by past human groups , who are presumed to have lived in similar ways . 
ethnoarchaeology is a type of archaeology that studies the practices and material remains of living human groups in order to gain a better understanding of the evidence left behind by past human groups , who are presumed to have lived in similar ways . 
artifacts , faunal remains , and human altered landscapes are evidence of the cultural and material lives of past societies . 
it is the branch of anthropology that brings linguistic methods to bear on anthropological problems , linking the analysis of linguistic forms and processes to the interpretation of sociocultural processes . 
it is the branch of anthropology that brings linguistic methods to bear on anthropological problems , linking the analysis of linguistic forms and processes to the interpretation of sociocultural processes . 
linguistic anthropology -lrb- also called anthropological linguistics -rrb- seeks to understand the processes of human communications , verbal and non-verbal , variation in language across time and space , the social uses of language , and the relationship between language and culture . 
linguistic anthropologists often draw on related fields including sociolinguistics , pragmatics , cognitive linguistics , semiotics , discourse analysis , and narrative analysis . 
one of the central problems in the anthropology of art concerns the universality of ` art ' as a cultural phenomenon . 
several anthropologists have noted that the western categories of ` painting ' , ` sculpture ' , or ` literature ' , conceived as independent artistic activities , do not exist , or exist in a significantly different form , in most non-western contexts . 
to surmount this difficulty , anthropologists of art have focused on formal features in objects which , without exclusively being ` artistic ' , have certain evident ` aesthetic ' qualities . 
boas ' primitive art , claude lévi-strauss ' the way of the masks -lrb- 1982 -rrb- or geertz 's ` art as cultural system ' -lrb- 1983 -rrb- are some examples in this trend to transform the anthropology of ` art ' into an anthropology of culturally specific ` aesthetics ' . 
boas ' primitive art , claude lévi-strauss ' the way of the masks -lrb- 1982 -rrb- or geertz 's ` art as cultural system ' -lrb- 1983 -rrb- are some examples in this trend to transform the anthropology of ` art ' into an anthropology of culturally specific ` aesthetics ' . 
sporadic use of the term for some of the subject matter occurred subsequently , such as the use by étienne serres in 1838 to describe the natural history , or paleontology , of man , based on comparative anatomy , and the creation of a chair in anthropology and ethnography in 1850 at the national museum of natural history -lrb- france -rrb- by jean louis armand de quatrefages de bréau . 
sporadic use of the term for some of the subject matter occurred subsequently , such as the use by étienne serres in 1838 to describe the natural history , or paleontology , of man , based on comparative anatomy , and the creation of a chair in anthropology and ethnography in 1850 at the national museum of natural history -lrb- france -rrb- by jean louis armand de quatrefages de bréau . 
sporadic use of the term for some of the subject matter occurred subsequently , such as the use by étienne serres in 1838 to describe the natural history , or paleontology , of man , based on comparative anatomy , and the creation of a chair in anthropology and ethnography in 1850 at the national museum of natural history -lrb- france -rrb- by jean louis armand de quatrefages de bréau . 
sporadic use of the term for some of the subject matter occurred subsequently , such as the use by étienne serres in 1838 to describe the natural history , or paleontology , of man , based on comparative anatomy , and the creation of a chair in anthropology and ethnography in 1850 at the national museum of natural history -lrb- france -rrb- by jean louis armand de quatrefages de bréau . 
the société ethnologique de paris , the first to use ethnology , was formed in 1839 . 
anthropology and many other current fields are the intellectual results of the comparative methods developed in the earlier 19th century . 
theorists in such diverse fields as anatomy , linguistics , and ethnology , making feature-by-feature comparisons of their subject matters , were beginning to suspect that similarities between animals , languages , and folkways were the result of processes or laws unknown to them then . 
theorists in such diverse fields as anatomy , linguistics , and ethnology , making feature-by-feature comparisons of their subject matters , were beginning to suspect that similarities between animals , languages , and folkways were the result of processes or laws unknown to them then . 
for them , the publication of charles darwin 's on the origin of species was the epiphany of everything they had begun to suspect . 
darwin himself arrived at his conclusions through comparison of species he had seen in agronomy and in the wild . 
darwin and wallace unveiled evolution in the late 1850s . 
there was an immediate rush to bring it into the social sciences . 
paul broca in paris was in the process of breaking away from the société de biologie to form the first of the explicitly anthropological societies , the société d'anthropologie de paris , meeting for the first time in paris in 1859 . 
paul broca in paris was in the process of breaking away from the société de biologie to form the first of the explicitly anthropological societies , the société d'anthropologie de paris , meeting for the first time in paris in 1859 . 
-lsb- n 4 -rsb- when he read darwin he became an immediate convert to transformisme , as the french called evolutionism . 
broca , being what today would be called a neurosurgeon , had taken an interest in the pathology of speech . 
broca , being what today would be called a neurosurgeon , had taken an interest in the pathology of speech . 
he discovered the speech center of the human brain , today called broca 's area after him . 
his interest was mainly in biological anthropology , but a german philosopher specializing in psychology , theodor waitz , took up the theme of general and social anthropology in his six-volume work , entitled die anthropologie der naturvölker , 1859 -- 1864 . 
his interest was mainly in biological anthropology , but a german philosopher specializing in psychology , theodor waitz , took up the theme of general and social anthropology in his six-volume work , entitled die anthropologie der naturvölker , 1859 -- 1864 . 
waitz defined anthropology as `` the science of the nature of man '' . 
by nature he meant matter animated by `` the divine breath '' ; i.e. , he was an animist . 
following broca 's lead , waitz points out that anthropology is a new field , which would gather material from other fields , but would differ from them in the use of comparative anatomy , physiology , and psychology to differentiate man from `` the animals nearest to him '' . 
he stresses that the data of comparison must be empirical , gathered by experimentation . 
the history of civilization as well as ethnology are to be brought into the comparison . 
waitz was influential among the british ethnologists . 
in 1863 the explorer richard francis burton and the speech therapist james hunt broke away from the ethnological society of london to form the anthropological society of london , which henceforward would follow the path of the new anthropology rather than just ethnology . 
in 1863 the explorer richard francis burton and the speech therapist james hunt broke away from the ethnological society of london to form the anthropological society of london , which henceforward would follow the path of the new anthropology rather than just ethnology . 
representatives from the french société were present , though not broca . 
in his keynote address , printed in the first volume of its new publication , the anthropological review , hunt stressed the work of waitz , adopting his definitions as a standard . 
this meagre statistic expanded in the 20th century to comprise anthropology departments in the majority of the world 's higher educational institutions , many thousands in number . 
anthropology has diversified from a few major subdivisions to dozens more . 
practical anthropology , the use of anthropological knowledge and technique to solve specific problems , has arrived ; for example , the presence of buried victims might stimulate the use of a forensic archaeologist to recreate the final scene . 
practical anthropology , the use of anthropological knowledge and technique to solve specific problems , has arrived ; for example , the presence of buried victims might stimulate the use of a forensic archaeologist to recreate the final scene . 
for example , the world council of anthropological associations -lrb- wcaa -rrb- , `` a network of national , regional and international associations that aims to promote worldwide communication and cooperation in anthropology '' , currently contains members from about three dozen nations . 
media anthropology -lrb- also known as anthropology of media or mass media -rrb- emphasizes ethnographic studies as a means of understanding producers , audiences , and other cultural and social aspects of mass media . 
the types of ethnographic contexts explored range from contexts of media production -lrb- e.g. , ethnographies of newsrooms in newspapers , journalists in the field , film production -rrb- to contexts of media reception , following audiences in their everyday responses to media . 
this is in addition to many classic ethnographic contexts , where media such as radio , the press , new media and television have started to make their presences felt since the early 1990s . 
the types of ethnographic contexts explored range from contexts of media production -lrb- e.g. , ethnographies of newsrooms in newspapers , journalists in the field , film production -rrb- to contexts of media reception , following audiences in their everyday responses to media . 
other types include cyber anthropology , a relatively new area of internet research , as well as ethnographies of other areas of research which happen to involve media , such as development work , social movements , or health education . 
visual anthropology is concerned , in part , with the study and production of ethnographic photography , film and , since the mid-1990s , new media . 
while the term is sometimes used interchangeably with ethnographic film , visual anthropology also encompasses the anthropological study of visual representation , including areas such as performance , museums , art , and the production and reception of mass media . 
visual representations from all cultures , such as sandpaintings , tattoos , sculptures and reliefs , cave paintings , scrimshaw , jewelry , hieroglyphics , paintings and photographs are included in the focus of visual anthropology . 
while the term is sometimes used interchangeably with ethnographic film , visual anthropology also encompasses the anthropological study of visual representation , including areas such as performance , museums , art , and the production and reception of mass media . 
economic anthropology attempts to explain human economic behavior in its widest historic , geographic and cultural scope . 
economic anthropology attempts to explain human economic behavior in its widest historic , geographic and cultural scope . 
it has a complex relationship with the discipline of economics , of which it is highly critical . 
its origins as a sub-field of anthropology begin with the polish-british founder of anthropology , bronislaw malinowski , and his french compatriot , marcel mauss , on the nature of gift-giving exchange -lrb- or reciprocity -rrb- as an alternative to market exchange . 
economic anthropology remains , for the most part , focused upon exchange . 
political economy in anthropology is the application of the theories and methods of historical materialism to the traditional concerns of anthropology , including , but not limited to , non-capitalist societies . 
political economy introduced questions of history and colonialism to ahistorical anthropological theories of social structure and culture . 
sahlins work on hunter-gatherers as the ` original affluent society ' did much to dissipate that image . 
the second area was concerned with the vast majority of the world 's population at the time , the peasantry , many of whom were involved in complex revolutionary wars such as in vietnam . 
more recently , these political economists have more directly addressed issues of industrial -lrb- and post-industrial -rrb- capitalism around the world . 
applied anthropology refers to the application of the method and theory of anthropology to the analysis and solution of practical problems . 
it is a , `` complex of related , research-based , instrumental methods which produce change or stability in specific cultural systems through the provision of data , initiation of direct action , and/or the formulation of policy '' . 
it is a , `` complex of related , research-based , instrumental methods which produce change or stability in specific cultural systems through the provision of data , initiation of direct action , and/or the formulation of policy '' . 
more simply , applied anthropology is the practical side of anthropological research ; it includes researcher involvement and activism within the participating community . 
more simply , applied anthropology is the practical side of anthropological research ; it includes researcher involvement and activism within the participating community . 
anthropology of development tends to view development from a critical perspective . 
the kind of issues addressed and implications for the approach simply involve pondering why , if a key development goal is to alleviate poverty , is poverty increasing ? 
the kind of issues addressed and implications for the approach simply involve pondering why , if a key development goal is to alleviate poverty , is poverty increasing ? 
why is there such a gap between plans and outcomes ? 
in short why does so much planned development fail ? 
kinship can refer both to the study of the patterns of social relationships in one or more human cultures , or it can refer to the patterns of social relationships themselves . 
over its history , anthropology has developed a number of related concepts and terms , such as `` descent '' , `` descent groups '' , `` lineages '' , `` affines '' , `` cognates '' , and even `` fictive kinship '' . 
over its history , anthropology has developed a number of related concepts and terms , such as `` descent '' , `` descent groups '' , `` lineages '' , `` affines '' , `` cognates '' , and even `` fictive kinship '' . 
broadly , kinship patterns may be considered to include people related both by descent -lrb- one 's social relations during development -rrb- , and also relatives by marriage . 
broadly , kinship patterns may be considered to include people related both by descent -lrb- one 's social relations during development -rrb- , and also relatives by marriage . 
feminist anthropology is a four field approach to anthropology -lrb- archeological , biological , cultural , linguistic -rrb- that seeks to reduce male bias in research findings , anthropological hiring practices , and the scholarly production of knowledge . 
feminist anthropology is a four field approach to anthropology -lrb- archeological , biological , cultural , linguistic -rrb- that seeks to reduce male bias in research findings , anthropological hiring practices , and the scholarly production of knowledge . 
feminist anthropologists have claimed that their research helps to correct this systematic bias in mainstream feminist theory . 
feminist anthropologists are centrally concerned with the construction of gender across societies . 
feminist anthropology is inclusive of birth anthropology as a specialization . 
nutritional anthropology is a synthetic concept that deals with the interplay between economic systems , nutritional status and food security , and how changes in the former affect the latter . 
nutritional anthropology is a synthetic concept that deals with the interplay between economic systems , nutritional status and food security , and how changes in the former affect the latter . 
if economic and environmental changes in a community affect access to food , food security , and dietary health , then this interplay between culture and biology is in turn connected to broader historical and economic trends associated with globalization . 
nutritional status affects overall health status , work performance potential , and the overall potential for economic development -lrb- either in terms of human development or traditional western models -rrb- for any given group of people . 
nutritional status affects overall health status , work performance potential , and the overall potential for economic development -lrb- either in terms of human development or traditional western models -rrb- for any given group of people . 
psychological anthropology is an interdisciplinary subfield of anthropology that studies the interaction of cultural and mental processes . 
this subfield tends to focus on ways in which humans ' development and enculturation within a particular cultural group -- with its own history , language , practices , and conceptual categories -- shape processes of human cognition , emotion , perception , motivation , and mental health . 
this subfield tends to focus on ways in which humans ' development and enculturation within a particular cultural group -- with its own history , language , practices , and conceptual categories -- shape processes of human cognition , emotion , perception , motivation , and mental health . 
this subfield tends to focus on ways in which humans ' development and enculturation within a particular cultural group -- with its own history , language , practices , and conceptual categories -- shape processes of human cognition , emotion , perception , motivation , and mental health . 
it also examines how the understanding of cognition , emotion , motivation , and similar psychological processes inform or constrain our models of cultural and social processes . 
cognitive anthropology seeks to explain patterns of shared knowledge , cultural innovation , and transmission over time and space using the methods and theories of the cognitive sciences -lrb- especially experimental psychology and evolutionary biology -rrb- often through close collaboration with historians , ethnographers , archaeologists , linguists , musicologists and other specialists engaged in the description and interpretation of cultural forms . 
cognitive anthropology seeks to explain patterns of shared knowledge , cultural innovation , and transmission over time and space using the methods and theories of the cognitive sciences -lrb- especially experimental psychology and evolutionary biology -rrb- often through close collaboration with historians , ethnographers , archaeologists , linguists , musicologists and other specialists engaged in the description and interpretation of cultural forms . 
cognitive anthropology seeks to explain patterns of shared knowledge , cultural innovation , and transmission over time and space using the methods and theories of the cognitive sciences -lrb- especially experimental psychology and evolutionary biology -rrb- often through close collaboration with historians , ethnographers , archaeologists , linguists , musicologists and other specialists engaged in the description and interpretation of cultural forms . 
cognitive anthropology is concerned with what people from different groups know and how that implicit knowledge changes the way people perceive and relate to the world around them . 
political anthropology concerns the structure of political systems , looked at from the basis of the structure of societies . 
political anthropology concerns the structure of political systems , looked at from the basis of the structure of societies . 
political anthropology developed as a discipline concerned primarily with politics in stateless societies , a new development started from the 1960s , and is still unfolding : anthropologists started increasingly to study more `` complex '' social settings in which the presence of states , bureaucracies and markets entered both ethnographic accounts and analysis of local phenomena . 
political anthropology developed as a discipline concerned primarily with politics in stateless societies , a new development started from the 1960s , and is still unfolding : anthropologists started increasingly to study more `` complex '' social settings in which the presence of states , bureaucracies and markets entered both ethnographic accounts and analysis of local phenomena . 
geertz ' comparative work on `` negara '' , the balinese state is an early , famous example . 
cyborg anthropology originated as a sub-focus group within the american anthropological association 's annual meeting in 1993 . 
cyborg anthropology originated as a sub-focus group within the american anthropological association 's annual meeting in 1993 . 
the sub-group was very closely related to sts and the society for the social studies of science . 
donna haraway 's 1985 cyborg manifesto could be considered the founding document of cyborg anthropology by first exploring the philosophical and sociological ramifications of the term . 
cyborg anthropology studies humankind and its relations with the technological systems it has built , specifically modern technological systems that have reflexively shaped notions of what it means to be human beings . 
environmental anthropology is a sub-specialty within the field of anthropology that takes an active role in examining the relationships between humans and their environment across space and time . 
the contemporary perspective of environmental anthropology , and arguably at least the backdrop , if not the focus of most of the ethnographies and cultural fieldworks of today , is political ecology . 
many characterize this new perspective as more informed with culture , politics and power , globalization , localized issues , and more . 
the focus and data interpretation is often used for arguments for/against or creation of policy , and to prevent corporate exploitation and damage of land . 
such is the case with environmental justice advocate melissa checker and her relationship with the people of hyde park . 
ethnohistory is the study of ethnographic cultures and indigenous customs by examining historical records . 
it is also the study of the history of various ethnic groups that may or may not exist today . 
ethnohistory uses both historical and ethnographic data as its foundation . 
its historical methods and materials go beyond the standard use of documents and manuscripts . 
practitioners recognize the utility of such source material as maps , music , paintings , photography , folklore , oral tradition , site exploration , archaeological materials , museum collections , enduring customs , language , and place names . 
urban anthropology is concerned with issues of urbanization , poverty , and neoliberalism . 
ulf hannerz quotes a 1960s remark that traditional anthropologists were `` a notoriously agoraphobic lot , anti-urban by definition '' . 
ulf hannerz quotes a 1960s remark that traditional anthropologists were `` a notoriously agoraphobic lot , anti-urban by definition '' . 
there are two principle approaches in urban anthropology : by examining the types of cities or examining the social issues within the cities . 
by directly looking at the different social issues , one would also be studying how they affect the dynamic of the city . 
anthrozoology -lrb- also known as `` human -- animal studies '' -rrb- is the study of interaction between living things . 
anthrozoology -lrb- also known as `` human -- animal studies '' -rrb- is the study of interaction between living things . 
it is a burgeoning interdisciplinary field that overlaps with a number of other disciplines , including anthropology , ethology , medicine , psychology , veterinary medicine and zoology . 
a major focus of anthrozoologic research is the quantifying of the positive effects of human-animal relationships on either party and the study of their interactions . 
it includes scholars from a diverse range of fields , including anthropology , sociology , biology , and philosophy . 
evolutionary anthropology is the interdisciplinary study of the evolution of human physiology and human behaviour and the relation between hominins and non-hominin primates . 
evolutionary anthropology is based in natural science and social science , combining the human development with socioeconomic factors . 
evolutionary anthropology is concerned with both biological and cultural evolution of humans , past and present . 
it is based on a scientific approach , and brings together fields such as archaeology , behavioral ecology , psychology , primatology , and genetics . 
it is a dynamic and interdisciplinary field , drawing on many lines of evidence to understand the human experience , past and present . 
ethical commitments in anthropology include noticing and documenting genocide , infanticide , racism , mutilation -lrb- including circumcision and subincision -rrb- , and torture . 
ethical commitments in anthropology include noticing and documenting genocide , infanticide , racism , mutilation -lrb- including circumcision and subincision -rrb- , and torture . 
topics like racism , slavery , and human sacrifice attract anthropological attention and theories ranging from nutritional deficiencies to genes to acculturation have been proposed , not to mention theories of colonialism and many others as root causes of man 's inhumanity to man . 
topics like racism , slavery , and human sacrifice attract anthropological attention and theories ranging from nutritional deficiencies to genes to acculturation have been proposed , not to mention theories of colonialism and many others as root causes of man 's inhumanity to man . 
to illustrate the depth of an anthropological approach , one can take just one of these topics , such as `` racism '' and find thousands of anthropological references , stretching across all the major and minor sub-fields . 
but by the 1940s , many of boas ' anthropologist contemporaries were active in the allied war effort against the `` axis '' -lrb- nazi germany , fascist italy , and imperial japan -rrb- . 
but by the 1940s , many of boas ' anthropologist contemporaries were active in the allied war effort against the `` axis '' -lrb- nazi germany , fascist italy , and imperial japan -rrb- . 
many served in the armed forces , while others worked in intelligence -lrb- for example , office of strategic services and the office of war information -rrb- . 
many served in the armed forces , while others worked in intelligence -lrb- for example , office of strategic services and the office of war information -rrb- . 
at the same time , david h. price 's work on american anthropology during the cold war provides detailed accounts of the pursuit and dismissal of several anthropologists from their jobs for communist sympathies . 
professional anthropological bodies often object to the use of anthropology for the benefit of the state . 
their codes of ethics or statements may proscribe anthropologists from giving secret briefings . 
the association of social anthropologists of the uk and commonwealth -lrb- asa -rrb- has called certain scholarship ethically dangerous . 
the aaa 's current ` statement of professional responsibility ' clearly states that `` in relation with their own government and with host governments ... no secret research , no secret reports or debriefings of any kind should be agreed to or given . '' 
the aaa 's current ` statement of professional responsibility ' clearly states that `` in relation with their own government and with host governments ... no secret research , no secret reports or debriefings of any kind should be agreed to or given . '' 
anthropologists , along with other social scientists , are working with the us military as part of the us army 's strategy in afghanistan . 
anthropologists , along with other social scientists , are working with the us military as part of the us army 's strategy in afghanistan . 
the christian science monitor reports that `` counterinsurgency efforts focus on better grasping and meeting local needs '' in afghanistan , under the human terrain system -lrb- hts -rrb- program ; in addition , hts teams are working with the us military in iraq . 
the christian science monitor reports that `` counterinsurgency efforts focus on better grasping and meeting local needs '' in afghanistan , under the human terrain system -lrb- hts -rrb- program ; in addition , hts teams are working with the us military in iraq . 
in summary , while we stress that constructive engagement between anthropology and the military is possible , ceaussic suggests that the aaa emphasize the incompatibility of hts with disciplinary ethics and practice for job seekers and that it further recognize the problem of allowing hts to define the meaning of `` anthropology '' within dod . '' 
biological anthropologists are interested in both human variation and in the possibility of human universals -lrb- behaviors , ideas or concepts shared by virtually all human cultures -rrb- . 
biological anthropologists are interested in both human variation and in the possibility of human universals -lrb- behaviors , ideas or concepts shared by virtually all human cultures -rrb- . 
they use many different methods of study , but modern population genetics , participant observation and other techniques often take anthropologists `` into the field , '' which means traveling to a community in its own setting , to do something called `` fieldwork . '' 
they use many different methods of study , but modern population genetics , participant observation and other techniques often take anthropologists `` into the field , '' which means traveling to a community in its own setting , to do something called `` fieldwork . '' 
on the biological or physical side , human measurements , genetic samples , nutritional data may be gathered and published as articles or monographs . 
along with dividing up their project by theoretical emphasis , anthropologists typically divide the world up into relevant time periods and geographic regions . 
human time on earth is divided up into relevant cultural traditions based on material , such as the paleolithic and the neolithic , of particular use in archaeology . 
-lsb- citation needed -rsb- further cultural subdivisions according to tool types , such as olduwan or mousterian or levalloisian help archaeologists and other anthropologists in understanding major trends in the human past . 
-lsb- citation needed -rsb- anthropologists and geographers share approaches to culture regions as well , since mapping cultures is central to both sciences . 
by making comparisons across cultural traditions -lrb- time-based -rrb- and cultural regions -lrb- space-based -rrb- , anthropologists have developed various kinds of comparative method , a central part of their science . 
some authors argue that anthropology originated and developed as the study of `` other cultures '' , both in terms of time -lrb- past societies -rrb- and space -lrb- non-european/non-western societies -rrb- . 
some authors argue that anthropology originated and developed as the study of `` other cultures '' , both in terms of time -lrb- past societies -rrb- and space -lrb- non-european/non-western societies -rrb- . 
some authors argue that anthropology originated and developed as the study of `` other cultures '' , both in terms of time -lrb- past societies -rrb- and space -lrb- non-european/non-western societies -rrb- . 
for example , the classic of urban anthropology , ulf hannerz in the introduction to his seminal exploring the city : inquiries toward an urban anthropology mentions that the `` third world '' had habitually received most of attention ; anthropologists who traditionally specialized in `` other cultures '' looked for them far away and started to look `` across the tracks '' only in late 1960s . 
for example , the classic of urban anthropology , ulf hannerz in the introduction to his seminal exploring the city : inquiries toward an urban anthropology mentions that the `` third world '' had habitually received most of attention ; anthropologists who traditionally specialized in `` other cultures '' looked for them far away and started to look `` across the tracks '' only in late 1960s . 
since the 1980s it has become common for social and cultural anthropologists to set ethnographic research in the north atlantic region , frequently examining the connections between locations rather than limiting research to a single locale . 
since the 1980s it has become common for social and cultural anthropologists to set ethnographic research in the north atlantic region , frequently examining the connections between locations rather than limiting research to a single locale . 
there has also been a related shift toward broadening the focus beyond the daily life of ordinary people ; increasingly , research is set in settings such as scientific laboratories , social movements , governmental and nongovernmental organizations and businesses . 
there has also been a related shift toward broadening the focus beyond the daily life of ordinary people ; increasingly , research is set in settings such as scientific laboratories , social movements , governmental and nongovernmental organizations and businesses . 
there has also been a related shift toward broadening the focus beyond the daily life of ordinary people ; increasingly , research is set in settings such as scientific laboratories , social movements , governmental and nongovernmental organizations and businesses . 
in 1758 joseph i was wounded in an attempted assassination . 
the távora family and the duke of aveiro were implicated and executed after a quick trial . 
the jesuits were expelled from the country and their assets confiscated by the crown . 
joseph i made his loyal minister count of oeiras in 1759 . 
sebastião de melo prosecuted every person involved , even women and children . 
made `` marquis of pombal '' in 1770 , he effectively ruled portugal until joseph i 's death in 1779 . 
made `` marquis of pombal '' in 1770 , he effectively ruled portugal until joseph i 's death in 1779 . 
however , historians also argue that pombal 's `` enlightenment , '' while far-reaching , was primarily a mechanism for enhancing autocracy at the expense of individual liberty and especially an apparatus for crushing opposition , suppressing criticism , and furthering colonial economic exploitation as well as intensifying book censorship and consolidating personal control and profit . 
following the távora affair , the new count of oeiras knew no opposition . 
however , historians also argue that pombal 's `` enlightenment , '' while far-reaching , was primarily a mechanism for enhancing autocracy at the expense of individual liberty and especially an apparatus for crushing opposition , suppressing criticism , and furthering colonial economic exploitation as well as intensifying book censorship and consolidating personal control and profit . 
with the occupation by napoleon , portugal began a slow but inexorable decline that lasted until the 20th century . 
this decline was hastened by the independence in 1822 of the country 's largest colonial possession , brazil . 
in 1807 , as napoleon 's army closed in on lisbon , the prince regent joão vi of portugal transferred his court to brazil and established rio de janeiro as the capital of the portuguese empire . 
in 1815 , brazil was declared a kingdom and the kingdom of portugal was united with it , forming a pluricontinental state , the united kingdom of portugal , brazil and the algarves . 
with the occupation by napoleon , portugal began a slow but inexorable decline that lasted until the 20th century . 
portuguese and their allied british troops fought against the french invasion of portugal and by 1815 the situation in europe had cooled down sufficiently that joão vi would have been able to return safely to lisbon . 
however , the king of portugal remained in brazil until the liberal revolution of 1820 , which started in porto , demanded his return to lisbon in 1821 . 
however , the king of portugal remained in brazil until the liberal revolution of 1820 , which started in porto , demanded his return to lisbon in 1821 . 
portuguese and their allied british troops fought against the french invasion of portugal and by 1815 the situation in europe had cooled down sufficiently that joão vi would have been able to return safely to lisbon . 
as a result of the change in its status and the arrival of the portuguese royal family , brazilian administrative , civic , economical , military , educational , and scientific apparatus were expanded and highly modernized . 
even before the turn of the 20th century , railway tracks as the benguela railway in angola , and the beira railway in mozambique , started to be built to link coastal areas and selected inland regions . 
with the conference of berlin of 1884 , portuguese africa territories had their borders formally established on request of portugal in order to protect the centuries-long portuguese interests in the continent from rivalries enticed by the scramble for africa . 
with the conference of berlin of 1884 , portuguese africa territories had their borders formally established on request of portugal in order to protect the centuries-long portuguese interests in the continent from rivalries enticed by the scramble for africa . 
with the conference of berlin of 1884 , portuguese africa territories had their borders formally established on request of portugal in order to protect the centuries-long portuguese interests in the continent from rivalries enticed by the scramble for africa . 
new coastal towns like beira , moçâmedes , lobito , joão belo , nacala and porto amélia were also founded . 
on 1 february 1908 , the king dom carlos i of portugal and his heir apparent , prince royal dom luís filipe , duke of braganza , were murdered in lisbon . 
under his rule , portugal had twice been declared bankrupt -- on 14 june 1892 , and again on 10 may 1902 -- causing social turmoil , economic disturbances , protests , revolts and criticism of the monarchy . 
manuel ii of portugal became the new king , but was eventually overthrown by the 5 october 1910 revolution , which abolished the regime and instated republicanism in portugal . 
manuel ii of portugal became the new king , but was eventually overthrown by the 5 october 1910 revolution , which abolished the regime and instated republicanism in portugal . 
political instability and economic weaknesses were fertile ground for chaos and unrest during the portuguese first republic . 
this in turn led to the establishment of the right-wing dictatorship of the estado novo under antónio de oliveira salazar in 1933 . 
this in turn led to the establishment of the right-wing dictatorship of the estado novo under antónio de oliveira salazar in 1933 . 
portugal was one of only five european countries to remain neutral in world war ii . 
gradually , new economic development projects and relocation of mainland portuguese citizens into the overseas provinces in africa were initiated , with angola and mozambique , as the largest and richest overseas territories , being the main targets of those initiatives . 
it is a member of numerous international organizations , including the united nations , the european union , the eurozone , oecd , nato and the community of portuguese language countries . 
portugal maintains a unitary semi-presidential republican form of government and is a developed country with an advanced economy , and a high living standard , having the 18th highest social progress in the world , putting it ahead of other western european countries like france , spain and italy . 
portugal maintains a unitary semi-presidential republican form of government and is a developed country with an advanced economy , and a high living standard , having the 18th highest social progress in the world , putting it ahead of other western european countries like france , spain and italy . 
portugal maintains a unitary semi-presidential republican form of government and is a developed country with an advanced economy , and a high living standard , having the 18th highest social progress in the world , putting it ahead of other western european countries like france , spain and italy . 
portugal is also known for having decriminalized the usage of all common drugs in 2001 , the first country in the world to do so . 
pelayos ' plan was to use the cantabrian mountains as a place of refuge and protection from the invading moors . 
he then aimed to regroup the iberian peninsula 's christian armies and use the cantabrian mountains as a springboard from which to regain their lands from the moors . 
in the process , after defeating the moors in the battle of covadonga in 722 ad , pelayos was proclaimed king , thus founding the christian kingdom of asturias and starting the war of christian reconquest known in portuguese as the reconquista cristã . 
in the process , after defeating the moors in the battle of covadonga in 722 ad , pelayos was proclaimed king , thus founding the christian kingdom of asturias and starting the war of christian reconquest known in portuguese as the reconquista cristã . 
in the process , after defeating the moors in the battle of covadonga in 722 ad , pelayos was proclaimed king , thus founding the christian kingdom of asturias and starting the war of christian reconquest known in portuguese as the reconquista cristã . 
later the kingdom of asturias was divided into a number of christian kingdoms in northern spain due to dynastic divisions of inheritance among the kings offspring . 
after annexing the county of portugal into one of the several counties that made up the kingdom of asturias , king alfonso iii of asturias knighted vimara peres , in 868 ad , as the first count of portus cale -lrb- portugal -rrb- . 
after annexing the county of portugal into one of the several counties that made up the kingdom of asturias , king alfonso iii of asturias knighted vimara peres , in 868 ad , as the first count of portus cale -lrb- portugal -rrb- . 
after annexing the county of portugal into one of the several counties that made up the kingdom of asturias , king alfonso iii of asturias knighted vimara peres , in 868 ad , as the first count of portus cale -lrb- portugal -rrb- . 
the region became known as portucale , portugale , and simultaneously portugália -- the county of portugal . 
throughout this period , the people of county of portugal as galicians found themselves struggling to maintain the autonomy of galicia with its distinct language and culture -lrb- galician-portuguese -rrb- from the leonese culture , whenever the status of the kingdom of galicia changed in relation to the kingdom of leon . 
as a result of political division , galician-portuguese lost its unity when the county of portugal separated from the kingdom of galicia -lrb- a dependent kingdom of leon -rrb- to establish the kingdom of portugal . 
the galician and portuguese versions of the language then diverged over time as they followed independent evolutionary paths . 
this began occurring when the kingdom of leon and the kingdom of castile united and the castilian language -lrb- known as spanish -rrb- slowly over the centuries began influencing the galician language and then trying to replace it . 
the same thing happened to astur-leonese language to the point where it is greatly reduced or completely replaced by the castilian -lrb- spanish language -rrb- . 
the queen consort of portugal , archduchess maria anne josefa of austria , was fond of melo ; and after his first wife died , she arranged the widowed de melo 's second marriage to the daughter of the austrian field marshal leopold josef , count von daun . 
in 1738 , sebastião josé de carvalho e melo , 1st marquis of pombal , began a diplomatic career as the portuguese ambassador in london and later in vienna . 
the queen consort of portugal , archduchess maria anne josefa of austria , was fond of melo ; and after his first wife died , she arranged the widowed de melo 's second marriage to the daughter of the austrian field marshal leopold josef , count von daun . 
the queen consort of portugal , archduchess maria anne josefa of austria , was fond of melo ; and after his first wife died , she arranged the widowed de melo 's second marriage to the daughter of the austrian field marshal leopold josef , count von daun . 
king john v of portugal , however , was not pleased and recalled melo to portugal in 1749 . 
the new city centre of lisbon was designed to resist subsequent earthquakes . 
architectural models were built for tests , and the effects of an earthquake were simulated by marching troops around the models . 
despite the calamity and huge death toll , lisbon suffered no epidemics and within less than one year was already being rebuilt . 
the buildings and big squares of the pombaline city centre still remain as one of lisbon 's tourist attractions . 
sebastião de melo also made an important contribution to the study of seismology by designing an inquiry that was sent to every parish in the country . 
portugal -lrb- portuguese : -lsb- puɾtuˈɣaɫ -rsb- -rrb- , officially the portuguese republic -lrb- portuguese : república portuguesa -rrb- , is a country on the iberian peninsula , in southwestern europe . 
portugal -lrb- portuguese : -lsb- puɾtuˈɣaɫ -rsb- -rrb- , officially the portuguese republic -lrb- portuguese : república portuguesa -rrb- , is a country on the iberian peninsula , in southwestern europe . 
it is the westernmost country of mainland europe , being bordered by the atlantic ocean to the west and south and by spain to the north and east . 
the portugal -- spain border is 1,214 km -lrb- 754 mi -rrb- long and considered the longest uninterrupted border within the european union . 
the republic also includes the atlantic archipelagos of the azores and madeira , both autonomous regions with their own regional governments . 
portugal -lrb- portuguese : -lsb- puɾtuˈɣaɫ -rsb- -rrb- , officially the portuguese republic -lrb- portuguese : república portuguesa -rrb- , is a country on the iberian peninsula , in southwestern europe . 
portugal -lrb- portuguese : -lsb- puɾtuˈɣaɫ -rsb- -rrb- , officially the portuguese republic -lrb- portuguese : república portuguesa -rrb- , is a country on the iberian peninsula , in southwestern europe . 
it is the westernmost country of mainland europe , being bordered by the atlantic ocean to the west and south and by spain to the north and east . 
it is the westernmost country of mainland europe , being bordered by the atlantic ocean to the west and south and by spain to the north and east . 
the portugal -- spain border is 1,214 km -lrb- 754 mi -rrb- long and considered the longest uninterrupted border within the european union . 
the celts and the romans were followed by the visigothic and the suebi germanic peoples , who were themselves later invaded by the moors . 
the celts and the romans were followed by the visigothic and the suebi germanic peoples , who were themselves later invaded by the moors . 
by 1139 , portugal had established itself as a kingdom independent from león . 
in the 15th and 16th centuries , as the result of pioneering the age of discovery , portugal expanded western influence and established the first global empire , becoming one of the world 's major economic , political and military powers . 
in the 15th and 16th centuries , as the result of pioneering the age of discovery , portugal expanded western influence and established the first global empire , becoming one of the world 's major economic , political and military powers . 
portugal lost much of its wealth and status with the destruction of lisbon in a 1755 earthquake , occupation during the napoleonic wars , and the independence of brazil , its wealthiest colony , in 1822 . 
portugal lost much of its wealth and status with the destruction of lisbon in a 1755 earthquake , occupation during the napoleonic wars , and the independence of brazil , its wealthiest colony , in 1822 . 
after the 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy , the democratic but unstable portuguese first republic was established , later being superseded by the `` estado novo '' right-wing authoritarian regime . 
shortly after , independence was granted to all its colonies , with the exception of macau , which was handed over to china in 1999 . 
this marked the end of the longest-lived european colonial empire , leaving a profound cultural and architectural influence across the globe and a legacy of over 250 million portuguese speakers today . 
the name of portugal derives from the joined romano-celtic name portus cale . 
the region was settled by pre-celts and celts , giving origin to peoples like the gallaeci , lusitanians , celtici and cynetes , visited by phoenicians and carthaginians , incorporated in the roman republic dominions as lusitania and part of gallaecia , after 45 bc until 298 ad , settled again by suebi , buri , and visigoths , and conquered by moors . 
the region was settled by pre-celts and celts , giving origin to peoples like the gallaeci , lusitanians , celtici and cynetes , visited by phoenicians and carthaginians , incorporated in the roman republic dominions as lusitania and part of gallaecia , after 45 bc until 298 ad , settled again by suebi , buri , and visigoths , and conquered by moors . 
the region was settled by pre-celts and celts , giving origin to peoples like the gallaeci , lusitanians , celtici and cynetes , visited by phoenicians and carthaginians , incorporated in the roman republic dominions as lusitania and part of gallaecia , after 45 bc until 298 ad , settled again by suebi , buri , and visigoths , and conquered by moors . 
other influences include some 5th-century vestiges of alan settlement , which were found in alenquer -lrb- old germanic alankerk , from alan + kerk ; meaning church of the alan -lrb- people -rrb- , coimbra and lisbon . 
in 27 bc , lusitania gained the status of roman province . 
later , a northern province of lusitania was formed , known as gallaecia , with capital in bracara augusta , today 's braga . 
numerous roman sites are scattered around present-day portugal , some urban remains are quite large , like conímbriga and mirobriga . 
there are still many ruins of castros -lrb- hill forts -rrb- all over modern portugal and remains of castro culture . 
conímbriga lies 16 km from coimbra which by its turn was the ancient aeminium -rrb- . 
after defeating the visigoths in only a few months , the umayyad caliphate started expanding rapidly in the peninsula . 
beginning in 711 , the land that is now portugal became part of the vast umayyad caliphate 's empire of damascus , which stretched from the indus river in the indian sub-continent -lrb- now pakistan -rrb- up to the south of france , until its collapse in 750 . 
beginning in 711 , the land that is now portugal became part of the vast umayyad caliphate 's empire of damascus , which stretched from the indus river in the indian sub-continent -lrb- now pakistan -rrb- up to the south of france , until its collapse in 750 . 
that year the west of the empire gained its independence under abd-ar-rahman i with the establishment of the emirate of córdoba . 
after almost two centuries , the emirate became the caliphate of córdoba in 929 , until its dissolution a century later in 1031 into no less than 23 small kingdoms , called taifa kingdoms . 
the governors of the taifas each proclaimed themselves emir of their provinces and established diplomatic relations with the christian kingdoms of the north . 
the governors of the taifas each proclaimed themselves emir of their provinces and established diplomatic relations with the christian kingdoms of the north . 
most of portugal fell into the hands of the taifa of badajoz of the aftasid dynasty , and after a short spell of an ephemeral taifa of lisbon in 1022 , fell under the dominion of the taifa of seville of the abbadids poets . 
the taifa period ended with the conquest of the almoravids who came from morocco in 1086 winning a decisive victory at the battle of sagrajas , followed a century later in 1147 , after the second period of taifa , by the almohads , also from marrakesh . 
the taifa period ended with the conquest of the almoravids who came from morocco in 1086 winning a decisive victory at the battle of sagrajas , followed a century later in 1147 , after the second period of taifa , by the almohads , also from marrakesh . 
the muslim population of the region consisted mainly of native iberian converts to islam -lrb- the so-called muwallad or muladi -rrb- and to a lesser extent berbers and arabs . 
the arabs were principally noblemen from oman ; and though few in numbers , they constituted the elite of the population . 
the berbers were originally from the atlas mountains and rif mountains of north africa and were essentially nomads . 
in portugal , the muslim population -lrb- or `` moors '' -rrb- , relatively small in numbers , stayed in the algarve region , and south of the tagus . 
today , there are approximately 800 words in the portuguese language of arabic origin . 
the eldest son , garcía , became king of león . 
the second son , ordoño , reigned in galicia , while the third , fruela , received asturias with oviedo as his capital . 
the second son , ordoño , reigned in galicia , while the third , fruela , received asturias with oviedo as his capital . 
alfonso died in zamora , probably in 910 . 
it continued under that name -lsb- clarification needed -rsb- until incorporated into the kingdom of castile in 1230 , after ferdinand iii became joint king of the two kingdoms . 
in 1348 and 1349 portugal , like the rest of europe , was devastated by the black death . 
in 1373 , portugal made an alliance with england , which is the longest-standing alliance in the world . 
in 1373 , portugal made an alliance with england , which is the longest-standing alliance in the world . 
this alliance served both nations ' interests throughout history and is regarded by many as the predecessor to nato . 
particularly in the oporto region , there is visible english influence to this day . 
portugal spearheaded european exploration of the world and the age of discovery . 
prince henry the navigator , son of king joão i , became the main sponsor and patron of this endeavour . 
during this period , portugal explored the atlantic ocean , discovering several atlantic archipelagos like the azores , madeira , and cape verde , explored the african coast , colonized selected areas of africa , discovered an eastern route to india via the cape of good hope , discovered brazil , explored the indian ocean , established trading routes throughout most of southern asia , and sent the first direct european maritime trade and diplomatic missions to china and japan . 
during this period , portugal explored the atlantic ocean , discovering several atlantic archipelagos like the azores , madeira , and cape verde , explored the african coast , colonized selected areas of africa , discovered an eastern route to india via the cape of good hope , discovered brazil , explored the indian ocean , established trading routes throughout most of southern asia , and sent the first direct european maritime trade and diplomatic missions to china and japan . 
during this period , portugal explored the atlantic ocean , discovering several atlantic archipelagos like the azores , madeira , and cape verde , explored the african coast , colonized selected areas of africa , discovered an eastern route to india via the cape of good hope , discovered brazil , explored the indian ocean , established trading routes throughout most of southern asia , and sent the first direct european maritime trade and diplomatic missions to china and japan . 
as the king 's confidence in de melo increased , the king entrusted him with more control of the state . 
by 1755 , sebastião de melo was made prime minister . 
impressed by british economic success that he had witnessed from the ambassador , he successfully implemented similar economic policies in portugal . 
by 1755 , sebastião de melo was made prime minister . 
by 1755 , sebastião de melo was made prime minister . 
but sebastião de melo 's greatest reforms were economic and financial , with the creation of several companies and guilds to regulate every commercial activity . 
he demarcated the region for production of port to ensure the wine 's quality , and this was the first attempt to control wine quality and production in europe . 
these reforms gained him enemies in the upper classes , especially among the high nobility , who despised him as a social upstart . 
but sebastião de melo 's greatest reforms were economic and financial , with the creation of several companies and guilds to regulate every commercial activity . 
he ruled with a strong hand by imposing strict law upon all classes of portuguese society from the high nobility to the poorest working class , along with a widespread review of the country 's tax system . 
the portuguese government and army successfully resisted the decolonization of its overseas territories until april 1974 , when a bloodless left-wing military coup in lisbon , known as the carnation revolution , led the way for the independence of the overseas territories in africa and asia , as well as for the restoration of democracy after two years of a transitional period known as prec -lrb- processo revolucionário em curso -rrb- . 
the portuguese government and army successfully resisted the decolonization of its overseas territories until april 1974 , when a bloodless left-wing military coup in lisbon , known as the carnation revolution , led the way for the independence of the overseas territories in africa and asia , as well as for the restoration of democracy after two years of a transitional period known as prec -lrb- processo revolucionário em curso -rrb- . 
this period was characterized by social turmoil and power disputes between left - and right-wing political forces . 
the country continued to be governed by a junta de salvação nacional until the portuguese legislative election of 1976 . 
it was won by the portuguese socialist party -lrb- ps -rrb- and mário soares , its leader , became prime minister of the 1st constitutional government on 23 july . 
it was won by the portuguese socialist party -lrb- ps -rrb- and mário soares , its leader , became prime minister of the 1st constitutional government on 23 july . 
mário soares would be prime minister from 1976 to 1978 and again from 1983 to 1985 . 
the country bounced between socialism and adherence to the neoliberal model . 
land reform and nationalizations were enforced ; the portuguese constitution -lrb- approved in 1976 -rrb- was rewritten in order to accommodate socialist and communist principles . 
land reform and nationalizations were enforced ; the portuguese constitution -lrb- approved in 1976 -rrb- was rewritten in order to accommodate socialist and communist principles . 
portugal is defined as a mediterranean climate -lrb- csa in the south , interior , and douro region ; csb in the north , central portugal and coastal alentejo ; mixed oceanic climate along the northern half of the coastline and also semi-arid climate or steppe climate -lrb- bsk in certain parts of beja district far south -rrb- according to the köppen-geiger climate classification -rrb- , and is one of the warmest european countries : the annual average temperature in mainland portugal varies from 8 -- 12 °c -lrb- 46.4 -- 53.6 °f -rrb- in the mountainous interior north to 16 -- 19 °c -lrb- 60.8 -- 66.2 °f -rrb- in the south and on the guadiana river basin . 
portugal is defined as a mediterranean climate -lrb- csa in the south , interior , and douro region ; csb in the north , central portugal and coastal alentejo ; mixed oceanic climate along the northern half of the coastline and also semi-arid climate or steppe climate -lrb- bsk in certain parts of beja district far south -rrb- according to the köppen-geiger climate classification -rrb- , and is one of the warmest european countries : the annual average temperature in mainland portugal varies from 8 -- 12 °c -lrb- 46.4 -- 53.6 °f -rrb- in the mountainous interior north to 16 -- 19 °c -lrb- 60.8 -- 66.2 °f -rrb- in the south and on the guadiana river basin . 
portugal is defined as a mediterranean climate -lrb- csa in the south , interior , and douro region ; csb in the north , central portugal and coastal alentejo ; mixed oceanic climate along the northern half of the coastline and also semi-arid climate or steppe climate -lrb- bsk in certain parts of beja district far south -rrb- according to the köppen-geiger climate classification -rrb- , and is one of the warmest european countries : the annual average temperature in mainland portugal varies from 8 -- 12 °c -lrb- 46.4 -- 53.6 °f -rrb- in the mountainous interior north to 16 -- 19 °c -lrb- 60.8 -- 66.2 °f -rrb- in the south and on the guadiana river basin . 
the algarve , separated from the alentejo region by mountains reaching up to 900 metres -lrb- 3,000 ft -rrb- in alto de fóia , has a climate similar to that of the southern coastal areas of spain or southwest australia . 
both the archipelagos of the azores and madeira have a subtropical climate , although variations between islands exist , making weather predictions very difficult -lrb- owing to rough topography -rrb- . 
both the archipelagos of the azores and madeira have a subtropical climate , although variations between islands exist , making weather predictions very difficult -lrb- owing to rough topography -rrb- . 
consequently , the island of the azores have been identified as having a mediterranean climate -lrb- both csa and csb types -rrb- , while some islands -lrb- such as flores or corvo -rrb- are classified as maritime temperate -lrb- cfb -rrb- and humid subtropical -lrb- cfa -rrb- , respectively , according to köppen-geiger classification . 
in gerês both deciduous and coniferous forests can be found , an extremely rare worldwide mature mediterranean forest remain in some parts of the arrábida mountain and a subtropical laurissilva forest , dating back to the tertiary period , covers its largest continuous area in the world in the madeira main island . 
in gerês both deciduous and coniferous forests can be found , an extremely rare worldwide mature mediterranean forest remain in some parts of the arrábida mountain and a subtropical laurissilva forest , dating back to the tertiary period , covers its largest continuous area in the world in the madeira main island . 
due to the human population decrease and rural exodus , pyrenean oak and other local native trees are colonizing many abandoned areas . 
boars were found recently roaming at night inside large urban areas , like in setubal . 
protected areas of portugal include one national park -lrb- portuguese : parque nacional -rrb- , 12 natural parks -lrb- portuguese : parque natural -rrb- , nine natural reserves -lrb- portuguese : reserva natural -rrb- , five natural monuments -lrb- portuguese : monumento natural -rrb- , and seven protected landscapes -lrb- portuguese : paisagem protegida -rrb- , which include the parque nacional da peneda-gerês , the parque natural da serra da estrela and the paul d'arzila . 
laurisilva is a unique type of subtropical rainforest found in few areas of europe and the world : in the azores , and in particular on the island of madeira , there are large forests of endemic laurisilva forests -lrb- the latter protected as a natural heritage preserve -rrb- . 
there are several species of diverse mammalian fauna , including the fox , badger , iberian lynx , iberian wolf , wild goat -lrb- capra pyrenaica -rrb- , wild cat -lrb- felis silvestris -rrb- , hare , weasel , polecat , chameleon , mongoose , civet , brown bear -lsb- citation needed -rsb- -lrb- spotted near rio minho , close to peneda-gerês -rrb- and many others . 
portugal is an important stopover for migratory birds , in places such as cape st. vincent or the monchique mountains , where thousands of birds cross from europe to africa during the autumn or in the spring -lrb- return migration -rrb- . 
there are more than 100 freshwater fish species , varying from the giant european catfish -lrb- in the tagus international natural park -rrb- to some small and endemic species that live only in small lakes -lrb- along the western portion of country , for example -rrb- . 
there are more than 100 freshwater fish species , varying from the giant european catfish -lrb- in the tagus international natural park -rrb- to some small and endemic species that live only in small lakes -lrb- along the western portion of country , for example -rrb- . 
some of these rare and specific species are highly endangered because of habitat loss , pollution and drought . 
bioluminescent species are also well represented -lrb- including species in different colour spectrum and forms -rrb- , like the glowing plankton that are possible to observe in some beaches . 
the president , who is elected to a five-year term , has an executive role : the current president is aníbal cavaco silva . 
the president , who is elected to a five-year term , has an executive role : the current president is aníbal cavaco silva . 
the assembly of the republic is a single chamber parliament composed of 230 deputies elected for a four-year term . 
the assembly of the republic is a single chamber parliament composed of 230 deputies elected for a four-year term . 
a thirteen-member constitutional court oversees the constitutionality of the laws . 
the assembly of the republic , regional assemblies and local municipalities and parishes , are dominated by two political parties , the socialist party and the social democratic party , in addition to the unitary democratic coalition -lrb- portuguese communist party and ecologist party `` the greens '' -rrb- , the left bloc and the democratic and social centre -- people 's party , which garner between 5 and 15 % of the vote regularly . 
portugal operates a multi-party system of competitive legislatures/local administrative governments at the national - , regional - and local-levels . 
the assembly of the republic , regional assemblies and local municipalities and parishes , are dominated by two political parties , the socialist party and the social democratic party , in addition to the unitary democratic coalition -lrb- portuguese communist party and ecologist party `` the greens '' -rrb- , the left bloc and the democratic and social centre -- people 's party , which garner between 5 and 15 % of the vote regularly . 
the assembly of the republic , regional assemblies and local municipalities and parishes , are dominated by two political parties , the socialist party and the social democratic party , in addition to the unitary democratic coalition -lrb- portuguese communist party and ecologist party `` the greens '' -rrb- , the left bloc and the democratic and social centre -- people 's party , which garner between 5 and 15 % of the vote regularly . 
the head of state of portugal is the president of the republic , elected to a five-year term by direct , universal suffrage . 
the head of state of portugal is the president of the republic , elected to a five-year term by direct , universal suffrage . 
the head of state of portugal is the president of the republic , elected to a five-year term by direct , universal suffrage . 
the head of state of portugal is the president of the republic , elected to a five-year term by direct , universal suffrage . 
the council of ministers -- under the presidency of the prime minister -lrb- or the president of portugal at the latter 's request -rrb- and the ministers -lrb- may also include one or more deputy prime ministers -rrb- -- acts as the cabinet . 
each government is required to define the broad outline of its policies in a programme , and present it to the assembly for a mandatory period of debate . 
the failure of the assembly to reject the government programme by an absolute majority of deputies confirms the cabinet in office . 
portuguese law applied in the former colonies and territories and continues to be the major influence for those countries . 
portugal 's main police organizations are the guarda nacional republicana -- gnr -lrb- national republican guard -rrb- , a gendarmerie ; the polícia de segurança pública -- psp -lrb- public security police -rrb- , a civilian police force who work in urban areas ; and the polícia judiciária -- pj -lrb- judicial police -rrb- , a highly specialized criminal investigation police that is overseen by the public ministry . 
portugal 's main police organizations are the guarda nacional republicana -- gnr -lrb- national republican guard -rrb- , a gendarmerie ; the polícia de segurança pública -- psp -lrb- public security police -rrb- , a civilian police force who work in urban areas ; and the polícia judiciária -- pj -lrb- judicial police -rrb- , a highly specialized criminal investigation police that is overseen by the public ministry . 
portugal 's main police organizations are the guarda nacional republicana -- gnr -lrb- national republican guard -rrb- , a gendarmerie ; the polícia de segurança pública -- psp -lrb- public security police -rrb- , a civilian police force who work in urban areas ; and the polícia judiciária -- pj -lrb- judicial police -rrb- , a highly specialized criminal investigation police that is overseen by the public ministry . 
in 2001 , portugal decriminalized possession of effectively all drugs that are still illegal in other developed nations including , but not limited to , cannabis , cocaine , heroin , and lsd . 
while possession is legal , trafficking and possession of more than `` 10 days worth of personal use '' are still punishable by jail time and fines . 
people caught with small amounts of any drug are given the choice to go to a rehab facility , and may refuse treatment without consequences . 
despite criticism from other european nations , who stated portugal 's drug consumption would tremendously increase , overall drug use has declined along with the number of hiv infection cases , which had dropped 50 percent by 2009 . 
administratively , portugal is divided into 308 municipalities -lrb- portuguese : municípios or concelhos -rrb- , which after a reform in 2013 are subdivided into 3,092 civil parishes -lrb- portuguese : freguesia -rrb- . 
administratively , portugal is divided into 308 municipalities -lrb- portuguese : municípios or concelhos -rrb- , which after a reform in 2013 are subdivided into 3,092 civil parishes -lrb- portuguese : freguesia -rrb- . 
continental portugal is agglomerated into 18 districts , while the archipelagos of the azores and madeira are governed as autonomous regions ; the largest units , established since 1976 , are either mainland portugal -lrb- portuguese : portugal continental -rrb- and the autonomous regions of portugal -lrb- azores and madeira -rrb- . 
the armed forces have three branches : navy , army and air force . 
the armed forces have three branches : navy , army and air force . 
they serve primarily as a self-defense force whose mission is to protect the territorial integrity of the country and provide humanitarian assistance and security at home and abroad . 
as of 2008 , the three branches numbered 39,200 active personnel including 7,500 women . 
portuguese military expenditure in 2009 was $ 5.2 billion , representing 2.1 percent of gdp . 
the army -lrb- 21,000 personnel -rrb- comprises three brigades and other small units . 
an infantry brigade -lrb- mainly equipped with pandur ii apc -rrb- , a mechanized brigade -lrb- mainly equipped with leopard 2 a6 tanks and m113 apc -rrb- and a rapid reaction brigade -lrb- consisting of paratroopers , commandos and rangers -rrb- . 
an infantry brigade -lrb- mainly equipped with pandur ii apc -rrb- , a mechanized brigade -lrb- mainly equipped with leopard 2 a6 tanks and m113 apc -rrb- and a rapid reaction brigade -lrb- consisting of paratroopers , commandos and rangers -rrb- . 
an infantry brigade -lrb- mainly equipped with pandur ii apc -rrb- , a mechanized brigade -lrb- mainly equipped with leopard 2 a6 tanks and m113 apc -rrb- and a rapid reaction brigade -lrb- consisting of paratroopers , commandos and rangers -rrb- . 
the navy -lrb- 10,700 personnel , of which 1,580 are marines -rrb- has five frigates , seven corvettes , two submarines , and 28 patrol and auxiliary vessels . 
in the 20th century , portugal engaged in two major conflicts : world war i and the portuguese colonial war -lrb- 1961 -- 1974 -rrb- . 
in the 20th century , portugal engaged in two major conflicts : world war i and the portuguese colonial war -lrb- 1961 -- 1974 -rrb- . 
after the end of the portuguese empire in 1975 , the portuguese armed forces have participated in peacekeeping missions in east timor , bosnia , kosovo , afghanistan , somalia , iraq -lrb- nasiriyah -rrb- and lebanon . 
portugal also conducted several independent unilateral military operations abroad , as were the cases of the interventions of the portuguese armed forces in angola in 1992 and in guinea-bissau in 1998 with the main objectives of protecting and withdrawing of portuguese and foreign citizens threatened by local civil conflicts . 
after the bailout was announced , the portuguese government headed by pedro passos coelho managed to implement measures with the intention of improve the state 's financial situation , including tax hikes , a freeze of civil service-related lower-wages and cuts of higher-wages by 14.3 % , on top of the government 's spending cuts . 
after the bailout was announced , the portuguese government headed by pedro passos coelho managed to implement measures with the intention of improve the state 's financial situation , including tax hikes , a freeze of civil service-related lower-wages and cuts of higher-wages by 14.3 % , on top of the government 's spending cuts . 
after the bailout was announced , the portuguese government headed by pedro passos coelho managed to implement measures with the intention of improve the state 's financial situation , including tax hikes , a freeze of civil service-related lower-wages and cuts of higher-wages by 14.3 % , on top of the government 's spending cuts . 
in 2012 , all public servants had already seen an average wage cut of 20 % relative to their 2010 baseline , with cuts reaching 25 % for those earning more than 1,500 euro per month . 
a report released in january 2011 by the diário de notícias and published in portugal by gradiva , had demonstrated that in the period between the carnation revolution in 1974 and 2010 , the democratic portuguese republic governments encouraged over-expenditure and investment bubbles through unclear public -- private partnerships and funding of numerous ineffective and unnecessary external consultancy and advisory of committees and firms . 
a report released in january 2011 by the diário de notícias and published in portugal by gradiva , had demonstrated that in the period between the carnation revolution in 1974 and 2010 , the democratic portuguese republic governments encouraged over-expenditure and investment bubbles through unclear public -- private partnerships and funding of numerous ineffective and unnecessary external consultancy and advisory of committees and firms . 
a report released in january 2011 by the diário de notícias and published in portugal by gradiva , had demonstrated that in the period between the carnation revolution in 1974 and 2010 , the democratic portuguese republic governments encouraged over-expenditure and investment bubbles through unclear public -- private partnerships and funding of numerous ineffective and unnecessary external consultancy and advisory of committees and firms . 
after the financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 , it was known in 2008 -- 2009 that two portuguese banks -lrb- banco português de negócios -lrb- bpn -rrb- and banco privado português -lrb- bpp -rrb- -rrb- had been accumulating losses for years due to bad investments , embezzlement and accounting fraud . 
after the financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 , it was known in 2008 -- 2009 that two portuguese banks -lrb- banco português de negócios -lrb- bpn -rrb- and banco privado português -lrb- bpp -rrb- -rrb- had been accumulating losses for years due to bad investments , embezzlement and accounting fraud . 
after the financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 , it was known in 2008 -- 2009 that two portuguese banks -lrb- banco português de negócios -lrb- bpn -rrb- and banco privado português -lrb- bpp -rrb- -rrb- had been accumulating losses for years due to bad investments , embezzlement and accounting fraud . 
the case of bpn was particularly serious because of its size , market share , and the political implications - portugal 's then current president , cavaco silva , and some of his political allies , maintained personal and business relationships with the bank and its ceo , who was eventually charged and arrested for fraud and other crimes . 
the case of bpn was particularly serious because of its size , market share , and the political implications - portugal 's then current president , cavaco silva , and some of his political allies , maintained personal and business relationships with the bank and its ceo , who was eventually charged and arrested for fraud and other crimes . 
the portuguese currency is the euro -lrb- $ -rrb- , which replaced the portuguese escudo , and the country was one of the original member states of the eurozone . 
the portuguese currency is the euro -lrb- $ -rrb- , which replaced the portuguese escudo , and the country was one of the original member states of the eurozone . 
portugal 's central bank is the banco de portugal , an integral part of the european system of central banks . 
most industries , businesses and financial institutions are concentrated in the lisbon and porto metropolitan areas -- the setúbal , aveiro , braga , coimbra and leiria districts are the biggest economic centres outside these two main areas . 
-lsb- citation needed -rsb- according to world travel awards , portugal is the europe 's leading golf destination 2012 and 2013 . 
since the carnation revolution of 1974 , which culminated in the end of one of portugal 's most notable phases of economic expansion -lrb- that started in the 1960s -rrb- , a significant change has occurred in the nation 's annual economic growth . 
-lsb- citation needed -rsb- after the turmoil of the 1974 revolution and the prec period , portugal tried to adapt to a changing modern global economy , a process that continues in 2013 . 
since the 1990s , portugal 's public consumption-based economic development model has been slowly changing to a system that is focused on exports , private investment and the development of the high-tech sector . 
consequently , business services have overtaken more traditional industries such as textiles , clothing , footwear and cork -lrb- portugal is the world 's leading cork producer -rrb- , wood products and beverages . 
consequently , business services have overtaken more traditional industries such as textiles , clothing , footwear and cork -lrb- portugal is the world 's leading cork producer -rrb- , wood products and beverages . 
in the second decade of the 21st century the portuguese economy suffered its most severe recession since the 1970s resulting in the country having to be bailed out by the european commission , european central bank and international monetary fund . 
the bailout , agreed to in 2011 , required portugal to enter into a range of austerity measures in exchange for funding support of $ 78 billion . 
the bailout , agreed to in 2011 , required portugal to enter into a range of austerity measures in exchange for funding support of $ 78 billion . 
in may 2014 the country exited the bailout but reaffirmed its commitment to maintaining its reformist momentum . 
at the time of exiting the bailout the economy had contracted by 0.7 % in the first quarter of 2014 , however unemployment , while still high had fallen to 15.3 percent . 
agriculture in portugal is based on small to medium-sized family-owned dispersed units . 
however , the sector also includes larger scale intensive farming export-oriented agrobusinesses backed by companies -lrb- like grupo rar 's vitacress , sovena , lactogal , vale da rosa , companhia das lezírias and valouro -rrb- . 
the country produces a wide variety of crops and livestock products , including tomatoes , citrus , green vegetables , rice , corn , barley , olives , oilseeds , nuts , cherries , bilberry , table grapes , edible mushrooms , dairy products , poultry and beef . 
the country produces a wide variety of crops and livestock products , including tomatoes , citrus , green vegetables , rice , corn , barley , olives , oilseeds , nuts , cherries , bilberry , table grapes , edible mushrooms , dairy products , poultry and beef . 
portuguese processed fish products are exported through several companies , under a number of different brands and registered trademarks , such as ramirez -lrb- the world 's oldest active canned fish producer -rrb- , bom petisco , nero , combate , comur , general , líder , manná , murtosa , pescador , pitéu , tenório , torreira and vasco da gama . 
portuguese processed fish products are exported through several companies , under a number of different brands and registered trademarks , such as ramirez -lrb- the world 's oldest active canned fish producer -rrb- , bom petisco , nero , combate , comur , general , líder , manná , murtosa , pescador , pitéu , tenório , torreira and vasco da gama . 
traditionally a sea-power , portugal has had a strong tradition in the portuguese fishing sector and is one of the countries with the highest fish consumption per capita . 
portugal is a significant european minerals producer and is ranked among europe 's leading copper producers . 
the nation is also a notable producer of tin , tungsten and uranium . 
however , the country lacks the potential to conduct hydrocarbon exploration and aluminium , a limitation that has hindered the development of portugal 's mining and metallurgy sectors . 
although the country has vast iron and coal reserves -- mainly in the north -- after the 1974 revolution and the consequent economic globalization , low competitiveness forced a decrease in the extraction activity for these minerals . 
although the country has vast iron and coal reserves -- mainly in the north -- after the 1974 revolution and the consequent economic globalization , low competitiveness forced a decrease in the extraction activity for these minerals . 
industry is diversified , ranging from automotive -lrb- volkswagen autoeuropa and peugeot citroen -rrb- , aerospace -lrb- embraer and ogma -rrb- , electronics and textiles , to food , chemicals , cement and wood pulp . 
industry is diversified , ranging from automotive -lrb- volkswagen autoeuropa and peugeot citroen -rrb- , aerospace -lrb- embraer and ogma -rrb- , electronics and textiles , to food , chemicals , cement and wood pulp . 
volkswagen group 's autoeuropa motor vehicle assembly plant in palmela is among the largest foreign direct investment projects in portugal . 
alverca , covilhã , évora , and ponte de sor are the main centres of the portuguese aerospace industry , which is led by brazil-based company embraer and the portuguese company ogma . 
following the turn of the 21st century , many major biotechnology and information technology industries have been founded , and are concentrated in the metropolitan areas of lisbon , porto , braga , coimbra and aveiro . 
travel and tourism continue to be extremely important for portugal , with visitor numbers forecast to increase significantly in the future . 
-lsb- citation needed -rsb- however , the increasing competition from eastern european destinations continues to develop , with the presence of similar attractions that are often cheaper in countries such as croatia . 
consequently , it has been necessary for the country to focus upon its niche attractions , such as health , nature and rural tourism , to stay ahead of its competitors . 
consequently , it has been necessary for the country to focus upon its niche attractions , such as health , nature and rural tourism , to stay ahead of its competitors . 
the poor performance of the portuguese economy was explored in april 2007 by the economist , which described portugal as `` a new sick man of europe '' . 
from 2002 to 2007 , the number of unemployed increased by 65 % -lrb- 270,500 unemployed citizens in 2002 , 448,600 unemployed citizens in 2007 -rrb- . 
by early december 2009 , the unemployment rate had reached 10.2 % -- a 23-year record high . 
in december 2009 , ratings agency standard & poor 's lowered its long-term credit assessment of portugal to `` negative '' from `` stable , '' voicing pessimism on the country 's structural weaknesses in the economy and weak competitiveness that would hamper growth and the capacity to strengthen its public finances and reduce debt . 
in july 2011 , ratings agency moody 's downgraded its long-term credit assessment of portugal after warning of deteriorating risk of default in march 2011 . 
on 6 april 2011 , after his proposed `` plan for stability and growth iv '' -lrb- pec iv -rrb- was rejected by the parliament , prime minister josé sócrates announced on national television that the country would request financial assistance from the imf and the european financial stability facility , as greece and the republic of ireland had done previously . 
it was the third time that the portuguese government had requested external financial aid from the imf -- the first occasion occurred in the late 1970s following the carnation 's revolution . 
it was the third time that the portuguese government had requested external financial aid from the imf -- the first occasion occurred in the late 1970s following the carnation 's revolution . 
in october 2011 , moody 's investor services downgraded nine portuguese banks due to financial weakness . 
in 2005 , the number of public employees per thousand inhabitants in the portuguese government -lrb- 70.8 -rrb- was above the european union average -lrb- 62.4 per thousand inhabitants -rrb- . 
in 2005 , the number of public employees per thousand inhabitants in the portuguese government -lrb- 70.8 -rrb- was above the european union average -lrb- 62.4 per thousand inhabitants -rrb- . 
by eu and usa standards , portugal 's justice system was internationally known as being slow and inefficient , and by 2011 it was the second slowest in western europe -lrb- after italy -rrb- ; conversely , portugal has one of the highest rates of judges and prosecutors -- over 30 per 100,000 people . 
by eu and usa standards , portugal 's justice system was internationally known as being slow and inefficient , and by 2011 it was the second slowest in western europe -lrb- after italy -rrb- ; conversely , portugal has one of the highest rates of judges and prosecutors -- over 30 per 100,000 people . 
by eu and usa standards , portugal 's justice system was internationally known as being slow and inefficient , and by 2011 it was the second slowest in western europe -lrb- after italy -rrb- ; conversely , portugal has one of the highest rates of judges and prosecutors -- over 30 per 100,000 people . 
in the first week of may 2013 , prime minister passos coelho announced a significant government plan for the public sector , whereby 30,000 jobs will be cut and the number of weekly working hours will be increased from 35 to 40 hours . 
in the first week of may 2013 , prime minister passos coelho announced a significant government plan for the public sector , whereby 30,000 jobs will be cut and the number of weekly working hours will be increased from 35 to 40 hours . 
coelho reaffirmed the announcement by explaining that austerity measures are necessary if portugal seeks to avoid another monetary bailout grant from the european commission , european central bank and international monetary fund -- the overall plan intends to enact further cuts of $ 4.8 billion over a three-year period . 
coelho reaffirmed the announcement by explaining that austerity measures are necessary if portugal seeks to avoid another monetary bailout grant from the european commission , european central bank and international monetary fund -- the overall plan intends to enact further cuts of $ 4.8 billion over a three-year period . 
passos coelho also announced that the retirement age will be increased from 65 to 66 , announced cuts in the pensions , unemployment benefits , health , education and science expenses , abolished the english obligatory classes in basic education , but kept the pensions of the judges , diplomats untouched and did n't raise the retirement age of the military and police forces . 
passos coelho also announced that the retirement age will be increased from 65 to 66 , announced cuts in the pensions , unemployment benefits , health , education and science expenses , abolished the english obligatory classes in basic education , but kept the pensions of the judges , diplomats untouched and did n't raise the retirement age of the military and police forces . 
passos coelho also announced that the retirement age will be increased from 65 to 66 , announced cuts in the pensions , unemployment benefits , health , education and science expenses , abolished the english obligatory classes in basic education , but kept the pensions of the judges , diplomats untouched and did n't raise the retirement age of the military and police forces . 
these policies have led to social unrest and to confrontations between several institutions , namely between the government and the constitutional court . 
after years of high increase , the unemployment in portugal has been in a continuous falling trend since the third quarter of 2014 , decreasing from a peak of 17.7 % achieved in the early 2013 to a rate of 11.9 % in the second quarter of 2015 . 
after years of high increase , the unemployment in portugal has been in a continuous falling trend since the third quarter of 2014 , decreasing from a peak of 17.7 % achieved in the early 2013 to a rate of 11.9 % in the second quarter of 2015 . 
in the second quarter of 2008 the unemployment rate was 7.3 % , but the rate immediately rose the following period . 
by december 2009 , unemployment had surpassed the 10 % mark nationwide in the wake of worldwide events , by 2010 , the rate was around 11 % and in 2011 it was above 12 % . 
tourist hotspots in portugal are lisbon , algarve , madeira , porto and the city of coimbra , also , between 4-5 million religious pilgrims visit fátima each year , where apparitions of the blessed virgin mary to three shepherd children reportedly took place in 1917 . 
tourist hotspots in portugal are lisbon , algarve , madeira , porto and the city of coimbra , also , between 4-5 million religious pilgrims visit fátima each year , where apparitions of the blessed virgin mary to three shepherd children reportedly took place in 1917 . 
tourist hotspots in portugal are lisbon , algarve , madeira , porto and the city of coimbra , also , between 4-5 million religious pilgrims visit fátima each year , where apparitions of the blessed virgin mary to three shepherd children reportedly took place in 1917 . 
the portuguese government continues to promote and develop new tourist destinations , such as the douro valley , the island of porto santo , and alentejo . 
lisbon is the 16th european city which attracts the most tourists -lrb- with seven million tourists occupying the city 's hotels in 2006 , a number that grew 11.8 % compared to previous year -rrb- . 
by the early 1970s portugal 's fast economic growth with increasing consumption and purchase of new automobiles set the priority for improvements in transportation . 
again in the 1990s , after joining the european economic community , the country built many new motorways . 
today , the country has a 68,732 km -lrb- 42,708 mi -rrb- road network , of which almost 3,000 km -lrb- 1,864 mi -rrb- are part of system of 44 motorways . 
opened in 1944 , the first motorway -lrb- which linked lisbon to the national stadium -rrb- was an innovative project that made portugal among one of the first countries in the world to establish a motorway -lrb- this roadway eventually became the lisbon-cascais highway , or a5 -rrb- . 
continental portugal 's 89,015 km2 -lrb- 34,369 sq mi -rrb- territory is serviced by four international airports located near the principal cities of lisbon , porto , faro and beja . 
continental portugal 's 89,015 km2 -lrb- 34,369 sq mi -rrb- territory is serviced by four international airports located near the principal cities of lisbon , porto , faro and beja . 
continental portugal 's 89,015 km2 -lrb- 34,369 sq mi -rrb- territory is serviced by four international airports located near the principal cities of lisbon , porto , faro and beja . 
lisbon 's geographical position makes it a stopover for many foreign airlines at several airports within the country . 
the primary flag-carrier is tap portugal , although many other domestic airlines provide services within and without the country . 
a national railway system that extends throughout the country and into spain , is supported and administered by comboios de portugal . 
a national railway system that extends throughout the country and into spain , is supported and administered by comboios de portugal . 
rail transport of passengers and goods is derived using the 2,791 km -lrb- 1,734 mi -rrb- of railway lines currently in service , of which 1,430 km -lrb- 889 mi -rrb- are electrified and about 900 km -lrb- 559 mi -rrb- allow train speeds greater than 120 km/h -lrb- 75 mph -rrb- . 
rail transport of passengers and goods is derived using the 2,791 km -lrb- 1,734 mi -rrb- of railway lines currently in service , of which 1,430 km -lrb- 889 mi -rrb- are electrified and about 900 km -lrb- 559 mi -rrb- allow train speeds greater than 120 km/h -lrb- 75 mph -rrb- . 
rail transport of passengers and goods is derived using the 2,791 km -lrb- 1,734 mi -rrb- of railway lines currently in service , of which 1,430 km -lrb- 889 mi -rrb- are electrified and about 900 km -lrb- 559 mi -rrb- allow train speeds greater than 120 km/h -lrb- 75 mph -rrb- . 
the two largest metropolitan areas have subway systems : lisbon metro and metro sul do tejo in the lisbon metropolitan area and porto metro in the porto metropolitan area , each with more than 35 km -lrb- 22 mi -rrb- of lines . 
the two largest metropolitan areas have subway systems : lisbon metro and metro sul do tejo in the lisbon metropolitan area and porto metro in the porto metropolitan area , each with more than 35 km -lrb- 22 mi -rrb- of lines . 
in portugal , lisbon tram services have been supplied by the companhia de carris de ferro de lisboa -lrb- carris -rrb- , for over a century . 
in portugal , lisbon tram services have been supplied by the companhia de carris de ferro de lisboa -lrb- carris -rrb- , for over a century . 
scientific and technological research activities in portugal are mainly conducted within a network of r&d units belonging to public universities and state-managed autonomous research institutions like the ineti -- instituto nacional de engenharia , tecnologia e inovação and the inrb -- instituto nacional dos recursos biológicos . 
scientific and technological research activities in portugal are mainly conducted within a network of r&d units belonging to public universities and state-managed autonomous research institutions like the ineti -- instituto nacional de engenharia , tecnologia e inovação and the inrb -- instituto nacional dos recursos biológicos . 
the funding and management of this research system is mainly conducted under the authority of the ministry of science , technology and higher education -lrb- mctes -rrb- itself and the mctes 's fundação para a ciência e tecnologia -lrb- fct -rrb- . 
among the largest non-state-run research institutions in portugal are the instituto gulbenkian de ciência and the champalimaud foundation , a neuroscience and oncology research centre , which in addition awards every year one of the highest monetary prizes of any science prize in the world . 
among the largest non-state-run research institutions in portugal are the instituto gulbenkian de ciência and the champalimaud foundation , a neuroscience and oncology research centre , which in addition awards every year one of the highest monetary prizes of any science prize in the world . 
among the largest non-state-run research institutions in portugal are the instituto gulbenkian de ciência and the champalimaud foundation , a neuroscience and oncology research centre , which in addition awards every year one of the highest monetary prizes of any science prize in the world . 
one of the oldest learned societies of portugal is the sciences academy of lisbon , founded in 1779 . 
portugal has the largest aquarium in europe , the lisbon oceanarium , and the portuguese have several other notable organizations focused on science-related exhibits and divulgation , like the state agency ciência viva , a programme of the portuguese ministry of science and technology to the promotion of a scientific and technological culture among the portuguese population , the science museum of the university of coimbra , the national museum of natural history at the university of lisbon , and the visionarium . 
portugal has the largest aquarium in europe , the lisbon oceanarium , and the portuguese have several other notable organizations focused on science-related exhibits and divulgation , like the state agency ciência viva , a programme of the portuguese ministry of science and technology to the promotion of a scientific and technological culture among the portuguese population , the science museum of the university of coimbra , the national museum of natural history at the university of lisbon , and the visionarium . 
portugal has the largest aquarium in europe , the lisbon oceanarium , and the portuguese have several other notable organizations focused on science-related exhibits and divulgation , like the state agency ciência viva , a programme of the portuguese ministry of science and technology to the promotion of a scientific and technological culture among the portuguese population , the science museum of the university of coimbra , the national museum of natural history at the university of lisbon , and the visionarium . 
with the emergence and growth of several science parks throughout the world that helped create many thousands of scientific , technological and knowledge-based businesses , portugal started to develop several science parks across the country . 
these include the taguspark -lrb- in oeiras -rrb- , the coimbra iparque -lrb- in coimbra -rrb- , the biocant -lrb- in cantanhede -rrb- , the madeira tecnopolo -lrb- in funchal -rrb- , sines tecnopolo -lrb- in sines -rrb- , tecmaia -lrb- in maia -rrb- and parkurbis -lrb- in covilhã -rrb- . 
companies locate in the portuguese science parks to take advantage of a variety of services ranging from financial and legal advice through to marketing and technological support . 
portugal has considerable resources of wind and river power , the two most cost-effective renewable sources . 
in 2006 , the world 's largest solar power plant at that date , the moura photovoltaic power station , began operating near moura , in the south , while the world 's first commercial wave power farm , the aguçadoura wave farm , opened in the norte region -lrb- 2008 -rrb- . 
in 2006 , the world 's largest solar power plant at that date , the moura photovoltaic power station , began operating near moura , in the south , while the world 's first commercial wave power farm , the aguçadoura wave farm , opened in the norte region -lrb- 2008 -rrb- . 
by the end of 2006 , 66 % of the country 's electrical production was from coal and fuel power plants , while 29 % were derived from hydroelectric dams , and 6 % by wind energy . 
portugal 's national energy transmission company , redes energéticas nacionais -lrb- ren -rrb- , uses sophisticated modeling to predict weather , especially wind patterns , and computer programs to calculate energy from the various renewable-energy plants . 
portugal 's national energy transmission company , redes energéticas nacionais -lrb- ren -rrb- , uses sophisticated modeling to predict weather , especially wind patterns , and computer programs to calculate energy from the various renewable-energy plants . 
before the solar/wind revolution , portugal had generated electricity from hydropower plants on its rivers for decades . 
new programs combine wind and water : wind-driven turbines pump water uphill at night , the most blustery period ; then the water flows downhill by day , generating electricity , when consumer demand is highest . 
the government aggressively encouraged such contributions by setting a premium price for those who buy rooftop-generated solar electricity . 
the statistics portugal -lrb- portuguese : ine - instituto nacional de estatística -rrb- estimates that , according to the 2011 census , the population was 10,562,178 -lrb- of which 52 % was female , 48 % was male -rrb- . 
the statistics portugal -lrb- portuguese : ine - instituto nacional de estatística -rrb- estimates that , according to the 2011 census , the population was 10,562,178 -lrb- of which 52 % was female , 48 % was male -rrb- . 
the statistics portugal -lrb- portuguese : ine - instituto nacional de estatística -rrb- estimates that , according to the 2011 census , the population was 10,562,178 -lrb- of which 52 % was female , 48 % was male -rrb- . 
this population has been relatively homogeneous for most of its history : a single religion -lrb- catholicism -rrb- and a single language have contributed to this ethnic and national unity , namely after the expulsion of the moors and jews . 
a considerable number of moors and jews , nevertheless , stayed in portugal , under the condition that they converted to catholicism , and afterwards they were known as mouriscos -lrb- former muslims -rrb- and cristãos novos -lrb- new christians or former jews -rrb- some of whom may have continued to observe rabbinic judaism in secret , as in the case of the secret jews of belmonte , who now observe the jewish faith openly . 
the most important demographic influence in the modern portuguese seems to be the oldest one ; current interpretation of y-chromosome and mtdna data suggests that the portuguese have their origin in paleolithic peoples that began arriving to the european continent around 45,000 years ago . 
the most important demographic influence in the modern portuguese seems to be the oldest one ; current interpretation of y-chromosome and mtdna data suggests that the portuguese have their origin in paleolithic peoples that began arriving to the european continent around 45,000 years ago . 
all subsequent migrations did leave an impact , genetically and culturally , but the main population source of the portuguese is still paleolithic . 
portugal 's colonial history has long since been a cornerstone of its national identity , as has its geographic position at the south-western corner of europe , looking out into the atlantic ocean . 
portugal 's colonial history has long since been a cornerstone of its national identity , as has its geographic position at the south-western corner of europe , looking out into the atlantic ocean . 
it was one of the last western colonial european powers to give up its overseas territories -lrb- among them angola and mozambique in 1975 -rrb- , turning over the administration of macau to the people 's republic of china at the end of 1999 . 
portugal , long a country of emigration -lrb- the vast majority of brazilians have portuguese ancestry -rrb- , has now become a country of net immigration , and not just from the last indian -lrb- portuguese until 1961 -rrb- , african -lrb- portuguese until 1975 -rrb- , and far east asian -lrb- portuguese until 1999 -rrb- overseas territories . 
by 2007 , portugal had 10,617,575 inhabitants of whom about 332,137 were legal immigrants . 
according to the 2011 census , 81.0 % of the portuguese population are roman catholic . 
the country has small protestant , latter-day saint , muslim , hindu , sikh , eastern orthodox church , jehovah 's witnesses , baha'i , buddhist , jewish and spiritist communities . 
some 6.8 % of the population declared themselves to be non-religious , and 8.3 % did not give any answer about their religion . 
some 6.8 % of the population declared themselves to be non-religious , and 8.3 % did not give any answer about their religion . 
many portuguese holidays , festivals and traditions have a christian origin or connotation . 
in the 13th and 14th centuries , the church enjoyed both riches and power stemming from its role in the reconquest , its close identification with early portuguese nationalism and the foundation of the portuguese educational system , including the first university . 
the growth of liberal and nascent republican movements during the eras leading to the formation of the first portuguese republic -lrb- 1910 -- 26 -rrb- changed the role and importance of organized religion . 
the growth of liberal and nascent republican movements during the eras leading to the formation of the first portuguese republic -lrb- 1910 -- 26 -rrb- changed the role and importance of organized religion . 
the story associated with this miracle tells that before the battle of ourique -lrb- 25 july 1139 -rrb- , an old hermit appeared before count afonso henriques -lrb- future afonso i -rrb- as a divine messenger . 
ecstatic , afonso heard jesus promising victories for the coming battles , as well as god 's wish to act through afonso , and his descendants , in order to create an empire which would carry his name to unknown lands , thus choosing the portuguese to perform great tasks . 
ecstatic , afonso heard jesus promising victories for the coming battles , as well as god 's wish to act through afonso , and his descendants , in order to create an empire which would carry his name to unknown lands , thus choosing the portuguese to perform great tasks . 
portuguese is the official language of portugal . 
portuguese is a romance language that originated in what is now galicia and northern portugal , originating from galician-portuguese , which was the common language of the galician and portuguese people until the independence of portugal . 
portuguese is a romance language that originated in what is now galicia and northern portugal , originating from galician-portuguese , which was the common language of the galician and portuguese people until the independence of portugal . 
portuguese is a romance language that originated in what is now galicia and northern portugal , originating from galician-portuguese , which was the common language of the galician and portuguese people until the independence of portugal . 
the portuguese language is derived from the latin spoken by the romanized pre-roman peoples of the iberian peninsula around 2000 years ago -- particularly the celts , tartessians , lusitanians and iberians . 
the portuguese language is derived from the latin spoken by the romanized pre-roman peoples of the iberian peninsula around 2000 years ago -- particularly the celts , tartessians , lusitanians and iberians . 
in the 15th and 16th centuries , the language spread worldwide as portugal established a colonial and commercial empire between 1415 and 1999 . 
portuguese is now spoken as a native language in five different continents , with brazil accounting for the largest number of native portuguese speakers of any country -lrb- 200 million speakers in 2012 -rrb- . 
portuguese is now spoken as a native language in five different continents , with brazil accounting for the largest number of native portuguese speakers of any country -lrb- 200 million speakers in 2012 -rrb- . 
the total adult literacy rate is 99 percent . 
portuguese primary school enrollments are close to 100 percent . 
over 35 % of college-age citizens -lrb- 20 years old -rrb- attend one of the country 's higher education institutions -lrb- compared with 50 % in the united states and 35 % in the oecd countries -rrb- . 
over 35 % of college-age citizens -lrb- 20 years old -rrb- attend one of the country 's higher education institutions -lrb- compared with 50 % in the united states and 35 % in the oecd countries -rrb- . 
portuguese universities have existed since 1290 . 
the oldest portuguese university was first established in lisbon before moving to coimbra . 
the oldest portuguese university was first established in lisbon before moving to coimbra . 
historically , within the scope of the portuguese empire , the portuguese founded the oldest engineering school of the americas -lrb- the real academia de artilharia , fortificação e desenho of rio de janeiro -rrb- in 1792 , as well as the oldest medical college in asia -lrb- the escola médico-cirúrgica of goa -rrb- in 1842 . 
historically , within the scope of the portuguese empire , the portuguese founded the oldest engineering school of the americas -lrb- the real academia de artilharia , fortificação e desenho of rio de janeiro -rrb- in 1792 , as well as the oldest medical college in asia -lrb- the escola médico-cirúrgica of goa -rrb- in 1842 . 
the bologna process has been adopted , since 2006 , by portuguese universities and poly-technical institutes . 
most student costs are supported with public money . 
however , every higher education institution offers also a number of additional vacant places through other extraordinary admission processes for sportsmen , mature applicants -lrb- over 23 years old -rrb- , international students , foreign students from the lusosphere , degree owners from other institutions , students from other institutions -lrb- academic transfer -rrb- , former students -lrb- readmission -rrb- , and course change , which are subject to specific standards and regulations set by each institution or course department . 
the ministry of health is responsible for developing health policy as well as managing the sns . 
five regional health administrations are in charge of implementing the national health policy objectives , developing guidelines and protocols and supervising health care delivery . 
five regional health administrations are in charge of implementing the national health policy objectives , developing guidelines and protocols and supervising health care delivery . 
similar to the other eur-a countries , most portuguese die from noncommunicable diseases . 
mortality from cardiovascular diseases -lrb- cvd -rrb- is higher than in the eurozone , but its two main components , ischaemic heart disease and cerebrovascular disease , display inverse trends compared with the eur-a , with cerebrovascular disease being the single biggest killer in portugal -lrb- 17 % -rrb- . 
mortality from cardiovascular diseases -lrb- cvd -rrb- is higher than in the eurozone , but its two main components , ischaemic heart disease and cerebrovascular disease , display inverse trends compared with the eur-a , with cerebrovascular disease being the single biggest killer in portugal -lrb- 17 % -rrb- . 
portuguese people die 12 % less often from cancer than in the eur-a , but mortality is not declining as rapidly as in the eur-a . 
cancer is more frequent among children as well as among women younger than 44 years . 
thus , survey results based on self-reporting at the household level complement other data on health status and the use of services . 
only one third of adults rated their health as good or very good in portugal -lrb- kasmel et al. , 2004 -rrb- . 
in the 1990s and 2000s -lrb- decade -rrb- , portugal modernized its public cultural facilities , in addition to the calouste gulbenkian foundation established in 1956 in lisbon . 
in the 1990s and 2000s -lrb- decade -rrb- , portugal modernized its public cultural facilities , in addition to the calouste gulbenkian foundation established in 1956 in lisbon . 
in the 1990s and 2000s -lrb- decade -rrb- , portugal modernized its public cultural facilities , in addition to the calouste gulbenkian foundation established in 1956 in lisbon . 
these include the belém cultural centre in lisbon , serralves foundation and the casa da música , both in porto , as well as new public cultural facilities like municipal libraries and concert halls that were built or renovated in many municipalities across the country . 
portugal is home to fifteen unesco world heritage sites , ranking it 8th in europe and 17th in the world . 
traditional architecture is distinctive and include the manueline , also known as portuguese late gothic , a sumptuous , composite portuguese style of architectural ornamentation of the first decades of the 16th century . 
traditional architecture is distinctive and include the manueline , also known as portuguese late gothic , a sumptuous , composite portuguese style of architectural ornamentation of the first decades of the 16th century . 
a 20th-century interpretation of traditional architecture , soft portuguese style , appears extensively in major cities , especially lisbon . 
modern portugal has given the world renowned architects like eduardo souto de moura , álvaro siza vieira -lrb- both pritzker prize winners -rrb- and gonçalo byrne . 
in portugal tomás taveira is also noteworthy , particularly for stadium design . 
portuguese cinema has a long tradition , reaching back to the birth of the medium in the late 19th century . 
portuguese film directors such as arthur duarte , antónio lopes ribeiro , antónio reis , pedro costa , manoel de oliveira , joão césar monteiro , antónio-pedro vasconcelos , fernando lopes , joão botelho and leonel vieira , are among those that gained notability . 
noted portuguese film actors include joaquim de almeida , daniela ruah , maria de medeiros , diogo infante , soraia chaves , ribeirinho , lúcia moniz , and diogo morgado . 
portuguese cinema has a long tradition , reaching back to the birth of the medium in the late 19th century . 
portuguese film directors such as arthur duarte , antónio lopes ribeiro , antónio reis , pedro costa , manoel de oliveira , joão césar monteiro , antónio-pedro vasconcelos , fernando lopes , joão botelho and leonel vieira , are among those that gained notability . 
noted portuguese film actors include joaquim de almeida , daniela ruah , maria de medeiros , diogo infante , soraia chaves , ribeirinho , lúcia moniz , and diogo morgado . 
adventurer and poet luís de camões -lrb- c. 1524 -- 1580 -rrb- wrote the epic poem `` os lusíadas '' -lrb- the lusiads -rrb- , with virgil 's aeneid as his main influence . 
adventurer and poet luís de camões -lrb- c. 1524 -- 1580 -rrb- wrote the epic poem `` os lusíadas '' -lrb- the lusiads -rrb- , with virgil 's aeneid as his main influence . 
adventurer and poet luís de camões -lrb- c. 1524 -- 1580 -rrb- wrote the epic poem `` os lusíadas '' -lrb- the lusiads -rrb- , with virgil 's aeneid as his main influence . 
modern portuguese poetry is rooted in neoclassic and contemporary styles , as exemplified by fernando pessoa -lrb- 1888 -- 1935 -rrb- . 
modern portuguese literature is represented by authors such as almeida garrett , camilo castelo branco , eça de queiroz , fernando pessoa , sophia de mello breyner andresen , antónio lobo antunes and miguel torga . 
the portuguese consume a lot of dry cod -lrb- bacalhau in portuguese -rrb- , for which there are hundreds of recipes . 
two other popular fish recipes are grilled sardines and caldeirada , a potato-based stew that can be made from several types of fish . 
two other popular fish recipes are grilled sardines and caldeirada , a potato-based stew that can be made from several types of fish . 
typical portuguese meat recipes , that may be made out of beef , pork , lamb , or chicken , include cozido à portuguesa , feijoada , frango de churrasco , leitão -lrb- roast suckling pig -rrb- and carne de porco à alentejana . 
a very popular northern dish is the arroz de sarrabulho -lrb- rice stewed in pigs blood -rrb- or the arroz de cabidela -lrb- rice and chickens meat stewed in chickens blood -rrb- . 
typical fast food dishes include the francesinha -lrb- frenchie -rrb- from porto , and bifanas -lrb- grilled pork -rrb- or prego -lrb- grilled beef -rrb- sandwiches , which are well known around the country . 
the portuguese art of pastry has its origins in the many medieval catholic monasteries spread widely across the country . 
these monasteries , using very few ingredients -lrb- mostly almonds , flour , eggs and some liquor -rrb- , managed to create a spectacular wide range of different pastries , of which pastéis de belém -lrb- or pastéis de nata -rrb- originally from lisbon , and ovos moles from aveiro are examples . 
these monasteries , using very few ingredients -lrb- mostly almonds , flour , eggs and some liquor -rrb- , managed to create a spectacular wide range of different pastries , of which pastéis de belém -lrb- or pastéis de nata -rrb- originally from lisbon , and ovos moles from aveiro are examples . 
portuguese wines have enjoyed international recognition since the times of the romans , who associated portugal with their god bacchus . 
portuguese wines have enjoyed international recognition since the times of the romans , who associated portugal with their god bacchus . 
some of the best portuguese wines are : vinho verde , vinho alvarinho , vinho do douro , vinho do alentejo , vinho do dão , vinho da bairrada and the sweet : port wine , madeira wine , the moscatel from setúbal and favaios . 
port and madeira are particularly appreciated in a wide range of places around the world . 
portugal has several summer music festivals , such as festival sudoeste in zambujeira do mar , festival de paredes de coura in paredes de coura , festival vilar de mouros near caminha , boom festival in idanha-a-nova municipality , optimus alive ! 
out of the summer season , portugal has a large number of festivals , designed more to an urban audience , like flowfest or hip hop porto . 
furthermore , one of the largest international goa trance festivals takes place in central portugal every two years , the boom festival , that is also the only festival in portugal to win international awards : european festival award 2010 -- green 'n' clean festival of the year and the greener festival award outstanding 2008 and 2010 . 
furthermore , one of the largest international goa trance festivals takes place in central portugal every two years , the boom festival , that is also the only festival in portugal to win international awards : european festival award 2010 -- green 'n' clean festival of the year and the greener festival award outstanding 2008 and 2010 . 
in 2005 , portugal held the mtv europe music awards , in pavilhão atlântico , lisbon . 
in the classical music domain , portugal is represented by names as the pianists artur pizarro , maria joão pires , sequeira costa , the violinists carlos damas , gerardo ribeiro and in the past by the great cellist guilhermina suggia . 
in the classical music domain , portugal is represented by names as the pianists artur pizarro , maria joão pires , sequeira costa , the violinists carlos damas , gerardo ribeiro and in the past by the great cellist guilhermina suggia . 
notable composers include josé vianna da motta , carlos seixas , joão domingos bomtempo , joão de sousa carvalho , luís de freitas branco and his student joly braga santos , fernando lopes-graça , emmanuel nunes and sérgio azevedo . 
similarly , contemporary composers such as nuno malo and miguel d'oliveira have achieved some international success writing original music for film and television . 
the 20th century saw the arrival of modernism , and along with it came the most prominent portuguese painters : amadeo de souza-cardoso , who was heavily influenced by french painters , particularly by the delaunays . 
the 20th century saw the arrival of modernism , and along with it came the most prominent portuguese painters : amadeo de souza-cardoso , who was heavily influenced by french painters , particularly by the delaunays . 
among his best-known works is canção popular a russa e o fígaro . 
prominent international figures in visual arts nowadays include painters vieira da silva , júlio pomar , helena almeida , joana vasconcelos , julião sarmento and paula rego . 
football is the most popular sport in portugal . 
the legendary eusébio is still a major symbol of portuguese football history . 
fifa world player of the year winners luís figo and cristiano ronaldo who won the fifa ballon d'or for 2013 and 2014 , are among the numerous examples of other world-class football players born in portugal and noted worldwide . 
fifa world player of the year winners luís figo and cristiano ronaldo who won the fifa ballon d'or for 2013 and 2014 , are among the numerous examples of other world-class football players born in portugal and noted worldwide . 
portuguese football managers are also noteworthy , with josé mourinho , andré villas-boas , fernando santos , carlos queiroz and manuel josé among the most renowned . 
sl benfica , fc porto , and sporting cp are the largest sports clubs by popularity and by number of trophies won , often known as `` os três grandes '' -lrb- `` the big three '' -rrb- . 
sl benfica , fc porto , and sporting cp are the largest sports clubs by popularity and by number of trophies won , often known as `` os três grandes '' -lrb- `` the big three '' -rrb- . 
they have won eight titles in the european uefa club competitions , were present in many finals and have been regular contenders in the last stages almost every season . 
other than football , many portuguese sports clubs , including the `` big three '' , compete in several other sports events with a varying level of success and popularity , these may include roller hockey , basketball , futsal , handball , and volleyball . 
the portuguese football federation -lrb- fpf -rrb- -- federação portuguesa de futebol -- annually hosts the algarve cup , a prestigious women ` s football tournament that has been celebrated in the algarvian part of portugal . 
kanye omari west -lrb- / ˈkɑːnjeɪ / ; born june 8 , 1977 -rrb- is an american hip hop recording artist , record producer , rapper , fashion designer , and entrepreneur . 
kanye omari west -lrb- / ˈkɑːnjeɪ / ; born june 8 , 1977 -rrb- is an american hip hop recording artist , record producer , rapper , fashion designer , and entrepreneur . 
kanye omari west -lrb- / ˈkɑːnjeɪ / ; born june 8 , 1977 -rrb- is an american hip hop recording artist , record producer , rapper , fashion designer , and entrepreneur . 
kanye omari west -lrb- / ˈkɑːnjeɪ / ; born june 8 , 1977 -rrb- is an american hip hop recording artist , record producer , rapper , fashion designer , and entrepreneur . 
raised in chicago , west briefly attended art school before becoming known as a producer for roc-a-fella records in the early 2000s , producing hit singles for artists such as jay-z and alicia keys . 
raised in chicago , west briefly attended art school before becoming known as a producer for roc-a-fella records in the early 2000s , producing hit singles for artists such as jay-z and alicia keys . 
he went on to explore a variety of different musical styles on subsequent albums that included the baroque-inflected late registration -lrb- 2005 -rrb- , the arena-inspired graduation -lrb- 2007 -rrb- , and the starkly polarizing 808s & heartbreak -lrb- 2008 -rrb- . 
raised in chicago , west briefly attended art school before becoming known as a producer for roc-a-fella records in the early 2000s , producing hit singles for artists such as jay-z and alicia keys . 
raised in chicago , west briefly attended art school before becoming known as a producer for roc-a-fella records in the early 2000s , producing hit singles for artists such as jay-z and alicia keys . 
raised in chicago , west briefly attended art school before becoming known as a producer for roc-a-fella records in the early 2000s , producing hit singles for artists such as jay-z and alicia keys . 
intent on pursuing a solo career as a rapper , west released his debut album the college dropout in 2004 to widespread commercial and critical success , and founded record label good music . 
he went on to explore a variety of different musical styles on subsequent albums that included the baroque-inflected late registration -lrb- 2005 -rrb- , the arena-inspired graduation -lrb- 2007 -rrb- , and the starkly polarizing 808s & heartbreak -lrb- 2008 -rrb- . 
west is one of the best-selling artists of all time , having sold more than 32 million albums and 100 million digital downloads worldwide . 
west is one of the best-selling artists of all time , having sold more than 32 million albums and 100 million digital downloads worldwide . 
he has won a total of 21 grammy awards , making him one of the most awarded artists of all time and the most grammy-awarded artist of his age . 
west is one of the best-selling artists of all time , having sold more than 32 million albums and 100 million digital downloads worldwide . 
three of his albums rank on rolling stone 's 2012 `` 500 greatest albums of all time '' list ; two of his albums feature at first and eighth , respectively , in pitchfork media 's the 100 best albums of 2010 -- 2014 . 
west is one of the best-selling artists of all time , having sold more than 32 million albums and 100 million digital downloads worldwide . 
he has won a total of 21 grammy awards , making him one of the most awarded artists of all time and the most grammy-awarded artist of his age . 
west is one of the best-selling artists of all time , having sold more than 32 million albums and 100 million digital downloads worldwide . 
time named him one of the 100 most influential people in the world in 2005 and 2015 . 
west 's mother , dr. donda c. -lrb- williams -rrb- west , was a professor of english at clark atlanta university , and the chair of the english department at chicago state university before retiring to serve as his manager . 
kanye omari west was born on june 8 , 1977 in atlanta , georgia . 
ray west was later a christian counselor , and in 2006 , opened the good water store and café in lexington park , maryland with startup capital from his son . 
west 's mother , dr. donda c. -lrb- williams -rrb- west , was a professor of english at clark atlanta university , and the chair of the english department at chicago state university before retiring to serve as his manager . 
west was raised in a middle-class background , attending polaris high school in suburban oak lawn , illinois after living in chicago . 
at the age of 10 , west moved with his mother to nanjing , china , where she was teaching at nanjing university as part of an exchange program . 
according to his mother , west was the only foreigner in his class , but settled in well and quickly picked up the language , although he has since forgotten most of it . 
when asked about his grades in high school , west replied , `` i got a 's and b 's . 
at the age of 10 , west moved with his mother to nanjing , china , where she was teaching at nanjing university as part of an exchange program . 
at the age of 10 , west moved with his mother to nanjing , china , where she was teaching at nanjing university as part of an exchange program . 
west demonstrated an affinity for the arts at an early age ; he began writing poetry when he was five years old . 
at age thirteen , west wrote a rap song called `` green eggs and ham '' and began to persuade his mother to pay $ 25 an hour for time in a recording studio . 
west crossed paths with producer/dj no i.d. , with whom he quickly formed a close friendship . 
west demonstrated an affinity for the arts at an early age ; he began writing poetry when he was five years old . 
at age thirteen , west wrote a rap song called `` green eggs and ham '' and began to persuade his mother to pay $ 25 an hour for time in a recording studio . 
west crossed paths with producer/dj no i.d. , with whom he quickly formed a close friendship . 
after graduating from high school , west received a scholarship to attend chicago 's american academy of art in 1997 and began taking painting classes , but shortly after transferred to chicago state university to study english . 
he soon realized that his busy class schedule was detrimental to his musical work , and at 20 he dropped out of college to pursue his musical dreams . 
after graduating from high school , west received a scholarship to attend chicago 's american academy of art in 1997 and began taking painting classes , but shortly after transferred to chicago state university to study english . 
after graduating from high school , west received a scholarship to attend chicago 's american academy of art in 1997 and began taking painting classes , but shortly after transferred to chicago state university to study english . 
he soon realized that his busy class schedule was detrimental to his musical work , and at 20 he dropped out of college to pursue his musical dreams . 
for kanye to make an album called college dropout it was more about having the guts to embrace who you are , rather than following the path society has carved out for you . '' 
kanye west began his early production career in the mid-1990s , making beats primarily for burgeoning local artists , eventually developing a style that involved speeding up vocal samples from classic soul records . 
kanye west began his early production career in the mid-1990s , making beats primarily for burgeoning local artists , eventually developing a style that involved speeding up vocal samples from classic soul records . 
because of his association with d-dot , west was n't able to release a solo album , so he formed and became a member and producer of the go-getters , a late-1990s chicago rap group composed of him , glc , timmy g , really doe , and arrowstar . 
kanye west began his early production career in the mid-1990s , making beats primarily for burgeoning local artists , eventually developing a style that involved speeding up vocal samples from classic soul records . 
kanye west began his early production career in the mid-1990s , making beats primarily for burgeoning local artists , eventually developing a style that involved speeding up vocal samples from classic soul records . 
for a time , west acted as a ghost producer for deric `` d-dot '' angelettie . 
because of his association with d-dot , west was n't able to release a solo album , so he formed and became a member and producer of the go-getters , a late-1990s chicago rap group composed of him , glc , timmy g , really doe , and arrowstar . 
his group was managed by john `` monopoly '' johnson , don crowley , and happy lewis under the management firm hustle period . 
after attending a series of promotional photo shoots and making some radio appearances , the go-getters released their first and only studio album world record holders in 1999 . 
the third song on foxy brown 's second studio album chyna doll was produced by west . 
west 's songs featured guest appearances from rappers such as ma $ e , raekwon , and eminem . 
the third song on foxy brown 's second studio album chyna doll was produced by west . 
at the close of the millennium , west ended up producing six songs for tell 'em why u madd , an album that was released by d-dot under the alias of the madd rapper ; a fictional character he created for a skit on the notorious b.i.g. 's second and final studio album life after death . 
west got his big break in the year 2000 , when he began to produce for artists on roc-a-fella records . 
west came to achieve recognition and is often credited with revitalizing jay-z 's career with his contributions to the rap mogul 's influential 2001 album the blueprint . 
west got his big break in the year 2000 , when he began to produce for artists on roc-a-fella records . 
west came to achieve recognition and is often credited with revitalizing jay-z 's career with his contributions to the rap mogul 's influential 2001 album the blueprint . 
despite his success as a producer , west 's true aspiration was to be a rapper . 
after a series of meetings with capitol records , west was ultimately denied an artist deal . 
despite his success as a producer , west 's true aspiration was to be a rapper . 
multiple record companies ignored him because he did not portray the gangsta image prominent in mainstream hip hop at the time . 
after a series of meetings with capitol records , west was ultimately denied an artist deal . 
according to capitol record 's a&r , joe weinberger , he was approached by west and almost signed a deal with him , but another person in the company convinced capitol 's president not to . 
desperate to keep west from defecting to another label , then-label head damon dash reluctantly signed west to roc-a-fella records . 
jay-z later admitted that roc-a-fella was initially reluctant to support west as a rapper , claiming that many saw him as a producer first and foremost , and that his background contrasted with that of his labelmates . 
according to capitol record 's a&r , joe weinberger , he was approached by west and almost signed a deal with him , but another person in the company convinced capitol 's president not to . 
desperate to keep west from defecting to another label , then-label head damon dash reluctantly signed west to roc-a-fella records . 
the composition , `` through the wire '' , expressed west 's experience after the accident , and helped lay the foundation for his debut album , as according to west `` all the better artists have expressed what they were going through '' . 
`` through the wire '' was first available on west 's get well soon ... mixtape , released december 2002 . 
at the same time , west announced that he was working on an album called the college dropout , whose overall theme was to `` make your own decisions . 
west 's breakthrough came a year later on october 23 , 2002 , when , while driving home from a california recording studio after working late , he fell asleep at the wheel and was involved in a near-fatal car crash . 
the composition , `` through the wire '' , expressed west 's experience after the accident , and helped lay the foundation for his debut album , as according to west `` all the better artists have expressed what they were going through '' . 
`` through the wire '' was first available on west 's get well soon ... mixtape , released december 2002 . 
once he had completed the album , it was leaked months before its release date . 
west 's perfectionism led the college dropout to have its release postponed three times from its initial date in august 2003 . 
he recorded the remainder of the album in los angeles while recovering from the car accident . 
west 's perfectionism led the college dropout to have its release postponed three times from its initial date in august 2003 . 
west 's perfectionism led the college dropout to have its release postponed three times from its initial date in august 2003 . 
the college dropout was eventually issued by roc-a-fella in february 2004 , shooting to number two on the billboard 200 as his debut single , `` through the wire '' peaked at number fifteen on the billboard hot 100 chart for five weeks . 
the college dropout was eventually issued by roc-a-fella in february 2004 , shooting to number two on the billboard 200 as his debut single , `` through the wire '' peaked at number fifteen on the billboard hot 100 chart for five weeks . 
`` jesus walks '' , the album 's fourth single , perhaps exposed west to a wider audience ; the song 's subject matter concerns faith and christianity . 
during this period , west also founded good music , a record label and management company that would go on to house affiliate artists and producers , such as no i.d. and john legend . 
the college dropout was eventually issued by roc-a-fella in february 2004 , shooting to number two on the billboard 200 as his debut single , `` through the wire '' peaked at number fifteen on the billboard hot 100 chart for five weeks . 
`` slow jamz '' , his second single featuring twista and jamie foxx , became an even bigger success : it became the three musicians ' first number one hit . 
the college dropout was eventually issued by roc-a-fella in february 2004 , shooting to number two on the billboard 200 as his debut single , `` through the wire '' peaked at number fifteen on the billboard hot 100 chart for five weeks . 
during this period , west also founded good music , a record label and management company that would go on to house affiliate artists and producers , such as no i.d. and john legend . 
though west had not been able to afford many live instruments around the time of his debut album , the money from his commercial success enabled him to hire a string orchestra for his second album late registration . 
west collaborated with american film score composer jon brion , who served as the album 's co-executive producer for several tracks . 
though west had not been able to afford many live instruments around the time of his debut album , the money from his commercial success enabled him to hire a string orchestra for his second album late registration . 
late registration sold over 2.3 million units in the united states alone by the end of 2005 and was considered by industry observers as the only successful major album release of the fall season , which had been plagued by steadily declining cd sales . 
west was significantly inspired by roseland nyc live , a 1998 live album by english trip hop group portishead , produced with the new york philharmonic orchestra . 
though west had not been able to afford many live instruments around the time of his debut album , the money from his commercial success enabled him to hire a string orchestra for his second album late registration . 
late registration sold over 2.3 million units in the united states alone by the end of 2005 and was considered by industry observers as the only successful major album release of the fall season , which had been plagued by steadily declining cd sales . 
while west had encountered controversy a year prior when he stormed out of the american music awards of 2004 after losing best new artist , the rapper 's first large-scale controversy came just days following late registration 's release , during a benefit concert for hurricane katrina victims . 
while west had encountered controversy a year prior when he stormed out of the american music awards of 2004 after losing best new artist , the rapper 's first large-scale controversy came just days following late registration 's release , during a benefit concert for hurricane katrina victims . 
west raised further controversy in january 2006 when he posed on the cover of rolling stone wearing a crown of thorns . 
while west had encountered controversy a year prior when he stormed out of the american music awards of 2004 after losing best new artist , the rapper 's first large-scale controversy came just days following late registration 's release , during a benefit concert for hurricane katrina victims . 
when west was presenting alongside actor mike myers , he deviated from the prepared script . 
west raised further controversy in january 2006 when he posed on the cover of rolling stone wearing a crown of thorns . 
in september 2005 , nbc broadcast a concert for hurricane relief , and west was a featured speaker . 
fresh off spending the previous year touring the world with u2 on their vertigo tour , west felt inspired to compose anthemic rap songs that could operate more efficiently in large arenas . 
fresh off spending the previous year touring the world with u2 on their vertigo tour , west felt inspired to compose anthemic rap songs that could operate more efficiently in large arenas . 
to make his next effort , the third in a planned tetralogy of education-themed studio albums , more introspective and personal in lyricism , west listened to folk and country singer-songwriters bob dylan and johnny cash in hopes of developing methods to augment his wordplay and storytelling ability . 
fresh off spending the previous year touring the world with u2 on their vertigo tour , west felt inspired to compose anthemic rap songs that could operate more efficiently in large arenas . 
to this end , west incorporated the synthesizer into his hip-hop production , utilized slower tempos , and experimented with electronic music and influenced by music of the 1980s . 
in addition to u2 , west drew musical inspiration from arena rock bands such as the rolling stones and led zeppelin in terms of melody and chord progression . 
to make his next effort , the third in a planned tetralogy of education-themed studio albums , more introspective and personal in lyricism , west listened to folk and country singer-songwriters bob dylan and johnny cash in hopes of developing methods to augment his wordplay and storytelling ability . 
west 's third studio album , graduation , garnered major publicity when its release date pitted west in a sales competition against rapper 50 cent 's curtis . 
west 's third studio album , graduation , garnered major publicity when its release date pitted west in a sales competition against rapper 50 cent 's curtis . 
upon their september 2007 releases , graduation outsold curtis by a large margin , debuting at number one on the u.s. billboard 200 chart and selling 957,000 copies in its first week . 
`` stronger '' , which samples french house duo daft punk , has been accredited to not only encouraging other hip-hop artists to incorporate house and electronica elements into their music , but also for playing a part in the revival of disco and electro-infused music in the late 2000s . 
west 's third studio album , graduation , garnered major publicity when its release date pitted west in a sales competition against rapper 50 cent 's curtis . 
west 's third studio album , graduation , garnered major publicity when its release date pitted west in a sales competition against rapper 50 cent 's curtis . 
`` stronger '' , which samples french house duo daft punk , has been accredited to not only encouraging other hip-hop artists to incorporate house and electronica elements into their music , but also for playing a part in the revival of disco and electro-infused music in the late 2000s . 
months later , west and fiancée alexis phifer ended their engagement and their long-term intermittent relationship , which had begun in 2002 . 
purportedly because his emotions could not be conveyed through rapping , west decided to sing using the voice audio processor auto-tune , which would become a central part of his next effort . 
west 's life took a different direction when his mother , donda west , died of complications from cosmetic surgery involving abdominoplasty and breast reduction in november 2007 . 
months later , west and fiancée alexis phifer ended their engagement and their long-term intermittent relationship , which had begun in 2002 . 
the events profoundly affected west , who set off for his 2008 glow in the dark tour shortly thereafter . 
recorded mostly in honolulu , hawaii in three weeks , west announced his fourth album , 808s & heartbreak , at the 2008 mtv video music awards , where he performed its lead single , `` love lockdown '' . 
recorded mostly in honolulu , hawaii in three weeks , west announced his fourth album , 808s & heartbreak , at the 2008 mtv video music awards , where he performed its lead single , `` love lockdown '' . 
808s & heartbreak , which features extensive use of the eponymous roland tr-808 drum machine and contains themes of love , loneliness , and heartache , was released by island def jam to capitalize on thanksgiving weekend in november 2008 . 
808s & heartbreak , which features extensive use of the eponymous roland tr-808 drum machine and contains themes of love , loneliness , and heartache , was released by island def jam to capitalize on thanksgiving weekend in november 2008 . 
808s & heartbreak , which features extensive use of the eponymous roland tr-808 drum machine and contains themes of love , loneliness , and heartache , was released by island def jam to capitalize on thanksgiving weekend in november 2008 . 
808s & heartbreak , which features extensive use of the eponymous roland tr-808 drum machine and contains themes of love , loneliness , and heartache , was released by island def jam to capitalize on thanksgiving weekend in november 2008 . 
upon its release , the lead single `` love lockdown '' debuted at number three on the billboard hot 100 and became a `` hot shot debut '' , while follow-up single `` heartless '' performed similarly and became his second consecutive `` hot shot debut '' by debuting at number four on the billboard hot 100 . 
808s & heartbreak , which features extensive use of the eponymous roland tr-808 drum machine and contains themes of love , loneliness , and heartache , was released by island def jam to capitalize on thanksgiving weekend in november 2008 . 
in 2012 , rolling stone journalist matthew trammell asserted that the record was ahead of its time and wrote , `` now that popular music has finally caught up to it , 808s & heartbreak has revealed itself to be kanye 's most vulnerable work , and perhaps his most brilliant . '' 
in 2012 , rolling stone journalist matthew trammell asserted that the record was ahead of its time and wrote , `` now that popular music has finally caught up to it , 808s & heartbreak has revealed itself to be kanye 's most vulnerable work , and perhaps his most brilliant . '' 
west 's controversial incident the following year at the 2009 mtv video music awards was arguably his biggest controversy , and led to widespread outrage throughout the music industry . 
during the ceremony , west crashed the stage and grabbed the microphone from winner taylor swift in order to proclaim that , instead , beyoncé 's video for `` single ladies -lrb- put a ring on it -rrb- '' , nominated for the same award , was `` one of the best videos of all time '' . 
west 's tour with lady gaga was cancelled in response to the controversy , and it was suggested that the incident was partially responsible for 808s & heartbreak 's lack of nominations at the 52nd grammy awards . 
west 's controversial incident the following year at the 2009 mtv video music awards was arguably his biggest controversy , and led to widespread outrage throughout the music industry . 
during the ceremony , west crashed the stage and grabbed the microphone from winner taylor swift in order to proclaim that , instead , beyoncé 's video for `` single ladies -lrb- put a ring on it -rrb- '' , nominated for the same award , was `` one of the best videos of all time '' . 
west 's tour with lady gaga was cancelled in response to the controversy , and it was suggested that the incident was partially responsible for 808s & heartbreak 's lack of nominations at the 52nd grammy awards . 
west 's tour with lady gaga was cancelled in response to the controversy , and it was suggested that the incident was partially responsible for 808s & heartbreak 's lack of nominations at the 52nd grammy awards . 
following the highly publicized incident , west took a brief break from music and threw himself into fashion , only to hole up in hawaii for the next few months writing and recording his next album . 
following the highly publicized incident , west took a brief break from music and threw himself into fashion , only to hole up in hawaii for the next few months writing and recording his next album . 
following the highly publicized incident , west took a brief break from music and threw himself into fashion , only to hole up in hawaii for the next few months writing and recording his next album . 
my beautiful dark twisted fantasy , west 's fifth studio album , was released in november 2010 to rave reviews from critics , many of whom described it as his best work that solidified his comeback . 
dark fantasy went on to go platinum in the united states , but its omission as a contender for album of the year at the 54th grammy awards was viewed as a `` snub '' by several media outlets . 
my beautiful dark twisted fantasy , west 's fifth studio album , was released in november 2010 to rave reviews from critics , many of whom described it as his best work that solidified his comeback . 
my beautiful dark twisted fantasy , west 's fifth studio album , was released in november 2010 to rave reviews from critics , many of whom described it as his best work that solidified his comeback . 
the record included the international hit `` all of the lights '' , and billboard hits `` power '' , `` monster '' , and `` runaway '' , the latter of which accompanied a 35-minute film of the same name . 
during this time , west initiated the free music program good fridays through his website , offering a free download of previously unreleased songs each friday , a portion of which were included on the album . 
following a headlining set at coachella 2011 that was described by the hollywood reporter as `` one of greatest hip-hop sets of all time '' , west released the collaborative album watch the throne with jay-z . 
following a headlining set at coachella 2011 that was described by the hollywood reporter as `` one of greatest hip-hop sets of all time '' , west released the collaborative album watch the throne with jay-z . 
west also directed a film of the same name that premiered at the 2012 cannes film festival in custom pyramid-shaped screening pavilion featuring seven screens . 
following a headlining set at coachella 2011 that was described by the hollywood reporter as `` one of greatest hip-hop sets of all time '' , west released the collaborative album watch the throne with jay-z . 
following a headlining set at coachella 2011 that was described by the hollywood reporter as `` one of greatest hip-hop sets of all time '' , west released the collaborative album watch the throne with jay-z . 
`` niggas in paris '' became the record 's highest charting single , peaking at number five on the billboard hot 100 . 
in 2012 , west released the compilation album cruel summer , a collection of tracks by artists from west 's record label good music . 
west also directed a film of the same name that premiered at the 2012 cannes film festival in custom pyramid-shaped screening pavilion featuring seven screens . 
sessions for west 's sixth solo effort begin to take shape in early 2013 in his own personal loft 's living room at a paris hotel . 
yeezus , west 's sixth album , was released june 18 , 2013 to rave reviews from critics . 
on september 6 , 2013 , kanye west announced he would be headlining his first solo tour in five years , to support yeezus , with fellow american rapper kendrick lamar accompanying him along the way . 
sessions for west 's sixth solo effort begin to take shape in early 2013 in his own personal loft 's living room at a paris hotel . 
primarily inspired by architecture , west 's perfectionist tendencies led him to contact producer rick rubin fifteen days shy of its due date to strip down the record 's sound in favor of a more minimalist approach . 
yeezus , west 's sixth album , was released june 18 , 2013 to rave reviews from critics . 
yeezus , west 's sixth album , was released june 18 , 2013 to rave reviews from critics . 
on september 6 , 2013 , kanye west announced he would be headlining his first solo tour in five years , to support yeezus , with fellow american rapper kendrick lamar accompanying him along the way . 
in june 2013 , west and television personality kim kardashian announced the birth of their first child , north . 
in december 2013 , adidas announced the beginning of an official apparel collaboration with west , to be premiered the following year . 
west released a single , `` only one '' , featuring paul mccartney , on december 31 , 2014 . 
west performed the song at the 2015 brit awards with a number of us rappers and uk grime mc 's including : skepta , wiley , novelist , fekky , krept & konan , stormzy , allan kingdom , theophilus london and vic mensa . 
in june 2013 , west and television personality kim kardashian announced the birth of their first child , north . 
in june 2013 , west and television personality kim kardashian announced the birth of their first child , north . 
in may 2014 , west and kardashian were married in a private ceremony in florence , italy , with a variety of artists and celebrities in attendance . 
west released a single , `` only one '' , featuring paul mccartney , on december 31 , 2014 . 
in february 2015 , west premiered his clothing collaboration with adidas , entitled yeezy season 1 , to generally positive reviews . 
having initially announced a new album entitled so help me god slated for a 2014 release , in march 2015 west announced that the album would instead be tentatively called swish . 
later that month , west was awarded an honorary doctorate by the school of the art institute of chicago for his contributions to music , fashion , and popular culture , officially making him an honorary dfa . 
the next month , west headlined at the glastonbury festival in the uk , despite a petition signed by almost 135,000 people against his appearance . 
having initially announced a new album entitled so help me god slated for a 2014 release , in march 2015 west announced that the album would instead be tentatively called swish . 
later that month , west was awarded an honorary doctorate by the school of the art institute of chicago for his contributions to music , fashion , and popular culture , officially making him an honorary dfa . 
the next month , west headlined at the glastonbury festival in the uk , despite a petition signed by almost 135,000 people against his appearance . 
he announced in january 2016 on twitter that swish would be released on february 11 , after releasing new song `` real friends '' and a snippet of `` no more parties in l.a. '' with kendrick lamar . 
on january 26 , 2016 , west revealed he had renamed the album from swish to waves , and also announced the premier of his yeezy season 3 clothing line at madison square garden . 
in early 2016 , several weeks prior to the release of his new album , west became embroiled in a short-lived social media altercation with rapper wiz khalifa on twitter that eventually involved their mutual ex-partner , amber rose , who protested to west 's mention of her and khalifa 's child . 
several days ahead of the album 's release , west again changed the title , this time to the life of pablo . 
he released the album exclusively on tidal on 14 february 2016 following a performance on snl . 
in december 2015 , west released a song titled `` facts '' . 
on january 26 , 2016 , west revealed he had renamed the album from swish to waves , and also announced the premier of his yeezy season 3 clothing line at madison square garden . 
in early 2016 , several weeks prior to the release of his new album , west became embroiled in a short-lived social media altercation with rapper wiz khalifa on twitter that eventually involved their mutual ex-partner , amber rose , who protested to west 's mention of her and khalifa 's child . 
on january 26 , 2016 , west revealed he had renamed the album from swish to waves , and also announced the premier of his yeezy season 3 clothing line at madison square garden . 
he has further described musician david bowie as one of his `` most important inspirations , '' and named producer puff daddy as the `` most important cultural figure in my life . '' 
west has said that wu-tang clan producer rza influenced him in his style , and has named wu-tang rappers ghostface killah and ol' dirty bastard as inspirations . 
early in his career , west pioneered a style of production dubbed `` chipmunk soul '' which utilized pitched-up vocal samples , usually from soul and r&b songs , along with his own drums and instrumentation . 
he has further described musician david bowie as one of his `` most important inspirations , '' and named producer puff daddy as the `` most important cultural figure in my life . '' 
he has further described musician david bowie as one of his `` most important inspirations , '' and named producer puff daddy as the `` most important cultural figure in my life . '' 
his first major release featuring his trademark soulful vocal sampling style was `` this ca n't be life '' , a track from jay-z 's the dynasty : roc la familia . 
for his second album , late registration -lrb- 2005 -rrb- , he collaborated with film score composer jon brion and drew influence from non-rap influences such as english trip hop group portishead . 
blending west 's primary soulful hip hop production with brion 's elaborate chamber pop orchestration , the album experimentally incorporated a wide array of different genres and prominent orchestral elements , including string arrangements , piano chords , brass flecks , and horn riffs among other symphonic instrumentation . 
for a period of time , kanye west stood as the sole current pop star to tour with a string section , as audible on his 2006 live album late orchestration . 
for his second album , late registration -lrb- 2005 -rrb- , he collaborated with film score composer jon brion and drew influence from non-rap influences such as english trip hop group portishead . 
for his second album , late registration -lrb- 2005 -rrb- , he collaborated with film score composer jon brion and drew influence from non-rap influences such as english trip hop group portishead . 
with his third album , graduation -lrb- 2007 -rrb- , west moved away from the sound of his previous releases and towards a more atmospheric , rock-tinged , electronic-influenced soundscape . 
with his third album , graduation -lrb- 2007 -rrb- , west moved away from the sound of his previous releases and towards a more atmospheric , rock-tinged , electronic-influenced soundscape . 
in addition , west drew musical inspiration from arena rock bands such as the rolling stones , u2 , and led zeppelin in terms of melody and chord progression . 
with his third album , graduation -lrb- 2007 -rrb- , west moved away from the sound of his previous releases and towards a more atmospheric , rock-tinged , electronic-influenced soundscape . 
west 's fourth studio album , 808s & heartbreak -lrb- 2008 -rrb- , marked an even more radical departure from his previous releases , largely abandoning rap and hip hop stylings in favor of a stark electropop sound composed of virtual synthesis , the roland tr-808 drum machine , and explicitly auto-tuned vocal tracks . 
drawing inspiration from artists such as gary numan , tj swan and boy george , and maintaining a `` minimal but functional '' approach towards the album 's studio production , west explored the electronic feel produced by auto-tune and utilized the sounds created by the 808 , manipulating its pitch to produce a distorted , electronic sound ; he then sought to juxtapose mechanical sounds with the traditional sounds of taiko drums and choir monks . 
the album 's music features austere production and elements such as dense drums , lengthy strings , droning synthesizers , and somber piano , and drew comparisons to the work of 1980s post-punk and new wave groups , with west himself later confessing an affinity with british post-punk group joy division . 
drawing inspiration from artists such as gary numan , tj swan and boy george , and maintaining a `` minimal but functional '' approach towards the album 's studio production , west explored the electronic feel produced by auto-tune and utilized the sounds created by the 808 , manipulating its pitch to produce a distorted , electronic sound ; he then sought to juxtapose mechanical sounds with the traditional sounds of taiko drums and choir monks . 
the album 's music features austere production and elements such as dense drums , lengthy strings , droning synthesizers , and somber piano , and drew comparisons to the work of 1980s post-punk and new wave groups , with west himself later confessing an affinity with british post-punk group joy division . 
rolling stone journalist matthew trammell asserted that the record was ahead of its time and wrote in a 2012 article , `` now that popular music has finally caught up to it , 808s & heartbreak has revealed itself to be kanye 's most vulnerable work , and perhaps his most brilliant . '' 
west 's fifth album , my beautiful dark twisted fantasy , has been noted by writers for its maximalist aesthetic and its incorporation of elements from west 's previous four albums . 
entertainment weekly 's simon vozick-levinson perceives that such elements `` all recur at various points '' , namely `` the luxurious soul of 2004 's the college dropout , the symphonic pomp of late registration , the gloss of 2007 's graduation , and the emotionally exhausted electro of 2008 's 808s & heartbreak '' . 
sean fennessey of the village voice writes that west `` absorb -lsb- ed -rsb- the gifts of his handpicked collaborators , and occasionally elevat -lsb- ed -rsb- them '' on previous studio albums , noting collaborators and elements as jon brion for late registration , dj toomp for graduation , and kid cudi for 808s & heartbreak . 
sean fennessey of the village voice writes that west `` absorb -lsb- ed -rsb- the gifts of his handpicked collaborators , and occasionally elevat -lsb- ed -rsb- them '' on previous studio albums , noting collaborators and elements as jon brion for late registration , dj toomp for graduation , and kid cudi for 808s & heartbreak . 
entertainment weekly 's simon vozick-levinson perceives that such elements `` all recur at various points '' , namely `` the luxurious soul of 2004 's the college dropout , the symphonic pomp of late registration , the gloss of 2007 's graduation , and the emotionally exhausted electro of 2008 's 808s & heartbreak '' . 
west 's fifth album , my beautiful dark twisted fantasy , has been noted by writers for its maximalist aesthetic and its incorporation of elements from west 's previous four albums . 
describing his sixth studio album yeezus -lrb- 2013 -rrb- as `` a protest to music , '' west embraced an abrasive style that incorporated industrial music , acid house , dancehall , punk , electro , and chicago drill . 
inspired by the minimalist design of le corbusier and primarily electronic in nature , the album features distorted drum machines and `` synthesizers that sound like they 're malfunctioning , low-resolution samplers that add a pixelated digital aura to the most analog sounds . '' 
describing his sixth studio album yeezus -lrb- 2013 -rrb- as `` a protest to music , '' west embraced an abrasive style that incorporated industrial music , acid house , dancehall , punk , electro , and chicago drill . 
describing his sixth studio album yeezus -lrb- 2013 -rrb- as `` a protest to music , '' west embraced an abrasive style that incorporated industrial music , acid house , dancehall , punk , electro , and chicago drill . 
in september 2005 , west announced that he would release his pastelle clothing line in spring 2006 , claiming `` now that i have a grammy under my belt and late registration is finished , i am ready to launch my clothing line next spring . '' 
the line was developed over the following four years -- with multiple pieces teased by west himself -- before the line was ultimately cancelled in 2009 . 
in september 2005 , west announced that he would release his pastelle clothing line in spring 2006 , claiming `` now that i have a grammy under my belt and late registration is finished , i am ready to launch my clothing line next spring . '' 
the line was developed over the following four years -- with multiple pieces teased by west himself -- before the line was ultimately cancelled in 2009 . 
in 2009 , west collaborated with nike to release his own shoe , the air yeezys , with a second version released in 2012 . 
in january 2009 , west introduced his first shoe line designed for louis vuitton during paris fashion week . 
on october 1 , 2011 , kanye west premiered his women 's fashion label , dw kanye west at paris fashion week . 
his debut fashion show received mixed-to-negative reviews , ranging from reserved observations by style.com to excoriating commentary by the wall street journal , the new york times , the international herald tribune , elleuk.com , the daily telegraph , harper 's bazaar and many others . 
on march 6 , 2012 , west premiered a second fashion line at paris fashion week . 
on october 1 , 2011 , kanye west premiered his women 's fashion label , dw kanye west at paris fashion week . 
on october 1 , 2011 , kanye west premiered his women 's fashion label , dw kanye west at paris fashion week . 
on october 1 , 2011 , kanye west premiered his women 's fashion label , dw kanye west at paris fashion week . 
on october 1 , 2011 , kanye west premiered his women 's fashion label , dw kanye west at paris fashion week . 
his debut fashion show received mixed-to-negative reviews , ranging from reserved observations by style.com to excoriating commentary by the wall street journal , the new york times , the international herald tribune , elleuk.com , the daily telegraph , harper 's bazaar and many others . 
on march 6 , 2012 , west premiered a second fashion line at paris fashion week . 
on december 3 , 2013 , adidas officially confirmed a new shoe collaboration deal with west . 
on december 3 , 2013 , adidas officially confirmed a new shoe collaboration deal with west . 
after months of anticipation and rumors , west confirmed the release of the adidas yeezy boosts with a twitter announcement directing fans to the domain yeezy.supply . 
an initial release of the adidas yeezy boosts was limited to 9000 pairs to be available only in new york city via the adidas smartphone app ; the adidas yeezy boosts were sold out within 10 minutes . 
after months of anticipation and rumors , west confirmed the release of the adidas yeezy boosts with a twitter announcement directing fans to the domain yeezy.supply . 
in 2015 , west unveiled his yeezy season clothing line , premiering season 1 in collaboration with adidas early in the year . 
on february 11 , west premiered his yeezy season 3 clothing line at madison square garden in conjunction with the previewing of his album the life of pablo . 
in august 2008 , west revealed plans to open 10 fatburger restaurants in the chicago area ; the first was set to open in september 2008 in orland park . 
in august 2008 , west revealed plans to open 10 fatburger restaurants in the chicago area ; the first was set to open in september 2008 in orland park . 
in february 2011 , west shut down the fatburger located in orland park . 
in august 2008 , west revealed plans to open 10 fatburger restaurants in the chicago area ; the first was set to open in september 2008 in orland park . 
in august 2008 , west revealed plans to open 10 fatburger restaurants in the chicago area ; the first was set to open in september 2008 in orland park . 
in february 2011 , west shut down the fatburger located in orland park . 
his company , kw foods llc , bought the rights to the chain in chicago . 
west founded the record label and production company good music in 2004 , in conjunction with sony bmg , shortly after releasing his debut album , the college dropout . 
the label houses artists including west , big sean , pusha t , teyana taylor , yasiin bey / mos def , d'banj and john legend , and producers including hudson mohawke , q-tip , travis scott , no i.d. , jeff bhasker , and s1 . 
west founded the record label and production company good music in 2004 , in conjunction with sony bmg , shortly after releasing his debut album , the college dropout . 
john legend , common , and west were the label 's inaugural artists . 
the label houses artists including west , big sean , pusha t , teyana taylor , yasiin bey / mos def , d'banj and john legend , and producers including hudson mohawke , q-tip , travis scott , no i.d. , jeff bhasker , and s1 . 
in his announcement , west proclaimed that the company would `` pick up where steve jobs left off '' ; donda would operate as `` a design company which will galvanize amazing thinkers in a creative space to bounce their dreams and ideas '' with the `` goal to make products and experiences that people want and can afford . '' 
on january 5 , 2012 , west announced his establishment of the creative content company donda , named after his late mother donda west . 
on january 5 , 2012 , west announced his establishment of the creative content company donda , named after his late mother donda west . 
on march 30 , 2015 , it was announced that west is a co-owner , with various other music artists , in the music streaming service tidal . 
including beyoncé and jay-z , sixteen artist stakeholders -lrb- such as rihanna , beyoncé , madonna , chris martin , nicki minaj and more -rrb- co-own tidal , with the majority owning a 3 % equity stake . 
the idea of having an all artist owned streaming service was created by those involved to adapt to the increased demand for streaming within the current music industry , and to rival other streaming services such as spotify , which have been criticised for their low payout of royalties . 
on march 30 , 2015 , it was announced that west is a co-owner , with various other music artists , in the music streaming service tidal . 
the service specialises in lossless audio and high definition music videos . 
jay z acquired the parent company of tidal , aspiro , in the first quarter of 2015 . 
the idea of having an all artist owned streaming service was created by those involved to adapt to the increased demand for streaming within the current music industry , and to rival other streaming services such as spotify , which have been criticised for their low payout of royalties . 
west , alongside his mother , founded the `` kanye west foundation '' in chicago in 2003 , tasked with a mission to battle dropout and illiteracy rates , while partnering with community organizations to provide underprivileged youth access to music education . 
west , alongside his mother , founded the `` kanye west foundation '' in chicago in 2003 , tasked with a mission to battle dropout and illiteracy rates , while partnering with community organizations to provide underprivileged youth access to music education . 
west , alongside his mother , founded the `` kanye west foundation '' in chicago in 2003 , tasked with a mission to battle dropout and illiteracy rates , while partnering with community organizations to provide underprivileged youth access to music education . 
in 2007 , the west and the foundation partnered with strong american schools as part of their `` ed in ' 08 '' campaign . 
west , alongside his mother , founded the `` kanye west foundation '' in chicago in 2003 , tasked with a mission to battle dropout and illiteracy rates , while partnering with community organizations to provide underprivileged youth access to music education . 
west , alongside his mother , founded the `` kanye west foundation '' in chicago in 2003 , tasked with a mission to battle dropout and illiteracy rates , while partnering with community organizations to provide underprivileged youth access to music education . 
in 2007 , the west and the foundation partnered with strong american schools as part of their `` ed in ' 08 '' campaign . 
as spokesman for the campaign , west appeared in a series of psas for the organization , and hosted an inaugural benefit concert in august of that year . 
in 2008 , following the death of west 's mother , the foundation was rechristened `` the dr. donda west foundation . '' 
the foundation ceased operations in 2011 . 
in 2008 , following the death of west 's mother , the foundation was rechristened `` the dr. donda west foundation . '' 
in 2008 , following the death of west 's mother , the foundation was rechristened `` the dr. donda west foundation . '' 
in 2008 , following the death of west 's mother , the foundation was rechristened `` the dr. donda west foundation . '' 
west has additionally appeared and participated in many fundraisers , benefit concerts , and has done community work for hurricane katrina relief , the kanye west foundation , the millions more movement , 100 black men of america , a live earth concert benefit , world water day rally and march , nike runs , and a mtv special helping young iraq war veterans who struggle through debt and ptsd a second chance after returning home . 
on september 2 , 2005 , during a benefit concert for hurricane katrina relief on nbc , a concert for hurricane relief , west -lrb- a featured speaker -rrb- accused president george w. bush of not `` car -lsb- ing -rsb- about black people '' . 
on september 2 , 2005 , during a benefit concert for hurricane katrina relief on nbc , a concert for hurricane relief , west -lrb- a featured speaker -rrb- accused president george w. bush of not `` car -lsb- ing -rsb- about black people '' . 
on september 2 , 2005 , during a benefit concert for hurricane katrina relief on nbc , a concert for hurricane relief , west -lrb- a featured speaker -rrb- accused president george w. bush of not `` car -lsb- ing -rsb- about black people '' . 
on september 2 , 2005 , during a benefit concert for hurricane katrina relief on nbc , a concert for hurricane relief , west -lrb- a featured speaker -rrb- accused president george w. bush of not `` car -lsb- ing -rsb- about black people '' . 
at this point , telethon producer rick kaplan cut off the microphone and then cut away to chris tucker , who was unaware of the cut for a few seconds . 
once it was west 's turn to speak again , he said , `` george bush does n't care about black people . '' 
bush stated in an interview that the comment was `` one of the most disgusting moments '' of his presidency . 
in november 2010 , in a taped interview with matt lauer for the today show , west expressed regret for his criticism of bush . 
in september 2013 , west was widely rebuked by human rights groups for performing in kazakhstan at the wedding of authoritarian president nursultan nazarbayev 's grandson . 
west was reportedly paid us$ 3 million for his performance . 
he traveled to kazakhstan , which has one of the poorest human rights records in the world , as a personal guest of nazarbayev . 
in september 2013 , west was widely rebuked by human rights groups for performing in kazakhstan at the wedding of authoritarian president nursultan nazarbayev 's grandson . 
west had previously participated in cultural boycotts , joining shakira and rage against the machine in refusing to perform in arizona after the 2010 implementation of stop and search laws directed against potential illegal aliens . 
other notable western performers , including sting , have previously cancelled performances in the country over human rights concerns . 
later in 2013 , west launched a tirade on twitter directed at talk show host jimmy kimmel after his abc program jimmy kimmel live ! 
kimmel reveals the following night that west called him to demand an apology shortly before taping . 
later in 2013 , west launched a tirade on twitter directed at talk show host jimmy kimmel after his abc program jimmy kimmel live ! 
ran a sketch on september 25 involving two children re-enacting west 's recent interview with zane lowe for bbc radio 1 in which he calls himself the biggest rock star on the planet . 
ran a sketch on september 25 involving two children re-enacting west 's recent interview with zane lowe for bbc radio 1 in which he calls himself the biggest rock star on the planet . 
during a november 26 , 2013 radio interview , west explained why he believed that president obama had problems pushing policies in washington : `` man , let me tell you something about george bush and oil money and obama and no money . 
black people do n't have the same level of connections as jewish people ... we ai n't jewish . 
during a november 26 , 2013 radio interview , west explained why he believed that president obama had problems pushing policies in washington : `` man , let me tell you something about george bush and oil money and obama and no money . 
on december 21 , 2013 , west backed off of the original comment and told a chicago radio station that `` i thought i was giving a compliment , but if anything it came off more ignorant . 
in february 2016 , west again became embroiled in controversy when he posted a tweet seemingly asserting bill cosby 's innocence in the wake of over 50 women making allegations of sexual assault directed at cosby . 
in february 2016 , west again became embroiled in controversy when he posted a tweet seemingly asserting bill cosby 's innocence in the wake of over 50 women making allegations of sexual assault directed at cosby . 
at the american music awards of 2004 , west stormed out of the auditorium after losing best new artist to country singer gretchen wilson . 
on november 2 , 2006 , when his `` touch the sky '' failed to win best video at the mtv europe music awards , west went onto the stage as the award was being presented to justice and simian for `` we are your friends '' and argued that he should have won the award instead . 
at the american music awards of 2004 , west stormed out of the auditorium after losing best new artist to country singer gretchen wilson . 
on november 2 , 2006 , when his `` touch the sky '' failed to win best video at the mtv europe music awards , west went onto the stage as the award was being presented to justice and simian for `` we are your friends '' and argued that he should have won the award instead . 
on november 7 , 2006 , west apologized for this outburst publicly during his performance as support act for u2 for their vertigo concert in brisbane . 
he later spoofed the incident on the 33rd season premiere of saturday night live in september 2007 . 
on september 9 , 2007 , west suggested that his race had something to do with his being overlooked for opening the 2007 mtv video music awards -lrb- vmas -rrb- in favor of britney spears ; he claimed , `` maybe my skin 's not right . '' 
he also appeared on several radio stations saying that when he made the song `` stronger '' that it was his dream to open the vmas with it . 
on september 9 , 2007 , west suggested that his race had something to do with his being overlooked for opening the 2007 mtv video music awards -lrb- vmas -rrb- in favor of britney spears ; he claimed , `` maybe my skin 's not right . '' 
he also appeared on several radio stations saying that when he made the song `` stronger '' that it was his dream to open the vmas with it . 
on september 13 , 2009 , during the 2009 mtv video music awards while taylor swift was accepting her award for best female video for `` you belong with me '' , west went on stage and grabbed the microphone to proclaim that beyoncé 's video for `` single ladies -lrb- put a ring on it -rrb- '' , nominated for the same award , was `` one of the best videos of all time '' . 
west was criticized by various celebrities for the outburst , and by president barack obama , who called west a `` jackass '' . 
west was criticized by various celebrities for the outburst , and by president barack obama , who called west a `` jackass '' . 
after some media backlash about the reference , west posted on twitter `` i did not diss taylor swift and i 've never dissed her ... first thing is i 'm an artist and as an artist i will express how i feel with no censorship . '' 
in `` famous , '' a track from his 2016 album the life of pablo , west implies that this incident led to swift 's stardom , rapping , `` i feel like me and taylor might still have sex / why ? 
in september 2010 , west wrote a series of apologetic tweets addressed to swift including `` beyonce did n't need that . 
however , on november 8 , 2010 , in an interview with a minnesota radio station , he seemed to recant his past apologies by attempting to describe the act at the 2009 awards show as `` selfless '' and downgrade the perception of disrespect it created . 
in `` famous , '' a track from his 2016 album the life of pablo , west implies that this incident led to swift 's stardom , rapping , `` i feel like me and taylor might still have sex / why ? 
on february 8 , 2015 , at the 57th annual grammy awards , west walked on stage as beck was accepting his award for album of the year and then walked off stage , making everyone think he was joking around . 
after the awards show , west stated in an interview that he was not joking and that `` beck needs to respect artistry , he should have given his award to beyoncé '' . 
on february 8 , 2015 , at the 57th annual grammy awards , west walked on stage as beck was accepting his award for album of the year and then walked off stage , making everyone think he was joking around . 
on february 26 , 2015 , he publicly apologized to beck on twitter . 
on august 30 , 2015 , west was presented with the michael jackson video vanguard award at the mtv video music awards . 
at the end of his speech , he announced , `` i have decided in 2020 to run for president . '' 
on august 30 , 2015 , west was presented with the michael jackson video vanguard award at the mtv video music awards . 
the largest unsuccessful petition has been to the glastonbury festival 2015 with 133,000 + voters stating they would prefer a rock band to headline . 
on july 20 , 2015 , within five days of west 's announcement as the headlining artist of the closing ceremonies of the 2015 pan american games , change.org user xyz collected over 50,000 signatures for west 's removal as headliner citing the headlining artist should be canadian . 
music fans have turned to change.org around the globe to try and block west 's participation at various events . 
the largest unsuccessful petition has been to the glastonbury festival 2015 with 133,000 + voters stating they would prefer a rock band to headline . 
on july 20 , 2015 , within five days of west 's announcement as the headlining artist of the closing ceremonies of the 2015 pan american games , change.org user xyz collected over 50,000 signatures for west 's removal as headliner citing the headlining artist should be canadian . 
west began an on-and-off relationship with designer alexis phifer in 2002 , and they became engaged in august 2006 . 
west subsequently dated model amber rose from 2008 until the summer of 2010 . 
west began dating reality star and longtime friend kim kardashian in april 2012 . 
west began an on-and-off relationship with designer alexis phifer in 2002 , and they became engaged in august 2006 . 
west began an on-and-off relationship with designer alexis phifer in 2002 , and they became engaged in august 2006 . 
west began an on-and-off relationship with designer alexis phifer in 2002 , and they became engaged in august 2006 . 
west subsequently dated model amber rose from 2008 until the summer of 2010 . 
west began dating reality star and longtime friend kim kardashian in april 2012 . 
in april 2015 , west and kardashian traveled to jerusalem to have north baptized in the armenian apostolic church at the cathedral of st. james . 
she was unresponsive in the emergency room , and after resuscitation attempts , doctors pronounced her dead at approximately 8:30 pm , at age 58 . 
beverly hills plastic surgeon andre aboolian had refused to do the surgery because west had a health condition that placed her at risk for a heart attack . 
on november 10 , 2007 , at approximately 7:35 pm , paramedics responding to an emergency call transported west 's mother , donda west , to the nearby centinela freeman hospital in marina del rey , california . 
the los angeles county coroner 's office said in january 2008 that west had died of heart disease while suffering `` multiple post-operative factors '' after plastic surgery . 
beverly hills plastic surgeon andre aboolian had refused to do the surgery because west had a health condition that placed her at risk for a heart attack . 
she never met with the doctor recommended by aboolian and had the procedures performed by a third doctor , jan adams . 
he appeared on larry king live on november 20 , 2007 , but left before speaking . 
the final coroner 's report january 10 , 2008 , concluded that donda west died of `` coronary artery disease and multiple post-operative factors due to or as a consequence of liposuction and mammoplasty '' . 
west 's family , through celebrity attorney ed mcpherson , filed complaints with the medical board against adams and aboolian for violating patient confidentiality following her death . 
west 's family , through celebrity attorney ed mcpherson , filed complaints with the medical board against adams and aboolian for violating patient confidentiality following her death . 
he appeared on larry king live on november 20 , 2007 , but left before speaking . 
the final coroner 's report january 10 , 2008 , concluded that donda west died of `` coronary artery disease and multiple post-operative factors due to or as a consequence of liposuction and mammoplasty '' . 
the funeral and burial for donda west was held in oklahoma city on november 20 , 2007 . 
he dedicated a performance of `` hey mama '' , as well as a cover of journey 's `` do n't stop believin ' '' , to his mother , and did so on all other dates of his glow in the dark tour . 
the funeral and burial for donda west was held in oklahoma city on november 20 , 2007 . 
the funeral and burial for donda west was held in oklahoma city on november 20 , 2007 . 
west played his first concert following the funeral at the o2 in london on november 22 . 
he dedicated a performance of `` hey mama '' , as well as a cover of journey 's `` do n't stop believin ' '' , to his mother , and did so on all other dates of his glow in the dark tour . 
at a december 2008 press conference in new zealand , west spoke about his mother 's death for the first time . 
at a december 2008 press conference in new zealand , west spoke about his mother 's death for the first time . 
california governor arnold schwarzenegger signed the `` donda west law '' , legislation which makes it mandatory for patients to provide medical clearance for elective cosmetic surgery . 
california governor arnold schwarzenegger signed the `` donda west law '' , legislation which makes it mandatory for patients to provide medical clearance for elective cosmetic surgery . 
california governor arnold schwarzenegger signed the `` donda west law '' , legislation which makes it mandatory for patients to provide medical clearance for elective cosmetic surgery . 
in december 2006 , robert `` evel '' knievel sued west for trademark infringement in west 's video for `` touch the sky '' . 
just days before his death in november 2007 , knievel amicably settled the suit after being paid a visit from west , saying , `` i thought he was a wonderful guy and quite a gentleman . '' 
in december 2006 , robert `` evel '' knievel sued west for trademark infringement in west 's video for `` touch the sky '' . 
knievel took issue with a `` sexually charged video '' in which west takes on the persona of `` evel kanyevel '' and attempts flying a rocket over a canyon . 
just days before his death in november 2007 , knievel amicably settled the suit after being paid a visit from west , saying , `` i thought he was a wonderful guy and quite a gentleman . '' 
on september 11 , 2008 , west and his road manager/bodyguard don `` don c. '' crowley were arrested at los angeles international airport and booked on charges of felony vandalism after an altercation with the paparazzi in which west and crowley broke the photographers ' cameras . 
west was later released from the los angeles police department 's pacific division station in culver city on $ 20,000 bail bond . 
instead the case file was forwarded to the city attorney 's office , which charged west with one count of misdemeanor vandalism , one count of grand theft and one count of battery and his manager with three counts of each on march 18 , 2009 . 
on september 11 , 2008 , west and his road manager/bodyguard don `` don c. '' crowley were arrested at los angeles international airport and booked on charges of felony vandalism after an altercation with the paparazzi in which west and crowley broke the photographers ' cameras . 
on september 11 , 2008 , west and his road manager/bodyguard don `` don c. '' crowley were arrested at los angeles international airport and booked on charges of felony vandalism after an altercation with the paparazzi in which west and crowley broke the photographers ' cameras . 
on september 11 , 2008 , west and his road manager/bodyguard don `` don c. '' crowley were arrested at los angeles international airport and booked on charges of felony vandalism after an altercation with the paparazzi in which west and crowley broke the photographers ' cameras . 
west was later released from the los angeles police department 's pacific division station in culver city on $ 20,000 bail bond . 
west was arrested again on november 14 , 2008 at the hilton hotel near gateshead after another scuffle involving a photographer outside the famous tup tup palace nightclub in newcastle upon tyne . 
west was arrested again on november 14 , 2008 at the hilton hotel near gateshead after another scuffle involving a photographer outside the famous tup tup palace nightclub in newcastle upon tyne . 
west was arrested again on november 14 , 2008 at the hilton hotel near gateshead after another scuffle involving a photographer outside the famous tup tup palace nightclub in newcastle upon tyne . 
west was arrested again on november 14 , 2008 at the hilton hotel near gateshead after another scuffle involving a photographer outside the famous tup tup palace nightclub in newcastle upon tyne . 
west became increasingly agitated as a photographer , daniel ramos , continued to ask him why people were not allowed to speak in his presence . 
however , the charges were reduced to misdemeanor criminal battery and attempted grand theft . 
west became increasingly agitated as a photographer , daniel ramos , continued to ask him why people were not allowed to speak in his presence . 
on july 19 , 2013 , west was leaving lax as he was surrounded by dozens of paparazzi . 
in march 2014 , west was sentenced to serve two years ' probation for the misdemeanor battery conviction and required to attend 24 anger management sessions , perform 250 hours of community service and pay restitution to ramos . 
you trying to get me in trouble so i steal off on you and have to pay you like $ 250,000 and shit . '' 
more recently , in september 2014 , west referred to himself as a christian during one of his concerts . 
after the success of his song `` jesus walks '' from the album the college dropout , west was questioned on his beliefs and said , `` i will say that i 'm spiritual . 
more recently , in september 2014 , west referred to himself as a christian during one of his concerts . 
west is among the most critically acclaimed artists of the twenty-first century , receiving praise from music critics , fans , fellow musicians , artists , and wider cultural figures for his work . 
the guardian has compared west to david bowie , arguing that `` there is nobody else who can sell as many records as west does -lrb- 30m-odd album sales and counting -rrb- while remaining so resolutely experimental and capable of stirring things up culturally and politically . '' 
jon caramanic of the new york times said that west has been `` a frequent lightning rod for controversy , a bombastic figure who can count rankling two presidents among his achievements , along with being a reliably dyspeptic presence at award shows -lrb- when he attends them -rrb- . '' 
village voice media senior editor ben westhoff dubbed him the greatest hip hop artist of all time , writing that `` he 's made the best albums and changed the game the most , and his music is the most likely to endure , '' while complex called him the 21st century 's `` most important artist of any art form , of any genre . '' 
the guardian has compared west to david bowie , arguing that `` there is nobody else who can sell as many records as west does -lrb- 30m-odd album sales and counting -rrb- while remaining so resolutely experimental and capable of stirring things up culturally and politically . '' 
early in his career , he was among the first rappers to publicly criticize the preponderance of homophobia in hip hop . 
rosie swash of the guardian viewed the sales competition as a historical moment in hip-hop , because it `` highlighted the diverging facets of hip-hop in the last decade ; the former was gangsta rap for the noughties , while west was the thinking man 's alternative . '' 
west 's middle-class background , flamboyant fashion sense and outspokenness have additionally set him apart from other rappers . 
the sales competition between rapper 50 cent 's curtis and west 's graduation altered the direction of hip hop and helped pave the way for new rappers who did not follow the hardcore-gangster mold . 
according to ben detrick of xxl magazine , west effectively led a new wave of artists , including kid cudi , wale , lupe fiasco , kidz in the hall , and drake , who lacked the interest or ability to rap about gunplay or drug-dealing . 
famed tesla motors ceo and inventor elon musk complimented west in a piece for time magazine 's 100 most influential people list , writing that : 
famed tesla motors ceo and inventor elon musk complimented west in a piece for time magazine 's 100 most influential people list , writing that : 
west has had six songs exceed 3 million in digital sales as of december 2012 , with `` gold digger '' selling 3,086,000 , `` stronger '' selling 4,402,000 , `` heartless '' selling 3,742,000 , `` e.t. '' selling over 4,000,000 , `` love lockdown '' selling over 3,000,000 , and `` niggas in paris '' selling over 3,000,000 , placing him third in overall digital sales of the past decade . 
he has sold over 30 million digital songs in the united states making him one of the best-selling digital artists of all-time . 
west has had six songs exceed 3 million in digital sales as of december 2012 , with `` gold digger '' selling 3,086,000 , `` stronger '' selling 4,402,000 , `` heartless '' selling 3,742,000 , `` e.t. '' selling over 4,000,000 , `` love lockdown '' selling over 3,000,000 , and `` niggas in paris '' selling over 3,000,000 , placing him third in overall digital sales of the past decade . 
all of his albums have been commercially successful , with yeezus , his sixth solo album , becoming his fifth consecutive no. 1 album in the u.s. upon release . 
west has had six songs exceed 3 million in digital sales as of december 2012 , with `` gold digger '' selling 3,086,000 , `` stronger '' selling 4,402,000 , `` heartless '' selling 3,742,000 , `` e.t. '' selling over 4,000,000 , `` love lockdown '' selling over 3,000,000 , and `` niggas in paris '' selling over 3,000,000 , placing him third in overall digital sales of the past decade . 
west has had six songs exceed 3 million in digital sales as of december 2012 , with `` gold digger '' selling 3,086,000 , `` stronger '' selling 4,402,000 , `` heartless '' selling 3,742,000 , `` e.t. '' selling over 4,000,000 , `` love lockdown '' selling over 3,000,000 , and `` niggas in paris '' selling over 3,000,000 , placing him third in overall digital sales of the past decade . 
he has sold over 30 million digital songs in the united states making him one of the best-selling digital artists of all-time . 
as of 2013 , west has won a total of 21 grammy awards , making him one of the most awarded artists of all-time . 
west ties with bob dylan for having topped the annual pazz & jop critic poll the most number of times ever , with four number-one albums each . 
west has also been included twice in the time 100 annual lists of the most influential people in the world as well as being listed in a number of forbes annual lists . 
as of 2013 , west has won a total of 21 grammy awards , making him one of the most awarded artists of all-time . 
about.com ranked kanye west no. 8 on their `` top 50 hip-hop producers '' list . 
on may 16 , 2008 , kanye west was crowned by mtv as the year 's no. 1 `` hottest mc in the game . '' 
on december 17 , 2010 , kanye west was voted as the mtv man of the year by mtv . 
west ties with bob dylan for having topped the annual pazz & jop critic poll the most number of times ever , with four number-one albums each . 
in its 2012 list of `` 500 greatest albums of all time , rolling stone included three of west 's albums -- the college dropout at number 298 , late registration at number 118 , and my beautiful dark twisted fantasy at number 353 . 
in its 2012 list of `` 500 greatest albums of all time , rolling stone included three of west 's albums -- the college dropout at number 298 , late registration at number 118 , and my beautiful dark twisted fantasy at number 353 . 
the pitchfork online music publication ranked my beautiful dark twisted fantasy as the world 's best album of the decade `` so far '' -- between 2010 and 2014 -- on august 19 , 2014 , while yeezus was ranked in the eighth position of a list of 100 albums . 
the pitchfork online music publication ranked my beautiful dark twisted fantasy as the world 's best album of the decade `` so far '' -- between 2010 and 2014 -- on august 19 , 2014 , while yeezus was ranked in the eighth position of a list of 100 albums . 
the pitchfork online music publication ranked my beautiful dark twisted fantasy as the world 's best album of the decade `` so far '' -- between 2010 and 2014 -- on august 19 , 2014 , while yeezus was ranked in the eighth position of a list of 100 albums . 
the pitchfork online music publication ranked my beautiful dark twisted fantasy as the world 's best album of the decade `` so far '' -- between 2010 and 2014 -- on august 19 , 2014 , while yeezus was ranked in the eighth position of a list of 100 albums . 
during the same week , the song `` runaway '' -lrb- featuring pusha t -rrb- was ranked in the third position in the publication 's list of the 200 `` best tracks '' released since 2010 . 
his more publicized comments include his declaration that president george w. bush `` does n't care about black people '' during a live 2005 television broadcast for hurricane katrina relief , and his interruption of singer taylor swift at the 2009 mtv video music awards . 
his more publicized comments include his declaration that president george w. bush `` does n't care about black people '' during a live 2005 television broadcast for hurricane katrina relief , and his interruption of singer taylor swift at the 2009 mtv video music awards . 
west 's efforts as a designer include collaborations with nike , louis vuitton , and a.p.c. on both clothing and footwear , and have most prominently resulted in the yeezy season collaboration with adidas beginning in 2013 . 
he is the founder and head of the creative content company donda . 
west 's efforts as a designer include collaborations with nike , louis vuitton , and a.p.c. on both clothing and footwear , and have most prominently resulted in the yeezy season collaboration with adidas beginning in 2013 . 
buddhism / ˈbudɪzəm / is a nontheistic religion -lsb- note 1 -rsb- or philosophy -lrb- sanskrit : धर्म dharma ; pali : धम्म dhamma -rrb- that encompasses a variety of traditions , beliefs and spiritual practices largely based on teachings attributed to gautama buddha , commonly known as the buddha -lrb- `` the awakened one '' -rrb- . 
buddhism / ˈbudɪzəm / is a nontheistic religion -lsb- note 1 -rsb- or philosophy -lrb- sanskrit : धर्म dharma ; pali : धम्म dhamma -rrb- that encompasses a variety of traditions , beliefs and spiritual practices largely based on teachings attributed to gautama buddha , commonly known as the buddha -lrb- `` the awakened one '' -rrb- . 
according to buddhist tradition , the buddha lived and taught in the eastern part of the indian subcontinent , present-day nepal sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries bce . 
buddhists believe that this is accomplished through the direct understanding and perception of dependent origination and the four noble truths . 
-lsb- note 1 -rsb- he is recognized by buddhists as an awakened or enlightened teacher who shared his insights to help sentient beings end their suffering through the elimination of ignorance and craving . 
buddhism / ˈbudɪzəm / is a nontheistic religion -lsb- note 1 -rsb- or philosophy -lrb- sanskrit : धर्म dharma ; pali : धम्म dhamma -rrb- that encompasses a variety of traditions , beliefs and spiritual practices largely based on teachings attributed to gautama buddha , commonly known as the buddha -lrb- `` the awakened one '' -rrb- . 
buddhism / ˈbudɪzəm / is a nontheistic religion -lsb- note 1 -rsb- or philosophy -lrb- sanskrit : धर्म dharma ; pali : धम्म dhamma -rrb- that encompasses a variety of traditions , beliefs and spiritual practices largely based on teachings attributed to gautama buddha , commonly known as the buddha -lrb- `` the awakened one '' -rrb- . 
according to buddhist tradition , the buddha lived and taught in the eastern part of the indian subcontinent , present-day nepal sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries bce . 
according to buddhist tradition , the buddha lived and taught in the eastern part of the indian subcontinent , present-day nepal sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries bce . 
buddhism / ˈbudɪzəm / is a nontheistic religion -lsb- note 1 -rsb- or philosophy -lrb- sanskrit : धर्म dharma ; pali : धम्म dhamma -rrb- that encompasses a variety of traditions , beliefs and spiritual practices largely based on teachings attributed to gautama buddha , commonly known as the buddha -lrb- `` the awakened one '' -rrb- . 
according to buddhist tradition , the buddha lived and taught in the eastern part of the indian subcontinent , present-day nepal sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries bce . 
according to buddhist tradition , the buddha lived and taught in the eastern part of the indian subcontinent , present-day nepal sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries bce . 
buddhism / ˈbudɪzəm / is a nontheistic religion -lsb- note 1 -rsb- or philosophy -lrb- sanskrit : धर्म dharma ; pali : धम्म dhamma -rrb- that encompasses a variety of traditions , beliefs and spiritual practices largely based on teachings attributed to gautama buddha , commonly known as the buddha -lrb- `` the awakened one '' -rrb- . 
according to buddhist tradition , the buddha lived and taught in the eastern part of the indian subcontinent , present-day nepal sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries bce . 
according to buddhist tradition , the buddha lived and taught in the eastern part of the indian subcontinent , present-day nepal sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries bce . 
buddhism / ˈbudɪzəm / is a nontheistic religion -lsb- note 1 -rsb- or philosophy -lrb- sanskrit : धर्म dharma ; pali : धम्म dhamma -rrb- that encompasses a variety of traditions , beliefs and spiritual practices largely based on teachings attributed to gautama buddha , commonly known as the buddha -lrb- `` the awakened one '' -rrb- . 
two major extant branches of buddhism are generally recognized by scholars : theravada -lrb- `` the school of the elders '' -rrb- and mahayana -lrb- `` the great vehicle '' -rrb- . 
vajrayana , a body of teachings attributed to indian siddhas , may be viewed as a third branch or merely a part of mahayana . 
theravada has a widespread following in sri lanka and southeast asia . 
mahayana which includes the traditions of pure land , zen , nichiren buddhism , shingon , and tiantai -lrb- tendai -rrb- is found throughout east asia . 
buddhists number between an estimated 488 million -lsb- web 1 -rsb- and 535 million , making it one of the world 's major religions . 
two major extant branches of buddhism are generally recognized by scholars : theravada -lrb- `` the school of the elders '' -rrb- and mahayana -lrb- `` the great vehicle '' -rrb- . 
vajrayana , a body of teachings attributed to indian siddhas , may be viewed as a third branch or merely a part of mahayana . 
vajrayana , a body of teachings attributed to indian siddhas , may be viewed as a third branch or merely a part of mahayana . 
vajrayana , a body of teachings attributed to indian siddhas , may be viewed as a third branch or merely a part of mahayana . 
two major extant branches of buddhism are generally recognized by scholars : theravada -lrb- `` the school of the elders '' -rrb- and mahayana -lrb- `` the great vehicle '' -rrb- . 
in theravada buddhism , the ultimate goal is the attainment of the sublime state of nirvana , achieved by practicing the noble eightfold path -lrb- also known as the middle way -rrb- , thus escaping what is seen as a cycle of suffering and rebirth . 
in theravada buddhism , the ultimate goal is the attainment of the sublime state of nirvana , achieved by practicing the noble eightfold path -lrb- also known as the middle way -rrb- , thus escaping what is seen as a cycle of suffering and rebirth . 
mahayana buddhism instead aspires to buddhahood via the bodhisattva path , a state wherein one remains in this cycle to help other beings reach awakening . 
tibetan buddhism aspires to buddhahood or rainbow body . 
in theravada buddhism , the ultimate goal is the attainment of the sublime state of nirvana , achieved by practicing the noble eightfold path -lrb- also known as the middle way -rrb- , thus escaping what is seen as a cycle of suffering and rebirth . 
in theravada buddhism , the ultimate goal is the attainment of the sublime state of nirvana , achieved by practicing the noble eightfold path -lrb- also known as the middle way -rrb- , thus escaping what is seen as a cycle of suffering and rebirth . 
tibetan buddhism aspires to buddhahood or rainbow body . 
in theravada buddhism , the ultimate goal is the attainment of the sublime state of nirvana , achieved by practicing the noble eightfold path -lrb- also known as the middle way -rrb- , thus escaping what is seen as a cycle of suffering and rebirth . 
mahayana buddhism instead aspires to buddhahood via the bodhisattva path , a state wherein one remains in this cycle to help other beings reach awakening . 
in theravada buddhism , the ultimate goal is the attainment of the sublime state of nirvana , achieved by practicing the noble eightfold path -lrb- also known as the middle way -rrb- , thus escaping what is seen as a cycle of suffering and rebirth . 
the foundations of buddhist tradition and practice are the three jewels : the buddha , the dharma -lrb- the teachings -rrb- , and the sangha -lrb- the community -rrb- . 
other practices are ten meritorious deeds including , giving charity to reduce the greediness ; following ethical precepts ; renouncing conventional living and becoming a monastic ; the development of mindfulness and practice of meditation ; cultivation of higher wisdom and discernment ; study of scriptures ; devotional practices ; ceremonies ; and in the mahayana tradition , invocation of buddhas and bodhisattvas . 
other practices are ten meritorious deeds including , giving charity to reduce the greediness ; following ethical precepts ; renouncing conventional living and becoming a monastic ; the development of mindfulness and practice of meditation ; cultivation of higher wisdom and discernment ; study of scriptures ; devotional practices ; ceremonies ; and in the mahayana tradition , invocation of buddhas and bodhisattvas . 
other practices are ten meritorious deeds including , giving charity to reduce the greediness ; following ethical precepts ; renouncing conventional living and becoming a monastic ; the development of mindfulness and practice of meditation ; cultivation of higher wisdom and discernment ; study of scriptures ; devotional practices ; ceremonies ; and in the mahayana tradition , invocation of buddhas and bodhisattvas . 
buddhism denies a creator deity and posits that mundane deities such as mahabrahma are misperceived to be a creator . 
other practices are ten meritorious deeds including , giving charity to reduce the greediness ; following ethical precepts ; renouncing conventional living and becoming a monastic ; the development of mindfulness and practice of meditation ; cultivation of higher wisdom and discernment ; study of scriptures ; devotional practices ; ceremonies ; and in the mahayana tradition , invocation of buddhas and bodhisattvas . 
other practices are ten meritorious deeds including , giving charity to reduce the greediness ; following ethical precepts ; renouncing conventional living and becoming a monastic ; the development of mindfulness and practice of meditation ; cultivation of higher wisdom and discernment ; study of scriptures ; devotional practices ; ceremonies ; and in the mahayana tradition , invocation of buddhas and bodhisattvas . 
this narrative draws on the nidānakathā of the jataka tales of the theravada , which is ascribed to buddhaghoṣa in the 5th century ce . 
earlier biographies such as the buddhacarita , the lokottaravādin mahāvastu , and the sarvāstivādin lalitavistara sūtra , give different accounts . 
most accept that he lived , taught and founded a monastic order , but do not consistently accept all of the details contained in his biographies . 
this narrative draws on the nidānakathā of the jataka tales of the theravada , which is ascribed to buddhaghoṣa in the 5th century ce . 
earlier biographies such as the buddhacarita , the lokottaravādin mahāvastu , and the sarvāstivādin lalitavistara sūtra , give different accounts . 
this narrative draws on the nidānakathā of the jataka tales of the theravada , which is ascribed to buddhaghoṣa in the 5th century ce . 
this narrative draws on the nidānakathā of the jataka tales of the theravada , which is ascribed to buddhaghoṣa in the 5th century ce . 
most accept that he lived , taught and founded a monastic order , but do not consistently accept all of the details contained in his biographies . 
this narrative draws on the nidānakathā of the jataka tales of the theravada , which is ascribed to buddhaghoṣa in the 5th century ce . 
according to author michael carrithers , while there are good reasons to doubt the traditional account , `` the outline of the life must be true : birth , maturity , renunciation , search , awakening and liberation , teaching , death . '' 
according to author michael carrithers , while there are good reasons to doubt the traditional account , `` the outline of the life must be true : birth , maturity , renunciation , search , awakening and liberation , teaching , death . '' 
in writing her biography of the buddha , karen armstrong noted , `` it is obviously difficult , therefore , to write a biography of the buddha that meets modern criteria , because we have very little information that can be considered historically sound ... -lsb- but -rsb- we can be reasonably confident siddhatta gotama did indeed exist and that his disciples preserved the memory of his life and teachings as well as they could . '' 
in writing her biography of the buddha , karen armstrong noted , `` it is obviously difficult , therefore , to write a biography of the buddha that meets modern criteria , because we have very little information that can be considered historically sound ... -lsb- but -rsb- we can be reasonably confident siddhatta gotama did indeed exist and that his disciples preserved the memory of his life and teachings as well as they could . '' 
in writing her biography of the buddha , karen armstrong noted , `` it is obviously difficult , therefore , to write a biography of the buddha that meets modern criteria , because we have very little information that can be considered historically sound ... -lsb- but -rsb- we can be reasonably confident siddhatta gotama did indeed exist and that his disciples preserved the memory of his life and teachings as well as they could . '' 
according to author michael carrithers , while there are good reasons to doubt the traditional account , `` the outline of the life must be true : birth , maturity , renunciation , search , awakening and liberation , teaching , death . '' 
in writing her biography of the buddha , karen armstrong noted , `` it is obviously difficult , therefore , to write a biography of the buddha that meets modern criteria , because we have very little information that can be considered historically sound ... -lsb- but -rsb- we can be reasonably confident siddhatta gotama did indeed exist and that his disciples preserved the memory of his life and teachings as well as they could . '' 
in writing her biography of the buddha , karen armstrong noted , `` it is obviously difficult , therefore , to write a biography of the buddha that meets modern criteria , because we have very little information that can be considered historically sound ... -lsb- but -rsb- we can be reasonably confident siddhatta gotama did indeed exist and that his disciples preserved the memory of his life and teachings as well as they could . '' 
the evidence of the early texts suggests that siddhārtha gautama was born in a community that was on the periphery , both geographically and culturally , of the northeastern indian subcontinent in the fifth century bce . 
the evidence of the early texts suggests that siddhārtha gautama was born in a community that was on the periphery , both geographically and culturally , of the northeastern indian subcontinent in the fifth century bce . 
it was either a small republic , in which case his father was an elected chieftain , or an oligarchy , in which case his father was an oligarch . 
the evidence of the early texts suggests that siddhārtha gautama was born in a community that was on the periphery , both geographically and culturally , of the northeastern indian subcontinent in the fifth century bce . 
the evidence of the early texts suggests that siddhārtha gautama was born in a community that was on the periphery , both geographically and culturally , of the northeastern indian subcontinent in the fifth century bce . 
it was either a small republic , in which case his father was an elected chieftain , or an oligarchy , in which case his father was an oligarch . 
the evidence of the early texts suggests that siddhārtha gautama was born in a community that was on the periphery , both geographically and culturally , of the northeastern indian subcontinent in the fifth century bce . 
it was either a small republic , in which case his father was an elected chieftain , or an oligarchy , in which case his father was an oligarch . 
the evidence of the early texts suggests that siddhārtha gautama was born in a community that was on the periphery , both geographically and culturally , of the northeastern indian subcontinent in the fifth century bce . 
it was either a small republic , in which case his father was an elected chieftain , or an oligarchy , in which case his father was an oligarch . 
according to this narrative , shortly after the birth of young prince gautama , an astrologer named asita visited the young prince 's father , suddhodana , and prophesied that siddhartha would either become a great king or renounce the material world to become a holy man , depending on whether he saw what life was like outside the palace walls . 
according to this narrative , shortly after the birth of young prince gautama , an astrologer named asita visited the young prince 's father , suddhodana , and prophesied that siddhartha would either become a great king or renounce the material world to become a holy man , depending on whether he saw what life was like outside the palace walls . 
according to this narrative , shortly after the birth of young prince gautama , an astrologer named asita visited the young prince 's father , suddhodana , and prophesied that siddhartha would either become a great king or renounce the material world to become a holy man , depending on whether he saw what life was like outside the palace walls . 
according to this narrative , shortly after the birth of young prince gautama , an astrologer named asita visited the young prince 's father , suddhodana , and prophesied that siddhartha would either become a great king or renounce the material world to become a holy man , depending on whether he saw what life was like outside the palace walls . 
according to this narrative , shortly after the birth of young prince gautama , an astrologer named asita visited the young prince 's father , suddhodana , and prophesied that siddhartha would either become a great king or renounce the material world to become a holy man , depending on whether he saw what life was like outside the palace walls . 
according to this narrative , shortly after the birth of young prince gautama , an astrologer named asita visited the young prince 's father , suddhodana , and prophesied that siddhartha would either become a great king or renounce the material world to become a holy man , depending on whether he saw what life was like outside the palace walls . 
according to this narrative , shortly after the birth of young prince gautama , an astrologer named asita visited the young prince 's father , suddhodana , and prophesied that siddhartha would either become a great king or renounce the material world to become a holy man , depending on whether he saw what life was like outside the palace walls . 
according to this narrative , shortly after the birth of young prince gautama , an astrologer named asita visited the young prince 's father , suddhodana , and prophesied that siddhartha would either become a great king or renounce the material world to become a holy man , depending on whether he saw what life was like outside the palace walls . 
according to this narrative , shortly after the birth of young prince gautama , an astrologer named asita visited the young prince 's father , suddhodana , and prophesied that siddhartha would either become a great king or renounce the material world to become a holy man , depending on whether he saw what life was like outside the palace walls . 
śuddhodana was determined to see his son become a king , so he prevented him from leaving the palace grounds . 
but at age 29 , despite his father 's efforts , gautama ventured beyond the palace several times . 
in a series of encounters -- known in buddhist literature as the four sights -- he learned of the suffering of ordinary people , encountering an old man , a sick man , a corpse and , finally , an ascetic holy man , apparently content and at peace with the world . 
in a series of encounters -- known in buddhist literature as the four sights -- he learned of the suffering of ordinary people , encountering an old man , a sick man , a corpse and , finally , an ascetic holy man , apparently content and at peace with the world . 
śuddhodana was determined to see his son become a king , so he prevented him from leaving the palace grounds . 
but at age 29 , despite his father 's efforts , gautama ventured beyond the palace several times . 
in a series of encounters -- known in buddhist literature as the four sights -- he learned of the suffering of ordinary people , encountering an old man , a sick man , a corpse and , finally , an ascetic holy man , apparently content and at peace with the world . 
these experiences prompted gautama to abandon royal life and take up a spiritual quest . 
śuddhodana was determined to see his son become a king , so he prevented him from leaving the palace grounds . 
but at age 29 , despite his father 's efforts , gautama ventured beyond the palace several times . 
in a series of encounters -- known in buddhist literature as the four sights -- he learned of the suffering of ordinary people , encountering an old man , a sick man , a corpse and , finally , an ascetic holy man , apparently content and at peace with the world . 
in a series of encounters -- known in buddhist literature as the four sights -- he learned of the suffering of ordinary people , encountering an old man , a sick man , a corpse and , finally , an ascetic holy man , apparently content and at peace with the world . 
gautama first went to study with famous religious teachers of the day , and mastered the meditative attainments they taught . 
he devoted himself to anapanasati meditation , through which he discovered what buddhists call the middle way -lrb- skt . 
gautama underwent prolonged fasting , breath-holding , and exposure to pain . 
he devoted himself to anapanasati meditation , through which he discovered what buddhists call the middle way -lrb- skt . 
he next attempted an extreme asceticism , which was a religious pursuit common among the śramaṇas , a religious culture distinct from the vedic one . 
so in a pivotal moment he accepted milk and rice from a village girl and changed his approach . 
he devoted himself to anapanasati meditation , through which he discovered what buddhists call the middle way -lrb- skt . 
but he found that they did not provide a permanent end to suffering , so he continued his quest . 
so in a pivotal moment he accepted milk and rice from a village girl and changed his approach . 
he devoted himself to anapanasati meditation , through which he discovered what buddhists call the middle way -lrb- skt . 
he devoted himself to anapanasati meditation , through which he discovered what buddhists call the middle way -lrb- skt . 
at the age of 35 , he famously sat in meditation under a ficus religiosa tree now called the bodhi tree in the town of bodh gaya and vowed not to rise before achieving enlightenment . 
at the age of 35 , he famously sat in meditation under a ficus religiosa tree now called the bodhi tree in the town of bodh gaya and vowed not to rise before achieving enlightenment . 
now , as the buddha , he spent the rest of his life teaching the path of awakening he had discovered , traveling throughout the northeastern part of the indian subcontinent , and died at the age of 80 -lrb- 483 bce -rrb- in kushinagar , india . 
now , as the buddha , he spent the rest of his life teaching the path of awakening he had discovered , traveling throughout the northeastern part of the indian subcontinent , and died at the age of 80 -lrb- 483 bce -rrb- in kushinagar , india . 
the south branch of the original fig tree available only in anuradhapura sri lanka is known as jaya sri maha bodhi . 
at the age of 35 , he famously sat in meditation under a ficus religiosa tree now called the bodhi tree in the town of bodh gaya and vowed not to rise before achieving enlightenment . 
at the age of 35 , he famously sat in meditation under a ficus religiosa tree now called the bodhi tree in the town of bodh gaya and vowed not to rise before achieving enlightenment . 
now , as the buddha , he spent the rest of his life teaching the path of awakening he had discovered , traveling throughout the northeastern part of the indian subcontinent , and died at the age of 80 -lrb- 483 bce -rrb- in kushinagar , india . 
at the age of 35 , he famously sat in meditation under a ficus religiosa tree now called the bodhi tree in the town of bodh gaya and vowed not to rise before achieving enlightenment . 
at the age of 35 , he famously sat in meditation under a ficus religiosa tree now called the bodhi tree in the town of bodh gaya and vowed not to rise before achieving enlightenment . 
at the age of 35 , he famously sat in meditation under a ficus religiosa tree now called the bodhi tree in the town of bodh gaya and vowed not to rise before achieving enlightenment . 
the south branch of the original fig tree available only in anuradhapura sri lanka is known as jaya sri maha bodhi . 
within buddhism , samsara is defined as the continual repetitive cycle of birth and death that arises from ordinary beings ' grasping and fixating on a self and experiences . 
samsara arises out of avidya -lrb- ignorance -rrb- and is characterized by dukkha -lrb- suffering , anxiety , dissatisfaction -rrb- . 
samsara arises out of avidya -lrb- ignorance -rrb- and is characterized by dukkha -lrb- suffering , anxiety , dissatisfaction -rrb- . 
in the buddhist view , liberation from samsara is possible by following the buddhist path . 
samsara arises out of avidya -lrb- ignorance -rrb- and is characterized by dukkha -lrb- suffering , anxiety , dissatisfaction -rrb- . 
specifically , samsara refers to the process of cycling through one rebirth after another within the six realms of existence , -lsb- note 2 -rsb- where each realm can be understood as physical realm or a psychological state characterized by a particular type of suffering . 
samsara arises out of avidya -lrb- ignorance -rrb- and is characterized by dukkha -lrb- suffering , anxiety , dissatisfaction -rrb- . 
in the buddhist view , liberation from samsara is possible by following the buddhist path . 
within buddhism , samsara is defined as the continual repetitive cycle of birth and death that arises from ordinary beings ' grasping and fixating on a self and experiences . 
specifically , samsara refers to the process of cycling through one rebirth after another within the six realms of existence , -lsb- note 2 -rsb- where each realm can be understood as physical realm or a psychological state characterized by a particular type of suffering . 
specifically , samsara refers to the process of cycling through one rebirth after another within the six realms of existence , -lsb- note 2 -rsb- where each realm can be understood as physical realm or a psychological state characterized by a particular type of suffering . 
samsara arises out of avidya -lrb- ignorance -rrb- and is characterized by dukkha -lrb- suffering , anxiety , dissatisfaction -rrb- . 
in the buddhist view , liberation from samsara is possible by following the buddhist path . 
in buddhism , karma -lrb- from sanskrit : `` action , work '' -rrb- is the force that drives saṃsāra -- the cycle of suffering and rebirth for each being . 
in buddhism , karma -lrb- from sanskrit : `` action , work '' -rrb- is the force that drives saṃsāra -- the cycle of suffering and rebirth for each being . 
the avoidance of unwholesome actions and the cultivation of positive actions is called sīla . 
karma specifically refers to those actions of body , speech or mind that spring from mental intent -lrb- cetanā -rrb- , and bring about a consequence or phala `` fruit '' or vipāka `` result '' . 
in buddhism , karma -lrb- from sanskrit : `` action , work '' -rrb- is the force that drives saṃsāra -- the cycle of suffering and rebirth for each being . 
the avoidance of unwholesome actions and the cultivation of positive actions is called sīla . 
karma specifically refers to those actions of body , speech or mind that spring from mental intent -lrb- cetanā -rrb- , and bring about a consequence or phala `` fruit '' or vipāka `` result '' . 
karma specifically refers to those actions of body , speech or mind that spring from mental intent -lrb- cetanā -rrb- , and bring about a consequence or phala `` fruit '' or vipāka `` result '' . 
in buddhism , karma -lrb- from sanskrit : `` action , work '' -rrb- is the force that drives saṃsāra -- the cycle of suffering and rebirth for each being . 
the avoidance of unwholesome actions and the cultivation of positive actions is called sīla . 
karma specifically refers to those actions of body , speech or mind that spring from mental intent -lrb- cetanā -rrb- , and bring about a consequence or phala `` fruit '' or vipāka `` result '' . 
in theravada buddhism there can be no divine salvation or forgiveness for one 's karma , since it is a purely impersonal process that is a part of the makeup of the universe . 
-lsb- citation needed -rsb- in mahayana buddhism , the texts of certain mahayana sutras -lrb- such as the lotus sutra , the aṅgulimālīya sūtra and the mahāyāna mahāparinirvāṇa sūtra -rrb- claim that the recitation or merely the hearing of their texts can expunge great swathes of negative karma . 
some forms of buddhism -lrb- for example , vajrayana -rrb- regard the recitation of mantras as a means for cutting off of previous negative karma . 
the japanese pure land teacher genshin taught that amitābha has the power to destroy the karma that would otherwise bind one in saṃsāra . 
in theravada buddhism there can be no divine salvation or forgiveness for one 's karma , since it is a purely impersonal process that is a part of the makeup of the universe . 
the japanese pure land teacher genshin taught that amitābha has the power to destroy the karma that would otherwise bind one in saṃsāra . 
-lsb- citation needed -rsb- in mahayana buddhism , the texts of certain mahayana sutras -lrb- such as the lotus sutra , the aṅgulimālīya sūtra and the mahāyāna mahāparinirvāṇa sūtra -rrb- claim that the recitation or merely the hearing of their texts can expunge great swathes of negative karma . 
-lsb- citation needed -rsb- in mahayana buddhism , the texts of certain mahayana sutras -lrb- such as the lotus sutra , the aṅgulimālīya sūtra and the mahāyāna mahāparinirvāṇa sūtra -rrb- claim that the recitation or merely the hearing of their texts can expunge great swathes of negative karma . 
the japanese pure land teacher genshin taught that amitābha has the power to destroy the karma that would otherwise bind one in saṃsāra . 
the japanese pure land teacher genshin taught that amitābha has the power to destroy the karma that would otherwise bind one in saṃsāra . 
rebirth refers to a process whereby beings go through a succession of lifetimes as one of many possible forms of sentient life , each running from conception to death . 
the doctrine of anattā -lrb- sanskrit anātman -rrb- rejects the concepts of a permanent self or an unchanging , eternal soul , as it is called in hinduism and christianity . 
rebirth in subsequent existences must be understood as the continuation of a dynamic , ever-changing process of pratītyasamutpāda -lrb- `` dependent arising '' -rrb- determined by the laws of cause and effect -lrb- karma -rrb- rather than that of one being , reincarnating from one existence to the next . 
rebirth refers to a process whereby beings go through a succession of lifetimes as one of many possible forms of sentient life , each running from conception to death . 
rebirth in subsequent existences must be understood as the continuation of a dynamic , ever-changing process of pratītyasamutpāda -lrb- `` dependent arising '' -rrb- determined by the laws of cause and effect -lrb- karma -rrb- rather than that of one being , reincarnating from one existence to the next . 
rebirth refers to a process whereby beings go through a succession of lifetimes as one of many possible forms of sentient life , each running from conception to death . 
buddhists also refer to themselves as the believers of the anatta doctrine -- nairatmyavadin or anattavadin . 
rebirth in subsequent existences must be understood as the continuation of a dynamic , ever-changing process of pratītyasamutpāda -lrb- `` dependent arising '' -rrb- determined by the laws of cause and effect -lrb- karma -rrb- rather than that of one being , reincarnating from one existence to the next . 
the doctrine of anattā -lrb- sanskrit anātman -rrb- rejects the concepts of a permanent self or an unchanging , eternal soul , as it is called in hinduism and christianity . 
-lsb- web 4 -rsb- rebirths in some of the higher heavens , known as the śuddhāvāsa worlds or pure abodes , can be attained only by skilled buddhist practitioners known as anāgāmis -lrb- non-returners -rrb- . 
rebirths in the ārūpyadhātu -lrb- formless realms -rrb- can be attained by only those who can meditate on the arūpajhānas , the highest object of meditation . 
the above are further subdivided into 31 planes of existence . 
-lsb- web 4 -rsb- rebirths in some of the higher heavens , known as the śuddhāvāsa worlds or pure abodes , can be attained only by skilled buddhist practitioners known as anāgāmis -lrb- non-returners -rrb- . 
-lsb- web 4 -rsb- rebirths in some of the higher heavens , known as the śuddhāvāsa worlds or pure abodes , can be attained only by skilled buddhist practitioners known as anāgāmis -lrb- non-returners -rrb- . 
rebirths in the ārūpyadhātu -lrb- formless realms -rrb- can be attained by only those who can meditate on the arūpajhānas , the highest object of meditation . 
rebirths in the ārūpyadhātu -lrb- formless realms -rrb- can be attained by only those who can meditate on the arūpajhānas , the highest object of meditation . 
the above are further subdivided into 31 planes of existence . 
-lsb- web 4 -rsb- rebirths in some of the higher heavens , known as the śuddhāvāsa worlds or pure abodes , can be attained only by skilled buddhist practitioners known as anāgāmis -lrb- non-returners -rrb- . 
rebirths in the ārūpyadhātu -lrb- formless realms -rrb- can be attained by only those who can meditate on the arūpajhānas , the highest object of meditation . 
rebirths in the ārūpyadhātu -lrb- formless realms -rrb- can be attained by only those who can meditate on the arūpajhānas , the highest object of meditation . 
according to east asian and tibetan buddhism , there is an intermediate state -lrb- tibetan `` bardo '' -rrb- between one life and the next . 
the orthodox theravada position rejects this ; however there are passages in the samyutta nikaya of the pali canon that seem to lend support to the idea that the buddha taught of an intermediate stage between one life and the next . 
the orthodox theravada position rejects this ; however there are passages in the samyutta nikaya of the pali canon that seem to lend support to the idea that the buddha taught of an intermediate stage between one life and the next . 
according to east asian and tibetan buddhism , there is an intermediate state -lrb- tibetan `` bardo '' -rrb- between one life and the next . 
the orthodox theravada position rejects this ; however there are passages in the samyutta nikaya of the pali canon that seem to lend support to the idea that the buddha taught of an intermediate stage between one life and the next . 
the orthodox theravada position rejects this ; however there are passages in the samyutta nikaya of the pali canon that seem to lend support to the idea that the buddha taught of an intermediate stage between one life and the next . 
according to east asian and tibetan buddhism , there is an intermediate state -lrb- tibetan `` bardo '' -rrb- between one life and the next . 
according to east asian and tibetan buddhism , there is an intermediate state -lrb- tibetan `` bardo '' -rrb- between one life and the next . 
the orthodox theravada position rejects this ; however there are passages in the samyutta nikaya of the pali canon that seem to lend support to the idea that the buddha taught of an intermediate stage between one life and the next . 
the orthodox theravada position rejects this ; however there are passages in the samyutta nikaya of the pali canon that seem to lend support to the idea that the buddha taught of an intermediate stage between one life and the next . 
the teachings on the four noble truths are regarded as central to the teachings of buddhism , and are said to provide a conceptual framework for buddhist thought . 
these four truths explain the nature of dukkha -lrb- suffering , anxiety , unsatisfactoriness -rrb- , its causes , and how it can be overcome . 
the teachings on the four noble truths are regarded as central to the teachings of buddhism , and are said to provide a conceptual framework for buddhist thought . 
these four truths explain the nature of dukkha -lrb- suffering , anxiety , unsatisfactoriness -rrb- , its causes , and how it can be overcome . 
the teachings on the four noble truths are regarded as central to the teachings of buddhism , and are said to provide a conceptual framework for buddhist thought . 
these four truths explain the nature of dukkha -lrb- suffering , anxiety , unsatisfactoriness -rrb- , its causes , and how it can be overcome . 
the first truth explains the nature of dukkha . 
dukkha is commonly translated as `` suffering '' , `` anxiety '' , `` unsatisfactoriness '' , `` unease '' , etc. , and it is said to have the following three aspects : 
dukkha is commonly translated as `` suffering '' , `` anxiety '' , `` unsatisfactoriness '' , `` unease '' , etc. , and it is said to have the following three aspects : 
dukkha is commonly translated as `` suffering '' , `` anxiety '' , `` unsatisfactoriness '' , `` unease '' , etc. , and it is said to have the following three aspects : 
dukkha is commonly translated as `` suffering '' , `` anxiety '' , `` unsatisfactoriness '' , `` unease '' , etc. , and it is said to have the following three aspects : 
dukkha is commonly translated as `` suffering '' , `` anxiety '' , `` unsatisfactoriness '' , `` unease '' , etc. , and it is said to have the following three aspects : 
dukkha is commonly translated as `` suffering '' , `` anxiety '' , `` unsatisfactoriness '' , `` unease '' , etc. , and it is said to have the following three aspects : 
dukkha is commonly translated as `` suffering '' , `` anxiety '' , `` unsatisfactoriness '' , `` unease '' , etc. , and it is said to have the following three aspects : 
dukkha is commonly translated as `` suffering '' , `` anxiety '' , `` unsatisfactoriness '' , `` unease '' , etc. , and it is said to have the following three aspects : 
the second truth is that the origin of dukkha can be known . 
within the context of the four noble truths , the origin of dukkha is commonly explained as craving -lrb- pali : tanha -rrb- conditioned by ignorance -lrb- pali : avijja -rrb- . 
the third noble truth is that the complete cessation of dukkha is possible , and the fourth noble truth identifies a path to this cessation . 
the third noble truth is that the complete cessation of dukkha is possible , and the fourth noble truth identifies a path to this cessation . 
the second truth is that the origin of dukkha can be known . 
within the context of the four noble truths , the origin of dukkha is commonly explained as craving -lrb- pali : tanha -rrb- conditioned by ignorance -lrb- pali : avijja -rrb- . 
within the context of the four noble truths , the origin of dukkha is commonly explained as craving -lrb- pali : tanha -rrb- conditioned by ignorance -lrb- pali : avijja -rrb- . 
the second truth is that the origin of dukkha can be known . 
within the context of the four noble truths , the origin of dukkha is commonly explained as craving -lrb- pali : tanha -rrb- conditioned by ignorance -lrb- pali : avijja -rrb- . 
on a deeper level , the root cause of dukkha is identified as ignorance -lrb- pali : avijja -rrb- of the true nature of things . 
the second truth is that the origin of dukkha can be known . 
the noble eightfold path -- the fourth of the buddha 's noble truths -- consists of a set of eight interconnected factors or conditions , that when developed together , lead to the cessation of dukkha . 
the noble eightfold path -- the fourth of the buddha 's noble truths -- consists of a set of eight interconnected factors or conditions , that when developed together , lead to the cessation of dukkha . 
these eight factors are : right view -lrb- or right understanding -rrb- , right intention -lrb- or right thought -rrb- , right speech , right action , right livelihood , right effort , right mindfulness , and right concentration . 
the noble eightfold path -- the fourth of the buddha 's noble truths -- consists of a set of eight interconnected factors or conditions , that when developed together , lead to the cessation of dukkha . 
the noble eightfold path -- the fourth of the buddha 's noble truths -- consists of a set of eight interconnected factors or conditions , that when developed together , lead to the cessation of dukkha . 
the noble eightfold path -- the fourth of the buddha 's noble truths -- consists of a set of eight interconnected factors or conditions , that when developed together , lead to the cessation of dukkha . 
these eight factors are : right view -lrb- or right understanding -rrb- , right intention -lrb- or right thought -rrb- , right speech , right action , right livelihood , right effort , right mindfulness , and right concentration . 
the noble eightfold path -- the fourth of the buddha 's noble truths -- consists of a set of eight interconnected factors or conditions , that when developed together , lead to the cessation of dukkha . 
the noble eightfold path -- the fourth of the buddha 's noble truths -- consists of a set of eight interconnected factors or conditions , that when developed together , lead to the cessation of dukkha . 
the noble eightfold path -- the fourth of the buddha 's noble truths -- consists of a set of eight interconnected factors or conditions , that when developed together , lead to the cessation of dukkha . 
ajahn sucitto describes the path as `` a mandala of interconnected factors that support and moderate each other . '' 
rather , they are understood as eight significant dimensions of one 's behaviour -- mental , spoken , and bodily -- that operate in dependence on one another ; taken together , they define a complete path , or way of living . 
rather , they are understood as eight significant dimensions of one 's behaviour -- mental , spoken , and bodily -- that operate in dependence on one another ; taken together , they define a complete path , or way of living . 
ajahn sucitto describes the path as `` a mandala of interconnected factors that support and moderate each other . '' 
while he searched for enlightenment , gautama combined the yoga practice of his teacher kalama with what later became known as `` the immeasurables '' . 
-lsb- dubious -- discuss -rsb- gautama thus invented a new kind of human , one without egotism . 
-lsb- dubious -- discuss -rsb- what thich nhat hanh calls the `` four immeasurable minds '' of love , compassion , joy , and equanimity -lsb- full citation needed -rsb- are also known as brahmaviharas , divine abodes , or simply as four immeasurables . 
of the four , mettā or loving-kindness meditation is perhaps the best known . 
-lsb- web 5 -rsb- the four immeasurables are taught as a form of meditation that cultivates `` wholesome attitudes towards all sentient beings . '' 
while he searched for enlightenment , gautama combined the yoga practice of his teacher kalama with what later became known as `` the immeasurables '' . 
-lsb- dubious -- discuss -rsb- gautama thus invented a new kind of human , one without egotism . 
-lsb- dubious -- discuss -rsb- what thich nhat hanh calls the `` four immeasurable minds '' of love , compassion , joy , and equanimity -lsb- full citation needed -rsb- are also known as brahmaviharas , divine abodes , or simply as four immeasurables . 
-lsb- web 5 -rsb- pema chödrön calls them the `` four limitless ones '' . 
of the four , mettā or loving-kindness meditation is perhaps the best known . 
an important guiding principle of buddhist practice is the middle way -lrb- or middle path -rrb- , which is said to have been discovered by gautama buddha prior to his enlightenment . 
an important guiding principle of buddhist practice is the middle way -lrb- or middle path -rrb- , which is said to have been discovered by gautama buddha prior to his enlightenment . 
an important guiding principle of buddhist practice is the middle way -lrb- or middle path -rrb- , which is said to have been discovered by gautama buddha prior to his enlightenment . 
buddhist scholars have produced a number of intellectual theories , philosophies and world view concepts -lrb- see , for example , abhidharma , buddhist philosophy and reality in buddhism -rrb- . 
some schools of buddhism discourage doctrinal study , and some regard it as essential practice . 
buddhist scholars have produced a number of intellectual theories , philosophies and world view concepts -lrb- see , for example , abhidharma , buddhist philosophy and reality in buddhism -rrb- . 
some schools of buddhism discourage doctrinal study , and some regard it as essential practice . 
the concept of liberation -lrb- nirvāṇa -rrb- -- the goal of the buddhist path -- is closely related to overcoming ignorance -lrb- avidyā -rrb- , a fundamental misunderstanding or mis-perception of the nature of reality . 
in awakening to the true nature of the self and all phenomena one develops dispassion for the objects of clinging , and is liberated from suffering -lrb- dukkha -rrb- and the cycle of incessant rebirths -lrb- saṃsāra -rrb- . 
the concept of liberation -lrb- nirvāṇa -rrb- -- the goal of the buddhist path -- is closely related to overcoming ignorance -lrb- avidyā -rrb- , a fundamental misunderstanding or mis-perception of the nature of reality . 
the concept of liberation -lrb- nirvāṇa -rrb- -- the goal of the buddhist path -- is closely related to overcoming ignorance -lrb- avidyā -rrb- , a fundamental misunderstanding or mis-perception of the nature of reality . 
in awakening to the true nature of the self and all phenomena one develops dispassion for the objects of clinging , and is liberated from suffering -lrb- dukkha -rrb- and the cycle of incessant rebirths -lrb- saṃsāra -rrb- . 
to this end , the buddha recommended viewing things as characterized by the three marks of existence . 
impermanence -lrb- pāli : anicca -rrb- expresses the buddhist notion that all compounded or conditioned phenomena -lrb- all things and experiences -rrb- are inconstant , unsteady , and impermanent . 
according to the doctrine of impermanence , life embodies this flux in the aging process , the cycle of rebirth -lrb- saṃsāra -rrb- , and in any experience of loss . 
the doctrine asserts that because things are impermanent , attachment to them is futile and leads to suffering -lrb- dukkha -rrb- . 
everything we can experience through our senses is made up of parts , and its existence is dependent on external conditions . 
things are constantly coming into being , and ceasing to be . 
according to the doctrine of impermanence , life embodies this flux in the aging process , the cycle of rebirth -lrb- saṃsāra -rrb- , and in any experience of loss . 
the doctrine asserts that because things are impermanent , attachment to them is futile and leads to suffering -lrb- dukkha -rrb- . 
the word roughly corresponds to a number of terms in english including suffering , pain , unsatisfactoriness , sorrow , affliction , anxiety , dissatisfaction , discomfort , anguish , stress , misery , and frustration . 
although the term is often translated as `` suffering '' , its philosophical meaning is more analogous to `` disquietude '' as in the condition of being disturbed . 
as such , `` suffering '' is too narrow a translation with `` negative emotional connotations '' -lsb- web 9 -rsb- that can give the impression that the buddhist view is pessimistic , but buddhism seeks to be neither pessimistic nor optimistic , but realistic . 
suffering -lrb- pāli : दुक्ख dukkha ; sanskrit दुःख duḥkha -rrb- is also a central concept in buddhism . 
although the term is often translated as `` suffering '' , its philosophical meaning is more analogous to `` disquietude '' as in the condition of being disturbed . 
although the term is often translated as `` suffering '' , its philosophical meaning is more analogous to `` disquietude '' as in the condition of being disturbed . 
suffering -lrb- pāli : दुक्ख dukkha ; sanskrit दुःख duḥkha -rrb- is also a central concept in buddhism . 
not-self -lrb- pāli : anatta ; sanskrit : anātman -rrb- is the third mark of existence . 
in the nikayas anatta is not meant as a metaphysical assertion , but as an approach for gaining release from suffering . 
-lsb- note 9 -rsb- when asked if the self was identical with the body , the buddha refused to answer . 
by analyzing the constantly changing physical and mental constituents -lrb- skandhas -rrb- of a person or object , the practitioner comes to the conclusion that neither the respective parts nor the person as a whole comprise a self . 
not-self -lrb- pāli : anatta ; sanskrit : anātman -rrb- is the third mark of existence . 
in the nikayas anatta is not meant as a metaphysical assertion , but as an approach for gaining release from suffering . 
in fact , the buddha rejected both of the metaphysical assertions `` i have a self '' and `` i have no self '' as ontological views that bind one to suffering . 
by analyzing the constantly changing physical and mental constituents -lrb- skandhas -rrb- of a person or object , the practitioner comes to the conclusion that neither the respective parts nor the person as a whole comprise a self . 
the doctrine of pratītyasamutpāda , -lrb- sanskrit ; pali : paticcasamuppāda ; tibetan wylie : rten cing ` brel bar ` byung ba ; chinese : 緣起 -rrb- is an important part of buddhist metaphysics . 
it is variously rendered into english as `` dependent origination '' , `` conditioned genesis '' , `` dependent relationship '' , `` dependent co-arising '' , `` interdependent arising '' , or `` contingency '' . 
the doctrine of pratītyasamutpāda , -lrb- sanskrit ; pali : paticcasamuppāda ; tibetan wylie : rten cing ` brel bar ` byung ba ; chinese : 緣起 -rrb- is an important part of buddhist metaphysics . 
the best-known application of the concept of pratītyasamutpāda is the scheme of twelve nidānas -lrb- from pāli `` nidāna '' meaning `` cause , foundation , source or origin '' -rrb- , which explain the continuation of the cycle of suffering and rebirth -lrb- saṃsāra -rrb- in detail . 
the best-known application of the concept of pratītyasamutpāda is the scheme of twelve nidānas -lrb- from pāli `` nidāna '' meaning `` cause , foundation , source or origin '' -rrb- , which explain the continuation of the cycle of suffering and rebirth -lrb- saṃsāra -rrb- in detail . 
the best-known application of the concept of pratītyasamutpāda is the scheme of twelve nidānas -lrb- from pāli `` nidāna '' meaning `` cause , foundation , source or origin '' -rrb- , which explain the continuation of the cycle of suffering and rebirth -lrb- saṃsāra -rrb- in detail . 
the best-known application of the concept of pratītyasamutpāda is the scheme of twelve nidānas -lrb- from pāli `` nidāna '' meaning `` cause , foundation , source or origin '' -rrb- , which explain the continuation of the cycle of suffering and rebirth -lrb- saṃsāra -rrb- in detail . 
the twelve nidānas describe a causal connection between the subsequent characteristics or conditions of cyclic existence , each one giving rise to the next : 
the twelve nidānas describe a causal connection between the subsequent characteristics or conditions of cyclic existence , each one giving rise to the next : 
sentient beings always suffer throughout saṃsāra until they free themselves from this suffering -lrb- dukkha -rrb- by attaining nirvana . 
then the absence of the first nidāna -- ignorance -- leads to the absence of the others . 
then the absence of the first nidāna -- ignorance -- leads to the absence of the others . 
sentient beings always suffer throughout saṃsāra until they free themselves from this suffering -lrb- dukkha -rrb- by attaining nirvana . 
sentient beings always suffer throughout saṃsāra until they free themselves from this suffering -lrb- dukkha -rrb- by attaining nirvana . 
sentient beings always suffer throughout saṃsāra until they free themselves from this suffering -lrb- dukkha -rrb- by attaining nirvana . 
then the absence of the first nidāna -- ignorance -- leads to the absence of the others . 
nagarjuna 's primary contribution to buddhist philosophy was the systematic exposition of the concept of śūnyatā , or `` emptiness '' , widely attested in the prajñāpāramitā sutras that emerged in his era . 
nagarjuna 's primary contribution to buddhist philosophy was the systematic exposition of the concept of śūnyatā , or `` emptiness '' , widely attested in the prajñāpāramitā sutras that emerged in his era . 
for nagarjuna , it is not merely sentient beings that are empty of ātman ; all phenomena -lrb- dharmas -rrb- are without any svabhava -lrb- literally `` own-nature '' or `` self-nature '' -rrb- , and thus without any underlying essence ; they are `` empty '' of being independent ; thus the heterodox theories of svabhava circulating at the time were refuted on the basis of the doctrines of early buddhism . 
for nagarjuna , it is not merely sentient beings that are empty of ātman ; all phenomena -lrb- dharmas -rrb- are without any svabhava -lrb- literally `` own-nature '' or `` self-nature '' -rrb- , and thus without any underlying essence ; they are `` empty '' of being independent ; thus the heterodox theories of svabhava circulating at the time were refuted on the basis of the doctrines of early buddhism . 
sarvastivada teachings -- which were criticized by nāgārjuna -- were reformulated by scholars such as vasubandhu and asanga and were adapted into the yogacara school . 
sarvastivada teachings -- which were criticized by nāgārjuna -- were reformulated by scholars such as vasubandhu and asanga and were adapted into the yogacara school . 
while the mādhyamaka school held that asserting the existence or non-existence of any ultimately real thing was inappropriate , some exponents of yogacara asserted that the mind and only the mind is ultimately real -lrb- a doctrine known as cittamatra -rrb- . 
sarvastivada teachings -- which were criticized by nāgārjuna -- were reformulated by scholars such as vasubandhu and asanga and were adapted into the yogacara school . 
besides emptiness , mahayana schools often place emphasis on the notions of perfected spiritual insight -lrb- prajñāpāramitā -rrb- and buddha-nature -lrb- tathāgatagarbha -rrb- . 
besides emptiness , mahayana schools often place emphasis on the notions of perfected spiritual insight -lrb- prajñāpāramitā -rrb- and buddha-nature -lrb- tathāgatagarbha -rrb- . 
in tibetan buddhism , according to the sakya school , tathāgatagarbha is the inseparability of the clarity and emptiness of one 's mind . 
according to the jonang school , it refers to the innate qualities of the mind that expresses themselves as omniscience etc. when adventitious obscurations are removed . 
besides emptiness , mahayana schools often place emphasis on the notions of perfected spiritual insight -lrb- prajñāpāramitā -rrb- and buddha-nature -lrb- tathāgatagarbha -rrb- . 
nirvana -lrb- sanskrit ; pali : `` nibbāna '' -rrb- means `` cessation '' , `` extinction '' -lrb- of craving and ignorance and therefore suffering and the cycle of involuntary rebirths -lrb- saṃsāra -rrb- -rrb- , `` extinguished '' , `` quieted '' , `` calmed '' ; it is also known as `` awakening '' or `` enlightenment '' in the west . 
the term for anybody who has achieved nirvana , including the buddha , is arahant . 
the term for anybody who has achieved nirvana , including the buddha , is arahant . 
bodhi -lrb- pāli and sanskrit , in devanagari : बॊधि -rrb- is a term applied to the experience of awakening of arahants . 
in early buddhism , bodhi carried a meaning synonymous to nirvana , using only some different metaphors to describe the experience , which implies the extinction of raga -lrb- greed , craving -rrb- , -lsb- web 12 -rsb- dosa -lrb- hate , aversion -rrb- -lsb- web 13 -rsb- and moha -lrb- delusion -rrb- . 
in early buddhism , bodhi carried a meaning synonymous to nirvana , using only some different metaphors to describe the experience , which implies the extinction of raga -lrb- greed , craving -rrb- , -lsb- web 12 -rsb- dosa -lrb- hate , aversion -rrb- -lsb- web 13 -rsb- and moha -lrb- delusion -rrb- . 
in early buddhism , bodhi carried a meaning synonymous to nirvana , using only some different metaphors to describe the experience , which implies the extinction of raga -lrb- greed , craving -rrb- , -lsb- web 12 -rsb- dosa -lrb- hate , aversion -rrb- -lsb- web 13 -rsb- and moha -lrb- delusion -rrb- . 
in early buddhism , bodhi carried a meaning synonymous to nirvana , using only some different metaphors to describe the experience , which implies the extinction of raga -lrb- greed , craving -rrb- , -lsb- web 12 -rsb- dosa -lrb- hate , aversion -rrb- -lsb- web 13 -rsb- and moha -lrb- delusion -rrb- . 
therefore , according to mahayana buddhism , the arahant has attained only nirvana , thus still being subject to delusion , while the bodhisattva not only achieves nirvana but full liberation from delusion as well . 
he thus attains bodhi and becomes a buddha . 
therefore , according to mahayana buddhism , the arahant has attained only nirvana , thus still being subject to delusion , while the bodhisattva not only achieves nirvana but full liberation from delusion as well . 
the term parinirvana is also encountered in buddhism , and this generally refers to the complete nirvana attained by the arahant at the moment of death , when the physical body expires . 
according to buddhist traditions a buddha is a fully awakened being who has completely purified his mind of the three poisons of desire , aversion and ignorance . 
a buddha is no longer bound by samsara and has ended the suffering which unawakened people experience in life . 
a buddha is no longer bound by samsara and has ended the suffering which unawakened people experience in life . 
the pali canon refers to many previous ones -lrb- see list of the 28 buddhas -rrb- , while the mahayana tradition additionally has many buddhas of celestial , rather than historical , origin -lrb- see amitabha or vairocana as examples , for lists of many thousands buddha names see taishō shinshū daizōkyō numbers 439 -- 448 -rrb- . 
a common theravada and mahayana buddhist belief is that the next buddha will be one named maitreya -lrb- pali : metteyya -rrb- . 
the pali canon refers to many previous ones -lrb- see list of the 28 buddhas -rrb- , while the mahayana tradition additionally has many buddhas of celestial , rather than historical , origin -lrb- see amitabha or vairocana as examples , for lists of many thousands buddha names see taishō shinshū daizōkyō numbers 439 -- 448 -rrb- . 
in theravada doctrine , a person may awaken from the `` sleep of ignorance '' by directly realizing the true nature of reality ; such people are called arahants and occasionally buddhas . 
in theravada doctrine , a person may awaken from the `` sleep of ignorance '' by directly realizing the true nature of reality ; such people are called arahants and occasionally buddhas . 
bodhi and nirvana carry the same meaning , that of being freed from craving , hate , and delusion . 
as a further distinction , the extinction of only hatred and greed -lrb- in the sensory context -rrb- with some residue of delusion , is called anagami . 
in the mahayana , the buddha tends not to be viewed as merely human , but as the earthly projection of a beginningless and endless , omnipresent being -lrb- see dharmakaya -rrb- beyond the range and reach of thought . 
in the mahayana , the buddha tends not to be viewed as merely human , but as the earthly projection of a beginningless and endless , omnipresent being -lrb- see dharmakaya -rrb- beyond the range and reach of thought . 
in the mahayana , the buddha tends not to be viewed as merely human , but as the earthly projection of a beginningless and endless , omnipresent being -lrb- see dharmakaya -rrb- beyond the range and reach of thought . 
the buddha 's death is seen as an illusion , he is living on in other planes of existence , and monks are therefore permitted to offer `` new truths '' based on his input . 
the buddha 's death is seen as an illusion , he is living on in other planes of existence , and monks are therefore permitted to offer `` new truths '' based on his input . 
mahayana also differs from theravada in its concept of śūnyatā -lrb- that ultimately nothing has existence -rrb- , and in its belief in bodhisattvas -lrb- enlightened people who vow to continue being reborn until all beings can be enlightened -rrb- . 
mahayana also differs from theravada in its concept of śūnyatā -lrb- that ultimately nothing has existence -rrb- , and in its belief in bodhisattvas -lrb- enlightened people who vow to continue being reborn until all beings can be enlightened -rrb- . 
the method of self-exertion or `` self-power '' -- without reliance on an external force or being -- stands in contrast to another major form of buddhism , pure land , which is characterized by utmost trust in the salvific `` other-power '' of amitabha buddha . 
the method of self-exertion or `` self-power '' -- without reliance on an external force or being -- stands in contrast to another major form of buddhism , pure land , which is characterized by utmost trust in the salvific `` other-power '' of amitabha buddha . 
the method of self-exertion or `` self-power '' -- without reliance on an external force or being -- stands in contrast to another major form of buddhism , pure land , which is characterized by utmost trust in the salvific `` other-power '' of amitabha buddha . 
buddhists believe gautama buddha was the first to achieve enlightenment in this buddha era and is therefore credited with the establishment of buddhism . 
a buddha era is the stretch of history during which people remember and practice the teachings of the earliest known buddha . 
buddhists believe gautama buddha was the first to achieve enlightenment in this buddha era and is therefore credited with the establishment of buddhism . 
buddhists believe gautama buddha was the first to achieve enlightenment in this buddha era and is therefore credited with the establishment of buddhism . 
in addition , mahayana buddhists believe there are innumerable other buddhas in other universes . 
a theravada commentary says that buddhas arise one at a time in this world element , and not at all in others . 
pure land buddhism holds that it has declined to the point where few are capable of following the path , so it may be best to rely on the power of amitābha . 
bodhisattva means `` enlightenment being '' , and generally refers to one who is on the path to buddhahood . 
traditionally , a bodhisattva is anyone who , motivated by great compassion , has generated bodhicitta , which is a spontaneous wish to attain buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings . 
the aṣṭasāhasrikā prajñāpāramitā sūtra , an early and important mahayana text , contains a simple and brief definition for the term bodhisattva : `` because he has enlightenment as his aim , a bodhisattva-mahāsattva is so called . '' 
the aṣṭasāhasrikā prajñāpāramitā sūtra , an early and important mahayana text , contains a simple and brief definition for the term bodhisattva : `` because he has enlightenment as his aim , a bodhisattva-mahāsattva is so called . '' 
the aṣṭasāhasrikā prajñāpāramitā sūtra , an early and important mahayana text , contains a simple and brief definition for the term bodhisattva : `` because he has enlightenment as his aim , a bodhisattva-mahāsattva is so called . '' 
mahayana buddhism encourages everyone to become bodhisattvas and to take the bodhisattva vow , where the practitioner promises to work for the complete enlightenment of all beings by practicing the six pāramitās . 
mahayana buddhism encourages everyone to become bodhisattvas and to take the bodhisattva vow , where the practitioner promises to work for the complete enlightenment of all beings by practicing the six pāramitās . 
according to mahayana teachings , these perfections are : dāna , śīla , kṣanti , vīrya , dhyāna , and prajñā . 
a famous saying by the 8th-century indian buddhist scholar-saint shantideva , which the 14th dalai lama often cites as his favourite verse , summarizes the bodhisattva 's intention -lrb- bodhicitta -rrb- as follows : `` for as long as space endures , and for as long as living beings remain , until then may i too abide to dispel the misery of the world . '' 
devotion is an important part of the practice of most buddhists . 
devotional practices include bowing , offerings , pilgrimage , and chanting . 
buddhism traditionally incorporates states of meditative absorption -lrb- pali : jhāna ; skt : dhyāna -rrb- . 
the most ancient sustained expression of yogic ideas is found in the early sermons of the buddha . 
the difference between the buddha 's teaching and the yoga presented in early brahminic texts is striking . 
one key innovative teaching of the buddha was that meditative absorption must be combined with liberating cognition . 
meditation was an aspect of the practice of the yogis in the centuries preceding the buddha . 
in buddhism , mindfulness and clear awareness are to be developed at all times ; in pre-buddhist yogic practices there is no such injunction . 
religious knowledge or `` vision '' was indicated as a result of practice both within and outside of the buddhist fold . 
some of the buddha 's meditative techniques were shared with other traditions of his day , but the idea that ethics are causally related to the attainment of `` transcendent wisdom '' -lrb- pali paññā ; skt . 
some of the buddha 's meditative techniques were shared with other traditions of his day , but the idea that ethics are causally related to the attainment of `` transcendent wisdom '' -lrb- pali paññā ; skt . 
the buddhist texts are probably the earliest describing meditation techniques . 
the buddhist texts are probably the earliest describing meditation techniques . 
two upanishads written after the rise of buddhism do contain full-fledged descriptions of yoga as a means to liberation . 
while there is no convincing evidence for meditation in pre-buddhist early brahminic texts , wynne argues that formless meditation originated in the brahminic or shramanic tradition , based on strong parallels between upanishadic cosmological statements and the meditative goals of the two teachers of the buddha as recorded in the early buddhist texts . 
having argued that the cosmological statements in the upanishads also reflect a contemplative tradition , he argues that the nasadiya sukta contains evidence for a contemplative tradition , even as early as the late rig vedic period . 
having argued that the cosmological statements in the upanishads also reflect a contemplative tradition , he argues that the nasadiya sukta contains evidence for a contemplative tradition , even as early as the late rig vedic period . 
traditionally , the first step in most buddhist schools requires taking refuge in the three jewels -lrb- sanskrit : tri-ratna , pāli : ti-ratana -rrb- -lsb- web 19 -rsb- as the foundation of one 's religious practice . 
the practice of taking refuge on behalf of young or even unborn children is mentioned in the majjhima nikaya , recognized by most scholars as an early text -lrb- cf. infant baptism -rrb- . 
tibetan buddhism sometimes adds a fourth refuge , in the lama . 
just as real jewels never change their faculty and goodness , whether praised or reviled , so are the three jewels -lrb- refuges -rrb- , because they have an eternal and immutable essence . 
in mahayana , too , the three jewels are perceived as possessed of an eternal and unchanging essence and as having an irreversible effect : `` the three jewels have the quality of excellence . 
according to the scriptures , gautama buddha presented himself as a model . 
the dharma offers a refuge by providing guidelines for the alleviation of suffering and the attainment of nirvana . 
the sangha is considered to provide a refuge by preserving the authentic teachings of the buddha and providing further examples that the truth of the buddha 's teachings is attainable . 
śīla -lrb- sanskrit -rrb- or sīla -lrb- pāli -rrb- is usually translated into english as `` virtuous behavior '' , `` morality '' , `` moral discipline '' , `` ethics '' or `` precept '' . 
it is one of the three practices -lrb- sīla , samādhi , and paññā -rrb- and the second pāramitā . 
according to the law of karma , keeping the precepts is meritorious and it acts as causes that would bring about peaceful and happy effects . 
śīla is the foundation of samādhi / bhāvana -lrb- meditative cultivation -rrb- or mind cultivation . 
according to the law of karma , keeping the precepts is meritorious and it acts as causes that would bring about peaceful and happy effects . 
śīla refers to overall principles of ethical behavior . 
there are several levels of sīla , which correspond to `` basic morality '' -lrb- five precepts -rrb- , `` basic morality with asceticism '' -lrb- eight precepts -rrb- , `` novice monkhood '' -lrb- ten precepts -rrb- and `` monkhood '' -lrb- vinaya or patimokkha -rrb- . 
if they wish , they can choose to undertake the eight precepts , which add basic asceticism . 
the precepts are not formulated as imperatives , but as training rules that laypeople undertake voluntarily to facilitate practice . 
in buddhist thought , the cultivation of dana and ethical conduct themselves refine consciousness to such a level that rebirth in one of the lower heavens is likely , even if there is no further buddhist practice . 
in buddhist thought , the cultivation of dana and ethical conduct themselves refine consciousness to such a level that rebirth in one of the lower heavens is likely , even if there is no further buddhist practice . 
in the eight precepts , the third precept on sexual misconduct is made more strict , and becomes a precept of celibacy . 
in the eight precepts , the third precept on sexual misconduct is made more strict , and becomes a precept of celibacy . 
the complete list of ten precepts may be observed by laypeople for short periods . 
for the complete list , the seventh precept is partitioned into two , and a tenth added : 
novice-monks use the ten precepts , which are the basic precepts for monastics . 
the precise content of the vinayapitaka -lrb- scriptures on vinaya -rrb- differs slightly according to different schools , and different schools or subschools set different standards for the degree of adherence to vinaya . 
it includes the patimokkha , a set of 227 rules for monks in the theravadin recension . 
the precise content of the vinayapitaka -lrb- scriptures on vinaya -rrb- differs slightly according to different schools , and different schools or subschools set different standards for the degree of adherence to vinaya . 
regarding the monastic rules , the buddha constantly reminds his hearers that it is the spirit that counts . 
on the other hand , the rules themselves are designed to assure a satisfying life , and provide a perfect springboard for the higher attainments . 
on the other hand , the rules themselves are designed to assure a satisfying life , and provide a perfect springboard for the higher attainments . 
monastics are instructed by the buddha to live as `` islands unto themselves '' . 
in eastern buddhism , there is also a distinctive vinaya and ethics contained within the mahayana brahmajala sutra -lrb- not to be confused with the pali text of that name -rrb- for bodhisattvas , where , for example , the eating of meat is frowned upon and vegetarianism is actively encouraged -lrb- see vegetarianism in buddhism -rrb- . 
in eastern buddhism , there is also a distinctive vinaya and ethics contained within the mahayana brahmajala sutra -lrb- not to be confused with the pali text of that name -rrb- for bodhisattvas , where , for example , the eating of meat is frowned upon and vegetarianism is actively encouraged -lrb- see vegetarianism in buddhism -rrb- . 
in japan , this has almost completely displaced the monastic vinaya , and allows clergy to marry . 
in chinese buddhism , these exist -lrb- translated chih kuan -rrb- , but chán -lrb- zen -rrb- meditation is more popular . 
the evidence of the early texts suggests that at the time of the buddha , many male and female lay practitioners did practice meditation , some even to the point of proficiency in all eight jhānas -lrb- see the next section regarding these -rrb- . 
in the language of the noble eightfold path , samyaksamādhi is `` right concentration '' . 
in the language of the noble eightfold path , samyaksamādhi is `` right concentration '' . 
upon development of samādhi , one 's mind becomes purified of defilement , calm , tranquil , and luminous . 
once the meditator achieves a strong and powerful concentration -lrb- jhāna , sanskrit ध्यान dhyāna -rrb- , his mind is ready to penetrate and gain insight -lrb- vipassanā -rrb- into the ultimate nature of reality , eventually obtaining release from all suffering . 
once the meditator achieves a strong and powerful concentration -lrb- jhāna , sanskrit ध्यान dhyāna -rrb- , his mind is ready to penetrate and gain insight -lrb- vipassanā -rrb- into the ultimate nature of reality , eventually obtaining release from all suffering . 
once the meditator achieves a strong and powerful concentration -lrb- jhāna , sanskrit ध्यान dhyāna -rrb- , his mind is ready to penetrate and gain insight -lrb- vipassanā -rrb- into the ultimate nature of reality , eventually obtaining release from all suffering . 
samatha meditation starts from being mindful of an object or idea , which is expanded to one 's body , mind and entire surroundings , leading to a state of total concentration and tranquility -lrb- jhāna -rrb- . 
samatha meditation starts from being mindful of an object or idea , which is expanded to one 's body , mind and entire surroundings , leading to a state of total concentration and tranquility -lrb- jhāna -rrb- . 
in buddhist practice , it is said that while samatha meditation can calm the mind , only vipassanā meditation can reveal how the mind was disturbed to start with , which is what leads to insight knowledge -lrb- jñāna ; pāli ñāṇa -rrb- and understanding -lrb- prajñā pāli paññā -rrb- , and thus can lead to nirvāṇa -lrb- pāli nibbāna -rrb- . 
in buddhist practice , it is said that while samatha meditation can calm the mind , only vipassanā meditation can reveal how the mind was disturbed to start with , which is what leads to insight knowledge -lrb- jñāna ; pāli ñāṇa -rrb- and understanding -lrb- prajñā pāli paññā -rrb- , and thus can lead to nirvāṇa -lrb- pāli nibbāna -rrb- . 
in buddhist practice , it is said that while samatha meditation can calm the mind , only vipassanā meditation can reveal how the mind was disturbed to start with , which is what leads to insight knowledge -lrb- jñāna ; pāli ñāṇa -rrb- and understanding -lrb- prajñā pāli paññā -rrb- , and thus can lead to nirvāṇa -lrb- pāli nibbāna -rrb- . 
in buddhist practice , it is said that while samatha meditation can calm the mind , only vipassanā meditation can reveal how the mind was disturbed to start with , which is what leads to insight knowledge -lrb- jñāna ; pāli ñāṇa -rrb- and understanding -lrb- prajñā pāli paññā -rrb- , and thus can lead to nirvāṇa -lrb- pāli nibbāna -rrb- . 
in buddhist practice , it is said that while samatha meditation can calm the mind , only vipassanā meditation can reveal how the mind was disturbed to start with , which is what leads to insight knowledge -lrb- jñāna ; pāli ñāṇa -rrb- and understanding -lrb- prajñā pāli paññā -rrb- , and thus can lead to nirvāṇa -lrb- pāli nibbāna -rrb- . 
in theravāda buddhism , the cause of human existence and suffering is identified as craving , which carries with it the various defilements . 
in theravāda buddhism , the cause of human existence and suffering is identified as craving , which carries with it the various defilements . 
these are believed deeply rooted afflictions of the mind that create suffering and stress . 
it then leads the meditator to realize the four noble truths , enlightenment and nibbāna . 
prajñā -lrb- sanskrit -rrb- or paññā -lrb- pāli -rrb- means wisdom that is based on a realization of dependent origination , the four noble truths and the three marks of existence . 
prajñā is the wisdom that is able to extinguish afflictions and bring about bodhi . 
prajñā -lrb- sanskrit -rrb- or paññā -lrb- pāli -rrb- means wisdom that is based on a realization of dependent origination , the four noble truths and the three marks of existence . 
initially , prajñā is attained at a conceptual level by means of listening to sermons -lrb- dharma talks -rrb- , reading , studying , and sometimes reciting buddhist texts and engaging in discourse . 
notably , one could in theory attain nirvana at any point of practice , whether deep in meditation , listening to a sermon , conducting the business of one 's daily life , or any other activity . 
once the conceptual understanding is attained , it is applied to daily life so that each buddhist can verify the truth of the buddha 's teaching at a practical level . 
zen buddhism -lrb- 禅 -rrb- , pronounced chán in chinese , seon in korean or zen in japanese -lrb- derived from the sanskrit term dhyāna , meaning `` meditation '' -rrb- is a form of buddhism that became popular in china , korea and japan and that lays special emphasis on meditation . 
zen buddhism -lrb- 禅 -rrb- , pronounced chán in chinese , seon in korean or zen in japanese -lrb- derived from the sanskrit term dhyāna , meaning `` meditation '' -rrb- is a form of buddhism that became popular in china , korea and japan and that lays special emphasis on meditation . 
zen buddhism -lrb- 禅 -rrb- , pronounced chán in chinese , seon in korean or zen in japanese -lrb- derived from the sanskrit term dhyāna , meaning `` meditation '' -rrb- is a form of buddhism that became popular in china , korea and japan and that lays special emphasis on meditation . 
-lsb- note 12 -rsb- zen places less emphasis on scriptures than some other forms of buddhism and prefers to focus on direct spiritual breakthroughs to truth . 
zen buddhism is divided into two main schools : rinzai -lrb- 臨済宗 -rrb- and sōtō -lrb- 曹洞宗 -rrb- , the former greatly favouring the use in meditation on the koan -lrb- 公案 , a meditative riddle or puzzle -rrb- as a device for spiritual break-through , and the latter -lrb- while certainly employing koans -rrb- focusing more on shikantaza or `` just sitting '' . 
zen buddhism is divided into two main schools : rinzai -lrb- 臨済宗 -rrb- and sōtō -lrb- 曹洞宗 -rrb- , the former greatly favouring the use in meditation on the koan -lrb- 公案 , a meditative riddle or puzzle -rrb- as a device for spiritual break-through , and the latter -lrb- while certainly employing koans -rrb- focusing more on shikantaza or `` just sitting '' . 
zen buddhist teaching is often full of paradox , in order to loosen the grip of the ego and to facilitate the penetration into the realm of the true self or formless self , which is equated with the buddha himself . 
zen buddhist teaching is often full of paradox , in order to loosen the grip of the ego and to facilitate the penetration into the realm of the true self or formless self , which is equated with the buddha himself . 
thinking and thought must therefore not be allowed to confine and bind one . 
though based upon mahayana , tibeto-mongolian buddhism is one of the schools that practice vajrayana or `` diamond vehicle '' -lrb- also referred to as mantrayāna , tantrayāna , tantric buddhism , or esoteric buddhism -rrb- . 
though based upon mahayana , tibeto-mongolian buddhism is one of the schools that practice vajrayana or `` diamond vehicle '' -lrb- also referred to as mantrayāna , tantrayāna , tantric buddhism , or esoteric buddhism -rrb- . 
though based upon mahayana , tibeto-mongolian buddhism is one of the schools that practice vajrayana or `` diamond vehicle '' -lrb- also referred to as mantrayāna , tantrayāna , tantric buddhism , or esoteric buddhism -rrb- . 
it accepts all the basic concepts of mahāyāna , but also includes a vast array of spiritual and physical techniques designed to enhance buddhist practice . 
historically , the roots of buddhism lie in the religious thought of ancient india during the second half of the first millennium bce . 
-lsb- note 17 -rsb- scholars have reasons to believe that ideas such as samsara , karma -lrb- in the sense of the influence of morality on rebirth -rrb- , and moksha originated in the shramanas , and were later adopted by brahmin orthodoxy . 
-lsb- note 16 -rsb- these groups , whose members were known as shramanas , were a continuation of a non-vedic strand of indian thought distinct from indo-aryan brahmanism . 
-lsb- note 16 -rsb- these groups , whose members were known as shramanas , were a continuation of a non-vedic strand of indian thought distinct from indo-aryan brahmanism . 
buddhism arose in greater magadha , which stretched from sravasti , the capital of kosala in the north-west , to rajagrha in the south east . 
buddhism arose in greater magadha , which stretched from sravasti , the capital of kosala in the north-west , to rajagrha in the south east . 
-lsb- page needed -rsb- it was not until the 2nd or 3rd centuries bce that the eastward spread of brahmanism into greater magadha became significant . 
at the same time , these movements were influenced by , and in some respects continued , philosophical thought within the vedic tradition as reflected e.g. in the upanishads . 
these movements included , besides buddhism , various skeptics -lrb- such as sanjaya belatthiputta -rrb- , atomists -lrb- such as pakudha kaccayana -rrb- , materialists -lrb- such as ajita kesakambali -rrb- , antinomians -lrb- such as purana kassapa -rrb- ; the most important ones in the 5th century bce were the ajivikas , who emphasized the rule of fate , the lokayata -lrb- materialists -rrb- , the ajnanas -lrb- agnostics -rrb- and the jains , who stressed that the soul must be freed from matter . 
these movements included , besides buddhism , various skeptics -lrb- such as sanjaya belatthiputta -rrb- , atomists -lrb- such as pakudha kaccayana -rrb- , materialists -lrb- such as ajita kesakambali -rrb- , antinomians -lrb- such as purana kassapa -rrb- ; the most important ones in the 5th century bce were the ajivikas , who emphasized the rule of fate , the lokayata -lrb- materialists -rrb- , the ajnanas -lrb- agnostics -rrb- and the jains , who stressed that the soul must be freed from matter . 
these movements included , besides buddhism , various skeptics -lrb- such as sanjaya belatthiputta -rrb- , atomists -lrb- such as pakudha kaccayana -rrb- , materialists -lrb- such as ajita kesakambali -rrb- , antinomians -lrb- such as purana kassapa -rrb- ; the most important ones in the 5th century bce were the ajivikas , who emphasized the rule of fate , the lokayata -lrb- materialists -rrb- , the ajnanas -lrb- agnostics -rrb- and the jains , who stressed that the soul must be freed from matter . 
a particular criticism of the buddha was vedic animal sacrifice . 
-lsb- web 18 -rsb- he also mocked the vedic `` hymn of the cosmic man '' . 
he names the vedic rishis , and declared that the original veda of the rishis -lsb- note 25 -rsb- was altered by a few brahmins who introduced animal sacrifices . 
the buddha says that it was on this alteration of the true veda that he refused to pay respect to the vedas of his time . 
-lsb- note 27 -rsb- the reliability of these sources , and the possibility to draw out a core of oldest teachings , is a matter of dispute . 
a core problem in the study of early buddhism is the relation between dhyana and insight . 
schmithausen , in his often-cited article on some aspects of descriptions or theories of ` liberating insight ' and ` enlightenment ' in early buddhism notes that the mention of the four noble truths as constituting `` liberating insight '' , which is attained after mastering the rupa jhanas , is a later addition to texts such as majjhima nikaya 36 . 
schmithausen , in his often-cited article on some aspects of descriptions or theories of ` liberating insight ' and ` enlightenment ' in early buddhism notes that the mention of the four noble truths as constituting `` liberating insight '' , which is attained after mastering the rupa jhanas , is a later addition to texts such as majjhima nikaya 36 . 
schmithausen is a notable scholar who has questioned whether karma already played a role in the theory of rebirth of earliest buddhism . 
bruce matthews notes that there is no cohesive presentation of karma in the sutta pitaka , which may mean that the doctrine was incidental to the main perspective of early buddhist soteriology . 
bronkhorst agrees that dhyana was a buddhist invention , whereas norman notes that `` the buddha 's way to release -lsb- ... -rsb- was by means of meditative practices . '' 
bronkhorst agrees that dhyana was a buddhist invention , whereas norman notes that `` the buddha 's way to release -lsb- ... -rsb- was by means of meditative practices . '' 
according to the mahāsaccakasutta , -lsb- note 33 -rsb- from the fourth jhana the buddha gained bodhi . 
-lsb- page needed -rsb- -lsb- page needed -rsb- the mentioning of the four truths as constituting `` liberating insight '' introduces a logical problem , since the four truths depict a linear path of practice , the knowledge of which is in itself not depicted as being liberating . 
-lsb- page needed -rsb- -lsb- page needed -rsb- the mentioning of the four truths as constituting `` liberating insight '' introduces a logical problem , since the four truths depict a linear path of practice , the knowledge of which is in itself not depicted as being liberating . 
although `` nibbāna '' -lrb- sanskrit : nirvāna -rrb- is the common term for the desired goal of this practice , many other terms can be found throughout the nikayas , which are not specified . 
although `` nibbāna '' -lrb- sanskrit : nirvāna -rrb- is the common term for the desired goal of this practice , many other terms can be found throughout the nikayas , which are not specified . 
although `` nibbāna '' -lrb- sanskrit : nirvāna -rrb- is the common term for the desired goal of this practice , many other terms can be found throughout the nikayas , which are not specified . 
according to vetter , the description of the buddhist path may initially have been as simple as the term `` the middle way '' . 
in time , this short description was elaborated , resulting in the description of the eightfold path . 
according to both bronkhorst and anderson , the four truths became a substitution for prajna , or `` liberating insight '' , in the suttas in those texts where `` liberating insight '' was preceded by the four jhanas . 
according to both bronkhorst and anderson , the four truths became a substitution for prajna , or `` liberating insight '' , in the suttas in those texts where `` liberating insight '' was preceded by the four jhanas . 
gotama 's teachings may have been personal , `` adjusted to the need of each person . '' 
the three marks of existence may reflect upanishadic or other influences . 
the history of indian buddhism may be divided into five periods : early buddhism -lrb- occasionally called pre-sectarian buddhism -rrb- , nikaya buddhism or sectarian buddhism : the period of the early buddhist schools , early mahayana buddhism , later mahayana buddhism , and esoteric buddhism -lrb- also called vajrayana buddhism -rrb- . 
the history of indian buddhism may be divided into five periods : early buddhism -lrb- occasionally called pre-sectarian buddhism -rrb- , nikaya buddhism or sectarian buddhism : the period of the early buddhist schools , early mahayana buddhism , later mahayana buddhism , and esoteric buddhism -lrb- also called vajrayana buddhism -rrb- . 
the history of indian buddhism may be divided into five periods : early buddhism -lrb- occasionally called pre-sectarian buddhism -rrb- , nikaya buddhism or sectarian buddhism : the period of the early buddhist schools , early mahayana buddhism , later mahayana buddhism , and esoteric buddhism -lrb- also called vajrayana buddhism -rrb- . 
the history of indian buddhism may be divided into five periods : early buddhism -lrb- occasionally called pre-sectarian buddhism -rrb- , nikaya buddhism or sectarian buddhism : the period of the early buddhist schools , early mahayana buddhism , later mahayana buddhism , and esoteric buddhism -lrb- also called vajrayana buddhism -rrb- . 
the history of indian buddhism may be divided into five periods : early buddhism -lrb- occasionally called pre-sectarian buddhism -rrb- , nikaya buddhism or sectarian buddhism : the period of the early buddhist schools , early mahayana buddhism , later mahayana buddhism , and esoteric buddhism -lrb- also called vajrayana buddhism -rrb- . 
pre-sectarian buddhism is the earliest phase of buddhism , recognized by nearly all scholars . 
certain basic teachings appear in many places throughout the early texts , so most scholars conclude that gautama buddha must have taught something similar to the three marks of existence , the five aggregates , dependent origination , karma and rebirth , the four noble truths , the noble eightfold path , and nirvana . 
certain basic teachings appear in many places throughout the early texts , so most scholars conclude that gautama buddha must have taught something similar to the three marks of existence , the five aggregates , dependent origination , karma and rebirth , the four noble truths , the noble eightfold path , and nirvana . 
according to the scriptures , soon after the parinirvāṇa -lrb- from sanskrit : `` highest extinguishment '' -rrb- of gautama buddha , the first buddhist council was held . 
in the first council , ānanda , a cousin of the buddha and his personal attendant , was called upon to recite the discourses -lrb- sūtras , pāli suttas -rrb- of the buddha , and , according to some sources , the abhidhamma . 
in the first council , ānanda , a cousin of the buddha and his personal attendant , was called upon to recite the discourses -lrb- sūtras , pāli suttas -rrb- of the buddha , and , according to some sources , the abhidhamma . 
in the first council , ānanda , a cousin of the buddha and his personal attendant , was called upon to recite the discourses -lrb- sūtras , pāli suttas -rrb- of the buddha , and , according to some sources , the abhidhamma . 
according to most scholars , at some period after the second council the sangha began to break into separate factions . 
according to most scholars , at some period after the second council the sangha began to break into separate factions . 
according to the dipavamsa of the pāli tradition , they started immediately after the second council , the puggalavada tradition places it in 137 an , the sarvastivada tradition of vasumitra says it was in the time of ashoka and the mahasanghika tradition places it much later , nearly 100 bce . 
this contradicts the mahasanghikas ' own vinaya , which shows them as on the same , winning side . 
the dipavamsa of the theravāda says that the losing party in the second council dispute broke away in protest and formed the mahasanghika . 
the mahāsāṅghikas argued that the sthaviras were trying to expand the vinaya and may also have challenged what they perceived were excessive claims or inhumanly high criteria for arhatship . 
the sthaviras gave rise to several schools , one of which was the theravāda school . 
originally , these schisms were caused by disputes over vinaya , and monks following different schools of thought seem to have lived happily together in the same monasteries , but eventually , by about 100 ce if not earlier , schisms were being caused by doctrinal disagreements too . 
originally , these schisms were caused by disputes over vinaya , and monks following different schools of thought seem to have lived happily together in the same monasteries , but eventually , by about 100 ce if not earlier , schisms were being caused by doctrinal disagreements too . 
following -lrb- or leading up to -rrb- the schisms , each saṅgha started to accumulate an abhidharma , a detailed scholastic reworking of doctrinal material appearing in the suttas , according to schematic classifications . 
these abhidharma texts do not contain systematic philosophical treatises , but summaries or numerical lists . 
scholars generally date these texts to around the 3rd century bce , 100 to 200 years after the death of the buddha . 
scholars disagree on whether the mahasanghika school had an abhidhamma pitaka or not . 
several scholars have suggested that the prajñāpāramitā sūtras , which are among the earliest mahāyāna sūtras , developed among the mahāsāṃghika along the kṛṣṇa river in the āndhra region of south india . 
several scholars have suggested that the prajñāpāramitā sūtras , which are among the earliest mahāyāna sūtras , developed among the mahāsāṃghika along the kṛṣṇa river in the āndhra region of south india . 
the earliest mahāyāna sūtras to include the very first versions of the prajñāpāramitā genre , along with texts concerning akṣobhya buddha , which were probably written down in the 1st century bce in the south of india . 
the earliest mahāyāna sūtras to include the very first versions of the prajñāpāramitā genre , along with texts concerning akṣobhya buddha , which were probably written down in the 1st century bce in the south of india . 
guang xing states , `` several scholars have suggested that the prajñāpāramitā probably developed among the mahāsāṃghikas in southern india , in the āndhra country , on the kṛṣṇa river . '' 
they note that the ancient buddhist sites in the lower kṛṣṇa valley , including amaravati , nāgārjunakoṇḍā and jaggayyapeṭa `` can be traced to at least the third century bce , if not earlier . '' 
akira hirakawa notes the `` evidence suggests that many early mahayana scriptures originated in south india . '' 
there is no evidence that mahāyāna ever referred to a separate formal school or sect of buddhism , but rather that it existed as a certain set of ideals , and later doctrines , for bodhisattvas . 
paul williams has also noted that the mahāyāna never had nor ever attempted to have a separate vinaya or ordination lineage from the early schools of buddhism , and therefore each bhikṣu or bhikṣuṇī adhering to the mahāyāna formally belonged to an early school . 
from chinese monks visiting india , we now know that both mahāyāna and non-mahāyāna monks in india often lived in the same monasteries side by side . 
much of the early extant evidence for the origins of mahāyāna comes from early chinese translations of mahāyāna texts . 
these mahāyāna teachings were first propagated into china by lokakṣema , the first translator of mahāyāna sūtras into chinese during the 2nd century ce . 
-lsb- note 39 -rsb- some scholars have traditionally considered the earliest mahāyāna sūtras to include the very first versions of the prajñāpāramitā series , along with texts concerning akṣobhya buddha , which were probably composed in the 1st century bce in the south of india . 
-lsb- note 39 -rsb- some scholars have traditionally considered the earliest mahāyāna sūtras to include the very first versions of the prajñāpāramitā series , along with texts concerning akṣobhya buddha , which were probably composed in the 1st century bce in the south of india . 
during the period of late mahayana buddhism , four major types of thought developed : madhyamaka , yogacara , tathagatagarbha , and buddhist logic as the last and most recent . 
during the period of late mahayana buddhism , four major types of thought developed : madhyamaka , yogacara , tathagatagarbha , and buddhist logic as the last and most recent . 
during the period of late mahayana buddhism , four major types of thought developed : madhyamaka , yogacara , tathagatagarbha , and buddhist logic as the last and most recent . 
buddhism may have spread only slowly in india until the time of the mauryan emperor ashoka , who was a public supporter of the religion . 
the support of aśoka and his descendants led to the construction of more stūpas -lrb- buddhist religious memorials -rrb- and to efforts to spread buddhism throughout the enlarged maurya empire and even into neighboring lands -- particularly to the iranian-speaking regions of afghanistan and central asia , beyond the mauryas ' northwest border , and to the island of sri lanka south of india . 
the support of aśoka and his descendants led to the construction of more stūpas -lrb- buddhist religious memorials -rrb- and to efforts to spread buddhism throughout the enlarged maurya empire and even into neighboring lands -- particularly to the iranian-speaking regions of afghanistan and central asia , beyond the mauryas ' northwest border , and to the island of sri lanka south of india . 
according to the edicts of aśoka , emissaries were sent to various countries west of india to spread buddhism -lrb- dharma -rrb- , particularly in eastern provinces of the neighboring seleucid empire , and even farther to hellenistic kingdoms of the mediterranean . 
it is a matter of disagreement among scholars whether or not these emissaries were accompanied by buddhist missionaries . 
according to the edicts of aśoka , emissaries were sent to various countries west of india to spread buddhism -lrb- dharma -rrb- , particularly in eastern provinces of the neighboring seleucid empire , and even farther to hellenistic kingdoms of the mediterranean . 
during this period buddhism was exposed to a variety of influences , from persian and greek civilization , to changing trends in non-buddhist indian religions -- themselves influenced by buddhism . 
a greek king , menander , has even been immortalized in the buddhist canon . 
the theravada school spread south from india in the 3rd century bce , to sri lanka and thailand and burma and later also indonesia . 
the theravada school spread south from india in the 3rd century bce , to sri lanka and thailand and burma and later also indonesia . 
-lsb- note 41 -rsb- the first documented translation efforts by foreign buddhist monks in china were in the 2nd century ce , probably as a consequence of the expansion of the kushan empire into the chinese territory of the tarim basin . 
in the 2nd century ce , mahayana sutras spread to china , and then to korea and japan , and were translated into chinese . 
in the 2nd century ce , mahayana sutras spread to china , and then to korea and japan , and were translated into chinese . 
during the indian period of esoteric buddhism -lrb- from the 8th century onwards -rrb- , buddhism spread from india to tibet and mongolia . 
china and india are now starting to fund buddhist shrines in various asian countries as they compete for influence in the region . 
formal membership varies between communities , but basic lay adherence is often defined in terms of a traditional formula in which the practitioner takes refuge in the three jewels : the buddha , the dharma -lrb- the teachings of the buddha -rrb- , and the sangha -lrb- the buddhist community -rrb- . 
formal membership varies between communities , but basic lay adherence is often defined in terms of a traditional formula in which the practitioner takes refuge in the three jewels : the buddha , the dharma -lrb- the teachings of the buddha -rrb- , and the sangha -lrb- the buddhist community -rrb- . 
while in the west buddhism is often seen as exotic and progressive , in the east it is regarded as familiar and traditional . 
modern influences increasingly lead to new forms of buddhism that significantly depart from traditional beliefs and practices . 
a number of modern movements or tendencies in buddhism emerged during the second half of the 20th century , including the dalit buddhist movement -lrb- also sometimes called ` neo-buddhism ' -rrb- , engaged buddhism , and the further development of various western buddhist traditions . 
a number of modern movements or tendencies in buddhism emerged during the second half of the 20th century , including the dalit buddhist movement -lrb- also sometimes called ` neo-buddhism ' -rrb- , engaged buddhism , and the further development of various western buddhist traditions . 
in the second half of the 20th century a modern movement in nichiren buddhism : soka gakkai -lrb- value creation society -rrb- emerged in japan and spread further to other countries . 
in the second half of the 20th century a modern movement in nichiren buddhism : soka gakkai -lrb- value creation society -rrb- emerged in japan and spread further to other countries . 
soka gakkai international -lrb- sgi -rrb- is a lay buddhist movement linking more than 12 million people around the world , and is currently described as `` the most diverse '' and `` the largest lay buddhist movement in the world '' . 
soka gakkai international -lrb- sgi -rrb- is a lay buddhist movement linking more than 12 million people around the world , and is currently described as `` the most diverse '' and `` the largest lay buddhist movement in the world '' . 
buddhism is practiced by an estimated 488 million , -lsb- web 1 -rsb- 495 million , or 535 million people as of the 2010s , representing 7 % to 8 % of the world 's total population . 
china is the country with the largest population of buddhists , approximately 244 million or 18.2 % of its total population . 
china is the country with the largest population of buddhists , approximately 244 million or 18.2 % of its total population . 
according to a demographic analysis reported by peter harvey -lrb- 2013 -rrb- : mahayana has 360 million adherents ; theravada has 150 million adherents ; and vajrayana has 18,2 million adherents . 
according to a demographic analysis reported by peter harvey -lrb- 2013 -rrb- : mahayana has 360 million adherents ; theravada has 150 million adherents ; and vajrayana has 18,2 million adherents . 
seven million additional buddhists are found outside of asia . 
according to johnson and grim -lrb- 2013 -rrb- , buddhism has grown from a total of 138 million adherents in 1910 , of which 137 million were in asia , to 495 million in 2010 , of which 487 million are in asia . 
according to johnson and grim -lrb- 2013 -rrb- , buddhism has grown from a total of 138 million adherents in 1910 , of which 137 million were in asia , to 495 million in 2010 , of which 487 million are in asia . 
according to johnson and grim -lrb- 2013 -rrb- , buddhism has grown from a total of 138 million adherents in 1910 , of which 137 million were in asia , to 495 million in 2010 , of which 487 million are in asia . 
hinayana -lrb- literally `` lesser vehicle '' -rrb- is used by mahayana followers to name the family of early philosophical schools and traditions from which contemporary theravada emerged , but as this term is rooted in the mahayana viewpoint and can be considered derogatory , a variety of other terms are increasingly used instead , including śrāvakayāna , nikaya buddhism , early buddhist schools , sectarian buddhism , conservative buddhism , mainstream buddhism and non-mahayana buddhism . 
hinayana -lrb- literally `` lesser vehicle '' -rrb- is used by mahayana followers to name the family of early philosophical schools and traditions from which contemporary theravada emerged , but as this term is rooted in the mahayana viewpoint and can be considered derogatory , a variety of other terms are increasingly used instead , including śrāvakayāna , nikaya buddhism , early buddhist schools , sectarian buddhism , conservative buddhism , mainstream buddhism and non-mahayana buddhism . 
not all traditions of buddhism share the same philosophical outlook , or treat the same concepts as central . 
for example , according to one buddhist ecumenical organization , -lsb- web 23 -rsb- several concepts common to both major buddhist branches : 
theravada -lrb- `` doctrine of the elders '' , or `` ancient doctrine '' -rrb- is the oldest surviving buddhist school . 
the name theravāda comes from the ancestral sthāvirīya , one of the early buddhist schools , from which the theravadins claim descent . 
sinhalese buddhist reformers in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries portrayed the pali canon as the original version of scripture . 
it has a growing presence in the west . 
theravadin buddhists believe that personal effort is required to realize rebirth . 
laypersons can perform good actions , producing merit . 
mahāyāna centres of learning were established , the most important one being the nālandā university in north-eastern india . 
mahayana schools recognize all or part of the mahayana sutras . 
some of these sutras became for mahayanists a manifestation of the buddha himself , and faith in and veneration of those texts are stated in some sutras -lrb- e.g. the lotus sutra and the mahaparinirvana sutra -rrb- to lay the foundations for the later attainment of buddhahood itself . 
some of these sutras became for mahayanists a manifestation of the buddha himself , and faith in and veneration of those texts are stated in some sutras -lrb- e.g. the lotus sutra and the mahaparinirvana sutra -rrb- to lay the foundations for the later attainment of buddhahood itself . 
native mahayana buddhism is practiced today in china , japan , korea , singapore , parts of russia and most of vietnam -lrb- also commonly referred to as `` eastern buddhism '' -rrb- . 
the buddhism practiced in tibet , the himalayan regions , and mongolia is also mahayana in origin , but is discussed below under the heading of vajrayana -lrb- also commonly referred to as `` northern buddhism '' -rrb- . 
there are a variety of strands in eastern buddhism , of which `` the pure land school of mahayana is the most widely practised today . '' 
various classes of vajrayana literature developed as a result of royal courts sponsoring both buddhism and saivism . 
the mañjusrimulakalpa , which later came to classified under kriyatantra , states that mantras taught in the saiva , garuda and vaisnava tantras will be effective if applied by buddhists since they were all taught originally by manjushri . 
the guhyasiddhi of padmavajra , a work associated with the guhyasamaja tradition , prescribes acting as a saiva guru and initiating members into saiva siddhanta scriptures and mandalas . 
buddhist scriptures and other texts exist in great variety . 
some schools venerate certain texts as religious objects in themselves , while others take a more scholastic approach . 
unlike many religions , buddhism has no single central text that is universally referred to by all traditions . 
the tibetan buddhists have not even translated most of the āgamas -lrb- though theoretically they recognize them -rrb- and they play no part in the religious life of either clergy or laity in china and japan . 
however , some scholars have referred to the vinaya pitaka and the first four nikayas of the sutta pitaka as the common core of all buddhist traditions . 
the size and complexity of the buddhist canons have been seen by some -lrb- including buddhist social reformer babasaheb ambedkar -rrb- as presenting barriers to the wider understanding of buddhist philosophy . 
later in sri lanka , the dhammapada was championed as a unifying scripture . 
over the years , various attempts have been made to synthesize a single buddhist text that can encompass all of the major principles of buddhism . 
in the theravada tradition , condensed ` study texts ' were created that combined popular or influential scriptures into single volumes that could be studied by novice monks . 
dwight goddard collected a sample of buddhist scriptures , with the emphasis on zen , along with other classics of eastern philosophy , such as the tao te ching , into his ` buddhist bible ' in the 1920s . 
more recently , dr. babasaheb ambedkar attempted to create a single , combined document of buddhist principles in `` the buddha and his dhamma '' . 
the pāli tipitaka , which means `` three baskets '' , refers to the vinaya pitaka , the sutta pitaka , and the abhidhamma pitaka . 
the pāli tipitaka , which means `` three baskets '' , refers to the vinaya pitaka , the sutta pitaka , and the abhidhamma pitaka . 
the pāli tipitaka , which means `` three baskets '' , refers to the vinaya pitaka , the sutta pitaka , and the abhidhamma pitaka . 
the pāli tipitaka , which means `` three baskets '' , refers to the vinaya pitaka , the sutta pitaka , and the abhidhamma pitaka . 
the pāli tipitaka , which means `` three baskets '' , refers to the vinaya pitaka , the sutta pitaka , and the abhidhamma pitaka . 
the pāli tipitaka is the only early tipitaka -lrb- sanskrit : tripiṭaka -rrb- to survive intact in its original language , but a number of early schools had their own recensions of the tipitaka featuring much of the same material . 
according to some sources , some early schools of buddhism had five or seven pitakas . 
according to the scriptures , soon after the death of the buddha , the first buddhist council was held ; a monk named mahākāśyapa -lrb- pāli : mahākassapa -rrb- presided . 
the goal of the council was to record the buddha 's teachings . 
upāli recited the vinaya . 
ānanda , the buddha 's personal attendant , was called upon to recite the dhamma . 
ānanda , the buddha 's personal attendant , was called upon to recite the dhamma . 
much of the material in the canon is not specifically `` theravadin '' , but is instead the collection of teachings that this school preserved from the early , non-sectarian body of teachings . 
he states : `` the theravadins , then , may have added texts to the canon for some time , but they do not appear to have tampered with what they already had from an earlier period . '' 
the mahayana sutras are a very broad genre of buddhist scriptures that the mahayana buddhist tradition holds are original teachings of the buddha . 
the mahayana sutras are a very broad genre of buddhist scriptures that the mahayana buddhist tradition holds are original teachings of the buddha . 
some adherents of mahayana accept both the early teachings -lrb- including in this the sarvastivada abhidharma , which was criticized by nagarjuna and is in fact opposed to early buddhist thought -rrb- and the mahayana sutras as authentic teachings of gautama buddha , and claim they were designed for different types of persons and different levels of spiritual understanding . 
the mahayana sutras often claim to articulate the buddha 's deeper , more advanced doctrines , reserved for those who follow the bodhisattva path . 
hence the name mahāyāna -lrb- lit. , the great vehicle -rrb- . 
the mahayana sutras often claim to articulate the buddha 's deeper , more advanced doctrines , reserved for those who follow the bodhisattva path . 
according to mahayana tradition , the mahayana sutras were transmitted in secret , came from other buddhas or bodhisattvas , or were preserved in non-human worlds because human beings at the time could not understand them : 
according to mahayana tradition , the mahayana sutras were transmitted in secret , came from other buddhas or bodhisattvas , or were preserved in non-human worlds because human beings at the time could not understand them : 
according to mahayana tradition , the mahayana sutras were transmitted in secret , came from other buddhas or bodhisattvas , or were preserved in non-human worlds because human beings at the time could not understand them : 
approximately six hundred mahayana sutras have survived in sanskrit or in chinese or tibetan translations . 
in addition , east asian buddhism recognizes some sutras regarded by scholars as of chinese rather than indian origin . 
it was not until after the 5th century ce that the mahayana sutras started to influence the behavior of mainstream buddhists in india : `` but outside of texts , at least in india , at exactly the same period , very different -- in fact seemingly older -- ideas and aspirations appear to be motivating actual behavior , and old and established hinnayana groups appear to be the only ones that are patronized and supported . '' 
these texts were apparently not universally accepted among indian buddhists when they appeared ; the pejorative label hinayana was applied by mahayana supporters to those who rejected the mahayana sutras . 
only the theravada school does not include the mahayana scriptures in its canon . 
as the modern theravada school is descended from a branch of buddhism that diverged and established itself in sri lanka prior to the emergence of the mahayana texts , debate exists as to whether the theravada were historically included in the hinayana designation ; in the modern era , this label is seen as derogatory , and is generally avoided . 
as the modern theravada school is descended from a branch of buddhism that diverged and established itself in sri lanka prior to the emergence of the mahayana texts , debate exists as to whether the theravada were historically included in the hinayana designation ; in the modern era , this label is seen as derogatory , and is generally avoided . 
jonathan silk has argued that the term `` hinayana '' was used to refer to whomever one wanted to criticize on any given occasion , and did not refer to any definite grouping of buddhists . 
she notes that the term śrāvakayāna was `` the more politically correct and much more usual '' term used by mahāyānists . 
buddhism provides many opportunities for comparative study with a diverse range of subjects . 
for example , buddhism 's emphasis on the middle way not only provides a unique guideline for ethics but has also allowed buddhism to peacefully coexist with various differing beliefs , customs and institutions in countries where it has resided throughout its history . 
also , its moral and spiritual parallels with other systems of thought -- for example , with various tenets of christianity -- have been subjects of close study . 
also , its moral and spiritual parallels with other systems of thought -- for example , with various tenets of christianity -- have been subjects of close study . 
in addition , the buddhist concept of dependent origination has been compared to modern scientific thought , as well as western metaphysics . 
there are differences of opinion on the question of whether or not buddhism should be considered a religion . 
there are differences of opinion on the question of whether or not buddhism should be considered a religion . 
american idol is an american singing competition series created by simon fuller and produced by 19 entertainment , and is distributed by fremantlemedia north america . 
american idol is an american singing competition series created by simon fuller and produced by 19 entertainment , and is distributed by fremantlemedia north america . 
it began airing on fox on june 11 , 2002 , as an addition to the idols format based on the british series pop idol and has since become one of the most successful shows in the history of american television . 
it began airing on fox on june 11 , 2002 , as an addition to the idols format based on the british series pop idol and has since become one of the most successful shows in the history of american television . 
it began airing on fox on june 11 , 2002 , as an addition to the idols format based on the british series pop idol and has since become one of the most successful shows in the history of american television . 
american idol is an american singing competition series created by simon fuller and produced by 19 entertainment , and is distributed by fremantlemedia north america . 
it began airing on fox on june 11 , 2002 , as an addition to the idols format based on the british series pop idol and has since become one of the most successful shows in the history of american television . 
american idol is an american singing competition series created by simon fuller and produced by 19 entertainment , and is distributed by fremantlemedia north america . 
american idol is an american singing competition series created by simon fuller and produced by 19 entertainment , and is distributed by fremantlemedia north america . 
it began airing on fox on june 11 , 2002 , as an addition to the idols format based on the british series pop idol and has since become one of the most successful shows in the history of american television . 
it began airing on fox on june 11 , 2002 , as an addition to the idols format based on the british series pop idol and has since become one of the most successful shows in the history of american television . 
the original judges were record producer and music manager randy jackson , pop singer and choreographer paula abdul and music executive and manager simon cowell . 
the show was originally hosted by radio personality ryan seacrest and comedian brian dunkleman , with seacrest continuing on for the rest of the seasons . 
the judging panel for the most recent season consisted of country singer keith urban , singer and actress jennifer lopez , and jazz singer harry connick , jr. . 
the show was originally hosted by radio personality ryan seacrest and comedian brian dunkleman , with seacrest continuing on for the rest of the seasons . 
the show was originally hosted by radio personality ryan seacrest and comedian brian dunkleman , with seacrest continuing on for the rest of the seasons . 
the original judges were record producer and music manager randy jackson , pop singer and choreographer paula abdul and music executive and manager simon cowell . 
the judging panel for the most recent season consisted of country singer keith urban , singer and actress jennifer lopez , and jazz singer harry connick , jr. . 
the original judges were record producer and music manager randy jackson , pop singer and choreographer paula abdul and music executive and manager simon cowell . 
the original judges were record producer and music manager randy jackson , pop singer and choreographer paula abdul and music executive and manager simon cowell . 
the original judges were record producer and music manager randy jackson , pop singer and choreographer paula abdul and music executive and manager simon cowell . 
the judging panel for the most recent season consisted of country singer keith urban , singer and actress jennifer lopez , and jazz singer harry connick , jr. . 
the judging panel for the most recent season consisted of country singer keith urban , singer and actress jennifer lopez , and jazz singer harry connick , jr. . 
according to billboard magazine , in its first ten years , `` idol has spawned 345 billboard chart-toppers and a platoon of pop idols , including kelly clarkson , carrie underwood , chris daughtry , fantasia , ruben studdard , jennifer hudson , clay aiken , adam lambert and jordin sparks while remaining a tv ratings juggernaut . '' 
according to billboard magazine , in its first ten years , `` idol has spawned 345 billboard chart-toppers and a platoon of pop idols , including kelly clarkson , carrie underwood , chris daughtry , fantasia , ruben studdard , jennifer hudson , clay aiken , adam lambert and jordin sparks while remaining a tv ratings juggernaut . '' 
the series was also said by a rival tv executive to be `` the most impactful show in the history of television '' . 
according to billboard magazine , in its first ten years , `` idol has spawned 345 billboard chart-toppers and a platoon of pop idols , including kelly clarkson , carrie underwood , chris daughtry , fantasia , ruben studdard , jennifer hudson , clay aiken , adam lambert and jordin sparks while remaining a tv ratings juggernaut . '' 
according to billboard magazine , in its first ten years , `` idol has spawned 345 billboard chart-toppers and a platoon of pop idols , including kelly clarkson , carrie underwood , chris daughtry , fantasia , ruben studdard , jennifer hudson , clay aiken , adam lambert and jordin sparks while remaining a tv ratings juggernaut . '' 
according to billboard magazine , in its first ten years , `` idol has spawned 345 billboard chart-toppers and a platoon of pop idols , including kelly clarkson , carrie underwood , chris daughtry , fantasia , ruben studdard , jennifer hudson , clay aiken , adam lambert and jordin sparks while remaining a tv ratings juggernaut . '' 
according to billboard magazine , in its first ten years , `` idol has spawned 345 billboard chart-toppers and a platoon of pop idols , including kelly clarkson , carrie underwood , chris daughtry , fantasia , ruben studdard , jennifer hudson , clay aiken , adam lambert and jordin sparks while remaining a tv ratings juggernaut . '' 
according to billboard magazine , in its first ten years , `` idol has spawned 345 billboard chart-toppers and a platoon of pop idols , including kelly clarkson , carrie underwood , chris daughtry , fantasia , ruben studdard , jennifer hudson , clay aiken , adam lambert and jordin sparks while remaining a tv ratings juggernaut . '' 
the series was also said by a rival tv executive to be `` the most impactful show in the history of television '' . 
the popularity of american idol however declined , and on may 11 , 2015 , fox announced that the series would conclude its run in its fifteenth season . 
the popularity of american idol however declined , and on may 11 , 2015 , fox announced that the series would conclude its run in its fifteenth season . 
the popularity of american idol however declined , and on may 11 , 2015 , fox announced that the series would conclude its run in its fifteenth season . 
for an unprecedented eight consecutive years , from the 2003 -- 04 television season through the 2010 -- 11 season , either its performance or result show had been ranked number one in u.s. television ratings . 
the popularity of american idol however declined , and on may 11 , 2015 , fox announced that the series would conclude its run in its fifteenth season . 
american idol was based on the british show pop idol created by simon fuller , which was in turn inspired by the new zealand television singing competition popstars . 
american idol was based on the british show pop idol created by simon fuller , which was in turn inspired by the new zealand television singing competition popstars . 
the show debuted in 2001 in britain with lythgoe as showrunner -- the executive producer and production leader -- and simon cowell as one of the judges , and was a big success with the viewing public . 
the show debuted in 2001 in britain with lythgoe as showrunner -- the executive producer and production leader -- and simon cowell as one of the judges , and was a big success with the viewing public . 
television producer nigel lythgoe saw it in australia and helped bring it over to britain . 
american idol was based on the british show pop idol created by simon fuller , which was in turn inspired by the new zealand television singing competition popstars . 
television producer nigel lythgoe saw it in australia and helped bring it over to britain . 
he then added other elements , such as telephone voting by the viewing public -lrb- which at the time was already in use in shows such as the eurovision song contest -rrb- , the drama of backstories and real-life soap opera unfolding in real time . 
the show debuted in 2001 in britain with lythgoe as showrunner -- the executive producer and production leader -- and simon cowell as one of the judges , and was a big success with the viewing public . 
television producer nigel lythgoe saw it in australia and helped bring it over to britain . 
by 2004 , it had become the most-watched show in the u.s. , a position it then held on for seven consecutive seasons . 
the show was renamed american idol : the search for a superstar and debuted in the summer of 2002 . 
in 2001 , fuller , cowell , and tv producer simon jones attempted to sell the pop idol format to the united states , but the idea was met with poor response from united states television networks . 
however , rupert murdoch , head of fox 's parent company , was persuaded to buy the show by his daughter elisabeth , who was a fan of the british show . 
however , rupert murdoch , head of fox 's parent company , was persuaded to buy the show by his daughter elisabeth , who was a fan of the british show . 
the show was renamed american idol : the search for a superstar and debuted in the summer of 2002 . 
the show decided to continue with the three judges format until season eight . 
the show had originally planned on having four judges following the pop idol format ; however , only three judges had been found by the time of the audition round in the first season , namely randy jackson , paula abdul and simon cowell . 
in the second season , new york radio personality angie martinez had been hired as a fourth judge but withdrew only after a few days of auditions due to not being comfortable with giving out criticism . 
a fourth judge , radio dj stryker , was originally chosen but he dropped out citing `` image concerns '' . 
the show had originally planned on having four judges following the pop idol format ; however , only three judges had been found by the time of the audition round in the first season , namely randy jackson , paula abdul and simon cowell . 
a fourth judge , radio dj stryker , was originally chosen but he dropped out citing `` image concerns '' . 
in the second season , new york radio personality angie martinez had been hired as a fourth judge but withdrew only after a few days of auditions due to not being comfortable with giving out criticism . 
the show decided to continue with the three judges format until season eight . 
in season eight , latin grammy award-nominated singer -- songwriter and record producer kara dioguardi was added as a fourth judge . 
emmy award-winning talk show host ellen degeneres replaced paula abdul for that season , but left after just one season . 
she stayed for two seasons and left the show before season ten . 
on january 11 , 2010 , simon cowell announced that he was leaving the show to pursue introducing the american version of his show the x factor to the usa for 2011 . 
on january 11 , 2010 , simon cowell announced that he was leaving the show to pursue introducing the american version of his show the x factor to the usa for 2011 . 
in season eight , latin grammy award-nominated singer -- songwriter and record producer kara dioguardi was added as a fourth judge . 
paula abdul left the show before season nine after failing to agree terms with the show producers . 
on january 11 , 2010 , simon cowell announced that he was leaving the show to pursue introducing the american version of his show the x factor to the usa for 2011 . 
emmy award-winning talk show host ellen degeneres replaced paula abdul for that season , but left after just one season . 
she stayed for two seasons and left the show before season ten . 
in season two , guest judges such as lionel richie and robin gibb were used , and in season three donna summer , quentin tarantino and some of the mentors also joined as judges to critique the performances in the final rounds . 
guest judges were used in the audition rounds for seasons four , six , nine , and fourteen such as gene simmons and ll cool j in season four , jewel and olivia newton-john in season six , shania twain in season eight , neil patrick harris , avril lavigne and katy perry in season nine , and season eight runner-up , adam lambert , in season fourteen . 
in season two , guest judges such as lionel richie and robin gibb were used , and in season three donna summer , quentin tarantino and some of the mentors also joined as judges to critique the performances in the final rounds . 
guest judges were used in the audition rounds for seasons four , six , nine , and fourteen such as gene simmons and ll cool j in season four , jewel and olivia newton-john in season six , shania twain in season eight , neil patrick harris , avril lavigne and katy perry in season nine , and season eight runner-up , adam lambert , in season fourteen . 
guest judges were used in the audition rounds for seasons four , six , nine , and fourteen such as gene simmons and ll cool j in season four , jewel and olivia newton-john in season six , shania twain in season eight , neil patrick harris , avril lavigne and katy perry in season nine , and season eight runner-up , adam lambert , in season fourteen . 
in season two , guest judges such as lionel richie and robin gibb were used , and in season three donna summer , quentin tarantino and some of the mentors also joined as judges to critique the performances in the final rounds . 
guest judges were used in the audition rounds for seasons four , six , nine , and fourteen such as gene simmons and ll cool j in season four , jewel and olivia newton-john in season six , shania twain in season eight , neil patrick harris , avril lavigne and katy perry in season nine , and season eight runner-up , adam lambert , in season fourteen . 
in season two , guest judges such as lionel richie and robin gibb were used , and in season three donna summer , quentin tarantino and some of the mentors also joined as judges to critique the performances in the final rounds . 
the first season was co-hosted by ryan seacrest and brian dunkleman . 
the first season was co-hosted by ryan seacrest and brian dunkleman . 
jimmy iovine was the mentor in the tenth through twelfth seasons , former judge randy jackson was the mentor for the thirteenth season and scott borchetta was the mentor for the fourteenth and fifteenth season . 
jimmy iovine was the mentor in the tenth through twelfth seasons , former judge randy jackson was the mentor for the thirteenth season and scott borchetta was the mentor for the fourteenth and fifteenth season . 
beginning in the tenth season -lsb- citation needed -rsb- , permanent mentors were brought in during the live shows to help guide the contestants with their song choice and performance . 
jimmy iovine was the mentor in the tenth through twelfth seasons , former judge randy jackson was the mentor for the thirteenth season and scott borchetta was the mentor for the fourteenth and fifteenth season . 
jimmy iovine was the mentor in the tenth through twelfth seasons , former judge randy jackson was the mentor for the thirteenth season and scott borchetta was the mentor for the fourteenth and fifteenth season . 
jimmy iovine was the mentor in the tenth through twelfth seasons , former judge randy jackson was the mentor for the thirteenth season and scott borchetta was the mentor for the fourteenth and fifteenth season . 
the eligible age-range for contestants is currently fifteen to twenty-eight years old . 
the initial age limit was sixteen to twenty-four in the first three seasons , but the upper limit was raised to twenty-eight in season four , and the lower limit was reduced to fifteen in season ten . 
the contestants must be legal u.s. residents , can not have advanced to particular stages of the competition in previous seasons -lrb- varies depending on the season , currently by the semi-final stage until season thirteen -rrb- , and must not hold any current recording or talent representation contract by the semi-final stage -lrb- in previous years by the audition stage -rrb- . 
contestants go through at least three sets of cuts . 
only then can they proceed to audition in front of the judges , which is the only audition stage shown on television . 
although auditions can exceed 10,000 in each city , only a few hundred of these make it past the preliminary round of auditions . 
only then can they proceed to audition in front of the judges , which is the only audition stage shown on television . 
contestants go through at least three sets of cuts . 
the first is a brief audition with a few other contestants in front of selectors which may include one of the show 's producers . 
those selected by the judges are sent to hollywood . 
in season seven , the group round was eliminated and contestants may , after a first solo performance and on judges approval , skip a second solo round and move directly to the final hollywood round . 
in seasons two and three , contestants were also asked to write original lyrics or melody in an additional round after the first round . 
until season ten , there were usually three rounds of eliminations in hollywood . 
in season twelve , the executive producers split up the females and males and chose the members to form the groups in the group round . 
until season ten , there were usually three rounds of eliminations in hollywood . 
once in hollywood , the contestants perform individually or in groups in a series of rounds . 
in seasons two and three , contestants were also asked to write original lyrics or melody in an additional round after the first round . 
in seasons ten and eleven , a further round was added in las vegas , where the contestants perform in groups based on a theme , followed by one final solo round to determine the semi-finalists . 
in season twelve the las vegas round became a sudden death round , where the judges had to choose five guys and five girls each night -lrb- four nights -rrb- to make the top twenty . 
in season twelve the las vegas round became a sudden death round , where the judges had to choose five guys and five girls each night -lrb- four nights -rrb- to make the top twenty . 
the number of text messages rapidly increased , reaching 178 million texts by season eight . 
over 110 million votes were cast in the first season , and by season ten the seasonal total had increased to nearly 750 million . 
the votes are counted and verified by telescope inc. . 
from the semi-finals onwards , the fate of the contestants is decided by public vote . 
over 110 million votes were cast in the first season , and by season ten the seasonal total had increased to nearly 750 million . 
over 110 million votes were cast in the first season , and by season ten the seasonal total had increased to nearly 750 million . 
in season one , there were three groups of ten , with the top three contestants from each group making the finals . 
these seasons also featured a wildcard round , where contestants who failed to qualify were given another chance . 
in season one , there were three groups of ten , with the top three contestants from each group making the finals . 
in seasons two and three , there were four groups of eight , and the top two of each selected . 
in season one , there were three groups of ten , with the top three contestants from each group making the finals . 
in season one , there were three groups of ten , with the top three contestants from each group making the finals . 
in seasons two and three , each of the three judges championed one contestant with the public advancing a fourth into the finals , making 12 finalists in all . 
from seasons four to seven and nine , the twenty-four semi-finalists were divided by gender in order to ensure an equal gender division in the top twelve . 
from seasons four to seven and nine , the twenty-four semi-finalists were divided by gender in order to ensure an equal gender division in the top twelve . 
the men and women sang separately on consecutive nights , and the bottom two in each groups were eliminated each week until only six of each remained to form the top twelve . 
the men and women sang separately on consecutive nights , and the bottom two in each groups were eliminated each week until only six of each remained to form the top twelve . 
from seasons four to seven and nine , the twenty-four semi-finalists were divided by gender in order to ensure an equal gender division in the top twelve . 
the wildcard round returned in season eight , wherein there were three groups of twelve , with three contestants moving forward -- the highest male , the highest female , and the next highest-placed singer - for each night , and four wildcards were chosen by the judges to produce a final 13 . 
the wildcard round returned in season eight , wherein there were three groups of twelve , with three contestants moving forward -- the highest male , the highest female , and the next highest-placed singer - for each night , and four wildcards were chosen by the judges to produce a final 13 . 
in seasons ten and eleven , five of each gender were chosen , and three wildcards were chosen by the judges to form a final 13 . 
in season thirteen , there were thirty semifinalists , but only twenty semifinalists -lrb- ten for each gender -rrb- were chosen by the judges to perform on the live shows , with five in each gender and three wildcards chosen by the judges composing the final 13 . 
the wildcard round returned in season eight , wherein there were three groups of twelve , with three contestants moving forward -- the highest male , the highest female , and the next highest-placed singer - for each night , and four wildcards were chosen by the judges to produce a final 13 . 
the wildcard round returned in season eight , wherein there were three groups of twelve , with three contestants moving forward -- the highest male , the highest female , and the next highest-placed singer - for each night , and four wildcards were chosen by the judges to produce a final 13 . 
the wildcard round returned in season eight , wherein there were three groups of twelve , with three contestants moving forward -- the highest male , the highest female , and the next highest-placed singer - for each night , and four wildcards were chosen by the judges to produce a final 13 . 
in season twelve , the top twenty semifinalists were split into gender groups , with five of each gender advancing to form the final 10 . 
the finals are broadcast in prime time from cbs television city in los angeles , in front of a live studio audience . 
in season ten , jimmy iovine was brought in as a mentor for the season . 
the finals lasted eight weeks in season one , eleven weeks in subsequent seasons until seasons ten and eleven which lasted twelve weeks except for season twelve , which lasted ten weeks , and season thirteen , which lasted for thirteen weeks . 
the finals lasted eight weeks in season one , eleven weeks in subsequent seasons until seasons ten and eleven which lasted twelve weeks except for season twelve , which lasted ten weeks , and season thirteen , which lasted for thirteen weeks . 
the finals are broadcast in prime time from cbs television city in los angeles , in front of a live studio audience . 
in season ten , jimmy iovine was brought in as a mentor for the season . 
the finals lasted eight weeks in season one , eleven weeks in subsequent seasons until seasons ten and eleven which lasted twelve weeks except for season twelve , which lasted ten weeks , and season thirteen , which lasted for thirteen weeks . 
initially the contestants sing one song each week , but this is increased to two songs from top four or five onwards , then three songs for the top two or three . 
moreover , starting in season eight , the judges may overturn viewers ' decision with a `` judges ' save '' if they unanimously agree to . 
`` the save '' can only be used once , and only up through the top five . 
one of these three is usually sent to safety ; however the two remaining are not necessarily the bottom two . 
however , in season six , during the series ' first ever idol gives back episode , no contestant was eliminated , but on the following week , two were sent home . 
the `` fan save '' was introduced in the fourteenth season . 
during the finals , viewers are given a five-minute window to vote for the contestants in danger of elimination by using their twitter account to decide which contestant will move on to the next show , starting with the top 8 . 
the `` fan save '' was introduced in the fourteenth season . 
during the finals , viewers are given a five-minute window to vote for the contestants in danger of elimination by using their twitter account to decide which contestant will move on to the next show , starting with the top 8 . 
during the finals , viewers are given a five-minute window to vote for the contestants in danger of elimination by using their twitter account to decide which contestant will move on to the next show , starting with the top 8 . 
in seasons seven through thirteen , the venue was at the nokia theatre , which holds an audience of over 7,000 . 
for seasons one , three through six , and fourteen , it was broadcast from the dolby theatre , which has an audience capacity of approximately 3,400 . 
the finale is the two-hour last episode of the season , culminating in revealing the winner . 
for seasons one , three through six , and fourteen , it was broadcast from the dolby theatre , which has an audience capacity of approximately 3,400 . 
for seasons one , three through six , and fourteen , it was broadcast from the dolby theatre , which has an audience capacity of approximately 3,400 . 
the finale for season two took place at the gibson amphitheatre , which has an audience capacity of over 6,000 . 
in seasons seven through thirteen , the venue was at the nokia theatre , which holds an audience of over 7,000 . 
the winner receives a record deal with a major label , which may be for up to six albums , and secures a management contract with american idol-affiliated 19 management -lrb- which has the right of first refusal to sign all contestants -rrb- , as well as various lucrative contracts . 
starting in the fourteenth season , the winner was signed with big machine records . 
bmg/sony -lrb- seasons 1 -- 9 -rrb- and umg -lrb- season 10 -- -rrb- had the right of first refusal to sign contestants for three months after the season 's finale . 
the winner receives a record deal with a major label , which may be for up to six albums , and secures a management contract with american idol-affiliated 19 management -lrb- which has the right of first refusal to sign all contestants -rrb- , as well as various lucrative contracts . 
the winner receives a record deal with a major label , which may be for up to six albums , and secures a management contract with american idol-affiliated 19 management -lrb- which has the right of first refusal to sign all contestants -rrb- , as well as various lucrative contracts . 
starting in the fourteenth season , the winner was signed with big machine records . 
each successful contestant receives a golden ticket to proceed on to the next round in hollywood . 
each successful contestant receives a golden ticket to proceed on to the next round in hollywood . 
the contestants are voted for by the viewing public , and the outcome of the public votes is then revealed in the results show typically on the following night . 
starting with season seven , contestants may perform with a musical instrument from the hollywood rounds onwards . 
from season four to season nine , the american idol band was led by rickey minor ; from season ten onwards , ray chew . 
from season four to season nine , the american idol band was led by rickey minor ; from season ten onwards , ray chew . 
from season four to season nine , the american idol band was led by rickey minor ; from season ten onwards , ray chew . 
from season four to season nine , the american idol band was led by rickey minor ; from season ten onwards , ray chew . 
from season four to season nine , the american idol band was led by rickey minor ; from season ten onwards , ray chew . 
starting with season seven , contestants may perform with a musical instrument from the hollywood rounds onwards . 
the first season of american idol debuted as a summer replacement show in june 2002 on the fox network . 
the first season of american idol debuted as a summer replacement show in june 2002 on the fox network . 
it was co-hosted by ryan seacrest and brian dunkleman . 
the first season of american idol debuted as a summer replacement show in june 2002 on the fox network . 
the first season of american idol debuted as a summer replacement show in june 2002 on the fox network . 
it was co-hosted by ryan seacrest and brian dunkleman . 
in the audition rounds , 121 contestants were selected from around 10,000 who attended the auditions . 
in the audition rounds , 121 contestants were selected from around 10,000 who attended the auditions . 
jim verraros was the first openly gay contestant on the show ; his sexual orientation was revealed in his online journal , however it was removed during the competition after a request from the show producers over concerns that it might be unfairly influencing votes . 
one of the early favorites , tamyra gray , was eliminated at the top four , the first of several such shock eliminations that were to be repeated in later seasons . 
christina christian was hospitalized before the top six result show due to chest pains and palpitations , and she was eliminated while she was in the hospital . 
in the audition rounds , 121 contestants were selected from around 10,000 who attended the auditions . 
these were cut to 30 for the semifinal , with ten going on to the finals . 
one semifinalist , delano cagnolatti , was disqualified for lying to evade the show 's age limit . 
one of the early favorites , tamyra gray , was eliminated at the top four , the first of several such shock eliminations that were to be repeated in later seasons . 
christina christian was hospitalized before the top six result show due to chest pains and palpitations , and she was eliminated while she was in the hospital . 
clarkson was not initially thought of as a contender , but impressed the judges with some good performances in the final rounds , such as her performance of aretha franklin 's `` natural woman '' , and betty hutton 's `` stuff like that there '' , and eventually won the crown on september 4 , 2002 . 
the final showdown was between justin guarini , one of the early favorites , and kelly clarkson . 
clarkson was not initially thought of as a contender , but impressed the judges with some good performances in the final rounds , such as her performance of aretha franklin 's `` natural woman '' , and betty hutton 's `` stuff like that there '' , and eventually won the crown on september 4 , 2002 . 
the final showdown was between justin guarini , one of the early favorites , and kelly clarkson . 
the final showdown was between justin guarini , one of the early favorites , and kelly clarkson . 
clarkson was not initially thought of as a contender , but impressed the judges with some good performances in the final rounds , such as her performance of aretha franklin 's `` natural woman '' , and betty hutton 's `` stuff like that there '' , and eventually won the crown on september 4 , 2002 . 
the single , `` a moment like this '' , went on to break a 38-year-old record held by the beatles for the biggest leap to number one on the billboard hot 100 . 
both clarkson and guarini made a musical film , from justin to kelly , which was released in 2003 but was widely panned . 
clarkson has since become the most successful idol contestant internationally , with worldwide album sales of more than 23 million . 
the single , `` a moment like this '' , went on to break a 38-year-old record held by the beatles for the biggest leap to number one on the billboard hot 100 . 
in what was to become a tradition , clarkson performed the coronation song during the finale , and released the song immediately after the season ended . 
the single , `` a moment like this '' , went on to break a 38-year-old record held by the beatles for the biggest leap to number one on the billboard hot 100 . 
the single , `` a moment like this '' , went on to break a 38-year-old record held by the beatles for the biggest leap to number one on the billboard hot 100 . 
both clarkson and guarini made a musical film , from justin to kelly , which was released in 2003 but was widely panned . 
clarkson has since become the most successful idol contestant internationally , with worldwide album sales of more than 23 million . 
following the success of season one , the second season was moved up to air in january 2003 . 
kristin adams was a correspondent for this season . 
following the success of season one , the second season was moved up to air in january 2003 . 
kristin adams was a correspondent for this season . 
corey clark was disqualified during the finals for having an undisclosed police record ; however , he later alleged that he and paula abdul had an affair while on the show and that this contributed to his expulsion . 
two semi-finalists were also disqualified that year -- jaered andrews for an arrest on an assault charge , and frenchie davis for having previously modelled for an adult website . 
corey clark was disqualified during the finals for having an undisclosed police record ; however , he later alleged that he and paula abdul had an affair while on the show and that this contributed to his expulsion . 
two semi-finalists were also disqualified that year -- jaered andrews for an arrest on an assault charge , and frenchie davis for having previously modelled for an adult website . 
corey clark was disqualified during the finals for having an undisclosed police record ; however , he later alleged that he and paula abdul had an affair while on the show and that this contributed to his expulsion . 
two semi-finalists were also disqualified that year -- jaered andrews for an arrest on an assault charge , and frenchie davis for having previously modelled for an adult website . 
two semi-finalists were also disqualified that year -- jaered andrews for an arrest on an assault charge , and frenchie davis for having previously modelled for an adult website . 
ruben studdard emerged as the winner , beating clay aiken by a small margin . 
out of a total of 24 million votes , studdard finished just 134,000 votes ahead of aiken . 
ruben studdard emerged as the winner , beating clay aiken by a small margin . 
out of a total of 24 million votes , studdard finished just 134,000 votes ahead of aiken . 
in an interview prior to season five , executive producer nigel lythgoe indicated that aiken had led the fan voting from the wildcard week onward until the finale . 
ruben studdard emerged as the winner , beating clay aiken by a small margin . 
ruben studdard emerged as the winner , beating clay aiken by a small margin . 
out of a total of 24 million votes , studdard finished just 134,000 votes ahead of aiken . 
out of a total of 24 million votes , studdard finished just 134,000 votes ahead of aiken . 
ruben studdard emerged as the winner , beating clay aiken by a small margin . 
both finalists found success after the show , but aiken out-performed studdard 's coronation song `` flying without wings '' with his single release from the show `` this is the night '' , as well as in their subsequent album releases . 
the fourth-place finisher josh gracin also enjoyed some success as a country singer . 
both finalists found success after the show , but aiken out-performed studdard 's coronation song `` flying without wings '' with his single release from the show `` this is the night '' , as well as in their subsequent album releases . 
both finalists found success after the show , but aiken out-performed studdard 's coronation song `` flying without wings '' with his single release from the show `` this is the night '' , as well as in their subsequent album releases . 
both finalists found success after the show , but aiken out-performed studdard 's coronation song `` flying without wings '' with his single release from the show `` this is the night '' , as well as in their subsequent album releases . 
both finalists found success after the show , but aiken out-performed studdard 's coronation song `` flying without wings '' with his single release from the show `` this is the night '' , as well as in their subsequent album releases . 
the fourth-place finisher josh gracin also enjoyed some success as a country singer . 
season three premiered on january 19 , 2004 . 
one of the most talked-about contestants during the audition process was william hung whose off-key rendition of ricky martin 's `` she bangs '' received widespread attention . 
one of the most talked-about contestants during the audition process was william hung whose off-key rendition of ricky martin 's `` she bangs '' received widespread attention . 
season three premiered on january 19 , 2004 . 
one of the most talked-about contestants during the audition process was william hung whose off-key rendition of ricky martin 's `` she bangs '' received widespread attention . 
one of the most talked-about contestants during the audition process was william hung whose off-key rendition of ricky martin 's `` she bangs '' received widespread attention . 
much media attention on the season had been focused on the three black singers , fantasia barrino , latoya london , and jennifer hudson , dubbed the three divas . 
much media attention on the season had been focused on the three black singers , fantasia barrino , latoya london , and jennifer hudson , dubbed the three divas . 
elton john , who was one of the mentors that season , called the results of the votes `` incredibly racist '' . 
the prolonged stays of john stevens and jasmine trias in the finals , despite negative comments from the judges , had aroused resentment , so much so that john stevens reportedly received a death threat , which he dismissed as a joke ` blown out of proportion ' . 
much media attention on the season had been focused on the three black singers , fantasia barrino , latoya london , and jennifer hudson , dubbed the three divas . 
much media attention on the season had been focused on the three black singers , fantasia barrino , latoya london , and jennifer hudson , dubbed the three divas . 
elton john , who was one of the mentors that season , called the results of the votes `` incredibly racist '' . 
the prolonged stays of john stevens and jasmine trias in the finals , despite negative comments from the judges , had aroused resentment , so much so that john stevens reportedly received a death threat , which he dismissed as a joke ` blown out of proportion ' . 
fantasia and diana degarmo were the last two finalists , and fantasia was crowned as the winner . 
fantasia released as her coronation single `` i believe '' , a song co-written by season one finalist tamyra gray , and degarmo released `` dreams '' . 
fantasia released as her coronation single `` i believe '' , a song co-written by season one finalist tamyra gray , and degarmo released `` dreams '' . 
the performance of `` summertime '' by barrino , later known simply as `` fantasia '' , at top 8 was widely praised , and simon cowell considered it as his favorite idol moment in the nine seasons he was on the show . 
the performance of `` summertime '' by barrino , later known simply as `` fantasia '' , at top 8 was widely praised , and simon cowell considered it as his favorite idol moment in the nine seasons he was on the show . 
fantasia and diana degarmo were the last two finalists , and fantasia was crowned as the winner . 
the performance of `` summertime '' by barrino , later known simply as `` fantasia '' , at top 8 was widely praised , and simon cowell considered it as his favorite idol moment in the nine seasons he was on the show . 
fantasia released as her coronation single `` i believe '' , a song co-written by season one finalist tamyra gray , and degarmo released `` dreams '' . 
the top 12 finalists originally included mario vazquez , but he dropped out citing ` personal reasons ' and was replaced by nikko smith . 
the top 12 finalists originally included mario vazquez , but he dropped out citing ` personal reasons ' and was replaced by nikko smith . 
later , an employee of freemantle media , which produces the show , sued the company for wrongful termination , claiming that he was dismissed after complaining about lewd behavior by vazquez toward him during the show . 
the top 12 finalists originally included mario vazquez , but he dropped out citing ` personal reasons ' and was replaced by nikko smith . 
during the top 11 week , due to a mix-up with the contestants ' telephone number , voting was repeated on what was normally the result night , with the result reveal postponed until the following night . 
during the top 11 week , due to a mix-up with the contestants ' telephone number , voting was repeated on what was normally the result night , with the result reveal postponed until the following night . 
in may 2005 , carrie underwood was announced the winner , with bice the runner-up . 
underwood has since sold 65 million records worldwide , and become the most successful idol contestant in the u.s. , selling over 14 million albums copies in the u.s. and has more underwood has won seven grammy awards , the most grammys by an `` american idol '' alumnus . 
both underwood and bice released the coronation song `` inside your heaven '' . 
in may 2005 , carrie underwood was announced the winner , with bice the runner-up . 
in may 2005 , carrie underwood was announced the winner , with bice the runner-up . 
in may 2005 , carrie underwood was announced the winner , with bice the runner-up . 
both underwood and bice released the coronation song `` inside your heaven '' . 
underwood has since sold 65 million records worldwide , and become the most successful idol contestant in the u.s. , selling over 14 million albums copies in the u.s. and has more underwood has won seven grammy awards , the most grammys by an `` american idol '' alumnus . 
season five began on january 17 , 2006 . 
two of the more prominent contestants during the hollywood round were the brittenum twins who were later disqualified for identity theft . 
season five began on january 17 , 2006 . 
season five began on january 17 , 2006 . 
two of the more prominent contestants during the hollywood round were the brittenum twins who were later disqualified for identity theft . 
chris daughtry 's performance of fuel 's `` hemorrhage -lrb- in my hands -rrb- '' on the show was widely praised and led to an invitation to join the band as fuel 's new lead singer , an invitation he declined . 
chris daughtry 's performance of fuel 's `` hemorrhage -lrb- in my hands -rrb- '' on the show was widely praised and led to an invitation to join the band as fuel 's new lead singer , an invitation he declined . 
chris daughtry 's performance of fuel 's `` hemorrhage -lrb- in my hands -rrb- '' on the show was widely praised and led to an invitation to join the band as fuel 's new lead singer , an invitation he declined . 
chris daughtry 's performance of fuel 's `` hemorrhage -lrb- in my hands -rrb- '' on the show was widely praised and led to an invitation to join the band as fuel 's new lead singer , an invitation he declined . 
chris daughtry 's performance of fuel 's `` hemorrhage -lrb- in my hands -rrb- '' on the show was widely praised and led to an invitation to join the band as fuel 's new lead singer , an invitation he declined . 
chris daughtry 's performance of fuel 's `` hemorrhage -lrb- in my hands -rrb- '' on the show was widely praised and led to an invitation to join the band as fuel 's new lead singer , an invitation he declined . 
his performance of live 's version of `` i walk the line '' was well received by the judges but later criticized in some quarters for not crediting the arrangement to live . 
his performance of live 's version of `` i walk the line '' was well received by the judges but later criticized in some quarters for not crediting the arrangement to live . 
on may 30 , 2006 , taylor hicks was named american idol , with katharine mcphee the runner-up . 
`` do i make you proud '' was released as hicks ' first single and mcphee 's was `` my destiny '' . 
`` do i make you proud '' was released as hicks ' first single and mcphee 's was `` my destiny '' . 
on may 30 , 2006 , taylor hicks was named american idol , with katharine mcphee the runner-up . 
on may 30 , 2006 , taylor hicks was named american idol , with katharine mcphee the runner-up . 
`` do i make you proud '' was released as hicks ' first single and mcphee 's was `` my destiny '' . 
`` do i make you proud '' was released as hicks ' first single and mcphee 's was `` my destiny '' . 
despite being eliminated earlier in the season , chris daughtry -lrb- as lead of the band daughtry -rrb- became the most successful recording artist from this season . 
despite being eliminated earlier in the season , chris daughtry -lrb- as lead of the band daughtry -rrb- became the most successful recording artist from this season . 
despite being eliminated earlier in the season , chris daughtry -lrb- as lead of the band daughtry -rrb- became the most successful recording artist from this season . 
despite being eliminated earlier in the season , chris daughtry -lrb- as lead of the band daughtry -rrb- became the most successful recording artist from this season . 
season six began on tuesday , january 16 , 2007 . 
the premiere drew a massive audience of 37.3 million viewers , peaking in the last half hour with more than 41 million viewers . 
season six began on tuesday , january 16 , 2007 . 
the premiere drew a massive audience of 37.3 million viewers , peaking in the last half hour with more than 41 million viewers . 
teenager sanjaya malakar was the season 's most talked-about contestant for his unusual hairdo , and for managing to survive elimination for many weeks due in part to the weblog vote for the worst and satellite radio personality howard stern , who both encouraged fans to vote for him . 
teenager sanjaya malakar was the season 's most talked-about contestant for his unusual hairdo , and for managing to survive elimination for many weeks due in part to the weblog vote for the worst and satellite radio personality howard stern , who both encouraged fans to vote for him . 
teenager sanjaya malakar was the season 's most talked-about contestant for his unusual hairdo , and for managing to survive elimination for many weeks due in part to the weblog vote for the worst and satellite radio personality howard stern , who both encouraged fans to vote for him . 
however , on april 18 , sanjaya was voted off . 
teenager sanjaya malakar was the season 's most talked-about contestant for his unusual hairdo , and for managing to survive elimination for many weeks due in part to the weblog vote for the worst and satellite radio personality howard stern , who both encouraged fans to vote for him . 
teenager sanjaya malakar was the season 's most talked-about contestant for his unusual hairdo , and for managing to survive elimination for many weeks due in part to the weblog vote for the worst and satellite radio personality howard stern , who both encouraged fans to vote for him . 
teenager sanjaya malakar was the season 's most talked-about contestant for his unusual hairdo , and for managing to survive elimination for many weeks due in part to the weblog vote for the worst and satellite radio personality howard stern , who both encouraged fans to vote for him . 
teenager sanjaya malakar was the season 's most talked-about contestant for his unusual hairdo , and for managing to survive elimination for many weeks due in part to the weblog vote for the worst and satellite radio personality howard stern , who both encouraged fans to vote for him . 
teenager sanjaya malakar was the season 's most talked-about contestant for his unusual hairdo , and for managing to survive elimination for many weeks due in part to the weblog vote for the worst and satellite radio personality howard stern , who both encouraged fans to vote for him . 
however , on april 18 , sanjaya was voted off . 
this season saw the first idol gives back telethon-inspired event , which raised more than $ 76 million in corporate and viewer donations . 
this season saw the first idol gives back telethon-inspired event , which raised more than $ 76 million in corporate and viewer donations . 
melinda doolittle was eliminated in the final three . 
this season saw the first idol gives back telethon-inspired event , which raised more than $ 76 million in corporate and viewer donations . 
no contestant was eliminated that week , but two -lrb- phil stacey and chris richardson -rrb- were eliminated the next . 
melinda doolittle was eliminated in the final three . 
in the may 23 season finale , jordin sparks was declared the winner with the runner-up being blake lewis . 
in the may 23 season finale , jordin sparks was declared the winner with the runner-up being blake lewis . 
in the may 23 season finale , jordin sparks was declared the winner with the runner-up being blake lewis . 
in the may 23 season finale , jordin sparks was declared the winner with the runner-up being blake lewis . 
in the may 23 season finale , jordin sparks was declared the winner with the runner-up being blake lewis . 
in the may 23 season finale , jordin sparks was declared the winner with the runner-up being blake lewis . 
season four premiered on january 18 , 2005 ; this was the first season of the series to be aired in high definition , although the finale of season three was also aired in high definition . 
the number of those attending the auditions by now had increased to over 100,000 from the 10,000 of the first season . 
the age limit was raised to 28 in this season , and among those who benefited from this new rule were constantine maroulis and bo bice , the two rockers of the show . 
season four premiered on january 18 , 2005 ; this was the first season of the series to be aired in high definition , although the finale of season three was also aired in high definition . 
season four premiered on january 18 , 2005 ; this was the first season of the series to be aired in high definition , although the finale of season three was also aired in high definition . 
season four premiered on january 18 , 2005 ; this was the first season of the series to be aired in high definition , although the finale of season three was also aired in high definition . 
season four premiered on january 18 , 2005 ; this was the first season of the series to be aired in high definition , although the finale of season three was also aired in high definition . 
the number of those attending the auditions by now had increased to over 100,000 from the 10,000 of the first season . 
the age limit was raised to 28 in this season , and among those who benefited from this new rule were constantine maroulis and bo bice , the two rockers of the show . 
the winning song , `` this is my now '' , was performed by both finalists during the finale and released by sparks on may 24 , 2007 . 
the winning song , `` this is my now '' , was performed by both finalists during the finale and released by sparks on may 24 , 2007 . 
thousands of recordings of original songs were submitted by songwriters , and 20 entries selected for the public vote . 
this season also saw the launch of the american idol songwriter contest which allows fans to vote for the `` coronation song '' . 
this season also saw the launch of the american idol songwriter contest which allows fans to vote for the `` coronation song '' . 
thousands of recordings of original songs were submitted by songwriters , and 20 entries selected for the public vote . 
the winning song , `` this is my now '' , was performed by both finalists during the finale and released by sparks on may 24 , 2007 . 
the winning song , `` this is my now '' , was performed by both finalists during the finale and released by sparks on may 24 , 2007 . 
season seven premiered on january 15 , 2008 , for a two-day , four-hour premiere . 
contestant david hernandez also attracted some attention due to his past employment as a stripper . 
the media focused on the professional status of the season seven contestants , the so-called ` ringers ' , many of whom , including kristy lee cook , brooke white , michael johns , and in particular carly smithson , had prior recording contracts . 
season seven premiered on january 15 , 2008 , for a two-day , four-hour premiere . 
contestant david hernandez also attracted some attention due to his past employment as a stripper . 
the media focused on the professional status of the season seven contestants , the so-called ` ringers ' , many of whom , including kristy lee cook , brooke white , michael johns , and in particular carly smithson , had prior recording contracts . 
the media focused on the professional status of the season seven contestants , the so-called ` ringers ' , many of whom , including kristy lee cook , brooke white , michael johns , and in particular carly smithson , had prior recording contracts . 
david cook 's performance of `` billie jean '' on top-ten night was lauded by the judges , but provoked controversy when they apparently mistook the chris cornell arrangement to be david cook 's own even though the performance was introduced as cornell 's version . 
david cook 's performance of `` billie jean '' on top-ten night was lauded by the judges , but provoked controversy when they apparently mistook the chris cornell arrangement to be david cook 's own even though the performance was introduced as cornell 's version . 
david cook 's performance of `` billie jean '' on top-ten night was lauded by the judges , but provoked controversy when they apparently mistook the chris cornell arrangement to be david cook 's own even though the performance was introduced as cornell 's version . 
for the finals , american idol debuted a new state-of-the-art set and stage on march 11 , 2008 , along with a new on-air look . 
for the finals , american idol debuted a new state-of-the-art set and stage on march 11 , 2008 , along with a new on-air look . 
david cook 's performance of `` billie jean '' on top-ten night was lauded by the judges , but provoked controversy when they apparently mistook the chris cornell arrangement to be david cook 's own even though the performance was introduced as cornell 's version . 
david cook 's performance of `` billie jean '' on top-ten night was lauded by the judges , but provoked controversy when they apparently mistook the chris cornell arrangement to be david cook 's own even though the performance was introduced as cornell 's version . 
david archuleta 's performance of john lennon 's `` imagine '' was considered by many as one of the best of the season . 
jennifer lopez , who was brought in as a judge in season ten , called it a beautiful song-moment that she will never forget . 
jason castro 's semi-final performance of `` hallelujah '' also received considerable attention , and it propelled jeff buckley 's version of the song to the top of the billboard digital song chart . 
jason castro 's semi-final performance of `` hallelujah '' also received considerable attention , and it propelled jeff buckley 's version of the song to the top of the billboard digital song chart . 
this was the first season in which contestants ' recordings were released onto itunes after their performances , and although sales information was not released so as not to prejudice the contest , leaked information indicated that contestants ' songs frequently reached the top of itunes sales charts . 
david archuleta 's performance of john lennon 's `` imagine '' was considered by many as one of the best of the season . 
jennifer lopez , who was brought in as a judge in season ten , called it a beautiful song-moment that she will never forget . 
jason castro 's semi-final performance of `` hallelujah '' also received considerable attention , and it propelled jeff buckley 's version of the song to the top of the billboard digital song chart . 
jason castro 's semi-final performance of `` hallelujah '' also received considerable attention , and it propelled jeff buckley 's version of the song to the top of the billboard digital song chart . 
this was the first season in which contestants ' recordings were released onto itunes after their performances , and although sales information was not released so as not to prejudice the contest , leaked information indicated that contestants ' songs frequently reached the top of itunes sales charts . 
david cook was announced the winner on may 21 , 2008 , the first rocker to win the show . 
david cook was announced the winner on may 21 , 2008 , the first rocker to win the show . 
david cook was announced the winner on may 21 , 2008 , the first rocker to win the show . 
david cook was announced the winner on may 21 , 2008 , the first rocker to win the show . 
the winning song , `` the time of my life '' , was recorded by david cook and released on may 22 , 2008 . 
the american idol songwriter contest was also held this season . 
the winning song , `` the time of my life '' , was recorded by david cook and released on may 22 , 2008 . 
the winning song , `` the time of my life '' , was recorded by david cook and released on may 22 , 2008 . 
the winning song , `` the time of my life '' , was recorded by david cook and released on may 22 , 2008 . 
season eight premiered on january 13 , 2009 . 
much early attention on the show was therefore focused on the widowhood of danny gokey . 
mike darnell , the president of alternative programming for fox , stated that the season would focus more on the contestants ' personal life . 
season eight premiered on january 13 , 2009 . 
season eight premiered on january 13 , 2009 . 
mike darnell , the president of alternative programming for fox , stated that the season would focus more on the contestants ' personal life . 
much early attention on the show was therefore focused on the widowhood of danny gokey . 
in the first major change to the judging panel , a fourth judge , kara dioguardi , was introduced . 
the hollywood round was moved to the kodak theatre for 2009 and was also extended to two weeks . 
this was also the first season without executive producer nigel lythgoe who left to focus on the international versions of his show so you think you can dance . 
the hollywood round was moved to the kodak theatre for 2009 and was also extended to two weeks . 
idol gives back was canceled for this season due to the global recession at the time . 
in the first major change to the judging panel , a fourth judge , kara dioguardi , was introduced . 
in the first major change to the judging panel , a fourth judge , kara dioguardi , was introduced . 
this was also the first season without executive producer nigel lythgoe who left to focus on the international versions of his show so you think you can dance . 
the hollywood round was moved to the kodak theatre for 2009 and was also extended to two weeks . 
idol gives back was canceled for this season due to the global recession at the time . 
there were 13 finalists this season , but two were eliminated in the first result show of the finals . 
a new feature introduced was the `` judges ' save '' , and matt giraud was saved from elimination at the top seven by the judges when he received the fewest votes . 
there were 13 finalists this season , but two were eliminated in the first result show of the finals . 
there were 13 finalists this season , but two were eliminated in the first result show of the finals . 
the next week , lil rounds and anoop desai were eliminated . 
there were 13 finalists this season , but two were eliminated in the first result show of the finals . 
there were 13 finalists this season , but two were eliminated in the first result show of the finals . 
a new feature introduced was the `` judges ' save '' , and matt giraud was saved from elimination at the top seven by the judges when he received the fewest votes . 
the two finalists were kris allen and adam lambert , both of whom had previously landed in the bottom three at the top five . 
the two finalists were kris allen and adam lambert , both of whom had previously landed in the bottom three at the top five . 
it was claimed , later retracted , that 38 million of the 100 million votes cast on the night came from allen 's home state of arkansas alone , and that at&t employees unfairly influenced the votes by giving lessons on power-texting at viewing parties in arkansas . 
it was claimed , later retracted , that 38 million of the 100 million votes cast on the night came from allen 's home state of arkansas alone , and that at&t employees unfairly influenced the votes by giving lessons on power-texting at viewing parties in arkansas . 
the two finalists were kris allen and adam lambert , both of whom had previously landed in the bottom three at the top five . 
allen won the contest in the most controversial voting result since season two . 
it was claimed , later retracted , that 38 million of the 100 million votes cast on the night came from allen 's home state of arkansas alone , and that at&t employees unfairly influenced the votes by giving lessons on power-texting at viewing parties in arkansas . 
it was claimed , later retracted , that 38 million of the 100 million votes cast on the night came from allen 's home state of arkansas alone , and that at&t employees unfairly influenced the votes by giving lessons on power-texting at viewing parties in arkansas . 
both allen and lambert released the coronation song , `` no boundaries '' which was co-written by dioguardi . 
both allen and lambert released the coronation song , `` no boundaries '' which was co-written by dioguardi . 
both allen and lambert released the coronation song , `` no boundaries '' which was co-written by dioguardi . 
both allen and lambert released the coronation song , `` no boundaries '' which was co-written by dioguardi . 
this is the first season in which the winner failed to achieve gold album status , and none from that season achieved platinum album status in the u.s. -lsb- citation needed -rsb- 
this is the first season in which the winner failed to achieve gold album status , and none from that season achieved platinum album status in the u.s. -lsb- citation needed -rsb- 
season nine premiered on january 12 , 2010 . 
ellen degeneres joined as a judge to replace paula abdul at the start of hollywood week . 
ellen degeneres joined as a judge to replace paula abdul at the start of hollywood week . 
season nine premiered on january 12 , 2010 . 
ellen degeneres joined as a judge to replace paula abdul at the start of hollywood week . 
ellen degeneres joined as a judge to replace paula abdul at the start of hollywood week . 
ellen degeneres joined as a judge to replace paula abdul at the start of hollywood week . 
crystal bowersox , who has type-i diabetes , fell ill due to diabetic ketoacidosis on the morning of the girls performance night for the top 20 week and was hospitalized . 
the schedule was rearranged so the boys performed first and she could perform the following night instead ; she later revealed that ken warwick , the show producer , wanted to disqualify her but she begged to be allowed to stay on the show . 
crystal bowersox , who has type-i diabetes , fell ill due to diabetic ketoacidosis on the morning of the girls performance night for the top 20 week and was hospitalized . 
crystal bowersox , who has type-i diabetes , fell ill due to diabetic ketoacidosis on the morning of the girls performance night for the top 20 week and was hospitalized . 
crystal bowersox , who has type-i diabetes , fell ill due to diabetic ketoacidosis on the morning of the girls performance night for the top 20 week and was hospitalized . 
the schedule was rearranged so the boys performed first and she could perform the following night instead ; she later revealed that ken warwick , the show producer , wanted to disqualify her but she begged to be allowed to stay on the show . 
the schedule was rearranged so the boys performed first and she could perform the following night instead ; she later revealed that ken warwick , the show producer , wanted to disqualify her but she begged to be allowed to stay on the show . 
the schedule was rearranged so the boys performed first and she could perform the following night instead ; she later revealed that ken warwick , the show producer , wanted to disqualify her but she begged to be allowed to stay on the show . 
michael lynche was the lowest vote getter at top nine and was given the judges ' save . 
michael lynche was the lowest vote getter at top nine and was given the judges ' save . 
that week , adam lambert was invited back to be a mentor , the first idol alum to do so . 
idol gives back returned this season on april 21 , 2010 , and raised $ 45 million . 
michael lynche was the lowest vote getter at top nine and was given the judges ' save . 
that week , adam lambert was invited back to be a mentor , the first idol alum to do so . 
a special tribute to simon cowell was presented in the finale for his final season with the show . 
a special tribute to simon cowell was presented in the finale for his final season with the show . 
a special tribute to simon cowell was presented in the finale for his final season with the show . 
many figures from the show 's past , including paula abdul , made an appearance . 
the final two contestants were lee dewyze and bowersox . 
no new song was used as coronation song this year ; instead , the two finalists each released a cover song -- dewyze chose u2 's `` beautiful day '' , and bowersox chose patty griffin 's `` up to the mountain '' . 
dewyze was declared the winner during the may 26 finale . 
the final two contestants were lee dewyze and bowersox . 
no new song was used as coronation song this year ; instead , the two finalists each released a cover song -- dewyze chose u2 's `` beautiful day '' , and bowersox chose patty griffin 's `` up to the mountain '' . 
no new song was used as coronation song this year ; instead , the two finalists each released a cover song -- dewyze chose u2 's `` beautiful day '' , and bowersox chose patty griffin 's `` up to the mountain '' . 
season ten of the series premiered on january 19 , 2011 . 
season ten of the series premiered on january 19 , 2011 . 
jimmy iovine , chairman of the interscope geffen a&m label group , the new partner of american idol , acted as the in-house mentor in place of weekly guest mentors , although in later episodes special guest mentors such as beyoncé , will.i.am and lady gaga were brought in . 
jennifer lopez and steven tyler joined randy jackson as judges following the departures of simon cowell -lrb- who left to launch the u.s. version of the x factor -rrb- , kara dioguardi -lrb- whose contract was not renewed -rrb- and ellen degeneres , while nigel lythgoe returned as executive producer . 
jennifer lopez and steven tyler joined randy jackson as judges following the departures of simon cowell -lrb- who left to launch the u.s. version of the x factor -rrb- , kara dioguardi -lrb- whose contract was not renewed -rrb- and ellen degeneres , while nigel lythgoe returned as executive producer . 
season ten of the series premiered on january 19 , 2011 . 
jennifer lopez and steven tyler joined randy jackson as judges following the departures of simon cowell -lrb- who left to launch the u.s. version of the x factor -rrb- , kara dioguardi -lrb- whose contract was not renewed -rrb- and ellen degeneres , while nigel lythgoe returned as executive producer . 
jennifer lopez and steven tyler joined randy jackson as judges following the departures of simon cowell -lrb- who left to launch the u.s. version of the x factor -rrb- , kara dioguardi -lrb- whose contract was not renewed -rrb- and ellen degeneres , while nigel lythgoe returned as executive producer . 
jimmy iovine , chairman of the interscope geffen a&m label group , the new partner of american idol , acted as the in-house mentor in place of weekly guest mentors , although in later episodes special guest mentors such as beyoncé , will.i.am and lady gaga were brought in . 
season ten is the first to include online auditions where contestants could submit a 40-second video audition via myspace . 
season ten is the first to include online auditions where contestants could submit a 40-second video audition via myspace . 
season ten is the first to include online auditions where contestants could submit a 40-second video audition via myspace . 
season ten is the first to include online auditions where contestants could submit a 40-second video audition via myspace . 
season ten is the first to include online auditions where contestants could submit a 40-second video audition via myspace . 
one of the more prominent contestants this year was chris medina , whose story of caring for his brain-damaged fiancée received widespread coverage . 
medina was cut in the top 40 round . 
casey abrams , who suffers from ulcerative colitis , was hospitalized twice and missed the top 13 result show . 
casey abrams , who suffers from ulcerative colitis , was hospitalized twice and missed the top 13 result show . 
one of the more prominent contestants this year was chris medina , whose story of caring for his brain-damaged fiancée received widespread coverage . 
medina was cut in the top 40 round . 
casey abrams , who suffers from ulcerative colitis , was hospitalized twice and missed the top 13 result show . 
casey abrams , who suffers from ulcerative colitis , was hospitalized twice and missed the top 13 result show . 
casey abrams , who suffers from ulcerative colitis , was hospitalized twice and missed the top 13 result show . 
pia toscano , one of the presumed favorites to advance far in the season , was unexpectedly eliminated on april 7 , 2011 , finishing in ninth place . 
her elimination drew criticisms from some former idol contestants , as well as actor tom hanks . 
pia toscano , one of the presumed favorites to advance far in the season , was unexpectedly eliminated on april 7 , 2011 , finishing in ninth place . 
her elimination drew criticisms from some former idol contestants , as well as actor tom hanks . 
the two finalists in 2011 were lauren alaina and scotty mccreery , both teenage country singers . 
the two finalists in 2011 were lauren alaina and scotty mccreery , both teenage country singers . 
mccreery released his first single , `` i love you this big '' , as his coronation song , and alaina released `` like my mother does '' . 
mccreery released his first single , `` i love you this big '' , as his coronation song , and alaina released `` like my mother does '' . 
mccreery 's debut album , clear as day , became the first debut album by an idol winner to reach no. 1 on the us billboard 200 since ruben studdard 's soulful in 2003 , and he became the youngest male artist to reach no. 1 on the billboard 200 . 
mccreery won the competition on may 25 , being the youngest male winner and the fourth male in a row to win american idol . 
the two finalists in 2011 were lauren alaina and scotty mccreery , both teenage country singers . 
mccreery 's debut album , clear as day , became the first debut album by an idol winner to reach no. 1 on the us billboard 200 since ruben studdard 's soulful in 2003 , and he became the youngest male artist to reach no. 1 on the billboard 200 . 
season 11 premiered on january 18 , 2012 . 
on february 23 , it was announced that one more finalist would join the top 24 making it the top 25 , and that was jermaine jones . 
on february 23 , it was announced that one more finalist would join the top 24 making it the top 25 , and that was jermaine jones . 
season 11 premiered on january 18 , 2012 . 
on february 23 , it was announced that one more finalist would join the top 24 making it the top 25 , and that was jermaine jones . 
however , on march 14 , jones was disqualified in 12th place for concealing arrests and outstanding warrants . 
however , on march 14 , jones was disqualified in 12th place for concealing arrests and outstanding warrants . 
finalist phillip phillips suffered from kidney pain and was taken to the hospital before the top 13 results show , and later received medical procedure to alleviate a blockage caused by kidney stones . 
finalist phillip phillips suffered from kidney pain and was taken to the hospital before the top 13 results show , and later received medical procedure to alleviate a blockage caused by kidney stones . 
he was reported to have eight surgeries during his idol run , and had considered quitting the show due to the pain . 
finalist phillip phillips suffered from kidney pain and was taken to the hospital before the top 13 results show , and later received medical procedure to alleviate a blockage caused by kidney stones . 
finalist phillip phillips suffered from kidney pain and was taken to the hospital before the top 13 results show , and later received medical procedure to alleviate a blockage caused by kidney stones . 
finalist phillip phillips suffered from kidney pain and was taken to the hospital before the top 13 results show , and later received medical procedure to alleviate a blockage caused by kidney stones . 
jessica sanchez received the fewest number of votes during the top 7 week , and the judges decided to use their `` save '' option on her , making her the first female recipient of the save . 
jessica sanchez received the fewest number of votes during the top 7 week , and the judges decided to use their `` save '' option on her , making her the first female recipient of the save . 
the following week , unlike previous seasons , colton dixon was the only contestant sent home . 
sanchez later made the final two , the first season where a recipient of the save reached the finale . 
jessica sanchez received the fewest number of votes during the top 7 week , and the judges decided to use their `` save '' option on her , making her the first female recipient of the save . 
jessica sanchez received the fewest number of votes during the top 7 week , and the judges decided to use their `` save '' option on her , making her the first female recipient of the save . 
the following week , unlike previous seasons , colton dixon was the only contestant sent home . 
prior to the announcement of the winner , season five finalist ace young proposed marriage to season three runner-up diana degarmo on stage -- which she accepted . 
prior to the announcement of the winner , season five finalist ace young proposed marriage to season three runner-up diana degarmo on stage -- which she accepted . 
prior to the announcement of the winner , season five finalist ace young proposed marriage to season three runner-up diana degarmo on stage -- which she accepted . 
phillips became the winner , beating sanchez . 
prior to the announcement of the winner , season five finalist ace young proposed marriage to season three runner-up diana degarmo on stage -- which she accepted . 
prior to the announcement of the winner , season five finalist ace young proposed marriage to season three runner-up diana degarmo on stage -- which she accepted . 
phillips released `` home '' as his coronation song , while sanchez released `` change nothing '' . 
phillips released `` home '' as his coronation song , while sanchez released `` change nothing '' . 
phillips released `` home '' as his coronation song , while sanchez released `` change nothing '' . 
phillips released `` home '' as his coronation song , while sanchez released `` change nothing '' . 
phillips released `` home '' as his coronation song , while sanchez released `` change nothing '' . 
season 12 premiered on january 16 , 2013 . 
judges jennifer lopez and steven tyler left the show after two seasons . 
the pre-season buzz and the early episodes of the show were dominated by the feud between the judges minaj and carey after a video of their dispute was leaked to tmz . 
season 12 premiered on january 16 , 2013 . 
this was the first season since season nine to have four judges on the panel . 
the top 10 contestants started with five males and five females , however , the males were eliminated consecutively in the first five weeks , with lazaro arbos the last male to be eliminated . 
the top 10 contestants started with five males and five females , however , the males were eliminated consecutively in the first five weeks , with lazaro arbos the last male to be eliminated . 
the top 10 contestants started with five males and five females , however , the males were eliminated consecutively in the first five weeks , with lazaro arbos the last male to be eliminated . 
the top 10 contestants started with five males and five females , however , the males were eliminated consecutively in the first five weeks , with lazaro arbos the last male to be eliminated . 
the top 10 contestants started with five males and five females , however , the males were eliminated consecutively in the first five weeks , with lazaro arbos the last male to be eliminated . 
it was also the first time that the judges ' `` save '' was not used , the top four contestants were therefore given an extra week to perform again with their votes carried over with no elimination in the first week . 
23-year-old candice glover won the season with kree harrison taking the runner-up spot . 
23-year-old candice glover won the season with kree harrison taking the runner-up spot . 
glover released `` i am beautiful '' as a single while harrison released `` all cried out '' immediately after the show . 
glover released `` i am beautiful '' as a single while harrison released `` all cried out '' immediately after the show . 
23-year-old candice glover won the season with kree harrison taking the runner-up spot . 
23-year-old candice glover won the season with kree harrison taking the runner-up spot . 
glover released `` i am beautiful '' as a single while harrison released `` all cried out '' immediately after the show . 
glover released `` i am beautiful '' as a single while harrison released `` all cried out '' immediately after the show . 
glover sold poorly with her debut album , and this is also the first season that the runner-up was not signed by a music label . 
towards the end of the season , randy jackson , the last remaining of the original judges , announced that he would no longer serve as a judge to pursue other business ventures . 
both judges mariah carey and nicki minaj also decided to leave after one season to focus on their music careers . 
towards the end of the season , randy jackson , the last remaining of the original judges , announced that he would no longer serve as a judge to pursue other business ventures . 
both judges mariah carey and nicki minaj also decided to leave after one season to focus on their music careers . 
the thirteenth season premiered on january 15 , 2014 , with ryan seacrest returning as host . 
the thirteenth season premiered on january 15 , 2014 , with ryan seacrest returning as host . 
randy jackson and keith urban returned , though jackson moved from the judging panel to the role of in-mentor . 
bill deronde replaced warwick as a director of the audition episodes , while louis j. horvitz replaced gregg gelfand as a director of the show . 
the thirteenth season premiered on january 15 , 2014 , with ryan seacrest returning as host . 
randy jackson and keith urban returned , though jackson moved from the judging panel to the role of in-mentor . 
former judge jennifer lopez and former mentor harry connick , jr. joined urban on the panel . 
former judge jennifer lopez and former mentor harry connick , jr. joined urban on the panel . 
also , nigel lythgoe and ken warwick were replaced as executive producers by per blankens , jesse ignjatovic and evan pragger . 
in the top 8 , sam woolf received the fewest votes , but he was saved from elimination by the judges . 
the 500th episode of the series was the top 3 performance night . 
this was the first season where the contestants were permitted to perform in the final rounds songs they wrote themselves . 
in the top 8 , sam woolf received the fewest votes , but he was saved from elimination by the judges . 
in the top 8 , sam woolf received the fewest votes , but he was saved from elimination by the judges . 
the 500th episode of the series was the top 3 performance night . 
caleb johnson was named the winner of the season , with jena irene as the runner-up . 
caleb johnson was named the winner of the season , with jena irene as the runner-up . 
johnson released `` as long as you love me '' as his coronation single while irene released `` we are one '' . 
johnson released `` as long as you love me '' as his coronation single while irene released `` we are one '' . 
caleb johnson was named the winner of the season , with jena irene as the runner-up . 
caleb johnson was named the winner of the season , with jena irene as the runner-up . 
johnson released `` as long as you love me '' as his coronation single while irene released `` we are one '' . 
johnson released `` as long as you love me '' as his coronation single while irene released `` we are one '' . 
the fourteenth season premiered on january 7 , 2015 . 
ryan seacrest returned to host , while jennifer lopez , keith urban and harry connick , jr. returned for their respective fourth , third and second seasons as judges . 
eighth season runner-up adam lambert filled in for urban during the new york city auditions . 
ryan seacrest returned to host , while jennifer lopez , keith urban and harry connick , jr. returned for their respective fourth , third and second seasons as judges . 
randy jackson did not return as the in-house mentor for this season . 
the fourteenth season premiered on january 7 , 2015 . 
eighth season runner-up adam lambert filled in for urban during the new york city auditions . 
changes this season include only airing one episode a week during the final ten . 
coca cola ended their longtime sponsorship of the show and ford motor company maintained a reduced role . 
coca cola ended their longtime sponsorship of the show and ford motor company maintained a reduced role . 
the winner of the season also received a recording contract with big machine records . 
changes this season include only airing one episode a week during the final ten . 
coca cola ended their longtime sponsorship of the show and ford motor company maintained a reduced role . 
coca cola ended their longtime sponsorship of the show and ford motor company maintained a reduced role . 
the winner of the season also received a recording contract with big machine records . 
nick fradiani won the season , defeating clark beckham . 
nick fradiani won the season , defeating clark beckham . 
jax , the third place finalist , also released a single called `` forcefield '' . 
fradiani released `` beautiful life '' as his coronation single while beckham released `` champion '' . 
jax , the third place finalist , also released a single called `` forcefield '' . 
nick fradiani won the season , defeating clark beckham . 
nick fradiani won the season , defeating clark beckham . 
fradiani released `` beautiful life '' as his coronation single while beckham released `` champion '' . 
fradiani released `` beautiful life '' as his coronation single while beckham released `` champion '' . 
jax , the third place finalist , also released a single called `` forcefield '' . 
fox announced on may 11 , 2015 that the fifteenth season would be the final season of american idol ; as such , the season is expected to have an additional focus on the program 's alumni . 
fox announced on may 11 , 2015 that the fifteenth season would be the final season of american idol ; as such , the season is expected to have an additional focus on the program 's alumni . 
fox announced on may 11 , 2015 that the fifteenth season would be the final season of american idol ; as such , the season is expected to have an additional focus on the program 's alumni . 
ryan seacrest returns as host , with harry connick jr. , keith urban , and jennifer lopez all returning for their respective third , fourth , and fifth seasons as judges . 
ryan seacrest returns as host , with harry connick jr. , keith urban , and jennifer lopez all returning for their respective third , fourth , and fifth seasons as judges . 
fox announced on may 11 , 2015 that the fifteenth season would be the final season of american idol ; as such , the season is expected to have an additional focus on the program 's alumni . 
ryan seacrest returns as host , with harry connick jr. , keith urban , and jennifer lopez all returning for their respective third , fourth , and fifth seasons as judges . 
in 2012 , an analysis of the 131 contestants who have appeared in the finals of all seasons of the show up to that point found that 48 % have some connection to the southern united states . 
since the show 's inception in 2002 , ten of the fourteen idol winners , including its first five , have come from the southern united states . 
since the show 's inception in 2002 , ten of the fourteen idol winners , including its first five , have come from the southern united states . 
a large number of other notable finalists during the series ' run have also hailed from the american south , including clay aiken , kellie pickler , and chris daughtry , who are all from north carolina . 
a large number of other notable finalists during the series ' run have also hailed from the american south , including clay aiken , kellie pickler , and chris daughtry , who are all from north carolina . 
since the show 's inception in 2002 , ten of the fourteen idol winners , including its first five , have come from the southern united states . 
a large number of other notable finalists during the series ' run have also hailed from the american south , including clay aiken , kellie pickler , and chris daughtry , who are all from north carolina . 
data from nielsen soundscan , a music-sales tracking service , showed that of the 47 million cds sold by idol contestants through january 2010 , 85 percent were by contestants with ties to the american south . 
the show itself is popular in the southern united states , with households in the southeastern united states 10 % more likely to watch american idol during the eighth season in 2009 , and those in the east central region , such as kentucky , were 16 percent more likely to tune into the series . 
data from nielsen soundscan , a music-sales tracking service , showed that of the 47 million cds sold by idol contestants through january 2010 , 85 percent were by contestants with ties to the american south . 
data from nielsen soundscan , a music-sales tracking service , showed that of the 47 million cds sold by idol contestants through january 2010 , 85 percent were by contestants with ties to the american south . 
according to season five winner taylor hicks , who is from the state of alabama , `` people in the south have a lot of pride ... so , they 're adamant about supporting the contestants who do well from their state or region . '' 
according to season five winner taylor hicks , who is from the state of alabama , `` people in the south have a lot of pride ... so , they 're adamant about supporting the contestants who do well from their state or region . '' 
theories given for the success of southerners on idol have been : more versatility with musical genres , as the southern u.s. is home to several music genre scenes ; not having as many opportunities to break into the pop music business ; text-voting due to the south having the highest percentage of cell-phone only households ; and the strong heritage of music and singing , which is notable in the bible belt , where it is in church that many people get their start in public singing . 
theories given for the success of southerners on idol have been : more versatility with musical genres , as the southern u.s. is home to several music genre scenes ; not having as many opportunities to break into the pop music business ; text-voting due to the south having the highest percentage of cell-phone only households ; and the strong heritage of music and singing , which is notable in the bible belt , where it is in church that many people get their start in public singing . 
according to season five winner taylor hicks , who is from the state of alabama , `` people in the south have a lot of pride ... so , they 're adamant about supporting the contestants who do well from their state or region . '' 
for five consecutive seasons , starting in season seven , the title was given to a white male who plays the guitar -- a trend that idol pundits call the `` white guy with guitar '' or `` wgwg '' factor . 
just hours before the season eleven finale , where phillip phillips was named the winner , richard rushfield , author of the book american idol : the untold story , said , `` you have this alliance between young girls and grandmas and they see it , not necessarily as a contest to create a pop star competing on the contemporary radio , but as ... . 
just hours before the season eleven finale , where phillip phillips was named the winner , richard rushfield , author of the book american idol : the untold story , said , `` you have this alliance between young girls and grandmas and they see it , not necessarily as a contest to create a pop star competing on the contemporary radio , but as ... . 
for five consecutive seasons , starting in season seven , the title was given to a white male who plays the guitar -- a trend that idol pundits call the `` white guy with guitar '' or `` wgwg '' factor . 
for five consecutive seasons , starting in season seven , the title was given to a white male who plays the guitar -- a trend that idol pundits call the `` white guy with guitar '' or `` wgwg '' factor . 
for five consecutive seasons , starting in season seven , the title was given to a white male who plays the guitar -- a trend that idol pundits call the `` white guy with guitar '' or `` wgwg '' factor . 
just hours before the season eleven finale , where phillip phillips was named the winner , richard rushfield , author of the book american idol : the untold story , said , `` you have this alliance between young girls and grandmas and they see it , not necessarily as a contest to create a pop star competing on the contemporary radio , but as ... . 
just hours before the season eleven finale , where phillip phillips was named the winner , richard rushfield , author of the book american idol : the untold story , said , `` you have this alliance between young girls and grandmas and they see it , not necessarily as a contest to create a pop star competing on the contemporary radio , but as ... . 
the show had been criticized in earlier seasons over the onerous contract contestants had to sign that gave excessive control to 19 entertainment over their future career , and handed a large part of their future earnings to the management . 
the mechanism of voting had also aroused considerable criticisms , most notably in season two when ruben studdard beat clay aiken in a close vote , and in season eight , when the massive increase in text votes -lrb- 100 million more text votes than season 7 -rrb- fueled the texting controversy . 
the mechanism of voting had also aroused considerable criticisms , most notably in season two when ruben studdard beat clay aiken in a close vote , and in season eight , when the massive increase in text votes -lrb- 100 million more text votes than season 7 -rrb- fueled the texting controversy . 
since 2004 , votes also have been affected to a limited degree by online communities such as dialidol , vote for the worst -lrb- closed in 2013 -rrb- , and vote for the girls -lrb- started 2010 -rrb- . 
the mechanism of voting had also aroused considerable criticisms , most notably in season two when ruben studdard beat clay aiken in a close vote , and in season eight , when the massive increase in text votes -lrb- 100 million more text votes than season 7 -rrb- fueled the texting controversy . 
the mechanism of voting had also aroused considerable criticisms , most notably in season two when ruben studdard beat clay aiken in a close vote , and in season eight , when the massive increase in text votes -lrb- 100 million more text votes than season 7 -rrb- fueled the texting controversy . 
the mechanism of voting had also aroused considerable criticisms , most notably in season two when ruben studdard beat clay aiken in a close vote , and in season eight , when the massive increase in text votes -lrb- 100 million more text votes than season 7 -rrb- fueled the texting controversy . 
concerns about power voting have been expressed from the very first season . 
since 2004 , votes also have been affected to a limited degree by online communities such as dialidol , vote for the worst -lrb- closed in 2013 -rrb- , and vote for the girls -lrb- started 2010 -rrb- . 
since 2004 , votes also have been affected to a limited degree by online communities such as dialidol , vote for the worst -lrb- closed in 2013 -rrb- , and vote for the girls -lrb- started 2010 -rrb- . 
idol gives back is a special charity event started in season six featuring performances by celebrities and various fund-raising initiatives . 
this event was also held in seasons seven and nine and has raised nearly $ 185 million in total . 
idol gives back is a special charity event started in season six featuring performances by celebrities and various fund-raising initiatives . 
idol gives back is a special charity event started in season six featuring performances by celebrities and various fund-raising initiatives . 
american idol premiered in june 2002 and became the surprise summer hit show of 2002 . 
the first show drew 9.9 million viewers , giving fox the best viewing figure for the 8.30 pm spot in over a year . 
the audience steadily grew , and by finale night , the audience had averaged 23 million , with more than 40 million watching some part of that show . 
american idol premiered in june 2002 and became the surprise summer hit show of 2002 . 
american idol premiered in june 2002 and became the surprise summer hit show of 2002 . 
the first show drew 9.9 million viewers , giving fox the best viewing figure for the 8.30 pm spot in over a year . 
the audience steadily grew , and by finale night , the audience had averaged 23 million , with more than 40 million watching some part of that show . 
the growth continued into the next season , starting with a season premiere of 26.5 million . 
the season attracted an average of 21.7 million viewers , and was placed second overall amongst the 18 -- 49 age group . 
the finale night when ruben studdard won over clay aiken was also the highest-rated ever american idol episode at 38.1 million for the final hour . 
by season four , american idol had become the most watched series amongst all viewers on american tv for the first time , with an average viewership of 26.8 million . 
the show reached its peak in season five with numbers averaging 30.6 million per episode , and season five remains the highest-rated season of the series . 
the growth continued into the next season , starting with a season premiere of 26.5 million . 
the season attracted an average of 21.7 million viewers , and was placed second overall amongst the 18 -- 49 age group . 
by season four , american idol had become the most watched series amongst all viewers on american tv for the first time , with an average viewership of 26.8 million . 
season six was the first season wherein the average results show rated higher than the competition stages -lrb- unlike in the previous seasons -rrb- , and became the second highest-rated of the series after the preceding season . 
season six was the first season wherein the average results show rated higher than the competition stages -lrb- unlike in the previous seasons -rrb- , and became the second highest-rated of the series after the preceding season . 
the show was dubbed `` the death star '' , and competing networks often rearranged their schedules in order to minimize losses . 
during this time , many television executives begun to regard the show as a programming force unlike any seen before , as its consistent dominance of up to two hours two or three nights a week exceeded the 30 - or 60-minute reach of previous hits such as nbc 's the cosby show . 
season six premiered with the series ' highest-rated debut episode and a few of its succeeding episodes rank among the most watched episodes of american idol . 
the show was dubbed `` the death star '' , and competing networks often rearranged their schedules in order to minimize losses . 
however , season six also showed a steady decline in viewership over the course of the season . 
season six was the first season wherein the average results show rated higher than the competition stages -lrb- unlike in the previous seasons -rrb- , and became the second highest-rated of the series after the preceding season . 
the loss of viewers continued into season seven . 
overall ratings for the season were down 10 % from season six , which is in line with the fall in viewership across all networks due in part to the 2007 -- 2008 writers guild of america strike . 
the loss of viewers continued into season seven . 
the premiere was down 11 % among total viewers , and the results show in which kristy lee cook was eliminated delivered its lowest-rated wednesday show among the 18 -- 34 demo since the first season in 2002 . 
the loss of viewers continued into season seven . 
the strong finish of season seven also helped fox become the most watched tv network in the country for the first time since its inception , a first ever in american television history for a non-big three major broadcast network . 
overall ratings for the season were down 10 % from season six , which is in line with the fall in viewership across all networks due in part to the 2007 -- 2008 writers guild of america strike . 
in season nine , idol 's six-year extended streak of perfection in the ratings was broken , when nbc 's coverage of the 2010 winter olympics on february 17 beat idol in the same time slot with 30.1 million viewers over idol 's 18.4 million . 
nevertheless , american idol overall finished its ninth season as the most watched tv series for the sixth year running , breaking the previous record of five consecutive seasons achieved by cbs ' all in the family and nbc 's the cosby show . 
in season nine , idol 's six-year extended streak of perfection in the ratings was broken , when nbc 's coverage of the 2010 winter olympics on february 17 beat idol in the same time slot with 30.1 million viewers over idol 's 18.4 million . 
in season nine , idol 's six-year extended streak of perfection in the ratings was broken , when nbc 's coverage of the 2010 winter olympics on february 17 beat idol in the same time slot with 30.1 million viewers over idol 's 18.4 million . 
in season nine , idol 's six-year extended streak of perfection in the ratings was broken , when nbc 's coverage of the 2010 winter olympics on february 17 beat idol in the same time slot with 30.1 million viewers over idol 's 18.4 million . 
in season nine , idol 's six-year extended streak of perfection in the ratings was broken , when nbc 's coverage of the 2010 winter olympics on february 17 beat idol in the same time slot with 30.1 million viewers over idol 's 18.4 million . 
while the overall viewer number has increased this season , its viewer demographics have continued to age year on year -- the median age this season was 47.2 compared to a median age of 32.1 in its first season . 
while the overall viewer number has increased this season , its viewer demographics have continued to age year on year -- the median age this season was 47.2 compared to a median age of 32.1 in its first season . 
while the overall viewer number has increased this season , its viewer demographics have continued to age year on year -- the median age this season was 47.2 compared to a median age of 32.1 in its first season . 
while the overall viewer number has increased this season , its viewer demographics have continued to age year on year -- the median age this season was 47.2 compared to a median age of 32.1 in its first season . 
for the first time in eight years , american idol lost the leading position in both the total viewers number and the 18/49 demo , coming in second to nbc sunday night football , although the strengths of idol in its second year in the wednesday-thursday primetime slots helped fox achieve the longest period of 18-49 demographic victory in the nielsen ratings , standing at 8 straight years from 2004 to 2012 . 
for the first time in eight years , american idol lost the leading position in both the total viewers number and the 18/49 demo , coming in second to nbc sunday night football , although the strengths of idol in its second year in the wednesday-thursday primetime slots helped fox achieve the longest period of 18-49 demographic victory in the nielsen ratings , standing at 8 straight years from 2004 to 2012 . 
for the first time in eight years , american idol lost the leading position in both the total viewers number and the 18/49 demo , coming in second to nbc sunday night football , although the strengths of idol in its second year in the wednesday-thursday primetime slots helped fox achieve the longest period of 18-49 demographic victory in the nielsen ratings , standing at 8 straight years from 2004 to 2012 . 
the season viewers averaged at 13.3 million , a drop of 24 % from the previous season . 
the season viewers averaged at 13.3 million , a drop of 24 % from the previous season . 
the thirteenth season suffered a huge decline in the 18 -- 49 demographic , a drop of 28 % from the twelfth season , and american idol lost its top 10 position in the nielsen ratings by the end of the 2013 -- 14 television season for the first time since its entry to the rankings in 2003 as a result , although the entire series to date had not yet been dropped from the nielsen top 30 rankings since its inception in 2002 . 
the finale had 7.2 million fewer viewers than the previous season , and saw a drop of 44 % in the 18-49 demo . 
the season viewers averaged at 13.3 million , a drop of 24 % from the previous season . 
the continuing decline influenced further changes for season 14 , including the loss of coca-cola as the show 's major sponsor , and a decision to only broadcast one , two-hour show per week during the top 12 rounds -lrb- with results from the previous week integrated into the performance show , rather than having a separate results show -rrb- . 
the fourteenth season finale was the lowest-rated finale ever , with an average of only 8.03 million viewers watching the finale . 
on may 11 , 2015 , prior to the fourteenth season finale , fox announced that the fifteenth season of american idol would be its last . 
on may 11 , 2015 , prior to the fourteenth season finale , fox announced that the fifteenth season of american idol would be its last . 
the fourteenth season finale was the lowest-rated finale ever , with an average of only 8.03 million viewers watching the finale . 
american idol and fellow competing shows survivor and who wants to be a millionaire were altogether credited for expanding reality television programming in the united states in the 1990s and 2000s , and idol became the most watched non-scripted primetime television series for almost a decade , from 2003 to 2012 , breaking records on u.s. television -lrb- dominated by drama shows and sitcoms in the preceding decades -rrb- . 
the show pushed fox to become the number one u.s. tv network amongst adults 18 -- 49 , the key demographic coveted by advertisers , for an unprecedented eight consecutive years by 2012 . 
the show pushed fox to become the number one u.s. tv network amongst adults 18 -- 49 , the key demographic coveted by advertisers , for an unprecedented eight consecutive years by 2012 . 
the show pushed fox to become the number one u.s. tv network amongst adults 18 -- 49 , the key demographic coveted by advertisers , for an unprecedented eight consecutive years by 2012 . 
the show , its creator simon fuller claimed , `` saved fox '' . 
its format also served as a blueprint for non-singing tv shows such as dancing with the stars and so you think you can dance , most of which contribute to the current highly competitive reality tv landscape on american television . 
the show 's massive success in the mid-2000s and early 2010s spawned a number of imitating singing-competition shows , such as rock star , nashville star , the voice , rising star , the sing-off , and the x factor . 
as one of the most successful shows on u.s. television history , american idol has a strong impact not just on television , but also in the wider world of entertainment . 
as one of the most successful shows on u.s. television history , american idol has a strong impact not just on television , but also in the wider world of entertainment . 
as one of the most successful shows on u.s. television history , american idol has a strong impact not just on television , but also in the wider world of entertainment . 
various american idol alumni had success on various record charts around the world ; in the u.s. they had achieved 345 number ones on the billboard charts in its first ten years . 
its alumni have a massive impact on radio ; in 2007 , american idol had become `` a dominant force in radio '' according to the president of the research company mediabase which monitors radio stations rich meyer . 
by 2010 , four winners each had more than a million radio spins , with kelly clarkson leading the field with over four million spins . 
various american idol alumni had success on various record charts around the world ; in the u.s. they had achieved 345 number ones on the billboard charts in its first ten years . 
according to fred bronson , author of books on the billboard charts , no other entity has ever created as many hit-making artists and best-selling albums and singles . 
by 2010 , four winners each had more than a million radio spins , with kelly clarkson leading the field with over four million spins . 
by 2010 , four winners each had more than a million radio spins , with kelly clarkson leading the field with over four million spins . 
as of 2013 , the american idol alumni in their post-idol careers have amassed over 59 million albums and 120 million singles and digital track downloads in the united states alone . 
as of 2013 , the american idol alumni in their post-idol careers have amassed over 59 million albums and 120 million singles and digital track downloads in the united states alone . 
as of 2013 , the american idol alumni in their post-idol careers have amassed over 59 million albums and 120 million singles and digital track downloads in the united states alone . 
as of 2013 , the american idol alumni in their post-idol careers have amassed over 59 million albums and 120 million singles and digital track downloads in the united states alone . 
other alumni have gone on to work in television and films , the most notable being jennifer hudson who , on the recommendation of the idol vocal coach debra byrd , won a role in dreamgirls and subsequently received an academy award for her performance . 
other alumni have gone on to work in television and films , the most notable being jennifer hudson who , on the recommendation of the idol vocal coach debra byrd , won a role in dreamgirls and subsequently received an academy award for her performance . 
the impact of american idol is also strongly felt in musical theatre , where many of idol alumni have forged successful careers . 
other alumni have gone on to work in television and films , the most notable being jennifer hudson who , on the recommendation of the idol vocal coach debra byrd , won a role in dreamgirls and subsequently received an academy award for her performance . 
other alumni have gone on to work in television and films , the most notable being jennifer hudson who , on the recommendation of the idol vocal coach debra byrd , won a role in dreamgirls and subsequently received an academy award for her performance . 
other alumni have gone on to work in television and films , the most notable being jennifer hudson who , on the recommendation of the idol vocal coach debra byrd , won a role in dreamgirls and subsequently received an academy award for her performance . 
ken tucker of entertainment weekly considered that `` as tv , american idol is crazily entertaining ; as music , it 's dust-mote inconsequential '' . 
the decision to send the season one winner to sing the national anthem at the lincoln memorial on the first anniversary of the september 11 attacks in 2002 was also poorly received by many . 
ken tucker of entertainment weekly considered that `` as tv , american idol is crazily entertaining ; as music , it 's dust-mote inconsequential '' . 
ken tucker of entertainment weekly considered that `` as tv , american idol is crazily entertaining ; as music , it 's dust-mote inconsequential '' . 
the product placement in the show in particular was noted , and some critics were harsh about what they perceived as its blatant commercial calculations -- karla peterson of the san diego union-tribune charged that american idol is `` a conniving multimedia monster '' that has `` absorbed the sin of our debauched culture and spit them out in a lump of reconstituted evil '' . 
the decision to send the season one winner to sing the national anthem at the lincoln memorial on the first anniversary of the september 11 attacks in 2002 was also poorly received by many . 
some of the later writers about the show were more positive , michael slezak , again of entertainment weekly , thought that `` for all its bloated , synthetic , product-shilling , money-making trappings , idol provides a once-a-year chance for the average american to combat the evils of today 's music business . '' 
others focused on the personalities in the show ; ramin setoodeh of newsweek accused judge simon cowell 's cruel critiques in the show of helping to establish in the wider world a culture of meanness , that `` simon cowell has dragged the rest of us in the mud with him . '' 
some such as singer john mayer disparaged the contestants , suggesting that those who appeared on idol are not real artists with self-respect . 
others focused on the personalities in the show ; ramin setoodeh of newsweek accused judge simon cowell 's cruel critiques in the show of helping to establish in the wider world a culture of meanness , that `` simon cowell has dragged the rest of us in the mud with him . '' 
singer sheryl crow , who was later to act as a mentor on the show , however took the view that the show `` undermines art in every way and promotes commercialism '' . 
pop music critic ann powers nevertheless suggested that idol has `` reshaped the american songbook '' , `` led us toward a new way of viewing ourselves in relationship to mainstream popular culture '' , and connects `` the classic hollywood dream to the multicentered popular culture of the future . '' 
others focused on the personalities in the show ; ramin setoodeh of newsweek accused judge simon cowell 's cruel critiques in the show of helping to establish in the wider world a culture of meanness , that `` simon cowell has dragged the rest of us in the mud with him . '' 
some such as singer john mayer disparaged the contestants , suggesting that those who appeared on idol are not real artists with self-respect . 
elton john , who had appeared as a mentor in the show but turned down an offer to be a judge on american idol , commenting on talent shows in general , said that `` there have been some good acts but the only way to sustain a career is to pay your dues in small clubs '' . 
leann rimes , commenting on carrie underwood winning best female artist in country music awards over faith hill in 2006 , said that `` carrie has not paid her dues long enough to fully deserve that award '' . 
leann rimes , commenting on carrie underwood winning best female artist in country music awards over faith hill in 2006 , said that `` carrie has not paid her dues long enough to fully deserve that award '' . 
usher , a mentor on the show , bemoaning the loss of the `` true art form of music '' , thought that shows like american idol made it seem `` so easy that everyone can do it , and that it can happen overnight '' , and that `` television is a lie '' . 
leann rimes , commenting on carrie underwood winning best female artist in country music awards over faith hill in 2006 , said that `` carrie has not paid her dues long enough to fully deserve that award '' . 
leann rimes , commenting on carrie underwood winning best female artist in country music awards over faith hill in 2006 , said that `` carrie has not paid her dues long enough to fully deserve that award '' . 
leann rimes , commenting on carrie underwood winning best female artist in country music awards over faith hill in 2006 , said that `` carrie has not paid her dues long enough to fully deserve that award '' . 
elton john , who had appeared as a mentor in the show but turned down an offer to be a judge on american idol , commenting on talent shows in general , said that `` there have been some good acts but the only way to sustain a career is to pay your dues in small clubs '' . 
while the industry is divided on the show success , its impact is felt particularly strongly in the country music format . 
while the industry is divided on the show success , its impact is felt particularly strongly in the country music format . 
director bruce gower won a primetime emmy award for outstanding directing for a variety , music or comedy series in 2009 , and the show won a creative arts emmys each in 2007 and 2008 , three in 2009 , and two in 2011 , as well as a governor 's award in 2007 for its idol gives back edition . 
director bruce gower won a primetime emmy award for outstanding directing for a variety , music or comedy series in 2009 , and the show won a creative arts emmys each in 2007 and 2008 , three in 2009 , and two in 2011 , as well as a governor 's award in 2007 for its idol gives back edition . 
director bruce gower won a primetime emmy award for outstanding directing for a variety , music or comedy series in 2009 , and the show won a creative arts emmys each in 2007 and 2008 , three in 2009 , and two in 2011 , as well as a governor 's award in 2007 for its idol gives back edition . 
director bruce gower won a primetime emmy award for outstanding directing for a variety , music or comedy series in 2009 , and the show won a creative arts emmys each in 2007 and 2008 , three in 2009 , and two in 2011 , as well as a governor 's award in 2007 for its idol gives back edition . 
american idol was nominated for the emmy 's outstanding reality competition program for nine years but never won . 
director bruce gower won a primetime emmy award for outstanding directing for a variety , music or comedy series in 2009 , and the show won a creative arts emmys each in 2007 and 2008 , three in 2009 , and two in 2011 , as well as a governor 's award in 2007 for its idol gives back edition . 
the show was estimated to generate $ 900 million for the year 2004 through sales of tv ads , albums , merchandise and concert tickets . 
one estimate puts the total tv revenue for the first eight seasons of american at $ 6.4 billion . 
american idol also partnered with disney in its theme park attraction the american idol experience . 
the show was estimated to generate $ 900 million for the year 2004 through sales of tv ads , albums , merchandise and concert tickets . 
american idol also partnered with disney in its theme park attraction the american idol experience . 
american idol became the most expensive series on broadcast networks for advertisers starting season four , and by the next season , it had broken the record in advertising rate for a regularly scheduled prime-time network series , selling over $ 700,000 for a 30-seconds slot , and reaching up to $ 1.3 million for the finale . 
american idol became the most expensive series on broadcast networks for advertisers starting season four , and by the next season , it had broken the record in advertising rate for a regularly scheduled prime-time network series , selling over $ 700,000 for a 30-seconds slot , and reaching up to $ 1.3 million for the finale . 
by 2014 , ad revenue from had fallen to $ 427 million where a 30-second spot went for less than $ 300,000 . 
its ad prices reached a peak in season seven at $ 737,000 . 
american idol became the most expensive series on broadcast networks for advertisers starting season four , and by the next season , it had broken the record in advertising rate for a regularly scheduled prime-time network series , selling over $ 700,000 for a 30-seconds slot , and reaching up to $ 1.3 million for the finale . 
while that declined from season eight onwards , it still earned significantly more than its nearest competitor , with advertising revenue topping $ 800 million annually the next few seasons . 
the sponsorship deal cost around $ 10 million in season one , rising to $ 35 million by season 7 , and between $ 50 to $ 60 million in season 10 . 
the sponsorship deal cost around $ 10 million in season one , rising to $ 35 million by season 7 , and between $ 50 to $ 60 million in season 10 . 
the third major sponsor at&t wireless joined in the second season but ended after season 12 , and coca-cola officially ended its sponsorship after season 13 amidst the declining ratings of idol in the mid-2010s . 
the third major sponsor at&t wireless joined in the second season but ended after season 12 , and coca-cola officially ended its sponsorship after season 13 amidst the declining ratings of idol in the mid-2010s . 
itunes sponsored the show since season seven . 
the sponsorship deal cost around $ 10 million in season one , rising to $ 35 million by season 7 , and between $ 50 to $ 60 million in season 10 . 
the sponsorship deal cost around $ 10 million in season one , rising to $ 35 million by season 7 , and between $ 50 to $ 60 million in season 10 . 
the third major sponsor at&t wireless joined in the second season but ended after season 12 , and coca-cola officially ended its sponsorship after season 13 amidst the declining ratings of idol in the mid-2010s . 
the branded entertainment integration proved beneficial to its advertisers -- promotion of at&t text-messaging as a means to vote successfully introduced the technology into the wider culture , and coca-cola has seen its equity increased during the show . 
by season six , idol showed 4,349 product placements according to nielsen media research . 
coca-cola 's archrival pepsico declined to sponsor american idol at the show 's start . 
pepsico sponsored the american version of cowell 's the x factor in hopes of not repeating its idol mistake until its cancellation . 
coca-cola 's archrival pepsico declined to sponsor american idol at the show 's start . 
pepsico sponsored the american version of cowell 's the x factor in hopes of not repeating its idol mistake until its cancellation . 
what the los angeles times later called `` missing one of the biggest marketing opportunities in a generation '' contributed to pepsi losing market share , by 2010 falling to third place from second in the united states . 
the season five tour was the most successful tour with gross of over $ 35 million . 
m&m 's pretzel chocolate candies was a sponsor of the season nine tour . 
in the season twelve tour a semi-finalist who won a sing-off was also added to the tour . 
kellogg 's pop-tarts was the sponsor for the first seven seasons , and guitar hero was added for the season seven tour . 
m&m 's pretzel chocolate candies was a sponsor of the season nine tour . 
the season five tour was the most successful tour with gross of over $ 35 million . 
in season seven the live performances and studio recordings were made available during the season from itunes when it joined as a sponsor . 
for the first five seasons , the recordings were released as a compilation album at the end of the season . 
in season seven the live performances and studio recordings were made available during the season from itunes when it joined as a sponsor . 
american idol has traditionally released studio recordings of contestants ' performances as well as the winner 's coronation single for sale . 
for the first five seasons , the recordings were released as a compilation album at the end of the season . 
all five of these albums reached the top ten in billboard 200 which made then american idol the most successful soundtrack franchise of any motion picture or television program . 
in season seven the live performances and studio recordings were made available during the season from itunes when it joined as a sponsor . 
19 recordings , a recording label owned by 19 entertainment , currently hold the rights to phonographic material recorded by all the contestants . 
sony music was partnered with american idol and distribute its music , and in 2010 , sony was replaced by as the music label for american idol by umg 's interscope-geffen-a & m records . 
19 originally partnered with bertelsmann music group -lrb- bmg -rrb- to promote and distribute the recordings through its labels rca records , arista records , j records , jive records . 
19 recordings , a recording label owned by 19 entertainment , currently hold the rights to phonographic material recorded by all the contestants . 
19 recordings , a recording label owned by 19 entertainment , currently hold the rights to phonographic material recorded by all the contestants . 
19 originally partnered with bertelsmann music group -lrb- bmg -rrb- to promote and distribute the recordings through its labels rca records , arista records , j records , jive records . 
in 2005-2007 , bmg partnered with sony music entertainment to form a joint venture known as sony bmg music entertainment . 
sony music was partnered with american idol and distribute its music , and in 2010 , sony was replaced by as the music label for american idol by umg 's interscope-geffen-a & m records . 
on february 14 , 2009 , the walt disney company debuted `` the american idol experience '' at its disney 's hollywood studios theme park at the walt disney world resort in florida . 
on february 14 , 2009 , the walt disney company debuted `` the american idol experience '' at its disney 's hollywood studios theme park at the walt disney world resort in florida . 
the attraction closed on august 30 , 2014 . 
in this live production , co-produced by 19 entertainment , park guests chose from a list of songs and auditioned privately for disney cast members . 
on february 14 , 2009 , the walt disney company debuted `` the american idol experience '' at its disney 's hollywood studios theme park at the walt disney world resort in florida . 
on february 14 , 2009 , the walt disney company debuted `` the american idol experience '' at its disney 's hollywood studios theme park at the walt disney world resort in florida . 
the winner of the finals show received a `` dream ticket '' that granted them front-of-the-line privileges at any future american idol audition . 
the attraction closed on august 30 , 2014 . 
american idol is broadcast to over 100 nations outside of the united states . 
in canada , the first thirteen seasons of american idol were aired live by ctv and/or ctv two , in simulcast with fox . 
ctv dropped idol after its thirteenth season and in august 2014 , yes tv announced that it had picked up canadian rights to american idol beginning in its 2015 season . 
ctv dropped idol after its thirteenth season and in august 2014 , yes tv announced that it had picked up canadian rights to american idol beginning in its 2015 season . 
american idol is broadcast to over 100 nations outside of the united states . 
in canada , the first thirteen seasons of american idol were aired live by ctv and/or ctv two , in simulcast with fox . 
ctv dropped idol after its thirteenth season and in august 2014 , yes tv announced that it had picked up canadian rights to american idol beginning in its 2015 season . 
in italy , the twelfth season was broadcast by la3 . 
in the united kingdom , episodes are aired one day after the u.s. broadcast on digital channel itv2 . 
in southeast asia , it is broadcast by star world every thursday and friday nine or ten hours after . 
in southeast asia , it is broadcast by star world every thursday and friday nine or ten hours after . 
in southeast asia , it is broadcast by star world every thursday and friday nine or ten hours after . 
in italy , the twelfth season was broadcast by la3 . 
individual contestants have generated controversy in this competition for their past actions , or for being ` ringers ' planted by the producers . 
it holds the distinction of having the longest winning streak in the nielsen annual television ratings ; it became the highest-rated of all television programs in the united states overall for an unprecedented seven consecutive years , or eight consecutive -lrb- and total -rrb- years when either its performance or result show was ranked number one overall . 
it holds the distinction of having the longest winning streak in the nielsen annual television ratings ; it became the highest-rated of all television programs in the united states overall for an unprecedented seven consecutive years , or eight consecutive -lrb- and total -rrb- years when either its performance or result show was ranked number one overall . 
the domestic dog -lrb- canis lupus familiaris or canis familiaris -rrb- is a domesticated canid which has been selectively bred for millennia for various behaviors , sensory capabilities , and physical attributes . 
the domestic dog -lrb- canis lupus familiaris or canis familiaris -rrb- is a domesticated canid which has been selectively bred for millennia for various behaviors , sensory capabilities , and physical attributes . 
the domestic dog -lrb- canis lupus familiaris or canis familiaris -rrb- is a domesticated canid which has been selectively bred for millennia for various behaviors , sensory capabilities , and physical attributes . 
the domestic dog -lrb- canis lupus familiaris or canis familiaris -rrb- is a domesticated canid which has been selectively bred for millennia for various behaviors , sensory capabilities , and physical attributes . 
although initially thought to have originated as a manmade variant of an extant canid species -lrb- variously supposed as being the dhole , golden jackal , or gray wolf -rrb- , extensive genetic studies undertaken during the 2010s indicate that dogs diverged from an extinct wolf-like canid in eurasia 40,000 years ago . 
although initially thought to have originated as a manmade variant of an extant canid species -lrb- variously supposed as being the dhole , golden jackal , or gray wolf -rrb- , extensive genetic studies undertaken during the 2010s indicate that dogs diverged from an extinct wolf-like canid in eurasia 40,000 years ago . 
although initially thought to have originated as a manmade variant of an extant canid species -lrb- variously supposed as being the dhole , golden jackal , or gray wolf -rrb- , extensive genetic studies undertaken during the 2010s indicate that dogs diverged from an extinct wolf-like canid in eurasia 40,000 years ago . 
being the oldest domesticated animal , their long association with people has allowed dogs to be uniquely attuned to human behavior , as well as thrive on a starch-rich diet which would be inadequate for other canid species . 
although initially thought to have originated as a manmade variant of an extant canid species -lrb- variously supposed as being the dhole , golden jackal , or gray wolf -rrb- , extensive genetic studies undertaken during the 2010s indicate that dogs diverged from an extinct wolf-like canid in eurasia 40,000 years ago . 
this impact on human society has given them the nickname `` man 's best friend '' in the western world . 
this impact on human society has given them the nickname `` man 's best friend '' in the western world . 
in some cultures , however , dogs are a source of meat . 
the term may possibly derive from proto-germanic * dukkōn , represented in old english finger-docce -lrb- `` finger-muscle '' -rrb- . 
the term dog may ultimately derive from the earliest layer of proto-indo-european vocabulary . 
the english word dog comes from middle english dogge , from old english docga , a `` powerful dog breed '' . 
the term dog may ultimately derive from the earliest layer of proto-indo-european vocabulary . 
in 14th-century england , hound -lrb- from old english : hund -rrb- was the general word for all domestic canines , and dog referred to a subtype of hound , a group including the mastiff . 
in 14th-century england , hound -lrb- from old english : hund -rrb- was the general word for all domestic canines , and dog referred to a subtype of hound , a group including the mastiff . 
by the 16th century , dog had become the general word , and hound had begun to refer only to types used for hunting . 
in 14th-century england , hound -lrb- from old english : hund -rrb- was the general word for all domestic canines , and dog referred to a subtype of hound , a group including the mastiff . 
by the 16th century , dog had become the general word , and hound had begun to refer only to types used for hunting . 
by the 16th century , dog had become the general word , and hound had begun to refer only to types used for hunting . 
the word `` hound '' is ultimately derived from the proto-indo-european word * kwon - `` dog '' . 
a group of offspring is a litter . 
the father of a litter is called the sire , and the mother is called the dam . 
offspring are , in general , called pups or puppies , from french poupée , until they are about a year old . 
the process of birth is whelping , from the old english word hwelp . 
in breeding circles , a male canine is referred to as a dog , while a female is called a bitch -lrb- middle english bicche , from old english bicce , ultimately from old norse bikkja -rrb- . 
in breeding circles , a male canine is referred to as a dog , while a female is called a bitch -lrb- middle english bicche , from old english bicce , ultimately from old norse bikkja -rrb- . 
a group of offspring is a litter . 
the father of a litter is called the sire , and the mother is called the dam . 
the father of a litter is called the sire , and the mother is called the dam . 
offspring are , in general , called pups or puppies , from french poupée , until they are about a year old . 
in 1758 , the taxonomist linnaeus published in systema naturae a categorization of species which included the canis species . 
in 1758 , the taxonomist linnaeus published in systema naturae a categorization of species which included the canis species . 
in 1758 , the taxonomist linnaeus published in systema naturae a categorization of species which included the canis species . 
on the next page he recorded the wolf as canis lupus , which means `` dog-wolf '' . 
in 1982 , the first edition of mammal species of the world listed canis familiaris under canis lupus with the comment : `` probably ancestor of and conspecific with the domestic dog , familiaris . 
in 1758 , the taxonomist linnaeus published in systema naturae a categorization of species which included the canis species . 
the dog was classified as canis familiaris , which means `` dog-family '' or the family dog . 
on the next page he recorded the wolf as canis lupus , which means `` dog-wolf '' . 
in 1978 , a review aimed at reducing the number of recognized canis species proposed that `` canis dingo is now generally regarded as a distinctive feral domestic dog . 
in 1982 , the first edition of mammal species of the world listed canis familiaris under canis lupus with the comment : `` probably ancestor of and conspecific with the domestic dog , familiaris . 
in 2003 , the iczn ruled in its opinion 2027 that if wild animals and their domesticated derivatives are regarded as one species , then the scientific name of that species is the scientific name of the wild animal . 
in 2005 , the third edition of mammal species of the world upheld opinion 2027 with the name lupus and the note : `` includes the domestic dog as a subspecies , with the dingo provisionally separate - artificial variants created by domestication and selective breeding '' . 
however , canis familiaris is sometimes used due to an ongoing nomenclature debate because wild and domestic animals are separately recognizable entities and that the iczn allowed users a choice as to which name they could use , and a number of internationally recognized researchers prefer to use canis familiaris . 
in 2003 , the iczn ruled in its opinion 2027 that if wild animals and their domesticated derivatives are regarded as one species , then the scientific name of that species is the scientific name of the wild animal . 
however , canis familiaris is sometimes used due to an ongoing nomenclature debate because wild and domestic animals are separately recognizable entities and that the iczn allowed users a choice as to which name they could use , and a number of internationally recognized researchers prefer to use canis familiaris . 
in 2003 , the iczn ruled in its opinion 2027 that if wild animals and their domesticated derivatives are regarded as one species , then the scientific name of that species is the scientific name of the wild animal . 
in 2003 , the iczn ruled in its opinion 2027 that if wild animals and their domesticated derivatives are regarded as one species , then the scientific name of that species is the scientific name of the wild animal . 
later genetic studies strongly supported dogs and gray wolves forming two sister monophyletic clades within the one species , and that the common ancestor of dogs and extant wolves is extinct . 
later genetic studies strongly supported dogs and gray wolves forming two sister monophyletic clades within the one species , and that the common ancestor of dogs and extant wolves is extinct . 
these dates imply that the earliest dogs arose in the time of human hunter-gatherers and not agriculturists . 
nearly all dog breeds ' genetic closeness to the gray wolf are due to admixture , except several arctic dog breeds are close to the taimyr wolf of north asia due to admixture . 
these dates imply that the earliest dogs arose in the time of human hunter-gatherers and not agriculturists . 
whole genome sequencing indicates that the dog , the gray wolf and the extinct taymyr wolf diverged at around the same time 27,000 -- 40,000 years ago . 
nearly all dog breeds ' genetic closeness to the gray wolf are due to admixture , except several arctic dog breeds are close to the taimyr wolf of north asia due to admixture . 
modern dog breeds show more variation in size , appearance , and behavior than any other domestic animal . 
dogs are predators and scavengers , and like many other predatory mammals , the dog has powerful muscles , fused wrist bones , a cardiovascular system that supports both sprinting and endurance , and teeth for catching and tearing . 
dogs are predators and scavengers , and like many other predatory mammals , the dog has powerful muscles , fused wrist bones , a cardiovascular system that supports both sprinting and endurance , and teeth for catching and tearing . 
dogs are predators and scavengers , and like many other predatory mammals , the dog has powerful muscles , fused wrist bones , a cardiovascular system that supports both sprinting and endurance , and teeth for catching and tearing . 
dogs are predators and scavengers , and like many other predatory mammals , the dog has powerful muscles , fused wrist bones , a cardiovascular system that supports both sprinting and endurance , and teeth for catching and tearing . 
dogs are predators and scavengers , and like many other predatory mammals , the dog has powerful muscles , fused wrist bones , a cardiovascular system that supports both sprinting and endurance , and teeth for catching and tearing . 
dogs are predators and scavengers , and like many other predatory mammals , the dog has powerful muscles , fused wrist bones , a cardiovascular system that supports both sprinting and endurance , and teeth for catching and tearing . 
dogs are highly variable in height and weight . 
the largest known dog was an english mastiff which weighed 155.6 kg -lrb- 343 lb -rrb- and was 250 cm -lrb- 98 in -rrb- from the snout to the tail . 
the largest known dog was an english mastiff which weighed 155.6 kg -lrb- 343 lb -rrb- and was 250 cm -lrb- 98 in -rrb- from the snout to the tail . 
the coats of domestic dogs are of two varieties : `` double '' being common with dogs -lrb- as well as wolves -rrb- originating from colder climates , made up of a coarse guard hair and a soft down hair , or `` single '' , with the topcoat only . 
the coats of domestic dogs are of two varieties : `` double '' being common with dogs -lrb- as well as wolves -rrb- originating from colder climates , made up of a coarse guard hair and a soft down hair , or `` single '' , with the topcoat only . 
the coats of domestic dogs are of two varieties : `` double '' being common with dogs -lrb- as well as wolves -rrb- originating from colder climates , made up of a coarse guard hair and a soft down hair , or `` single '' , with the topcoat only . 
the coats of domestic dogs are of two varieties : `` double '' being common with dogs -lrb- as well as wolves -rrb- originating from colder climates , made up of a coarse guard hair and a soft down hair , or `` single '' , with the topcoat only . 
domestic dogs often display the remnants of countershading , a common natural camouflage pattern . 
a countershaded animal will have dark coloring on its upper surfaces and light coloring below , which reduces its general visibility . 
domestic dogs often display the remnants of countershading , a common natural camouflage pattern . 
a countershaded animal will have dark coloring on its upper surfaces and light coloring below , which reduces its general visibility . 
a countershaded animal will have dark coloring on its upper surfaces and light coloring below , which reduces its general visibility . 
there are many different shapes for dog tails : straight , straight up , sickle , curled , or cork-screw . 
as with many canids , one of the primary functions of a dog 's tail is to communicate their emotional state , which can be important in getting along with others . 
there are many different shapes for dog tails : straight , straight up , sickle , curled , or cork-screw . 
some breeds of dogs are prone to certain genetic ailments such as elbow and hip dysplasia , blindness , deafness , pulmonic stenosis , cleft palate , and trick knees . 
dogs are also susceptible to parasites such as fleas , ticks , and mites , as well as hookworms , tapeworms , roundworms , and heartworms . 
two serious medical conditions particularly affecting dogs are pyometra , affecting unspayed females of all types and ages , and bloat , which affects the larger breeds or deep-chested dogs . 
two serious medical conditions particularly affecting dogs are pyometra , affecting unspayed females of all types and ages , and bloat , which affects the larger breeds or deep-chested dogs . 
dogs are also susceptible to parasites such as fleas , ticks , and mites , as well as hookworms , tapeworms , roundworms , and heartworms . 
a number of common human foods and household ingestibles are toxic to dogs , including chocolate solids -lrb- theobromine poisoning -rrb- , onion and garlic -lrb- thiosulphate , sulfoxide or disulfide poisoning -rrb- , grapes and raisins , macadamia nuts , xylitol , as well as various plants and other potentially ingested materials . 
a number of common human foods and household ingestibles are toxic to dogs , including chocolate solids -lrb- theobromine poisoning -rrb- , onion and garlic -lrb- thiosulphate , sulfoxide or disulfide poisoning -rrb- , grapes and raisins , macadamia nuts , xylitol , as well as various plants and other potentially ingested materials . 
a number of common human foods and household ingestibles are toxic to dogs , including chocolate solids -lrb- theobromine poisoning -rrb- , onion and garlic -lrb- thiosulphate , sulfoxide or disulfide poisoning -rrb- , grapes and raisins , macadamia nuts , xylitol , as well as various plants and other potentially ingested materials . 
a number of common human foods and household ingestibles are toxic to dogs , including chocolate solids -lrb- theobromine poisoning -rrb- , onion and garlic -lrb- thiosulphate , sulfoxide or disulfide poisoning -rrb- , grapes and raisins , macadamia nuts , xylitol , as well as various plants and other potentially ingested materials . 
a number of common human foods and household ingestibles are toxic to dogs , including chocolate solids -lrb- theobromine poisoning -rrb- , onion and garlic -lrb- thiosulphate , sulfoxide or disulfide poisoning -rrb- , grapes and raisins , macadamia nuts , xylitol , as well as various plants and other potentially ingested materials . 
the nicotine in tobacco can also be dangerous . 
theobromine is toxic to dogs because , although the dog 's metabolism is capable of breaking down the chemical , the process is so slow that even small amounts of chocolate can be fatal , especially dark chocolate . 
in 2013 , a study found that mixed breeds live on average 1.2 years longer than pure breeds , and that increasing body-weight was negatively correlated with longevity -lrb- i.e. the heavier the dog the shorter its lifespan -rrb- . 
in 2013 , a study found that mixed breeds live on average 1.2 years longer than pure breeds , and that increasing body-weight was negatively correlated with longevity -lrb- i.e. the heavier the dog the shorter its lifespan -rrb- . 
in 2013 , a study found that mixed breeds live on average 1.2 years longer than pure breeds , and that increasing body-weight was negatively correlated with longevity -lrb- i.e. the heavier the dog the shorter its lifespan -rrb- . 
in 2013 , a study found that mixed breeds live on average 1.2 years longer than pure breeds , and that increasing body-weight was negatively correlated with longevity -lrb- i.e. the heavier the dog the shorter its lifespan -rrb- . 
the typical lifespan of dogs varies widely among breeds , but for most the median longevity , the age at which half the dogs in a population have died and half are still alive , ranges from 10 to 13 years . 
the breed with the shortest lifespan -lrb- among breeds for which there is a questionnaire survey with a reasonable sample size -rrb- is the dogue de bordeaux , with a median longevity of about 5.2 years , but several breeds , including miniature bull terriers , bloodhounds , and irish wolfhounds are nearly as short-lived , with median longevities of 6 to 7 years . 
the breed with the shortest lifespan -lrb- among breeds for which there is a questionnaire survey with a reasonable sample size -rrb- is the dogue de bordeaux , with a median longevity of about 5.2 years , but several breeds , including miniature bull terriers , bloodhounds , and irish wolfhounds are nearly as short-lived , with median longevities of 6 to 7 years . 
the breed with the shortest lifespan -lrb- among breeds for which there is a questionnaire survey with a reasonable sample size -rrb- is the dogue de bordeaux , with a median longevity of about 5.2 years , but several breeds , including miniature bull terriers , bloodhounds , and irish wolfhounds are nearly as short-lived , with median longevities of 6 to 7 years . 
the breed with the shortest lifespan -lrb- among breeds for which there is a questionnaire survey with a reasonable sample size -rrb- is the dogue de bordeaux , with a median longevity of about 5.2 years , but several breeds , including miniature bull terriers , bloodhounds , and irish wolfhounds are nearly as short-lived , with median longevities of 6 to 7 years . 
the breed with the shortest lifespan -lrb- among breeds for which there is a questionnaire survey with a reasonable sample size -rrb- is the dogue de bordeaux , with a median longevity of about 5.2 years , but several breeds , including miniature bull terriers , bloodhounds , and irish wolfhounds are nearly as short-lived , with median longevities of 6 to 7 years . 
the longest-lived breeds , including toy poodles , japanese spitz , border terriers , and tibetan spaniels , have median longevities of 14 to 15 years . 
the dog widely reported to be the longest-lived is `` bluey '' , who died in 1939 and was claimed to be 29.5 years old at the time of his death . 
on 5 december 2011 , pusuke , the world 's oldest living dog recognized by guinness book of world records , died aged 26 years and 9 months . 
the dog widely reported to be the longest-lived is `` bluey '' , who died in 1939 and was claimed to be 29.5 years old at the time of his death . 
the dog widely reported to be the longest-lived is `` bluey '' , who died in 1939 and was claimed to be 29.5 years old at the time of his death . 
the dog widely reported to be the longest-lived is `` bluey '' , who died in 1939 and was claimed to be 29.5 years old at the time of his death . 
on 5 december 2011 , pusuke , the world 's oldest living dog recognized by guinness book of world records , died aged 26 years and 9 months . 
in domestic dogs , sexual maturity begins to happen around age six to twelve months for both males and females , although this can be delayed until up to two years old for some large breeds . 
they will experience subsequent estrous cycles biannually , during which the body prepares for pregnancy . 
in domestic dogs , sexual maturity begins to happen around age six to twelve months for both males and females , although this can be delayed until up to two years old for some large breeds . 
this is the time at which female dogs will have their first estrous cycle . 
dogs bear their litters roughly 58 to 68 days after fertilization , with an average of 63 days , although the length of gestation can vary . 
dogs bear their litters roughly 58 to 68 days after fertilization , with an average of 63 days , although the length of gestation can vary . 
an average litter consists of about six puppies , though this number may vary widely based on the breed of dog . 
in general , toy dogs produce from one to four puppies in each litter , while much larger breeds may average as many as twelve . 
dogs bear their litters roughly 58 to 68 days after fertilization , with an average of 63 days , although the length of gestation can vary . 
an average litter consists of about six puppies , though this number may vary widely based on the breed of dog . 
in general , toy dogs produce from one to four puppies in each litter , while much larger breeds may average as many as twelve . 
neutering refers to the sterilization of animals , usually by removal of the male 's testicles or the female 's ovaries and uterus , in order to eliminate the ability to procreate and reduce sex drive . 
because of the overpopulation of dogs in some countries , many animal control agencies , such as the american society for the prevention of cruelty to animals -lrb- aspca -rrb- , advise that dogs not intended for further breeding should be neutered , so that they do not have undesired puppies that may have to later be euthanized . 
neutering refers to the sterilization of animals , usually by removal of the male 's testicles or the female 's ovaries and uterus , in order to eliminate the ability to procreate and reduce sex drive . 
neutering refers to the sterilization of animals , usually by removal of the male 's testicles or the female 's ovaries and uterus , in order to eliminate the ability to procreate and reduce sex drive . 
neutering refers to the sterilization of animals , usually by removal of the male 's testicles or the female 's ovaries and uterus , in order to eliminate the ability to procreate and reduce sex drive . 
neutering refers to the sterilization of animals , usually by removal of the male 's testicles or the female 's ovaries and uterus , in order to eliminate the ability to procreate and reduce sex drive . 
because of the overpopulation of dogs in some countries , many animal control agencies , such as the american society for the prevention of cruelty to animals -lrb- aspca -rrb- , advise that dogs not intended for further breeding should be neutered , so that they do not have undesired puppies that may have to later be euthanized . 
neutering reduces problems caused by hypersexuality , especially in male dogs . 
however , neutering increases the risk of urinary incontinence in female dogs , and prostate cancer in males , as well as osteosarcoma , hemangiosarcoma , cruciate ligament rupture , obesity , and diabetes mellitus in either sex . 
spayed female dogs are less likely to develop some forms of cancer , affecting mammary glands , ovaries , and other reproductive organs . 
however , neutering increases the risk of urinary incontinence in female dogs , and prostate cancer in males , as well as osteosarcoma , hemangiosarcoma , cruciate ligament rupture , obesity , and diabetes mellitus in either sex . 
however , neutering increases the risk of urinary incontinence in female dogs , and prostate cancer in males , as well as osteosarcoma , hemangiosarcoma , cruciate ligament rupture , obesity , and diabetes mellitus in either sex . 
a study with rico showed that he knew the labels of over 200 different items . 
a study documented the learning and memory capabilities of a border collie , `` chaser '' , who had learned the names and could associate by verbal command over 1,000 words . 
dogs are able to read and react appropriately to human body language such as gesturing and pointing , and to understand human voice commands . 
a study showed compelling evidence that australian dingos can outperform domestic dogs in non-social problem-solving experiment , indicating that domestic dogs may have lost much of their original problem-solving abilities once they joined humans . 
modern domestic dogs use humans to solve their problems for them . 
dog intelligence is the ability of the dog to perceive information and retain it as knowledge for applying to solve problems . 
a study with rico showed that he knew the labels of over 200 different items . 
dogs have advanced memory skills . 
a study documented the learning and memory capabilities of a border collie , `` chaser '' , who had learned the names and could associate by verbal command over 1,000 words . 
as the oldest domesticated species , with estimates ranging from 9,000 -- 30,000 years bce , the minds of dogs inevitably have been shaped by millennia of contact with humans . 
as the oldest domesticated species , with estimates ranging from 9,000 -- 30,000 years bce , the minds of dogs inevitably have been shaped by millennia of contact with humans . 
rather , these skills parallel some of the social-cognitive skills of human children . 
as the oldest domesticated species , with estimates ranging from 9,000 -- 30,000 years bce , the minds of dogs inevitably have been shaped by millennia of contact with humans . 
as the oldest domesticated species , with estimates ranging from 9,000 -- 30,000 years bce , the minds of dogs inevitably have been shaped by millennia of contact with humans . 
dog behavior is the internally coordinated responses -lrb- actions or inactions -rrb- of the domestic dog -lrb- individuals or groups -rrb- to internal and/or external stimuli . 
as a result of this physical and social evolution , dogs , more than any other species , have acquired the ability to understand and communicate with humans and they are uniquely attuned to our behaviors . 
rather , these skills parallel some of the social-cognitive skills of human children . 
dog communication is about how dogs `` speak '' to each other , how they understand messages that humans send to them , and how humans can translate the ideas that dogs are trying to transmit. : xii these communication behaviors include eye gaze , facial expression , vocalization , body posture -lrb- including movements of bodies and limbs -rrb- and gustatory communication -lrb- scents , pheromones and taste -rrb- . 
humans communicate with dogs by using vocalization , hand signals and body posture . 
dog communication is about how dogs `` speak '' to each other , how they understand messages that humans send to them , and how humans can translate the ideas that dogs are trying to transmit. : xii these communication behaviors include eye gaze , facial expression , vocalization , body posture -lrb- including movements of bodies and limbs -rrb- and gustatory communication -lrb- scents , pheromones and taste -rrb- . 
humans communicate with dogs by using vocalization , hand signals and body posture . 
despite their close genetic relationship and the ability to inter-breed , there are a number of diagnostic features to distinguish the gray wolves from domestic dogs . 
the dog 's limp ears may be the result of atrophy of the jaw muscles . 
despite their close genetic relationship and the ability to inter-breed , there are a number of diagnostic features to distinguish the gray wolves from domestic dogs . 
dogs lack a functioning pre-caudal gland , and most enter estrus twice yearly , unlike gray wolves which only do so once a year . 
unlike other domestic species which were primarily selected for production-related traits , dogs were initially selected for their behaviors . 
in 2016 , a study found that there were only 11 fixed genes that showed variation between wolves and dogs . 
these gene variations were unlikely to have been the result of natural evolution , and indicate selection on both morphology and behavior during dog domestication . 
these genes have been shown to have an impact on the catecholamine synthesis pathway , with the majority of the genes affecting the fight-or-flight response -lrb- i.e. selection for tameness -rrb- , and emotional processing . 
dogs generally show reduced fear and aggression compared to wolves . 
unlike other domestic species which were primarily selected for production-related traits , dogs were initially selected for their behaviors . 
unlike other domestic species which were primarily selected for production-related traits , dogs were initially selected for their behaviors . 
in 2016 , a study found that there were only 11 fixed genes that showed variation between wolves and dogs . 
dogs generally show reduced fear and aggression compared to wolves . 
the global dog population is estimated at 525 million :225 based on a transparent methodology , as opposed to other estimates where the methodology has not been made available -- all dog population estimates are based on regional human population densities and land uses . 
the global dog population is estimated at 525 million :225 based on a transparent methodology , as opposed to other estimates where the methodology has not been made available -- all dog population estimates are based on regional human population densities and land uses . 
the global dog population is estimated at 525 million :225 based on a transparent methodology , as opposed to other estimates where the methodology has not been made available -- all dog population estimates are based on regional human population densities and land uses . 
although large wild dogs , like wolves , are apex predators , they can be killed in territory disputes with wild animals . 
in some instances , wolves have displayed an uncharacteristic fearlessness of humans and buildings when attacking dogs , to the extent that they have to be beaten off or killed . 
although large wild dogs , like wolves , are apex predators , they can be killed in territory disputes with wild animals . 
although large wild dogs , like wolves , are apex predators , they can be killed in territory disputes with wild animals . 
reports from croatia indicate wolves kill dogs more frequently than they kill sheep . 
wolves in russia apparently limit feral dog populations . 
tigers in manchuria , indochina , indonesia , and malaysia are reputed to kill dogs with the same vigor as leopards . 
striped hyenas are major predators of village dogs in turkmenistan , india , and the caucasus . 
reptiles such as alligators and pythons have been known to kill and eat dogs . 
leopards in particular are known to have a predilection for dogs , and have been recorded to kill and consume them regardless of the dog 's size or ferocity . 
tigers in manchuria , indochina , indonesia , and malaysia are reputed to kill dogs with the same vigor as leopards . 
reptiles such as alligators and pythons have been known to kill and eat dogs . 
striped hyenas are major predators of village dogs in turkmenistan , india , and the caucasus . 
despite their descent from wolves and classification as carnivora , dogs are variously described in scholarly and other writings as carnivores or omnivores . 
dogs will healthily digest a variety of foods , including vegetables and grains , and can consume a large proportion of these in their diet . 
unlike obligate carnivores , such as the cat family with its shorter small intestine , dogs can adapt to a wide-ranging diet , and are not dependent on meat-specific protein nor a very high level of protein in order to fulfill their basic dietary requirements . 
despite their descent from wolves and classification as carnivora , dogs are variously described in scholarly and other writings as carnivores or omnivores . 
unlike obligate carnivores , such as the cat family with its shorter small intestine , dogs can adapt to a wide-ranging diet , and are not dependent on meat-specific protein nor a very high level of protein in order to fulfill their basic dietary requirements . 
comparing dogs and wolves , dogs have adaptations in genes involved in starch digestion that contribute to an increased ability to thrive on a starch-rich diet . 
most breeds of dog are at most a few hundred years old , having been artificially selected for particular morphologies and behaviors by people for specific functional roles . 
most breeds of dog are at most a few hundred years old , having been artificially selected for particular morphologies and behaviors by people for specific functional roles . 
through this selective breeding , the dog has developed into hundreds of varied breeds , and shows more behavioral and morphological variation than any other land mammal . 
for example , height measured to the withers ranges from 15.2 centimetres -lrb- 6.0 in -rrb- in the chihuahua to about 76 cm -lrb- 30 in -rrb- in the irish wolfhound ; color varies from white through grays -lrb- usually called `` blue '' -rrb- to black , and browns from light -lrb- tan -rrb- to dark -lrb- `` red '' or `` chocolate '' -rrb- in a wide variation of patterns ; coats can be short or long , coarse-haired to wool-like , straight , curly , or smooth . 
most breeds of dog are at most a few hundred years old , having been artificially selected for particular morphologies and behaviors by people for specific functional roles . 
through this selective breeding , the dog has developed into hundreds of varied breeds , and shows more behavioral and morphological variation than any other land mammal . 
for example , height measured to the withers ranges from 15.2 centimetres -lrb- 6.0 in -rrb- in the chihuahua to about 76 cm -lrb- 30 in -rrb- in the irish wolfhound ; color varies from white through grays -lrb- usually called `` blue '' -rrb- to black , and browns from light -lrb- tan -rrb- to dark -lrb- `` red '' or `` chocolate '' -rrb- in a wide variation of patterns ; coats can be short or long , coarse-haired to wool-like , straight , curly , or smooth . 
while all dogs are genetically very similar , natural selection and selective breeding have reinforced certain characteristics in certain populations of dogs , giving rise to dog types and dog breeds . 
while all dogs are genetically very similar , natural selection and selective breeding have reinforced certain characteristics in certain populations of dogs , giving rise to dog types and dog breeds . 
modern dog breeds are non-scientific classifications of dogs kept by modern kennel clubs . 
while all dogs are genetically very similar , natural selection and selective breeding have reinforced certain characteristics in certain populations of dogs , giving rise to dog types and dog breeds . 
while all dogs are genetically very similar , natural selection and selective breeding have reinforced certain characteristics in certain populations of dogs , giving rise to dog types and dog breeds . 
modern dog breeds are non-scientific classifications of dogs kept by modern kennel clubs . 
purebred dogs of one breed are genetically distinguishable from purebred dogs of other breeds , but the means by which kennel clubs classify dogs is unsystematic . 
systematic analyses of the dog genome has revealed only four major types of dogs that can be said to be statistically distinct . 
these include the `` old world dogs '' -lrb- e.g. , malamute and shar pei -rrb- , `` mastiff '' - type -lrb- e.g. , english mastiff -rrb- , `` herding '' - type -lrb- e.g. , border collie -rrb- , and `` all others '' -lrb- also called `` modern '' - or `` hunting '' - type -rrb- . 
these include the `` old world dogs '' -lrb- e.g. , malamute and shar pei -rrb- , `` mastiff '' - type -lrb- e.g. , english mastiff -rrb- , `` herding '' - type -lrb- e.g. , border collie -rrb- , and `` all others '' -lrb- also called `` modern '' - or `` hunting '' - type -rrb- . 
systematic analyses of the dog genome has revealed only four major types of dogs that can be said to be statistically distinct . 
these include the `` old world dogs '' -lrb- e.g. , malamute and shar pei -rrb- , `` mastiff '' - type -lrb- e.g. , english mastiff -rrb- , `` herding '' - type -lrb- e.g. , border collie -rrb- , and `` all others '' -lrb- also called `` modern '' - or `` hunting '' - type -rrb- . 
these include the `` old world dogs '' -lrb- e.g. , malamute and shar pei -rrb- , `` mastiff '' - type -lrb- e.g. , english mastiff -rrb- , `` herding '' - type -lrb- e.g. , border collie -rrb- , and `` all others '' -lrb- also called `` modern '' - or `` hunting '' - type -rrb- . 
domestic dogs inherited complex behaviors , such as bite inhibition , from their wolf ancestors , which would have been pack hunters with complex body language . 
these sophisticated forms of social cognition and communication may account for their trainability , playfulness , and ability to fit into human households and social situations , and these attributes have given dogs a relationship with humans that has enabled them to become one of the most successful species on the planet today. : pages95-136 
these sophisticated forms of social cognition and communication may account for their trainability , playfulness , and ability to fit into human households and social situations , and these attributes have given dogs a relationship with humans that has enabled them to become one of the most successful species on the planet today. : pages95-136 
domestic dogs inherited complex behaviors , such as bite inhibition , from their wolf ancestors , which would have been pack hunters with complex body language . 
the dogs ' value to early human hunter-gatherers led to them quickly becoming ubiquitous across world cultures . 
dogs perform many roles for people , such as hunting , herding , pulling loads , protection , assisting police and military , companionship , and , more recently , aiding handicapped individuals . 
this impact on human society has given them the nickname `` man 's best friend '' in the western world . 
in some cultures , however , dogs are also a source of meat . 
for instance , dogs would have improved sanitation by cleaning up food scraps . 
dogs may have provided warmth , as referred to in the australian aboriginal expression `` three dog night '' -lrb- an exceptionally cold night -rrb- , and they would have alerted the camp to the presence of predators or strangers , using their acute hearing to provide an early warning . 
dogs may have provided warmth , as referred to in the australian aboriginal expression `` three dog night '' -lrb- an exceptionally cold night -rrb- , and they would have alerted the camp to the presence of predators or strangers , using their acute hearing to provide an early warning . 
for instance , dogs would have improved sanitation by cleaning up food scraps . 
dogs may have provided warmth , as referred to in the australian aboriginal expression `` three dog night '' -lrb- an exceptionally cold night -rrb- , and they would have alerted the camp to the presence of predators or strangers , using their acute hearing to provide an early warning . 
the relationship between the presence of a dog and success in the hunt is often mentioned as a primary reason for the domestication of the wolf , and a 2004 study of hunter groups with and without a dog gives quantitative support to the hypothesis that the benefits of cooperative hunting was an important factor in wolf domestication . 
the relationship between the presence of a dog and success in the hunt is often mentioned as a primary reason for the domestication of the wolf , and a 2004 study of hunter groups with and without a dog gives quantitative support to the hypothesis that the benefits of cooperative hunting was an important factor in wolf domestication . 
anthropologists believe the most significant benefit would have been the use of dogs ' robust sense of smell to assist with the hunt . 
the relationship between the presence of a dog and success in the hunt is often mentioned as a primary reason for the domestication of the wolf , and a 2004 study of hunter groups with and without a dog gives quantitative support to the hypothesis that the benefits of cooperative hunting was an important factor in wolf domestication . 
emigrants from siberia that walked across the bering land bridge into north america may have had dogs in their company , and one writer suggests that the use of sled dogs may have been critical to the success of the waves that entered north america roughly 12,000 years ago , although the earliest archaeological evidence of dog-like canids in north america dates from about 9,400 years ago. :104 dogs were an important part of life for the athabascan population in north america , and were their only domesticated animal . 
emigrants from siberia that walked across the bering land bridge into north america may have had dogs in their company , and one writer suggests that the use of sled dogs may have been critical to the success of the waves that entered north america roughly 12,000 years ago , although the earliest archaeological evidence of dog-like canids in north america dates from about 9,400 years ago. :104 dogs were an important part of life for the athabascan population in north america , and were their only domesticated animal . 
emigrants from siberia that walked across the bering land bridge into north america may have had dogs in their company , and one writer suggests that the use of sled dogs may have been critical to the success of the waves that entered north america roughly 12,000 years ago , although the earliest archaeological evidence of dog-like canids in north america dates from about 9,400 years ago. :104 dogs were an important part of life for the athabascan population in north america , and were their only domesticated animal . 
emigrants from siberia that walked across the bering land bridge into north america may have had dogs in their company , and one writer suggests that the use of sled dogs may have been critical to the success of the waves that entered north america roughly 12,000 years ago , although the earliest archaeological evidence of dog-like canids in north america dates from about 9,400 years ago. :104 dogs were an important part of life for the athabascan population in north america , and were their only domesticated animal . 
emigrants from siberia that walked across the bering land bridge into north america may have had dogs in their company , and one writer suggests that the use of sled dogs may have been critical to the success of the waves that entered north america roughly 12,000 years ago , although the earliest archaeological evidence of dog-like canids in north america dates from about 9,400 years ago. :104 dogs were an important part of life for the athabascan population in north america , and were their only domesticated animal . 
dogs also carried much of the load in the migration of the apache and navajo tribes 1,400 years ago . 
use of dogs as pack animals in these cultures often persisted after the introduction of the horse to north america . 
-lrb- as a possible example , at the natufian culture site of ain mallaha in israel , dated to 12,000 bc , the remains of an elderly human and a four-to-five-month-old puppy were found buried together -rrb- . 
`` the most widespread form of interspecies bonding occurs between humans and dogs '' and the keeping of dogs as companions , particularly by elites , has a long history . 
however , pet dog populations grew significantly after world war ii as suburbanization increased . 
from the 1980s , there have been changes in the role of the pet dog , such as the increased role of dogs in the emotional support of their human guardians . 
in the 1950s and 1960s , dogs were kept outside more often than they tend to be today -lrb- using the expression `` in the doghouse '' to describe exclusion from the group signifies the distance between the doghouse and the home -rrb- and were still primarily functional , acting as a guard , children 's playmate , or walking companion . 
`` the most widespread form of interspecies bonding occurs between humans and dogs '' and the keeping of dogs as companions , particularly by elites , has a long history . 
in the 1950s and 1960s , dogs were kept outside more often than they tend to be today -lrb- using the expression `` in the doghouse '' to describe exclusion from the group signifies the distance between the doghouse and the home -rrb- and were still primarily functional , acting as a guard , children 's playmate , or walking companion . 
from the 1980s , there have been changes in the role of the pet dog , such as the increased role of dogs in the emotional support of their human guardians . 
the first has been the ` commodification ' of the dog , shaping it to conform to human expectations of personality and behaviour . 
there have been two major trends in the changing status of pet dogs . 
there have been two major trends in the changing status of pet dogs . 
the first has been the ` commodification ' of the dog , shaping it to conform to human expectations of personality and behaviour . 
the second has been the broadening of the concept of the family and the home to include dogs-as-dogs within everyday routines and practices . 
there are a vast range of commodity forms available to transform a pet dog into an ideal companion . 
while dog training as an organized activity can be traced back to the 18th century , in the last decades of the 20th century it became a high profile issue as many normal dog behaviors such as barking , jumping up , digging , rolling in dung , fighting , and urine marking -lrb- which dogs do to establish territory through scent -rrb- , became increasingly incompatible with the new role of a pet dog . 
while dog training as an organized activity can be traced back to the 18th century , in the last decades of the 20th century it became a high profile issue as many normal dog behaviors such as barking , jumping up , digging , rolling in dung , fighting , and urine marking -lrb- which dogs do to establish territory through scent -rrb- , became increasingly incompatible with the new role of a pet dog . 
while dog training as an organized activity can be traced back to the 18th century , in the last decades of the 20th century it became a high profile issue as many normal dog behaviors such as barking , jumping up , digging , rolling in dung , fighting , and urine marking -lrb- which dogs do to establish territory through scent -rrb- , became increasingly incompatible with the new role of a pet dog . 
while dog training as an organized activity can be traced back to the 18th century , in the last decades of the 20th century it became a high profile issue as many normal dog behaviors such as barking , jumping up , digging , rolling in dung , fighting , and urine marking -lrb- which dogs do to establish territory through scent -rrb- , became increasingly incompatible with the new role of a pet dog . 
while dog training as an organized activity can be traced back to the 18th century , in the last decades of the 20th century it became a high profile issue as many normal dog behaviors such as barking , jumping up , digging , rolling in dung , fighting , and urine marking -lrb- which dogs do to establish territory through scent -rrb- , became increasingly incompatible with the new role of a pet dog . 
the majority of contemporary people with dogs describe their pet as part of the family , although some ambivalence about the relationship is evident in the popular reconceptualization of the dog -- human family as a pack . 
a dominance model of dog -- human relationships has been promoted by some dog trainers , such as on the television program dog whisperer . 
the majority of contemporary people with dogs describe their pet as part of the family , although some ambivalence about the relationship is evident in the popular reconceptualization of the dog -- human family as a pack . 
a dominance model of dog -- human relationships has been promoted by some dog trainers , such as on the television program dog whisperer . 
another study of dogs ' roles in families showed many dogs have set tasks or routines undertaken as family members , the most common of which was helping with the washing-up by licking the plates in the dishwasher , and bringing in the newspaper from the lawn . 
another study of dogs ' roles in families showed many dogs have set tasks or routines undertaken as family members , the most common of which was helping with the washing-up by licking the plates in the dishwasher , and bringing in the newspaper from the lawn . 
increasingly , human family members are engaging in activities centered on the perceived needs and interests of the dog , or in which the dog is an integral partner , such as dog dancing and dog yoga . 
another study of dogs ' roles in families showed many dogs have set tasks or routines undertaken as family members , the most common of which was helping with the washing-up by licking the plates in the dishwasher , and bringing in the newspaper from the lawn . 
another study of dogs ' roles in families showed many dogs have set tasks or routines undertaken as family members , the most common of which was helping with the washing-up by licking the plates in the dishwasher , and bringing in the newspaper from the lawn . 
according to statistics published by the american pet products manufacturers association in the national pet owner survey in 2009 -- 2010 , it is estimated there are 77.5 million people with pet dogs in the united states . 
according to statistics published by the american pet products manufacturers association in the national pet owner survey in 2009 -- 2010 , it is estimated there are 77.5 million people with pet dogs in the united states . 
the latest study using magnetic resonance imaging -lrb- mri -rrb- to humans and dogs together proved that dogs have same response to voices and use the same parts of the brain as humans to do so . 
the latest study using magnetic resonance imaging -lrb- mri -rrb- to humans and dogs together proved that dogs have same response to voices and use the same parts of the brain as humans to do so . 
the latest study using magnetic resonance imaging -lrb- mri -rrb- to humans and dogs together proved that dogs have same response to voices and use the same parts of the brain as humans to do so . 
this gives dogs the ability to recognize emotional human sounds , making them friendly social pets to humans . 
the latest study using magnetic resonance imaging -lrb- mri -rrb- to humans and dogs together proved that dogs have same response to voices and use the same parts of the brain as humans to do so . 
this gives dogs the ability to recognize emotional human sounds , making them friendly social pets to humans . 
dogs have lived and worked with humans in so many roles that they have earned the unique nickname , `` man 's best friend '' , a phrase used in other languages as well . 
they have been bred for herding livestock , hunting -lrb- e.g. pointers and hounds -rrb- , rodent control , guarding , helping fishermen with nets , detection dogs , and pulling loads , in addition to their roles as companions . 
they have been bred for herding livestock , hunting -lrb- e.g. pointers and hounds -rrb- , rodent control , guarding , helping fishermen with nets , detection dogs , and pulling loads , in addition to their roles as companions . 
in 1957 , a husky-terrier mix named laika became the first animal to orbit the earth . 
in 1957 , a husky-terrier mix named laika became the first animal to orbit the earth . 
dogs have lived and worked with humans in so many roles that they have earned the unique nickname , `` man 's best friend '' , a phrase used in other languages as well . 
they have been bred for herding livestock , hunting -lrb- e.g. pointers and hounds -rrb- , rodent control , guarding , helping fishermen with nets , detection dogs , and pulling loads , in addition to their roles as companions . 
they have been bred for herding livestock , hunting -lrb- e.g. pointers and hounds -rrb- , rodent control , guarding , helping fishermen with nets , detection dogs , and pulling loads , in addition to their roles as companions . 
in 1957 , a husky-terrier mix named laika became the first animal to orbit the earth . 
in 1957 , a husky-terrier mix named laika became the first animal to orbit the earth . 
service dogs such as guide dogs , utility dogs , assistance dogs , hearing dogs , and psychological therapy dogs provide assistance to individuals with physical or mental disabilities . 
some dogs owned by epileptics have been shown to alert their handler when the handler shows signs of an impending seizure , sometimes well in advance of onset , allowing the guardian to seek safety , medication , or medical care . 
in conformation shows , also referred to as breed shows , a judge familiar with the specific dog breed evaluates individual purebred dogs for conformity with their established breed type as described in the breed standard . 
in conformation shows , also referred to as breed shows , a judge familiar with the specific dog breed evaluates individual purebred dogs for conformity with their established breed type as described in the breed standard . 
in conformation shows , also referred to as breed shows , a judge familiar with the specific dog breed evaluates individual purebred dogs for conformity with their established breed type as described in the breed standard . 
as the breed standard only deals with the externally observable qualities of the dog -lrb- such as appearance , movement , and temperament -rrb- , separately tested qualities -lrb- such as ability or health -rrb- are not part of the judging in conformation shows . 
as the breed standard only deals with the externally observable qualities of the dog -lrb- such as appearance , movement , and temperament -rrb- , separately tested qualities -lrb- such as ability or health -rrb- are not part of the judging in conformation shows . 
in conformation shows , also referred to as breed shows , a judge familiar with the specific dog breed evaluates individual purebred dogs for conformity with their established breed type as described in the breed standard . 
as the breed standard only deals with the externally observable qualities of the dog -lrb- such as appearance , movement , and temperament -rrb- , separately tested qualities -lrb- such as ability or health -rrb- are not part of the judging in conformation shows . 
as the breed standard only deals with the externally observable qualities of the dog -lrb- such as appearance , movement , and temperament -rrb- , separately tested qualities -lrb- such as ability or health -rrb- are not part of the judging in conformation shows . 
dog meat is consumed in some east asian countries , including korea , china , and vietnam , a practice that dates back to antiquity . 
however , western , south asian , african , and middle eastern cultures , in general , regard consumption of dog meat as taboo . 
in some places , however , such as in rural areas of poland , dog fat is believed to have medicinal properties -- being good for the lungs for instance . 
proponents of eating dog meat have argued that placing a distinction between livestock and dogs is western hypocrisy , and that there is no difference with eating the meat of different animals . 
however , western , south asian , african , and middle eastern cultures , in general , regard consumption of dog meat as taboo . 
in some places , however , such as in rural areas of poland , dog fat is believed to have medicinal properties -- being good for the lungs for instance . 
the most popular korean dog dish is gaejang-guk -lrb- also called bosintang -rrb- , a spicy stew meant to balance the body 's heat during the summer months ; followers of the custom claim this is done to ensure good health by balancing one 's gi , or vital energy of the body . 
the most popular korean dog dish is gaejang-guk -lrb- also called bosintang -rrb- , a spicy stew meant to balance the body 's heat during the summer months ; followers of the custom claim this is done to ensure good health by balancing one 's gi , or vital energy of the body . 
the most popular korean dog dish is gaejang-guk -lrb- also called bosintang -rrb- , a spicy stew meant to balance the body 's heat during the summer months ; followers of the custom claim this is done to ensure good health by balancing one 's gi , or vital energy of the body . 
a 19th century version of gaejang-guk explains that the dish is prepared by boiling dog meat with scallions and chili powder . 
the most popular korean dog dish is gaejang-guk -lrb- also called bosintang -rrb- , a spicy stew meant to balance the body 's heat during the summer months ; followers of the custom claim this is done to ensure good health by balancing one 's gi , or vital energy of the body . 
a 19th century version of gaejang-guk explains that the dish is prepared by boiling dog meat with scallions and chili powder . 
citing a 2008 study , the u.s. center for disease control estimated in 2015 that 4.5 million people in the usa are bitten by dogs each year . 
in the 1980s and 1990s the us averaged 17 fatalities per year , while in the 2000s this has increased to 26 . 
in the 1980s and 1990s the us averaged 17 fatalities per year , while in the 2000s this has increased to 26 . 
citing a 2008 study , the u.s. center for disease control estimated in 2015 that 4.5 million people in the usa are bitten by dogs each year . 
in the 1980s and 1990s the us averaged 17 fatalities per year , while in the 2000s this has increased to 26 . 
a colorado study found bites in children were less severe than bites in adults . 
the incidence of dog bites in the us is 12.9 per 10,000 inhabitants , but for boys aged 5 to 9 , the incidence rate is 60.7 per 10,000 . 
the incidence of dog bites in the us is 12.9 per 10,000 inhabitants , but for boys aged 5 to 9 , the incidence rate is 60.7 per 10,000 . 
moreover , children have a much higher chance to be bitten in the face or neck . 
sharp claws with powerful muscles behind them can lacerate flesh in a scratch that can lead to serious infections . 
a colorado study found bites in children were less severe than bites in adults . 
the incidence of dog bites in the us is 12.9 per 10,000 inhabitants , but for boys aged 5 to 9 , the incidence rate is 60.7 per 10,000 . 
sharp claws with powerful muscles behind them can lacerate flesh in a scratch that can lead to serious infections . 
in the united states , cats and dogs are a factor in more than 86,000 falls each year . 
the same study found that while dog involvement in road traffic accidents was difficult to quantify , dog-associated road accidents involving injury more commonly involved two-wheeled vehicles . 
the same study found that while dog involvement in road traffic accidents was difficult to quantify , dog-associated road accidents involving injury more commonly involved two-wheeled vehicles . 
toxocara canis -lrb- dog roundworm -rrb- eggs in dog feces can cause toxocariasis . 
toxocara canis -lrb- dog roundworm -rrb- eggs in dog feces can cause toxocariasis . 
in the united states , about 10,000 cases of toxocara infection are reported in humans each year , and almost 14 % of the u.s. population is infected . 
untreated toxocariasis can cause retinal damage and decreased vision . 
toxocara canis -lrb- dog roundworm -rrb- eggs in dog feces can cause toxocariasis . 
in the united states , about 10,000 cases of toxocara infection are reported in humans each year , and almost 14 % of the u.s. population is infected . 
in the united states , about 10,000 cases of toxocara infection are reported in humans each year , and almost 14 % of the u.s. population is infected . 
in great britain , 24 % of soil samples taken from public parks contained t. canis eggs . 
untreated toxocariasis can cause retinal damage and decreased vision . 
a 2005 paper states `` recent research has failed to support earlier findings that pet ownership is associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease , a reduced use of general practitioner services , or any psychological or physical benefits on health for community dwelling older people . 
research has , however , pointed to significantly less absenteeism from school through sickness among children who live with pets . '' 
a 2005 paper states `` recent research has failed to support earlier findings that pet ownership is associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease , a reduced use of general practitioner services , or any psychological or physical benefits on health for community dwelling older people . 
in addition , people with pet dogs took considerably more physical exercise than those with cats and those without pets . 
in addition , people with pet dogs took considerably more physical exercise than those with cats and those without pets . 
other health benefits are gained from exposure to immune-stimulating microorganisms , which , according to the hygiene hypothesis , can protect against allergies and autoimmune diseases . 
the benefits of contact with a dog also include social support , as dogs are able to not only provide companionship and social support themselves , but also to act as facilitators of social interactions between humans . 
in 2015 , a study found that pet owners were significantly more likely to get to know people in their neighborhood than non-pet owners . 
for example , when in the presence of a pet dog , people show reductions in cardiovascular , behavioral , and psychological indicators of anxiety . 
one study indicated that wheelchair users experience more positive social interactions with strangers when they are accompanied by a dog than when they are not . 
the practice of using dogs and other animals as a part of therapy dates back to the late 18th century , when animals were introduced into mental institutions to help socialize patients with mental disorders . 
animal-assisted intervention research has shown that animal-assisted therapy with a dog can increase social behaviors , such as smiling and laughing , among people with alzheimer 's disease . 
one study demonstrated that children with adhd and conduct disorders who participated in an education program with dogs and other animals showed increased attendance , increased knowledge and skill objectives , and decreased antisocial and violent behavior compared to those who were not in an animal-assisted program . 
the practice of using dogs and other animals as a part of therapy dates back to the late 18th century , when animals were introduced into mental institutions to help socialize patients with mental disorders . 
the practice of using dogs and other animals as a part of therapy dates back to the late 18th century , when animals were introduced into mental institutions to help socialize patients with mental disorders . 
the practice of using dogs and other animals as a part of therapy dates back to the late 18th century , when animals were introduced into mental institutions to help socialize patients with mental disorders . 
animal-assisted intervention research has shown that animal-assisted therapy with a dog can increase social behaviors , such as smiling and laughing , among people with alzheimer 's disease . 
medical detection dogs are capable of detecting diseases by sniffing a person directly or samples of urine or other specimens . 
dogs can detect odour in one part per trillion , as their brain 's olfactory cortex is -lrb- relative to total brain size -rrb- 40 times larger than humans . 
dogs can detect odour in one part per trillion , as their brain 's olfactory cortex is -lrb- relative to total brain size -rrb- 40 times larger than humans . 
dogs can detect odour in one part per trillion , as their brain 's olfactory cortex is -lrb- relative to total brain size -rrb- 40 times larger than humans . 
a labrador retriever called daisy has detected 551 cancer patients with an accuracy of 93 percent and received the blue cross -lrb- for pets -rrb- medal for her life-saving skills . 
in greek mythology , cerberus is a three-headed watchdog who guards the gates of hades . 
in greek mythology , cerberus is a three-headed watchdog who guards the gates of hades . 
in norse mythology , a bloody , four-eyed dog called garmr guards helheim . 
in philippine mythology , kimat who is the pet of tadaklan , god of thunder , is responsible for lightning . 
in philippine mythology , kimat who is the pet of tadaklan , god of thunder , is responsible for lightning . 
in persian mythology , two four-eyed dogs guard the chinvat bridge . 
in greek mythology , cerberus is a three-headed watchdog who guards the gates of hades . 
in norse mythology , a bloody , four-eyed dog called garmr guards helheim . 
in philippine mythology , kimat who is the pet of tadaklan , god of thunder , is responsible for lightning . 
in philippine mythology , kimat who is the pet of tadaklan , god of thunder , is responsible for lightning . 
they are said to watch over the gates of naraka . 
in hindu mythology , yama , the god of death owns two watch dogs who have four eyes . 
dogs are found in and out of the muthappan temple and offerings at the shrine take the form of bronze dog figurines . 
in hindu mythology , yama , the god of death owns two watch dogs who have four eyes . 
they are said to watch over the gates of naraka . 
hunter god muthappan from north malabar region of kerala has a hunting dog as his mount . 
dogs are found in and out of the muthappan temple and offerings at the shrine take the form of bronze dog figurines . 
in islam , dogs are viewed as unclean because they are viewed as scavengers . 
in islam , dogs are viewed as unclean because they are viewed as scavengers . 
in 2015 city councillor hasan küçük of the hague called for dog ownership to be made illegal in that city . 
they are required to wear leather dog booties when searching mosques or muslim homes . 
in islam , dogs are viewed as unclean because they are viewed as scavengers . 
in 2015 city councillor hasan küçük of the hague called for dog ownership to be made illegal in that city . 
islamic activists in lérida , spain , lobbied for dogs to be kept out of muslim neighborhoods , saying their presence violated muslims ' religious freedom . 
in britain , police sniffer dogs are carefully used , and are not permitted to contact passengers , only their luggage . 
in christianity , dogs represent faithfulness . 
jewish law requires jews to feed dogs -lrb- and other animals that they own -rrb- before themselves , and make arrangements for feeding them before obtaining them . 
jewish law requires jews to feed dogs -lrb- and other animals that they own -rrb- before themselves , and make arrangements for feeding them before obtaining them . 
in christianity , dogs represent faithfulness . 
in asian countries such as china , korea , and japan , dogs are viewed as kind protectors . 
in asian countries such as china , korea , and japan , dogs are viewed as kind protectors . 
in asian countries such as china , korea , and japan , dogs are viewed as kind protectors . 
cultural depictions of dogs in art extend back thousands of years to when dogs were portrayed on the walls of caves . 
hunting scenes were popular in the middle ages and the renaissance . 
cultural depictions of dogs in art extend back thousands of years to when dogs were portrayed on the walls of caves . 
hunting scenes were popular in the middle ages and the renaissance . 
representations of dogs became more elaborate as individual breeds evolved and the relationships between human and canine developed . 
dogs are also vulnerable to some of the same health conditions as humans , including diabetes , dental and heart disease , epilepsy , cancer , hypothyroidism , and arthritis . 
male french bulldogs , for instance , are incapable of mounting the female . 
these live their lives as scavengers and have never been owned by humans , with one study showing their most common response when approached by strangers was to run away -lrb- 52 % -rrb- or respond with aggression -lrb- 11 % -rrb- . 
these live their lives as scavengers and have never been owned by humans , with one study showing their most common response when approached by strangers was to run away -lrb- 52 % -rrb- or respond with aggression -lrb- 11 % -rrb- . 
we know little about these dogs , nor about the dogs that live in developed countries that are feral , stray or are in shelters , yet the great majority of modern research on dog cognition has focused on pet dogs living in human homes . 
wolves , and their dog descendants , would have derived significant benefits from living in human camps -- more safety , more reliable food , lesser caloric needs , and more chance to breed . 
the cohabitation of dogs and humans would have greatly improved the chances of survival for early human groups , and the domestication of dogs may have been one of the key forces that led to human success . 
studies suggesting that there are benefits to physical health and psychological wellbeing have been criticised for being poorly controlled , and finding that '' -lsb- t -rsb- he health of elderly people is related to their health habits and social supports but not to their ownership of , or attachment to , a companion animal . '' 
earlier studies have shown that people who keep pet dogs or cats exhibit better mental and physical health than those who do not , making fewer visits to the doctor and being less likely to be on medication than non-guardians . 
the relay , also called by the organizers as the `` journey of harmony '' , lasted 129 days and carried the torch 137,000 km -lrb- 85,000 mi -rrb- -- the longest distance of any olympic torch relay since the tradition was started ahead of the 1936 summer olympics . 
the relay , also called by the organizers as the `` journey of harmony '' , lasted 129 days and carried the torch 137,000 km -lrb- 85,000 mi -rrb- -- the longest distance of any olympic torch relay since the tradition was started ahead of the 1936 summer olympics . 
the 2008 summer olympics torch relay was run from march 24 until august 8 , 2008 , prior to the 2008 summer olympics , with the theme of `` one world , one dream '' . 
the relay , also called by the organizers as the `` journey of harmony '' , lasted 129 days and carried the torch 137,000 km -lrb- 85,000 mi -rrb- -- the longest distance of any olympic torch relay since the tradition was started ahead of the 1936 summer olympics . 
the 2008 summer olympics torch relay was run from march 24 until august 8 , 2008 , prior to the 2008 summer olympics , with the theme of `` one world , one dream '' . 
plans for the relay were announced on april 26 , 2007 , in beijing , china . 
the relay , also called by the organizers as the `` journey of harmony '' , lasted 129 days and carried the torch 137,000 km -lrb- 85,000 mi -rrb- -- the longest distance of any olympic torch relay since the tradition was started ahead of the 1936 summer olympics . 
the relay , also called by the organizers as the `` journey of harmony '' , lasted 129 days and carried the torch 137,000 km -lrb- 85,000 mi -rrb- -- the longest distance of any olympic torch relay since the tradition was started ahead of the 1936 summer olympics . 
after being lit at the birthplace of the olympic games in olympia , greece on march 24 , the torch traveled to the panathinaiko stadium in athens , and then to beijing , arriving on march 31 . 
after being lit at the birthplace of the olympic games in olympia , greece on march 24 , the torch traveled to the panathinaiko stadium in athens , and then to beijing , arriving on march 31 . 
after being lit at the birthplace of the olympic games in olympia , greece on march 24 , the torch traveled to the panathinaiko stadium in athens , and then to beijing , arriving on march 31 . 
from beijing , the torch was following a route passing through six continents . 
the torch has visited cities along the silk road , symbolizing ancient links between china and the rest of the world . 
after being lit at the birthplace of the olympic games in olympia , greece on march 24 , the torch traveled to the panathinaiko stadium in athens , and then to beijing , arriving on march 31 . 
after being lit at the birthplace of the olympic games in olympia , greece on march 24 , the torch traveled to the panathinaiko stadium in athens , and then to beijing , arriving on march 31 . 
after being lit at the birthplace of the olympic games in olympia , greece on march 24 , the torch traveled to the panathinaiko stadium in athens , and then to beijing , arriving on march 31 . 
after being lit at the birthplace of the olympic games in olympia , greece on march 24 , the torch traveled to the panathinaiko stadium in athens , and then to beijing , arriving on march 31 . 
the relay also included an ascent with the flame to the top of mount everest on the border of nepal and tibet , china from the chinese side , which was closed specially for the event . 
these protests , which ranged from hundreds of people in san francisco , to effectively none in pyongyang , forced the path of the torch relay to be changed or shortened on a number of occasions . 
these protests , which ranged from hundreds of people in san francisco , to effectively none in pyongyang , forced the path of the torch relay to be changed or shortened on a number of occasions . 
in many cities along the north american and european route , the torch relay was protested by advocates of tibetan independence , animal rights , and legal online gambling , and people protesting against china 's human rights record , resulting in confrontations at a few of the relay locations . 
the torch was extinguished by chinese security officials several times during the paris leg for security reasons , and once in protest in paris . 
the attacks on the torch in london and paris were described as `` despicable '' by the chinese government , condemning them as `` deliberate disruptions ... who gave no thought to the olympic spirit or the laws of britain and france '' and who `` tarnish the lofty olympic spirit '' , and vowed they would continue with the relay and not allow the protests to `` impede the olympic spirit '' . 
in san francisco , the number of supporters were much more than the number of protesters , and in australia , japan , south korea , the counter-protesters overwhelmed the protesters . 
in san francisco , the number of supporters were much more than the number of protesters , and in australia , japan , south korea , the counter-protesters overwhelmed the protesters . 
in san francisco , the number of supporters were much more than the number of protesters , and in australia , japan , south korea , the counter-protesters overwhelmed the protesters . 
a couple of skirmishes between the protesters and supporters were reported . 
no major protests were visible in the latin america , africa , and western asia legs of the torch relay . 
prompted by the chaotic torch relays in western europe and north america , the president of the international olympic committee , jacques rogge described the situation as a `` crisis '' for the organization and stated that any athletes displaying tibetan flags at olympic venues could be expelled from the games . 
prompted by the chaotic torch relays in western europe and north america , the president of the international olympic committee , jacques rogge described the situation as a `` crisis '' for the organization and stated that any athletes displaying tibetan flags at olympic venues could be expelled from the games . 
the outcome of the relay influenced the ioc 's decision to scrap global relays in future editions of the games . 
prompted by the chaotic torch relays in western europe and north america , the president of the international olympic committee , jacques rogge described the situation as a `` crisis '' for the organization and stated that any athletes displaying tibetan flags at olympic venues could be expelled from the games . 
prompted by the chaotic torch relays in western europe and north america , the president of the international olympic committee , jacques rogge described the situation as a `` crisis '' for the organization and stated that any athletes displaying tibetan flags at olympic venues could be expelled from the games . 
though he stopped short of cancelling the relay altogether despite calls to do so by some ioc members . 
the outcome of the relay influenced the ioc 's decision to scrap global relays in future editions of the games . 
in june 2008 , the beijing games ' organizing committee announced that the planned international torch relay for the paralympic games had been cancelled . 
in june 2008 , the beijing games ' organizing committee announced that the planned international torch relay for the paralympic games had been cancelled . 
the olympic torch is based on traditional scrolls and uses a traditional chinese design known as `` lucky cloud '' . 
it is made from aluminum . 
it is 72 centimetres high and weighs 985 grams . 
an ignition key is used to ignite and extinguish the flame . 
the olympic torch is based on traditional scrolls and uses a traditional chinese design known as `` lucky cloud '' . 
it is made from aluminum . 
the torch is designed to remain lit in 65 kilometre per hour -lrb- 37 mile per hour -rrb- winds , and in rain of up to 50 millimetres -lrb- 2 inches -rrb- per hour . 
it is 72 centimetres high and weighs 985 grams . 
the torch is fueled by cans of propane . 
internationally , the torch and its accompanying party traveled in a chartered air china airbus a330 -lrb- registered b-6075 -rrb- , painted in the red and yellow colors of the olympic games . 
internationally , the torch and its accompanying party traveled in a chartered air china airbus a330 -lrb- registered b-6075 -rrb- , painted in the red and yellow colors of the olympic games . 
air china was chosen by the beijing committees of the olympic game as the designated olympic torch carrier in march 2008 for its long-standing participation in the olympic cause . 
the plane traveled a total of 137,000 km -lrb- 85,000 mi -rrb- for a duration of 130 days through 21 countries and regions . 
internationally , the torch and its accompanying party traveled in a chartered air china airbus a330 -lrb- registered b-6075 -rrb- , painted in the red and yellow colors of the olympic games . 
internationally , the torch and its accompanying party traveled in a chartered air china airbus a330 -lrb- registered b-6075 -rrb- , painted in the red and yellow colors of the olympic games . 
internationally , the torch and its accompanying party traveled in a chartered air china airbus a330 -lrb- registered b-6075 -rrb- , painted in the red and yellow colors of the olympic games . 
the plane traveled a total of 137,000 km -lrb- 85,000 mi -rrb- for a duration of 130 days through 21 countries and regions . 
the plane traveled a total of 137,000 km -lrb- 85,000 mi -rrb- for a duration of 130 days through 21 countries and regions . 
the route carried the torch through six continents from march 2008 to may 2008 to august 2008 . 
the planned route originally included a stop in taipei between ho chi minh city and hong kong , but there was disagreement in beijing and taipei over language used to describe whether it was an international or a domestic part of the route . 
while the olympic committees of china and chinese taipei reached initial consensus on the approach , the government of the republic of china in taiwan intervened , stating that this placement could be interpreted as placing taiwan on the same level as hong kong and macau , an implication it objected to . 
the route carried the torch through six continents from march 2008 to may 2008 to august 2008 . 
the beijing organizing committee attempted to continue negotiation , but further disputes arose over the flag or the anthem of the republic of china along the 24 km torch route in taiwan . 
while the olympic committees of china and chinese taipei reached initial consensus on the approach , the government of the republic of china in taiwan intervened , stating that this placement could be interpreted as placing taiwan on the same level as hong kong and macau , an implication it objected to . 
the beijing organizing committee attempted to continue negotiation , but further disputes arose over the flag or the anthem of the republic of china along the 24 km torch route in taiwan . 
greece : on march 24 , 2008 , the olympic flame was ignited at olympia , greece , site of the ancient olympic games . 
following the recent unrest in tibet , three members of reporters without borders , including robert ménard , breached security and attempted to disrupt a speech by liu qi , the head of beijing 's olympic organising committee during the torch lighting ceremony in olympia , greece . 
the actress maria nafpliotou , in the role of a high priestess , ignited the torch of the first torchbearer , a silver medalist of the 2004 summer olympics in taekwondo alexandros nikolaidis from greece , who handed the flame over to the second torchbearer , olympic champion in women 's breaststroke luo xuejuan from china . 
the actress maria nafpliotou , in the role of a high priestess , ignited the torch of the first torchbearer , a silver medalist of the 2004 summer olympics in taekwondo alexandros nikolaidis from greece , who handed the flame over to the second torchbearer , olympic champion in women 's breaststroke luo xuejuan from china . 
on march 30 , 2008 in athens , during ceremonies marking the handing over of the torch from greek officials to organizers of the beijing games , demonstrators shouted ` free tibet ' and unfurled banners ; some 10 of the 15 protesters were taken into police detention . 
following the recent unrest in tibet , three members of reporters without borders , including robert ménard , breached security and attempted to disrupt a speech by liu qi , the head of beijing 's olympic organising committee during the torch lighting ceremony in olympia , greece . 
the actress maria nafpliotou , in the role of a high priestess , ignited the torch of the first torchbearer , a silver medalist of the 2004 summer olympics in taekwondo alexandros nikolaidis from greece , who handed the flame over to the second torchbearer , olympic champion in women 's breaststroke luo xuejuan from china . 
the actress maria nafpliotou , in the role of a high priestess , ignited the torch of the first torchbearer , a silver medalist of the 2004 summer olympics in taekwondo alexandros nikolaidis from greece , who handed the flame over to the second torchbearer , olympic champion in women 's breaststroke luo xuejuan from china . 
the actress maria nafpliotou , in the role of a high priestess , ignited the torch of the first torchbearer , a silver medalist of the 2004 summer olympics in taekwondo alexandros nikolaidis from greece , who handed the flame over to the second torchbearer , olympic champion in women 's breaststroke luo xuejuan from china . 
after the hand-off , protests continued internationally , with particularly violent confrontations with police in nepal . 
a call to boycott french hypermart carrefour from may 1 began spreading through mobile text messaging and online chat rooms amongst the chinese over the weekend from april 12 , accusing the company 's major shareholder , the lvmh group , of donating funds to the dalai lama . 
a call to boycott french hypermart carrefour from may 1 began spreading through mobile text messaging and online chat rooms amongst the chinese over the weekend from april 12 , accusing the company 's major shareholder , the lvmh group , of donating funds to the dalai lama . 
some burned french flags , some added nazism 's swastika to the french flag , and spread short online messages calling for large protests in front of french consulates and embassy . 
chinese protesters organized boycotts of the french-owned retail chain carrefour in major chinese cities including kunming , hefei and wuhan , accusing the french nation of pro-secessionist conspiracy and anti-chinese racism . 
a call to boycott french hypermart carrefour from may 1 began spreading through mobile text messaging and online chat rooms amongst the chinese over the weekend from april 12 , accusing the company 's major shareholder , the lvmh group , of donating funds to the dalai lama . 
according to the washington times on april 15 , however , the chinese government was attempting to `` calm the situation '' through censorship : `` all comments posted on popular internet forum sohu.com relating to a boycott of carrefour have been deleted . '' 
a call to boycott french hypermart carrefour from may 1 began spreading through mobile text messaging and online chat rooms amongst the chinese over the weekend from april 12 , accusing the company 's major shareholder , the lvmh group , of donating funds to the dalai lama . 
in response to the demonstrations , an editorial in the people 's daily urged chinese people to `` express -lsb- their -rsb- patriotic enthusiasm calmly and rationally , and express patriotic aspiration in an orderly and legal manner '' . 
in response to the demonstrations , an editorial in the people 's daily urged chinese people to `` express -lsb- their -rsb- patriotic enthusiasm calmly and rationally , and express patriotic aspiration in an orderly and legal manner '' . 
in response to the demonstrations , an editorial in the people 's daily urged chinese people to `` express -lsb- their -rsb- patriotic enthusiasm calmly and rationally , and express patriotic aspiration in an orderly and legal manner '' . 
kazakhstan : the first torchbearer in almaty , where the olympic torch arrived for the first time ever on april 2 , was the president of kazakhstan nursultan nazarbaev . 
kazakhstan : the first torchbearer in almaty , where the olympic torch arrived for the first time ever on april 2 , was the president of kazakhstan nursultan nazarbaev . 
kazakhstan : the first torchbearer in almaty , where the olympic torch arrived for the first time ever on april 2 , was the president of kazakhstan nursultan nazarbaev . 
the route ran 20 km from medeo stadium to astana square . 
there were reports that uighur activists were arrested and some were deported back to china . 
kazakhstan : the first torchbearer in almaty , where the olympic torch arrived for the first time ever on april 2 , was the president of kazakhstan nursultan nazarbaev . 
kazakhstan : the first torchbearer in almaty , where the olympic torch arrived for the first time ever on april 2 , was the president of kazakhstan nursultan nazarbaev . 
the route ran 20 km from medeo stadium to astana square . 
there were reports that uighur activists were arrested and some were deported back to china . 
turkey : the torch relay leg in istanbul , held on april 3 , started on sultanahmet square and finished in taksim square . 
turkey : the torch relay leg in istanbul , held on april 3 , started on sultanahmet square and finished in taksim square . 
turkey : the torch relay leg in istanbul , held on april 3 , started on sultanahmet square and finished in taksim square . 
uyghurs living in turkey protested at chinese treatment of their compatriots living in xinjiang . 
turkey : the torch relay leg in istanbul , held on april 3 , started on sultanahmet square and finished in taksim square . 
turkey : the torch relay leg in istanbul , held on april 3 , started on sultanahmet square and finished in taksim square . 
turkey : the torch relay leg in istanbul , held on april 3 , started on sultanahmet square and finished in taksim square . 
uyghurs living in turkey protested at chinese treatment of their compatriots living in xinjiang . 
several protesters who tried to disrupt the relay were promptly arrested by the police . 
russia : on april 5 the olympic torch arrived at saint petersburg , russia . 
the length of the torch relay route in the city was 20 km , with the start at the victory square and finish at the palace square . 
the length of the torch relay route in the city was 20 km , with the start at the victory square and finish at the palace square . 
mixed martial arts icon and former pride heavyweight champion fedor emelianenko was one the torch bearers . 
russia : on april 5 the olympic torch arrived at saint petersburg , russia . 
the length of the torch relay route in the city was 20 km , with the start at the victory square and finish at the palace square . 
the length of the torch relay route in the city was 20 km , with the start at the victory square and finish at the palace square . 
mixed martial arts icon and former pride heavyweight champion fedor emelianenko was one the torch bearers . 
great britain : the torch relay leg held in london , the host city of the 2012 summer olympics , on april 6 began at wembley stadium , passed through the city of london , and eventually ended at o2 arena in the eastern part of the city . 
great britain : the torch relay leg held in london , the host city of the 2012 summer olympics , on april 6 began at wembley stadium , passed through the city of london , and eventually ended at o2 arena in the eastern part of the city . 
a metropolitan police briefing paper revealed that security for the torch relay cost # 750,000 and the participation of the chinese security team had been agreed in advance , despite the mayor stating , `` we did not know beforehand these thugs were from the security services . 
great britain : the torch relay leg held in london , the host city of the 2012 summer olympics , on april 6 began at wembley stadium , passed through the city of london , and eventually ended at o2 arena in the eastern part of the city . 
great britain : the torch relay leg held in london , the host city of the 2012 summer olympics , on april 6 began at wembley stadium , passed through the city of london , and eventually ended at o2 arena in the eastern part of the city . 
great britain : the torch relay leg held in london , the host city of the 2012 summer olympics , on april 6 began at wembley stadium , passed through the city of london , and eventually ended at o2 arena in the eastern part of the city . 
the 48 km -lrb- 30 mi -rrb- leg took a total of seven and a half hours to complete , and attracted protests by pro-tibetan independence and pro-human rights supporters , prompting changes to the planned route and an unscheduled move onto a bus , which was then briefly halted by protestors . 
the chinese officials , seen manhandling protesters , were described by both the london mayor ken livingstone and lord coe , chairman of the london olympic committee as `` thugs '' . 
of the 80 torch-bearers in london , sir steve redgrave , who started the relay , mentioned to the media that he had received e-mailed pleas to boycott the event and could `` see why they would like to make an issue '' of it . 
of the 80 torch-bearers in london , sir steve redgrave , who started the relay , mentioned to the media that he had received e-mailed pleas to boycott the event and could `` see why they would like to make an issue '' of it . 
francesca martinez and richard vaughan refused to carry the torch , while konnie huq decided to carry it and also speak out against china . 
amid pressure from both directions , prime minister gordon brown welcomed the torch outside 10 downing street without holding or touching it . 
of the 80 torch-bearers in london , sir steve redgrave , who started the relay , mentioned to the media that he had received e-mailed pleas to boycott the event and could `` see why they would like to make an issue '' of it . 
of the 80 torch-bearers in london , sir steve redgrave , who started the relay , mentioned to the media that he had received e-mailed pleas to boycott the event and could `` see why they would like to make an issue '' of it . 
francesca martinez and richard vaughan refused to carry the torch , while konnie huq decided to carry it and also speak out against china . 
amid pressure from both directions , prime minister gordon brown welcomed the torch outside 10 downing street without holding or touching it . 
in ladbroke grove a demonstrator attempted to snatch the torch from konnie huq in a momentary struggle , and in a separate incident , a fire extinguisher was set off near the torch . 
france : the torch relay leg in paris , held on april 7 , began on the first level of the eiffel tower and finished at the stade charléty . 
france : the torch relay leg in paris , held on april 7 , began on the first level of the eiffel tower and finished at the stade charléty . 
a scheduled ceremony at the town hall was cancelled at the request of the chinese authorities , and , also at the request of chinese authorities , the torch finished the relay by bus instead of being carried by athletes . 
french judoka and torchbearer david douillet expressed his annoyance at the chinese flame attendants who extinguished the torch which he was about to hand over to teddy riner : `` i understand they 're afraid of everything , but this is just annoying . 
france : the torch relay leg in paris , held on april 7 , began on the first level of the eiffel tower and finished at the stade charléty . 
france : the torch relay leg in paris , held on april 7 , began on the first level of the eiffel tower and finished at the stade charléty . 
france : the torch relay leg in paris , held on april 7 , began on the first level of the eiffel tower and finished at the stade charléty . 
an estimated 3,000 french police protected the olympic torch relay as it departed from the eiffel tower and criss-crossed paris amid threat of protests . 
widespread pro-tibet protests , including an attempt by more than one demonstrator to extinguish the flame with water or fire extinguishers , prompted relay authorities to put out the flame five times -lrb- according to the police authorities in paris -rrb- and load the torch onto a bus , at the demand of chinese officials . 
chinese officials canceled the torch relay ceremony amidst disruptions , including a tibetan flag flown from a window in the city hall by green party officials . 
the third torchbearer in the paris leg , jin jing , who was disabled and carried the torch on a wheelchair , was assaulted several times by unidentified protestors seemingly from the pro-tibet independent camp . 
she received praise from ethnic chinese worldwide as `` angel in wheelchair '' . 
chinese officials canceled the torch relay ceremony amidst disruptions , including a tibetan flag flown from a window in the city hall by green party officials . 
the third torchbearer in the paris leg , jin jing , who was disabled and carried the torch on a wheelchair , was assaulted several times by unidentified protestors seemingly from the pro-tibet independent camp . 
she received praise from ethnic chinese worldwide as `` angel in wheelchair '' . 
chinese officials canceled the torch relay ceremony amidst disruptions , including a tibetan flag flown from a window in the city hall by green party officials . 
reporters without borders organised several symbolic protests , including scaling the eiffel tower to hang a protest banner from it , and hanging an identical banner from the notre dame cathedral . 
reporters without borders organised several symbolic protests , including scaling the eiffel tower to hang a protest banner from it , and hanging an identical banner from the notre dame cathedral . 
reporters without borders organised several symbolic protests , including scaling the eiffel tower to hang a protest banner from it , and hanging an identical banner from the notre dame cathedral . 
reporters without borders organised several symbolic protests , including scaling the eiffel tower to hang a protest banner from it , and hanging an identical banner from the notre dame cathedral . 
reporters without borders organised several symbolic protests , including scaling the eiffel tower to hang a protest banner from it , and hanging an identical banner from the notre dame cathedral . 
reporters without borders organised several symbolic protests , including scaling the eiffel tower to hang a protest banner from it , and hanging an identical banner from the notre dame cathedral . 
several hundred pro-tibet protesters gathered at the trocadéro with banners and tibetan flags , and remained there for a peaceful protest , never approaching the torch relay itself . 
among them was jane birkin , who spoke to the media about the `` lack of freedom of speech '' in china . 
also present was thupten gyatso , president of the french tibetan community , who called upon pro-tibet demonstrators to `` remain calm , non-violent , peaceful '' . 
several hundred pro-tibet protesters gathered at the trocadéro with banners and tibetan flags , and remained there for a peaceful protest , never approaching the torch relay itself . 
several hundred pro-tibet protesters gathered at the trocadéro with banners and tibetan flags , and remained there for a peaceful protest , never approaching the torch relay itself . 
among them was jane birkin , who spoke to the media about the `` lack of freedom of speech '' in china . 
among them was jane birkin , who spoke to the media about the `` lack of freedom of speech '' in china . 
all political parties in parliament -- ump , socialists , new centre , communists , democratic movement -lrb- centre -rrb- and greens -- jointly requested a pause in the national assembly 's session , which was granted , so that mps could step outside and unfurl a banner which read `` respect for human rights in china '' . 
all political parties in parliament -- ump , socialists , new centre , communists , democratic movement -lrb- centre -rrb- and greens -- jointly requested a pause in the national assembly 's session , which was granted , so that mps could step outside and unfurl a banner which read `` respect for human rights in china '' . 
the coach containing the torch drove past the national assembly and the assembled protesting mps , who shouted `` freedom for tibet ! '' 
french members of parliament and other french politicians also organised a protest . 
all political parties in parliament -- ump , socialists , new centre , communists , democratic movement -lrb- centre -rrb- and greens -- jointly requested a pause in the national assembly 's session , which was granted , so that mps could step outside and unfurl a banner which read `` respect for human rights in china '' . 
all political parties in parliament -- ump , socialists , new centre , communists , democratic movement -lrb- centre -rrb- and greens -- jointly requested a pause in the national assembly 's session , which was granted , so that mps could step outside and unfurl a banner which read `` respect for human rights in china '' . 
the coach containing the torch drove past the national assembly and the assembled protesting mps , who shouted `` freedom for tibet ! '' 
french police were criticised for their handling of the events , and notably for confiscating tibetan flags from demonstrators . 
the newspaper libération commented : `` the police did so much that only the chinese were given freedom of expression . 
the tibetan flag was forbidden everywhere except on the trocadéro . '' 
minister of the interior michèle alliot-marie later stated that the police had not been ordered to do so , and that they had acted on their own initiative . 
french police were criticised for their handling of the events , and notably for confiscating tibetan flags from demonstrators . 
the tibetan flag was forbidden everywhere except on the trocadéro . '' 
minister of the interior michèle alliot-marie later stated that the police had not been ordered to do so , and that they had acted on their own initiative . 
a cameraman for france 2 was struck in the face by a police officer , knocked unconscious , and had to be sent to hospital . 
united states of america : the torch relay 's north american leg occurred in san francisco , california on april 9 . 
united states of america : the torch relay 's north american leg occurred in san francisco , california on april 9 . 
the start was at mccovey cove , where norman bellingham of the u.s. olympic committee gave the torch to the first torchbearer , chinese 1992 olympic champion swimmer lin li . 
the planned closing ceremony at justin herman plaza was cancelled and instead , a ceremony was held at san francisco international airport , where the torch was to leave for buenos aires . 
peter ueberroth , head of the u.s. olympic committee , praised the route changes , saying , `` the city of san francisco , from a global perspective , will be applauded . '' 
united states of america : the torch relay 's north american leg occurred in san francisco , california on april 9 . 
united states of america : the torch relay 's north american leg occurred in san francisco , california on april 9 . 
the start was at mccovey cove , where norman bellingham of the u.s. olympic committee gave the torch to the first torchbearer , chinese 1992 olympic champion swimmer lin li . 
the planned closing ceremony at justin herman plaza was cancelled and instead , a ceremony was held at san francisco international airport , where the torch was to leave for buenos aires . 
on april 1 , 2008 , the san francisco board of supervisors approved a resolution addressing human rights concerns when the beijing olympic torch arrives in san francisco on april 9 . 
the resolution would welcome the torch with `` alarm and protest at the failure of china to meet its past solemn promises to the international community , including the citizens of san francisco , to cease the egregious and ongoing human rights abuses in china and occupied tibet . '' 
on april 8 , numerous protests were planned including one at the city 's united nations plaza led by actor richard gere and archbishop desmond tutu . 
on april 1 , 2008 , the san francisco board of supervisors approved a resolution addressing human rights concerns when the beijing olympic torch arrives in san francisco on april 9 . 
on april 1 , 2008 , the san francisco board of supervisors approved a resolution addressing human rights concerns when the beijing olympic torch arrives in san francisco on april 9 . 
on april 8 , numerous protests were planned including one at the city 's united nations plaza led by actor richard gere and archbishop desmond tutu . 
on april 8 , numerous protests were planned including one at the city 's united nations plaza led by actor richard gere and archbishop desmond tutu . 
on april 7 , 2008 , two days prior to the actual torch relay , three activists carrying tibetan flags scaled the suspension cables of the golden gate bridge to unfurl two banners , one saying `` one world , one dream . 
among them was san francisco resident laurel sutherlin , who spoke to the local tv station kpix-cbs5 live from a cellphone , urging the international olympic committee to ask china not to allow the torch to go through tibet . 
china had already requested the torch route in san francisco be shortened . 
on april 7 , 2008 , two days prior to the actual torch relay , three activists carrying tibetan flags scaled the suspension cables of the golden gate bridge to unfurl two banners , one saying `` one world , one dream . 
among them was san francisco resident laurel sutherlin , who spoke to the local tv station kpix-cbs5 live from a cellphone , urging the international olympic committee to ask china not to allow the torch to go through tibet . 
the three activists and five supporters face charges related to trespassing , conspiracy and causing a public nuisance . 
on april 7 , 2008 , two days prior to the actual torch relay , three activists carrying tibetan flags scaled the suspension cables of the golden gate bridge to unfurl two banners , one saying `` one world , one dream . 
the relay descended into confusion as the first runner in the elaborately planned relay disappeared into a warehouse on a waterfront pier where it stayed for a half-an-hour . 
during the torch relay , two torchbearers , andrew michael who uses a wheelchair and is the vice president for sustainable development for the bay area council and director of partnerships for change , and an environmental advocate , majora carter , managed to display tibetan flags in protest , resulting in their ejection from the relay . 
during the torch relay , two torchbearers , andrew michael who uses a wheelchair and is the vice president for sustainable development for the bay area council and director of partnerships for change , and an environmental advocate , majora carter , managed to display tibetan flags in protest , resulting in their ejection from the relay . 
the torch run ended with a final stretch through san francisco 's marina district and was then moved by bus to san francisco international airport for a makeshift closing ceremony at the terminal , from which the free media was excluded . 
the torch run ended with a final stretch through san francisco 's marina district and was then moved by bus to san francisco international airport for a makeshift closing ceremony at the terminal , from which the free media was excluded . 
around 2 pm pdt -lrb- 21:00 utc -rrb- , the torch resurfaced about 3 km -lrb- 1.9 mi -rrb- away from the stadium along van ness avenue , a heavily trafficked thoroughfare that was not on official route plans . 
argentina : the torch relay leg in buenos aires , argentina , held on april 11 , began with an artistic show at the lola mora amphitheatre in costanera sur . 
argentina : the torch relay leg in buenos aires , argentina , held on april 11 , began with an artistic show at the lola mora amphitheatre in costanera sur . 
in the end of the show the mayor of buenos aires mauricio macri gave the torch to the first torchbearer , carlos espínola . 
argentina : the torch relay leg in buenos aires , argentina , held on april 11 , began with an artistic show at the lola mora amphitheatre in costanera sur . 
argentina : the torch relay leg in buenos aires , argentina , held on april 11 , began with an artistic show at the lola mora amphitheatre in costanera sur . 
in the end of the show the mayor of buenos aires mauricio macri gave the torch to the first torchbearer , carlos espínola . 
in the end of the show the mayor of buenos aires mauricio macri gave the torch to the first torchbearer , carlos espínola . 
people showered the parade route with confetti as banks , government offices and businesses took an impromptu half-day holiday for the only latin american stop on the flame 's five-continent journey . 
`` i want to announce that we will not put out the olympic torch , '' said pro-tibet activist jorge carcavallo . 
among other activities , protesters organized an alternative march that went from the obelisk to the city hall , featuring their own `` human rights torch . '' 
a giant banner reading `` free tibet '' was also displayed on the torch route . 
`` i want to announce that we will not put out the olympic torch , '' said pro-tibet activist jorge carcavallo . 
among other activities , protesters organized an alternative march that went from the obelisk to the city hall , featuring their own `` human rights torch . '' 
among other activities , protesters organized an alternative march that went from the obelisk to the city hall , featuring their own `` human rights torch . '' 
a giant banner reading `` free tibet '' was also displayed on the torch route . 
according to a representative from the ngo ` human rights torch relay ' , their objective was to `` show the contradiction between the olympic games and the presence of widespread human rights violations in china '' 
the outreach director of hrtr , susan prager , is also the communication director of `` friends of falun gong '' , a quasi-government non-profit funded by fmr . 
the outreach director of hrtr , susan prager , is also the communication director of `` friends of falun gong '' , a quasi-government non-profit funded by fmr . 
a major setback to the event was caused by footballer diego maradona , scheduled to open the relay through buenos aires , pulling out in an attempt to avoid the olympic controversy . 
trying to avoid the scenes that marred the relay in the uk , france and the us , the city government designed a complex security operative to protect the torch relay , involving 1200 police officers and 3000 other people , including public employees and volunteers . 
overall , the protests were peaceful in nature , although there were a few incidents such as the throwing of several water balloons in an attempt to extinguish the olympic flame , and minor scuffles between olympic protesters and supporters from chinese immigrant communities . 
the outreach director of hrtr , susan prager , is also the communication director of `` friends of falun gong '' , a quasi-government non-profit funded by fmr . 
a major setback to the event was caused by footballer diego maradona , scheduled to open the relay through buenos aires , pulling out in an attempt to avoid the olympic controversy . 
trying to avoid the scenes that marred the relay in the uk , france and the us , the city government designed a complex security operative to protect the torch relay , involving 1200 police officers and 3000 other people , including public employees and volunteers . 
overall , the protests were peaceful in nature , although there were a few incidents such as the throwing of several water balloons in an attempt to extinguish the olympic flame , and minor scuffles between olympic protesters and supporters from chinese immigrant communities . 
overall , the protests were peaceful in nature , although there were a few incidents such as the throwing of several water balloons in an attempt to extinguish the olympic flame , and minor scuffles between olympic protesters and supporters from chinese immigrant communities . 
tanzania : dar es salaam was the torch 's only stop in africa , on april 13 . 
tanzania : dar es salaam was the torch 's only stop in africa , on april 13 . 
the relay began at the grand terminal of the tazara railway , which was china 's largest foreign aid project of the 1970s , and continued for 5 km through the old city to the benjamin mkapa national stadium in temeke , which was built with chinese aid in 2005 . 
tanzania : dar es salaam was the torch 's only stop in africa , on april 13 . 
the relay began at the grand terminal of the tazara railway , which was china 's largest foreign aid project of the 1970s , and continued for 5 km through the old city to the benjamin mkapa national stadium in temeke , which was built with chinese aid in 2005 . 
the relay began at the grand terminal of the tazara railway , which was china 's largest foreign aid project of the 1970s , and continued for 5 km through the old city to the benjamin mkapa national stadium in temeke , which was built with chinese aid in 2005 . 
the relay began at the grand terminal of the tazara railway , which was china 's largest foreign aid project of the 1970s , and continued for 5 km through the old city to the benjamin mkapa national stadium in temeke , which was built with chinese aid in 2005 . 
the torch was lit by vice-president ali mohamed shein . 
sultanate of oman : muscat was the torch 's only stop in the middle east , on april 14 . 
sultanate of oman : muscat was the torch 's only stop in the middle east , on april 14 . 
one of the torchbearers was syrian actress sulaf fawakherji . 
sultanate of oman : muscat was the torch 's only stop in the middle east , on april 14 . 
the relay covered 20 km . 
one of the torchbearers was syrian actress sulaf fawakherji . 
pakistan : the olympic torch reached islamabad for the first time ever on april 16 . 
the relay was initially supposed to carry the torch around islamabad , but the entire relay was cancelled due to security concerns regarding `` militant threats or anti-china protests '' , and replaced by an indoors ceremony with the torch carried around the track of jinnah stadium . 
president pervez musharraf and prime minister yousaf raza gillani spoke at the opening ceremony of the relay . 
pakistan : the olympic torch reached islamabad for the first time ever on april 16 . 
the relay was initially supposed to carry the torch around islamabad , but the entire relay was cancelled due to security concerns regarding `` militant threats or anti-china protests '' , and replaced by an indoors ceremony with the torch carried around the track of jinnah stadium . 
india : due to concerns about pro-tibet protests , the relay through new delhi on april 17 was cut to just 2.3 km -lrb- less than 1.5 miles -rrb- , which was shared amongst 70 runners . 
india : due to concerns about pro-tibet protests , the relay through new delhi on april 17 was cut to just 2.3 km -lrb- less than 1.5 miles -rrb- , which was shared amongst 70 runners . 
indian national football captain , baichung bhutia refused to take part in the indian leg of the torch relay , citing concerns over tibet . 
a total of five intended torchbearers - kiran bedi , soha ali khan , sachin tendulkar , bhaichung bhutia and sunil gavaskar - withdrew from the event , citing `` personal reasons '' , or , in bhutia 's case , explicitly wishing to `` stand by the people of tibet and their struggle '' and protest against the prc `` crackdown '' in tibet . 
india : due to concerns about pro-tibet protests , the relay through new delhi on april 17 was cut to just 2.3 km -lrb- less than 1.5 miles -rrb- , which was shared amongst 70 runners . 
india : due to concerns about pro-tibet protests , the relay through new delhi on april 17 was cut to just 2.3 km -lrb- less than 1.5 miles -rrb- , which was shared amongst 70 runners . 
india : due to concerns about pro-tibet protests , the relay through new delhi on april 17 was cut to just 2.3 km -lrb- less than 1.5 miles -rrb- , which was shared amongst 70 runners . 
a total of five intended torchbearers - kiran bedi , soha ali khan , sachin tendulkar , bhaichung bhutia and sunil gavaskar - withdrew from the event , citing `` personal reasons '' , or , in bhutia 's case , explicitly wishing to `` stand by the people of tibet and their struggle '' and protest against the prc `` crackdown '' in tibet . 
indian national football captain , baichung bhutia refused to take part in the indian leg of the torch relay , citing concerns over tibet . 
wary of protests , the indian authorities have decided to shorten the route of the relay in new delhi , and have given it the security normally associated with republic day celebrations , which are considered terrorist targets . 
chinese intelligence 's expectations of points on the relay route that would be particularly ` vulnerable ' to protesters were presented to the indian ambassador to beijing , nirupama sen. the indian media responded angrily to the news that the ambassador , a distinguished lady diplomat , was summoned to the foreign ministry at 2 am local time ; the news was later denied by anonymous sources in delhi . 
the indian media reported that india 's commerce minister , kamal nath , cancelled an official trip to beijing in protest , though both nath and chinese sources have denied it . 
the indian media reported that india 's commerce minister , kamal nath , cancelled an official trip to beijing in protest , though both nath and chinese sources have denied it . 
chinese intelligence 's expectations of points on the relay route that would be particularly ` vulnerable ' to protesters were presented to the indian ambassador to beijing , nirupama sen. the indian media responded angrily to the news that the ambassador , a distinguished lady diplomat , was summoned to the foreign ministry at 2 am local time ; the news was later denied by anonymous sources in delhi . 
wary of protests , the indian authorities have decided to shorten the route of the relay in new delhi , and have given it the security normally associated with republic day celebrations , which are considered terrorist targets . 
wary of protests , the indian authorities have decided to shorten the route of the relay in new delhi , and have given it the security normally associated with republic day celebrations , which are considered terrorist targets . 
india rejected chinese demands that the torch route be clear of india 's 150,000-strong tibetan exile community , by which they required a ban on congregation near the curtailed 3 km route . 
in response indian officials said india was a democracy , and `` a wholesale ban on protests was out of the question '' . 
india rejected chinese demands that the torch route be clear of india 's 150,000-strong tibetan exile community , by which they required a ban on congregation near the curtailed 3 km route . 
india rejected chinese demands that the torch route be clear of india 's 150,000-strong tibetan exile community , by which they required a ban on congregation near the curtailed 3 km route . 
in response indian officials said india was a democracy , and `` a wholesale ban on protests was out of the question '' . 
contradicting some other reports , indian officials also refused permission to the `` olympic holy flame protection unit '' . 
the combined effect is a `` rapid deterioration '' of relations between india and china . 
meanwhile , the tibetan government in exile , which is based in india , has stated that it did not support the disruption of the olympic torch relay . 
the noted indian social activist and a retired indian police service -lrb- ips -rrb- officer kiran bedi refused to participate saying `` she does n't want to run in the event as ` caged woman ' . '' 
the noted indian social activist and a retired indian police service -lrb- ips -rrb- officer kiran bedi refused to participate saying `` she does n't want to run in the event as ` caged woman ' . '' 
on april 15 , bollywood actress soha ali khan pulled out of the olympic torch relay , citing `` very strong personal reasons '' . 
on april 16 , a protest was organised in delhi `` against chinese repression in tibet '' , and was broken up by the police . 
the noted indian social activist and a retired indian police service -lrb- ips -rrb- officer kiran bedi refused to participate saying `` she does n't want to run in the event as ` caged woman ' . '' 
on april 15 , bollywood actress soha ali khan pulled out of the olympic torch relay , citing `` very strong personal reasons '' . 
on april 16 , a protest was organised in delhi `` against chinese repression in tibet '' , and was broken up by the police . 
on april 16 , a protest was organised in delhi `` against chinese repression in tibet '' , and was broken up by the police . 
the noted indian social activist and a retired indian police service -lrb- ips -rrb- officer kiran bedi refused to participate saying `` she does n't want to run in the event as ` caged woman ' . '' 
thailand : the april 18 relay through bangkok was the olympic flame 's first visit to thailand . 
m.r. narisa chakrabongse , green world foundation -lrb- gwf -rrb- chairwoman , withdrew from the torch-running ceremony , protesting against china 's actions in tibet . 
in bangkok , students told the media that the chinese embassy provided them with transportation and gave them shirts to wear . 
thailand : the april 18 relay through bangkok was the olympic flame 's first visit to thailand . 
the relay covered just over 10 km , and included bangkok 's chinatown . 
thai authorities threatened to arrest foreign protesters and ban them from future entry into thailand . 
intended torchbearer mom rajawongse narissara chakrabongse boycotted the relay , to protest against china 's actions in tibet . 
malaysia : the event was held in the capital city , kuala lumpur , on april 21 . 
malaysia : the event was held in the capital city , kuala lumpur , on april 21 . 
the 16.5 km long-relay began from the historic independence square , passed in front of several city landmarks before coming to an end at the iconic petronas twin towers . 
the last time an olympic torch relay was held in malaysia was the 1964 tokyo edition . 
the 16.5 km long-relay began from the historic independence square , passed in front of several city landmarks before coming to an end at the iconic petronas twin towers . 
the 16.5 km long-relay began from the historic independence square , passed in front of several city landmarks before coming to an end at the iconic petronas twin towers . 
the last time an olympic torch relay was held in malaysia was the 1964 tokyo edition . 
a team of 1000 personnel from the malaysian police special action squad guarded the event and escorted the torchbearers . 
just days before the relay supporters of falun gong demonstrated in front of the chinese embassy in the malaysian capital . 
just days before the relay supporters of falun gong demonstrated in front of the chinese embassy in the malaysian capital . 
a japanese family with malaysian citizenship and their 5-year-old child who unfurled a tibetan flag were hit by a group of chinese nationals with plastic air-filled batons and heckled by a crowd of chinese citizens during the confrontation at independence square where the relay began , and the chinese group shouted : `` taiwan and tibet belong to china . '' 
a japanese family with malaysian citizenship and their 5-year-old child who unfurled a tibetan flag were hit by a group of chinese nationals with plastic air-filled batons and heckled by a crowd of chinese citizens during the confrontation at independence square where the relay began , and the chinese group shouted : `` taiwan and tibet belong to china . '' 
later during the day , the chinese volunteers forcefully took away placards from two other malaysians protesting at the relay . 
indonesia : the olympic flame reached jakarta on april 22 . 
the original 20 km relay through jakarta was cancelled due to `` security worries '' , at the request of the chinese embassy , and the torch was instead carried round the city main 's stadium , as it had been in islamabad . 
only invitees and journalists were admitted inside the stadium . 
indonesia : the olympic flame reached jakarta on april 22 . 
the original 20 km relay through jakarta was cancelled due to `` security worries '' , at the request of the chinese embassy , and the torch was instead carried round the city main 's stadium , as it had been in islamabad . 
the original 20 km relay through jakarta was cancelled due to `` security worries '' , at the request of the chinese embassy , and the torch was instead carried round the city main 's stadium , as it had been in islamabad . 
the event was held in the streets around the city main 's stadium . 
protests took place outside the stadium . 
australia : the event was held in canberra , australian capital territory on april 24 , and covered around 16 km of canberra 's central areas , from reconciliation place to commonwealth park . 
upon its arrival in canberra , the olympic flame was presented by chinese officials to local aboriginal elder agnes shea , of the ngunnawal people . 
she , in turn , offered them a message stick , as a gift of peace and welcome . 
preparations for the event were marred by a disagreement over the role of the chinese flame attendants , with australian and chinese officials arguing publicly over their function and prerogatives during a press conference . 
australia : the event was held in canberra , australian capital territory on april 24 , and covered around 16 km of canberra 's central areas , from reconciliation place to commonwealth park . 
australia : the event was held in canberra , australian capital territory on april 24 , and covered around 16 km of canberra 's central areas , from reconciliation place to commonwealth park . 
australia : the event was held in canberra , australian capital territory on april 24 , and covered around 16 km of canberra 's central areas , from reconciliation place to commonwealth park . 
demonstrators and counter-demonstrators were kept apart by the australian federal police . 
upon its arrival in canberra , the olympic flame was presented by chinese officials to local aboriginal elder agnes shea , of the ngunnawal people . 
following the events in olympia , there were reports that china requested permission to deploy people 's liberation army personnel along the relay route to protect the flame in canberra . 
australian police have been given powers to search relay spectators , following a call by the chinese students and scholars association for chinese australian students to `` go defend our sacred torch '' against `` ethnic degenerate scum and anti-china separatists '' . 
tony goh , chairman of the australian council of chinese organisations , has said the acco would be taking `` thousands '' of pro-beijing demonstrators to canberra by bus , to support the torch relay . 
foreign minister stephen smith said chinese officials were urging supporters to `` turn up and put a point of view '' , but that he had no objection to it as long as they remained peaceful . 
following the events in olympia , there were reports that china requested permission to deploy people 's liberation army personnel along the relay route to protect the flame in canberra . 
australian police have been given powers to search relay spectators , following a call by the chinese students and scholars association for chinese australian students to `` go defend our sacred torch '' against `` ethnic degenerate scum and anti-china separatists '' . 
tony goh , chairman of the australian council of chinese organisations , has said the acco would be taking `` thousands '' of pro-beijing demonstrators to canberra by bus , to support the torch relay . 
zhang rongan , a chinese australian student organising pro-beijing demonstrations , told the press that chinese diplomats were assisting with the organization of buses , meals and accommodation for pro-beijing demonstrators , and helping them organise a `` peaceful show of strength '' . 
foreign minister stephen smith said chinese officials were urging supporters to `` turn up and put a point of view '' , but that he had no objection to it as long as they remained peaceful . 
intended torchbearer lin hatfield dodds withdrew from the event , explaining that she wished to express concern about china 's human rights record . 
foreign minister stephen smith said her decision was `` a very good example of peacefully making a point '' . 
intended torchbearer lin hatfield dodds withdrew from the event , explaining that she wished to express concern about china 's human rights record . 
foreign minister stephen smith said her decision was `` a very good example of peacefully making a point '' . 
taking note of the high number of chinese supporters , ted quinlan , head of the canberra torch relay committee , said : `` we did n't expect this reaction from the chinese community . 
up to 600 pro-tibet protesters were expected to attend the relay , along with between 2,000 and 10,000 chinese supporters . 
also , australia 's act chief minister , jon stanhope confirmed that the chinese embassy was closely involve to ensure that `` pro-china demonstrators vastly outnumbered tibetan activists . '' 
australian freestyle swimmer and five-time olympic gold medalist ian thorpe ended the australian leg of the torch relay april 24 , 2008 , touching the flame to light a cauldron after a run that was only marginally marked by protests . 
up to 600 pro-tibet protesters were expected to attend the relay , along with between 2,000 and 10,000 chinese supporters . 
up to 600 pro-tibet protesters were expected to attend the relay , along with between 2,000 and 10,000 chinese supporters . 
taking note of the high number of chinese supporters , ted quinlan , head of the canberra torch relay committee , said : `` we did n't expect this reaction from the chinese community . 
also , australia 's act chief minister , jon stanhope confirmed that the chinese embassy was closely involve to ensure that `` pro-china demonstrators vastly outnumbered tibetan activists . '' 
japan : the event was held in nagano , which hosted the 1998 winter olympics , on april 26 . 
japan : the event was held in nagano , which hosted the 1998 winter olympics , on april 26 . 
japan : the event was held in nagano , which hosted the 1998 winter olympics , on april 26 . 
japan : the event was held in nagano , which hosted the 1998 winter olympics , on april 26 . 
japanese buddhist temple zenkō-ji , which was originally scheduled to be the starting point for the olympic torch relay in nagano , refused to host the torch and pulled out of the relay plans , amid speculation that monks there sympathized with anti-chinese government protesters . 
a new starting point , previously the site of a municipal building and now a parking lot , was chosen by the city . 
only two chinese guards were allowed to accompany the torch because of japan 's concern over their treatment of demonstrators at previous relays . 
south korea : the event was held in seoul , which hosted the 1988 summer olympics , on april 27 . 
south korea : the event was held in seoul , which hosted the 1988 summer olympics , on april 27 . 
more than 8,000 riot police were deployed to guard the 24-kilometre route , which began at olympic park , which was built when seoul hosted the 1988 summer games . 
on the day of the torch relay in seoul , chinese students clashed with protesters , throwing rocks , bottles , and punches . 
south korea : the event was held in seoul , which hosted the 1988 summer olympics , on april 27 . 
south korea : the event was held in seoul , which hosted the 1988 summer olympics , on april 27 . 
north korea : the event was held in pyongyang on april 28 . 
the event was presided over by the head of the country 's parliament , kim yong nam . 
kim passed the torch to the first runner pak du ik , who played on north korea 's 1966 world cup soccer team , as he began the 19-kilometre route through pyongyang . 
the relay began from the large sculpted flame of the obelisk of the juche tower , which commemorates the national ideology of juche , or `` self-reliance '' , created by the country 's late founding president kim il sung , father of leader kim jong il , who did not attend . 
kim passed the torch to the first runner pak du ik , who played on north korea 's 1966 world cup soccer team , as he began the 19-kilometre route through pyongyang . 
north korea : the event was held in pyongyang on april 28 . 
a crowd of thousands waving pink paper flowers and small flags with the beijing olympics logo were organized by the authoritarian regime watched the beginning of the relay in pyongyang , some waving chinese flags . 
kim passed the torch to the first runner pak du ik , who played on north korea 's 1966 world cup soccer team , as he began the 19-kilometre route through pyongyang . 
the united nations organization and its children 's agency unicef withdrew their staff , saying that it was n't sure the event would help its mission of raising awareness of conditions for children and amid concerns that the relay would be used as a propaganda stunt . 
north korea is frequently listed among the world 's worst offenders against human rights . 
the united nations organization and its children 's agency unicef withdrew their staff , saying that it was n't sure the event would help its mission of raising awareness of conditions for children and amid concerns that the relay would be used as a propaganda stunt . 
the united nations organization and its children 's agency unicef withdrew their staff , saying that it was n't sure the event would help its mission of raising awareness of conditions for children and amid concerns that the relay would be used as a propaganda stunt . 
the united nations organization and its children 's agency unicef withdrew their staff , saying that it was n't sure the event would help its mission of raising awareness of conditions for children and amid concerns that the relay would be used as a propaganda stunt . 
north korea is frequently listed among the world 's worst offenders against human rights . 
vietnam : the event was held in ho chi minh city on april 29 . 
vietnam : the event was held in ho chi minh city on april 29 . 
some 60 torchbearers carried the torch from the downtown opera house to the military zone 7 competition hall stadium near tan son nhat international airport along an undisclosed route . 
some 60 torchbearers carried the torch from the downtown opera house to the military zone 7 competition hall stadium near tan son nhat international airport along an undisclosed route . 
some 60 torchbearers carried the torch from the downtown opera house to the military zone 7 competition hall stadium near tan son nhat international airport along an undisclosed route . 
following reports that the chinese government had established a county-level city named sansha in the disputed territories , resulting in anti-chinese demonstrations in december 2007 in hanoi and ho chi minh city . 
vietnam is involved in a territorial dispute with china -lrb- and other countries -rrb- for sovereignty of the spratly and paracel islands ; tensions have risen recently -lsb- when ? -rsb- 
following reports that the chinese government had established a county-level city named sansha in the disputed territories , resulting in anti-chinese demonstrations in december 2007 in hanoi and ho chi minh city . 
following reports that the chinese government had established a county-level city named sansha in the disputed territories , resulting in anti-chinese demonstrations in december 2007 in hanoi and ho chi minh city . 
however to sustain its relationship with china the vietnamese government has actively sought to head off protests during the torch relay , with prime minister nguyễn tấn dũng warning government agencies that `` hostile forces '' may try to disrupt the torch relay . 
prior to the rally , seven anti-china protestors were arrested in hanoi after unfurling a banner and shouting `` boycott the beijing olympics '' through a loudhailer at a market . 
a vietnamese american was deported for planning protests against the torch , while a prominent blogger , điếu cày -lrb- real name nguyễn văn hải -rrb- , who blogged about protests around the world and who called for demonstrations in vietnam , was arrested on charges of tax evasion . 
lê minh phiếu , a torchbearer who is a vietnamese law student studying in france , wrote a letter to the president of the international olympic committee protesting china 's `` politicisation of the olympics '' , citing maps of the torch relay at the official beijing olympic website depicting the disputed islands as chinese territory and posted it on his blog . 
prior to the rally , seven anti-china protestors were arrested in hanoi after unfurling a banner and shouting `` boycott the beijing olympics '' through a loudhailer at a market . 
a vietnamese american was deported for planning protests against the torch , while a prominent blogger , điếu cày -lrb- real name nguyễn văn hải -rrb- , who blogged about protests around the world and who called for demonstrations in vietnam , was arrested on charges of tax evasion . 
a vietnamese american was deported for planning protests against the torch , while a prominent blogger , điếu cày -lrb- real name nguyễn văn hải -rrb- , who blogged about protests around the world and who called for demonstrations in vietnam , was arrested on charges of tax evasion . 
lê minh phiếu , a torchbearer who is a vietnamese law student studying in france , wrote a letter to the president of the international olympic committee protesting china 's `` politicisation of the olympics '' , citing maps of the torch relay at the official beijing olympic website depicting the disputed islands as chinese territory and posted it on his blog . 
one day before the relay was to start , the official website appeared to have been updated to remove the disputed islands and dotted lines marking china 's maritime claims in the south china sea . 
hong kong : the event was held in hong kong on may 2 . 
in the ceremony held at the hong kong cultural centre in tsim sha tsui , chief executive donald tsang handed the torch to the first torchbearer , olympic medalist lee lai shan . 
in the ceremony held at the hong kong cultural centre in tsim sha tsui , chief executive donald tsang handed the torch to the first torchbearer , olympic medalist lee lai shan . 
the torch relay then traveled through nathan road , lantau link , sha tin -lrb- crossed shing mun river via a dragon boat , which had been never used before in the history of olympic torch relays -rrb- , victoria harbour -lrb- crossed by tin hau , a vip vessel managed by the marine department -rrb- before ending in golden bauhinia square in wan chai . 
a total of 120 torchbearers were selected to participate in the event consisting of celebrities , athletes and pro-beijing camp politicians . 
hong kong : the event was held in hong kong on may 2 . 
in the ceremony held at the hong kong cultural centre in tsim sha tsui , chief executive donald tsang handed the torch to the first torchbearer , olympic medalist lee lai shan . 
the torch relay then traveled through nathan road , lantau link , sha tin -lrb- crossed shing mun river via a dragon boat , which had been never used before in the history of olympic torch relays -rrb- , victoria harbour -lrb- crossed by tin hau , a vip vessel managed by the marine department -rrb- before ending in golden bauhinia square in wan chai . 
a total of 120 torchbearers were selected to participate in the event consisting of celebrities , athletes and pro-beijing camp politicians . 
a total of 120 torchbearers were selected to participate in the event consisting of celebrities , athletes and pro-beijing camp politicians . 
members of the hong kong alliance in support of patriotic democratic movements in china , including pro-democracy activist szeto wah , waved novelty inflatable plastic olympic flames , which they said symbolised democracy . 
they wanted accountability for the tiananmen square protests of 1989 and the implementation of democracy in hong kong . 
a university student and former rdhk radio host christina chan wrapped the tibetan snow lion flag around her body and later began waving it . 
in the end , she and some of the protesters were taken away against their will by the authorities via a police vehicle `` for their own protection . '' 
suing the hong kong government , claiming her human rights were breached . 
members of the hong kong alliance in support of patriotic democratic movements in china , including pro-democracy activist szeto wah , waved novelty inflatable plastic olympic flames , which they said symbolised democracy . 
political activist and legislative council member leung kwok-hung -lrb- longhair -rrb- also joined the protest , saying `` i 'm very proud that in hong kong we still have people brave enough to speak out . '' 
a university student and former rdhk radio host christina chan wrapped the tibetan snow lion flag around her body and later began waving it . 
the color orange democracy group , led by danish sculptor jens galschiøt , originally planned to join the hong kong alliance relay and paint the `` pillar of shame '' , a structure he built in hong kong to commemorate the 1989 tiananmen square protests . 
the color orange democracy group , led by danish sculptor jens galschiøt , originally planned to join the hong kong alliance relay and paint the `` pillar of shame '' , a structure he built in hong kong to commemorate the 1989 tiananmen square protests . 
however , galschiøt and two other people were denied entry to hong kong on april 26 , 2008 due to `` immigration reasons '' and were forced to leave hong kong . 
hollywood actress mia farrow was also briefly questioned at the hong kong airport though officials allowed her to enter . 
legislator cheung man kwong have also said the government 's decision allowing farrow to enter while denying others is a double standard and a violation to hong kong 's one country , two systems policy . 
the color orange democracy group , led by danish sculptor jens galschiøt , originally planned to join the hong kong alliance relay and paint the `` pillar of shame '' , a structure he built in hong kong to commemorate the 1989 tiananmen square protests . 
the color orange democracy group , led by danish sculptor jens galschiøt , originally planned to join the hong kong alliance relay and paint the `` pillar of shame '' , a structure he built in hong kong to commemorate the 1989 tiananmen square protests . 
however , galschiøt and two other people were denied entry to hong kong on april 26 , 2008 due to `` immigration reasons '' and were forced to leave hong kong . 
hollywood actress mia farrow was also briefly questioned at the hong kong airport though officials allowed her to enter . 
macao : the event was held in macau on may 3 . 
a ceremony was held at macau fisherman 's wharf . 
a total of 120 torchbearers participated in this event including casino tycoon stanley ho . 
leong hong man and leong heng teng were the first and last torchbearer in the relay respectively . 
an article published on macao daily news criticized that the list of the torchbearers could not fully represent the macanese and that there were too many non-athletes among the torchbearers . 
macao : the event was held in macau on may 3 . 
a total of 120 torchbearers participated in this event including casino tycoon stanley ho . 
leong hong man and leong heng teng were the first and last torchbearer in the relay respectively . 
a total of 120 torchbearers participated in this event including casino tycoon stanley ho . 
an article published on macao daily news criticized that the list of the torchbearers could not fully represent the macanese and that there were too many non-athletes among the torchbearers . 
a macau resident was arrested on april 26 for posting a message on cyberctm.com encouraging people to disrupt the relay . 
both orchidbbs.com and cyberctm.com internet forums were shut down from may 2 to 4 . 
a macau resident was arrested on april 26 for posting a message on cyberctm.com encouraging people to disrupt the relay . 
a macau resident was arrested on april 26 for posting a message on cyberctm.com encouraging people to disrupt the relay . 
the head of the bureau of telecommunications regulation has denied that the shutdowns of the websites were politically motivated . 
the torch arrived in sanya , hainan on may 4 with celebrations attended by international olympic committee -lrb- ioc -rrb- officials and chinese big names like jackie chan . 
the torch arrived in sanya , hainan on may 4 with celebrations attended by international olympic committee -lrb- ioc -rrb- officials and chinese big names like jackie chan . 
the torch arrived in sanya , hainan on may 4 with celebrations attended by international olympic committee -lrb- ioc -rrb- officials and chinese big names like jackie chan . 
china : the torch returned to china for the first time since april . 
the torch arrived in sanya , hainan on may 4 with celebrations attended by international olympic committee -lrb- ioc -rrb- officials and chinese big names like jackie chan . 
the torch arrived in sanya , hainan on may 4 with celebrations attended by international olympic committee -lrb- ioc -rrb- officials and chinese big names like jackie chan . 
western reporters in beijing have described chinese media coverage as partial and censored -lrb- for example when chinese media did not broadcast reporters without borders ' disruption of the torch lighting ceremony -rrb- , whereas chinese netizens have in turn accused western media coverage of being biased . 
western reporters in beijing have described chinese media coverage as partial and censored -lrb- for example when chinese media did not broadcast reporters without borders ' disruption of the torch lighting ceremony -rrb- , whereas chinese netizens have in turn accused western media coverage of being biased . 
the french newspaper libération was criticised by the chinese state press agency xinhua for its allegedly biased reporting ; xinhua suggested that libération needed `` a stinging slap in the face '' for having `` insulted the olympic flame '' and `` supported a handful of saboteurs '' . 
chinese media coverage of the torch relay has been distinct in a number of ways from coverage elsewhere . 
western reporters in beijing have described chinese media coverage as partial and censored -lrb- for example when chinese media did not broadcast reporters without borders ' disruption of the torch lighting ceremony -rrb- , whereas chinese netizens have in turn accused western media coverage of being biased . 
western reporters in beijing have described chinese media coverage as partial and censored -lrb- for example when chinese media did not broadcast reporters without borders ' disruption of the torch lighting ceremony -rrb- , whereas chinese netizens have in turn accused western media coverage of being biased . 
the french newspaper libération was criticised by the chinese state press agency xinhua for its allegedly biased reporting ; xinhua suggested that libération needed `` a stinging slap in the face '' for having `` insulted the olympic flame '' and `` supported a handful of saboteurs '' . 
the french newspaper libération was criticised by the chinese state press agency xinhua for its allegedly biased reporting ; xinhua suggested that libération needed `` a stinging slap in the face '' for having `` insulted the olympic flame '' and `` supported a handful of saboteurs '' . 
in response to pro-tibet and pro-human rights protests , the chinese media focused on the more disruptive protesters , referring for example to `` a very small number of ` tibet independence ' secessionists and a handful of so-called human rights-minded ngo activists '' intent on `` disrupting and sabotaging the beijing olympic games '' . 
xinhua and cctv quoted relay spectators who condemned the protests , to a greater extent than most western media , but did not quote any alternate viewpoints , providing no coverage of support for the protests by some ordinary citizens in western countries . 
it quoted athletes who expressed pride at taking part in the relays , to a greater extent than western media , but not those who , like marie-josé pérec , expressed understanding and support for the protestors . 
xinhua said that protesters were `` radicals '' who `` trampled human rights '' and whose activities were condemned by `` the people of the world who cordially love the olympic spirit '' . 
it quoted athletes who expressed pride at taking part in the relays , to a greater extent than western media , but not those who , like marie-josé pérec , expressed understanding and support for the protestors . 
xinhua and cctv quoted relay spectators who condemned the protests , to a greater extent than most western media , but did not quote any alternate viewpoints , providing no coverage of support for the protests by some ordinary citizens in western countries . 
despite intended torchbearers kiran bedi , soha ali khan , sachin tendulkar and bhaichung bhutia all withdrawing from the event , the official chinese website for the relay reported `` indian torchbearers vow to run for spirit of olympics '' , and quoted torchbearers manavjit singh sandhu , abhinav bindra , ayaan ali khan and rajinder singh rahelu all stating that sports and politics should not be mixed . 
despite intended torchbearers kiran bedi , soha ali khan , sachin tendulkar and bhaichung bhutia all withdrawing from the event , the official chinese website for the relay reported `` indian torchbearers vow to run for spirit of olympics '' , and quoted torchbearers manavjit singh sandhu , abhinav bindra , ayaan ali khan and rajinder singh rahelu all stating that sports and politics should not be mixed . 
despite intended torchbearers kiran bedi , soha ali khan , sachin tendulkar and bhaichung bhutia all withdrawing from the event , the official chinese website for the relay reported `` indian torchbearers vow to run for spirit of olympics '' , and quoted torchbearers manavjit singh sandhu , abhinav bindra , ayaan ali khan and rajinder singh rahelu all stating that sports and politics should not be mixed . 
despite intended torchbearers kiran bedi , soha ali khan , sachin tendulkar and bhaichung bhutia all withdrawing from the event , the official chinese website for the relay reported `` indian torchbearers vow to run for spirit of olympics '' , and quoted torchbearers manavjit singh sandhu , abhinav bindra , ayaan ali khan and rajinder singh rahelu all stating that sports and politics should not be mixed . 
the daily telegraph published an opinion piece by the chinese ambassador to the united kingdom , fu ying , who accused western media of `` demonising '' china during their coverage of the torch relays . 
libération also reported that it had been accused of bias by the chinese media . 
some western media have reported on chinese accusations of western media bias . 
the daily telegraph published an opinion piece by the chinese ambassador to the united kingdom , fu ying , who accused western media of `` demonising '' china during their coverage of the torch relays . 
the daily telegraph published an opinion piece by the chinese ambassador to the united kingdom , fu ying , who accused western media of `` demonising '' china during their coverage of the torch relays . 
libération also reported that it had been accused of bias by the chinese media . 
on april 17 , xinhua condemned what it called `` biased coverage of the lhasa riots and the olympic torch relay by the u.s.-based cable news network -lrb- cnn -rrb- '' . 
on april 17 , xinhua condemned what it called `` biased coverage of the lhasa riots and the olympic torch relay by the u.s.-based cable news network -lrb- cnn -rrb- '' . 
the same day , the chinese government called on cnn to `` apologise '' for having allegedly insulted the chinese people , and for `` attempting to incite the chinese people against the government '' . 
several days earlier , the bbc had published an article entitled `` the challenges of reporting in china '' , responding to earlier criticism . 
the bbc 's paul danahar noted that chinese people were now `` able to access the bbc news website for the first time , after years of strict censorship '' , and that `` many were critical of our coverage '' . 
on april 19 , the bbc reported that 1,300 people had gathered outside bbc buildings in manchester and london , protesting against what they described as western media bias . 
the bbc 's paul danahar noted that chinese people were now `` able to access the bbc news website for the first time , after years of strict censorship '' , and that `` many were critical of our coverage '' . 
he provided readers with a reminder of censorship in china , and added : `` people who criticise the media for their coverage in tibet should acknowledge that we were and still are banned from reporting there . '' 
on april 20 , the people 's daily published a report entitled `` overseas chinese rally against biased media coverage , for olympics '' . 
on april 20 , the people 's daily published a report entitled `` overseas chinese rally against biased media coverage , for olympics '' . 
on april 4 , it was reported that the chinese government appeared to be running an anti-cnn website that criticizes the cable network 's coverage of recent events . 
the site claims to have been created by a beijing citizen . 
the site claims to have been created by a beijing citizen . 
however , foreign correspondents in beijing voiced suspicions that anti-cnn may be a semi-government-made website . 
the beijing olympic organizing committee sent out a team of 30 unarmed attendants selected from the people 's armed police to escort the flame throughout its journey . 
according to asian times , sworn in as the `` beijing olympic games sacred flame protection unit '' during a ceremony in august 2007 , their main job is to keep the olympic flame alight throughout the journey and to assist in transferring the flame between the torches , the lanterns and the cauldrons . 
they wear matching blue tracksuits and are intended to accompany the torch every step of the way . 
one of the torch attendants , dubbed `` second right brother , '' has developed a significant online fan-base , particularly among china 's female netizens . 
the beijing olympic organizing committee sent out a team of 30 unarmed attendants selected from the people 's armed police to escort the flame throughout its journey . 
according to asian times , sworn in as the `` beijing olympic games sacred flame protection unit '' during a ceremony in august 2007 , their main job is to keep the olympic flame alight throughout the journey and to assist in transferring the flame between the torches , the lanterns and the cauldrons . 
they wear matching blue tracksuits and are intended to accompany the torch every step of the way . 
one of the torch attendants , dubbed `` second right brother , '' has developed a significant online fan-base , particularly among china 's female netizens . 
in china , a call to boycott french hypermart carrefour from may 1 began spreading through mobile text messaging and online chat rooms amongst the chinese over the weekend from april 12 , accusing the company 's major shareholder , the lvmh group , of donating funds to the dalai lama . 
in china , a call to boycott french hypermart carrefour from may 1 began spreading through mobile text messaging and online chat rooms amongst the chinese over the weekend from april 12 , accusing the company 's major shareholder , the lvmh group , of donating funds to the dalai lama . 
in china , a call to boycott french hypermart carrefour from may 1 began spreading through mobile text messaging and online chat rooms amongst the chinese over the weekend from april 12 , accusing the company 's major shareholder , the lvmh group , of donating funds to the dalai lama . 
some burned french flags , some added swastika -lrb- due to its conotaions with nazism -rrb- to the french flag , and spread short online messages calling for large protests in front of french consulates and embassy . 
in china , a call to boycott french hypermart carrefour from may 1 began spreading through mobile text messaging and online chat rooms amongst the chinese over the weekend from april 12 , accusing the company 's major shareholder , the lvmh group , of donating funds to the dalai lama . 
chinese protesters organized boycotts of the french-owned retail chain carrefour in major chinese cities including kunming , hefei and wuhan , accusing the french nation of pro-secessionist conspiracy and anti-chinese racism . 
in response to the demonstrations , the chinese government attempted to calm the situation , possibly fearing the protests may spiral out of control as has happened in recent years , including the anti-japanese protests in 2005 . 
state media and commentaries began to call for calm , such as an editorial in the people 's daily which urged chinese people to `` express -lsb- their -rsb- patriotic enthusiasm calmly and rationally , and express patriotic aspiration in an orderly and legal manner '' . 
the government also began to patrol and censor the internet forums such as sohu.com , with comments related to the carrefour boycott removed . 
in the days prior to the planned boycott , evidence of efforts by chinese authorities to choke the mass boycott 's efforts online became even more evident , including barring searches of words related to the french protests , but protests broke out nonetheless in front of carrefour 's stores at beijing , changsha , fuzhou and shenyang on may 1 . 
in response to the demonstrations , the chinese government attempted to calm the situation , possibly fearing the protests may spiral out of control as has happened in recent years , including the anti-japanese protests in 2005 . 
state media and commentaries began to call for calm , such as an editorial in the people 's daily which urged chinese people to `` express -lsb- their -rsb- patriotic enthusiasm calmly and rationally , and express patriotic aspiration in an orderly and legal manner '' . 
in response to the demonstrations , the chinese government attempted to calm the situation , possibly fearing the protests may spiral out of control as has happened in recent years , including the anti-japanese protests in 2005 . 
in the days prior to the planned boycott , evidence of efforts by chinese authorities to choke the mass boycott 's efforts online became even more evident , including barring searches of words related to the french protests , but protests broke out nonetheless in front of carrefour 's stores at beijing , changsha , fuzhou and shenyang on may 1 . 
in japan , the mayor of nagano , shoichi washizawa said that it has become a `` great nuisance '' for the city to host the torch relay prior to the nagano leg . 
in japan , the mayor of nagano , shoichi washizawa said that it has become a `` great nuisance '' for the city to host the torch relay prior to the nagano leg . 
also citing concerns about protests as well as the recent violence in tibet , a major buddhist temple in nagano cancelled its plans to host the opening stage of the olympic torch relay , this temple was vandalised by an un-identified person the day after in apparent revenge , 
in japan , the mayor of nagano , shoichi washizawa said that it has become a `` great nuisance '' for the city to host the torch relay prior to the nagano leg . 
in japan , the mayor of nagano , shoichi washizawa said that it has become a `` great nuisance '' for the city to host the torch relay prior to the nagano leg . 
also citing concerns about protests as well as the recent violence in tibet , a major buddhist temple in nagano cancelled its plans to host the opening stage of the olympic torch relay , this temple was vandalised by an un-identified person the day after in apparent revenge , 
when the torch is extinguished at night , on airplanes , in bad weather , or during protests -lrb- such as the several occasions in paris -rrb- , the olympic flame is kept alight in a set of 8 lanterns . 
when the torch is extinguished at night , on airplanes , in bad weather , or during protests -lrb- such as the several occasions in paris -rrb- , the olympic flame is kept alight in a set of 8 lanterns . 
hong kong legislator michael mak kwok-fung and activist chan cheong , both members of the league of social democrats , were not allowed to enter macau . 
chinese media have also reported on jin jing , whom the official chinese torch relay website described as `` heroic '' and an `` angel '' , whereas western media initially gave her little mention -- despite a chinese claim that `` chinese paralympic athlete jin jing has garnered much attention from the media '' . 
chinese media have also reported on jin jing , whom the official chinese torch relay website described as `` heroic '' and an `` angel '' , whereas western media initially gave her little mention -- despite a chinese claim that `` chinese paralympic athlete jin jing has garnered much attention from the media '' . 
two additional teams of 40 attendants each will accompany the flame on its mainland china route . 
two additional teams of 40 attendants each will accompany the flame on its mainland china route . 
but beyond this somewhat ironic legacy , the book popularized modern mathematical logic and drew important connections between logic , epistemology , and metaphysics . 
the ultimate substantive legacy of principia mathematica is mixed . 
it is generally accepted that kurt gödel 's incompleteness theorem of 1931 definitively demonstrated that for any set of axioms and inference rules proposed to encapsulate mathematics , there would in fact be some truths of mathematics which could not be deduced from them , and hence that principia mathematica could never achieve its aims . 
it is generally accepted that kurt gödel 's incompleteness theorem of 1931 definitively demonstrated that for any set of axioms and inference rules proposed to encapsulate mathematics , there would in fact be some truths of mathematics which could not be deduced from them , and hence that principia mathematica could never achieve its aims . 
however , gödel could not have come to this conclusion without whitehead and russell 's book . 
it is generally accepted that kurt gödel 's incompleteness theorem of 1931 definitively demonstrated that for any set of axioms and inference rules proposed to encapsulate mathematics , there would in fact be some truths of mathematics which could not be deduced from them , and hence that principia mathematica could never achieve its aims . 
it is generally accepted that kurt gödel 's incompleteness theorem of 1931 definitively demonstrated that for any set of axioms and inference rules proposed to encapsulate mathematics , there would in fact be some truths of mathematics which could not be deduced from them , and hence that principia mathematica could never achieve its aims . 
in this way , principia mathematica 's legacy might be described as its key role in disproving the possibility of achieving its own stated goals . 
but beyond this somewhat ironic legacy , the book popularized modern mathematical logic and drew important connections between logic , epistemology , and metaphysics . 
the essay from which aims of education derived its name was delivered as an address in 1916 when whitehead was president of the london branch of the mathematical association . 
in it , he cautioned against the teaching of what he called `` inert ideas '' -- ideas that are disconnected scraps of information , with no application to real life or culture . 
he opined that `` education with inert ideas is not only useless : it is , above all things , harmful . '' 
whitehead 's most complete work on education is the 1929 book the aims of education and other essays , which collected numerous essays and addresses by whitehead on the subject published between 1912 and 1927 . 
whitehead 's most complete work on education is the 1929 book the aims of education and other essays , which collected numerous essays and addresses by whitehead on the subject published between 1912 and 1927 . 
whitehead 's most complete work on education is the 1929 book the aims of education and other essays , which collected numerous essays and addresses by whitehead on the subject published between 1912 and 1927 . 
whitehead 's most complete work on education is the 1929 book the aims of education and other essays , which collected numerous essays and addresses by whitehead on the subject published between 1912 and 1927 . 
in it , he cautioned against the teaching of what he called `` inert ideas '' -- ideas that are disconnected scraps of information , with no application to real life or culture . 
rather than teach small parts of a large number of subjects , whitehead advocated teaching a relatively few important concepts that the student could organically link to many different areas of knowledge , discovering their application in actual life . 
rather than teach small parts of a large number of subjects , whitehead advocated teaching a relatively few important concepts that the student could organically link to many different areas of knowledge , discovering their application in actual life . 
for whitehead , education should be the exact opposite of the multidisciplinary , value-free school model -- it should be transdisciplinary , and laden with values and general principles that provide students with a bedrock of wisdom and help them to make connections between areas of knowledge that are usually regarded as separate . 
for whitehead , education should be the exact opposite of the multidisciplinary , value-free school model -- it should be transdisciplinary , and laden with values and general principles that provide students with a bedrock of wisdom and help them to make connections between areas of knowledge that are usually regarded as separate . 
rather than teach small parts of a large number of subjects , whitehead advocated teaching a relatively few important concepts that the student could organically link to many different areas of knowledge , discovering their application in actual life . 
rather than teach small parts of a large number of subjects , whitehead advocated teaching a relatively few important concepts that the student could organically link to many different areas of knowledge , discovering their application in actual life . 
for whitehead , education should be the exact opposite of the multidisciplinary , value-free school model -- it should be transdisciplinary , and laden with values and general principles that provide students with a bedrock of wisdom and help them to make connections between areas of knowledge that are usually regarded as separate . 
in fact , he never had any formal training in philosophy beyond his undergraduate education . 
in one letter to his friend and former student bertrand russell , after discussing whether science aimed to be explanatory or merely descriptive , he wrote : `` this further question lands us in the ocean of metaphysic , onto which my profound ignorance of that science forbids me to enter . '' 
ironically , in later life whitehead would become one of the 20th century 's foremost metaphysicians . 
in one letter to his friend and former student bertrand russell , after discussing whether science aimed to be explanatory or merely descriptive , he wrote : `` this further question lands us in the ocean of metaphysic , onto which my profound ignorance of that science forbids me to enter . '' 
in fact , he never had any formal training in philosophy beyond his undergraduate education . 
in one letter to his friend and former student bertrand russell , after discussing whether science aimed to be explanatory or merely descriptive , he wrote : `` this further question lands us in the ocean of metaphysic , onto which my profound ignorance of that science forbids me to enter . '' 
early in his life he showed great interest in and respect for philosophy and metaphysics , but it is evident that he considered himself a rank amateur . 
ironically , in later life whitehead would become one of the 20th century 's foremost metaphysicians . 
in the notes of one his students for a 1927 class , whitehead was quoted as saying : `` every scientific man in order to preserve his reputation has to say he dislikes metaphysics . 
in whitehead 's view , scientists and philosophers make metaphysical assumptions about how the universe works all the time , but such assumptions are not easily seen precisely because they remain unexamined and unquestioned . 
while whitehead acknowledged that `` philosophers can never hope finally to formulate these metaphysical first principles , '' he argued that people need to continually re-imagine their basic assumptions about how the universe works if philosophy and science are to make any real progress , even if that progress remains permanently asymptotic . 
for this reason whitehead regarded metaphysical investigations as essential to both good science and good philosophy . 
in whitehead 's view , scientists and philosophers make metaphysical assumptions about how the universe works all the time , but such assumptions are not easily seen precisely because they remain unexamined and unquestioned . 
in whitehead 's view , scientists and philosophers make metaphysical assumptions about how the universe works all the time , but such assumptions are not easily seen precisely because they remain unexamined and unquestioned . 
while whitehead acknowledged that `` philosophers can never hope finally to formulate these metaphysical first principles , '' he argued that people need to continually re-imagine their basic assumptions about how the universe works if philosophy and science are to make any real progress , even if that progress remains permanently asymptotic . 
for this reason whitehead regarded metaphysical investigations as essential to both good science and good philosophy . 
perhaps foremost among what whitehead considered faulty metaphysical assumptions was the cartesian idea that reality is fundamentally constructed of bits of matter that exist totally independently of one another , which he rejected in favor of an event-based or `` process '' ontology in which events are primary and are fundamentally interrelated and dependent on one another . 
perhaps foremost among what whitehead considered faulty metaphysical assumptions was the cartesian idea that reality is fundamentally constructed of bits of matter that exist totally independently of one another , which he rejected in favor of an event-based or `` process '' ontology in which events are primary and are fundamentally interrelated and dependent on one another . 
he used the term `` experience '' very broadly , so that even inanimate processes such as electron collisions are said to manifest some degree of experience . 
in this , he went against descartes ' separation of two different kinds of real existence , either exclusively material or else exclusively mental . 
whitehead referred to his metaphysical system as `` philosophy of organism '' , but it would become known more widely as `` process philosophy . '' 
perhaps foremost among what whitehead considered faulty metaphysical assumptions was the cartesian idea that reality is fundamentally constructed of bits of matter that exist totally independently of one another , which he rejected in favor of an event-based or `` process '' ontology in which events are primary and are fundamentally interrelated and dependent on one another . 
perhaps foremost among what whitehead considered faulty metaphysical assumptions was the cartesian idea that reality is fundamentally constructed of bits of matter that exist totally independently of one another , which he rejected in favor of an event-based or `` process '' ontology in which events are primary and are fundamentally interrelated and dependent on one another . 
perhaps foremost among what whitehead considered faulty metaphysical assumptions was the cartesian idea that reality is fundamentally constructed of bits of matter that exist totally independently of one another , which he rejected in favor of an event-based or `` process '' ontology in which events are primary and are fundamentally interrelated and dependent on one another . 
he also argued that the most basic elements of reality can all be regarded as experiential , indeed that everything is constituted by its experience . 
whitehead referred to his metaphysical system as `` philosophy of organism '' , but it would become known more widely as `` process philosophy . '' 
by assuming that enduring objects are the most real and fundamental things in the universe , materialists have mistaken the abstract for the concrete -lrb- what whitehead calls the `` fallacy of misplaced concreteness '' -rrb- . 
in whitehead 's view , then , concepts such as `` quality '' , `` matter '' , and `` form '' are problematic . 
these `` classical '' concepts fail to adequately account for change , and overlook the active and experiential nature of the most basic elements of the world . 
what is ordinarily conceived of as a single person , for instance , is philosophically described as a continuum of overlapping events . 
these occasions of experience are logically distinct , but are progressively connected in what whitehead calls a `` society '' of events . 
these `` classical '' concepts fail to adequately account for change , and overlook the active and experiential nature of the most basic elements of the world . 
these `` classical '' concepts fail to adequately account for change , and overlook the active and experiential nature of the most basic elements of the world . 
in whitehead 's view , then , concepts such as `` quality '' , `` matter '' , and `` form '' are problematic . 
these occasions of experience are logically distinct , but are progressively connected in what whitehead calls a `` society '' of events . 
what is ordinarily conceived of as a single person , for instance , is philosophically described as a continuum of overlapping events . 
but in whitehead 's cosmology , the only fundamentally existent things are discrete `` occasions of experience '' that overlap one another in time and space , and jointly make up the enduring person or thing . 
to put it another way , a thing or person is often seen as having a `` defining essence '' or a `` core identity '' that is unchanging , and describes what the thing or person really is . 
in this way of thinking , things and people are seen as fundamentally the same through time , with any changes being qualitative and secondary to their core identity -lrb- e.g. `` mark 's hair has turned gray as he has gotten older , but he is still the same person '' -rrb- . 
to put it another way , a thing or person is often seen as having a `` defining essence '' or a `` core identity '' that is unchanging , and describes what the thing or person really is . 
but in whitehead 's cosmology , the only fundamentally existent things are discrete `` occasions of experience '' that overlap one another in time and space , and jointly make up the enduring person or thing . 
but in whitehead 's cosmology , the only fundamentally existent things are discrete `` occasions of experience '' that overlap one another in time and space , and jointly make up the enduring person or thing . 
everything changes from moment to moment , and to think of anything as having an `` enduring essence '' misses the fact that `` all things flow '' , though it is often a useful way of speaking . 
identities do not define people , people define identities . 
after all , each moment of each person 's life can hardly be given a different proper name , and it is easy and convenient to think of people and objects as remaining fundamentally the same things , rather than constantly keeping in mind that each thing is a different thing from what it was a moment ago . 
yet the limitations of everyday living and everyday speech should not prevent people from realizing that `` material substances '' or `` essences '' are a convenient generalized description of a continuum of particular , concrete processes . 
whitehead pointed to the limitations of language as one of the main culprits in maintaining a materialistic way of thinking , and acknowledged that it may be difficult to ever wholly move past such ideas in everyday speech . 
no one questions that a ten-year-old person is quite different by the time he or she turns thirty years old , and in many ways is not the same person at all ; whitehead points out that it is not philosophically or ontologically sound to think that a person is the same from one second to the next . 
whitehead pointed to the limitations of language as one of the main culprits in maintaining a materialistic way of thinking , and acknowledged that it may be difficult to ever wholly move past such ideas in everyday speech . 
whitehead pointed to the limitations of language as one of the main culprits in maintaining a materialistic way of thinking , and acknowledged that it may be difficult to ever wholly move past such ideas in everyday speech . 
after all , each moment of each person 's life can hardly be given a different proper name , and it is easy and convenient to think of people and objects as remaining fundamentally the same things , rather than constantly keeping in mind that each thing is a different thing from what it was a moment ago . 
each object is simply an inert clump of matter that is only externally related to other things . 
the idea of matter as primary makes people think of objects as being fundamentally separate in time and space , and not necessarily related to anything . 
but in whitehead 's view , relations take a primary role , perhaps even more important than the relata themselves . 
it sees every object as distinct and discrete from all other objects . 
a second problem with materialism is that it obscures the importance of relations . 
a second problem with materialism is that it obscures the importance of relations . 
it sees every object as distinct and discrete from all other objects . 
each object is simply an inert clump of matter that is only externally related to other things . 
in fact , whitehead describes any entity as in some sense nothing more and nothing less than the sum of its relations to other entities -- its synthesis of and reaction to the world around it . 
a real thing is just that which forces the rest of the universe to in some way conform to it ; that is to say , if theoretically a thing made strictly no difference to any other entity -lrb- i.e. it was not related to any other entity -rrb- , it could not be said to really exist . 
a real thing is just that which forces the rest of the universe to in some way conform to it ; that is to say , if theoretically a thing made strictly no difference to any other entity -lrb- i.e. it was not related to any other entity -rrb- , it could not be said to really exist . 
relations are not secondary to what a thing is , they are what the thing is . 
in fact , whitehead describes any entity as in some sense nothing more and nothing less than the sum of its relations to other entities -- its synthesis of and reaction to the world around it . 
a real thing is just that which forces the rest of the universe to in some way conform to it ; that is to say , if theoretically a thing made strictly no difference to any other entity -lrb- i.e. it was not related to any other entity -rrb- , it could not be said to really exist . 
relations are not secondary to what a thing is , they are what the thing is . 
in fact , whitehead describes any entity as in some sense nothing more and nothing less than the sum of its relations to other entities -- its synthesis of and reaction to the world around it . 
a real thing is just that which forces the rest of the universe to in some way conform to it ; that is to say , if theoretically a thing made strictly no difference to any other entity -lrb- i.e. it was not related to any other entity -rrb- , it could not be said to really exist . 
indeed , in recent decades attention to whitehead 's work has become more widespread , with interest extending to intellectuals in europe and china , and coming from such diverse fields as ecology , physics , biology , education , economics , and psychology . 
one of the first theologians to attempt to interact with whitehead 's thought was the future archbishop of canterbury , william temple . 
in temple 's gifford lectures of 1932-1934 -lrb- subsequently published as `` nature , man and god '' -rrb- , whitehead is one of a number of philosophers of the emergent evolution approach temple interacts with . 
isabelle stengers wrote that `` whiteheadians are recruited among both philosophers and theologians , and the palette has been enriched by practitioners from the most diverse horizons , from ecology to feminism , practices that unite political struggle and spirituality with the sciences of education . '' 
indeed , in recent decades attention to whitehead 's work has become more widespread , with interest extending to intellectuals in europe and china , and coming from such diverse fields as ecology , physics , biology , education , economics , and psychology . 
early followers of whitehead were found primarily at the university of chicago 's divinity school , where henry nelson wieman initiated an interest in whitehead 's work that would last for about thirty years . 
early followers of whitehead were found primarily at the university of chicago 's divinity school , where henry nelson wieman initiated an interest in whitehead 's work that would last for about thirty years . 
they taught generations of whitehead scholars , the most notable of which is john b. cobb , jr. . 
professors such as wieman , charles hartshorne , bernard loomer , bernard meland , and daniel day williams made whitehead 's philosophy arguably the most important intellectual thread running through the divinity school . 
but while claremont remains the most concentrated hub of whiteheadian activity , the place where whitehead 's thought currently seems to be growing the most quickly is in china . 
in order to address the challenges of modernization and industrialization , china has begun to blend traditions of taoism , buddhism , and confucianism with whitehead 's `` constructive post-modern '' philosophy in order to create an `` ecological civilization . '' 
in order to address the challenges of modernization and industrialization , china has begun to blend traditions of taoism , buddhism , and confucianism with whitehead 's `` constructive post-modern '' philosophy in order to create an `` ecological civilization . '' 
to date , the chinese government has encouraged the building of twenty-three university-based centers for the study of whitehead 's philosophy , and books by process philosophers john cobb and david ray griffin are becoming required reading for chinese graduate students . 
cobb has attributed china 's interest in process philosophy partly to whitehead 's stress on the mutual interdependence of humanity and nature , as well as his emphasis on an educational system that includes the teaching of values rather than simply bare facts . 
it is impossible to say exactly why whitehead 's influence has not been more widespread , but it may be partly due to his metaphysical ideas seeming somewhat counter-intuitive -lrb- such as his assertion that matter is an abstraction -rrb- , or his inclusion of theistic elements in his philosophy , or the perception of metaphysics itself as passé , or simply the sheer difficulty and density of his prose . 
it is impossible to say exactly why whitehead 's influence has not been more widespread , but it may be partly due to his metaphysical ideas seeming somewhat counter-intuitive -lrb- such as his assertion that matter is an abstraction -rrb- , or his inclusion of theistic elements in his philosophy , or the perception of metaphysics itself as passé , or simply the sheer difficulty and density of his prose . 
it is impossible to say exactly why whitehead 's influence has not been more widespread , but it may be partly due to his metaphysical ideas seeming somewhat counter-intuitive -lrb- such as his assertion that matter is an abstraction -rrb- , or his inclusion of theistic elements in his philosophy , or the perception of metaphysics itself as passé , or simply the sheer difficulty and density of his prose . 
deleuze 's and latour 's opinions , however , are minority ones , as whitehead has not been recognized as particularly influential within the most dominant philosophical schools . 
one philosophical school which has historically had a close relationship with process philosophy is american pragmatism . 
whitehead himself thought highly of william james and john dewey , and acknowledged his indebtedness to them in the preface to process and reality . 
today , nicholas rescher is one example of a philosopher who advocates both process philosophy and pragmatism . 
charles hartshorne -lrb- along with paul weiss -rrb- edited the collected papers of charles sanders peirce , one of the founders of pragmatism . 
noted neopragmatist richard rorty was in turn a student of hartshorne . 
it has been severely criticized . 
henry stapp and david bohm are among those whose work has been influenced by whitehead . 
whitehead 's view has now been rendered obsolete , with the discovery of gravitational waves . 
they are phenonena observed locally that largely violate the kind of local flatness of space that whitehead assumes . 
consequently , whitehead 's cosmology must be regarded as a local approximation , and his assumption of a uniform spatio-temporal geometry , minkowskian in particular , as an often-locally-adequate approximation . 
cobb also co-authored a book with economist herman daly entitled for the common good : redirecting the economy toward community , the environment , and a sustainable future -lrb- 1989 -rrb- , which applied whitehead 's thought to economics , and received the grawemeyer award for ideas improving world order . 
this work has been pioneered by john b. cobb , jr. , whose book is it too late ? 
cobb also co-authored a book with economist herman daly entitled for the common good : redirecting the economy toward community , the environment , and a sustainable future -lrb- 1989 -rrb- , which applied whitehead 's thought to economics , and received the grawemeyer award for ideas improving world order . 
cobb followed this with a second book , sustaining the common good : a christian perspective on the global economy -lrb- 1994 -rrb- , which aimed to challenge `` economists ' zealous faith in the great god of growth . '' 
cobb followed this with a second book , sustaining the common good : a christian perspective on the global economy -lrb- 1994 -rrb- , which aimed to challenge `` economists ' zealous faith in the great god of growth . '' 
another model is the feels model developed by xie bangxiu and deployed successfully in china . 
`` feels '' stands for five things in curriculum and education : flexible-goals , engaged-learner , embodied-knowledge , learning-through-interactions , and supportive-teacher . 
it is used for understanding and evaluating educational curriculum under the assumption that the purpose of education is to `` help a person become whole . '' 
this work is in part the product of cooperation between chinese government organizations and the institute for the postmodern development of china . 
one of the leading figures having an explicitly whiteheadian and panexperientialist stance towards management is mark dibben , who works in what he calls `` applied process thought '' to articulate a philosophy of management and business administration as part of a wider examination of the social sciences through the lens of process metaphysics . 
one of the leading figures having an explicitly whiteheadian and panexperientialist stance towards management is mark dibben , who works in what he calls `` applied process thought '' to articulate a philosophy of management and business administration as part of a wider examination of the social sciences through the lens of process metaphysics . 
dibben has published two books on applied process thought , applied process thought i : initial explorations in theory and research -lrb- 2008 -rrb- , and applied process thought ii : following a trail ablaze -lrb- 2009 -rrb- , as well as other papers in this vein in the fields of philosophy of management and business ethics . 
whitehead has had some influence on philosophy of business administration and organizational theory . 
for dibben , this allows `` a comprehensive exploration of life as perpetually active experiencing , as opposed to occasional -- and thoroughly passive -- happening . '' 
beginning in the late 1910s and early 1920s , whitehead gradually turned his attention from mathematics to philosophy of science , and finally to metaphysics . 
beginning in the late 1910s and early 1920s , whitehead gradually turned his attention from mathematics to philosophy of science , and finally to metaphysics . 
whitehead argued that reality consists of processes rather than material objects , and that processes are best defined by their relations with other processes , thus rejecting the theory that reality is fundamentally constructed by bits of matter that exist independently of one another . 
whitehead argued that reality consists of processes rather than material objects , and that processes are best defined by their relations with other processes , thus rejecting the theory that reality is fundamentally constructed by bits of matter that exist independently of one another . 
today whitehead 's philosophical works -- particularly process and reality -- are regarded as the foundational texts of process philosophy . 
beginning in the late 1910s and early 1920s , whitehead gradually turned his attention from mathematics to philosophy of science , and finally to metaphysics . 
beginning in the late 1910s and early 1920s , whitehead gradually turned his attention from mathematics to philosophy of science , and finally to metaphysics . 
beginning in the late 1910s and early 1920s , whitehead gradually turned his attention from mathematics to philosophy of science , and finally to metaphysics . 
he developed a comprehensive metaphysical system which radically departed from most of western philosophy . 
whitehead argued that reality consists of processes rather than material objects , and that processes are best defined by their relations with other processes , thus rejecting the theory that reality is fundamentally constructed by bits of matter that exist independently of one another . 
alfred north whitehead was born in ramsgate , kent , england , in 1861 . 
alfred north whitehead was born in ramsgate , kent , england , in 1861 . 
his father , alfred whitehead , was a minister and schoolmaster of chatham house academy , a successful school for boys established by thomas whitehead , alfred north 's grandfather . 
his father , alfred whitehead , was a minister and schoolmaster of chatham house academy , a successful school for boys established by thomas whitehead , alfred north 's grandfather . 
whitehead 's mother was maria sarah whitehead , formerly maria sarah buckmaster . 
alfred north whitehead was born in ramsgate , kent , england , in 1861 . 
alfred north whitehead was born in ramsgate , kent , england , in 1861 . 
his father , alfred whitehead , was a minister and schoolmaster of chatham house academy , a successful school for boys established by thomas whitehead , alfred north 's grandfather . 
whitehead 's mother was maria sarah whitehead , formerly maria sarah buckmaster . 
whitehead was apparently not particularly close with his mother , as he never mentioned her in any of his writings , and there is evidence that whitehead 's wife , evelyn , had a low opinion of her . 
in 1918 whitehead 's academic responsibilities began to seriously expand as he accepted a number of high administrative positions within the university of london system , of which imperial college london was a member at the time . 
he was elected dean of the faculty of science at the university of london in late 1918 -lrb- a post he held for four years -rrb- , a member of the university of london 's senate in 1919 , and chairman of the senate 's academic -lrb- leadership -rrb- council in 1920 , a post which he held until he departed for america in 1924 . 
he was elected dean of the faculty of science at the university of london in late 1918 -lrb- a post he held for four years -rrb- , a member of the university of london 's senate in 1919 , and chairman of the senate 's academic -lrb- leadership -rrb- council in 1920 , a post which he held until he departed for america in 1924 . 
he was elected dean of the faculty of science at the university of london in late 1918 -lrb- a post he held for four years -rrb- , a member of the university of london 's senate in 1919 , and chairman of the senate 's academic -lrb- leadership -rrb- council in 1920 , a post which he held until he departed for america in 1924 . 
whitehead was able to exert his newfound influence to successfully lobby for a new history of science department , help establish a bachelor of science degree -lrb- previously only bachelor of arts degrees had been offered -rrb- , and make the school more accessible to less wealthy students . 
in 1918 whitehead 's academic responsibilities began to seriously expand as he accepted a number of high administrative positions within the university of london system , of which imperial college london was a member at the time . 
he was elected dean of the faculty of science at the university of london in late 1918 -lrb- a post he held for four years -rrb- , a member of the university of london 's senate in 1919 , and chairman of the senate 's academic -lrb- leadership -rrb- council in 1920 , a post which he held until he departed for america in 1924 . 
in 1918 whitehead 's academic responsibilities began to seriously expand as he accepted a number of high administrative positions within the university of london system , of which imperial college london was a member at the time . 
he was elected dean of the faculty of science at the university of london in late 1918 -lrb- a post he held for four years -rrb- , a member of the university of london 's senate in 1919 , and chairman of the senate 's academic -lrb- leadership -rrb- council in 1920 , a post which he held until he departed for america in 1924 . 
the two volume biography of whitehead by victor lowe is the most definitive presentation of the life of whitehead . 
however , many details of whitehead 's life remain obscure because he left no nachlass ; his family carried out his instructions that all of his papers be destroyed after his death . 
additionally , whitehead was known for his `` almost fanatical belief in the right to privacy '' , and for writing very few personal letters of the kind that would help to gain insight on his life . 
this led to lowe himself remarking on the first page of whitehead 's biography , `` no professional biographer in his right mind would touch him . '' 
the two volume biography of whitehead by victor lowe is the most definitive presentation of the life of whitehead . 
the two volume biography of whitehead by victor lowe is the most definitive presentation of the life of whitehead . 
however , many details of whitehead 's life remain obscure because he left no nachlass ; his family carried out his instructions that all of his papers be destroyed after his death . 
additionally , whitehead was known for his `` almost fanatical belief in the right to privacy '' , and for writing very few personal letters of the kind that would help to gain insight on his life . 
in addition to numerous articles on mathematics , whitehead wrote three major books on the subject : a treatise on universal algebra -lrb- 1898 -rrb- , principia mathematica -lrb- co-written with bertrand russell and published in three volumes between 1910 and 1913 -rrb- , and an introduction to mathematics -lrb- 1911 -rrb- . 
in addition to numerous articles on mathematics , whitehead wrote three major books on the subject : a treatise on universal algebra -lrb- 1898 -rrb- , principia mathematica -lrb- co-written with bertrand russell and published in three volumes between 1910 and 1913 -rrb- , and an introduction to mathematics -lrb- 1911 -rrb- . 
the former two books were aimed exclusively at professional mathematicians , while the latter book was intended for a larger audience , covering the history of mathematics and its philosophical foundations . 
in addition to numerous articles on mathematics , whitehead wrote three major books on the subject : a treatise on universal algebra -lrb- 1898 -rrb- , principia mathematica -lrb- co-written with bertrand russell and published in three volumes between 1910 and 1913 -rrb- , and an introduction to mathematics -lrb- 1911 -rrb- . 
principia mathematica in particular is regarded as one of the most important works in mathematical logic of the 20th century . 
in addition to numerous articles on mathematics , whitehead wrote three major books on the subject : a treatise on universal algebra -lrb- 1898 -rrb- , principia mathematica -lrb- co-written with bertrand russell and published in three volumes between 1910 and 1913 -rrb- , and an introduction to mathematics -lrb- 1911 -rrb- . 
in addition to numerous articles on mathematics , whitehead wrote three major books on the subject : a treatise on universal algebra -lrb- 1898 -rrb- , principia mathematica -lrb- co-written with bertrand russell and published in three volumes between 1910 and 1913 -rrb- , and an introduction to mathematics -lrb- 1911 -rrb- . 
in addition to numerous articles on mathematics , whitehead wrote three major books on the subject : a treatise on universal algebra -lrb- 1898 -rrb- , principia mathematica -lrb- co-written with bertrand russell and published in three volumes between 1910 and 1913 -rrb- , and an introduction to mathematics -lrb- 1911 -rrb- . 
principia mathematica in particular is regarded as one of the most important works in mathematical logic of the 20th century . 
in addition to numerous articles on mathematics , whitehead wrote three major books on the subject : a treatise on universal algebra -lrb- 1898 -rrb- , principia mathematica -lrb- co-written with bertrand russell and published in three volumes between 1910 and 1913 -rrb- , and an introduction to mathematics -lrb- 1911 -rrb- . 
at the time structures such as lie algebras and hyperbolic quaternions drew attention to the need to expand algebraic structures beyond the associatively multiplicative class . 
in a review alexander macfarlane wrote : `` the main idea of the work is not unification of the several methods , nor generalization of ordinary algebra so as to include them , but rather the comparative study of their several structures . '' 
in a separate review , g. b. mathews wrote , `` it possesses a unity of design which is really remarkable , considering the variety of its themes . '' 
at the time structures such as lie algebras and hyperbolic quaternions drew attention to the need to expand algebraic structures beyond the associatively multiplicative class . 
in a separate review , g. b. mathews wrote , `` it possesses a unity of design which is really remarkable , considering the variety of its themes . '' 
in a review alexander macfarlane wrote : `` the main idea of the work is not unification of the several methods , nor generalization of ordinary algebra so as to include them , but rather the comparative study of their several structures . '' 
whitehead and russell had thought originally that principia mathematica would take a year to complete ; it ended up taking them ten years . 
whitehead and russell had thought originally that principia mathematica would take a year to complete ; it ended up taking them ten years . 
to add insult to injury , when it came time for publication , the three-volume work was so massive -lrb- more than 2,000 pages -rrb- and its audience so narrow -lrb- professional mathematicians -rrb- that it was initially published at a loss of 600 pounds , 300 of which was paid by cambridge university press , 200 by the royal society of london , and 50 apiece by whitehead and russell themselves . 
to add insult to injury , when it came time for publication , the three-volume work was so massive -lrb- more than 2,000 pages -rrb- and its audience so narrow -lrb- professional mathematicians -rrb- that it was initially published at a loss of 600 pounds , 300 of which was paid by cambridge university press , 200 by the royal society of london , and 50 apiece by whitehead and russell themselves . 
despite the initial loss , today there is likely no major academic library in the world which does not hold a copy of principia mathematica . 
whitehead and russell had thought originally that principia mathematica would take a year to complete ; it ended up taking them ten years . 
whitehead and russell had thought originally that principia mathematica would take a year to complete ; it ended up taking them ten years . 
to add insult to injury , when it came time for publication , the three-volume work was so massive -lrb- more than 2,000 pages -rrb- and its audience so narrow -lrb- professional mathematicians -rrb- that it was initially published at a loss of 600 pounds , 300 of which was paid by cambridge university press , 200 by the royal society of london , and 50 apiece by whitehead and russell themselves . 
to add insult to injury , when it came time for publication , the three-volume work was so massive -lrb- more than 2,000 pages -rrb- and its audience so narrow -lrb- professional mathematicians -rrb- that it was initially published at a loss of 600 pounds , 300 of which was paid by cambridge university press , 200 by the royal society of london , and 50 apiece by whitehead and russell themselves . 
to add insult to injury , when it came time for publication , the three-volume work was so massive -lrb- more than 2,000 pages -rrb- and its audience so narrow -lrb- professional mathematicians -rrb- that it was initially published at a loss of 600 pounds , 300 of which was paid by cambridge university press , 200 by the royal society of london , and 50 apiece by whitehead and russell themselves . 
his philosophical work is generally considered to be among the most difficult to understand in all of the western canon . 
one famous story illustrating the level of difficulty of whitehead 's philosophy centers around the delivery of whitehead 's gifford lectures in 1927 -- 28 -- following arthur eddington 's lectures of the year previous -- which whitehead would later publish as process and reality : 
one famous story illustrating the level of difficulty of whitehead 's philosophy centers around the delivery of whitehead 's gifford lectures in 1927 -- 28 -- following arthur eddington 's lectures of the year previous -- which whitehead would later publish as process and reality : 
even professional philosophers struggled to follow whitehead 's writings . 
one famous story illustrating the level of difficulty of whitehead 's philosophy centers around the delivery of whitehead 's gifford lectures in 1927 -- 28 -- following arthur eddington 's lectures of the year previous -- which whitehead would later publish as process and reality : 
one famous story illustrating the level of difficulty of whitehead 's philosophy centers around the delivery of whitehead 's gifford lectures in 1927 -- 28 -- following arthur eddington 's lectures of the year previous -- which whitehead would later publish as process and reality : 
his philosophical work is generally considered to be among the most difficult to understand in all of the western canon . 
however , mathews ' frustration with whitehead 's books did not negatively affect his interest . 
in fact , there were numerous philosophers and theologians at chicago 's divinity school that perceived the importance of what whitehead was doing without fully grasping all of the details and implications . 
in 1927 they invited one of america 's only whitehead experts -- henry nelson wieman -- to chicago to give a lecture explaining whitehead 's thought . 
wieman 's lecture was so brilliant that he was promptly hired to the faculty and taught there for twenty years , and for at least thirty years afterward chicago 's divinity school was closely associated with whitehead 's thought . 
however , mathews ' frustration with whitehead 's books did not negatively affect his interest . 
in fact , there were numerous philosophers and theologians at chicago 's divinity school that perceived the importance of what whitehead was doing without fully grasping all of the details and implications . 
in 1927 they invited one of america 's only whitehead experts -- henry nelson wieman -- to chicago to give a lecture explaining whitehead 's thought . 
in 1927 they invited one of america 's only whitehead experts -- henry nelson wieman -- to chicago to give a lecture explaining whitehead 's thought . 
wieman 's lecture was so brilliant that he was promptly hired to the faculty and taught there for twenty years , and for at least thirty years afterward chicago 's divinity school was closely associated with whitehead 's thought . 
though process and reality has been called `` arguably the most impressive single metaphysical text of the twentieth century , '' it has been little-read and little-understood , partly because it demands -- as isabelle stengers puts it -- `` that its readers accept the adventure of the questions that will separate them from every consensus . '' 
though process and reality has been called `` arguably the most impressive single metaphysical text of the twentieth century , '' it has been little-read and little-understood , partly because it demands -- as isabelle stengers puts it -- `` that its readers accept the adventure of the questions that will separate them from every consensus . '' 
whitehead questioned western philosophy 's most dearly held assumptions about how the universe works , but in doing so he managed to anticipate a number of 21st century scientific and philosophical problems and provide novel solutions . 
though process and reality has been called `` arguably the most impressive single metaphysical text of the twentieth century , '' it has been little-read and little-understood , partly because it demands -- as isabelle stengers puts it -- `` that its readers accept the adventure of the questions that will separate them from every consensus . '' 
though process and reality has been called `` arguably the most impressive single metaphysical text of the twentieth century , '' it has been little-read and little-understood , partly because it demands -- as isabelle stengers puts it -- `` that its readers accept the adventure of the questions that will separate them from every consensus . '' 
whitehead questioned western philosophy 's most dearly held assumptions about how the universe works , but in doing so he managed to anticipate a number of 21st century scientific and philosophical problems and provide novel solutions . 
whitehead questioned western philosophy 's most dearly held assumptions about how the universe works , but in doing so he managed to anticipate a number of 21st century scientific and philosophical problems and provide novel solutions . 
whitehead questioned western philosophy 's most dearly held assumptions about how the universe works , but in doing so he managed to anticipate a number of 21st century scientific and philosophical problems and provide novel solutions . 
for whitehead , creativity is the absolute principle of existence , and every entity -lrb- whether it is a human being , a tree , or an electron -rrb- has some degree of novelty in how it responds to other entities , and is not fully determined by causal or mechanistic laws . 
it must be emphasized , however , that an entity is not merely a sum of its relations , but also a valuation of them and reaction to them . 
of course , most entities do not have consciousness . 
moreover , inability to predict an electron 's movement -lrb- for instance -rrb- is not due to faulty understanding or inadequate technology ; rather , the fundamental creativity/freedom of all entities means that there will always remain phenomena that are unpredictable . 
for whitehead , creativity is the absolute principle of existence , and every entity -lrb- whether it is a human being , a tree , or an electron -rrb- has some degree of novelty in how it responds to other entities , and is not fully determined by causal or mechanistic laws . 
it must be emphasized , however , that an entity is not merely a sum of its relations , but also a valuation of them and reaction to them . 
for whitehead , creativity is the absolute principle of existence , and every entity -lrb- whether it is a human being , a tree , or an electron -rrb- has some degree of novelty in how it responds to other entities , and is not fully determined by causal or mechanistic laws . 
the term he coined was `` prehension '' , which comes from the latin prehensio , meaning `` to seize . '' 
it is also intended to make clear whitehead 's rejection of the theory of representative perception , in which the mind only has private ideas about other entities . 
the term he coined was `` prehension '' , which comes from the latin prehensio , meaning `` to seize . '' 
the term he coined was `` prehension '' , which comes from the latin prehensio , meaning `` to seize . '' 
the term he coined was `` prehension '' , which comes from the latin prehensio , meaning `` to seize . '' 
the term is meant to indicate a kind of perception that can be conscious or unconscious , applying to people as well as electrons . 
further , whitehead regards perception as occurring in two modes , causal efficacy -lrb- or `` physical prehension '' -rrb- and presentational immediacy -lrb- or `` conceptual prehension '' -rrb- . 
the term is meant to indicate a kind of perception that can be conscious or unconscious , applying to people as well as electrons . 
in this way , entities are constituted by their perceptions and relations , rather than being independent of them . 
further , whitehead regards perception as occurring in two modes , causal efficacy -lrb- or `` physical prehension '' -rrb- and presentational immediacy -lrb- or `` conceptual prehension '' -rrb- . 
it is , in other words , the sense of causal relations between entities , a feeling of being influenced and affected by the surrounding environment , unmediated by the senses . 
in other words , it is pure appearance , which may or may not be delusive -lrb- e.g. mistaking an image in a mirror for `` the real thing '' -rrb- . 
whitehead describes causal efficacy as `` the experience dominating the primitive living organisms , which have a sense for the fate from which they have emerged , and the fate towards which they go . '' 
presentational immediacy , on the other hand , is what is usually referred to as `` pure sense perception '' , unmediated by any causal or symbolic interpretation , even unconscious interpretation . 
presentational immediacy , on the other hand , is what is usually referred to as `` pure sense perception '' , unmediated by any causal or symbolic interpretation , even unconscious interpretation . 
whitehead describes causal efficacy as `` the experience dominating the primitive living organisms , which have a sense for the fate from which they have emerged , and the fate towards which they go . '' 
presentational immediacy , on the other hand , is what is usually referred to as `` pure sense perception '' , unmediated by any causal or symbolic interpretation , even unconscious interpretation . 
in this way symbolic reference is a fusion of pure sense perceptions on the one hand and causal relations on the other , and that it is in fact the causal relationships that dominate the more basic mentality -lrb- as the dog illustrates -rrb- , while it is the sense perceptions which indicate a higher grade mentality -lrb- as the artist illustrates -rrb- . 
in higher organisms -lrb- like people -rrb- , these two modes of perception combine into what whitehead terms `` symbolic reference '' , which links appearance with causation in a process that is so automatic that both people and animals have difficulty refraining from it . 
in this way symbolic reference is a fusion of pure sense perceptions on the one hand and causal relations on the other , and that it is in fact the causal relationships that dominate the more basic mentality -lrb- as the dog illustrates -rrb- , while it is the sense perceptions which indicate a higher grade mentality -lrb- as the artist illustrates -rrb- . 
in higher organisms -lrb- like people -rrb- , these two modes of perception combine into what whitehead terms `` symbolic reference '' , which links appearance with causation in a process that is so automatic that both people and animals have difficulty refraining from it . 
in this way symbolic reference is a fusion of pure sense perceptions on the one hand and causal relations on the other , and that it is in fact the causal relationships that dominate the more basic mentality -lrb- as the dog illustrates -rrb- , while it is the sense perceptions which indicate a higher grade mentality -lrb- as the artist illustrates -rrb- . 
in higher organisms -lrb- like people -rrb- , these two modes of perception combine into what whitehead terms `` symbolic reference '' , which links appearance with causation in a process that is so automatic that both people and animals have difficulty refraining from it . 
an ordinary person looks up , sees a colored shape , and immediately infers that it is a chair . 
however , an artist , whitehead supposes , `` might not have jumped to the notion of a chair '' , but instead `` might have stopped at the mere contemplation of a beautiful color and a beautiful shape . '' 
using the same example , whitehead points out that a dog `` would have acted immediately on the hypothesis of a chair and would have jumped onto it by way of using it as such . '' 
whitehead makes the startling observation that `` life is comparatively deficient in survival value . '' 
he then observes that the mark of higher forms of life is that they are actively engaged in modifying their environment , an activity which he theorizes is directed toward the three-fold goal of living , living well , and living better . 
he then observes that the mark of higher forms of life is that they are actively engaged in modifying their environment , an activity which he theorizes is directed toward the three-fold goal of living , living well , and living better . 
in other words , whitehead sees life as directed toward the purpose of increasing its own satisfaction . 
whitehead makes the startling observation that `` life is comparatively deficient in survival value . '' 
he then observes that the mark of higher forms of life is that they are actively engaged in modifying their environment , an activity which he theorizes is directed toward the three-fold goal of living , living well , and living better . 
he then observes that the mark of higher forms of life is that they are actively engaged in modifying their environment , an activity which he theorizes is directed toward the three-fold goal of living , living well , and living better . 
in other words , whitehead sees life as directed toward the purpose of increasing its own satisfaction . 
without such a goal , he sees the rise of life as totally unintelligible . 
if humans can only exist for about a hundred years , and rocks for eight hundred million , then one is forced to ask why complex organisms ever evolved in the first place ; as whitehead humorously notes , `` they certainly did not appear because they were better at that game than the rocks around them . '' 
as opposed to the most widely accepted forms of christianity , whitehead emphasized an idea of god that he called `` the brief galilean vision of humility '' : 
perhaps his most famous and pointed criticism of the christian conception of god is that `` the church gave unto god the attributes which belonged exclusively to caesar . '' 
here whitehead is criticizing christianity for defining god as primarily a divine king who imposes his will on the world , and whose most important attribute is power . 
it should be emphasized , however , that for whitehead god is not necessarily tied to religion . 
whitehead posited that these ordered potentials exist in what he called the primordial nature of god . 
this led him to reflect more intensively on what he saw as the second nature of god , the consequent nature . 
whitehead 's conception of god as a `` dipolar '' entity has called for fresh theological thinking . 
his system required that an order exist among possibilities , an order that allowed for novelty in the world and provided an aim to all entities . 
god 's consequent nature , on the other hand , is anything but unchanging -- it is god 's reception of the world 's activity . 
in other words , god saves and cherishes all experiences forever , and those experiences go on to change the way god interacts with the world . 
it is the judgment of a tenderness which loses nothing that can be saved . '' 
in other words , god saves and cherishes all experiences forever , and those experiences go on to change the way god interacts with the world . 
in this way , god is really changed by what happens in the world and the wider universe , lending the actions of finite creatures an eternal significance . 
on the other hand , he sees god as permanent but as deficient in actuality and change : alone , god is merely eternally unrealized possibilities , and requires the world to actualize them . 
on the other hand , he sees god as permanent but as deficient in actuality and change : alone , god is merely eternally unrealized possibilities , and requires the world to actualize them . 
whitehead thus sees god and the world as fulfilling one another . 
he sees entities in the world as fluent and changing things that yearn for a permanence which only god can provide by taking them into god 's self , thereafter changing god and affecting the rest of the universe throughout time . 
he sees entities in the world as fluent and changing things that yearn for a permanence which only god can provide by taking them into god 's self , thereafter changing god and affecting the rest of the universe throughout time . 
for whitehead the core of religion was individual . 
his most famous remark on religion is that `` religion is what the individual does with his own solitariness ... and if you are never solitary , you are never religious . '' 
whitehead saw religion as a system of general truths that transformed a person 's character . 
he took special care to note that while religion is often a good influence , it is not necessarily good -- an idea which he called a `` dangerous delusion '' -lrb- e.g. , a religion might encourage the violent extermination of a rival religion 's adherents -rrb- . 
however , while whitehead saw religion as beginning in solitariness , he also saw religion as necessarily expanding beyond the individual . 
in keeping with his process metaphysics in which relations are primary , he wrote that religion necessitates the realization of `` the value of the objective world which is a community derivative from the interrelations of its component individuals . '' 
in other words , the universe is a community which makes itself whole through the relatedness of each individual entity to all the others -- meaning and value do not exist for the individual alone , but only in the context of the universal community . 
the spirit at once surrenders itself to this universal claim and appropriates it for itself . '' 
in this way the individual and universal/social aspects of religion are mutually dependent . 
outside of these circles his influence is relatively small and diffuse , and has tended to come chiefly through the work of his students and admirers rather than whitehead himself . 
french sociologist and anthropologist bruno latour even went so far as to call whitehead `` the greatest philosopher of the 20th century . '' 
in english-speaking countries , his primary works are little-studied outside of claremont and a select number of liberal graduate-level theology and philosophy programs . 
for instance , whitehead was a teacher and long-time friend and collaborator of bertrand russell , and he also taught and supervised the dissertation of willard van orman quine , both of whom are important figures in analytic philosophy -- the dominant strain of philosophy in english-speaking countries in the 20th century . 
whitehead has also had high-profile admirers in the continental tradition , such as french post-structuralist philosopher gilles deleuze , who once dryly remarked of whitehead that `` he stands provisionally as the last great anglo-american philosopher before wittgenstein 's disciples spread their misty confusion , sufficiency , and terror . '' 
historically whitehead 's work has been most influential in the field of american progressive theology . 
the most important early proponent of whitehead 's thought in a theological context was charles hartshorne , who spent a semester at harvard as whitehead 's teaching assistant in 1925 , and is widely credited with developing whitehead 's process philosophy into a full-blown process theology . 
the most important early proponent of whitehead 's thought in a theological context was charles hartshorne , who spent a semester at harvard as whitehead 's teaching assistant in 1925 , and is widely credited with developing whitehead 's process philosophy into a full-blown process theology . 
other notable process theologians include john b. cobb , jr. , david ray griffin , marjorie hewitt suchocki , c. robert mesle , roland faber , and catherine keller . 
process theology typically stresses god 's relational nature . 
rather than seeing god as impassive or emotionless , process theologians view god as `` the fellow sufferer who understands '' , and as the being who is supremely affected by temporal events . 
hartshorne points out that people would not praise a human ruler who was unaffected by either the joys or sorrows of his followers -- so why would this be a praise-worthy quality in god ? 
instead , as the being who is most affected by the world , god is the being who can most appropriately respond to the world . 
c. robert mesle , for instance , advocates a `` process naturalism '' , i.e. a process theology without god . 
john b. cobb , jr. is a process theologian who has also written books on biology and economics . 
roland faber and catherine keller integrate whitehead with poststructuralist , postcolonialist , and feminist theory . 
charles birch was both a theologian and a geneticist . 
in syntheism - creating god in the internet age , futurologists alexander bard and jan söderqvist repeatedly credit whitehead for the process theology they see rising out of the participatory culture expected to dominate the digital era . 
in fact , process theology is difficult to define because process theologians are so diverse and transdisciplinary in their views and interests . 
whitehead also described religion more technically as `` an ultimate craving to infuse into the insistent particularity of emotion that non-temporal generality which primarily belongs to conceptual thought alone . '' 
in other words , religion takes deeply felt emotions and contextualizes them within a system of general truths about the world , helping people to identify their wider meaning and significance . 
for whitehead , religion served as a kind of bridge between philosophy and the emotions and purposes of a particular society . 
it is the task of religion to make philosophy applicable to the everyday lives of ordinary people . 
margaret stout and carrie m. staton have also written recently on the mutual influence of whitehead and mary parker follett , a pioneer in the fields of organizational theory and organizational behavior . 
stout and staton see both whitehead and follett as sharing an ontology that `` understands becoming as a relational process ; difference as being related , yet unique ; and the purpose of becoming as harmonizing difference . '' 
this connection is further analyzed by stout and jeannine m. love in integrative process : follettian thinking from ontology to administration 
many asset managers chose to continue to invest client funds in over-priced -lrb- under-yielding -rrb- investments , to the detriment of their clients , in order to maintain their assets under management . 
moreover , a conflict of interest between professional investment managers and their institutional clients , combined with a global glut in investment capital , led to bad investments by asset managers in over-priced credit assets . 
professional investment managers generally are compensated based on the volume of client assets under management . 
there is , therefore , an incentive for asset managers to expand their assets under management in order to maximize their compensation . 
this choice was supported by a `` plausible deniability '' of the risks associated with subprime-based credit assets because the loss experience with early `` vintages '' of subprime loans was so low . 
the first visible institution to run into trouble in the united states was the southern california -- based indymac , a spin-off of countrywide financial . 
the failure of indymac bank on july 11 , 2008 , was the fourth largest bank failure in united states history up until the crisis precipitated even larger failures , and the second largest failure of a regulated thrift . 
the first visible institution to run into trouble in the united states was the southern california -- based indymac , a spin-off of countrywide financial . 
before its failure , indymac bank was the largest savings and loan association in the los angeles market and the seventh largest mortgage originator in the united states . 
indymac bank 's parent corporation was indymac bancorp until the fdic seized indymac bank . 
indymac reported that during april 2008 , moody 's and standard & poor 's downgraded the ratings on a significant number of mortgage-backed security -lrb- mbs -rrb- bonds including $ 160 million of those issued by indymac and which the bank retained in its mbs portfolio . 
had these lowered ratings been in effect at march 31 , 2008 , indymac concluded that the bank 's capital ratio would have been 9.27 % total risk-based . 
indymac reported that during april 2008 , moody 's and standard & poor 's downgraded the ratings on a significant number of mortgage-backed security -lrb- mbs -rrb- bonds including $ 160 million of those issued by indymac and which the bank retained in its mbs portfolio . 
indymac reported that during april 2008 , moody 's and standard & poor 's downgraded the ratings on a significant number of mortgage-backed security -lrb- mbs -rrb- bonds including $ 160 million of those issued by indymac and which the bank retained in its mbs portfolio . 
indymac warned that if its regulators found its capital position to have fallen below `` well capitalized '' -lrb- minimum 10 % risk-based capital ratio -rrb- to `` adequately capitalized '' -lrb- 8 -- 10 % risk-based capital ratio -rrb- the bank might no longer be able to use brokered deposits as a source of funds . 
senator charles schumer -lrb- d-ny -rrb- would later point out that brokered deposits made up more than 37 percent of indymac 's total deposits and ask the federal deposit insurance corporation -lrb- fdic -rrb- whether it had considered ordering indymac to reduce its reliance on these deposits . 
senator charles schumer -lrb- d-ny -rrb- would later point out that brokered deposits made up more than 37 percent of indymac 's total deposits and ask the federal deposit insurance corporation -lrb- fdic -rrb- whether it had considered ordering indymac to reduce its reliance on these deposits . 
with $ 18.9 billion in total deposits reported on march 31 , senator schumer would have been referring to a little over $ 7 billion in brokered deposits . 
while the breakout of maturities of these deposits is not known exactly , a simple averaging would have put the threat of brokered deposits loss to indymac at $ 500 million a month , had the regulator disallowed indymac from acquiring new brokered deposits on june 30 . 
while the breakout of maturities of these deposits is not known exactly , a simple averaging would have put the threat of brokered deposits loss to indymac at $ 500 million a month , had the regulator disallowed indymac from acquiring new brokered deposits on june 30 . 
its reduced liquidity was further exacerbated in late june 2008 when account holders withdrew $ 1.55 billion or about 7.5 % of indymac 's deposits . 
its reduced liquidity was further exacerbated in late june 2008 when account holders withdrew $ 1.55 billion or about 7.5 % of indymac 's deposits . 
when home prices declined in the latter half of 2007 and the secondary mortgage market collapsed , indymac was forced to hold $ 10.7 billion of loans it could not sell in the secondary market . 
this `` run '' on the thrift followed the public release of a letter from senator charles schumer to the fdic and ots . 
while the run was a contributing factor in the timing of indymac 's demise , the underlying cause of the failure was the unsafe and unsound manner in which the thrift was operated . 
a bridge bank , indymac federal bank , fsb , was established to assume control of indymac bank 's assets , its secured liabilities , and its insured deposit accounts . 
the fdic guarantees the funds of all insured accounts up to us$ 100,000 , and has declared a special advance dividend to the roughly 10,000 depositors with funds in excess of the insured amount , guaranteeing 50 % of any amounts in excess of $ 100,000 . 
the fdic guarantees the funds of all insured accounts up to us$ 100,000 , and has declared a special advance dividend to the roughly 10,000 depositors with funds in excess of the insured amount , guaranteeing 50 % of any amounts in excess of $ 100,000 . 
on july 11 , 2008 , citing liquidity concerns , the fdic put indymac bank into conservatorship . 
the fdic announced plans to open indymac federal bank , fsb on july 14 , 2008 . 
over 100 mortgage lenders went bankrupt during 2007 and 2008 . 
concerns that investment bank bear stearns would collapse in march 2008 resulted in its fire-sale to jp morgan chase . 
the financial institution crisis hit its peak in september and october 2008 . 
on oct. 6 , 2008 , three weeks after lehman brothers filed the largest bankruptcy in u.s. history , lehman 's former ceo found himself before representative henry a. waxman , the california democrat who chaired the house committee on oversight and government reform . 
on oct. 6 , 2008 , three weeks after lehman brothers filed the largest bankruptcy in u.s. history , lehman 's former ceo found himself before representative henry a. waxman , the california democrat who chaired the house committee on oversight and government reform . 
there was the equivalent of a bank run on the money market funds , which frequently invest in commercial paper issued by corporations to fund their operations and payrolls . 
there was the equivalent of a bank run on the money market funds , which frequently invest in commercial paper issued by corporations to fund their operations and payrolls . 
in september 2008 , the crisis hit its most critical stage . 
withdrawal from money markets were $ 144.5 billion during one week , versus $ 7.1 billion the week prior . 
the ted spread , an indicator of perceived credit risk in the general economy , spiked up in july 2007 , remained volatile for a year , then spiked even higher in september 2008 , reaching a record 4.65 % on october 10 , 2008 . 
economist paul krugman and u.s. treasury secretary timothy geithner explain the credit crisis via the implosion of the shadow banking system , which had grown to nearly equal the importance of the traditional commercial banking sector as described above . 
economist paul krugman and u.s. treasury secretary timothy geithner explain the credit crisis via the implosion of the shadow banking system , which had grown to nearly equal the importance of the traditional commercial banking sector as described above . 
without the ability to obtain investor funds in exchange for most types of mortgage-backed securities or asset-backed commercial paper , investment banks and other entities in the shadow banking system could not provide funds to mortgage firms and other corporations . 
economist paul krugman and u.s. treasury secretary timothy geithner explain the credit crisis via the implosion of the shadow banking system , which had grown to nearly equal the importance of the traditional commercial banking sector as described above . 
this meant that nearly one-third of the u.s. lending mechanism was frozen and continued to be frozen into june 2009 . 
while traditional banks have raised their lending standards , it was the collapse of the shadow banking system that is the primary cause of the reduction in funds available for borrowing . 
according to the brookings institution , the traditional banking system does not have the capital to close this gap as of june 2009 : `` it would take a number of years of strong profits to generate sufficient capital to support that additional lending volume '' . 
the authors also indicate that some forms of securitization are `` likely to vanish forever , having been an artifact of excessively loose credit conditions '' . 
according to the brookings institution , the traditional banking system does not have the capital to close this gap as of june 2009 : `` it would take a number of years of strong profits to generate sufficient capital to support that additional lending volume '' . 
between june 2007 and november 2008 , americans lost an estimated average of more than a quarter of their collective net worth . 
-lsb- citation needed -rsb- by early november 2008 , a broad u.s. stock index the s&p 500 , was down 45 % from its 2007 high . 
housing prices had dropped 20 % from their 2006 peak , with futures markets signaling a 30 -- 35 % potential drop . 
total home equity in the united states , which was valued at $ 13 trillion at its peak in 2006 , had dropped to $ 8.8 trillion by mid-2008 and was still falling in late 2008 . 
total home equity in the united states , which was valued at $ 13 trillion at its peak in 2006 , had dropped to $ 8.8 trillion by mid-2008 and was still falling in late 2008 . 
on the other hand , a homeowner who has no equity is a serious default risk . 
the problem with the economy is the loss of close to $ 6 trillion in housing wealth and an even larger amount of stock wealth . 
tens of millions of homeowners who had substantial equity in their homes two years ago have little or nothing today . 
in the case of businesses , their creditworthiness depends on their future profits . 
profit prospects look much worse in november 2008 than they did in november 2007 ... while many banks are obviously at the brink , consumers and businesses would be facing a much harder time getting credit right now even if the financial system were rock solid . 
the continuing development of the crisis has prompted fears of a global economic collapse although there are now many cautiously optimistic forecasters in addition to some prominent sources who remain negative . 
investment bank ubs stated on october 6 that 2008 would see a clear global recession , with recovery unlikely for at least two years . 
ubs quantified their expected recession durations on october 16 : the eurozone 's would last two quarters , the united states ' would last three quarters , and the united kingdom 's would last four quarters . 
relative to the size of its economy , iceland 's banking collapse is the largest suffered by any country in economic history . 
three days later ubs economists announced that the `` beginning of the end '' of the crisis had begun , with the world starting to make the necessary actions to fix the crisis : capital injection by governments ; injection made systemically ; interest rate cuts to help borrowers . 
the brookings institution reported in june 2009 that u.s. consumption accounted for more than a third of the growth in global consumption between 2000 and 2007 . 
for the first quarter of 2009 , the annualized rate of decline in gdp was 14.4 % in germany , 15.2 % in japan , 7.4 % in the uk , 18 % in latvia , 9.8 % in the euro area and 21.5 % for mexico . 
for the first quarter of 2009 , the annualized rate of decline in gdp was 14.4 % in germany , 15.2 % in japan , 7.4 % in the uk , 18 % in latvia , 9.8 % in the euro area and 21.5 % for mexico . 
`` the us economy has been spending too much and borrowing too much for years and the rest of the world depended on the u.s. consumer as a source of global demand . '' 
with a recession in the u.s. and the increased savings rate of u.s. consumers , declines in growth elsewhere have been dramatic . 
for example , growth forecasts in cambodia show a fall from more than 10 % in 2007 to close to zero in 2009 , and kenya may achieve only 3 -- 4 % growth in 2009 , down from 7 % in 2007 . 
according to the research by the overseas development institute , reductions in growth can be attributed to falls in trade , commodity prices , investment and remittances sent from migrant workers -lrb- which reached a record $ 251 billion in 2007 , but have fallen in many countries since -rrb- . 
this has stark implications and has led to a dramatic rise in the number of households living below the poverty line , be it 300,000 in bangladesh or 230,000 in ghana . 
bruno wenn of the german deg recommends to provide a sound economic policymaking and good governance to attract new investors 
according to the research by the overseas development institute , reductions in growth can be attributed to falls in trade , commodity prices , investment and remittances sent from migrant workers -lrb- which reached a record $ 251 billion in 2007 , but have fallen in many countries since -rrb- . 
the world bank reported in february 2009 that the arab world was far less severely affected by the credit crunch . 
with generally good balance of payments positions coming into the crisis or with alternative sources of financing for their large current account deficits , such as remittances , foreign direct investment -lrb- fdi -rrb- or foreign aid , arab countries were able to avoid going to the market in the latter part of 2008 . 
this gives them a significant cushion against the global downturn . 
the greatest impact of the global economic crisis will come in the form of lower oil prices , which remains the single most important determinant of economic performance . 
steadily declining oil prices would force them to draw down reserves and cut down on investments . 
the u.s. unemployment rate increased to 10.1 % by october 2009 , the highest rate since 1983 and roughly twice the pre-crisis rate . 
the average hours per work week declined to 33 , the lowest level since the government began collecting the data in 1964 . 
the output of goods and services produced by labor and property located in the united states -- decreased at an annual rate of approximately 6 % in the fourth quarter of 2008 and first quarter of 2009 , versus activity in the year-ago periods . 
the u.s. unemployment rate increased to 10.1 % by october 2009 , the highest rate since 1983 and roughly twice the pre-crisis rate . 
with fewer resources to risk in creative destruction , the number of patent applications flat-lined . 
critics argue that basel iii does n't address the problem of faulty risk-weightings . 
major banks suffered losses from aaa-rated created by financial engineering -lrb- which creates apparently risk-free assets out of high risk collateral -rrb- that required less capital according to basel ii . 
european regulators introduced basel iii regulations for banks . 
johan norberg argues that regulations -lrb- basel iii among others -rrb- have indeed led to excessive lending to risky governments -lrb- see european sovereign-debt crisis -rrb- and the ecb pursues even more lending as the solution . 
it increased capital ratios , limits on leverage , narrow definition of capital -lrb- to exclude subordinated debt -rrb- , limit counter-party risk , and new liquidity requirements . 
the u.s. recession that began in december 2007 ended in june 2009 , according to the u.s. national bureau of economic research -lrb- nber -rrb- and the financial crisis appears to have ended about the same time . 
the u.s. recession that began in december 2007 ended in june 2009 , according to the u.s. national bureau of economic research -lrb- nber -rrb- and the financial crisis appears to have ended about the same time . 
the united states financial crisis inquiry commission dates the crisis to 2008 . 
in april 2009 time magazine declared `` more quickly than it began , the banking crisis is over . '' 
president barack obama declared on january 27 , 2010 , `` the markets are now stabilized , and we 've recovered most of the money we spent on the banks . '' 
advanced economies led global economic growth prior to the financial crisis with `` emerging '' and `` developing '' economies lagging behind . 
the international monetary fund found that `` advanced '' economies accounted for only 31 % of global gdp while emerging and developing economies accounted for 69 % of global gdp from 2007 to 2014 . 
advanced economies led global economic growth prior to the financial crisis with `` emerging '' and `` developing '' economies lagging behind . 
the international monetary fund found that `` advanced '' economies accounted for only 31 % of global gdp while emerging and developing economies accounted for 69 % of global gdp from 2007 to 2014 . 
advanced economies led global economic growth prior to the financial crisis with `` emerging '' and `` developing '' economies lagging behind . 
krugman 's contention -lrb- that the growth of a commercial real estate bubble indicates that u.s. housing policy was not the cause of the crisis -rrb- is challenged by additional analysis . 
after researching the default of commercial loans during the financial crisis , xudong an and anthony b. sanders reported -lrb- in december 2010 -rrb- : `` we find limited evidence that substantial deterioration in cmbs -lsb- commercial mortgage-backed securities -rsb- loan underwriting occurred prior to the crisis . '' 
business journalist kimberly amadeo reports : `` the first signs of decline in residential real estate occurred in 2006 . 
after researching the default of commercial loans during the financial crisis , xudong an and anthony b. sanders reported -lrb- in december 2010 -rrb- : `` we find limited evidence that substantial deterioration in cmbs -lsb- commercial mortgage-backed securities -rsb- loan underwriting occurred prior to the crisis . '' 
other analysts support the contention that the crisis in commercial real estate and related lending took place after the crisis in residential real estate . 
investment banks on wall street answered this demand with products such as the mortgage-backed security and the collateralized debt obligation that were assigned safe ratings by the credit rating agencies . 
in a peabody award winning program , npr correspondents argued that a `` giant pool of money '' -lrb- represented by $ 70 trillion in worldwide fixed income investments -rrb- sought higher yields than those offered by u.s. treasury bonds early in the decade . 
this pool of money had roughly doubled in size from 2000 to 2007 , yet the supply of relatively safe , income generating investments had not grown as fast . 
investment banks on wall street answered this demand with products such as the mortgage-backed security and the collateralized debt obligation that were assigned safe ratings by the credit rating agencies . 
in a peabody award winning program , npr correspondents argued that a `` giant pool of money '' -lrb- represented by $ 70 trillion in worldwide fixed income investments -rrb- sought higher yields than those offered by u.s. treasury bonds early in the decade . 
the collateralized debt obligation in particular enabled financial institutions to obtain investor funds to finance subprime and other lending , extending or increasing the housing bubble and generating large fees . 
the collateralized debt obligation in particular enabled financial institutions to obtain investor funds to finance subprime and other lending , extending or increasing the housing bubble and generating large fees . 
those securities first in line received investment-grade ratings from rating agencies . 
this essentially places cash payments from multiple mortgages or other debt obligations into a single pool from which specific securities draw in a specific sequence of priority . 
securities with lower priority had lower credit ratings but theoretically a higher rate of return on the amount invested . 
by september 2008 , average u.s. housing prices had declined by over 20 % from their mid-2006 peak . 
by september 2008 , average u.s. housing prices had declined by over 20 % from their mid-2006 peak . 
during 2007 , lenders began foreclosure proceedings on nearly 1.3 million properties , a 79 % increase over 2006 . 
this increased to 2.3 million in 2008 , an 81 % increase vs. 2007 . 
by september 2009 , this had risen to 14.4 % . 
from 2000 to 2003 , the federal reserve lowered the federal funds rate target from 6.5 % to 1.0 % . 
this was done to soften the effects of the collapse of the dot-com bubble and the september 2001 terrorist attacks , as well as to combat a perceived risk of deflation . 
as early as 2002 it was apparent that credit was fueling housing instead of business investment as some economists went so far as to advocate that the fed `` needs to create a housing bubble to replace the nasdaq bubble '' . 
moreover , empirical studies using data from advanced countries show that excessive credit growth contributed greatly to the severity of the crisis . 
lower interest rates encouraged borrowing . 
bernanke explained that between 1996 and 2004 , the u.s. current account deficit increased by $ 650 billion , from 1.5 % to 5.8 % of gdp . 
bernanke explained that between 1996 and 2004 , the u.s. current account deficit increased by $ 650 billion , from 1.5 % to 5.8 % of gdp . 
these were mainly the emerging economies in asia and oil-exporting nations . 
the balance of payments identity requires that a country -lrb- such as the u.s. -rrb- running a current account deficit also have a capital account -lrb- investment -rrb- surplus of the same amount . 
hence large and growing amounts of foreign funds -lrb- capital -rrb- flowed into the u.s. to finance its imports . 
the fed then raised the fed funds rate significantly between july 2004 and july 2006 . 
this contributed to an increase in 1-year and 5-year adjustable-rate mortgage -lrb- arm -rrb- rates , making arm interest rate resets more expensive for homeowners . 
this may have also contributed to the deflating of the housing bubble , as asset prices generally move inversely to interest rates , and it became riskier to speculate in housing . 
the fed then raised the fed funds rate significantly between july 2004 and july 2006 . 
u.s. housing and financial assets dramatically declined in value after the housing bubble burst . 
testimony given to the financial crisis inquiry commission by richard m. bowen iii on events during his tenure as the business chief underwriter for correspondent lending in the consumer lending group for citigroup -lrb- where he was responsible for over 220 professional underwriters -rrb- suggests that by the final years of the u.s. housing bubble -lrb- 2006 -- 2007 -rrb- , the collapse of mortgage underwriting standards was endemic . 
testimony given to the financial crisis inquiry commission by richard m. bowen iii on events during his tenure as the business chief underwriter for correspondent lending in the consumer lending group for citigroup -lrb- where he was responsible for over 220 professional underwriters -rrb- suggests that by the final years of the u.s. housing bubble -lrb- 2006 -- 2007 -rrb- , the collapse of mortgage underwriting standards was endemic . 
his testimony stated that by 2006 , 60 % of mortgages purchased by citi from some 1,600 mortgage companies were `` defective '' -lrb- were not underwritten to policy , or did not contain all policy-required documents -rrb- -- this , despite the fact that each of these 1,600 originators was contractually responsible -lrb- certified via representations and warrantees -rrb- that its mortgage originations met citi 's standards . 
his testimony stated that by 2006 , 60 % of mortgages purchased by citi from some 1,600 mortgage companies were `` defective '' -lrb- were not underwritten to policy , or did not contain all policy-required documents -rrb- -- this , despite the fact that each of these 1,600 originators was contractually responsible -lrb- certified via representations and warrantees -rrb- that its mortgage originations met citi 's standards . 
moreover , during 2007 , `` defective mortgages -lrb- from mortgage originators contractually bound to perform underwriting to citi 's standards -rrb- increased ... to over 80 % of production '' . 
in separate testimony to financial crisis inquiry commission , officers of clayton holdings -- the largest residential loan due diligence and securitization surveillance company in the united states and europe -- testified that clayton 's review of over 900,000 mortgages issued from january 2006 to june 2007 revealed that scarcely 54 % of the loans met their originators ' underwriting standards . 
in separate testimony to financial crisis inquiry commission , officers of clayton holdings -- the largest residential loan due diligence and securitization surveillance company in the united states and europe -- testified that clayton 's review of over 900,000 mortgages issued from january 2006 to june 2007 revealed that scarcely 54 % of the loans met their originators ' underwriting standards . 
the analysis -lrb- conducted on behalf of 23 investment and commercial banks , including 7 `` too big to fail '' banks -rrb- additionally showed that 28 % of the sampled loans did not meet the minimal standards of any issuer . 
the analysis -lrb- conducted on behalf of 23 investment and commercial banks , including 7 `` too big to fail '' banks -rrb- additionally showed that 28 % of the sampled loans did not meet the minimal standards of any issuer . 
in separate testimony to financial crisis inquiry commission , officers of clayton holdings -- the largest residential loan due diligence and securitization surveillance company in the united states and europe -- testified that clayton 's review of over 900,000 mortgages issued from january 2006 to june 2007 revealed that scarcely 54 % of the loans met their originators ' underwriting standards . 
predatory lending refers to the practice of unscrupulous lenders , enticing borrowers to enter into `` unsafe '' or `` unsound '' secured loans for inappropriate purposes . 
a classic bait-and-switch method was used by countrywide financial , advertising low interest rates for home refinancing . 
whereas the advertisement might state that 1 % or 1.5 % interest would be charged , the consumer would be put into an adjustable rate mortgage -lrb- arm -rrb- in which the interest charged would be greater than the amount of interest paid . 
this created negative amortization , which the credit consumer might not notice until long after the loan transaction had been consummated . 
a classic bait-and-switch method was used by countrywide financial , advertising low interest rates for home refinancing . 
countrywide , sued by california attorney general jerry brown for `` unfair business practices '' and `` false advertising '' was making high cost mortgages `` to homeowners with weak credit , adjustable rate mortgages -lrb- arms -rrb- that allowed homeowners to make interest-only payments '' . 
countrywide , sued by california attorney general jerry brown for `` unfair business practices '' and `` false advertising '' was making high cost mortgages `` to homeowners with weak credit , adjustable rate mortgages -lrb- arms -rrb- that allowed homeowners to make interest-only payments '' . 
when housing prices decreased , homeowners in arms then had little incentive to pay their monthly payments , since their home equity had disappeared . 
this caused countrywide 's financial condition to deteriorate , ultimately resulting in a decision by the office of thrift supervision to seize the lender . 
countrywide , sued by california attorney general jerry brown for `` unfair business practices '' and `` false advertising '' was making high cost mortgages `` to homeowners with weak credit , adjustable rate mortgages -lrb- arms -rrb- that allowed homeowners to make interest-only payments '' . 
critics such as economist paul krugman and u.s. treasury secretary timothy geithner have argued that the regulatory framework did not keep pace with financial innovation , such as the increasing importance of the shadow banking system , derivatives and off-balance sheet financing . 
critics such as economist paul krugman and u.s. treasury secretary timothy geithner have argued that the regulatory framework did not keep pace with financial innovation , such as the increasing importance of the shadow banking system , derivatives and off-balance sheet financing . 
a recent oecd study suggest that bank regulation based on the basel accords encourage unconventional business practices and contributed to or even reinforced the financial crisis . 
critics such as economist paul krugman and u.s. treasury secretary timothy geithner have argued that the regulatory framework did not keep pace with financial innovation , such as the increasing importance of the shadow banking system , derivatives and off-balance sheet financing . 
a recent oecd study suggest that bank regulation based on the basel accords encourage unconventional business practices and contributed to or even reinforced the financial crisis . 
prior to the crisis , financial institutions became highly leveraged , increasing their appetite for risky investments and reducing their resilience in case of losses . 
much of this leverage was achieved using complex financial instruments such as off-balance sheet securitization and derivatives , which made it difficult for creditors and regulators to monitor and try to reduce financial institution risk levels . 
these instruments also made it virtually impossible to reorganize financial institutions in bankruptcy , and contributed to the need for government bailouts . 
these instruments also made it virtually impossible to reorganize financial institutions in bankruptcy , and contributed to the need for government bailouts . 
much of this leverage was achieved using complex financial instruments such as off-balance sheet securitization and derivatives , which made it difficult for creditors and regulators to monitor and try to reduce financial institution risk levels . 
from 2004 to 2007 , the top five u.s. investment banks each significantly increased their financial leverage -lrb- see diagram -rrb- , which increased their vulnerability to a financial shock . 
from 2004 to 2007 , the top five u.s. investment banks each significantly increased their financial leverage -lrb- see diagram -rrb- , which increased their vulnerability to a financial shock . 
changes in capital requirements , intended to keep u.s. banks competitive with their european counterparts , allowed lower risk weightings for aaa securities . 
these five institutions reported over $ 4.1 trillion in debt for fiscal year 2007 , about 30 % of usa nominal gdp for 2007 . 
lehman brothers went bankrupt and was liquidated , bear stearns and merrill lynch were sold at fire-sale prices , and goldman sachs and morgan stanley became commercial banks , subjecting themselves to more stringent regulation . 
behavior that may be optimal for an individual -lrb- e.g. , saving more during adverse economic conditions -rrb- can be detrimental if too many individuals pursue the same behavior , as ultimately one person 's consumption is another person 's income . 
too many consumers attempting to save -lrb- or pay down debt -rrb- simultaneously is called the paradox of thrift and can cause or deepen a recession . 
too many consumers attempting to save -lrb- or pay down debt -rrb- simultaneously is called the paradox of thrift and can cause or deepen a recession . 
economist hyman minsky also described a `` paradox of deleveraging '' as financial institutions that have too much leverage -lrb- debt relative to equity -rrb- can not all de-leverage simultaneously without significant declines in the value of their assets . 
economist hyman minsky also described a `` paradox of deleveraging '' as financial institutions that have too much leverage -lrb- debt relative to equity -rrb- can not all de-leverage simultaneously without significant declines in the value of their assets . 
during april 2009 , u.s. federal reserve vice-chair janet yellen discussed these paradoxes : `` once this massive credit crunch hit , it did n't take long before we were in a recession . 
during april 2009 , u.s. federal reserve vice-chair janet yellen discussed these paradoxes : `` once this massive credit crunch hit , it did n't take long before we were in a recession . 
the recession , in turn , deepened the credit crunch as demand and employment fell , and credit losses of financial institutions surged . 
businesses are cancelling planned investments and laying off workers to preserve cash . 
a process of balance sheet deleveraging has spread to nearly every corner of the economy . 
the term financial innovation refers to the ongoing development of financial products designed to achieve particular client objectives , such as offsetting a particular risk exposure -lrb- such as the default of a borrower -rrb- or to assist with obtaining financing . 
examples pertinent to this crisis included : the adjustable-rate mortgage ; the bundling of subprime mortgages into mortgage-backed securities -lrb- mbs -rrb- or collateralized debt obligations -lrb- cdo -rrb- for sale to investors , a type of securitization ; and a form of credit insurance called credit default swaps -lrb- cds -rrb- . 
examples pertinent to this crisis included : the adjustable-rate mortgage ; the bundling of subprime mortgages into mortgage-backed securities -lrb- mbs -rrb- or collateralized debt obligations -lrb- cdo -rrb- for sale to investors , a type of securitization ; and a form of credit insurance called credit default swaps -lrb- cds -rrb- . 
examples pertinent to this crisis included : the adjustable-rate mortgage ; the bundling of subprime mortgages into mortgage-backed securities -lrb- mbs -rrb- or collateralized debt obligations -lrb- cdo -rrb- for sale to investors , a type of securitization ; and a form of credit insurance called credit default swaps -lrb- cds -rrb- . 
the usage of these products expanded dramatically in the years leading up to the crisis . 
cdo issuance grew from an estimated $ 20 billion in q1 2004 to its peak of over $ 180 billion by q1 2007 , then declined back under $ 20 billion by q1 2008 . 
cdo issuance grew from an estimated $ 20 billion in q1 2004 to its peak of over $ 180 billion by q1 2007 , then declined back under $ 20 billion by q1 2008 . 
cdo issuance grew from an estimated $ 20 billion in q1 2004 to its peak of over $ 180 billion by q1 2007 , then declined back under $ 20 billion by q1 2008 . 
further , the credit quality of cdo 's declined from 2000 to 2007 , as the level of subprime and other non-prime mortgage debt increased from 5 % to 36 % of cdo assets . 
cdo issuance grew from an estimated $ 20 billion in q1 2004 to its peak of over $ 180 billion by q1 2007 , then declined back under $ 20 billion by q1 2008 . 
this boom in innovative financial products went hand in hand with more complexity . 
it multiplied the number of actors connected to a single mortgage -lrb- including mortgage brokers , specialized originators , the securitizers and their due diligence firms , managing agents and trading desks , and finally investors , insurances and providers of repo funding -rrb- . 
with increasing distance from the underlying asset these actors relied more and more on indirect information -lrb- including fico scores on creditworthiness , appraisals and due diligence checks by third party organizations , and most importantly the computer models of rating agencies and risk management desks -rrb- . 
with increasing distance from the underlying asset these actors relied more and more on indirect information -lrb- including fico scores on creditworthiness , appraisals and due diligence checks by third party organizations , and most importantly the computer models of rating agencies and risk management desks -rrb- . 
in 2005 a group of computer scientists built a computational model for the mechanism of biased ratings produced by rating agencies , which turned out to be adequate to what actually happened in 2006 -- 2008 . 
the pricing of risk refers to the incremental compensation required by investors for taking on additional risk , which may be measured by interest rates or fees . 
the pricing of risk refers to the incremental compensation required by investors for taking on additional risk , which may be measured by interest rates or fees . 
several scholars have argued that a lack of transparency about banks ' risk exposures prevented markets from correctly pricing risk before the crisis , enabled the mortgage market to grow larger than it otherwise would have , and made the financial crisis far more disruptive than it would have been if risk levels had been disclosed in a straightforward , readily understandable format . 
several scholars have argued that a lack of transparency about banks ' risk exposures prevented markets from correctly pricing risk before the crisis , enabled the mortgage market to grow larger than it otherwise would have , and made the financial crisis far more disruptive than it would have been if risk levels had been disclosed in a straightforward , readily understandable format . 
several scholars have argued that a lack of transparency about banks ' risk exposures prevented markets from correctly pricing risk before the crisis , enabled the mortgage market to grow larger than it otherwise would have , and made the financial crisis far more disruptive than it would have been if risk levels had been disclosed in a straightforward , readily understandable format . 
for a variety of reasons , market participants did not accurately measure the risk inherent with financial innovation such as mbs and cdos or understand its impact on the overall stability of the financial system . 
for a variety of reasons , market participants did not accurately measure the risk inherent with financial innovation such as mbs and cdos or understand its impact on the overall stability of the financial system . 
banks estimated that $ 450bn of cdo were sold between `` late 2005 to the middle of 2007 '' ; among the $ 102bn of those that had been liquidated , jpmorgan estimated that the average recovery rate for `` high quality '' cdos was approximately 32 cents on the dollar , while the recovery rate for mezzanine cdo was approximately five cents for every dollar . 
banks estimated that $ 450bn of cdo were sold between `` late 2005 to the middle of 2007 '' ; among the $ 102bn of those that had been liquidated , jpmorgan estimated that the average recovery rate for `` high quality '' cdos was approximately 32 cents on the dollar , while the recovery rate for mezzanine cdo was approximately five cents for every dollar . 
banks estimated that $ 450bn of cdo were sold between `` late 2005 to the middle of 2007 '' ; among the $ 102bn of those that had been liquidated , jpmorgan estimated that the average recovery rate for `` high quality '' cdos was approximately 32 cents on the dollar , while the recovery rate for mezzanine cdo was approximately five cents for every dollar . 
another example relates to aig , which insured obligations of various financial institutions through the usage of credit default swaps . 
another example relates to aig , which insured obligations of various financial institutions through the usage of credit default swaps . 
however , aig did not have the financial strength to support its many cds commitments as the crisis progressed and was taken over by the government in september 2008 . 
u.s. taxpayers provided over $ 180 billion in government support to aig during 2008 and early 2009 , through which the money flowed to various counterparties to cds transactions , including many large global financial institutions . 
the basic cds transaction involved aig receiving a premium in exchange for a promise to pay money to party a in the event party b defaulted . 
george soros commented that `` the super-boom got out of hand when the new products became so complicated that the authorities could no longer calculate the risks and started relying on the risk management methods of the banks themselves . 
as financial assets became more and more complex , and harder and harder to value , investors were reassured by the fact that both the international bond rating agencies and bank regulators , who came to rely on them , accepted as valid some complex mathematical models which theoretically showed the risks were much smaller than they actually proved to be . 
similarly , the rating agencies relied on the information provided by the originators of synthetic products . 
george soros commented that `` the super-boom got out of hand when the new products became so complicated that the authorities could no longer calculate the risks and started relying on the risk management methods of the banks themselves . 
as financial assets became more and more complex , and harder and harder to value , investors were reassured by the fact that both the international bond rating agencies and bank regulators , who came to rely on them , accepted as valid some complex mathematical models which theoretically showed the risks were much smaller than they actually proved to be . 
the volume `` credit correlation : life after copulas '' , published in 2007 by world scientific , summarizes a 2006 conference held by merrill lynch in london where several practitioners attempted to propose models rectifying some of the copula limitations . 
see also the article by donnelly and embrechts and the book by brigo , pallavicini and torresetti , that reports relevant warnings and research on cdos appeared in 2006 . 
the volume `` credit correlation : life after copulas '' , published in 2007 by world scientific , summarizes a 2006 conference held by merrill lynch in london where several practitioners attempted to propose models rectifying some of the copula limitations . 
the volume `` credit correlation : life after copulas '' , published in 2007 by world scientific , summarizes a 2006 conference held by merrill lynch in london where several practitioners attempted to propose models rectifying some of the copula limitations . 
see also the article by donnelly and embrechts and the book by brigo , pallavicini and torresetti , that reports relevant warnings and research on cdos appeared in 2006 . 
in a june 2008 speech , president and ceo of the new york federal reserve bank timothy geithner -- who in 2009 became secretary of the united states treasury -- placed significant blame for the freezing of credit markets on a `` run '' on the entities in the `` parallel '' banking system , also called the shadow banking system . 
in a june 2008 speech , president and ceo of the new york federal reserve bank timothy geithner -- who in 2009 became secretary of the united states treasury -- placed significant blame for the freezing of credit markets on a `` run '' on the entities in the `` parallel '' banking system , also called the shadow banking system . 
in a june 2008 speech , president and ceo of the new york federal reserve bank timothy geithner -- who in 2009 became secretary of the united states treasury -- placed significant blame for the freezing of credit markets on a `` run '' on the entities in the `` parallel '' banking system , also called the shadow banking system . 
in a june 2008 speech , president and ceo of the new york federal reserve bank timothy geithner -- who in 2009 became secretary of the united states treasury -- placed significant blame for the freezing of credit markets on a `` run '' on the entities in the `` parallel '' banking system , also called the shadow banking system . 
further , these entities were vulnerable because of maturity mismatch , meaning that they borrowed short-term in liquid markets to purchase long-term , illiquid and risky assets . 
the securitization markets supported by the shadow banking system started to close down in the spring of 2007 and nearly shut-down in the fall of 2008 . 
the securitization markets supported by the shadow banking system started to close down in the spring of 2007 and nearly shut-down in the fall of 2008 . 
more than a third of the private credit markets thus became unavailable as a source of funds . 
according to the brookings institution , the traditional banking system does not have the capital to close this gap as of june 2009 : `` it would take a number of years of strong profits to generate sufficient capital to support that additional lending volume . '' 
according to the brookings institution , the traditional banking system does not have the capital to close this gap as of june 2009 : `` it would take a number of years of strong profits to generate sufficient capital to support that additional lending volume . '' 
economist mark zandi testified to the financial crisis inquiry commission in january 2010 : `` the securitization markets also remain impaired , as investors anticipate more loan losses . 
economist mark zandi testified to the financial crisis inquiry commission in january 2010 : `` the securitization markets also remain impaired , as investors anticipate more loan losses . 
private bond issuance of residential and commercial mortgage-backed securities , asset-backed securities , and cdos peaked in 2006 at close to $ 2 trillion ... in 2009 , private issuance was less than $ 150 billion , and almost all of it was asset-backed issuance supported by the federal reserve 's talf program to aid credit card , auto and small-business lenders . 
private bond issuance of residential and commercial mortgage-backed securities , asset-backed securities , and cdos peaked in 2006 at close to $ 2 trillion ... in 2009 , private issuance was less than $ 150 billion , and almost all of it was asset-backed issuance supported by the federal reserve 's talf program to aid credit card , auto and small-business lenders . 
private bond issuance of residential and commercial mortgage-backed securities , asset-backed securities , and cdos peaked in 2006 at close to $ 2 trillion ... in 2009 , private issuance was less than $ 150 billion , and almost all of it was asset-backed issuance supported by the federal reserve 's talf program to aid credit card , auto and small-business lenders . 
rapid increases in a number of commodity prices followed the collapse in the housing bubble . 
the price of oil nearly tripled from $ 50 to $ 147 from early 2007 to 2008 , before plunging as the financial crisis began to take hold in late 2008 . 
the price of oil nearly tripled from $ 50 to $ 147 from early 2007 to 2008 , before plunging as the financial crisis began to take hold in late 2008 . 
experts debate the causes , with some attributing it to speculative flow of money from housing and other investments into commodities , some to monetary policy , and some to the increasing feeling of raw materials scarcity in a fast-growing world , leading to long positions taken on those markets , such as chinese increasing presence in africa . 
an increase in oil prices tends to divert a larger share of consumer spending into gasoline , which creates downward pressure on economic growth in oil importing countries , as wealth flows to oil-producing states . 
in testimony before the senate committee on commerce , science , and transportation on june 3 , 2008 , former director of the cftc division of trading & markets -lrb- responsible for enforcement -rrb- michael greenberger specifically named the atlanta-based intercontinentalexchange , founded by goldman sachs , morgan stanley and bp as playing a key role in speculative run-up of oil futures prices traded off the regulated futures exchanges in london and new york . 
in testimony before the senate committee on commerce , science , and transportation on june 3 , 2008 , former director of the cftc division of trading & markets -lrb- responsible for enforcement -rrb- michael greenberger specifically named the atlanta-based intercontinentalexchange , founded by goldman sachs , morgan stanley and bp as playing a key role in speculative run-up of oil futures prices traded off the regulated futures exchanges in london and new york . 
in testimony before the senate committee on commerce , science , and transportation on june 3 , 2008 , former director of the cftc division of trading & markets -lrb- responsible for enforcement -rrb- michael greenberger specifically named the atlanta-based intercontinentalexchange , founded by goldman sachs , morgan stanley and bp as playing a key role in speculative run-up of oil futures prices traded off the regulated futures exchanges in london and new york . 
however , the intercontinentalexchange -lrb- ice -rrb- had been regulated by both european and u.s. authorities since its purchase of the international petroleum exchange in 2001 . 
in testimony before the senate committee on commerce , science , and transportation on june 3 , 2008 , former director of the cftc division of trading & markets -lrb- responsible for enforcement -rrb- michael greenberger specifically named the atlanta-based intercontinentalexchange , founded by goldman sachs , morgan stanley and bp as playing a key role in speculative run-up of oil futures prices traded off the regulated futures exchanges in london and new york . 
feminist economists ailsa mckay and margunn bjørnholt argue that the financial crisis and the response to it revealed a crisis of ideas in mainstream economics and within the economics profession , and call for a reshaping of both the economy , economic theory and the economics profession . 
feminist economists ailsa mckay and margunn bjørnholt argue that the financial crisis and the response to it revealed a crisis of ideas in mainstream economics and within the economics profession , and call for a reshaping of both the economy , economic theory and the economics profession . 
they argue that such a reshaping should include new advances within feminist economics and ecological economics that take as their starting point the socially responsible , sensible and accountable subject in creating an economy and economic theories that fully acknowledge care for each other as well as the planet . 
feminist economists ailsa mckay and margunn bjørnholt argue that the financial crisis and the response to it revealed a crisis of ideas in mainstream economics and within the economics profession , and call for a reshaping of both the economy , economic theory and the economics profession . 
current governor of the reserve bank of india raghuram rajan had predicted the crisis in 2005 when he became chief economist at the international monetary fund.in 2005 , at a celebration honouring alan greenspan , who was about to retire as chairman of the us federal reserve , rajan delivered a controversial paper that was critical of the financial sector . 
current governor of the reserve bank of india raghuram rajan had predicted the crisis in 2005 when he became chief economist at the international monetary fund.in 2005 , at a celebration honouring alan greenspan , who was about to retire as chairman of the us federal reserve , rajan delivered a controversial paper that was critical of the financial sector . 
current governor of the reserve bank of india raghuram rajan had predicted the crisis in 2005 when he became chief economist at the international monetary fund.in 2005 , at a celebration honouring alan greenspan , who was about to retire as chairman of the us federal reserve , rajan delivered a controversial paper that was critical of the financial sector . 
in that paper , `` has financial development made the world riskier ? '' 
these risks are known as tail risks . 
the financial crisis was not widely predicted by mainstream economists except raghuram rajan , who instead spoke of the great moderation . 
the financial crisis was not widely predicted by mainstream economists except raghuram rajan , who instead spoke of the great moderation . 
dirk bezemer in his research credits -lrb- with supporting argument and estimates of timing -rrb- 12 economists with predicting the crisis : dean baker -lrb- us -rrb- , wynne godley -lrb- uk -rrb- , fred harrison -lrb- uk -rrb- , michael hudson -lrb- us -rrb- , eric janszen -lrb- us -rrb- , steve keen -lrb- australia -rrb- , jakob brøchner madsen & jens kjaer sørensen -lrb- denmark -rrb- , kurt richebächer -lrb- us -rrb- , nouriel roubini -lrb- us -rrb- , peter schiff -lrb- us -rrb- , and robert shiller -lrb- us -rrb- . 
not surprisingly , the austrian economic school regarded the crisis as a vindication and classic example of a predictable credit-fueled bubble that could not forestall the disregarded but inevitable effect of an artificial , manufactured laxity in monetary supply , a perspective that even former fed chair alan greenspan in congressional testimony confessed himself forced to return to . 
not surprisingly , the austrian economic school regarded the crisis as a vindication and classic example of a predictable credit-fueled bubble that could not forestall the disregarded but inevitable effect of an artificial , manufactured laxity in monetary supply , a perspective that even former fed chair alan greenspan in congressional testimony confessed himself forced to return to . 
a cover story in businessweek magazine claims that economists mostly failed to predict the worst international economic crisis since the great depression of the 1930s . 
a cover story in businessweek magazine claims that economists mostly failed to predict the worst international economic crisis since the great depression of the 1930s . 
the wharton school of the university of pennsylvania 's online business journal examines why economists failed to predict a major global financial crisis . 
for example , an article in the new york times informs that economist nouriel roubini warned of such crisis as early as september 2006 , and the article goes on to state that the profession of economics is bad at predicting recessions . 
according to the guardian , roubini was ridiculed for predicting a collapse of the housing market and worldwide recession , while the new york times labelled him `` dr. doom '' . 
stock trader and financial risk engineer nassim nicholas taleb , author of the 2007 book the black swan , spent years warning against the breakdown of the banking system in particular and the economy in general owing to their use of bad risk models and reliance on forecasting , and their reliance on bad models , and framed the problem as part of `` robustness and fragility '' . 
according to david brooks from the new york times , `` taleb not only has an explanation for what 's happening , he saw it coming . '' 
stock trader and financial risk engineer nassim nicholas taleb , author of the 2007 book the black swan , spent years warning against the breakdown of the banking system in particular and the economy in general owing to their use of bad risk models and reliance on forecasting , and their reliance on bad models , and framed the problem as part of `` robustness and fragility '' . 
he also took action against the establishment view by making a big financial bet on banking stocks and making a fortune from the crisis -lrb- `` they did n't listen , so i took their money '' -rrb- . 
market strategist phil dow believes distinctions exist `` between the current market malaise '' and the great depression . 
he says the dow jones average 's fall of more than 50 % over a period of 17 months is similar to a 54.7 % fall in the great depression , followed by a total drop of 89 % over the following 16 months . 
he says the dow jones average 's fall of more than 50 % over a period of 17 months is similar to a 54.7 % fall in the great depression , followed by a total drop of 89 % over the following 16 months . 
floyd norris , the chief financial correspondent of the new york times , wrote in a blog entry in march 2009 that the decline has not been a mirror image of the great depression , explaining that although the decline amounts were nearly the same at the time , the rates of decline had started much faster in 2007 , and that the past year had only ranked eighth among the worst recorded years of percentage drops in the dow . 
one of the first victims was northern rock , a medium-sized british bank . 
the highly leveraged nature of its business led the bank to request security from the bank of england . 
this in turn led to investor panic and a bank run in mid-september 2007 . 
calls by liberal democrat treasury spokesman vince cable to nationalise the institution were initially ignored ; in february 2008 , however , the british government -lrb- having failed to find a private sector buyer -rrb- relented , and the bank was taken into public hands . 
northern rock 's problems proved to be an early indication of the troubles that would soon befall other banks and financial institutions . 
indymac often made loans without verification of the borrower 's income or assets , and to borrowers with poor credit histories . 
appraisals obtained by indymac on underlying collateral were often questionable as well . 
indymac often made loans without verification of the borrower 's income or assets , and to borrowers with poor credit histories . 
as an alt-a lender , indymac 's business model was to offer loan products to fit the borrower 's needs , using an extensive array of risky option-adjustable-rate-mortgages -lrb- option arms -rrb- , subprime loans , 80/20 loans , and other nontraditional products . 
indymac resisted efforts to regulate its involvement in those loans or tighten their issuing criteria : see the comment by ruthann melbourne , chief risk officer , to the regulating agencies . 
on the other hand , half of the poorest families did not have wealth declines at all during the crisis . 
the federal reserve surveyed 4,000 households between 2007 and 2009 , and found that the total wealth of 63 percent of all americans declined in that period . 
77 percent of the richest families had a decrease in total wealth , while only 50 percent of those on the bottom of the pyramid suffered a decrease . 
77 percent of the richest families had a decrease in total wealth , while only 50 percent of those on the bottom of the pyramid suffered a decrease . 
on the other hand , half of the poorest families did not have wealth declines at all during the crisis . 
on november 3 , 2008 , the european commission at brussels predicted for 2009 an extremely weak growth of gdp , by 0.1 % , for the countries of the eurozone -lrb- france , germany , italy , belgium etc. -rrb- and even negative number for the uk -lrb- − 1.0 % -rrb- , ireland and spain . 
on november 3 , 2008 , the european commission at brussels predicted for 2009 an extremely weak growth of gdp , by 0.1 % , for the countries of the eurozone -lrb- france , germany , italy , belgium etc. -rrb- and even negative number for the uk -lrb- − 1.0 % -rrb- , ireland and spain . 
on november 3 , 2008 , the european commission at brussels predicted for 2009 an extremely weak growth of gdp , by 0.1 % , for the countries of the eurozone -lrb- france , germany , italy , belgium etc. -rrb- and even negative number for the uk -lrb- − 1.0 % -rrb- , ireland and spain . 
on november 6 , the imf at washington , d.c. , launched numbers predicting a worldwide recession by − 0.3 % for 2009 , averaged over the developed economies . 
on the same day , the bank of england and the european central bank , respectively , reduced their interest rates from 4.5 % down to 3 % , and from 3.75 % down to 3.25 % . 
the u.s. federal reserve and central banks around the world have taken steps to expand money supplies to avoid the risk of a deflationary spiral , in which lower wages and higher unemployment lead to a self-reinforcing decline in global consumption . 
in addition , governments have enacted large fiscal stimulus packages , by borrowing and spending to offset the reduction in private sector demand caused by the crisis . 
the u.s. federal reserve 's new and expanded liquidity facilities were intended to enable the central bank to fulfill its traditional lender-of-last-resort role during the crisis while mitigating stigma , broadening the set of institutions with access to liquidity , and increasing the flexibility with which institutions could tap such liquidity . 
the u.s. federal reserve 's new and expanded liquidity facilities were intended to enable the central bank to fulfill its traditional lender-of-last-resort role during the crisis while mitigating stigma , broadening the set of institutions with access to liquidity , and increasing the flexibility with which institutions could tap such liquidity . 
the u.s. federal reserve and central banks around the world have taken steps to expand money supplies to avoid the risk of a deflationary spiral , in which lower wages and higher unemployment lead to a self-reinforcing decline in global consumption . 
this credit freeze brought the global financial system to the brink of collapse . 
during the last quarter of 2008 , these central banks purchased us$ 2.5 trillion of government debt and troubled private assets from banks . 
following a model initiated by the united kingdom bank rescue package , the governments of european nations and the usa guaranteed the debt issued by their banks and raised the capital of their national banking systems , ultimately purchasing $ 1.5 trillion newly issued preferred stock in their major banks . 
in october 2010 , nobel laureate joseph stiglitz explained how the u.s. federal reserve was implementing another monetary policy -- creating currency -- as a method to combat the liquidity trap . 
however , banks instead were spending the money in more profitable areas by investing internationally in emerging markets . 
united states president barack obama and key advisers introduced a series of regulatory proposals in june 2009 . 
the proposals address consumer protection , executive pay , bank financial cushions or capital requirements , expanded regulation of the shadow banking system and derivatives , and enhanced authority for the federal reserve to safely wind-down systemically important institutions , among others . 
in january 2010 , obama proposed additional regulations limiting the ability of banks to engage in proprietary trading . 
the proposals were dubbed `` the volcker rule '' , in recognition of paul volcker , who has publicly argued for the proposed changes . 
the proposals were dubbed `` the volcker rule '' , in recognition of paul volcker , who has publicly argued for the proposed changes . 
the u.s. senate passed a reform bill in may 2010 , following the house which passed a bill in december 2009 . 
the u.s. senate passed a reform bill in may 2010 , following the house which passed a bill in december 2009 . 
for instance , the volcker rule against proprietary trading is not part of the legislation , though in the senate bill regulators have the discretion but not the obligation to prohibit these trades . 
for instance , the volcker rule against proprietary trading is not part of the legislation , though in the senate bill regulators have the discretion but not the obligation to prohibit these trades . 
it threatened the collapse of large financial institutions , which was prevented by the bailout of banks by national governments , but stock markets still dropped worldwide . 
the crisis played a significant role in the failure of key businesses , declines in consumer wealth estimated in trillions of u.s. dollars , and a downturn in economic activity leading to the 2008 -- 2012 global recession and contributing to the european sovereign-debt crisis . 
the active phase of the crisis , which manifested as a liquidity crisis , can be dated from august 9 , 2007 , when bnp paribas terminated withdrawals from three hedge funds citing `` a complete evaporation of liquidity '' . 
the crisis played a significant role in the failure of key businesses , declines in consumer wealth estimated in trillions of u.s. dollars , and a downturn in economic activity leading to the 2008 -- 2012 global recession and contributing to the european sovereign-debt crisis . 
the active phase of the crisis , which manifested as a liquidity crisis , can be dated from august 9 , 2007 , when bnp paribas terminated withdrawals from three hedge funds citing `` a complete evaporation of liquidity '' . 
the bursting of the u.s. -lrb- united states -rrb- housing bubble , which peaked in 2004 , caused the values of securities tied to u.s. real estate pricing to plummet , damaging financial institutions globally . 
in the u.s. , congress passed the american recovery and reinvestment act of 2009 . 
the financial crisis was triggered by a complex interplay of policies that encouraged home ownership , providing easier access to loans for subprime borrowers , overvaluation of bundled subprime mortgages based on the theory that housing prices would continue to escalate , questionable trading practices on behalf of both buyers and sellers , compensation structures that prioritize short-term deal flow over long-term value creation , and a lack of adequate capital holdings from banks and insurance companies to back the financial commitments they were making . 
the financial crisis was triggered by a complex interplay of policies that encouraged home ownership , providing easier access to loans for subprime borrowers , overvaluation of bundled subprime mortgages based on the theory that housing prices would continue to escalate , questionable trading practices on behalf of both buyers and sellers , compensation structures that prioritize short-term deal flow over long-term value creation , and a lack of adequate capital holdings from banks and insurance companies to back the financial commitments they were making . 
the financial crisis was triggered by a complex interplay of policies that encouraged home ownership , providing easier access to loans for subprime borrowers , overvaluation of bundled subprime mortgages based on the theory that housing prices would continue to escalate , questionable trading practices on behalf of both buyers and sellers , compensation structures that prioritize short-term deal flow over long-term value creation , and a lack of adequate capital holdings from banks and insurance companies to back the financial commitments they were making . 
the u.s. senate 's levin -- coburn report concluded that the crisis was the result of `` high risk , complex financial products ; undisclosed conflicts of interest ; the failure of regulators , the credit rating agencies , and the market itself to rein in the excesses of wall street . '' 
the 1999 repeal of the glass-steagall act effectively removed the separation between investment banks and depository banks in the united states . 
the financial crisis inquiry commission concluded that the financial crisis was avoidable and was caused by `` widespread failures in financial regulation and supervision '' , `` dramatic failures of corporate governance and risk management at many systemically important financial institutions '' , `` a combination of excessive borrowing , risky investments , and lack of transparency '' by financial institutions , ill preparation and inconsistent action by government that `` added to the uncertainty and panic '' , a `` systemic breakdown in accountability and ethics '' , `` collapsing mortgage-lending standards and the mortgage securitization pipeline '' , deregulation of over-the-counter derivatives , especially credit default swaps , and `` the failures of credit rating agencies '' to correctly price risk . 
critics argued that credit rating agencies and investors failed to accurately price the risk involved with mortgage-related financial products , and that governments did not adjust their regulatory practices to address 21st-century financial markets . 
critics argued that credit rating agencies and investors failed to accurately price the risk involved with mortgage-related financial products , and that governments did not adjust their regulatory practices to address 21st-century financial markets . 
as part of the housing and credit booms , the number of financial agreements called mortgage-backed securities -lrb- mbs -rrb- and collateralized debt obligations -lrb- cdo -rrb- , which derived their value from mortgage payments and housing prices , greatly increased . 
as part of the housing and credit booms , the number of financial agreements called mortgage-backed securities -lrb- mbs -rrb- and collateralized debt obligations -lrb- cdo -rrb- , which derived their value from mortgage payments and housing prices , greatly increased . 
as housing prices declined , major global financial institutions that had borrowed and invested heavily in subprime mbs reported significant losses . 
such financial innovation enabled institutions and investors around the world to invest in the u.s. housing market . 
as part of the housing and credit booms , the number of financial agreements called mortgage-backed securities -lrb- mbs -rrb- and collateralized debt obligations -lrb- cdo -rrb- , which derived their value from mortgage payments and housing prices , greatly increased . 
total losses are estimated in the trillions of u.s. dollars globally . 
falling prices also resulted in homes worth less than the mortgage loan , providing a financial incentive to enter foreclosure . 
the ongoing foreclosure epidemic that began in late 2006 in the u.s. continues to drain wealth from consumers and erodes the financial strength of banking institutions . 
defaults and losses on other loan types also increased significantly as the crisis expanded from the housing market to other parts of the economy . 
the ongoing foreclosure epidemic that began in late 2006 in the u.s. continues to drain wealth from consumers and erodes the financial strength of banking institutions . 
thus , policymakers did not immediately recognize the increasingly important role played by financial institutions such as investment banks and hedge funds , also known as the shadow banking system . 
thus , policymakers did not immediately recognize the increasingly important role played by financial institutions such as investment banks and hedge funds , also known as the shadow banking system . 
while the housing and credit bubbles were building , a series of factors caused the financial system to both expand and become increasingly fragile , a process called financialization . 
u.s. government policy from the 1970s onward has emphasized deregulation to encourage business , which resulted in less oversight of activities and less disclosure of information about new activities undertaken by banks and other evolving financial institutions . 
u.s. government policy from the 1970s onward has emphasized deregulation to encourage business , which resulted in less oversight of activities and less disclosure of information about new activities undertaken by banks and other evolving financial institutions . 
these institutions , as well as certain regulated banks , had also assumed significant debt burdens while providing the loans described above and did not have a financial cushion sufficient to absorb large loan defaults or mbs losses . 
these losses impacted the ability of financial institutions to lend , slowing economic activity . 
concerns regarding the stability of key financial institutions drove central banks to provide funds to encourage lending and restore faith in the commercial paper markets , which are integral to funding business operations . 
governments also bailed out key financial institutions and implemented economic stimulus programs , assuming significant additional financial commitments . 
these institutions , as well as certain regulated banks , had also assumed significant debt burdens while providing the loans described above and did not have a financial cushion sufficient to absorb large loan defaults or mbs losses . 
the u.s. financial crisis inquiry commission reported its findings in january 2011 . 
it concluded that `` the crisis was avoidable and was caused by : widespread failures in financial regulation , including the federal reserve 's failure to stem the tide of toxic mortgages ; dramatic breakdowns in corporate governance including too many financial firms acting recklessly and taking on too much risk ; an explosive mix of excessive borrowing and risk by households and wall street that put the financial system on a collision course with crisis ; key policy makers ill prepared for the crisis , lacking a full understanding of the financial system they oversaw ; and systemic breaches in accountability and ethics at all levels '' . 
it concluded that `` the crisis was avoidable and was caused by : widespread failures in financial regulation , including the federal reserve 's failure to stem the tide of toxic mortgages ; dramatic breakdowns in corporate governance including too many financial firms acting recklessly and taking on too much risk ; an explosive mix of excessive borrowing and risk by households and wall street that put the financial system on a collision course with crisis ; key policy makers ill prepared for the crisis , lacking a full understanding of the financial system they oversaw ; and systemic breaches in accountability and ethics at all levels '' . 
it concluded that `` the crisis was avoidable and was caused by : widespread failures in financial regulation , including the federal reserve 's failure to stem the tide of toxic mortgages ; dramatic breakdowns in corporate governance including too many financial firms acting recklessly and taking on too much risk ; an explosive mix of excessive borrowing and risk by households and wall street that put the financial system on a collision course with crisis ; key policy makers ill prepared for the crisis , lacking a full understanding of the financial system they oversaw ; and systemic breaches in accountability and ethics at all levels '' . 
it concluded that `` the crisis was avoidable and was caused by : widespread failures in financial regulation , including the federal reserve 's failure to stem the tide of toxic mortgages ; dramatic breakdowns in corporate governance including too many financial firms acting recklessly and taking on too much risk ; an explosive mix of excessive borrowing and risk by households and wall street that put the financial system on a collision course with crisis ; key policy makers ill prepared for the crisis , lacking a full understanding of the financial system they oversaw ; and systemic breaches in accountability and ethics at all levels '' . 
during a period of tough competition between mortgage lenders for revenue and market share , and when the supply of creditworthy borrowers was limited , mortgage lenders relaxed underwriting standards and originated riskier mortgages to less creditworthy borrowers . 
in the view of some analysts , the relatively conservative government-sponsored enterprises -lrb- gses -rrb- policed mortgage originators and maintained relatively high underwriting standards prior to 2003 . 
the worst loans were originated in 2004 -- 2007 , the years of the most intense competition between securitizers and the lowest market share for the gses . 
the worst loans were originated in 2004 -- 2007 , the years of the most intense competition between securitizers and the lowest market share for the gses . 
in the view of some analysts , the relatively conservative government-sponsored enterprises -lrb- gses -rrb- policed mortgage originators and maintained relatively high underwriting standards prior to 2003 . 
the majority report of the financial crisis inquiry commission , written by the six democratic appointees , the minority report , written by 3 of the 4 republican appointees , studies by federal reserve economists , and the work of several independent scholars generally contend that government affordable housing policy was not the primary cause of the financial crisis . 
paul krugman has even claimed that the gse never purchased subprime loans -- a claim that is widely disputed . 
the majority report of the financial crisis inquiry commission , written by the six democratic appointees , the minority report , written by 3 of the 4 republican appointees , studies by federal reserve economists , and the work of several independent scholars generally contend that government affordable housing policy was not the primary cause of the financial crisis . 
although they concede that governmental policies had some role in causing the crisis , they contend that gse loans performed better than loans securitized by private investment banks , and performed better than some loans originated by institutions that held loans in their own portfolios . 
the majority report of the financial crisis inquiry commission , written by the six democratic appointees , the minority report , written by 3 of the 4 republican appointees , studies by federal reserve economists , and the work of several independent scholars generally contend that government affordable housing policy was not the primary cause of the financial crisis . 
later , based upon information in the sec 's december 2011 securities fraud case against 6 ex-executives of fannie and freddie , peter wallison and edward pinto estimated that , in 2008 , fannie and freddie held 13 million substandard loans totaling over $ 2 trillion . 
later , based upon information in the sec 's december 2011 securities fraud case against 6 ex-executives of fannie and freddie , peter wallison and edward pinto estimated that , in 2008 , fannie and freddie held 13 million substandard loans totaling over $ 2 trillion . 
in his dissent to the majority report of the financial crisis inquiry commission , american enterprise institute fellow peter j. wallison stated his belief that the roots of the financial crisis can be traced directly and primarily to affordable housing policies initiated by hud in the 1990s and to massive risky loan purchases by government-sponsored entities fannie mae and freddie mac . 
in his dissent to the majority report of the financial crisis inquiry commission , american enterprise institute fellow peter j. wallison stated his belief that the roots of the financial crisis can be traced directly and primarily to affordable housing policies initiated by hud in the 1990s and to massive risky loan purchases by government-sponsored entities fannie mae and freddie mac . 
later , based upon information in the sec 's december 2011 securities fraud case against 6 ex-executives of fannie and freddie , peter wallison and edward pinto estimated that , in 2008 , fannie and freddie held 13 million substandard loans totaling over $ 2 trillion . 
on september 10 , 2003 , the house financial services committee held a hearing at the urging of the administration to assess safety and soundness issues and to review a recent report by the office of federal housing enterprise oversight -lrb- ofheo -rrb- that had uncovered accounting discrepancies within the two entities . 
in the early and mid-2000s , the bush administration called numerous times for investigation into the safety and soundness of the gses and their swelling portfolio of subprime mortgages . 
on september 10 , 2003 , the house financial services committee held a hearing at the urging of the administration to assess safety and soundness issues and to review a recent report by the office of federal housing enterprise oversight -lrb- ofheo -rrb- that had uncovered accounting discrepancies within the two entities . 
the hearings never resulted in new legislation or formal investigation of fannie mae and freddie mac , as many of the committee members refused to accept the report and instead rebuked ofheo for their attempt at regulation . 
on september 10 , 2003 , the house financial services committee held a hearing at the urging of the administration to assess safety and soundness issues and to review a recent report by the office of federal housing enterprise oversight -lrb- ofheo -rrb- that had uncovered accounting discrepancies within the two entities . 
a 2000 united states department of the treasury study of lending trends for 305 cities from 1993 to 1998 showed that $ 467 billion of mortgage lending was made by community reinvestment act -lrb- cra -rrb- - covered lenders into low and mid level income -lrb- lmi -rrb- borrowers and neighborhoods , representing 10 % of all u.s. mortgage lending during the period . 
a 2000 united states department of the treasury study of lending trends for 305 cities from 1993 to 1998 showed that $ 467 billion of mortgage lending was made by community reinvestment act -lrb- cra -rrb- - covered lenders into low and mid level income -lrb- lmi -rrb- borrowers and neighborhoods , representing 10 % of all u.s. mortgage lending during the period . 
a 2000 united states department of the treasury study of lending trends for 305 cities from 1993 to 1998 showed that $ 467 billion of mortgage lending was made by community reinvestment act -lrb- cra -rrb- - covered lenders into low and mid level income -lrb- lmi -rrb- borrowers and neighborhoods , representing 10 % of all u.s. mortgage lending during the period . 
sub-prime loans made by cra-covered institutions constituted a 3 % market share of lmi loans in 1998 , but in the run-up to the crisis , fully 25 % of all sub-prime lending occurred at cra-covered institutions and another 25 % of sub-prime loans had some connection with cra . 
sub-prime loans made by cra-covered institutions constituted a 3 % market share of lmi loans in 1998 , but in the run-up to the crisis , fully 25 % of all sub-prime lending occurred at cra-covered institutions and another 25 % of sub-prime loans had some connection with cra . 
they contend that there were two , connected causes to the crisis : the relaxation of underwriting standards in 1995 and the ultra-low interest rates initiated by the federal reserve after the terrorist attack on september 11 , 2001 . 
critics also point out that publicly announced cra loan commitments were massive , totaling $ 4.5 trillion in the years between 1994 and 2007 . 
they also argue that the federal reserve 's classification of cra loans as `` prime '' is based on the faulty and self-serving assumption that high-interest-rate loans -lrb- 3 percentage points over average -rrb- equal `` subprime '' loans . 
they also argue that the federal reserve 's classification of cra loans as `` prime '' is based on the faulty and self-serving assumption that high-interest-rate loans -lrb- 3 percentage points over average -rrb- equal `` subprime '' loans . 
they contend that there were two , connected causes to the crisis : the relaxation of underwriting standards in 1995 and the ultra-low interest rates initiated by the federal reserve after the terrorist attack on september 11 , 2001 . 
essentially , investment banks and hedge funds used financial innovation to enable large wagers to be made , far beyond the actual value of the underlying mortgage loans , using derivatives called credit default swaps , collateralized debt obligations and synthetic cdos . 
essentially , investment banks and hedge funds used financial innovation to enable large wagers to be made , far beyond the actual value of the underlying mortgage loans , using derivatives called credit default swaps , collateralized debt obligations and synthetic cdos . 
in an article in portfolio magazine , michael lewis spoke with one trader who noted that `` there were n't enough americans with -lsb- bad -rsb- credit taking out -lsb- bad loans -rsb- to satisfy investors ' appetite for the end product . '' 
essentially , investment banks and hedge funds used financial innovation to enable large wagers to be made , far beyond the actual value of the underlying mortgage loans , using derivatives called credit default swaps , collateralized debt obligations and synthetic cdos . 
essentially , investment banks and hedge funds used financial innovation to enable large wagers to be made , far beyond the actual value of the underlying mortgage loans , using derivatives called credit default swaps , collateralized debt obligations and synthetic cdos . 
according to wallison , the reason the u.s. residential housing bubble -lrb- as opposed to other types of bubbles -rrb- led to financial crisis was that it was supported by a huge number of substandard loans -- generally with low or no downpayments . 
according to wallison , the reason the u.s. residential housing bubble -lrb- as opposed to other types of bubbles -rrb- led to financial crisis was that it was supported by a huge number of substandard loans -- generally with low or no downpayments . 
according to wallison , the reason the u.s. residential housing bubble -lrb- as opposed to other types of bubbles -rrb- led to financial crisis was that it was supported by a huge number of substandard loans -- generally with low or no downpayments . 
wallison notes that other developed countries had `` large bubbles during the 1997 -- 2007 period '' but `` the losses associated with mortgage delinquencies and defaults when these bubbles deflated were far lower than the losses suffered in the united states when the 1997 -- 2007 -lsb- bubble -rsb- deflated . '' 
countering krugman , peter j. wallison wrote : `` it is not true that every bubble -- even a large bubble -- has the potential to cause a financial crisis when it deflates . '' 
located approximately 250 kilometres -lrb- 160 mi -rrb- east of puerto rico and the nearer virgin islands , st. barthélemy lies immediately southeast of the islands of saint martin and anguilla . 
st. barthélemy is separated from saint martin by the saint-barthélemy channel . 
other rocky islets which include coco , the roques -lrb- or little turtle rocks -rrb- , the goat , and the sugarloaf . 
it is one of the renaissance islands . 
some small satellite islets belong to st. barthélemy including île chevreau -lrb- île bonhomme -rrb- , île frégate , île toc vers , île tortue and gros îlets -lrb- îlots syndare -rrb- . 
residents of saint-barthélemy -lrb- saint-barthélemoise people -rrb- are french citizens and work at establishments on the island . 
french is the native tongue of the population . 
the st. barthélemy french patois is spoken by some 500 -- 700 people in the leeward portion of the island and is superficially related to quebec french , whereas créole french is limited to the windward side . 
residents of saint-barthélemy -lrb- saint-barthélemoise people -rrb- are french citizens and work at establishments on the island . 
unlike other populations in the caribbean , language preference between the créole and patois is geographically , and not racially , determined . 
on 7 february 2007 , the french parliament passed a bill granting com status to both st. barthélemy and -lrb- separately -rrb- to the neighbouring saint martin . 
the island has a president -lrb- elected every five years -rrb- , a unicameral territorial council of nineteen members who are elected by popular vote and serve for five-year terms , and an executive council of seven members . 
elections to these councils were first held on 1 july 2007 with the last election in march 2012 . 
the new status took effect on 15 july 2007 , when the first territorial council was elected , according to the law . 
the island has a president -lrb- elected every five years -rrb- , a unicameral territorial council of nineteen members who are elected by popular vote and serve for five-year terms , and an executive council of seven members . 
the first election was held on 21 september 2008 with the last election in september 2014 . 
st. barthélemy became an overseas territory of the european union on 1 january 2012 , but the island 's inhabitants remain french citizens with eu status holding eu passports . 
one senator represents the island in the french senate . 
the first election was held on 21 september 2008 with the last election in september 2014 . 
france is responsible for the defence of the island and as such has stationed a security force on the island comprising six policemen and thirteen gendarmes -lrb- posted on two-year term -rrb- . 
agricultural production on the island is difficult given the dry and rocky terrain , but the early settlers managed to produce vegetables , cotton , pineapples , salt , bananas and also fishing . 
sweet potato is also grown in patches . 
agricultural production on the island is difficult given the dry and rocky terrain , but the early settlers managed to produce vegetables , cotton , pineapples , salt , bananas and also fishing . 
agricultural production on the island is difficult given the dry and rocky terrain , but the early settlers managed to produce vegetables , cotton , pineapples , salt , bananas and also fishing . 
the islanders developed commerce through the port of gustavia . 
st. barthélemy is considered a playground of the rich and famous , -lsb- citation needed -rsb- especially as a winter haven , and is known for its beaches , gourmet dining and high-end designers . 
tourism attracts about 200,000 visitors every year . 
as a result , there is a boom in house building activity catering to the tourists and also to the permanent residents of the island , with prices as high as $ 61,200,000 for a beachfront villa . 
international investment and the wealth generated by wealthy tourists explain the high standard of living on the island . 
most of the food is imported by airplane or boat from the us or france . 
st. barthélemy has about 25 hotels , most of them with 15 rooms or fewer . 
the largest has 58 rooms . 
it also attracts a labour force from brazil and portugal to meet the industry needs . 
hotel le toiny , the most expensive hotel on the island , has 12 rooms . 
most places of accommodation are in the form of private villas , of which there are some 400 available to rent on the island . 
as the terrain is generally arid , the hills have mostly poor soil and support only cacti and succulent plants . 
the eastern part of the island is greener as it receives more rainfall . 
a 1994 survey has revealed several hundred indigenous species of plants including the naturalized varieties of flora ; some growing in irrigated areas while the dry areas are dominated by the cacti variety . 
sea grapes and palm trees are a common sight with mangroves and shrubs surviving in the saline coastal swamps . 
coconut palm was brought to the island from the pacific islands . 
other trees of note include the royal palm , sea grape trees in the form of shrubs on the beaches and as 5 to 7 m trees in the interior areas of the island , aloe or aloe vera -lrb- brought from the mediterranean -rrb- , the night blooming cereus , mamillaria nivosa , yellow prickly pear or barbary fig which was planted as barbed wire defences against invading british army in 1773 , mexican cactus , stapelia gigantea , golden trumpet or yellow bell which was originally from south america , bougainvillea and others . 
other trees of note include the royal palm , sea grape trees in the form of shrubs on the beaches and as 5 to 7 m trees in the interior areas of the island , aloe or aloe vera -lrb- brought from the mediterranean -rrb- , the night blooming cereus , mamillaria nivosa , yellow prickly pear or barbary fig which was planted as barbed wire defences against invading british army in 1773 , mexican cactus , stapelia gigantea , golden trumpet or yellow bell which was originally from south america , bougainvillea and others . 
other trees of note include the royal palm , sea grape trees in the form of shrubs on the beaches and as 5 to 7 m trees in the interior areas of the island , aloe or aloe vera -lrb- brought from the mediterranean -rrb- , the night blooming cereus , mamillaria nivosa , yellow prickly pear or barbary fig which was planted as barbed wire defences against invading british army in 1773 , mexican cactus , stapelia gigantea , golden trumpet or yellow bell which was originally from south america , bougainvillea and others . 
other trees of note include the royal palm , sea grape trees in the form of shrubs on the beaches and as 5 to 7 m trees in the interior areas of the island , aloe or aloe vera -lrb- brought from the mediterranean -rrb- , the night blooming cereus , mamillaria nivosa , yellow prickly pear or barbary fig which was planted as barbed wire defences against invading british army in 1773 , mexican cactus , stapelia gigantea , golden trumpet or yellow bell which was originally from south america , bougainvillea and others . 
other trees of note include the royal palm , sea grape trees in the form of shrubs on the beaches and as 5 to 7 m trees in the interior areas of the island , aloe or aloe vera -lrb- brought from the mediterranean -rrb- , the night blooming cereus , mamillaria nivosa , yellow prickly pear or barbary fig which was planted as barbed wire defences against invading british army in 1773 , mexican cactus , stapelia gigantea , golden trumpet or yellow bell which was originally from south america , bougainvillea and others . 
marine mammals are many , such as the dolphins , porpoises and whales , which are seen here during the migration period from december till may . 
marine mammals are many , such as the dolphins , porpoises and whales , which are seen here during the migration period from december till may . 
turtles are a common sight along the coastline of the island . 
these are : the leatherback sea turtles which have leather skin instead of a shell and are the largest of the type found here , some times measuring a much as 3 m -lrb- average is about 1.5 m -rrb- and weighing about 450 kg -lrb- jellyfish is their favourite diet -rrb- ; the hawksbill turtles , which have hawk-like beaks and found near reefs , generally about 90 cm in diameter and weigh about 60 kg and their diet consists of crabs and snails ; and the green turtles , herbivores which have rounded heads , generally about 90 cm in diameter and live amidst tall sea grasses . 
these are : the leatherback sea turtles which have leather skin instead of a shell and are the largest of the type found here , some times measuring a much as 3 m -lrb- average is about 1.5 m -rrb- and weighing about 450 kg -lrb- jellyfish is their favourite diet -rrb- ; the hawksbill turtles , which have hawk-like beaks and found near reefs , generally about 90 cm in diameter and weigh about 60 kg and their diet consists of crabs and snails ; and the green turtles , herbivores which have rounded heads , generally about 90 cm in diameter and live amidst tall sea grasses . 
the marine aquafauna is rich in conch , which has pearly-pink shells . 
the marine aquafauna is rich in conch , which has pearly-pink shells . 
other species of fish which are recorded close to the shore line in shallow waters are : sergeant majors , the blue chromis , brown chromis , surgeon fish ; blue tangs and trumpet fish . 
on the shore are ghost crabs , which always live on the beach in small burrowed tunnels made in sand , and the hermit crabs , which live in land but lay eggs in water and which also eat garbage and sewerage . 
on the shore are ghost crabs , which always live on the beach in small burrowed tunnels made in sand , and the hermit crabs , which live in land but lay eggs in water and which also eat garbage and sewerage . 
saint-barthélemy has a marine nature reserve , known as the reserve naturelle that covers 1.200 ha , and is divided into 5 zones all around the island to form a network of protected areas . 
the reserve is designed to protect the islands coral reefs , seagrass and endangered marine species including sea turtles . 
anchoring is prohibited in the reserve and mooring buoys are in place in some of the protected bays like colombier 
saint-barthélemy has a marine nature reserve , known as the reserve naturelle that covers 1.200 ha , and is divided into 5 zones all around the island to form a network of protected areas . 
anchoring is prohibited in the reserve and mooring buoys are in place in some of the protected bays like colombier 
among the notable structures in the town are the three forts built by the swedes for defense purposes . 
one of these forts , known as fort oscar -lrb- formerly gustav adolph -rrb- , which overlooks the sea is located on the far side of la pointe . 
the fort built in 1787 over a hill slope has ruins of ramparts , guardhouse , munitions depot , wood-burning oven and so forth . 
the third fort built by the swedes is the fort gustav , which is also seen in ruins strewn around the weather station and the light house . 
one of these forts , known as fort oscar -lrb- formerly gustav adolph -rrb- , which overlooks the sea is located on the far side of la pointe . 
the island has over 70 restaurants serving many dishes and others are a significant number of gourmet restaurants ; many of the finest restaurants are located in the hotels . 
the island has over 70 restaurants serving many dishes and others are a significant number of gourmet restaurants ; many of the finest restaurants are located in the hotels . 
there are also a number of snack restaurants which the french call `` les snacks '' or `` les petits creux '' which include sandwiches , pizzas and salads . 
west indian cuisine , steamed vegetables with fresh fish is common ; creole dishes tend to be spicier . 
the island hosts gastronomic events throughout the year , with dishes such as spring roll of shrimp and bacon , fresh grilled lobster , chinese noodle salad with coconut milk , and grilled beef fillet etc. . 
the transat ag2r race , held every alternate year , is an event which originates in concarneau in brittany , france , reaching st. barthélemy . 
the transat ag2r race , held every alternate year , is an event which originates in concarneau in brittany , france , reaching st. barthélemy . 
it is a boat race with boats of 10 m length with a single hull and with essential safety equipment . 
it is a boat race with boats of 10 m length with a single hull and with essential safety equipment . 
each boat is navigated by two sailors . 
st. barthélemy has a small airport known as gustaf iii airport on the north coast of the island that is served by small regional commercial aircraft and charters . 
st. barthélemy has a small airport known as gustaf iii airport on the north coast of the island that is served by small regional commercial aircraft and charters . 
the nearest airport with a runway length sufficient to land a typical commercial jet airliner is on the neighboring island of sint maarten : princess juliana international airport , which acts as a hub , providing connecting flights with regional carriers to st. barthélemy . 
the nearest airport with a runway length sufficient to land a typical commercial jet airliner is on the neighboring island of sint maarten : princess juliana international airport , which acts as a hub , providing connecting flights with regional carriers to st. barthélemy . 
st. barthélemy has a small airport known as gustaf iii airport on the north coast of the island that is served by small regional commercial aircraft and charters . 
saint-barthélemy -lrb- french : saint-barthélemy , french pronunciation : -lsb- sɛ̃baʁtelemi -rsb- -rrb- , officially the territorial collectivity of saint-barthélemy -lrb- french : collectivité territoriale de saint-barthélemy -rrb- , is an overseas collectivity of france . 
often abbreviated to saint-barth in french , or st. barts or st. barths in english , the indigenous people called the island ouanalao . 
often abbreviated to saint-barth in french , or st. barts or st. barths in english , the indigenous people called the island ouanalao . 
often abbreviated to saint-barth in french , or st. barts or st. barths in english , the indigenous people called the island ouanalao . 
puerto rico is 240 kilometres -lrb- 150 mi -rrb- to the west in the greater antilles . 
saint barthélemy , a volcanic island fully encircled by shallow reefs , has an area of 25 square kilometres -lrb- 9.7 sq mi -rrb- and a population of 9,035 -lrb- jan. 2011 estimate -rrb- . 
saint barthélemy , a volcanic island fully encircled by shallow reefs , has an area of 25 square kilometres -lrb- 9.7 sq mi -rrb- and a population of 9,035 -lrb- jan. 2011 estimate -rrb- . 
its capital is gustavia -lsb- citation needed -rsb- , which also contains the main harbour to the island . 
it is the only caribbean island which was a swedish colony for any significant length of time ; guadeloupe was under swedish rule only briefly at the end of the napoleonic wars . 
the island is a popular tourist destination during the winter holiday season , especially for the rich and famous during the christmas and new year period . 
saint barthélemy was for many years a french commune forming part of guadeloupe , which is an overseas region and department of france . 
through a referendum in 2003 , island residents sought separation from the administrative jurisdiction of guadeloupe , and it was finally accomplished in 2007 . 
through a referendum in 2003 , island residents sought separation from the administrative jurisdiction of guadeloupe , and it was finally accomplished in 2007 . 
the hotel de ville , which was the town hall , is now the hotel de la collectivité . 
a senator represents the island in paris . 
grande saline bay provides temporary anchorage for small vessels while colombier bay , to the northwest , has a 4 fathoms patch near mid entrance . 
grande saline bay provides temporary anchorage for small vessels while colombier bay , to the northwest , has a 4 fathoms patch near mid entrance . 
the north and east sides of the island are fringed , to a short distance from the shore , by a visible coral reef . 
reefs are mostly in shallow waters and are clearly visible . 
the coastal areas abound with beaches and many of these have offshore reefs , some of which are part of a marine reserve . 
there are as many as 22 public beaches -lrb- most beaches on st barthélémy are known as `` anse de ... '' etc. -rrb- of which 15 are considered suitable for swimming . 
there are as many as 22 public beaches -lrb- most beaches on st barthélémy are known as `` anse de ... '' etc. -rrb- of which 15 are considered suitable for swimming . 
they are categorized and divided into two groups , the leeward side -lrb- calm waters protected by the island itself -rrb- and windward side -lrb- some of which are protected by hills and reefs -rrb- . 
they are categorized and divided into two groups , the leeward side -lrb- calm waters protected by the island itself -rrb- and windward side -lrb- some of which are protected by hills and reefs -rrb- . 
the windward beaches are popular for windsurfing . 
although the climate is essentially arid , the rainfall does average 1000 mm annually , but with considerable variation over the terrain . 
the island covers an area of 25 square kilometres -lrb- 2,500 ha -rrb- . 
although the climate is essentially arid , the rainfall does average 1000 mm annually , but with considerable variation over the terrain . 
summer is from may to november , which is also the rainy season . 
the lowest night temperature recorded is 13 °c . 
when the british invaded the harbour town in 1744 -lsb- verification needed -rsb- , the town 's architectural buildings were destroyed -lsb- verification needed -rsb- . 
subsequently , new structures were built in the town around the harbour area -lsb- verification needed -rsb- and the swedes had also further added to the architectural beauty of the town in 1785 with more buildings , when they had occupied the town . 
earlier to their occupation , the port was known as `` carénage '' . 
the swedes renamed it as gustavia in honour of their king gustav iii . 
the port maintained a neutral stance since the caribbean war was on in the 18th century . 
musée territorial de st.-barth élemy is a historical museum known as the `` st. barts municipal museum '' also called the `` wall house '' -lrb- musée -- bibliothèque -rrb- in gustavia , which is located on the far end of la pointe . 
musée territorial de st.-barth élemy is a historical museum known as the `` st. barts municipal museum '' also called the `` wall house '' -lrb- musée -- bibliothèque -rrb- in gustavia , which is located on the far end of la pointe . 
musée territorial de st.-barth élemy is a historical museum known as the `` st. barts municipal museum '' also called the `` wall house '' -lrb- musée -- bibliothèque -rrb- in gustavia , which is located on the far end of la pointe . 
the island 's history relating to french , swedish and british period of occupation is well presented in the museum with photographs , maps and paintings . 
also on display are the ancestral costumes , antique tools , models of creole houses and ancient fishing boats . 
in modern molecular biology and genetics , the genome is the genetic material of an organism . 
it consists of dna -lrb- or rna in rna viruses -rrb- . 
it consists of dna -lrb- or rna in rna viruses -rrb- . 
the term was created in 1920 by hans winkler , professor of botany at the university of hamburg , germany . 
the term was created in 1920 by hans winkler , professor of botany at the university of hamburg , germany . 
the term was created in 1920 by hans winkler , professor of botany at the university of hamburg , germany . 
a few related - ome words already existed -- such as biome , rhizome , forming a vocabulary into which genome fits systematically . 
in classical genetics , in a sexually reproducing organism -lrb- typically eukarya -rrb- the gamete has half the number of chromosomes of the somatic cell and the genome is a full set of chromosomes in a diploid cell . 
the halving of the genetic material in gametes is accomplished by the segregation of homologous chromosomes during meiosis . 
in haploid organisms , including cells of bacteria , archaea , and in organelles including mitochondria and chloroplasts , or viruses , that similarly contain genes , the single or set of circular or linear chains of dna -lrb- or rna for some viruses -rrb- , likewise constitute the genome . 
-lsb- citation needed -rsb- the study of the global properties of genomes of related organisms is usually referred to as genomics , which distinguishes it from genetics which generally studies the properties of single genes or groups of genes . 
-lsb- citation needed -rsb- the study of the global properties of genomes of related organisms is usually referred to as genomics , which distinguishes it from genetics which generally studies the properties of single genes or groups of genes . 
when people say that the genome of a sexually reproducing species has been `` sequenced '' , typically they are referring to a determination of the sequences of one set of autosomes and one of each type of sex chromosome , which together represent both of the possible sexes . 
both the number of base pairs and the number of genes vary widely from one species to another , and there is only a rough correlation between the two -lrb- an observation known as the c-value paradox -rrb- . 
at present , the highest known number of genes is around 60,000 , for the protozoan causing trichomoniasis -lrb- see list of sequenced eukaryotic genomes -rrb- , almost three times as many as in the human genome . 
at present , the highest known number of genes is around 60,000 , for the protozoan causing trichomoniasis -lrb- see list of sequenced eukaryotic genomes -rrb- , almost three times as many as in the human genome . 
at present , the highest known number of genes is around 60,000 , for the protozoan causing trichomoniasis -lrb- see list of sequenced eukaryotic genomes -rrb- , almost three times as many as in the human genome . 
in 1976 , walter fiers at the university of ghent -lrb- belgium -rrb- was the first to establish the complete nucleotide sequence of a viral rna-genome -lrb- bacteriophage ms2 -rrb- . 
in 1976 , walter fiers at the university of ghent -lrb- belgium -rrb- was the first to establish the complete nucleotide sequence of a viral rna-genome -lrb- bacteriophage ms2 -rrb- . 
the next year fred sanger completed the first dna-genome sequence : phage φ-x174 , of 5386 base pairs . 
the first complete genome sequences among all three domains of life were released within a short period during the mid-1990s : the first bacterial genome to be sequenced was that of haemophilus influenzae , completed by a team at the institute for genomic research in 1995 . 
the first genome sequence for an archaeon , methanococcus jannaschii , was completed in 1996 , again by the institute for genomic research . 
the us national institutes of health maintains one of several comprehensive databases of genomic information . 
among the thousands of completed genome sequencing projects include those for rice , a mouse , the plant arabidopsis thaliana , the puffer fish , and the bacteria e. coli . 
among the thousands of completed genome sequencing projects include those for rice , a mouse , the plant arabidopsis thaliana , the puffer fish , and the bacteria e. coli . 
in december 2013 , scientists first sequenced the entire genome of a neanderthal , an extinct species of humans . 
the genome was extracted from the toe bone of a 130,000-year-old neanderthal found in a siberian cave . 
new sequencing technologies , such as massive parallel sequencing have also opened up the prospect of personal genome sequencing as a diagnostic tool , as pioneered by manteia predictive medicine . 
new sequencing technologies , such as massive parallel sequencing have also opened up the prospect of personal genome sequencing as a diagnostic tool , as pioneered by manteia predictive medicine . 
a major step toward that goal was the completion in 2007 of the full genome of james d. watson , one of the co-discoverers of the structure of dna . 
a major step toward that goal was the completion in 2007 of the full genome of james d. watson , one of the co-discoverers of the structure of dna . 
whereas a genome sequence lists the order of every dna base in a genome , a genome map identifies the landmarks . 
the human genome project was organized to map and to sequence the human genome . 
a fundamental step in the project was the release of a detailed genomic map by jean weissenbach and his team at the genoscope in paris . 
a fundamental step in the project was the release of a detailed genomic map by jean weissenbach and his team at the genoscope in paris . 
genome composition is used to describe the make up of contents of a haploid genome , which should include genome size , proportions of non-repetitive dna and repetitive dna in details . 
by comparing the genome compositions between genomes , scientists can better understand the evolutionary history of a given genome . 
when talking about genome composition , one should distinguish between prokaryotes and eukaryotes as the big differences on contents structure they have . 
on the contrary , eukaryotes have the feature of exon-intron organization of protein coding genes ; the variation of repetitive dna content in eukaryotes is also extremely high . 
in mammals and plants , the major part of the genome is composed of repetitive dna . 
in some contexts , such as sequencing the genome of a pathogenic microbe , `` genome '' is meant to include information stored on this auxiliary material , which is carried in plasmids . 
most biological entities that are more complex than a virus sometimes or always carry additional genetic material besides that which resides in their chromosomes . 
in some contexts , such as sequencing the genome of a pathogenic microbe , `` genome '' is meant to include information stored on this auxiliary material , which is carried in plasmids . 
in eukaryotes such as plants , protozoa and animals , however , `` genome '' carries the typical connotation of only information on chromosomal dna . 
the dna found within the chloroplast may be referred to as the `` plastome '' . 
in fact , mitochondria are sometimes said to have their own genome often referred to as the `` mitochondrial genome '' . 
genome size is the total number of dna base pairs in one copy of a haploid genome . 
the genome size is positively correlated with the morphological complexity among prokaryotes and lower eukaryotes ; however , after mollusks and all the other higher eukaryotes above , this correlation is no longer effective . 
this phenomenon also indicates the mighty influence coming from repetitive dna act on the genomes . 
there is experimental work being done on minimal genomes for single cell organisms as well as minimal genomes for multi-cellular organisms -lrb- see developmental biology -rrb- . 
the work is both in vivo and in silico . 
protein-coding genes and rna-coding genes are generally non-repetitive dna . 
the proportion of non-repetitive dna is calculated by using the length of non-repetitive dna divided by genome size . 
the proportion of non-repetitive dna is calculated by using the length of non-repetitive dna divided by genome size . 
some e. coli as prokaryotes only have non-repetitive dna , lower eukaryotes such as c. elegans and fruit fly , still possess more non-repetitive dna than repetitive dna . 
some e. coli as prokaryotes only have non-repetitive dna , lower eukaryotes such as c. elegans and fruit fly , still possess more non-repetitive dna than repetitive dna . 
in some plants and amphibians , the proportion of non-repetitive dna is no more than 20 % , becoming a minority component . 
there are two categories of repetitive dna in genome : tandem repeats and interspersed repeats . 
the proportion of repetitive dna is calculated by using length of repetitive dna divide by genome size . 
tandem repeats are usually caused by slippage during replication , unequal crossing-over and gene conversion , satellite dna and microsatellites are forms of tandem repeats in the genome . 
tandem repeats are usually caused by slippage during replication , unequal crossing-over and gene conversion , satellite dna and microsatellites are forms of tandem repeats in the genome . 
although tandem repeats count for a significant proportion in genome , the largest proportion in mammalian is the other type , interspersed repeats . 
transposable elements are able to integrate into the genome at another site within the cell . 
it is believed that tes are an important driving force on genome evolution of higher eukaryotes . 
tes can be classified into two categories , class 1 -lrb- retrotransposons -rrb- and class 2 -lrb- dna transposons -rrb- . 
tes can be classified into two categories , class 1 -lrb- retrotransposons -rrb- and class 2 -lrb- dna transposons -rrb- . 
retrotransposons can be transcribed into rna , which are then duplicated at another site into the genome . 
dna transposons generally move by `` cut and paste '' in the genome , but duplication has also been observed . 
class 2 tes do not use rna as intermediate and are popular in bacteria , in metazoan it has also been found . 
researchers compare traits such as chromosome number -lrb- karyotype -rrb- , genome size , gene order , codon usage bias , and gc-content to determine what mechanisms could have produced the great variety of genomes that exist today -lrb- for recent overviews , see brown 2002 ; saccone and pesole 2003 ; benfey and protopapas 2004 ; gibson and muse 2004 ; reese 2004 ; gregory 2005 -rrb- . 
researchers compare traits such as chromosome number -lrb- karyotype -rrb- , genome size , gene order , codon usage bias , and gc-content to determine what mechanisms could have produced the great variety of genomes that exist today -lrb- for recent overviews , see brown 2002 ; saccone and pesole 2003 ; benfey and protopapas 2004 ; gibson and muse 2004 ; reese 2004 ; gregory 2005 -rrb- . 
duplications play a major role in shaping the genome . 
such duplications are probably fundamental to the creation of genetic novelty . 
horizontal gene transfer is invoked to explain how there is often extreme similarity between small portions of the genomes of two organisms that are otherwise very distantly related . 
horizontal gene transfer seems to be common among many microbes . 
also , eukaryotic cells seem to have experienced a transfer of some genetic material from their chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes to their nuclear chromosomes . 
a comprehensive school is a state school that does not select its intake on the basis of academic achievement or aptitude . 
this is in contrast to the selective school system , where admission is restricted on the basis of selection criteria . 
the term is commonly used in relation to england and wales , where comprehensive schools were introduced on an experimental basis in the 1940s and became more widespread from 1965 . 
about 90 % of british secondary school pupils now attend comprehensive schools . 
they correspond broadly to the public high school in the united states and canada and to the german gesamtschule . 
a consequence of that is a wider ranging curriculum , including practical subjects such as design and technology and vocational learning , which were less common or non-existent in grammar schools . 
this is why schools have tended to get larger and also why many local authorities have organised secondary education into 11 -- 16 schools , with the post-16 provision provided by sixth form colleges and further education colleges . 
in addition , government initiatives such as the city technology colleges and specialist schools programmes have made the comprehensive ideal less certain . 
although comprehensive schools were introduced to england and wales in 1965 , there are 164 selective grammar schools that are still in operation . 
although comprehensive schools were introduced to england and wales in 1965 , there are 164 selective grammar schools that are still in operation . 
in principle , comprehensive schools were conceived as `` neighbourhood '' schools for all students in a specified catchment area . 
current education reforms with academies programme , free schools and university technical colleges will no doubt have some impact on the comprehensive ideal but it is too early to say to what degree . 
finland has used comprehensive schools since the 1970s , in the sense that everyone is expected to complete the nine grades of peruskoulu , from the age 7 to 16 . 
finland has used comprehensive schools since the 1970s , in the sense that everyone is expected to complete the nine grades of peruskoulu , from the age 7 to 16 . 
germany has a comprehensive school known as the gesamtschule . 
they offer college preparatory classes for the students who are doing well , general education classes for average students , and remedial courses for those who are n't doing that well . 
in most cases students attending a gesamtschule may graduate with the hauptschulabschluss , the realschulabschluss or the abitur depending on how well they did in school . 
in the state of brandenburg more than 50 % of all students attended a gesamtschule in 2007 , while in the state of bavaria less than 1 % did . 
in the state of brandenburg more than 50 % of all students attended a gesamtschule in 2007 , while in the state of bavaria less than 1 % did . 
starting in 2010/2011 , hauptschulen were merged with realschulen and gesamtschulen to form a new type of comprehensive school in the german states of berlin and hamburg , called stadtteilschule in hamburg and sekundarschule in berlin -lrb- see : education in berlin , education in hamburg -rrb- . 
starting in 2010/2011 , hauptschulen were merged with realschulen and gesamtschulen to form a new type of comprehensive school in the german states of berlin and hamburg , called stadtteilschule in hamburg and sekundarschule in berlin -lrb- see : education in berlin , education in hamburg -rrb- . 
starting in 2010/2011 , hauptschulen were merged with realschulen and gesamtschulen to form a new type of comprehensive school in the german states of berlin and hamburg , called stadtteilschule in hamburg and sekundarschule in berlin -lrb- see : education in berlin , education in hamburg -rrb- . 
the `` mittelschule '' is a school in some states of germany that offers regular classes and remedial classes but no college preparatory classes . 
students may be awarded the hauptschulabschluss or the mittlere reife but not the abitur . 
in some states of germany , the hauptschule does not exist , and any student who has not been accepted by another school has to attend the mittelschule . 
comprehensive schools have been accused of grade inflation after a study revealed that gymnasium senior students of average mathematical ability found themselves at the very bottom of their class and had an average grade of `` five '' , which means `` failed '' . 
barbara sommer -lrb- christian democratic union -rrb- , education minister of north rhine-westphalia , commented that : looking at the performance gap between comprehensives and the gymnasium -lsb- at the abitur central examination -rsb- -lsb- ... -rsb- it is difficult to understand why the social democratic party of germany wants to do away with the gymnasium . 
as a reaction , sigrid beer -lrb- alliance ' 90/the greens -rrb- stated that comprehensives were structurally discriminated against by the government , which favoured the gymnasiums . 
barbara sommer -lrb- christian democratic union -rrb- , education minister of north rhine-westphalia , commented that : looking at the performance gap between comprehensives and the gymnasium -lsb- at the abitur central examination -rsb- -lsb- ... -rsb- it is difficult to understand why the social democratic party of germany wants to do away with the gymnasium . 
as a reaction , sigrid beer -lrb- alliance ' 90/the greens -rrb- stated that comprehensives were structurally discriminated against by the government , which favoured the gymnasiums . 
gesamtschulen might put bright working class students at risk according to several studies . 
it could be shown that an achievement gap opens between working class students attending a comprehensive and their middle class peers . 
however it is not students attending a comprehensive , but students attending a hauptschule , who perform the poorest . 
according to a study done by helmut fend -lrb- who had always been a fierce proponent of comprehensive schools -rrb- revealed that comprehensive schools do not help working class students . 
he compared alumni of the tripartite system to alumni of comprehensive schools . 
gibraltar opened its first comprehensive school in 1972 . 
students may also continue into the sixth form to complete their a-levels . 
students may also continue into the sixth form to complete their a-levels . 
comprehensive schools were introduced into ireland in 1966 by an initiative by patrick hillery , minister for education , to give a broader range of education compared to that of the vocational school system , which was then the only system of schools completely controlled by the state . 
comprehensive schools were introduced into ireland in 1966 by an initiative by patrick hillery , minister for education , to give a broader range of education compared to that of the vocational school system , which was then the only system of schools completely controlled by the state . 
comprehensive schools were introduced into ireland in 1966 by an initiative by patrick hillery , minister for education , to give a broader range of education compared to that of the vocational school system , which was then the only system of schools completely controlled by the state . 
the comprehensive school system is still relatively small and to an extent has been superseded by the community school concept . 
in ireland comprehensive schools were an earlier model of state schools , introduced in the late 1960s and largely replaced by the secular community model of the 1970s . 
the state owns the school property , which is vested in the trustees in perpetuity . 
the introduction of the community school model in the 1970s controversially removed the denominational basis of the schools , but religious interests were invited to be represented on the boards of management . 
community colleges tended to be amalgamations of unviable local schools under the umbrella of a new community school model , but community schools have tended to be entirely new foundations . 
in 1946 , for example , walworth school was one of five ` experimental ' comprehensive schools set up by the london county council another early comprehensive school was holyhead county school in anglesey in 1949 . 
in 1946 , for example , walworth school was one of five ` experimental ' comprehensive schools set up by the london county council another early comprehensive school was holyhead county school in anglesey in 1949 . 
in 1946 , for example , walworth school was one of five ` experimental ' comprehensive schools set up by the london county council another early comprehensive school was holyhead county school in anglesey in 1949 . 
in 1946 , for example , walworth school was one of five ` experimental ' comprehensive schools set up by the london county council another early comprehensive school was holyhead county school in anglesey in 1949 . 
other early examples of comprehensive schools included woodlands boys school in coventry -lrb- opened in 1954 -rrb- and tividale comprehensive school in tipton . 
the largest expansion of comprehensive schools in 1965 resulted from a policy decision taken in 1965 by anthony crosland , secretary of state for education in the 1964 -- 1970 labour government . 
the largest expansion of comprehensive schools in 1965 resulted from a policy decision taken in 1965 by anthony crosland , secretary of state for education in the 1964 -- 1970 labour government . 
secondary technical schools were never widely implemented and for 20 years there was a virtual bipartite system which saw fierce competition for the available grammar school places , which varied between 15 % and 25 % of total secondary places , depending on location . 
in 1970 margaret thatcher became secretary of state for education of the new conservative government . 
she ended the compulsion on local authorities to convert , however , many local authorities were so far down the path that it would have been prohibitively expensive to attempt to reverse the process , and more comprehensive schools were established under mrs thatcher than any other education secretary . 
in 1970 margaret thatcher became secretary of state for education of the new conservative government . 
by 1975 the majority of local authorities in england and wales had abandoned the 11-plus examination and moved to a comprehensive system . 
over that 10-year period many secondary modern schools and grammar schools were amalgamated to form large neighbourhood comprehensives , whilst a number of new schools were built to accommodate a growing school population . 
some local authorities , including sandwell and dudley in the west midlands , changed all of its state secondary schools to comprehensive schools during the 1970s . 
some local authorities , including sandwell and dudley in the west midlands , changed all of its state secondary schools to comprehensive schools during the 1970s . 
in 1976 the future labour prime minister james callaghan launched what became known as the ` great debate ' on the education system . 
comprehensive school remains the most common type of state secondary school in england , and the only type in wales . 
in 1976 the future labour prime minister james callaghan launched what became known as the ` great debate ' on the education system . 
since the 1988 education reform act , parents have a right to choose which school their child should go to or whether to not send them to school at all and to home educate them instead . 
since the 1988 education reform act , parents have a right to choose which school their child should go to or whether to not send them to school at all and to home educate them instead . 
government policy is currently promoting ` specialisation ' whereby parents choose a secondary school appropriate for their child 's interests and skills . 
this logic has underpinned the controversial league tables of school performance . 
scotland has a very different educational system from england and wales , though also based on comprehensive education . 
the scottish government has rejected plans for specialist schools as of 2005 . 
the scottish government has rejected plans for specialist schools as of 2005 . 
education in northern ireland differs slightly from systems used elsewhere in the united kingdom , but it is more similar to that used in england and wales than it is to scotland . 
education in northern ireland differs slightly from systems used elsewhere in the united kingdom , but it is more similar to that used in england and wales than it is to scotland . 
the republic of the congo -lrb- french : république du congo -rrb- , also known as congo , congo republic , west congo -lsb- citation needed -rsb- , or congo-brazzaville , is a country located in central africa . 
it is bordered by five countries : gabon to the west ; cameroon to the northwest ; the central african republic to the northeast ; the democratic republic of the congo to the east and south ; and the angolan exclave of cabinda to the southwest . 
it is bordered by five countries : gabon to the west ; cameroon to the northwest ; the central african republic to the northeast ; the democratic republic of the congo to the east and south ; and the angolan exclave of cabinda to the southwest . 
it is bordered by five countries : gabon to the west ; cameroon to the northwest ; the central african republic to the northeast ; the democratic republic of the congo to the east and south ; and the angolan exclave of cabinda to the southwest . 
the republic of the congo -lrb- french : république du congo -rrb- , also known as congo , congo republic , west congo -lsb- citation needed -rsb- , or congo-brazzaville , is a country located in central africa . 
the region was dominated by bantu-speaking tribes , who built trade links leading into the congo river basin . 
upon independence in 1960 , the former colony of french congo became the republic of the congo . 
multi-party elections have been held since 1992 , although a democratically elected government was ousted in the 1997 republic of the congo civil war and president denis sassou nguesso has ruled for 26 of the past 36 years . 
multi-party elections have been held since 1992 , although a democratically elected government was ousted in the 1997 republic of the congo civil war and president denis sassou nguesso has ruled for 26 of the past 36 years . 
the political stability and development of hydrocarbon production made republic of congo the fourth largest oil producer in the gulf of guinea and provided the country with a relative prosperity despite the poor state of its infrastructure and public services and an unequal distribution of oil revenues . 
the political stability and development of hydrocarbon production made republic of congo the fourth largest oil producer in the gulf of guinea and provided the country with a relative prosperity despite the poor state of its infrastructure and public services and an unequal distribution of oil revenues . 
bantu-speaking peoples who founded tribes during the bantu expansions largely displaced and absorbed the earliest inhabitants of the region , the pygmy people , about 1500 bc . 
bantu-speaking peoples who founded tribes during the bantu expansions largely displaced and absorbed the earliest inhabitants of the region , the pygmy people , about 1500 bc . 
bantu-speaking peoples who founded tribes during the bantu expansions largely displaced and absorbed the earliest inhabitants of the region , the pygmy people , about 1500 bc . 
the portuguese explorer diogo cão reached the mouth of the congo in 1484 . 
the portuguese explorer diogo cão reached the mouth of the congo in 1484 . 
commercial relationships quickly grew between the inland bantu kingdoms and european merchants who traded various commodities , manufactured goods , and people captured from the hinterlands . 
after centuries as a major hub for transatlantic trade , direct european colonization of the congo river delta began in the late 19th century , subsequently eroding the power of the bantu societies in the region . 
after centuries as a major hub for transatlantic trade , direct european colonization of the congo river delta began in the late 19th century , subsequently eroding the power of the bantu societies in the region . 
the area north of the congo river came under french sovereignty in 1880 as a result of pierre de brazza 's treaty with makoko of the bateke . 
the area north of the congo river came under french sovereignty in 1880 as a result of pierre de brazza 's treaty with makoko of the bateke . 
this congo colony became known first as french congo , then as middle congo in 1903 . 
in 1908 , france organized french equatorial africa -lrb- aef -rrb- , comprising middle congo , gabon , chad , and oubangui-chari -lrb- the modern central african republic -rrb- . 
the methods were often brutal : construction of the congo -- ocean railroad following world war i has been estimated to have cost at least 14,000 lives . 
during the nazi occupation of france during world war ii , brazzaville functioned as the symbolic capital of free france between 1940 and 1943 . 
the brazzaville conference of 1944 heralded a period of major reform in french colonial policy . 
it also received a local legislature after the adoption of the 1946 constitution that established the fourth republic . 
it also received a local legislature after the adoption of the 1946 constitution that established the fourth republic . 
following the revision of the french constitution that established the fifth republic in 1958 , the aef dissolved into its constituent parts , each of which became an autonomous colony within the french community . 
following the revision of the french constitution that established the fifth republic in 1958 , the aef dissolved into its constituent parts , each of which became an autonomous colony within the french community . 
during these reforms , middle congo became known as the republic of the congo in 1958 and published its first constitution in 1959 . 
during these reforms , middle congo became known as the republic of the congo in 1958 and published its first constitution in 1959 . 
the republic of the congo received full independence from france on august 15 , 1960 . 
fulbert youlou ruled as the country 's first president until labour elements and rival political parties instigated a three-day uprising that ousted him . 
the congolese military took charge of the country briefly and installed a civilian provisional government headed by alphonse massamba-débat . 
fulbert youlou ruled as the country 's first president until labour elements and rival political parties instigated a three-day uprising that ousted him . 
the congolese military took charge of the country briefly and installed a civilian provisional government headed by alphonse massamba-débat . 
under the 1963 constitution , massamba-débat was elected president for a five-year term . 
during massamba-débat 's term in office the regime adopted `` scientific socialism '' as the country 's constitutional ideology . 
massamba-débat 's regime also invited several hundred cuban army troops into the country to train his party 's militia units and these troops helped his government survive a coup in 1966 led by paratroopers loyal to future president marien ngouabi . 
nevertheless , massamba-débat was unable to reconcile various institutional , tribal and ideological factions within the country and his regime ended abruptly with a bloodless coup d'état in september 1968 . 
marien ngouabi , who had participated in the coup , assumed the presidency on december 31 , 1968 . 
one year later , president ngouabi proclaimed congo africa 's first `` people 's republic '' , the people 's republic of the congo , and announced the decision of the national revolutionary movement to change its name to the congolese labour party -lrb- pct -rrb- . 
one year later , president ngouabi proclaimed congo africa 's first `` people 's republic '' , the people 's republic of the congo , and announced the decision of the national revolutionary movement to change its name to the congolese labour party -lrb- pct -rrb- . 
ngouabi survived an attempted coup in 1972 but was assassinated on march 16 , 1977 . 
ngouabi survived an attempted coup in 1972 but was assassinated on march 16 , 1977 . 
sassou nguesso aligned the country with the eastern bloc and signed a twenty-year friendship pact with the soviet union . 
sassou nguesso aligned the country with the eastern bloc and signed a twenty-year friendship pact with the soviet union . 
over the years , sassou had to rely more on political repression and less on patronage to maintain his dictatorship . 
over the years , sassou had to rely more on political repression and less on patronage to maintain his dictatorship . 
pascal lissouba , who became congo 's first elected president -lrb- 1992 -- 1997 -rrb- during the period of multi-party democracy , attempted to implement economic reforms with imf backing to liberalise the economy . 
pascal lissouba , who became congo 's first elected president -lrb- 1992 -- 1997 -rrb- during the period of multi-party democracy , attempted to implement economic reforms with imf backing to liberalise the economy . 
in june 1996 the imf approved a three-year sdr69 .5 m -lrb- us$ 100m -rrb- enhanced structural adjustment facility -lrb- esaf -rrb- and was on the verge of announcing a renewed annual agreement when civil war broke out in congo in mid-1997 . 
in june 1996 the imf approved a three-year sdr69 .5 m -lrb- us$ 100m -rrb- enhanced structural adjustment facility -lrb- esaf -rrb- and was on the verge of announcing a renewed annual agreement when civil war broke out in congo in mid-1997 . 
congo 's democratic progress was derailed in 1997 when lissouba and sassou started to fight for power in the civil war . 
on june 5 , president lissouba 's government forces surrounded sassou 's compound in brazzaville and sassou ordered members of his private militia -lrb- known as `` cobras '' -rrb- to resist . 
in early october , the angolan socialist régime began an invasion of congo to install sassou in power . 
in early october , the angolan socialist régime began an invasion of congo to install sassou in power . 
his two main rivals , lissouba and bernard kolelas , were prevented from competing and the only remaining credible rival , andre milongo , advised his supporters to boycott the elections and then withdrew from the race . 
a new constitution , agreed upon by referendum in january 2002 , granted the president new powers , extended his term to seven years , and introduced a new bicameral assembly . 
a new constitution , agreed upon by referendum in january 2002 , granted the president new powers , extended his term to seven years , and introduced a new bicameral assembly . 
following the presidential elections , fighting restarted in the pool region between government forces and rebels led by pastor ntumi ; a peace treaty to end the conflict was signed in april 2003 . 
sassou also won the following presidential election in july 2009 . 
according to the congolese observatory of human rights , a non-governmental organization , the election was marked by `` very low '' turnout and `` fraud and irregularities '' . 
according to the congolese observatory of human rights , a non-governmental organization , the election was marked by `` very low '' turnout and `` fraud and irregularities '' . 
congo-brazzaville has had a multi-party political system since the early 1990s , although the system is heavily dominated by president denis sassou nguesso ; he has lacked serious competition in the presidential elections held under his rule . 
sassou nguesso is backed by his own congolese labour party -lrb- french : parti congolais du travail -rrb- as well as a range of smaller parties . 
sassou nguesso is backed by his own congolese labour party -lrb- french : parti congolais du travail -rrb- as well as a range of smaller parties . 
internationally , sassou 's regime has been hit by corruption revelations despite attempts to censor them . 
one french investigation found over 110 bank accounts and dozens of lavish properties in france ; sassou denounced embezzlement investigations as `` racist '' and `` colonial '' . 
on march 27 , 2015 sassou nguesso announced that his government would hold a referendum to change the country 's 2002 constitution and allow him to run for a third consecutive term in office . 
on march 27 , 2015 sassou nguesso announced that his government would hold a referendum to change the country 's 2002 constitution and allow him to run for a third consecutive term in office . 
in 2008 , the main media were owned by the government , but many more privately run forms of media were being created . 
there is one government-owned television station and around 10 small private television channels . 
there is one government-owned television station and around 10 small private television channels . 
many pygmies belong from birth to bantus in a relationship many refer to as slavery . 
the congolese human rights observatory says that the pygmies are treated as property the same way `` pets '' are . 
on december 30 , 2010 , the congolese parliament adopted a law for the promotion and protection of the rights of indigenous peoples . 
congo is located in the central-western part of sub-saharan africa , along the equator , lying between latitudes 4 ° n and 5 ° s , and longitudes 11 ° and 19 ° e. to the south and east of it is the democratic republic of congo . 
congo is located in the central-western part of sub-saharan africa , along the equator , lying between latitudes 4 ° n and 5 ° s , and longitudes 11 ° and 19 ° e. to the south and east of it is the democratic republic of congo . 
it has a short coast on the atlantic ocean . 
it is also bounded by gabon to the west , cameroon and the central african republic to the north , and cabinda -lrb- angola -rrb- to the southwest . 
it is also bounded by gabon to the west , cameroon and the central african republic to the north , and cabinda -lrb- angola -rrb- to the southwest . 
the capital , brazzaville , is located on the congo river , in the south of the country , immediately across from kinshasa , the capital of the democratic republic of the congo . 
the capital , brazzaville , is located on the congo river , in the south of the country , immediately across from kinshasa , the capital of the democratic republic of the congo . 
the capital , brazzaville , is located on the congo river , in the south of the country , immediately across from kinshasa , the capital of the democratic republic of the congo . 
the capital , brazzaville , is located on the congo river , in the south of the country , immediately across from kinshasa , the capital of the democratic republic of the congo . 
the southwest of the country is a coastal plain for which the primary drainage is the kouilou-niari river ; the interior of the country consists of a central plateau between two basins to the south and north . 
the southwest of the country is a coastal plain for which the primary drainage is the kouilou-niari river ; the interior of the country consists of a central plateau between two basins to the south and north . 
the southwest of the country is a coastal plain for which the primary drainage is the kouilou-niari river ; the interior of the country consists of a central plateau between two basins to the south and north . 
forests are under increasing exploitation pressure . 
since the country is located on the equator , the climate is consistent year-round , with the average day temperature being a humid 24 °c -lrb- 75 °f -rrb- and nights generally between 16 °c -lrb- 61 °f -rrb- and 21 °c -lrb- 70 °f -rrb- . 
since the country is located on the equator , the climate is consistent year-round , with the average day temperature being a humid 24 °c -lrb- 75 °f -rrb- and nights generally between 16 °c -lrb- 61 °f -rrb- and 21 °c -lrb- 70 °f -rrb- . 
since the country is located on the equator , the climate is consistent year-round , with the average day temperature being a humid 24 °c -lrb- 75 °f -rrb- and nights generally between 16 °c -lrb- 61 °f -rrb- and 21 °c -lrb- 70 °f -rrb- . 
the dry season is from june to august while in the majority of the country the wet season has two rainfall maxima : one in march -- may and another in september -- november . 
in 2006 -- 07 , researchers from the wildlife conservation society studied gorillas in heavily forested regions centered on the ouesso district of the sangha region . 
in 2006 -- 07 , researchers from the wildlife conservation society studied gorillas in heavily forested regions centered on the ouesso district of the sangha region . 
they suggest a population on the order of 125,000 western lowland gorillas , whose isolation from humans has been largely preserved by inhospitable swamps . 
petroleum extraction has supplanted forestry as the mainstay of the economy . 
the economy is a mixture of village agriculture and handicrafts , an industrial sector based largely on petroleum , support services , and a government characterized by budget problems and overstaffing . 
petroleum extraction has supplanted forestry as the mainstay of the economy . 
in 2008 , oil sector accounted for 65 % of the gdp , 85 % of government revenue , and 92 % of exports . 
in 2008 , oil sector accounted for 65 % of the gdp , 85 % of government revenue , and 92 % of exports . 
in the early 1980s , rapidly rising oil revenues enabled the government to finance large-scale development projects with gdp growth averaging 5 % annually , one of the highest rates in africa . 
in the early 1980s , rapidly rising oil revenues enabled the government to finance large-scale development projects with gdp growth averaging 5 % annually , one of the highest rates in africa . 
january 12 , 1994 devaluation of franc zone currencies by 50 % resulted in inflation of 46 % in 1994 , but inflation has subsided since . 
january 12 , 1994 devaluation of franc zone currencies by 50 % resulted in inflation of 46 % in 1994 , but inflation has subsided since . 
the reform program came to a halt in june 1997 when civil war erupted . 
however , economic progress was badly hurt by slumping oil prices and the resumption of armed conflict in december 1998 , which worsened the republic 's budget deficit . 
however , economic progress was badly hurt by slumping oil prices and the resumption of armed conflict in december 1998 , which worsened the republic 's budget deficit . 
the current administration presides over an uneasy internal peace and faces difficult economic problems of stimulating recovery and reducing poverty , despite record-high oil prices since 2003 . 
natural gas and diamonds are also recent major congolese exports , although congo was excluded from the kimberley process in 2004 amid allegations that most of its diamond exports were in fact being smuggled out of the neighboring democratic republic of congo ; it was re-admitted to the group in 2007 . 
natural gas and diamonds are also recent major congolese exports , although congo was excluded from the kimberley process in 2004 amid allegations that most of its diamond exports were in fact being smuggled out of the neighboring democratic republic of congo ; it was re-admitted to the group in 2007 . 
the republic of the congo also has large untapped base metal , gold , iron and phosphate deposits . 
the country is a member of the organization for the harmonization of business law in africa -lrb- ohada -rrb- . 
the congolese government signed an agreement in 2009 to lease 200,000 hectares of land to south african farmers to reduce its dependence on imports . 
transport in the republic of the congo includes land , air and water transportation . 
the country 's rail system was built by forced laborers during the 1930s and largely remains in operation . 
there are also over 1000 km of paved roads and two major international airports -lrb- maya-maya airport and pointe noire airport -rrb- which have flights to paris and many african cities . 
the country also has a large port on the atlantic ocean at pointe-noire and others along the congo river at brazzaville and impfondo . 
the republic of the congo 's sparse population is concentrated in the southwestern portion of the country , leaving the vast areas of tropical jungle in the north virtually uninhabited . 
thus , congo is one of the most urbanized countries in africa , with 70 % of its total population living in a few urban areas , namely in brazzaville , pointe-noire or one of the small cities or villages lining the 534-kilometre -lrb- 332 mi -rrb- railway which connects the two cities . 
ethnically and linguistically the population of the republic of the congo is diverse -- ethnologue recognises 62 spoken languages in the country -- but can be grouped into three categories . 
the kongo are the largest ethnic group and form roughly half of the population . 
boulangui -lrb- m'boshi -rrb- live in the northwest and in brazzaville and form 12 % of the population . 
boulangui -lrb- m'boshi -rrb- live in the northwest and in brazzaville and form 12 % of the population . 
before the 1997 war , about 9,000 europeans and other non-africans lived in congo , most of whom were french ; only a fraction of this number remains . 
before the 1997 war , about 9,000 europeans and other non-africans lived in congo , most of whom were french ; only a fraction of this number remains . 
around 300 american expatriates reside in the congo . 
according to cia world factbook , the people of republic of the congo are largely a mix of catholics -lrb- 33.1 % -rrb- , awakening lutherans -lrb- 22.3 % -rrb- and other protestants -lrb- 19.9 % -rrb- . 
according to cia world factbook , the people of republic of the congo are largely a mix of catholics -lrb- 33.1 % -rrb- , awakening lutherans -lrb- 22.3 % -rrb- and other protestants -lrb- 19.9 % -rrb- . 
according to cia world factbook , the people of republic of the congo are largely a mix of catholics -lrb- 33.1 % -rrb- , awakening lutherans -lrb- 22.3 % -rrb- and other protestants -lrb- 19.9 % -rrb- . 
followers of islam make up 1.6 % , and this is primarily due to an influx of foreign workers into the urban centers . 
followers of islam make up 1.6 % , and this is primarily due to an influx of foreign workers into the urban centers . 
public expenditure health was at 8.9 % of the gdp in 2004 , whereas private expenditure was at 1.3 % . 
as of 2012 , the hiv/aids prevalence was at 2.8 % among 15 - to 49-year-olds . 
health expenditure was at us$ 30 per capita in 2004 . 
public expenditure health was at 8.9 % of the gdp in 2004 , whereas private expenditure was at 1.3 % . 
as of 2010 , the maternal mortality rate was 560 deaths/100 ,000 live births , and the infant mortality rate was 59.34 deaths/1 ,000 live births . 
female genital mutilation -lrb- fgm -rrb- is rare in the country , being confined to limited geographic areas of the country . 
as of 2010 , the maternal mortality rate was 560 deaths/100 ,000 live births , and the infant mortality rate was 59.34 deaths/1 ,000 live births . 
public education is theoretically free and mandatory for under-16-year-olds , but in practice , expenses exist . 
net primary enrollment rate was 44 % in 2005 , much less than the 79 % in 1991 . 
pupils who complete six years of primary school and seven years of secondary school obtain a baccalaureate . 
instruction at all levels is in french , and the educational system as a whole models the french system . 
a prime minister is the most senior minister of cabinet in the executive branch of government , often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system . 
a prime minister is the most senior minister of cabinet in the executive branch of government , often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system . 
in a minority of systems , notably in semi-presidential systems of government , a prime minister is the official who is appointed to manage the civil service and execute the directives of the head of state . 
in parliamentary systems fashioned after the westminster system , the prime minister is the presiding and actual head of government and head of the executive branch . 
in such systems , the head of state or the head of state 's official representative -lrb- i.e. the monarch , president , or governor-general -rrb- usually holds a largely ceremonial position , although often with reserve powers . 
the prime minister is often , but not always , a member of parliament -lsb- clarification needed -rsb- and is expected with other ministers to ensure the passage of bills through the legislature . 
in some monarchies the monarch may also exercise executive powers -lrb- known as the royal prerogative -rrb- that are constitutionally vested in the crown and may be exercised without the approval of parliament . 
the prime minister is often , but not always , a member of parliament -lsb- clarification needed -rsb- and is expected with other ministers to ensure the passage of bills through the legislature . 
as well as being head of government , a prime minister may have other roles or titles -- the prime minister of the united kingdom , for example , is also first lord of the treasury and minister for the civil service . 
prime ministers may take other ministerial posts -- for example , during the second world war , winston churchill was also minister of defence -lrb- although there was then no ministry of defence -rrb- , and in the current cabinet of israel , benjamin netanyahu also serves as minister of communications , foreign affairs , regional cooperation , economy and interior 
the first actual usage of the term prime minister or premier ministre -lsb- citation needed -rsb- was used by cardinal richelieu when in 1625 he was named to head the royal council as prime minister of france . 
the first actual usage of the term prime minister or premier ministre -lsb- citation needed -rsb- was used by cardinal richelieu when in 1625 he was named to head the royal council as prime minister of france . 
the first actual usage of the term prime minister or premier ministre -lsb- citation needed -rsb- was used by cardinal richelieu when in 1625 he was named to head the royal council as prime minister of france . 
louis xiv and his descendants generally attempted to avoid giving this title to their chief ministers . 
the term prime minister in the sense that we know it originated in the 18th century in the united kingdom when members of parliament disparagingly used the title in reference to sir robert walpole . 
the term prime minister in the sense that we know it originated in the 18th century in the united kingdom when members of parliament disparagingly used the title in reference to sir robert walpole . 
examples were thomas cromwell under henry viii ; william cecil , lord burghley under elizabeth i ; clarendon under charles ii and godolphin under queen anne . 
examples were thomas cromwell under henry viii ; william cecil , lord burghley under elizabeth i ; clarendon under charles ii and godolphin under queen anne . 
examples were thomas cromwell under henry viii ; william cecil , lord burghley under elizabeth i ; clarendon under charles ii and godolphin under queen anne . 
the power of these ministers depended entirely on the personal favour of the monarch . 
the power of these ministers depended entirely on the personal favour of the monarch . 
late in anne 's reign , for example , the tory ministers harley and st john shared power . 
when the monarch grew tired of a first minister , he or she could be dismissed , or worse : cromwell was executed and clarendon driven into exile when they lost favour . 
in the mid 17th century , after the english civil war -lrb- 1642 -- 1651 -rrb- , parliament strengthened its position relative to the monarch then gained more power through the glorious revolution of 1688 and passage of the bill of rights in 1689 . 
in the mid 17th century , after the english civil war -lrb- 1642 -- 1651 -rrb- , parliament strengthened its position relative to the monarch then gained more power through the glorious revolution of 1688 and passage of the bill of rights in 1689 . 
the monarch could no longer establish any law or impose any tax without its permission and thus the house of commons became a part of the government . 
a tipping point in the evolution of the prime ministership came with the death of anne in 1714 and the accession of george i to the throne . 
a tipping point in the evolution of the prime ministership came with the death of anne in 1714 and the accession of george i to the throne . 
george spoke no english , spent much of his time at his home in hanover , and had neither knowledge of , nor interest in , the details of english government . 
from 1721 this was the whig politician robert walpole , who held office for twenty-one years . 
from 1721 this was the whig politician robert walpole , who held office for twenty-one years . 
under walpole , the doctrine of cabinet solidarity developed . 
walpole required that no minister other than himself have private dealings with the king , and also that when the cabinet had agreed on a policy , all ministers must defend it in public , or resign . 
as a later prime minister , lord melbourne , said , `` it matters not what we say , gentlemen , so long as we all say the same thing . '' 
walpole always denied that he was `` prime minister '' , and throughout the 18th century parliamentarians and legal scholars continued to deny that any such position was known to the constitution . 
george ii and george iii made strenuous efforts to reclaim the personal power of the monarch , but the increasing complexity and expense of government meant that a minister who could command the loyalty of the commons was increasingly necessary . 
the title was first referred to on government documents during the administration of benjamin disraeli but did not appear in the formal british order of precedence until 1905 . 
the title was first referred to on government documents during the administration of benjamin disraeli but did not appear in the formal british order of precedence until 1905 . 
by the late 20th century , the majority of the world 's countries had a prime minister or equivalent minister , holding office under either a constitutional monarchy or a ceremonial president . 
bahrain 's prime minister , sheikh khalifah bin sulman al khalifah has been in the post since 1970 , making him the longest serving non-elected prime minister . 
bahrain 's prime minister , sheikh khalifah bin sulman al khalifah has been in the post since 1970 , making him the longest serving non-elected prime minister . 
bahrain 's prime minister , sheikh khalifah bin sulman al khalifah has been in the post since 1970 , making him the longest serving non-elected prime minister . 
the post of prime minister may be encountered both in constitutional monarchies -lrb- such as belgium , denmark , japan , luxembourg , the netherlands , norway , malaysia , morocco , spain , sweden , thailand , canada , australia , new zealand , and the united kingdom -rrb- , and in parliamentary republics in which the head of state is an elected official -lrb- such as finland , the czech republic , france , greece , hungary , india , indonesia , ireland , pakistan , portugal , montenegro , croatia , bulgaria , romania , serbia and turkey -rrb- . 
the post of prime minister may be encountered both in constitutional monarchies -lrb- such as belgium , denmark , japan , luxembourg , the netherlands , norway , malaysia , morocco , spain , sweden , thailand , canada , australia , new zealand , and the united kingdom -rrb- , and in parliamentary republics in which the head of state is an elected official -lrb- such as finland , the czech republic , france , greece , hungary , india , indonesia , ireland , pakistan , portugal , montenegro , croatia , bulgaria , romania , serbia and turkey -rrb- . 
the head of government of the people 's republic of china is referred to as the premier of the state council and the premier of the republic of china -lrb- taiwan -rrb- is also appointed by the president , but requires no approval by the legislature . 
the head of government of the people 's republic of china is referred to as the premier of the state council and the premier of the republic of china -lrb- taiwan -rrb- is also appointed by the president , but requires no approval by the legislature . 
in some presidential or semi-presidential systems , such as those of france , russia or south korea , the prime minister is an official generally appointed by the president but usually approved by the legislature and responsible for carrying out the directives of the president and managing the civil service . 
when it arises , such a state of affairs is usually referred to as -lrb- political -rrb- cohabitation . 
appointment of the prime minister of france requires no approval by the parliament either , but the parliament may force the resignation of the government . 
bangladesh 's constitution clearly outlines the functions and powers of the prime minister , and also details the process of his/her appointment and dismissal . 
bangladesh 's constitution clearly outlines the functions and powers of the prime minister , and also details the process of his/her appointment and dismissal . 
the people 's republic of china constitution set a premier just one place below the national people 's congress in china . 
premier read as -lrb- simplified chinese : 总理 ; pinyin : zŏnglĭ -rrb- in chinese . 
in the constitution act , 1982 , passing reference to a `` prime minister of canada '' is added , though only regarding the composition of conferences of federal and provincial first ministers . 
in the constitution act , 1982 , passing reference to a `` prime minister of canada '' is added , though only regarding the composition of conferences of federal and provincial first ministers . 
in the constitution act , 1982 , passing reference to a `` prime minister of canada '' is added , though only regarding the composition of conferences of federal and provincial first ministers . 
czech republic 's constitution clearly outlines the functions and powers of the prime minister of the czech republic , and also details the process of his/her appointment and dismissal . 
though it had de facto existed for centuries , its first mention in official state documents did not occur until the first decade of the twentieth century . 
the prime minister sits in the cabinet solely by virtue of occupying another office , either first lord of the treasury -lrb- office in commission -rrb- , or more rarely chancellor of the exchequer -lrb- the last of whom was balfour in 1905 -rrb- . 
the prime minister sits in the cabinet solely by virtue of occupying another office , either first lord of the treasury -lrb- office in commission -rrb- , or more rarely chancellor of the exchequer -lrb- the last of whom was balfour in 1905 -rrb- . 
for example , margaret thatcher was only ever appointed prime minister on one occasion , in 1979 . 
for example , margaret thatcher was only ever appointed prime minister on one occasion , in 1979 . 
she remained continuously in power until 1990 , though she used the assembly of each house of commons after a general election to reshuffle her cabinet . 
she remained continuously in power until 1990 , though she used the assembly of each house of commons after a general election to reshuffle her cabinet . 
hence the irish taoiseach is formally ` renominated ' after every general election . 
the position of prime minister is normally chosen from the political party that commands majority of seats in the lower house of parliament . 
hence the irish taoiseach is formally ` renominated ' after every general election . 
in parliamentary systems , governments are generally required to have the confidence of the lower house of parliament -lrb- though a small minority of parliaments , by giving a right to block supply to upper houses , in effect make the cabinet responsible to both houses , though in reality upper houses , even when they have the power , rarely exercise it -rrb- . 
in parliamentary systems , governments are generally required to have the confidence of the lower house of parliament -lrb- though a small minority of parliaments , by giving a right to block supply to upper houses , in effect make the cabinet responsible to both houses , though in reality upper houses , even when they have the power , rarely exercise it -rrb- . 
where they lose a vote of confidence , have a motion of no confidence passed against them , or where they lose supply , most constitutional systems require either : 
however , in many jurisdictions a head of state may refuse a parliamentary dissolution , requiring the resignation of the prime minister and his or her government . 
however , in many jurisdictions a head of state may refuse a parliamentary dissolution , requiring the resignation of the prime minister and his or her government . 
however , in many jurisdictions a head of state may refuse a parliamentary dissolution , requiring the resignation of the prime minister and his or her government . 
in the united kingdom , for example , the tradition whereby it is the prime minister who requests a dissolution of parliament dates back to 1918 . 
similarly , though the modern 1937 irish constitution grants to the taoiseach the right to make the request , the earlier 1922 irish free state constitution vested the power in the executive council -lrb- the then name for the irish cabinet -rrb- . 
similarly , though the modern 1937 irish constitution grants to the taoiseach the right to make the request , the earlier 1922 irish free state constitution vested the power in the executive council -lrb- the then name for the irish cabinet -rrb- . 
older constitutions often vest this power in the cabinet . 
in australia , the prime minister is expected to step down if s/he loses the majority support of his/her party under a spill motion as have many such as tony abbott , julia gillard and kevin rudd . 
in the russian constitution the prime minister is actually titled chairman of the government while the irish prime minister is called the taoiseach -lrb- which is rendered into english as prime minister -rrb- , and in israel he is rosh hamemshalah meaning `` head of the government '' . 
in the russian constitution the prime minister is actually titled chairman of the government while the irish prime minister is called the taoiseach -lrb- which is rendered into english as prime minister -rrb- , and in israel he is rosh hamemshalah meaning `` head of the government '' . 
in many cases , though commonly used , `` prime minister '' is not the official title of the office-holder ; the spanish prime minister is the president of the government -lrb- presidente del gobierno -rrb- . 
in the russian constitution the prime minister is actually titled chairman of the government while the irish prime minister is called the taoiseach -lrb- which is rendered into english as prime minister -rrb- , and in israel he is rosh hamemshalah meaning `` head of the government '' . 
other common forms include president of the council of ministers -lrb- for example in italy , presidente del consiglio dei ministri -rrb- , president of the executive council , or minister-president . 
in the scandinavian countries the prime minister is called statsminister in the native languages -lrb- i.e. minister of state -rrb- . 
the convention in the english language is to call nearly all national heads of government `` prime minister '' -lrb- sometimes modified to the equivalent term of premier -rrb- , regardless of the correct title of the head of government as applied in his or her respective country . 
the few exceptions to the rule are germany and austria , whose heads of government titles are almost always translated as chancellor ; monaco , whose head of government is referred to as the minister of state ; and vatican city , for which the head of government is titled the secretary of state . 
the few exceptions to the rule are germany and austria , whose heads of government titles are almost always translated as chancellor ; monaco , whose head of government is referred to as the minister of state ; and vatican city , for which the head of government is titled the secretary of state . 
the few exceptions to the rule are germany and austria , whose heads of government titles are almost always translated as chancellor ; monaco , whose head of government is referred to as the minister of state ; and vatican city , for which the head of government is titled the secretary of state . 
a stand-out case is the president of iran , who is not actually a head of state , but the head of the government of iran . 
in non-commonwealth countries the prime minister may be entitled to the style of excellency like a president . 
in some commonwealth countries prime ministers and former prime ministers are styled right honourable due to their position , for example in the prime minister of canada . 
in the united kingdom the prime minister and former prime ministers may appear to also be styled right honourable , however this is not due to their position as head of government but as a privilege of being current members of her majesty 's most honourable privy council . 
in some commonwealth countries prime ministers and former prime ministers are styled right honourable due to their position , for example in the prime minister of canada . 
in the uk , where devolved government is in place , the leaders of the scottish , northern irish and welsh governments are styled first minister . 
in the uk , where devolved government is in place , the leaders of the scottish , northern irish and welsh governments are styled first minister . 
in india , the prime minister is referred to as `` pradhan mantri '' , meaning `` prime minister '' . 
in pakistan , the prime minister is referred to as `` wazir-e-azam '' , meaning `` grand vizier '' . 
in pakistan , the prime minister is referred to as `` wazir-e-azam '' , meaning `` grand vizier '' . 
the prime minister 's executive office is usually called the office of the prime minister in the case of the canada and other commonwealth countries , it is called cabinet office in united kingdom . 
the prime minister 's executive office is usually called the office of the prime minister in the case of the canada and other commonwealth countries , it is called cabinet office in united kingdom . 
-lsb- citation needed -rsb- the term institute of technology is often abbreviated it and is not to be confused with information technology . 
the english term polytechnic appeared in the early 19th century , from the french école polytechnique , an engineering school founded in 1794 in paris . 
the english term polytechnic appeared in the early 19th century , from the french école polytechnique , an engineering school founded in 1794 in paris . 
the french term comes from the greek πολύ -lrb- polú or polý -rrb- meaning `` many '' and τεχνικός -lrb- tekhnikós -rrb- meaning `` arts '' . 
while the terms `` institute of technology '' and `` polytechnic '' are synonymous , the preference concerning which one is the preferred term varies from country to country . 
the world 's first institution of technology , the berg-schola -lrb- today its legal successor is the university of miskolc -rrb- was founded by the court chamber of vienna in selmecbánya , kingdom of hungary in 1735 in order to train specialists of precious metal and copper mining according to the requirements of the industrial revolution in hungary . 
the institutes of technology and polytechnics have been in existence since at least the 18th century , but became popular after world war ii with the expansion of engineering and applied science education , associated with the new needs created by industrialization . 
the oldest german institute of technology is the braunschweig university of technology -lrb- founded in 1745 as `` collegium carolinum '' -rrb- . 
another exception is the école polytechnique , which has educated french élites since its foundation in 1794 . 
in several countries , like germany , the netherlands , switzerland and turkey , institutes of technology and polytechnics are institutions of higher education , and have been accredited to award academic degrees and doctorates . 
in 1992 uk polytechnics were designated as universities which meant they could award their own degrees . 
the uk 's first polytechnic , the royal polytechnic institution -lrb- now the university of westminster -rrb- was founded in 1838 in regent street , london . 
the uk 's first polytechnic , the royal polytechnic institution -lrb- now the university of westminster -rrb- was founded in 1838 in regent street , london . 
in a number of countries , although being today generally considered similar institutions of higher learning across many countries , polytechnics and institutes of technology used to have a quite different statute among each other , its teaching competences and organizational history . 
these new universities often took the title university of technology , for marketing rather than legal purposes . 
they were part of the college of advanced education system . 
since the mid-1990s , the term has been applied to some technically minded technical and further education -lrb- tafe -rrb- institutes . 
a recent example is the melbourne polytechnic rebranding and repositioning in 2014 from northern melbourne institute of tafe . 
in tasmania in 2009 the old college system and tafe tasmania have started a 3-year restructure to become the tasmanian polytechnic www.polytechnic.tas.edu.au , tasmanian skills institute www.skillsinstitute.tas.edu.au and tasmanian academy www.academy.tas.edu.au 
in the higher education sector , there are seven designated universities of technology in australia -lrb- though , note , not all use the phrase `` university of technology '' , such as the universities of canberra and south australia , which used to be colleges of advanced education before transitioning into fully-fledged universities with the ability - most important of all - to confer doctorates -rrb- : 
fachhochschule is a german type of tertiary education institution and adopted later in austria and switzerland . 
they grant bachelor 's degrees and master 's degrees , and focus more on teaching than research and more on specific professions than on science . 
the hogeschool has many similarities to the fachhochschule in the german language areas and to the ammattikorkeakoulu in finland . 
hogeschool institutions in the flemish community of belgium -lrb- such as the erasmus hogeschool brussel -rrb- are currently undergoing a process of academization . 
in the netherlands , four former institutes of technology have become universities over the past decades . 
these are the current three technical universities -lrb- at delft , eindhoven and enschede -rrb- , plus the former agricultural institute in wageningen . 
in cambodia , there are institutes of technology/polytechnic institutes , and universities that offer instruction in a variety of programs that can lead to : certificates , diplomas , and degrees . 
in canada , there are affiliate schools , colleges , institutes of technology/polytechnic institutes , and universities that offer instruction in a variety of programs that can lead to : engineering and applied science degrees , apprenticeship and trade programs , certificates , and diplomas . 
credentials are typically conferred at the undergraduate level , however university-affiliated schools like the école de technologie supérieure and the école polytechnique de montréal -lrb- both of which are located in quebec -rrb- , also offer graduate and postgraduate programs , in accordance with provincial higher education guidelines . 
canadian higher education institutions , at all levels , undertake directed and applied research with financing allocated through public funding , private equity , or industry sources . 
some of canada 's most esteemed colleges and polytechnic institutions also partake in collaborative institute-industry projects , leading to technology commercialization , made possible through the scope of polytechnics canada ; a national alliance of eleven leading research-intensive colleges and institutes of technology . 
some of canada 's most esteemed colleges and polytechnic institutions also partake in collaborative institute-industry projects , leading to technology commercialization , made possible through the scope of polytechnics canada ; a national alliance of eleven leading research-intensive colleges and institutes of technology . 
china 's modern higher education began in 1895 with the imperial tientsin university which was a polytechnic plus a law department . 
liberal arts were not offered until three years later at capital university . 
to this day , about half of china 's elite universities remain essentially polytechnical . 
the law about polytechnic education in croatia was passed in 1997 . 
the geophysics institute monitors over the country ` s seismic , tectonic and volcanic activity in the continental territory and in the galápagos islands . 
one of the oldest observatories in south america is the quito astronomical observatory . 
the quito astronomical observatory is the national observatory of ecuador and is located in the historic center of quito and is managed by the national polytechnic school . 
founded in 1873 and located 12 minutes south of the equator in quito , ecuador . 
the nuclear science department at epn is the only one in ecuador and has the large infrastructure , related to irrradiation factilities like cobalt-60 source and electron beam processing . 
its mission is to provide high quality education , training and research in the areas of science and technology to produce qualified professionals that can apply their knowledge and skills in the country 's development . 
as a result of the unstinting efforts made by the provisional governing board to obtain technical and financial assistance , the institute has so far secured financial and material support as well as pledges of sponsorship for 50 students , covering their tuition fees , room and board up to graduation . 
degrees and roughly correspond to instituts de technologie of french-speaking areas and technische universität of germany in prestige . 
required 180 credits , whereas m.sc . 
from a normal university required 160 credits . 
polytechnic schools are distinct from academic universities in finland . 
after january 1 , 2006 , some finnish ammattikorkeakoulus switched the english term `` polytechnic '' to the term `` university of applied sciences '' in the english translations of their legal names . 
ammattikorkeakoulu is the common term in finland , as is the swedish alternative `` yrkeshögskola '' -- their focus is on studies leading to a degree -lrb- for instance insinööri , engineer ; in international use , bachelor of engineering -rrb- in kind different from but in level comparable to an academic bachelor 's degree awarded by a university . 
collegiate universities grouping several engineering schools or multi-site clusters of french grandes écoles provide sciences and technology curricula as autonomous higher education engineering institutes . 
they are referred-to as institut universitaire de technologie -lrb- iut -rrb- . 
they are referred-to as institut universitaire de technologie -lrb- iut -rrb- . 
in the french-speaking part of switzerland exists also the term haute école specialisée for a type of institution called fachhochschule in the german-speaking part of the country . 
such terms include écoles polytechniques -lrb- algeria , belgium , canada , france , switzerland , tunisia -rrb- , escola politécnica -lrb- brasil , spain -rrb- , polytechnicum -lrb- eastern europe -rrb- . 
higher education systems , that are influenced by the french education system set at the end of the 18th century , use a terminology derived by reference to the french école polytechnique . 
such terms include écoles polytechniques -lrb- algeria , belgium , canada , france , switzerland , tunisia -rrb- , escola politécnica -lrb- brasil , spain -rrb- , polytechnicum -lrb- eastern europe -rrb- . 
fachhochschulen were first founded in the early 1970s . 
they grant bachelor 's degrees and master 's degrees , and focus more on teaching than research and more on specific professions than on science . 
they do not focus exclusively on technology , but may also offer courses in social science , medicine , business and design . 
technische universität -lrb- abbreviation : tu -rrb- are the common terms for universities of technology or technical university . 
these institutions can grant habilitation and doctoral degrees and focus on research . 
rwth aachen , tu dresden and tu münchen also have a faculty of medicine associated with university hospitals -lrb- klinikum aachen , university hospital dresden , rechts der isar hospital -rrb- . 
the nine largest and most renowned technische universitäten in germany have formed tu9 german institutes of technology as community of interests . 
there are 17 universities of technology in germany with about 290,000 students enrolled . 
there are 17 universities of technology in germany with about 290,000 students enrolled . 
the four states of bremen , mecklenburg-vorpommern , saxony-anhalt and schleswig-holstein are not operating a technische universität . 
niedersächsische technische hochschule is a joint-venture of tu clausthal , tu braunschweig and university of hanover . 
after the n. 1404/1983 higher education reform act -lrb- ν .1404 / 1983 - 2916/2001 - ν . 
the first polytechnic in hong kong is the hong kong polytechnic , established in 1972 through upgrading the hong kong technical college -lrb- government trade school before 1947 -rrb- . 
the first polytechnic in hong kong is the hong kong polytechnic , established in 1972 through upgrading the hong kong technical college -lrb- government trade school before 1947 -rrb- . 
the second polytechnic , the city polytechnic of hong kong , was founded in 1984 . 
the hong kong university of science and technology , a university with a focus in applied science , engineering and business , was founded in 1991 . 
like the united kingdom , the two polytechnics were granted university status in 1994 , and renamed the hong kong polytechnic university and the city university of hong kong respectively . 
the world 's first institute of technology the berg-schola -lrb- bergschule -rrb- established in selmecbánya , kingdom of hungary by the court chamber of vienna in 1735 providing further education to train specialists of precious metal and copper mining . 
the world 's first institute of technology the berg-schola -lrb- bergschule -rrb- established in selmecbánya , kingdom of hungary by the court chamber of vienna in 1735 providing further education to train specialists of precious metal and copper mining . 
the world 's first institute of technology the berg-schola -lrb- bergschule -rrb- established in selmecbánya , kingdom of hungary by the court chamber of vienna in 1735 providing further education to train specialists of precious metal and copper mining . 
there are 16 autonomous indian institutes of technology in addition to 30 national institutes of technology which are government institutions . 
there are 16 autonomous indian institutes of technology in addition to 30 national institutes of technology which are government institutions . 
the authority over technical education in india is the aicte . 
in india a diploma in engineering is a specific academic award usually awarded in technical or vocational courses e.g. engineering , pharmacy , designing , etc. . 
there are four public institutes of technology in indonesia that owned by the government of indonesia . 
politeknik provides vocational education and typically offers three-year diploma degrees , which is similar to associate degrees , instead of full , four-year bachelor 's degree and the more advanced master 's and doctoral degrees being offered by an institut teknologi . 
ireland has an `` institute of technology '' system , formerly referred to as regional technical college -lrb- rtcs -rrb- system . 
dublin institute of technology developed separately from the regional technical college system , and after several decades of association with the university of dublin , trinity college it acquired the authority to confer its own degrees . 
in higher education , politecnico refers to a technical university awarding degrees in engineering . 
historically there were two politecnici , one in each of the two largest industrial cities of the north : 
in 2003 , the ministry of education , universities and research and the ministry of economy and finance jointly established the istituto italiano di tecnologia -lrb- italian institute of technology -rrb- , headquartered in genoa with 10 laboratories around italy , which however focuses on research and does not offer undergraduate degrees . 
see also the imperial college of engineering , which was the forerunner of the university of tokyo 's engineering faculty . 
is a type of university that specializes in the sciences . 
polytechnics in malaysia has been operated for almost 44 years . 
it was established by the ministry of education with the help of unesco in 1969 . 
the amount of rm24 .5 million is used to fund the pioneer of politeknik ungku omar located in ipoh , perak from the united nations development program -lrb- undp -rrb- . 
at present , malaysia have developed 32 polytechnic at all over states in engineering , agriculture , commerce , hospitality and design courses with 60,840 students in 2009 to 87,440 students in 2012 . 
at present , malaysia have developed 32 polytechnic at all over states in engineering , agriculture , commerce , hospitality and design courses with 60,840 students in 2009 to 87,440 students in 2012 . 
at present , malaysia have developed 32 polytechnic at all over states in engineering , agriculture , commerce , hospitality and design courses with 60,840 students in 2009 to 87,440 students in 2012 . 
the only technical university in mauritius is the university of technology , mauritius with its main campus situated in la tour koenig , pointe aux sables . 
it has a specialized mission with a technology focus . 
new zealand polytechnics are established under the education act 1989 as amended , and are considered state-owned tertiary institutions along with universities , colleges of education , and wānanga ; there is today often much crossover in courses and qualifications offered between all these types of tertiary education institutions . 
one has opted for the name ` universal college of learning ' -lrb- ucol -rrb- , and another ` unitec new zealand ' . 
new zealand polytechnics are established under the education act 1989 as amended , and are considered state-owned tertiary institutions along with universities , colleges of education , and wānanga ; there is today often much crossover in courses and qualifications offered between all these types of tertiary education institutions . 
in the polytechnic sector : wellington polytechnic amalgamated with massey university . 
since the 1990s , there has been consolidation in new zealand 's state-owned tertiary education system . 
the central institute of technology explored a merger with the waikato institute of technology , which was abandoned , but later , after financial concerns , controversially amalgamated with hutt valley polytechnic , which in turn became wellington institute of technology . 
some smaller polytechnics in the north island , such as waiarapa polytechnic , amalgamated with ucol . 
the auckland university of technology is the only polytechnic to have been elevated to university status ; while unitec has had repeated attempts blocked by government policy and consequent decisions ; unitec has not been able to convince the courts to overturn these decisions . 
students are admitted to the diploma program based on their results in the 10th grade standardized exams . 
the main purpose of polytechnic institutes is to train people in various trades . 
the polytechnic institutes in pakistan , offer a diploma spanning three years in different branches . 
after successfully completing a diploma at a polytechnic , students can gain lateral entry to engineering degree -lrb- under graduate -rrb- courses called be , which are conducted by engineering colleges affiliated to universities or university of engineering & technology or university of engineering sciences . 
the bachelor of science degree awarded by universities of engineering & technology or university of engineering sciences are 4 years full-time program after finishing 13 years of education -lrb- international high school certificate -rrb- in pakistan known as f.sc equivalent to british system a-level . 
politechnika -lrb- translated as a `` technical university '' or `` university of technology '' -rrb- is a main kind of technical university name in poland . 
before then , they only awarded short-cycle degrees which were known as bacharelatos and did not provide further education . 
after the bologna process in 2007 , they have been allowed to offer 2nd cycle -lrb- master 's -rrb- degrees to its students . 
under this system , most singaporean students sit for their o-level examinations after a four or five years of education in secondary school , and apply for a place at either a technical school termed ite , a polytechnic or a university-preparatory school -lrb- a junior college or the millennia institute , a centralized institute -rrb- . 
there are 5 polytechnics in singapore . 
polytechnics offer three-year diploma courses in fields such as information technology , engineering subjects and other vocational fields , like psychology and nursing . 
the world 's first institution of technology or technical university with tertiary technical education is the banská akadémia in banská štiavnica , slovakia , founded in 1735 , academy since december 13 , 1762 established by queen maria theresa in order to train specialists of silver and gold mining and metallurgy in neighbourhood . 
the world 's first institution of technology or technical university with tertiary technical education is the banská akadémia in banská štiavnica , slovakia , founded in 1735 , academy since december 13 , 1762 established by queen maria theresa in order to train specialists of silver and gold mining and metallurgy in neighbourhood . 
the world 's first institution of technology or technical university with tertiary technical education is the banská akadémia in banská štiavnica , slovakia , founded in 1735 , academy since december 13 , 1762 established by queen maria theresa in order to train specialists of silver and gold mining and metallurgy in neighbourhood . 
teaching started in 1764 . 
university buildings are still at their place today and are used for teaching . 
historically a division has existed in south africa between universities and technikons -lrb- polytechnics -rrb- as well between institutions servicing particular racial and language groupings . 
in 1993 technikons were afforded the power to award certain technology degrees . 
beginning in 2004 former technikons have either been merged with traditional universities to form comprehensive universities or have become universities of technology , however the universities of technology have not to date acquired all of the traditional rights and privileges of a university -lrb- such as the ability to confer a wide range of degrees -rrb- . 
most of thailand 's institutes of technology were developed from technical colleges , in the past could not grant bachelor 's degrees ; today , however , they are university level institutions , some of which can grant degrees to the doctoral level . 
most of thailand 's institutes of technology were developed from technical colleges , in the past could not grant bachelor 's degrees ; today , however , they are university level institutions , some of which can grant degrees to the doctoral level . 
examples are pathumwan institute of technology -lrb- developed from pathumwan technical school -rrb- , king mongkut 's institute of technology ladkrabang -lrb- nondhaburi telecommunications training centre -rrb- , and king mongkut 's institute of technology north bangkok -lrb- thai-german technical school -rrb- . 
there are two former institutes of technology , which already changed their name to `` university of technology '' : rajamangala university of technology -lrb- formerly institute of technology and vocational education -rrb- and king mongkut 's university of technology thonburi -lrb- thonburi technology institute -rrb- . 
there are two former institutes of technology , which already changed their name to `` university of technology '' : rajamangala university of technology -lrb- formerly institute of technology and vocational education -rrb- and king mongkut 's university of technology thonburi -lrb- thonburi technology institute -rrb- . 
institutes of technology with different origins are asian institute of technology , which developed from seato graduate school of engineering , and sirindhorn international institute of technology , an engineering school of thammasat university . 
suranaree university of technology is the only government-owned technological university in thailand that was established -lrb- 1989 -rrb- as such ; while mahanakorn university of technology is the most well known private technological institute . 
suranaree university of technology is the only government-owned technological university in thailand that was established -lrb- 1989 -rrb- as such ; while mahanakorn university of technology is the most well known private technological institute . 
suranaree university of technology is the only government-owned technological university in thailand that was established -lrb- 1989 -rrb- as such ; while mahanakorn university of technology is the most well known private technological institute . 
in 2010 , another technical university named bursa technical university was founded in bursa . 
moreover , a sixth technical university is about to be opened in konya named konya technical university . 
in 1950s , 2 technical universities were opened in ankara and trabzon . 
since 1970 uk polytechnics operated under the binary system of education along with universities . 
polytechnics offered diplomas and degrees -lrb- bachelor 's , master 's , phd -rrb- validated at the national level by the uk council for national academic awards cnaa . 
the comparable institutions in scotland were collectively referred to as central institutions . 
britain 's first polytechnic , the royal polytechnic institution later known as the polytechnic of central london -lrb- now the university of westminster -rrb- was established in 1838 at regent street in london and its goal was to educate and popularize engineering and scientific knowledge and inventions in victorian britain `` at little expense . '' 
the designation `` institute of technology '' was occasionally used by polytechnics -lrb- bolton -rrb- , central institutions -lrb- dundee , robert gordon 's -rrb- , and postgraduate universities , -lrb- cranfield and wessex -rrb- , most of which later adopted the designation university , and there were two `` institutes of science and technology '' : umist and uwist , part of the university of wales . 
loughborough university was called loughborough university of technology from 1966 to 1996 , the only institution in the uk to have had such a designation . 
they became universities in the 1960s meaning they could award their own degrees . 
polytechnics were granted university status under the further and higher education act 1992 . 
this meant that polytechnics could confer degrees without the oversight of the national cnaa organization . 
most technical institutes have been merged into regional colleges and some have been designated university colleges if they are associated with a local university . 
schools called `` technical institute '' or `` technical school '' that were formed in the early 20th century provided further education between high school and university or polytechnic . 
schools called `` technical institute '' or `` technical school '' that were formed in the early 20th century provided further education between high school and university or polytechnic . 
the earliest and most famous of these institutions are , respectively , rensselaer polytechnic institute -lrb- rpi , 1824 -rrb- , new york university tandon school of engineering -lrb- 1854 -rrb- and the massachusetts institute of technology -lrb- mit , 1861 -rrb- . 
the earliest and most famous of these institutions are , respectively , rensselaer polytechnic institute -lrb- rpi , 1824 -rrb- , new york university tandon school of engineering -lrb- 1854 -rrb- and the massachusetts institute of technology -lrb- mit , 1861 -rrb- . 
at that time , technical education was considered essential for the development of a sound middle class economy . 
institutes of technology in venezuela were developed in the 1950s as an option for post-secondary education in technical and scientific courses , after the polytechnic french concepts . 
the institute of technology implementation -lrb- iut from instituto universitario de tecnologia on spanish -rrb- began with the creation of the first iut at caracas , capital city of venezuela , called iut . 
dr. federico rivero palacio adopted the french `` institut universitaire de technologie `` s system , using french personnel and study system based on three-year periods , with research and engineering facilities at the same level as the main national universities to obtain french equivalent degrees . 
the wayback machine is a digital archive of the world wide web and other information on the internet created by the internet archive , a nonprofit organization , based in san francisco , california , united states . 
the wayback machine is a digital archive of the world wide web and other information on the internet created by the internet archive , a nonprofit organization , based in san francisco , california , united states . 
the wayback machine is a digital archive of the world wide web and other information on the internet created by the internet archive , a nonprofit organization , based in san francisco , california , united states . 
it was set up by brewster kahle and bruce gilliat , and is maintained with content from alexa internet . 
the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time , which the archive calls a `` three dimensional index . '' 
since 1996 , they have been archiving cached pages of web sites onto their large cluster of linux nodes . 
they revisit sites every few weeks or months and archive a new version if the content has changed . 
their grand vision is to archive the entire internet . 
the name wayback machine was chosen as a droll reference to a plot device in an animated cartoon series , the rocky and bullwinkle show . 
in one of the animated cartoon 's component segments , peabody 's improbable history , lead characters mr. peabody and sherman routinely used a time machine called the `` wabac machine '' -lrb- pronounced way-back -rrb- to witness , participate in , and , more often than not , alter famous events in history . 
in one of the animated cartoon 's component segments , peabody 's improbable history , lead characters mr. peabody and sherman routinely used a time machine called the `` wabac machine '' -lrb- pronounced way-back -rrb- to witness , participate in , and , more often than not , alter famous events in history . 
in 1996 brewster kahle , with bruce gilliat , developed software to crawl and download all publicly accessible world wide web pages , the gopher hierarchy , the netnews -lrb- usenet -rrb- bulletin board system , and downloadable software . 
the information collected by these `` crawlers '' does not include all the information available on the internet , since much of the data is restricted by the publisher or stored in databases that are not accessible . 
these `` crawlers '' also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached . 
to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached web sites , archive-it . 
information had been kept on digital tape for five years , with kahle occasionally allowing researchers and scientists to tap into the clunky database . 
information had been kept on digital tape for five years , with kahle occasionally allowing researchers and scientists to tap into the clunky database . 
when the archive reached its fifth anniversary , it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the university of california , berkeley . 
when the archive reached its fifth anniversary , it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the university of california , berkeley . 
snapshots usually become available more than six months after they are archived or , in some cases , even later ; it can take twenty-four months or longer . 
snapshots usually become available more than six months after they are archived or , in some cases , even later ; it can take twenty-four months or longer . 
the frequency of snapshots is variable , so not all tracked web site updates are recorded . 
after august 2008 sites had to be listed on the open directory in order to be included . 
according to jeff kaplan of the internet archive in november 2010 , other sites were still being archived , but more recent captures would become visible only after the next major indexing , an infrequent operation . 
according to jeff kaplan of the internet archive in november 2010 , other sites were still being archived , but more recent captures would become visible only after the next major indexing , an infrequent operation . 
as of 2009 -lsb- update -rsb- , the wayback machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month ; the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month . 
as of 2009 -lsb- update -rsb- , the wayback machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month ; the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month . 
the data is stored on petabox rack systems manufactured by capricorn technologies . 
the data is stored on petabox rack systems manufactured by capricorn technologies . 
in 2009 , the internet archive migrated its customized storage architecture to sun open storage , and hosts a new data center in a sun modular datacenter on sun microsystems ' california campus . 
in 2009 , the internet archive migrated its customized storage architecture to sun open storage , and hosts a new data center in a sun modular datacenter on sun microsystems ' california campus . 
in 2009 , the internet archive migrated its customized storage architecture to sun open storage , and hosts a new data center in a sun modular datacenter on sun microsystems ' california campus . 
in 2011 a new , improved version of the wayback machine , with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content , was made available for public testing . 
in march 2011 , it was said on the wayback machine forum that `` the beta of the new wayback machine has a more complete and up-to-date index of all crawled materials into 2010 , and will continue to be updated regularly . 
the index driving the classic wayback machine only has a little bit of material past 2008 , and no further index updates are planned , as it will be phased out this year '' . 
in march 2011 , it was said on the wayback machine forum that `` the beta of the new wayback machine has a more complete and up-to-date index of all crawled materials into 2010 , and will continue to be updated regularly . 
in october 2013 , the company announced the `` save a page '' feature which allows any internet user to archive the contents of a url . 
in october 2013 , the company announced the `` save a page '' feature which allows any internet user to archive the contents of a url . 
in a 2009 case , netbula , llc v. chordiant software inc. , defendant chordiant filed a motion to compel netbula to disable the robots.txt file on its web site that was causing the wayback machine to retroactively remove access to previous versions of pages it had archived from nebula 's site , pages that chordiant believed would support its case . 
in a 2009 case , netbula , llc v. chordiant software inc. , defendant chordiant filed a motion to compel netbula to disable the robots.txt file on its web site that was causing the wayback machine to retroactively remove access to previous versions of pages it had archived from nebula 's site , pages that chordiant believed would support its case . 
in a 2009 case , netbula , llc v. chordiant software inc. , defendant chordiant filed a motion to compel netbula to disable the robots.txt file on its web site that was causing the wayback machine to retroactively remove access to previous versions of pages it had archived from nebula 's site , pages that chordiant believed would support its case . 
netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter netbula 's web site and that they should have subpoenaed internet archive for the pages directly . 
an employee of internet archive filed a sworn statement supporting chordiant 's motion , however , stating that it could not produce the web pages by any other means `` without considerable burden , expense and disruption to its operations . '' 
magistrate judge howard lloyd in the northern district of california , san jose division , rejected netbula 's arguments and ordered them to disable the robots.txt blockage temporarily in order to allow chordiant to retrieve the archived pages that they sought . 
magistrate judge howard lloyd in the northern district of california , san jose division , rejected netbula 's arguments and ordered them to disable the robots.txt blockage temporarily in order to allow chordiant to retrieve the archived pages that they sought . 
magistrate judge howard lloyd in the northern district of california , san jose division , rejected netbula 's arguments and ordered them to disable the robots.txt blockage temporarily in order to allow chordiant to retrieve the archived pages that they sought . 
telewizja polska is the provider of tvp polonia and echostar operates the dish network . 
telewizja polska is the provider of tvp polonia and echostar operates the dish network . 
telewizja polska brought a motion in limine to suppress the snapshots on the grounds of hearsay and unauthenticated source , but magistrate judge arlander keys rejected telewizja polska 's assertion of hearsay and denied tvp 's motion in limine to exclude the evidence at trial . 
at the trial , however , district court judge ronald guzman , the trial judge , overruled magistrate keys ' findings , -lsb- citation needed -rsb- and held that neither the affidavit of the internet archive employee nor the underlying pages -lrb- i.e. , the telewizja polska website -rrb- were admissible as evidence . 
these dates are used to determine if a web page is available as prior art for instance in examining a patent application . 
provided some additional requirements are met -lrb- e.g. providing an authoritative statement of the archivist -rrb- , the united states patent office and the european patent office will accept date stamps from the internet archive as evidence of when a given web page was accessible to the public . 
there are technical limitations to archiving a web site , and as a consequence , it is possible for opposing parties in litigation to misuse the results provided by web site archives . 
this problem can be exacerbated by the practice of submitting screen shots of web pages in complaints , answers , or expert witness reports , when the underlying links are not exposed and therefore , can contain errors . 
for example , archives such as the wayback machine do not fill out forms and therefore , do not include the contents of non-restful e-commerce databases in their archives . 
for example , archives such as the wayback machine do not fill out forms and therefore , do not include the contents of non-restful e-commerce databases in their archives . 
in europe the wayback machine could be interpreted as violating copyright laws . 
only the content creator can decide where their content is published or duplicated , so the archive would have to delete pages from its system upon request of the creator . 
the exclusion policies for the wayback machine may be found in the faq section of the site . 
in late 2002 , the internet archive removed various sites that were critical of scientology from the wayback machine . 
an error message stated that this was in response to a `` request by the site owner . '' 
later , it was clarified that lawyers from the church of scientology had demanded the removal and that the site owners did not want their material removed . 
in 2003 , harding earley follmer & frailey defended a client from a trademark dispute using the archive 's wayback machine . 
the plaintiff , healthcare advocates , then amended their complaint to include the internet archive , accusing the organization of copyright infringement as well as violations of the dmca and the computer fraud and abuse act . 
the plaintiff , healthcare advocates , then amended their complaint to include the internet archive , accusing the organization of copyright infringement as well as violations of the dmca and the computer fraud and abuse act . 
the plaintiff , healthcare advocates , then amended their complaint to include the internet archive , accusing the organization of copyright infringement as well as violations of the dmca and the computer fraud and abuse act . 
robots.txt is used as part of the robots exclusion standard , a voluntary protocol the internet archive respects that disallows bots from indexing certain pages delineated by its creator as off-limits . 
robots.txt is used as part of the robots exclusion standard , a voluntary protocol the internet archive respects that disallows bots from indexing certain pages delineated by its creator as off-limits . 
robots.txt is used as part of the robots exclusion standard , a voluntary protocol the internet archive respects that disallows bots from indexing certain pages delineated by its creator as off-limits . 
the internet archive states , however , `` sometimes a website owner will contact us directly and ask us to stop crawling or archiving a site . 
in december 2005 , activist suzanne shell filed suit demanding internet archive pay her us $ 100,000 for archiving her web site profane-justice . 
in december 2005 , activist suzanne shell filed suit demanding internet archive pay her us $ 100,000 for archiving her web site profane-justice . 
internet archive filed a declaratory judgment action in the united states district court for the northern district of california on january 20 , 2006 , seeking a judicial determination that internet archive did not violate shell 's copyright . 
on february 13 , 2007 , a judge for the united states district court for the district of colorado dismissed all counterclaims except breach of contract . 
on april 25 , 2007 , internet archive and suzanne shell jointly announced the settlement of their lawsuit . 
on april 25 , 2007 , internet archive and suzanne shell jointly announced the settlement of their lawsuit . 
on april 25 , 2007 , internet archive and suzanne shell jointly announced the settlement of their lawsuit . 
in 2013 -- 14 a pornographic actor was trying to remove archived images of himself , first by sending multiple dmca requests to the archive and then in the federal court of canada . 
in 2013 -- 14 a pornographic actor was trying to remove archived images of himself , first by sending multiple dmca requests to the archive and then in the federal court of canada . 
alternative names include the united provinces -lrb- verenigde provinciën -rrb- , federated dutch provinces -lrb- foederatae belgii provinciae -rrb- , and dutch federation -lrb- belgica foederata -rrb- . 
the dutch republic , also known as the republic of the seven united netherlands -lrb- republiek der zeven verenigde nederlanden -rrb- , republic of the united netherlands or republic of the seven united provinces -lrb- republiek der zeven verenigde provinciën -rrb- , was a republic in europe existing from 1581 , when part of the netherlands separated from spanish rule , until 1795 . 
it preceded the batavian republic , the kingdom of holland , the united kingdom of the netherlands , and ultimately the modern kingdom of the netherlands . 
until the 16th century , the low countries -- corresponding roughly to the present-day netherlands , belgium , and luxembourg -- consisted of a number of duchies , counties , and prince-bishoprics , almost all of which were under the supremacy of the holy roman empire , with the exception of the county of flanders , which was under the kingdom of france . 
until the 16th century , the low countries -- corresponding roughly to the present-day netherlands , belgium , and luxembourg -- consisted of a number of duchies , counties , and prince-bishoprics , almost all of which were under the supremacy of the holy roman empire , with the exception of the county of flanders , which was under the kingdom of france . 
most of the low countries had come under the rule of the house of burgundy and subsequently the house of habsburg . 
in 1549 holy roman emperor charles v issued the pragmatic sanction , which further unified the seventeen provinces under his rule . 
in 1568 the netherlands , led by william i of orange , revolted against philip ii because of high taxes , persecution of protestants by the government , and philip 's efforts to modernize and centralize the devolved-medieval government structures of the provinces . 
in 1568 the netherlands , led by william i of orange , revolted against philip ii because of high taxes , persecution of protestants by the government , and philip 's efforts to modernize and centralize the devolved-medieval government structures of the provinces . 
in 1579 a number of the northern provinces of the low countries signed the union of utrecht , in which they promised to support each other in their defence against the spanish army . 
in 1579 a number of the northern provinces of the low countries signed the union of utrecht , in which they promised to support each other in their defence against the spanish army . 
this was followed in 1581 by the act of abjuration , the declaration of independence of the provinces from philip ii . 
this was followed in 1581 by the act of abjuration , the declaration of independence of the provinces from philip ii . 
in 1579 a number of the northern provinces of the low countries signed the union of utrecht , in which they promised to support each other in their defence against the spanish army . 
in 1582 the united provinces invited francis , duke of anjou to lead them ; but after a failed attempt to take antwerp in 1583 , the duke left the netherlands again . 
in 1582 the united provinces invited francis , duke of anjou to lead them ; but after a failed attempt to take antwerp in 1583 , the duke left the netherlands again . 
after the assassination of william of orange -lrb- 10 july 1584 -rrb- , both henry iii of france and elizabeth i of england declined the offer of sovereignty . 
after the assassination of william of orange -lrb- 10 july 1584 -rrb- , both henry iii of france and elizabeth i of england declined the offer of sovereignty . 
this was unsuccessful and in 1588 the provinces became a confederacy . 
the republic of the united provinces lasted until a series of republican revolutions in 1783 -- 1795 created the batavian republic . 
the republican forces fled to france , but then successfully re-invaded alongside the army of the french republic . 
the republic of the united provinces lasted until a series of republican revolutions in 1783 -- 1795 created the batavian republic . 
the netherlands regained independence from france in 1813 . 
in the anglo-dutch treaty of 1814 the names `` united provinces of the netherlands '' and `` united netherlands '' were used . 
in 1815 it was rejoined with the austrian netherlands , luxembourg and liège -lrb- the `` southern provinces '' -rrb- to become the kingdom of the netherlands , informally known as the kingdom of the united netherlands , to create a strong buffer state north of france . 
during the dutch golden age in the late 16th century onward , the dutch republic dominated world trade in the 17th century , conquering a vast colonial empire and operating the largest fleet of merchantmen of any nation . 
the county of holland was the wealthiest and most urbanized region in the world . 
the netherlands has the oldest stock exchange in the world , founded in 1602 by the dutch east india company . 
while rotterdam has the oldest bourse in the netherlands , the world 's first stock exchange -- that of the dutch east-india company -- went public in six different cities . 
while rotterdam has the oldest bourse in the netherlands , the world 's first stock exchange -- that of the dutch east-india company -- went public in six different cities . 
later , a court ruled that the company had to reside legally in a single city , so amsterdam is recognized as the oldest such institution based on modern trading principles . 
between 1590 -- 1712 the dutch also possessed one of the strongest and fastest navies in the world , allowing for their varied conquests including breaking the portuguese sphere of influence on the indian ocean and in the orient , as well as a lucrative slave trade from africa and the pacific . 
between 1590 -- 1712 the dutch also possessed one of the strongest and fastest navies in the world , allowing for their varied conquests including breaking the portuguese sphere of influence on the indian ocean and in the orient , as well as a lucrative slave trade from africa and the pacific . 
between 1590 -- 1712 the dutch also possessed one of the strongest and fastest navies in the world , allowing for their varied conquests including breaking the portuguese sphere of influence on the indian ocean and in the orient , as well as a lucrative slave trade from africa and the pacific . 
the republic was a confederation of seven provinces , which had their own governments and were very independent , and a number of so-called generality lands . 
the latter were governed directly by the states general -lrb- staten-generaal in dutch -rrb- , the federal government . 
the states general were seated in the hague and consisted of representatives of each of the seven provinces . 
in fact , there was an eighth province , the county of drenthe , but this area was so poor it was exempt from paying federal taxes and as a consequence was denied representation in the states general . 
in fact , there was an eighth province , the county of drenthe , but this area was so poor it was exempt from paying federal taxes and as a consequence was denied representation in the states general . 
each province was governed by the provincial states , the main executive official -lrb- though not the official head of state -rrb- was a raadspensionaris . 
in times of war , the stadtholder , who commanded the army , would have more power than the raadspensionaris . 
in times of war , the stadtholder , who commanded the army , would have more power than the raadspensionaris . 
in theory , the stadtholders were freely appointed by and subordinate to the states of each province . 
however , in practice the princes of orange of the house of orange-nassau , beginning with william the silent , were always chosen as stadtholders of most of the provinces . 
zeeland and usually utrecht had the same stadtholder as holland . 
there was a constant power struggle between the orangists , who supported the stadtholders and specifically the princes of orange , and the republicans , who supported the states general and hoped to replace the semi-hereditary nature of the stadtholdership with a true republican structure . 
there was a constant power struggle between the orangists , who supported the stadtholders and specifically the princes of orange , and the republicans , who supported the states general and hoped to replace the semi-hereditary nature of the stadtholdership with a true republican structure . 
after the peace of westphalia , several border territories were assigned to the united provinces . 
they were federally-governed generality lands -lrb- generaliteitslanden -rrb- . 
they were staats-brabant -lrb- present north brabant -rrb- , staats-vlaanderen -lrb- present zeeuws-vlaanderen -rrb- , staats-limburg -lrb- around maastricht -rrb- and staats-oppergelre -lrb- around venlo , after 1715 -rrb- . 
the states general of the united provinces were in control of the dutch east india company -lrb- voc -rrb- and the dutch west india company -lrb- wic -rrb- , but some shipping expeditions were initiated by some of the provinces , mostly holland and/or zeeland . 
the states general of the united provinces were in control of the dutch east india company -lrb- voc -rrb- and the dutch west india company -lrb- wic -rrb- , but some shipping expeditions were initiated by some of the provinces , mostly holland and/or zeeland . 
the framers of the us constitution were influenced by the constitution of the republic of the united provinces , as federalist no. 20 , by james madison , shows . 
the framers of the us constitution were influenced by the constitution of the republic of the united provinces , as federalist no. 20 , by james madison , shows . 
apart from this , the american declaration of independence is similar to the act of abjuration , essentially the declaration of independence of the united provinces , but concrete evidence that the former directly influenced the latter is absent . 
in the union of utrecht of 20 january 1579 , holland and zeeland were granted the right to accept only one religion -lrb- in practice , calvinism -rrb- . 
every other province had the freedom to regulate the religious question as it wished , although the union stated every person should be free in the choice of personal religion and that no person should be prosecuted based on religious choice . 
william of orange had been a strong supporter of public and personal freedom of religion and hoped to unite protestants and catholics in the new union , and , for him , the union was a defeat . 
in practice , catholic services in all provinces were quickly forbidden , and the reformed church became the `` public '' or `` privileged '' church in the republic . 
during the republic , any person who wished to hold public office had to conform to the reformed church and take an oath to this effect . 
the extent to which different religions or denominations were persecuted depended much on the time period and regional or city leaders . 
in 17th-century leiden , for instance , people opening their homes to services could be fined 200 guilders -lrb- a year 's wage for a skilled tradesman -rrb- and banned from the city . 
throughout this , however , personal freedom of religion existed and was one factor -- along with economic reasons -- in causing large immigration of religious refugees from other parts of europe . 
in the first years of the republic , controversy arose within the reformed church , mainly around the subject of predestination . 
this has become known as the struggle between arminianism and gomarism , or between remonstrants and contra-remonstrants . 
in 1618 the synod of dort tackled this issue , which led to the banning of the remonstrant faith . 
beginning in the 18th century , the situation changed from more or less active persecution of religious services to a state of restricted toleration of other religions , as long as their services took place secretly in private churches . 
beginning in the 18th century , the situation changed from more or less active persecution of religious services to a state of restricted toleration of other religions , as long as their services took place secretly in private churches . 
symbiosis -lrb- from greek σύν `` together '' and βίωσις `` living '' -rrb- is close and often long-term interaction between two different biological species . 
in 1877 albert bernhard frank used the word symbiosis -lrb- which previously had been used to depict people living together in community -rrb- to describe the mutualistic relationship in lichens . 
in 1879 , the german mycologist heinrich anton de bary defined it as `` the living together of unlike organisms . '' 
after 130 years of debate , current biology and ecology textbooks now use the latter `` de bary '' definition or an even broader definition -lrb- where symbiosis means all species interactions -rrb- , with the restrictive definition no longer used -lrb- in other words , symbiosis means mutualism -rrb- . 
some symbiotic relationships are obligate , meaning that both symbionts entirely depend on each other for survival . 
others are facultative -lrb- optional -rrb- : they can , but do not have to live with the other organism . 
for example , many lichens consist of fungal and photosynthetic symbionts that can not live on their own . 
symbiotic relationships include those associations in which one organism lives on another -lrb- ectosymbiosis , such as mistletoe -rrb- , or where one partner lives inside the other -lrb- endosymbiosis , such as lactobacilli and other bacteria in humans or symbiodinium in corals -rrb- . 
symbiosis is also classified by physical attachment of the organisms ; symbiosis in which the organisms have bodily union is called conjunctive symbiosis , and symbiosis in which they are not in union is called disjunctive symbiosis . 
symbiotic relationships include those associations in which one organism lives on another -lrb- ectosymbiosis , such as mistletoe -rrb- , or where one partner lives inside the other -lrb- endosymbiosis , such as lactobacilli and other bacteria in humans or symbiodinium in corals -rrb- . 
examples include diverse microbiomes , rhizobia , nitrogen-fixing bacteria that live in root nodules on legume roots ; actinomycete nitrogen-fixing bacteria called frankia , which live in alder tree root nodules ; single-celled algae inside reef-building corals ; and bacterial endosymbionts that provide essential nutrients to about 10 % -- 15 % of insects . 
examples include diverse microbiomes , rhizobia , nitrogen-fixing bacteria that live in root nodules on legume roots ; actinomycete nitrogen-fixing bacteria called frankia , which live in alder tree root nodules ; single-celled algae inside reef-building corals ; and bacterial endosymbionts that provide essential nutrients to about 10 % -- 15 % of insects . 
examples include diverse microbiomes , rhizobia , nitrogen-fixing bacteria that live in root nodules on legume roots ; actinomycete nitrogen-fixing bacteria called frankia , which live in alder tree root nodules ; single-celled algae inside reef-building corals ; and bacterial endosymbionts that provide essential nutrients to about 10 % -- 15 % of insects . 
examples of this include ectoparasites such as lice , commensal ectosymbionts such as the barnacles that attach themselves to the jaw of baleen whales , and mutualist ectosymbionts such as cleaner fish . 
examples of this include ectoparasites such as lice , commensal ectosymbionts such as the barnacles that attach themselves to the jaw of baleen whales , and mutualist ectosymbionts such as cleaner fish . 
ectosymbiosis , also referred to as exosymbiosis , is any symbiotic relationship in which the symbiont lives on the body surface of the host , including the inner surface of the digestive tract or the ducts of exocrine glands . 
mutualism or interspecies reciprocal altruism is a relationship between individuals of different species where both individuals benefit . 
in general , only lifelong interactions involving close physical and biochemical contact can properly be considered symbiotic . 
a large percentage of herbivores have mutualistic gut flora that help them digest plant matter , which is more difficult to digest than animal prey . 
coral reefs are the result of mutualisms between coral organisms and various types of algae that live inside them . 
most land plants and land ecosystems rely on mutualisms between the plants , which fix carbon from the air , and mycorrhyzal fungi , which help in extracting water and minerals from the ground . 
most land plants and land ecosystems rely on mutualisms between the plants , which fix carbon from the air , and mycorrhyzal fungi , which help in extracting water and minerals from the ground . 
an example of mutual symbiosis is the relationship between the ocellaris clownfish that dwell among the tentacles of ritteri sea anemones . 
a special mucus on the clownfish protects it from the stinging tentacles . 
an example of mutual symbiosis is the relationship between the ocellaris clownfish that dwell among the tentacles of ritteri sea anemones . 
a further example is the goby fish , which sometimes lives together with a shrimp . 
in case of danger the goby fish touches the shrimp with its tail to warn it . 
another non-obligate symbiosis is known from encrusting bryozoans and hermit crabs that live in a close relationship . 
these worms were discovered in the late 1980s at the hydrothermal vents near the galapagos islands and have since been found at deep-sea hydrothermal vents and cold seeps in all of the world 's oceans . 
the worm has no digestive tract and is wholly reliant on its internal symbionts for nutrition . 
these worms were discovered in the late 1980s at the hydrothermal vents near the galapagos islands and have since been found at deep-sea hydrothermal vents and cold seeps in all of the world 's oceans . 
during mutualistic symbioses , the host cell lacks some of the nutrients , which are provided by the endosymbiont . 
as a result , the host favors endosymbiont 's growth processes within itself by producing some specialized cells . 
these cells affect the genetic composition of the host in order to regulate the increasing population of the endosymbionts and ensuring that these genetic changes are passed onto the offspring via vertical transmission -lrb- heredity -rrb- . 
adaptation of the endosymbiont to the host 's lifestyle leads to many changes in the endosymbiont -- the foremost being drastic reduction in its genome size . 
this incapability of the endosymbiotic bacteria to reinstate its wild type phenotype via a recombination process is called as muller 's ratchet phenomenon . 
this could have been due to lack of selection mechanisms prevailing in the rich environment of the host . 
the word derives from the medieval latin word , formed from com - and mensa , meaning `` sharing a table '' . 
commensalism describes a relationship between two living organisms where one benefits and the other is not significantly harmed or helped . 
commensal relationships may involve one organism using another for transportation -lrb- phoresy -rrb- or for housing -lrb- inquilinism -rrb- , or it may also involve one organism using something another created , after its death -lrb- metabiosis -rrb- . 
commensal relationships may involve one organism using another for transportation -lrb- phoresy -rrb- or for housing -lrb- inquilinism -rrb- , or it may also involve one organism using something another created , after its death -lrb- metabiosis -rrb- . 
commensal relationships may involve one organism using another for transportation -lrb- phoresy -rrb- or for housing -lrb- inquilinism -rrb- , or it may also involve one organism using something another created , after its death -lrb- metabiosis -rrb- . 
a parasitic relationship is one in which one member of the association benefits while the other is harmed . 
in addition , parasites may be necrotrophic , which is to say they kill their host , or biotrophic , meaning they rely on their host 's surviving . 
in addition , parasites may be necrotrophic , which is to say they kill their host , or biotrophic , meaning they rely on their host 's surviving . 
depending on the definition used , as many as half of all animals have at least one parasitic phase in their life cycles , and it is also frequent in plants and fungi . 
an example of a biotrophic relationship would be a tick feeding on the blood of its host . 
amensalism is the type of relationship that exists where one species is inhibited or completely obliterated and one is unaffected . 
-lsb- citation needed -rsb- there are two types of amensalism , competition and antibiosis . 
-lsb- citation needed -rsb- there are two types of amensalism , competition and antibiosis . 
-lsb- citation needed -rsb- an example of antibiosis is juglans nigra -lrb- black walnut -rrb- , secreting juglone , a substance which destroys many herbaceous plants within its root zone . 
amensalism is often used to describe strongly asymmetrical competitive interactions , such as has been observed between the spanish ibex and weevils of the genus timarcha which feed upon the same type of shrub . 
amensalism is often used to describe strongly asymmetrical competitive interactions , such as has been observed between the spanish ibex and weevils of the genus timarcha which feed upon the same type of shrub . 
amensalism is an interaction where an organism inflicts harm to another organism without any costs or benefits received by the other . 
synnecrosis is a rare type of symbiosis in which the interaction between species is detrimental to both organisms involved . 
it is a short-lived condition , as the interaction eventually causes death . 
because of this , evolution selects against synnecrosis and it is uncommon in nature . 
species of bees who die after stinging their prey inflict pain on themselves -lrb- albeit to protect the hive -rrb- as well as on the victim . 
in fact , the evolution of all eukaryotes -lrb- plants , animals , fungi , and protists -rrb- is believed under the endosymbiotic theory to have resulted from a symbiosis between various sorts of bacteria . 
in fact , the evolution of all eukaryotes -lrb- plants , animals , fungi , and protists -rrb- is believed under the endosymbiotic theory to have resulted from a symbiosis between various sorts of bacteria . 
the biologist lynn margulis , famous for her work on endosymbiosis , contends that symbiosis is a major driving force behind evolution . 
according to margulis and dorion sagan , `` life did not take over the globe by combat , but by networking . '' 
symbiosis played a major role in the co-evolution of flowering plants and the animals that pollinate them . 
some groups of plants developed nectar and large sticky pollen , while insects evolved more specialized morphologies to access and collect these rich food sources . 
in some taxa of plants and insects the relationship has become dependent , where the plant species can only be pollinated by one species of insect . 
the canadian armed forces -lrb- caf ; french : forces armées canadiennes , fac -rrb- , or canadian forces -lrb- cf -rrb- -lrb- french : les forces canadiennes , fc -rrb- , is the unified armed force of canada , as constituted by the national defence act , which states : `` the canadian forces are the armed forces of her majesty raised by canada and consist of one service called the canadian armed forces . '' 
the canadian armed forces -lrb- caf ; french : forces armées canadiennes , fac -rrb- , or canadian forces -lrb- cf -rrb- -lrb- french : les forces canadiennes , fc -rrb- , is the unified armed force of canada , as constituted by the national defence act , which states : `` the canadian forces are the armed forces of her majesty raised by canada and consist of one service called the canadian armed forces . '' 
the canadian armed forces -lrb- caf ; french : forces armées canadiennes , fac -rrb- , or canadian forces -lrb- cf -rrb- -lrb- french : les forces canadiennes , fc -rrb- , is the unified armed force of canada , as constituted by the national defence act , which states : `` the canadian forces are the armed forces of her majesty raised by canada and consist of one service called the canadian armed forces . '' 
the canadian armed forces -lrb- caf ; french : forces armées canadiennes , fac -rrb- , or canadian forces -lrb- cf -rrb- -lrb- french : les forces canadiennes , fc -rrb- , is the unified armed force of canada , as constituted by the national defence act , which states : `` the canadian forces are the armed forces of her majesty raised by canada and consist of one service called the canadian armed forces . '' 
personnel may belong to either the regular force or the reserve force , which has four sub-components : the primary reserve , supplementary reserve , cadet organizations administration and training service , and the canadian rangers . 
under the national defence act , the canadian armed forces are an entity separate and distinct from the department of national defence -lrb- the federal government department responsible for administration and formation of defence policy -rrb- , which also exists as the civilian support system for the forces . 
the commander-in-chief of the canadian armed forces is the reigning canadian monarch , queen elizabeth ii , who is represented by the governor general of canada . 
the commander-in-chief of the canadian armed forces is the reigning canadian monarch , queen elizabeth ii , who is represented by the governor general of canada . 
the canadian armed forces is led by the chief of the defence staff , who is advised and assisted by the armed forces council . 
the canadian armed forces is led by the chief of the defence staff , who is advised and assisted by the armed forces council . 
during the cold war , a principal focus of canadian defence policy was contributing to the security of europe in the face of the soviet military threat . 
during the cold war , a principal focus of canadian defence policy was contributing to the security of europe in the face of the soviet military threat . 
during the cold war , a principal focus of canadian defence policy was contributing to the security of europe in the face of the soviet military threat . 
toward that end , canadian ground and air forces were based in europe from the early 1950s until the early 1990s . 
toward that end , canadian ground and air forces were based in europe from the early 1950s until the early 1990s . 
however , since the end of the cold war , as the north atlantic treaty organization -lrb- nato -rrb- has moved much of its defence focus `` out of area '' , the canadian military has also become more deeply engaged in international security operations in various other parts of the world -- most notably in afghanistan since 2002 . 
however , since the end of the cold war , as the north atlantic treaty organization -lrb- nato -rrb- has moved much of its defence focus `` out of area '' , the canadian military has also become more deeply engaged in international security operations in various other parts of the world -- most notably in afghanistan since 2002 . 
however , since the end of the cold war , as the north atlantic treaty organization -lrb- nato -rrb- has moved much of its defence focus `` out of area '' , the canadian military has also become more deeply engaged in international security operations in various other parts of the world -- most notably in afghanistan since 2002 . 
however , since the end of the cold war , as the north atlantic treaty organization -lrb- nato -rrb- has moved much of its defence focus `` out of area '' , the canadian military has also become more deeply engaged in international security operations in various other parts of the world -- most notably in afghanistan since 2002 . 
however , since the end of the cold war , as the north atlantic treaty organization -lrb- nato -rrb- has moved much of its defence focus `` out of area '' , the canadian military has also become more deeply engaged in international security operations in various other parts of the world -- most notably in afghanistan since 2002 . 
canadian defence policy today is based on the canada first defence strategy , introduced in 2008 . 
canadian defence policy today is based on the canada first defence strategy , introduced in 2008 . 
based on that strategy , the canadian military is oriented and being equipped to carry out six core missions within canada , in north america and globally . 
based on that strategy , the canadian military is oriented and being equipped to carry out six core missions within canada , in north america and globally . 
consistent with the missions and priorities outlined above , the canadian armed forces also contribute to the conduct of canadian defence diplomacy through a range of activities , including the deployment of canadian defence attachés , participation in bilateral and multilateral military forums -lrb- e.g. the system of cooperation among the american air forces -rrb- , ship and aircraft visits , military training and cooperation , and other such outreach and relationship-building efforts . 
consistent with the missions and priorities outlined above , the canadian armed forces also contribute to the conduct of canadian defence diplomacy through a range of activities , including the deployment of canadian defence attachés , participation in bilateral and multilateral military forums -lrb- e.g. the system of cooperation among the american air forces -rrb- , ship and aircraft visits , military training and cooperation , and other such outreach and relationship-building efforts . 
consistent with the missions and priorities outlined above , the canadian armed forces also contribute to the conduct of canadian defence diplomacy through a range of activities , including the deployment of canadian defence attachés , participation in bilateral and multilateral military forums -lrb- e.g. the system of cooperation among the american air forces -rrb- , ship and aircraft visits , military training and cooperation , and other such outreach and relationship-building efforts . 
consistent with the missions and priorities outlined above , the canadian armed forces also contribute to the conduct of canadian defence diplomacy through a range of activities , including the deployment of canadian defence attachés , participation in bilateral and multilateral military forums -lrb- e.g. the system of cooperation among the american air forces -rrb- , ship and aircraft visits , military training and cooperation , and other such outreach and relationship-building efforts . 
consistent with the missions and priorities outlined above , the canadian armed forces also contribute to the conduct of canadian defence diplomacy through a range of activities , including the deployment of canadian defence attachés , participation in bilateral and multilateral military forums -lrb- e.g. the system of cooperation among the american air forces -rrb- , ship and aircraft visits , military training and cooperation , and other such outreach and relationship-building efforts . 
prior to confederation in 1867 , residents of the colonies in what is now canada served as regular members of french and british forces and in local militia groups . 
prior to confederation in 1867 , residents of the colonies in what is now canada served as regular members of french and british forces and in local militia groups . 
the latter aided in the defence of their respective territories against attacks by other european powers , aboriginal peoples , and later american forces during the american revolutionary war and war of 1812 , as well as in the fenian raids , red river rebellion , and north-west rebellion . 
the latter aided in the defence of their respective territories against attacks by other european powers , aboriginal peoples , and later american forces during the american revolutionary war and war of 1812 , as well as in the fenian raids , red river rebellion , and north-west rebellion . 
consequently , the lineages of some canadian army units stretch back to the early 19th century , when militia units were formed to assist in the defence of british north america against invasion by the united states . 
the responsibility for military command remained with the british crown-in-council , with a commander-in-chief for north america stationed at halifax until the final withdrawal of british army and royal navy units from that city in 1906 . 
the responsibility for military command remained with the british crown-in-council , with a commander-in-chief for north america stationed at halifax until the final withdrawal of british army and royal navy units from that city in 1906 . 
the responsibility for military command remained with the british crown-in-council , with a commander-in-chief for north america stationed at halifax until the final withdrawal of british army and royal navy units from that city in 1906 . 
these forces were organised under the department of militia and defence , and split into the permanent and non-permanent active militias -- frequently shortened to simply the militia . 
by 1923 , the department was merged into the department of national defence , but land forces in canada were not referred to as the canadian army until november 1940 . 
the first overseas deployment of canadian military forces occurred during the second boer war , when several units were raised to serve under british command . 
the first overseas deployment of canadian military forces occurred during the second boer war , when several units were raised to serve under british command . 
similarly , when the united kingdom entered into conflict with germany in the first world war , canadian troops were called to participate in european theatres . 
the canadian crown-in-council then decided to send its forces into the second world war , as well as the korean war . 
the canadian crown-in-council then decided to send its forces into the second world war , as well as the korean war . 
since 1947 , canadian military units have participated in more than 200 operations worldwide , and completed 72 international operations . 
since 1947 , canadian military units have participated in more than 200 operations worldwide , and completed 72 international operations . 
canadian soldiers , sailors , and aviators came to be considered world-class professionals through conspicuous service during these conflicts and the country 's integral participation in nato during the cold war , first gulf war , kosovo war , and in united nations peacekeeping operations , such as the suez crisis , golan heights , cyprus , croatia , bosnia , afghanistan , and libya . 
canadian soldiers , sailors , and aviators came to be considered world-class professionals through conspicuous service during these conflicts and the country 's integral participation in nato during the cold war , first gulf war , kosovo war , and in united nations peacekeeping operations , such as the suez crisis , golan heights , cyprus , croatia , bosnia , afghanistan , and libya . 
canada maintained an aircraft carrier from 1957 to 1970 during the cold war , which never saw combat but participated in patrols during the cuban missile crisis . 
battles which are particularly notable to the canadian military include the battle of vimy ridge , the dieppe raid , the battle of ortona , the battle of passchendaele , the normandy landings , the battle for caen , the battle of the scheldt , the battle of britain , the battle of the atlantic , the strategic bombing of german cities , and more recently the battle of medak pocket , in croatia . 
battles which are particularly notable to the canadian military include the battle of vimy ridge , the dieppe raid , the battle of ortona , the battle of passchendaele , the normandy landings , the battle for caen , the battle of the scheldt , the battle of britain , the battle of the atlantic , the strategic bombing of german cities , and more recently the battle of medak pocket , in croatia . 
battles which are particularly notable to the canadian military include the battle of vimy ridge , the dieppe raid , the battle of ortona , the battle of passchendaele , the normandy landings , the battle for caen , the battle of the scheldt , the battle of britain , the battle of the atlantic , the strategic bombing of german cities , and more recently the battle of medak pocket , in croatia . 
battles which are particularly notable to the canadian military include the battle of vimy ridge , the dieppe raid , the battle of ortona , the battle of passchendaele , the normandy landings , the battle for caen , the battle of the scheldt , the battle of britain , the battle of the atlantic , the strategic bombing of german cities , and more recently the battle of medak pocket , in croatia . 
at the end of the second world war , canada possessed the fourth-largest air force and fifth-largest naval surface fleet in the world , as well as the largest volunteer army ever fielded . 
originally , canada was thought to have had the third-largest navy in the world , but with the fall of the soviet union , new data based on japanese and soviet sources found that to be incorrect . 
originally , canada was thought to have had the third-largest navy in the world , but with the fall of the soviet union , new data based on japanese and soviet sources found that to be incorrect . 
the current iteration of the canadian armed forces dates from 1 february 1968 , when the royal canadian navy , canadian army , and royal canadian air force were merged into a unified structure and superseded by elemental commands . 
the current iteration of the canadian armed forces dates from 1 february 1968 , when the royal canadian navy , canadian army , and royal canadian air force were merged into a unified structure and superseded by elemental commands . 
thereafter , a distinctly canadian army and navy was established , followed by an air force , that , because of the constitutional arrangements at the time , remained effectively under the control of the british government until canada gained legislative independence from the united kingdom in 1931 , in part due to the distinguished achievement and sacrifice of the canadian corps in the first world war . 
thereafter , a distinctly canadian army and navy was established , followed by an air force , that , because of the constitutional arrangements at the time , remained effectively under the control of the british government until canada gained legislative independence from the united kingdom in 1931 , in part due to the distinguished achievement and sacrifice of the canadian corps in the first world war . 
thereafter , a distinctly canadian army and navy was established , followed by an air force , that , because of the constitutional arrangements at the time , remained effectively under the control of the british government until canada gained legislative independence from the united kingdom in 1931 , in part due to the distinguished achievement and sacrifice of the canadian corps in the first world war . 
after the 1980s , the use of the `` canadian armed forces '' name gave way to `` canadian forces '' ; -lsb- citation needed -rsb- the `` canadian armed forces '' name returned in 2013 . 
after the 1980s , the use of the `` canadian armed forces '' name gave way to `` canadian forces '' ; -lsb- citation needed -rsb- the `` canadian armed forces '' name returned in 2013 . 
after the 1980s , the use of the `` canadian armed forces '' name gave way to `` canadian forces '' ; -lsb- citation needed -rsb- the `` canadian armed forces '' name returned in 2013 . 
after the 1980s , the use of the `` canadian armed forces '' name gave way to `` canadian forces '' ; -lsb- citation needed -rsb- the `` canadian armed forces '' name returned in 2013 . 
land forces during this period also deployed in support of peacekeeping operations within united nations sanctioned conflicts . 
they have been deployed in afghanistan until 2011 , under the nato-led united nations international security assistance force -lrb- isaf -rrb- , at the request of the government of afghanistan . 
they have been deployed in afghanistan until 2011 , under the nato-led united nations international security assistance force -lrb- isaf -rrb- , at the request of the government of afghanistan . 
they have been deployed in afghanistan until 2011 , under the nato-led united nations international security assistance force -lrb- isaf -rrb- , at the request of the government of afghanistan . 
land forces during this period also deployed in support of peacekeeping operations within united nations sanctioned conflicts . 
the armed forces are today funded by approximately $ 20.1 billion annually and are presently ranked 74th in size compared to the world 's other armed forces by number of total personnel , and 58th in terms of active personnel , standing at a strength of roughly 68,000 , plus 27,000 reservists , 5000 rangers , and 19,000 supplementary reserves , bringing the total force to approximately 119,000 . 
the armed forces are today funded by approximately $ 20.1 billion annually and are presently ranked 74th in size compared to the world 's other armed forces by number of total personnel , and 58th in terms of active personnel , standing at a strength of roughly 68,000 , plus 27,000 reservists , 5000 rangers , and 19,000 supplementary reserves , bringing the total force to approximately 119,000 . 
the armed forces are today funded by approximately $ 20.1 billion annually and are presently ranked 74th in size compared to the world 's other armed forces by number of total personnel , and 58th in terms of active personnel , standing at a strength of roughly 68,000 , plus 27,000 reservists , 5000 rangers , and 19,000 supplementary reserves , bringing the total force to approximately 119,000 . 
the number of primary reserve personnel is expected to go up to 30,000 by 2020 , and the number of active to at least 70,000 . 
if this happens the total strength would be around 124,000 . 
in 2008 the government of canada made efforts , through the canada first defence strategy , to modernize the canadian armed forces , through the purchase of new equipment , improved training and readiness , as well as the establishment of the canadian special operations regiment . 
in 2008 the government of canada made efforts , through the canada first defence strategy , to modernize the canadian armed forces , through the purchase of new equipment , improved training and readiness , as well as the establishment of the canadian special operations regiment . 
then cds , walter natynczyk , said later that year that while recruiting has become more successful , the cf was facing a problem with its rate of loss of existing members , which increased between 2006 and 2008 from 6 % to 9.2 % annually . 
the 2006 renewal and re-equipment effort has resulted in the acquisition of specific equipment -lrb- main battle tanks , artillery , unmanned air vehicles and other systems -rrb- to support the mission in afghanistan . 
it has also encompassed initiatives to renew certain so-called `` core capabilities '' -lrb- such as the air force 's medium range transport aircraft fleet -- the c-130 hercules -- and the army 's truck and armoured vehicle fleets -rrb- . 
in addition , new systems -lrb- such as c-17 globemaster iii strategic transport aircraft and ch-47 chinook heavy-lift helicopters -rrb- have also been acquired for the armed forces . 
the 2006 renewal and re-equipment effort has resulted in the acquisition of specific equipment -lrb- main battle tanks , artillery , unmanned air vehicles and other systems -rrb- to support the mission in afghanistan . 
in the 1950s , the recruitment of women was open to roles in medicine , communication , logistics , and administration . 
the roles of women in the caf began to expand in 1971 , after the department reviewed the recommendations of the royal commission on the status of women , at which time it lifted the ceiling of 1,500 women personnel , and gradually expanded employment opportunities into the non-traditional areas -- vehicle drivers and mechanics , aircraft mechanics , air-traffic controllers , military police , and firefighters . 
the roles of women in the caf began to expand in 1971 , after the department reviewed the recommendations of the royal commission on the status of women , at which time it lifted the ceiling of 1,500 women personnel , and gradually expanded employment opportunities into the non-traditional areas -- vehicle drivers and mechanics , aircraft mechanics , air-traffic controllers , military police , and firefighters . 
as a result of these reviews , the department changed its policies to permit women to serve at sea in replenishment ships and in a diving tender , with the army service battalions , in military police platoons and field ambulance units , and in most air squadrons . 
the department further reviewed personnel policies in 1978 and 1985 , after parliament passed the canadian human rights act and the canadian charter of rights and freedoms . 
in 1987 , occupations and units with the primary role of preparing for direct involvement in combat on the ground or at sea were still closed to women : infantry , armoured corps , field artillery , air-defence artillery , signals , field engineers , and naval operations . 
on 5 february 1987 , the minister of national defence created an office to study the impact of employing men and women in combat units . 
on 5 february 1987 , the minister of national defence created an office to study the impact of employing men and women in combat units . 
these trials were called combat-related employment of women . 
all military occupations were open to women in 1989 , with the exception of submarine service , which opened in 2000 . 
all military occupations were open to women in 1989 , with the exception of submarine service , which opened in 2000 . 
throughout the 1990s , the introduction of women into the combat arms increased the potential recruiting pool by about 100 percent . 
women were fully integrated in all occupations and roles by the government of jean chretien , and by 8 march 2000 , even allowed to serve on submarines . 
all equipment must be suitable for a mixed-gender force . 
combat helmets , rucksacks , combat boots , and flak jackets are designed to ensure women have the same level of protection and comfort as their male colleagues . 
women are also provided with an annual financial entitlement for the purchase of brassiere undergarments . 
it begins at the top with the most senior-ranking personnel and works its way into lower organizations . 
the canadian constitution determines that the commander-in-chief of the canadian armed forces is the country 's sovereign , who , since 1904 , has authorized his or her viceroy , the governor general , to exercise the duties ascribed to the post of commander-in-chief and to hold the associated title since 1905 . 
the canadian constitution determines that the commander-in-chief of the canadian armed forces is the country 's sovereign , who , since 1904 , has authorized his or her viceroy , the governor general , to exercise the duties ascribed to the post of commander-in-chief and to hold the associated title since 1905 . 
all troop deployment and disposition orders , including declarations of war , fall within the royal prerogative and are issued as orders in council , which must be signed by either the monarch or governor general . 
all troop deployment and disposition orders , including declarations of war , fall within the royal prerogative and are issued as orders in council , which must be signed by either the monarch or governor general . 
under the westminster system 's parliamentary customs and practices , however , the monarch and viceroy must generally follow the advice of his or her ministers in cabinet , including the prime minister and minister of national defence , who are accountable to the elected house of commons . 
the armed forces ' 115,349 personnel are divided into a hierarchy of numerous ranks of officers and non-commissioned members . 
the governor general appoints , on the advice of the prime minister , the chief of the defence staff -lrb- cds -rrb- as the highest ranking commissioned officer in the armed forces and who , as head of the armed forces council , is in command of the canadian forces . 
the governor general appoints , on the advice of the prime minister , the chief of the defence staff -lrb- cds -rrb- as the highest ranking commissioned officer in the armed forces and who , as head of the armed forces council , is in command of the canadian forces . 
the armed forces council generally operates from national defence headquarters -lrb- ndhq -rrb- in ottawa , ontario . 
on the armed forces council sit the heads of canadian joint operations command and canadian special operations forces command , the vice chief of the defence staff , and the heads of the royal canadian navy , the canadian army , the royal canadian air force and other key level 1 organizations . 
canada 's armed forces operate out of 27 canadian forces bases -lrb- cfb -rrb- across the country , including ndhq . 
both officers and non-commissioned members receive their basic training at the canadian forces leadership and recruit school in saint-jean-sur-richelieu . 
both officers and non-commissioned members receive their basic training at the canadian forces leadership and recruit school in saint-jean-sur-richelieu . 
the royal canadian navy -lrb- rcn -rrb- , headed by the commander of the royal canadian navy , includes 33 warships and submarines deployed in two fleets : maritime forces pacific -lrb- marpac -rrb- at cfb esquimalt on the west coast , and maritime forces atlantic -lrb- marlant -rrb- at her majesty 's canadian dockyard in halifax on the east coast , as well as one formation : the naval reserve headquarters -lrb- navreshq -rrb- at quebec city , quebec . 
the royal canadian navy -lrb- rcn -rrb- , headed by the commander of the royal canadian navy , includes 33 warships and submarines deployed in two fleets : maritime forces pacific -lrb- marpac -rrb- at cfb esquimalt on the west coast , and maritime forces atlantic -lrb- marlant -rrb- at her majesty 's canadian dockyard in halifax on the east coast , as well as one formation : the naval reserve headquarters -lrb- navreshq -rrb- at quebec city , quebec . 
the royal canadian navy -lrb- rcn -rrb- , headed by the commander of the royal canadian navy , includes 33 warships and submarines deployed in two fleets : maritime forces pacific -lrb- marpac -rrb- at cfb esquimalt on the west coast , and maritime forces atlantic -lrb- marlant -rrb- at her majesty 's canadian dockyard in halifax on the east coast , as well as one formation : the naval reserve headquarters -lrb- navreshq -rrb- at quebec city , quebec . 
the rcn participates in nato exercises and operations , and ships are deployed all over the world in support of multinational deployments . 
the canadian army is headed by the commander of the canadian army and administered through four divisions -- the 2nd canadian division , the 3rd canadian division , the 4th canadian division and the 5th canadian division -- the canadian army doctrine and training system and the canadian army headquarters . 
the canadian army is headed by the commander of the canadian army and administered through four divisions -- the 2nd canadian division , the 3rd canadian division , the 4th canadian division and the 5th canadian division -- the canadian army doctrine and training system and the canadian army headquarters . 
the canadian army is headed by the commander of the canadian army and administered through four divisions -- the 2nd canadian division , the 3rd canadian division , the 4th canadian division and the 5th canadian division -- the canadian army doctrine and training system and the canadian army headquarters . 
the canadian army is headed by the commander of the canadian army and administered through four divisions -- the 2nd canadian division , the 3rd canadian division , the 4th canadian division and the 5th canadian division -- the canadian army doctrine and training system and the canadian army headquarters . 
the canadian army is headed by the commander of the canadian army and administered through four divisions -- the 2nd canadian division , the 3rd canadian division , the 4th canadian division and the 5th canadian division -- the canadian army doctrine and training system and the canadian army headquarters . 
currently , the regular force component of the army consists of three field-ready brigade groups : 1 canadian mechanized brigade group , at cfb edmonton and cfb shilo ; 2 canadian mechanized brigade group , at cfb petawawa and cfb gagetown ; and 5 canadian mechanized brigade group , at cfb valcartier and quebec city . 
currently , the regular force component of the army consists of three field-ready brigade groups : 1 canadian mechanized brigade group , at cfb edmonton and cfb shilo ; 2 canadian mechanized brigade group , at cfb petawawa and cfb gagetown ; and 5 canadian mechanized brigade group , at cfb valcartier and quebec city . 
a tactical helicopter squadron and a field ambulance are co-located with each brigade , but do not form part of the brigade 's command structure . 
a tactical helicopter squadron and a field ambulance are co-located with each brigade , but do not form part of the brigade 's command structure . 
major training and support establishments exist at cfb gagetown , cfb montreal and cfb wainwright . 
the royal canadian air force -lrb- rcaf -rrb- is headed by the commander of the royal canadian air force . 
the commander of 1 canadian air division and canadian norad region , based in winnipeg , is responsible for the operational command and control of air force activities throughout canada and worldwide . 
1 canadian air division operations are carried out through eleven wings located across canada . 
wings represent the grouping of various squadrons , both operational and support , under a single tactical commander reporting to the operational commander and vary in size from several hundred personnel to several thousand . 
major air bases are located in british columbia , alberta , saskatchewan , manitoba , ontario , quebec , nova scotia , and newfoundland and labrador , while administrative and command and control facilities are located in winnipeg and north bay . 
major air bases are located in british columbia , alberta , saskatchewan , manitoba , ontario , quebec , nova scotia , and newfoundland and labrador , while administrative and command and control facilities are located in winnipeg and north bay . 
a canadian component of the nato airborne early warning force is also based at nato air base geilenkirchen near geilenkirchen , germany . 
a canadian component of the nato airborne early warning force is also based at nato air base geilenkirchen near geilenkirchen , germany . 
major air bases are located in british columbia , alberta , saskatchewan , manitoba , ontario , quebec , nova scotia , and newfoundland and labrador , while administrative and command and control facilities are located in winnipeg and north bay . 
the rcaf and joint task force -lrb- north -rrb- -lrb- jtfn -rrb- also maintain at various points throughout canada 's northern region a chain of forward operating locations , each capable of supporting fighter operations . 
the rcaf and joint task force -lrb- north -rrb- -lrb- jtfn -rrb- also maintain at various points throughout canada 's northern region a chain of forward operating locations , each capable of supporting fighter operations . 
the rcaf and joint task force -lrb- north -rrb- -lrb- jtfn -rrb- also maintain at various points throughout canada 's northern region a chain of forward operating locations , each capable of supporting fighter operations . 
elements of cf-18 squadrons periodically deploy to these airports for short training exercises or arctic sovereignty patrols . 
elements of cf-18 squadrons periodically deploy to these airports for short training exercises or arctic sovereignty patrols . 
the canadian joint operations command is an operational element established in october 2012 with the merger of canada command , the canadian expeditionary force command and the canadian operational support command . 
the canadian joint operations command is an operational element established in october 2012 with the merger of canada command , the canadian expeditionary force command and the canadian operational support command . 
the new command , created as a response to the cost-cutting measures in the 2012 federal budget , combines the resources , roles and responsibilities of the three former commands under a single headquarters . 
the canadian special operations forces command -lrb- cansofcom -rrb- is a formation capable of operating independently but primarily focused on generating special operations forces -lrb- sof -rrb- elements to support cjoc . 
the canadian special operations forces command -lrb- cansofcom -rrb- is a formation capable of operating independently but primarily focused on generating special operations forces -lrb- sof -rrb- elements to support cjoc . 
the canadian special operations forces command -lrb- cansofcom -rrb- is a formation capable of operating independently but primarily focused on generating special operations forces -lrb- sof -rrb- elements to support cjoc . 
the command includes joint task force 2 -lrb- jtf2 -rrb- , the canadian joint incident response unit -lrb- cjiru -rrb- based at cfb trenton , as well as the canadian special operations regiment -lrb- csor -rrb- and 427 special operations aviation squadron -lrb- soas -rrb- based at cfb petawawa . 
the command includes joint task force 2 -lrb- jtf2 -rrb- , the canadian joint incident response unit -lrb- cjiru -rrb- based at cfb trenton , as well as the canadian special operations regiment -lrb- csor -rrb- and 427 special operations aviation squadron -lrb- soas -rrb- based at cfb petawawa . 
among other things , the information management group is responsible for the conduct of electronic warfare and the protection of the armed forces ' communications and computer networks . 
within the group , this operational role is fulfilled by the canadian forces information operations group , headquartered at cfs leitrim in ottawa , which operates the following units : the canadian forces information operations group headquarters -lrb- cfioghq -rrb- , the canadian forces electronic warfare centre -lrb- cfewc -rrb- , the canadian forces network operation centre -lrb- cfnoc -rrb- , the canadian forces signals intelligence operations centre -lrb- cfsoc -rrb- , the canadian forces station -lrb- cfs -rrb- leitrim , and the 764 communications squadron . 
within that directorate the newly established caf cyber task force , has been tasked to design and build cyber warfare capabilities for the canadian armed forces . 
in june 2011 the canadian armed forces chief of force development announced the establishment of a new organization , the directorate of cybernetics , headed by a brigadier general , the director general cyber -lrb- dg cyber -rrb- . 
in june 2011 the canadian armed forces chief of force development announced the establishment of a new organization , the directorate of cybernetics , headed by a brigadier general , the director general cyber -lrb- dg cyber -rrb- . 
the health services group is a joint formation that includes over 120 general or specialized units and detachments providing health services to the canadian armed forces . 
with few exceptions , all elements are under command of the surgeon general for domestic support and force generation , or temporarily assigned under command of a deployed joint task force through canadian joint operations command . 
with few exceptions , all elements are under command of the surgeon general for domestic support and force generation , or temporarily assigned under command of a deployed joint task force through canadian joint operations command . 
the canadian armed forces have a total reserve force of approximately 50,000 primary and supplementary that can be called upon in times of national emergency or threat . 
the canadian armed forces have a total reserve force of approximately 50,000 primary and supplementary that can be called upon in times of national emergency or threat . 
this group is represented , though not commanded , at ndhq by the chief of reserves and cadets , who is usually a major general or rear admiral , and is divided into four components that are each operationally and administratively responsible to its corresponding environmental command in the regular force -- the naval reserve -lrb- navres -rrb- , land force reserve -lrb- lfr -rrb- , and air reserve -lrb- airres -rrb- -- in addition to one force that does not fall under an environmental command , the health services reserve under the canadian forces health services group . 
this group is represented , though not commanded , at ndhq by the chief of reserves and cadets , who is usually a major general or rear admiral , and is divided into four components that are each operationally and administratively responsible to its corresponding environmental command in the regular force -- the naval reserve -lrb- navres -rrb- , land force reserve -lrb- lfr -rrb- , and air reserve -lrb- airres -rrb- -- in addition to one force that does not fall under an environmental command , the health services reserve under the canadian forces health services group . 
the cadet organizations administration and training service -lrb- coats -rrb- consists of officers and non-commissioned members who conduct training , safety , supervision and administration of nearly 60,000 cadets aged 12 to 18 years in the canadian cadet movement . 
the cadet organizations administration and training service -lrb- coats -rrb- consists of officers and non-commissioned members who conduct training , safety , supervision and administration of nearly 60,000 cadets aged 12 to 18 years in the canadian cadet movement . 
the majority of members in coats are officers of the cadet instructors cadre -lrb- cic -rrb- branch of the caf . 
members of the reserve force sub-component coats who are not employed part-time -lrb- class a -rrb- or full-time -lrb- class b -rrb- may be held on the `` cadet instructor supplementary staff list '' -lrb- ciss list -rrb- in anticipation of employment in the same manner as other reservists are held as members of the supplementary reserve . 
the canadian rangers , who provide surveillance and patrol services in canada 's arctic and other remote areas , are an essential reserve force component used for canada 's exercise of sovereignty over its northern territory . 
the canadian rangers , who provide surveillance and patrol services in canada 's arctic and other remote areas , are an essential reserve force component used for canada 's exercise of sovereignty over its northern territory . 
the canadian rangers , who provide surveillance and patrol services in canada 's arctic and other remote areas , are an essential reserve force component used for canada 's exercise of sovereignty over its northern territory . 
the canadian rangers , who provide surveillance and patrol services in canada 's arctic and other remote areas , are an essential reserve force component used for canada 's exercise of sovereignty over its northern territory . 
only service dress is suitable for caf members to wear on any occasion , barring `` dirty work '' or combat . 
with gloves , swords , and medals -lrb- no. 1 or 1a -rrb- , it is suitable for ceremonial occasions and `` dressed down '' -lrb- no. 3 or lower -rrb- , it is suitable for daily wear . 
generally , after the elimination of base dress -lrb- although still defined for the air force uniform -rrb- , operational dress is now the daily uniform worn by most members of the cf , unless service dress is prescribed -lrb- such as at the ndhq , on parades , at public events , etc. -rrb- . 
approved parkas are authorized for winter wear in cold climates and a light casual jacket is also authorized for cooler days . 
the navy , most army , and some other units have , for very specific occasions , a ceremonial/regimental full dress , such as the naval `` high-collar '' white uniform , kilted highland , scottish , and irish regiments , and the scarlet uniforms of the royal military colleges . 
authorized headdress for the canadian armed forces are the : beret , wedge cap , ballcap , yukon cap , and tuque -lrb- toque -rrb- . 
each is coloured according to the distinctive uniform worn : navy -lrb- white or navy blue -rrb- , army -lrb- rifle green or `` regimental '' colour -rrb- , air force -lrb- light blue -rrb- . 
the beret is probably the most widely worn headgear and is worn with almost all orders of dress -lrb- with the exception of the more formal orders of navy and air force dress -rrb- , and the colour of which is determined by the wearer 's environment , branch , or mission . 
the canadian army wears the cg634 helmet . 
the constitution of canada gives the federal government exclusive responsibility for national defence , and expenditures are thus outlined in the federal budget . 
this regular funding was augmented in 2005 with an additional cad$ 12.5 billion over five years , as well as a commitment to increasing regular force troop levels by 5,000 persons , and the primary reserve by 3,000 over the same period . 
in 1059 , the right of electing the pope was reserved to the principal clergy of rome and the bishops of the seven suburbicarian sees . 
in the 12th century the practice of appointing ecclesiastics from outside rome as cardinals began , with each of them assigned a church in rome as his titular church or linked with one of the suburbicarian dioceses , while still being incardinated in a diocese other than that of rome . 
the term cardinal at one time applied to any priest permanently assigned or incardinated to a church , or specifically to the senior priest of an important church , based on the latin cardo -lrb- hinge -rrb- , meaning `` principal '' or `` chief '' . 
the term was applied in this sense as early as the ninth century to the priests of the tituli -lrb- parishes -rrb- of the diocese of rome . 
the term was applied in this sense as early as the ninth century to the priests of the tituli -lrb- parishes -rrb- of the diocese of rome . 
the term cardinal at one time applied to any priest permanently assigned or incardinated to a church , or specifically to the senior priest of an important church , based on the latin cardo -lrb- hinge -rrb- , meaning `` principal '' or `` chief '' . 
the church of england retains an instance of this origin of the title , which is held by the two senior members of the college of minor canons of st paul 's cathedral . 
in rome the first persons to be called cardinals were the deacons of the seven regions of the city at the beginning of the 6th century , when the word began to mean `` principal , '' `` eminent , '' or `` superior . '' 
by the 8th century the roman cardinals constituted a privileged class among the roman clergy . 
by decree of a synod of 769 , only a cardinal was eligible to become pope . 
in 1059 , during the pontificate of nicholas ii , cardinals were given the right to elect the pope under the papal bull in nomine domini . 
in 1059 , during the pontificate of nicholas ii , cardinals were given the right to elect the pope under the papal bull in nomine domini . 
cardinals were granted the privilege of wearing the red hat by pope innocent iv in 1244 . 
cardinals were granted the privilege of wearing the red hat by pope innocent iv in 1244 . 
in cities other than rome , the name cardinal began to be applied to certain church men as a mark of honour . 
the earliest example of this occurs in a letter sent by pope zacharias in 747 to pippin iii -lrb- the short -rrb- , ruler of the franks , in which zacharias applied the title to the priests of paris to distinguish them from country clergy . 
the use of the title was reserved for the cardinals of rome in 1567 by pius v. 
the earliest example of this occurs in a letter sent by pope zacharias in 747 to pippin iii -lrb- the short -rrb- , ruler of the franks , in which zacharias applied the title to the priests of paris to distinguish them from country clergy . 
the earliest example of this occurs in a letter sent by pope zacharias in 747 to pippin iii -lrb- the short -rrb- , ruler of the franks , in which zacharias applied the title to the priests of paris to distinguish them from country clergy . 
the use of the title was reserved for the cardinals of rome in 1567 by pius v. 
the use of the title was reserved for the cardinals of rome in 1567 by pius v. 
in the year 1563 the influential ecumenical council of trent , headed by pope pius iv , wrote about the importance of selecting good cardinals . 
in the year 1563 the influential ecumenical council of trent , headed by pope pius iv , wrote about the importance of selecting good cardinals . 
in the year 1563 the influential ecumenical council of trent , headed by pope pius iv , wrote about the importance of selecting good cardinals . 
in the year 1563 the influential ecumenical council of trent , headed by pope pius iv , wrote about the importance of selecting good cardinals . 
the earlier influence of temporal rulers , notably the french kings , reasserted itself through the influence of cardinals of certain nationalities or politically significant movements . 
in early modern times , cardinals often had important roles in secular affairs . 
cardinal richelieu 's power was so great that he was for many years effectively the ruler of france . 
cardinal richelieu 's power was so great that he was for many years effectively the ruler of france . 
-lsb- citation needed -rsb- in portugal , due to a succession crisis , one cardinal , henry , king of portugal , was crowned king , the only example of a cardinal-king . 
pope sixtus v limited the number of cardinals to 70 , comprising six cardinal bishops , 50 cardinal priests , and 14 cardinal deacons . 
pope sixtus v limited the number of cardinals to 70 , comprising six cardinal bishops , 50 cardinal priests , and 14 cardinal deacons . 
starting in the pontificate of pope john xxiii , that limit has been exceeded . 
at the start of 1971 , pope paul vi set the number of cardinal electors at a maximum of 120 , but set no limit on the number of cardinals generally . 
-lsb- citation needed -rsb- popes can dispense from church laws and have sometimes brought the number of cardinals under the age of 80 to more than 120 . 
at the start of 1971 , pope paul vi set the number of cardinal electors at a maximum of 120 , but set no limit on the number of cardinals generally . 
at the start of 1971 , pope paul vi set the number of cardinal electors at a maximum of 120 , but set no limit on the number of cardinals generally . 
each cardinal takes on a titular church , either a church in the city of rome or one of the suburbicarian sees . 
the dean of the college of cardinals in addition to such a titular church also receives the titular bishopric of ostia , the primary suburbicarian see . 
the dean of the college of cardinals in addition to such a titular church also receives the titular bishopric of ostia , the primary suburbicarian see . 
in 1630 , pope urban viii decreed their title to be eminence -lrb- previously , it had been `` illustrissimo '' and `` reverendissimo '' -rrb- and decreed that their secular rank would equate to prince , making them secondary only to the pope and crowned monarchs . 
in 1630 , pope urban viii decreed their title to be eminence -lrb- previously , it had been `` illustrissimo '' and `` reverendissimo '' -rrb- and decreed that their secular rank would equate to prince , making them secondary only to the pope and crowned monarchs . 
in 1630 , pope urban viii decreed their title to be eminence -lrb- previously , it had been `` illustrissimo '' and `` reverendissimo '' -rrb- and decreed that their secular rank would equate to prince , making them secondary only to the pope and crowned monarchs . 
in 1630 , pope urban viii decreed their title to be eminence -lrb- previously , it had been `` illustrissimo '' and `` reverendissimo '' -rrb- and decreed that their secular rank would equate to prince , making them secondary only to the pope and crowned monarchs . 
in 1630 , pope urban viii decreed their title to be eminence -lrb- previously , it had been `` illustrissimo '' and `` reverendissimo '' -rrb- and decreed that their secular rank would equate to prince , making them secondary only to the pope and crowned monarchs . 
official sources such as the archdiocese of milwaukee and catholic news service say that the correct form for referring to a cardinal in english is normally as `` cardinal -lsb- first name -rsb- -lsb- surname -rsb- '' . 
official sources such as the archdiocese of milwaukee and catholic news service say that the correct form for referring to a cardinal in english is normally as `` cardinal -lsb- first name -rsb- -lsb- surname -rsb- '' . 
in accordance with tradition , they sign by placing the title `` cardinal '' -lrb- abbreviated card . -rrb- 
oriental patriarchs who are created cardinals customarily use `` sanctae ecclesiae cardinalis '' as their full title , probably because they do not belong to the roman clergy . 
oriental patriarchs who are created cardinals customarily use `` sanctae ecclesiae cardinalis '' as their full title , probably because they do not belong to the roman clergy . 
in latin , on the other hand , the -lsb- first name -rsb- cardinal -lsb- surname -rsb- order is used in the proclamation of the election of a new pope by the cardinal protodeacon : `` annuntio vobis gaudium magnum ; habemus papam : eminentissimum ac reverendissimum dominum , dominum -lrb- first name -rrb- sanctae romanae ecclesiae cardinalem -lrb- last name -rrb- , ... '' -lrb- meaning : `` i announce to you a great joy ; we have a pope : the most eminent and most reverend lord , lord -lrb- first name -rrb- cardinal of the holy roman church -lrb- last name -rrb- , ... '' -rrb- this assumes that the new pope had been a cardinal just before becoming pope ; the most recent election of a non-cardinal as pope was in 1378 . 
in latin , on the other hand , the -lsb- first name -rsb- cardinal -lsb- surname -rsb- order is used in the proclamation of the election of a new pope by the cardinal protodeacon : `` annuntio vobis gaudium magnum ; habemus papam : eminentissimum ac reverendissimum dominum , dominum -lrb- first name -rrb- sanctae romanae ecclesiae cardinalem -lrb- last name -rrb- , ... '' -lrb- meaning : `` i announce to you a great joy ; we have a pope : the most eminent and most reverend lord , lord -lrb- first name -rrb- cardinal of the holy roman church -lrb- last name -rrb- , ... '' -rrb- this assumes that the new pope had been a cardinal just before becoming pope ; the most recent election of a non-cardinal as pope was in 1378 . 
in latin , on the other hand , the -lsb- first name -rsb- cardinal -lsb- surname -rsb- order is used in the proclamation of the election of a new pope by the cardinal protodeacon : `` annuntio vobis gaudium magnum ; habemus papam : eminentissimum ac reverendissimum dominum , dominum -lrb- first name -rrb- sanctae romanae ecclesiae cardinalem -lrb- last name -rrb- , ... '' -lrb- meaning : `` i announce to you a great joy ; we have a pope : the most eminent and most reverend lord , lord -lrb- first name -rrb- cardinal of the holy roman church -lrb- last name -rrb- , ... '' -rrb- this assumes that the new pope had been a cardinal just before becoming pope ; the most recent election of a non-cardinal as pope was in 1378 . 
in latin , on the other hand , the -lsb- first name -rsb- cardinal -lsb- surname -rsb- order is used in the proclamation of the election of a new pope by the cardinal protodeacon : `` annuntio vobis gaudium magnum ; habemus papam : eminentissimum ac reverendissimum dominum , dominum -lrb- first name -rrb- sanctae romanae ecclesiae cardinalem -lrb- last name -rrb- , ... '' -lrb- meaning : `` i announce to you a great joy ; we have a pope : the most eminent and most reverend lord , lord -lrb- first name -rrb- cardinal of the holy roman church -lrb- last name -rrb- , ... '' -rrb- this assumes that the new pope had been a cardinal just before becoming pope ; the most recent election of a non-cardinal as pope was in 1378 . 
while the incumbents of some sees are regularly made cardinals , and some countries are entitled to at least one cardinal by concordate -lrb- usually earning its primate the cardinal 's hat -rrb- , no see carries an actual right to the cardinalate , not even if its bishop is a patriarch . 
while the incumbents of some sees are regularly made cardinals , and some countries are entitled to at least one cardinal by concordate -lrb- usually earning its primate the cardinal 's hat -rrb- , no see carries an actual right to the cardinalate , not even if its bishop is a patriarch . 
cardinal bishops -lrb- cardinals of the episcopal order -rrb- are among the most senior prelates of the catholic church . 
cardinal bishops -lrb- cardinals of the episcopal order -rrb- are among the most senior prelates of the catholic church . 
cardinal bishops -lrb- cardinals of the episcopal order -rrb- are among the most senior prelates of the catholic church . 
in early times , the privilege of papal election was not reserved to the cardinals , and for centuries the person elected was customarily a roman priest and never a bishop from elsewhere . 
to preserve apostolic succession the rite of consecrating him a bishop had to be performed by someone who was already a bishop . 
the rule remains that , if the person elected pope is not yet a bishop , he is consecrated by the dean of the college of cardinals , the cardinal bishop of ostia . 
the rule remains that , if the person elected pope is not yet a bishop , he is consecrated by the dean of the college of cardinals , the cardinal bishop of ostia . 
there are seven suburbicarian sees : ostia , albano , porto and santa rufina , palestrina , sabina and mentana , frascati and velletri . 
velletri was united with ostia from 1150 until 1914 , when pope pius x separated them again , but decreed that whatever cardinal bishop became dean of the college of cardinals would keep the suburbicarian see he already held , adding to it that of ostia , with the result that there continued to be only six cardinal bishops . 
velletri was united with ostia from 1150 until 1914 , when pope pius x separated them again , but decreed that whatever cardinal bishop became dean of the college of cardinals would keep the suburbicarian see he already held , adding to it that of ostia , with the result that there continued to be only six cardinal bishops . 
there are seven suburbicarian sees : ostia , albano , porto and santa rufina , palestrina , sabina and mentana , frascati and velletri . 
since 1962 , the cardinal bishops have only a titular relationship with the suburbicarian sees , with no powers of governance over them . 
each see has its own bishop , with the exception of ostia , in which the cardinal vicar of the see of rome is apostolic administrator . 
each see has its own bishop , with the exception of ostia , in which the cardinal vicar of the see of rome is apostolic administrator . 
since 1962 , the cardinal bishops have only a titular relationship with the suburbicarian sees , with no powers of governance over them . 
each see has its own bishop , with the exception of ostia , in which the cardinal vicar of the see of rome is apostolic administrator . 
each see has its own bishop , with the exception of ostia , in which the cardinal vicar of the see of rome is apostolic administrator . 
the cardinals of the church are collectively known as the college of cardinals . 
cardinals have in canon law a `` privilege of forum '' -lrb- i.e. , exemption from being judged by ecclesiastical tribunals of ordinary rank -rrb- : only the pope is competent to judge them in matters subject to ecclesiastical jurisdiction -lrb- cases that refer to matters that are spiritual or linked with the spiritual , or with regard to infringement of ecclesiastical laws and whatever contains an element of sin , where culpability must be determined and the appropriate ecclesiastical penalty imposed -rrb- . 
to symbolize their bond with the papacy , the pope gives each newly appointed cardinal a gold ring , which is traditionally kissed by catholics when greeting a cardinal -lrb- as with a bishop 's episcopal ring -rrb- . 
to symbolize their bond with the papacy , the pope gives each newly appointed cardinal a gold ring , which is traditionally kissed by catholics when greeting a cardinal -lrb- as with a bishop 's episcopal ring -rrb- . 
in previous times , at the consistory at which the pope named a new cardinal , he would bestow upon him a distinctive wide-brimmed hat called a galero . 
this custom was discontinued in 1969 and the investiture now takes place with the scarlet biretta . 
this custom was discontinued in 1969 and the investiture now takes place with the scarlet biretta . 
eastern catholic cardinals continue to wear the normal dress appropriate to their liturgical tradition , though some may line their cassocks with scarlet and wear scarlet fascias , or in some cases , wear eastern-style cassocks entirely of scarlet . 
when in choir dress , a latin-rite cardinal wears scarlet garments -- the blood-like red symbolizes a cardinal 's willingness to die for his faith . 
excluding the rochet -- which is always white -- the scarlet garments include the cassock , mozzetta , and biretta -lrb- over the usual scarlet zucchetto -rrb- . 
it is because of the scarlet color of cardinals ' vesture that the bird of the same name has become known as such . 
until the 1460s , it was customary for cardinals to wear a violet or blue cape unless granted the privilege of wearing red when acting on papal business . 
if a pope dies before revealing the identity of an in pectore cardinal , the cardinalate expires . 
beginning with the reign of pope martin v , cardinals were created without publishing their names until later , termed creati et reservati in pectore . 
though clerics , they were inaccurately called `` lay cardinals '' and were permitted to marry . 
with the revision of the code of canon law promulgated in 1917 by pope benedict xv , only those who are already priests or bishops may be appointed cardinals . 
with the revision of the code of canon law promulgated in 1917 by pope benedict xv , only those who are already priests or bishops may be appointed cardinals . 
even if not a bishop , any cardinal has both actual and honorary precedence over non-cardinal patriarchs , as well as the archbishops and bishops who are not cardinals , but he can not perform the functions reserved solely to bishops , such as ordination . 
the prominent priests who since 1962 were not ordained bishops on their elevation to the cardinalate were over the age of 80 or near to it , and so no cardinal who was not a bishop has participated in recent papal conclaves . 
until 1917 , it was possible for someone who was not a priest , but only in minor orders , to become a cardinal -lrb- see `` lay cardinals '' , below -rrb- , but they were enrolled only in the order of cardinal deacons . 
in 1917 it was established that all cardinals , even cardinal deacons , had to be priests , and , in 1962 , pope john xxiii set the norm that all cardinals be ordained as bishops , even if they are only priests at the time of appointment . 
he is to collate information about the financial situation of all administrations dependent on the holy see and present the results to the college of cardinals , as they gather for the papal conclave . 
the cardinal protodeacon , the senior cardinal deacon in order of appointment to the college of cardinals , has the privilege of announcing a new pope 's election and name -lrb- once he has been ordained to the episcopate -rrb- from the central balcony at the basilica of saint peter in vatican city state . 
the cardinal protodeacon , the senior cardinal deacon in order of appointment to the college of cardinals , has the privilege of announcing a new pope 's election and name -lrb- once he has been ordained to the episcopate -rrb- from the central balcony at the basilica of saint peter in vatican city state . 
however , in 1978 pope john paul i chose not to be crowned and opted for a simpler papal inauguration ceremony , and his three successors followed that example . 
when not celebrating mass but still serving a liturgical function , such as the semiannual urbi et orbi papal blessing , some papal masses and some events at ecumenical councils , cardinal deacons can be recognized by the dalmatics they would don with the simple white mitre -lrb- so called mitra simplex -rrb- . 
as of 2005 , there were over 50 churches recognized as cardinalatial deaconries , though there were only 30 cardinals of the order of deacons . 
cardinal deacons have long enjoyed the right to `` opt for the order of cardinal priests '' -lrb- optazione -rrb- after they have been cardinal deacons for 10 years . 
while in 1939 about half were italian by 1994 the number was reduced to one third . 
while in 1939 about half were italian by 1994 the number was reduced to one third . 
cardinal deacons derive originally from the seven deacons in the papal household and the seven deacons who supervised the church 's works in the districts of rome during the early middle ages , when church administration was effectively the government of rome and provided all social services . 
the cardinal deacons are the lowest-ranking cardinals . 
the cardinal who is the longest-serving member of the order of cardinal priests is titled cardinal protopriest . 
the current cardinal protopriest is paulo evaristo arns of brazil . 
the dean of the college of cardinals , or cardinal-dean , is the primus inter pares of the college of cardinals , elected by the cardinal bishops holding suburbicarian sees from among their own number , an election , however , that must be approved by the pope . 
patriarch cardinals do not receive title of a suburbicarian see , and as such they can not elect the dean or become dean . 
cardinal priests are the most numerous of the three orders of cardinals in the catholic church , ranking above the cardinal deacons and below the cardinal bishops . 
cardinal priests are the most numerous of the three orders of cardinals in the catholic church , ranking above the cardinal deacons and below the cardinal bishops . 
cardinal priests are the most numerous of the three orders of cardinals in the catholic church , ranking above the cardinal deacons and below the cardinal bishops . 
originally , however , this referred to certain key priests of important churches of the diocese of rome , who were recognized as the cardinal priests , the important priests chosen by the pope to advise him in his duties as bishop of rome -lrb- the latin cardo means `` hinge '' -rrb- . 
while the cardinalate has long been expanded beyond the roman pastoral clergy and roman curia , every cardinal priest has a titular church in rome , though they may be bishops or archbishops elsewhere , just as cardinal bishops are given one of the suburbicarian dioceses around rome . 
in 1587 , pope sixtus v sought to arrest this growth by fixing the maximum size of the college at 70 , including 50 cardinal priests , about twice the historical number . 
in 1587 , pope sixtus v sought to arrest this growth by fixing the maximum size of the college at 70 , including 50 cardinal priests , about twice the historical number . 
when pope john xxiii abolished the limit , he began to add new churches to the list , which popes paul vi and john paul ii continued to do . 
the iranian languages or iranic languages form a branch of the indo-iranian languages , which in turn are a branch of the indo-european language family . 
the iranian languages or iranic languages form a branch of the indo-iranian languages , which in turn are a branch of the indo-european language family . 
the iranian languages or iranic languages form a branch of the indo-iranian languages , which in turn are a branch of the indo-european language family . 
historical iranian languages are grouped in three stages : old iranian -lrb- until 400 bce -rrb- , middle iranian -lrb- 400 bce -- 900 ce -rrb- , and new iranian -lrb- since 900 ce -rrb- . 
middle iranian languages included middle persian -lrb- a language of sassanid iran -rrb- , parthian , and bactrian . 
ethnologue estimates there are 86 iranian languages , the largest amongst them being persian , pashto , kurdish , and balochi . 
the term iranian is applied to any language which descends from the ancestral proto-iranian language . 
iranian derives from the persian and sanskrit origin word arya . 
the use of the term for the iranian language family was introduced in 1836 by christian lassen . 
the use of the term for the iranian language family was introduced in 1836 by christian lassen . 
robert needham cust used the term irano-aryan in 1878 , and orientalists such as george abraham grierson and max müller contrasted irano-aryan -lrb- iranian -rrb- and indo-aryan -lrb- indic -rrb- . 
robert needham cust used the term irano-aryan in 1878 , and orientalists such as george abraham grierson and max müller contrasted irano-aryan -lrb- iranian -rrb- and indo-aryan -lrb- indic -rrb- . 
all iranian languages are descended from a common ancestor , proto-iranian . 
the indo-iranian languages are thought to have originated in central asia . 
the andronovo culture is the suggested candidate for the common indo-iranian culture ca. 2000 bc . 
the andronovo culture is the suggested candidate for the common indo-iranian culture ca. 2000 bc . 
it was in relative proximity to the other satem ethno-linguistic groups of the indo-european family , like thracian , balto-slavic and others , and to common indo-european 's original homeland -lrb- more precisely , the steppes of southern russia to the north of the caucasus -rrb- , according to the reconstructed linguistic relationships of common indo-european . 
proto-iranian thus dates to some time after proto-indo-iranian break-up , or the early second millennium bce , as the old iranian languages began to break off and evolve separately as the various iranian tribes migrated and settled in vast areas of southeastern europe , the iranian plateau , and central asia . 
the multitude of middle iranian languages and peoples indicate that great linguistic diversity must have existed among the ancient speakers of iranian languages . 
of that variety of languages/dialects , direct evidence of only two have survived . 
genuine old persian is best attested in one of the three languages of the behistun inscription , composed circa 520 bc , and which is the last inscription -lrb- and only inscription of significant length -rrb- in which old persian is still grammatically correct . 
genuine old persian is best attested in one of the three languages of the behistun inscription , composed circa 520 bc , and which is the last inscription -lrb- and only inscription of significant length -rrb- in which old persian is still grammatically correct . 
later inscriptions are comparatively brief , and typically simply copies of words and phrases from earlier ones , often with grammatical errors , which suggests that by the 4th century bc the transition from old persian to middle persian was already far advanced , but efforts were still being made to retain an `` old '' quality for official proclamations . 
the other directly attested old iranian dialects are the two forms of avestan , which take their name from their use in the avesta , the liturgical texts of indigenous iranian religion that now goes by the name of zoroastrianism but in the avesta itself is simply known as vohu daena -lrb- later : behdin -rrb- . 
the other directly attested old iranian dialects are the two forms of avestan , which take their name from their use in the avesta , the liturgical texts of indigenous iranian religion that now goes by the name of zoroastrianism but in the avesta itself is simply known as vohu daena -lrb- later : behdin -rrb- . 
the old avestan dialect is very archaic , and at roughly the same stage of development as rigvedic sanskrit . 
on the other hand , younger avestan is at about the same linguistic stage as old persian , but by virtue of its use as a sacred language retained its `` old '' characteristics long after the old iranian languages had yielded to their middle iranian stage . 
such hypothetical old iranian languages include carduchi -lrb- the hypothetical predecessor to kurdish -rrb- and old parthian . 
also , foreign references to languages can also provide a hint to the existence of otherwise unattested languages , for example through toponyms/ethnonyms or in the recording of vocabulary , as herodotus did for what he called `` scythian '' . 
these terms have little meaning with respect to old avestan as that stage of the language may predate the settling of the iranian peoples into western and eastern groups . 
certain is only that avestan -lrb- all forms -rrb- and old persian are distinct , and since old persian is `` western '' , and avestan was not old persian , avestan acquired a default assignment to `` eastern '' . 
these terms have little meaning with respect to old avestan as that stage of the language may predate the settling of the iranian peoples into western and eastern groups . 
these concern the fate of the proto-indo-iranian first-series palatal consonants , * ć and * dź : 
these concern the fate of the proto-indo-iranian first-series palatal consonants , * ć and * dź : 
-lrb- this coincides with the state of affairs in the neighboring nuristani languages . -rrb- 
a further complication however concerns the consonant clusters * ćw and * dźw : 
a further complication however concerns the consonant clusters * ćw and * dźw : 
it is possible that other distinct dialect groups were already in existence during this period . 
good candidates are the hypothethical ancestor languages of alanian/scytho-sarmatian subgroup of scythian in the far northwest ; and the hypothetical `` old parthian '' -lrb- the old iranian ancestor of parthian -rrb- in the near northwest , where original * dw > * b -lrb- paralleling the development of * ćw -rrb- . 
good candidates are the hypothethical ancestor languages of alanian/scytho-sarmatian subgroup of scythian in the far northwest ; and the hypothetical `` old parthian '' -lrb- the old iranian ancestor of parthian -rrb- in the near northwest , where original * dw > * b -lrb- paralleling the development of * ćw -rrb- . 
what is known in iranian linguistic history as the `` middle iranian '' era is thought to begin around the 4th century bce lasting through the 9th century . 
linguistically the middle iranian languages are conventionally classified into two main groups , western and eastern . 
the western family includes parthian -lrb- arsacid pahlavi -rrb- and middle persian , while bactrian , sogdian , khwarezmian , saka , and old ossetic -lrb- scytho-sarmatian -rrb- fall under the eastern category . 
on the other hand , the eastern group was an areal entity whose languages retained some similarity to avestan . 
they were inscribed in various aramaic-derived alphabets which had ultimately evolved from the achaemenid imperial aramaic script , though bactrian was written using an adapted greek script . 
they were inscribed in various aramaic-derived alphabets which had ultimately evolved from the achaemenid imperial aramaic script , though bactrian was written using an adapted greek script . 
middle persian -lrb- pahlavi -rrb- was the official language under the sasanian dynasty in iran . 
it was in use from the 3rd century ce until the beginning of the 10th century . 
middle persian , parthian and sogdian were also used as literary languages by the manichaeans , whose texts also survive in various non-iranian languages , from latin to chinese . 
manichaean texts were written in a script closely akin to the syriac script . 
following the islamic conquest of persia -lrb- iran -rrb- , there were important changes in the role of the different dialects within the persian empire . 
the old prestige form of middle iranian , also known as pahlavi , was replaced by a new standard dialect called dari as the official language of the court . 
the saffarid dynasty in particular was the first in a line of many dynasties to officially adopt the new language in 875 ce . 
the saffarid dynasty in particular was the first in a line of many dynasties to officially adopt the new language in 875 ce . 
medieval iranian scholars such as abdullah ibn al-muqaffa -lrb- 8th century -rrb- and ibn al-nadim -lrb- 10th century -rrb- associated the term `` dari '' with the eastern province of khorasan , while they used the term `` pahlavi '' to describe the dialects of the northwestern areas between isfahan and azerbaijan , and `` pârsi '' -lrb- `` persian '' proper -rrb- to describe the dialects of fars . 
the islamic conquest also brought with it the adoption of arabic script for writing persian and much later , kurdish , pashto and balochi . 
this development probably occurred some time during the second half of the 8th century , when the old middle persian script began dwindling in usage . 
tajik script was first latinised in the 1920s under the then soviet nationality policy . 
the script was however subsequently cyrillicized in the 1930s by the soviet government . 
the script was however subsequently cyrillicized in the 1930s by the soviet government . 
arabic spread into some parts of western iran -lrb- khuzestan -rrb- , and turkic languages spread through much of central asia , displacing various iranian languages such as sogdian and bactrian in parts of what is today turkmenistan , uzbekistan and tajikistan . 
arabic spread into some parts of western iran -lrb- khuzestan -rrb- , and turkic languages spread through much of central asia , displacing various iranian languages such as sogdian and bactrian in parts of what is today turkmenistan , uzbekistan and tajikistan . 
in eastern europe , mostly comprising the territory of modern-day ukraine , southern european russia , and parts of the balkans , the core region of the native scythians , sarmatians , and alans had been decisively been taken over as a result of absorption and assimilation -lrb- e.g. slavicisation -rrb- by the various proto-slavic population of the region , by the 6th century ad . 
sogdian 's close relative yaghnobi barely survives in a small area of the zarafshan valley east of samarkand , and saka as ossetic in the caucasus , which is the sole remnant of the once predominant scythian languages in eastern europe proper and large parts of the north caucasus . 
sogdian 's close relative yaghnobi barely survives in a small area of the zarafshan valley east of samarkand , and saka as ossetic in the caucasus , which is the sole remnant of the once predominant scythian languages in eastern europe proper and large parts of the north caucasus . 
daylighting -lrb- using windows , skylights , or light shelves -rrb- is sometimes used as the main source of light during daytime in buildings . 
proper lighting can enhance task performance , improve the appearance of an area , or have positive psychological effects on occupants . 
this can save energy in place of using artificial lighting , which represents a major component of energy consumption in buildings . 
lighting includes the use of both artificial light sources like lamps and light fixtures , as well as natural illumination by capturing daylight . 
lighting or illumination is the deliberate use of light to achieve a practical or aesthetic effect . 
daylighting -lrb- using windows , skylights , or light shelves -rrb- is sometimes used as the main source of light during daytime in buildings . 
lighting or illumination is the deliberate use of light to achieve a practical or aesthetic effect . 
proper lighting can enhance task performance , improve the appearance of an area , or have positive psychological effects on occupants . 
this can save energy in place of using artificial lighting , which represents a major component of energy consumption in buildings . 
lighting or illumination is the deliberate use of light to achieve a practical or aesthetic effect . 
indoor lighting is usually accomplished using light fixtures , and is a key part of interior design . 
indoor lighting is usually accomplished using light fixtures , and is a key part of interior design . 
indoor lighting is usually accomplished using light fixtures , and is a key part of interior design . 
indoor lighting is usually accomplished using light fixtures , and is a key part of interior design . 
indoor lighting is usually accomplished using light fixtures , and is a key part of interior design . 
this is often done with fluorescent lighting -lrb- first available at the 1939 world 's fair -rrb- or rope light , occasionally with neon lighting , and recently with led strip lighting . 
recessed lighting -lrb- often called `` pot lights '' in canada , `` can lights '' or ` high hats '' in the us -rrb- is popular , with fixtures mounted into the ceiling structure so as to appear flush with it . 
as early as 400,000 bce , fire was kindled in the caves of peking man . 
oily animals -lrb- birds and fish -rrb- were also used as lamps after being threaded with a wick . 
with the discovery of fire , the earliest form of artificial lighting used to illuminate an area were campfires or torches . 
hundreds of these lamps -lrb- hollow worked stones -rrb- have been found in the lascaux caves in modern-day france , dating to about 15,000 years ago . 
the next major drop in price came about with the incandescent light bulb powered by electricity . 
gas lighting was economical enough to power street lights in major cities starting in the early 1800s , and was also used in some commercial buildings and in the homes of wealthy people . 
segmented sleep patterns disappeared , improved nighttime lighting made more activities possible at night , and more street lights reduced urban crime . 
lighting fixtures come in a wide variety of styles for various functions . 
the most important functions are as a holder for the light source , to provide directed light and to avoid visual glare . 
an important property of light fixtures is the luminous efficacy or wall-plug efficiency , meaning the amount of usable light emanating from the fixture per used energy , usually measured in lumen per watt . 
an incandescent bulb has a color temperature around 2800 to 3000 kelvin ; daylight is around 6400 kelvin . 
an incandescent bulb has a color temperature around 2800 to 3000 kelvin ; daylight is around 6400 kelvin . 
lower color temperature lamps have relatively more energy in the yellow and red part of the visible spectrum , while high color temperatures correspond to lamps with more of a blue-white appearance . 
lower color temperature lamps have relatively more energy in the yellow and red part of the visible spectrum , while high color temperatures correspond to lamps with more of a blue-white appearance . 
lighting is classified by intended use as general , accent , or task lighting , depending largely on the distribution of the light produced by the fixture . 
track lighting , invented by lightolier , was popular at one period of time because it was much easier to install than recessed lighting , and individual fixtures are decorative and can be easily aimed at a wall . 
a master transformer feeds all of the fixtures on the track or rod with 12 or 24 volts , instead of each light fixture having its own line-to-low voltage transformer . 
a modified version of this is cable lighting , where lights are hung from or clipped to bare metal cables under tension . 
a master transformer feeds all of the fixtures on the track or rod with 12 or 24 volts , instead of each light fixture having its own line-to-low voltage transformer . 
a torchiere is an uplight intended for ambient lighting . 
the portable or table lamp is probably the most common fixture , found in many homes and offices . 
the standard lamp and shade that sits on a table is general lighting , while the desk lamp is considered task lighting . 
this would probably fall under accent lighting , though in a dark nightclub it could be considered general lighting . 
the illuminated ceiling was once popular in the 1960s and 1970s but fell out of favor after the 1980s . 
this would probably fall under accent lighting , though in a dark nightclub it could be considered general lighting . 
in a movie theater , steps in the aisles are usually marked with a row of small lights for convenience and safety , when the film has started and the other lights are off . 
traditionally made up of small low wattage , low voltage lamps in a track or translucent tube , these are rapidly being replaced with led based versions . 
traditionally made up of small low wattage , low voltage lamps in a track or translucent tube , these are rapidly being replaced with led based versions . 
street lights are used to light roadways and walkways at night . 
some manufacturers are designing led and photovoltaic luminaires to provide an energy-efficient alternative to traditional street light fixtures . 
floodlights can be used to illuminate outdoor playing fields or work zones during nighttime hours . 
sometimes security lighting can be used along roadways in urban areas , or behind homes or commercial facilities . 
entry lights can be used outside to illuminate and signal the entrance to a property . 
tail and brake lights are red and emit light to the rear so as to reveal the vehicle 's direction of travel to following drivers . 
headlamps are white or selective yellow lights placed in the front of the vehicle , designed to illuminate the upcoming road and to make the vehicle more visible . 
in the late 1950s , some automakers began to use electroluminescent technology to backlight their cars ' speedometers and other gauges or to draw attention to logos or other decorative elements . 
white rear-facing reversing lamps indicate that the vehicle 's transmission has been placed in the reverse gear , warning anyone behind the vehicle that it is moving backwards , or about to do so . 
flashing turn signals on the front , side , and rear of the vehicle indicate an intended change of position or direction . 
commonly called ` light bulbs ' , lamps are the removable and replaceable part of a light fixture , which converts electrical energy into electromagnetic radiation . 
commonly called ` light bulbs ' , lamps are the removable and replaceable part of a light fixture , which converts electrical energy into electromagnetic radiation . 
a wax candle produces on the close order of 13 lumens , a 60 watt incandescent lamp makes around 700 lumens , and a 15-watt compact fluorescent lamp produces about 800 lumens , but actual output varies by specific design . 
a wax candle produces on the close order of 13 lumens , a 60 watt incandescent lamp makes around 700 lumens , and a 15-watt compact fluorescent lamp produces about 800 lumens , but actual output varies by specific design . 
lighting design as it applies to the built environment is known as ` architectural lighting design ' . 
lighting design as it applies to the built environment is known as ` architectural lighting design ' . 
more critical or optimized designs now routinely use mathematical modeling on a computer using software such as radiance which can allow an architect to quickly undertake complex calculations to review the benefit of a particular design . 
for simple installations , hand-calculations based on tabular data are used to provide an acceptable lighting design . 
artificial lighting takes into account the amount of daylight received in an internal space by using daylight factor calculation . 
in some design instances , materials used on walls and furniture play a key role in the lighting effect < for example dark paint tends to absorb light , making the room appear smaller and more dim than it is , whereas light paint does the opposite . 
in some design instances , materials used on walls and furniture play a key role in the lighting effect < for example dark paint tends to absorb light , making the room appear smaller and more dim than it is , whereas light paint does the opposite . 
photometric studies -lrb- also sometimes referred to as `` layouts '' or `` point by points '' -rrb- are often used to simulate lighting designs for projects before they are built or renovated . 
a set of lighting cues are prepared so that the lighting operator can control the lights in step with the performance ; complex theatre lighting systems use computer control of lighting instruments . 
motion picture and television production use many of the same tools and methods of stage lighting . 
the basic si unit of measurement is the candela -lrb- cd -rrb- , which describes the luminous intensity , all other photometric units are derived from the candela . 
the si unit for luminance is candela per square metre -lrb- cd/m2 -rrb- . 
the cgs unit of luminance is the stilb , which is equal to one candela per square centimetre or 10 kcd/m2 . 
the amount of useful light emitted from a source or the luminous flux is measured in lumen -lrb- lm -rrb- . 
it is analogous to the radiometric unit watts per square metre , but with the power at each wavelength weighted according to the luminosity function , a standardized model of human visual brightness perception . 
the si unit of illuminance and luminous emittance , being the luminous power per area , is measured in lux . 
the unified glare rating -lrb- ugr -rrb- , the visual comfort probability , and the daylight glare index are some of the most well-known methods of measurement . 
to define light source color properties , the lighting industry predominantly relies on two metrics , correlated color temperature -lrb- cct -rrb- , commonly used as an indication of the apparent `` warmth '' or `` coolness '' of the light emitted by a source , and color rendering index -lrb- cri -rrb- , an indication of the light source 's ability to make objects appear natural . 
to define light source color properties , the lighting industry predominantly relies on two metrics , correlated color temperature -lrb- cct -rrb- , commonly used as an indication of the apparent `` warmth '' or `` coolness '' of the light emitted by a source , and color rendering index -lrb- cri -rrb- , an indication of the light source 's ability to make objects appear natural . 
to define light source color properties , the lighting industry predominantly relies on two metrics , correlated color temperature -lrb- cct -rrb- , commonly used as an indication of the apparent `` warmth '' or `` coolness '' of the light emitted by a source , and color rendering index -lrb- cri -rrb- , an indication of the light source 's ability to make objects appear natural . 
to define light source color properties , the lighting industry predominantly relies on two metrics , correlated color temperature -lrb- cct -rrb- , commonly used as an indication of the apparent `` warmth '' or `` coolness '' of the light emitted by a source , and color rendering index -lrb- cri -rrb- , an indication of the light source 's ability to make objects appear natural . 
for example , in order to meet the expectations for good color rendering in retail applications , research suggests using the well-established cri along with another metric called gamut area index -lrb- gai -rrb- . 
for example , in order to meet the expectations for good color rendering in retail applications , research suggests using the well-established cri along with another metric called gamut area index -lrb- gai -rrb- . 
for example , in order to meet the expectations for good color rendering in retail applications , research suggests using the well-established cri along with another metric called gamut area index -lrb- gai -rrb- . 
dosimeters measure an individual 's or an object 's exposure to something in the environment , such as light dosimeters and ultraviolet dosimeters . 
in order to specifically measure the amount of light entering the eye , personal circadian light meter called the daysimeter has been developed . 
in order to specifically measure the amount of light entering the eye , personal circadian light meter called the daysimeter has been developed . 
the daysimeter can gather data for up to 30 days for analysis . 
the small , head-mounted device measures an individual 's daily rest and activity patterns , as well as exposure to short-wavelength light that stimulates the circadian system . 
specification of illumination requirements is the basic concept of deciding how much illumination is required for a given task . 
lighting control systems reduce energy usage and cost by helping to provide light only when and where it is needed . 
many newer control systems are using wireless mesh open standards -lrb- such as zigbee -rrb- , which provides benefits including easier installation -lrb- no need to run control wires -rrb- and interoperability with other standards-based building control systems -lrb- e.g. security -rrb- . 
many newer control systems are using wireless mesh open standards -lrb- such as zigbee -rrb- , which provides benefits including easier installation -lrb- no need to run control wires -rrb- and interoperability with other standards-based building control systems -lrb- e.g. security -rrb- . 
many newer control systems are using wireless mesh open standards -lrb- such as zigbee -rrb- , which provides benefits including easier installation -lrb- no need to run control wires -rrb- and interoperability with other standards-based building control systems -lrb- e.g. security -rrb- . 
occupancy sensors to allow operation for whenever someone is within the area being scanned can control lighting . 
passive infrared sensors react to changes in heat , such as the pattern created by a moving person . 
ultrasonic sensors transmit sound above the range of human hearing and monitor the time it takes for the sound waves to return . 
when motion can no longer be detected , the lights shut off . 
daylighting is the oldest method of interior lighting . 
due to a lack of information that indicate the likely energy savings , daylighting schemes are not yet popular among most buildings . 
in recent years light emitting diodes -lrb- leds -rrb- are becoming increasingly efficient leading to an extraordinary increase in the use of solid state lighting . 
in many situations , controlling the light emission of leds may be done most effectively by using the principles of nonimaging optics . 
beyond the energy factors being considered , it is important not to over-design illumination , lest adverse health effects such as headache frequency , stress , and increased blood pressure be induced by the higher lighting levels . 
similarly , designing lighting systems that maximize the right amount of light at the appropriate time of day for the elderly may help relieve symptoms of alzheimer 's disease . 
the human circadian system is entrained to a 24-hour light-dark pattern that mimics the earth 's natural light/dark pattern . 
when those patterns are disrupted , they disrupt the natural circadian cycle . 
a study conducted in 1972 and 1981 , documented by robert ulrich , surveyed 23 surgical patients assigned to rooms looking out on a natural scene . 
the study concluded that patients assigned to rooms with windows allowing lots of natural light had shorter postoperative hospital stays , received fewer negative evaluative comments in nurses ' notes , and took fewer potent analegesics than 23 matched patients in similar rooms with windows facing a brick wall . 
the study concluded that patients assigned to rooms with windows allowing lots of natural light had shorter postoperative hospital stays , received fewer negative evaluative comments in nurses ' notes , and took fewer potent analegesics than 23 matched patients in similar rooms with windows facing a brick wall . 
alison jing xu , assistant professor of management at the university of toronto scarborough and aparna labroo of northwestern university conducted a series of studies analyzing the correlation between lighting and human emotion . 
alison jing xu , assistant professor of management at the university of toronto scarborough and aparna labroo of northwestern university conducted a series of studies analyzing the correlation between lighting and human emotion . 
in 1849 , dr. abraham gesner , a canadian geologist , devised a method where kerosene could be distilled from petroleum . 
in 1849 , dr. abraham gesner , a canadian geologist , devised a method where kerosene could be distilled from petroleum . 
earlier coal-gas methods had been used for lighting since the 1820s , but they were expensive . 
compact fluorescent lamps -lrb- aka ` cfls ' -rrb- use less power to supply the same amount of light as an incandescent lamp , however they contain mercury which is a dispose hazard . 
care should be taken when selecting cfl 's because not all of them are suitable for dimming . 
according to the energy saving trust , led lamps use only 10 % power compared to a standard incandescent bulb , where compact fluorescent lamps use 20 % and energy saving halogen lamps 70 % . 
the lifetime is also much longer -- up to 50,000 hours . 
the lifetime is also much longer -- up to 50,000 hours . 
according to the energy saving trust , led lamps use only 10 % power compared to a standard incandescent bulb , where compact fluorescent lamps use 20 % and energy saving halogen lamps 70 % . 
light pollution is a growing problem in reaction to excess light being given off by numerous signs , houses , and buildings . 
for example , glare creates safety issues around buildings by causing very sharp shadows , temporarily blinding passersby making them vulnerable to would-be assailants . 
if natural light is not present searchlights and flares can be used . 
from a military standpoint , lighting is a critical part of the battlefield conditions . 
however the use of light may disclose your own hidden position and modern warfare have seen increased use of night vision through the use of infrared cameras and image intensifiers . 
flares can also be used by the military to mark positions , usually for targeting , but laser-guided and gps weapons have eliminated this need for the most part . 
flares can also be used by the military to mark positions , usually for targeting , but laser-guided and gps weapons have eliminated this need for the most part . 
the international commission on illumination -lrb- cie -rrb- is an international authority and standard defining organization on color and lighting . 
the illuminating engineering society of north america -lrb- iesna -rrb- , in conjunction with organizations like ansi and ashrae , publishes guidelines , standards , and handbooks that allow categorization of the illumination needs of different built environments . 
the illuminating engineering society of north america -lrb- iesna -rrb- , in conjunction with organizations like ansi and ashrae , publishes guidelines , standards , and handbooks that allow categorization of the illumination needs of different built environments . 
manufacturers of lighting equipment publish photometric data for their products , which defines the distribution of light released by a specific luminaire . 
the international association of lighting designers -lrb- iald -rrb- is an organization which focuses on the advancement of lighting design education and the recognition of independent professional lighting designers . 
the professional lighting designers association -lrb- plda -rrb- , formerly known as elda is an organisation focusing on the promotion of the profession of architectural lighting design . 
the professional lighting designers association -lrb- plda -rrb- , formerly known as elda is an organisation focusing on the promotion of the profession of architectural lighting design . 
the national council on qualifications for the lighting professions -lrb- ncqlp -rrb- offers the lighting certification examination which tests rudimentary lighting design principles . 
the national council on qualifications for the lighting professions -lrb- ncqlp -rrb- offers the lighting certification examination which tests rudimentary lighting design principles . 
individuals who pass this exam become ` lighting certified ' and may append the abbreviation lc to their name . 
this certification process is one of three national -lrb- u.s. -rrb- examinations -lrb- the others are clep and clmc -rrb- in the lighting industry and is open not only to designers , but to lighting equipment manufacturers , electric utility employees , etc. . 
the professional lighting and sound association -lrb- plasa -rrb- is a uk-based trade organisation representing the 500 + individual and corporate members drawn from the technical services sector . 
the professional lighting and sound association -lrb- plasa -rrb- is a uk-based trade organisation representing the 500 + individual and corporate members drawn from the technical services sector . 
the professional lighting and sound association -lrb- plasa -rrb- is a uk-based trade organisation representing the 500 + individual and corporate members drawn from the technical services sector . 
example subjects of this representation include the ongoing review of radio frequencies -lrb- which may or may not affect the radio bands in which wireless microphones and other devices use -rrb- and engaging with the issues surrounding the introduction of the rohs -lrb- restriction of hazardous substances directive -rrb- regulations . 
separation of powers is a political doctrine originating in the writings of montesquieu in the spirit of the laws where he urged for a constitutional government with three separate branches of government . 
separation of powers is a political doctrine originating in the writings of montesquieu in the spirit of the laws where he urged for a constitutional government with three separate branches of government . 
this philosophy heavily influenced the writing of the united states constitution , according to which the legislative , executive , and judicial branches of the united states government are kept distinct in order to prevent abuse of power . 
this united states form of separation of powers is associated with a system of checks and balances . 
this idea was called separation of powers . 
during the age of enlightenment , philosophers such as john locke advocated the principle in their writings , whereas others , such as thomas hobbes , strongly opposed it . 
during the age of enlightenment , philosophers such as john locke advocated the principle in their writings , whereas others , such as thomas hobbes , strongly opposed it . 
montesquieu was one of the foremost supporters of separating the legislature , the executive , and the judiciary . 
his writings considerably influenced the opinions of the framers of the united states constitution . 
during the age of enlightenment , philosophers such as john locke advocated the principle in their writings , whereas others , such as thomas hobbes , strongly opposed it . 
during the age of enlightenment , philosophers such as john locke advocated the principle in their writings , whereas others , such as thomas hobbes , strongly opposed it . 
montesquieu was one of the foremost supporters of separating the legislature , the executive , and the judiciary . 
-lsb- citation needed -rsb- under the uk westminster system , based on parliamentary sovereignty and responsible government , parliament -lrb- consisting of the sovereign -lrb- king-in-parliament -rrb- , house of lords and house of commons -rrb- was the supreme lawmaking authority . 
-lsb- citation needed -rsb- under the uk westminster system , based on parliamentary sovereignty and responsible government , parliament -lrb- consisting of the sovereign -lrb- king-in-parliament -rrb- , house of lords and house of commons -rrb- was the supreme lawmaking authority . 
maryland , virginia , north carolina and georgia all kept the branches of government `` separate and distinct . '' 
strict separation of powers did not operate in the united kingdom , the political structure of which served in most instances -lsb- citation needed -rsb- as a model for the government created by the u.s. constitution . 
the president of delaware was a member of the court of appeals ; the presiding officers of the two houses of the state legislature also served in the executive department as vice presidents . 
congress has the sole power to legislate for the united states . 
in this vein , the supreme court held in the 1998 case clinton v. city of new york that congress could not delegate a `` line-item veto '' to the president , by powers vested in the government by the constitution . 
in this vein , the supreme court held in the 1998 case clinton v. city of new york that congress could not delegate a `` line-item veto '' to the president , by powers vested in the government by the constitution . 
congress has the sole power to legislate for the united states . 
under the nondelegation doctrine , congress may not delegate its lawmaking responsibilities to any other agency . 
in this vein , the supreme court held in the 1998 case clinton v. city of new york that congress could not delegate a `` line-item veto '' to the president , by powers vested in the government by the constitution . 
in this vein , the supreme court held in the 1998 case clinton v. city of new york that congress could not delegate a `` line-item veto '' to the president , by powers vested in the government by the constitution . 
one of the earliest cases involving the exact limits of non-delegation was wayman v. southard 23 u.s. -lrb- 10 wet . -rrb- 
1 , 42 -lrb- 1825 -rrb- . 
while chief justice john marshall conceded that the determination of rules of procedure was a legislative function , he distinguished between `` important '' subjects and mere details . 
congress had delegated to the courts the power to prescribe judicial procedure ; it was contended that congress had thereby unconstitutionally clothed the judiciary with legislative powers . 
one of the earliest cases involving the exact limits of non-delegation was wayman v. southard 23 u.s. -lrb- 10 wet . -rrb- 
while chief justice john marshall conceded that the determination of rules of procedure was a legislative function , he distinguished between `` important '' subjects and mere details . 
it was not until the 1930s that the supreme court held a delegation of authority unconstitutional . 
in a case involving the creation of the national recovery administration called a.l.a. schechter poultry corp. v. united states , 295 u.s. 495 -lrb- 1935 -rrb- , congress could not authorize the president to formulate codes of `` fair competition . '' 
in a case involving the creation of the national recovery administration called a.l.a. schechter poultry corp. v. united states , 295 u.s. 495 -lrb- 1935 -rrb- , congress could not authorize the president to formulate codes of `` fair competition . '' 
in a case involving the creation of the national recovery administration called a.l.a. schechter poultry corp. v. united states , 295 u.s. 495 -lrb- 1935 -rrb- , congress could not authorize the president to formulate codes of `` fair competition . '' 
in a case involving the creation of the national recovery administration called a.l.a. schechter poultry corp. v. united states , 295 u.s. 495 -lrb- 1935 -rrb- , congress could not authorize the president to formulate codes of `` fair competition . '' 
the president becomes the commander in chief of the army and navy , militia of several states when called into service , has power to make treaties and appointments to office `` with the advice and consent of the senate , '' receive ambassadors and public ministers , and `` take care that the laws be faithfully executed '' -lrb- section 3 . -rrb- 
the president becomes the commander in chief of the army and navy , militia of several states when called into service , has power to make treaties and appointments to office `` with the advice and consent of the senate , '' receive ambassadors and public ministers , and `` take care that the laws be faithfully executed '' -lrb- section 3 . -rrb- 
congress may itself terminate such appointments , by impeachment , and restrict the president . 
bodies such as the war claims commission , the interstate commerce commission and the federal trade commission -- all quasi-judicial -- often have direct congressional oversight . 
executive power is vested , with exceptions and qualifications , in the president . 
executive power is vested , with exceptions and qualifications , in the president . 
congress may itself terminate such appointments , by impeachment , and restrict the president . 
the constitution empowers the president to ensure the faithful execution of the laws made by congress and approved by the president . 
congress often writes legislation to restrain executive officials to the performance of their duties , as laid out by the laws congress passes . 
in ins v. chadha -lrb- 1983 -rrb- , the supreme court decided -lrb- a -rrb- the prescription for legislative action in art . 
in ins v. chadha -lrb- 1983 -rrb- , the supreme court decided -lrb- a -rrb- the prescription for legislative action in art . 
i , § 1 -- requiring all legislative powers to be vested in a congress consisting of a senate and a house of representatives -- and § 7 -- requiring every bill passed by the house and senate , before becoming law , to be presented to the president , and , if he disapproves , to be repassed by two-thirds of the senate and house -- represents the framers ' decision that the legislative power of the federal government be exercised in accord with a single , finely wrought and exhaustively considered procedure . 
judicial power -- the power to decide cases and controversies -- is vested in the supreme court and inferior courts established by congress . 
the judges must be appointed by the president with the advice and consent of the senate , hold office during good behavior and receive compensations that may not be diminished during their continuance in office . 
the judges must be appointed by the president with the advice and consent of the senate , hold office during good behavior and receive compensations that may not be diminished during their continuance in office . 
courts exercising the judicial power are called `` constitutional courts . '' 
judicial power -- the power to decide cases and controversies -- is vested in the supreme court and inferior courts established by congress . 
the judges must be appointed by the president with the advice and consent of the senate , hold office during good behavior and receive compensations that may not be diminished during their continuance in office . 
the judges must be appointed by the president with the advice and consent of the senate , hold office during good behavior and receive compensations that may not be diminished during their continuance in office . 
congress may establish `` legislative courts , '' which do not take the form of judicial agencies or commissions , whose members do not have the same security of tenure or compensation as the constitutional court judges . 
legislative courts may not exercise the judicial power of the united states . 
the vice president serves as president of the senate , but he may only vote to break a tie . 
the president exercises a check over congress through his power to veto bills , but congress may override any veto -lrb- excluding the so-called `` pocket veto '' -rrb- by a two-thirds majority in each house . 
the vice president serves as president of the senate , but he may only vote to break a tie . 
the president , as noted above , appoints judges with the senate 's advice and consent . 
the president , as noted above , appoints judges with the senate 's advice and consent . 
the president is the civilian commander in chief of the army and navy of the united states . 
however , only the congress is explicitly granted the power to declare war per se , as well as to raise , fund and maintain the armed forces . 
congress also has the duty and authority to prescribe the laws and regulations under which the armed forces operate , such as the uniform code of military justice , and requires that all generals and admirals appointed by the president be confirmed by a majority vote of the senate before they can assume their office . 
courts check both the executive branch and the legislative branch through judicial review . 
the supreme court established a precedent for judicial review in marbury v. madison . 
a common misperception is that the supreme court is the only court that may determine constitutionality ; the power is exercised even by the inferior courts . 
the power to review the constitutionality of laws may be limited by congress , which has the power to set the jurisdiction of the courts . 
the only constitutional limit on congress ' power to set the jurisdiction of the judiciary relates to the supreme court ; the supreme court may exercise only appellate jurisdiction except in cases involving states and cases affecting foreign ambassadors , ministers or consuls . 
the chief justice presides in the senate during a president 's impeachment trial . 
however , james madison wrote in federalist 51 , regarding the ability of each branch to defend itself from actions by the others , that `` it is not possible to give to each department an equal power of self-defense . 
however , james madison wrote in federalist 51 , regarding the ability of each branch to defend itself from actions by the others , that `` it is not possible to give to each department an equal power of self-defense . 
throughout america 's history dominance of one of the three branches has essentially been a see-saw struggle between congress and the president . 
the first six presidents of the united states did not make extensive use of the veto power : george washington only vetoed two bills , james monroe one , and john adams , thomas jefferson and john quincy adams none . 
the first six presidents of the united states did not make extensive use of the veto power : george washington only vetoed two bills , james monroe one , and john adams , thomas jefferson and john quincy adams none . 
during his two terms in office , he vetoed twelve bills -- more than all of his predecessors combined . 
it was andrew jackson , the seventh president , who was the first to use the veto as a political weapon . 
congress , however , managed to override fifteen of johnson 's twenty-nine vetoes . 
furthermore , it attempted to curb the power of the presidency by passing the tenure of office act . 
grover cleveland , the first democratic president following johnson , attempted to restore the power of his office . 
grover cleveland , the first democratic president following johnson , attempted to restore the power of his office . 
congress had granted franklin roosevelt sweeping authority ; in panama refining v. ryan , the court for the first time struck down a congressional delegation of power as violative of the doctrine of separation of powers . 
congress had granted franklin roosevelt sweeping authority ; in panama refining v. ryan , the court for the first time struck down a congressional delegation of power as violative of the doctrine of separation of powers . 
richard nixon used national security as a basis for his expansion of power . 
that is , it is argued that `` checks and balances '' apply to the judicial branch as well as to the other branches . 
although in practice these matters are delegated to the supreme court , the congress holds these powers and delegates them to the supreme court only for convenience in light of the supreme court 's expertise , but can withdraw that delegation at any time . 
an example of the second view at the state level is found in the view of the florida supreme court , that only the florida supreme court may license and regulate attorneys appearing before the courts of florida , and only the florida supreme court may set rules for procedures in the florida courts . 
an example of the second view at the state level is found in the view of the florida supreme court , that only the florida supreme court may license and regulate attorneys appearing before the courts of florida , and only the florida supreme court may set rules for procedures in the florida courts . 
architectural works , in the material form of buildings , are often perceived as cultural symbols and as works of art . 
architecture -lrb- latin architectura , from the greek ἀρχιτέκτων arkhitekton `` architect '' , from ἀρχι - `` chief '' and τέκτων `` builder '' -rrb- is both the process and the product of planning , designing , and constructing buildings and other physical structures . 
architecture -lrb- latin architectura , from the greek ἀρχιτέκτων arkhitekton `` architect '' , from ἀρχι - `` chief '' and τέκτων `` builder '' -rrb- is both the process and the product of planning , designing , and constructing buildings and other physical structures . 
architectural works , in the material form of buildings , are often perceived as cultural symbols and as works of art . 
historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements . 
architecture -lrb- latin architectura , from the greek ἀρχιτέκτων arkhitekton `` architect '' , from ἀρχι - `` chief '' and τέκτων `` builder '' -rrb- is both the process and the product of planning , designing , and constructing buildings and other physical structures . 
architecture -lrb- latin architectura , from the greek ἀρχιτέκτων arkhitekton `` architect '' , from ἀρχι - `` chief '' and τέκτων `` builder '' -rrb- is both the process and the product of planning , designing , and constructing buildings and other physical structures . 
architecture -lrb- latin architectura , from the greek ἀρχιτέκτων arkhitekton `` architect '' , from ἀρχι - `` chief '' and τέκτων `` builder '' -rrb- is both the process and the product of planning , designing , and constructing buildings and other physical structures . 
architectural works , in the material form of buildings , are often perceived as cultural symbols and as works of art . 
historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements . 
the earliest surviving written work on the subject of architecture is de architectura , by the roman architect vitruvius in the early 1st century ad . 
the earliest surviving written work on the subject of architecture is de architectura , by the roman architect vitruvius in the early 1st century ad . 
the earliest surviving written work on the subject of architecture is de architectura , by the roman architect vitruvius in the early 1st century ad . 
according to vitruvius , a good building should satisfy the three principles of firmitas , utilitas , venustas , commonly known by the original translation -- firmness , commodity and delight . 
the earliest surviving written work on the subject of architecture is de architectura , by the roman architect vitruvius in the early 1st century ad . 
the earliest surviving written work on the subject of architecture is de architectura , by the roman architect vitruvius in the early 1st century ad . 
the earliest surviving written work on the subject of architecture is de architectura , by the roman architect vitruvius in the early 1st century ad . 
according to vitruvius , a good building should satisfy the three principles of firmitas , utilitas , venustas , commonly known by the original translation -- firmness , commodity and delight . 
according to vitruvius , a good building should satisfy the three principles of firmitas , utilitas , venustas , commonly known by the original translation -- firmness , commodity and delight . 
the notion of style in the arts was not developed until the 16th century , with the writing of vasari : by the 18th century , his lives of the most excellent painters , sculptors , and architects had been translated into italian , french , spanish and english . 
the notion of style in the arts was not developed until the 16th century , with the writing of vasari : by the 18th century , his lives of the most excellent painters , sculptors , and architects had been translated into italian , french , spanish and english . 
the notion of style in the arts was not developed until the 16th century , with the writing of vasari : by the 18th century , his lives of the most excellent painters , sculptors , and architects had been translated into italian , french , spanish and english . 
according to vitruvius , the architect should strive to fulfill each of these three attributes as well as possible . 
leon battista alberti , who elaborates on the ideas of vitruvius in his treatise , de re aedificatoria , saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion , although ornament also played a part . 
leon battista alberti , who elaborates on the ideas of vitruvius in his treatise , de re aedificatoria , saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion , although ornament also played a part . 
for alberti , the rules of proportion were those that governed the idealised human figure , the golden mean . 
the notion of style in the arts was not developed until the 16th century , with the writing of vasari : by the 18th century , his lives of the most excellent painters , sculptors , and architects had been translated into italian , french , spanish and english . 
in the early 19th century , augustus welby northmore pugin wrote contrasts -lrb- 1836 -rrb- that , as the titled suggested , contrasted the modern , industrial world , which he disparaged , with an idealized image of neo-medieval world . 
in the early 19th century , augustus welby northmore pugin wrote contrasts -lrb- 1836 -rrb- that , as the titled suggested , contrasted the modern , industrial world , which he disparaged , with an idealized image of neo-medieval world . 
in the early 19th century , augustus welby northmore pugin wrote contrasts -lrb- 1836 -rrb- that , as the titled suggested , contrasted the modern , industrial world , which he disparaged , with an idealized image of neo-medieval world . 
in the early 19th century , augustus welby northmore pugin wrote contrasts -lrb- 1836 -rrb- that , as the titled suggested , contrasted the modern , industrial world , which he disparaged , with an idealized image of neo-medieval world . 
in the early 19th century , augustus welby northmore pugin wrote contrasts -lrb- 1836 -rrb- that , as the titled suggested , contrasted the modern , industrial world , which he disparaged , with an idealized image of neo-medieval world . 
gothic architecture , pugin believed , was the only `` true christian form of architecture . '' 
the 19th-century english art critic , john ruskin , in his seven lamps of architecture , published 1849 , was much narrower in his view of what constituted architecture . 
the 19th-century english art critic , john ruskin , in his seven lamps of architecture , published 1849 , was much narrower in his view of what constituted architecture . 
the 19th-century english art critic , john ruskin , in his seven lamps of architecture , published 1849 , was much narrower in his view of what constituted architecture . 
the 19th-century english art critic , john ruskin , in his seven lamps of architecture , published 1849 , was much narrower in his view of what constituted architecture . 
architecture was the `` art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by men ... that the sight of them '' contributes `` to his mental health , power , and pleasure '' . 
his work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work of architecture unless it is in some way `` adorned '' . 
for ruskin , the aesthetic was of overriding significance . 
his work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work of architecture unless it is in some way `` adorned '' . 
for ruskin , a well-constructed , well-proportioned , functional building needed string courses or rustication , at the very least . 
on the difference between the ideals of architecture and mere construction , the renowned 20th-century architect le corbusier wrote : `` you employ stone , wood , and concrete , and with these materials you build houses and palaces : that is construction . 
on the difference between the ideals of architecture and mere construction , the renowned 20th-century architect le corbusier wrote : `` you employ stone , wood , and concrete , and with these materials you build houses and palaces : that is construction . 
that is architecture '' . 
on the difference between the ideals of architecture and mere construction , the renowned 20th-century architect le corbusier wrote : `` you employ stone , wood , and concrete , and with these materials you build houses and palaces : that is construction . 
but suddenly you touch my heart , you do me good . 
i am happy and i say : this is beautiful . 
`` function '' came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use , perception and enjoyment of a building , not only practical but also aesthetic , psychological and cultural . 
`` function '' came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use , perception and enjoyment of a building , not only practical but also aesthetic , psychological and cultural . 
while the notion that structural and aesthetic considerations should be entirely subject to functionality was met with both popularity and skepticism , it had the effect of introducing the concept of `` function '' in place of vitruvius ' `` utility '' . 
`` function '' came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use , perception and enjoyment of a building , not only practical but also aesthetic , psychological and cultural . 
while the notion that structural and aesthetic considerations should be entirely subject to functionality was met with both popularity and skepticism , it had the effect of introducing the concept of `` function '' in place of vitruvius ' `` utility '' . 
among the philosophies that have influenced modern architects and their approach to building design are rationalism , empiricism , structuralism , poststructuralism , and phenomenology . 
among the philosophies that have influenced modern architects and their approach to building design are rationalism , empiricism , structuralism , poststructuralism , and phenomenology . 
among the philosophies that have influenced modern architects and their approach to building design are rationalism , empiricism , structuralism , poststructuralism , and phenomenology . 
among the philosophies that have influenced modern architects and their approach to building design are rationalism , empiricism , structuralism , poststructuralism , and phenomenology . 
in the late 20th century a new concept was added to those included in the compass of both structure and function , the consideration of sustainability , hence sustainable architecture . 
in the late 20th century a new concept was added to those included in the compass of both structure and function , the consideration of sustainability , hence sustainable architecture . 
to satisfy the contemporary ethos a building should be constructed in a manner which is environmentally friendly in terms of the production of its materials , its impact upon the natural and built environment of its surrounding area and the demands that it makes upon non-sustainable power sources for heating , cooling , water and waste management and lighting . 
to satisfy the contemporary ethos a building should be constructed in a manner which is environmentally friendly in terms of the production of its materials , its impact upon the natural and built environment of its surrounding area and the demands that it makes upon non-sustainable power sources for heating , cooling , water and waste management and lighting . 
building first evolved out of the dynamics between needs -lrb- shelter , security , worship , etc. -rrb- and means -lrb- available building materials and attendant skills -rrb- . 
as human cultures developed and knowledge began to be formalized through oral traditions and practices , building became a craft , and `` architecture '' is the name given to the most highly formalized and respected versions of that craft . 
as human cultures developed and knowledge began to be formalized through oral traditions and practices , building became a craft , and `` architecture '' is the name given to the most highly formalized and respected versions of that craft . 
as human cultures developed and knowledge began to be formalized through oral traditions and practices , building became a craft , and `` architecture '' is the name given to the most highly formalized and respected versions of that craft . 
building first evolved out of the dynamics between needs -lrb- shelter , security , worship , etc. -rrb- and means -lrb- available building materials and attendant skills -rrb- . 
indeed , vernacular buildings make up most of the built world that people experience every day . 
due to a surplus in production the economy began to expand resulting in urbanization thus creating urban areas which grew and evolved very rapidly in some cases , such as that of çatal höyük in anatolia and mohenjo daro of the indus valley civilization in modern-day pakistan . 
it is widely assumed that architectural success was the product of a process of trial and error , with progressively less trial and more replication as the results of the process proved increasingly satisfactory . 
what is termed vernacular architecture continues to be produced in many parts of the world . 
early human settlements were mostly rural . 
due to a surplus in production the economy began to expand resulting in urbanization thus creating urban areas which grew and evolved very rapidly in some cases , such as that of çatal höyük in anatolia and mohenjo daro of the indus valley civilization in modern-day pakistan . 
due to a surplus in production the economy began to expand resulting in urbanization thus creating urban areas which grew and evolved very rapidly in some cases , such as that of çatal höyük in anatolia and mohenjo daro of the indus valley civilization in modern-day pakistan . 
in many ancient civilizations , such as those of egypt and mesopotamia , architecture and urbanism reflected the constant engagement with the divine and the supernatural , and many ancient cultures resorted to monumentality in architecture to represent symbolically the political power of the ruler , the ruling elite , or the state itself . 
in many ancient civilizations , such as those of egypt and mesopotamia , architecture and urbanism reflected the constant engagement with the divine and the supernatural , and many ancient cultures resorted to monumentality in architecture to represent symbolically the political power of the ruler , the ruling elite , or the state itself . 
in many ancient civilizations , such as those of egypt and mesopotamia , architecture and urbanism reflected the constant engagement with the divine and the supernatural , and many ancient cultures resorted to monumentality in architecture to represent symbolically the political power of the ruler , the ruling elite , or the state itself . 
in many ancient civilizations , such as those of egypt and mesopotamia , architecture and urbanism reflected the constant engagement with the divine and the supernatural , and many ancient cultures resorted to monumentality in architecture to represent symbolically the political power of the ruler , the ruling elite , or the state itself . 
early asian writings on architecture include the kao gong ji of china from the 7th -- 5th centuries bce ; the shilpa shastras of ancient india and manjusri vasthu vidya sastra of sri lanka . 
early asian writings on architecture include the kao gong ji of china from the 7th -- 5th centuries bce ; the shilpa shastras of ancient india and manjusri vasthu vidya sastra of sri lanka . 
early asian writings on architecture include the kao gong ji of china from the 7th -- 5th centuries bce ; the shilpa shastras of ancient india and manjusri vasthu vidya sastra of sri lanka . 
early asian writings on architecture include the kao gong ji of china from the 7th -- 5th centuries bce ; the shilpa shastras of ancient india and manjusri vasthu vidya sastra of sri lanka . 
early asian writings on architecture include the kao gong ji of china from the 7th -- 5th centuries bce ; the shilpa shastras of ancient india and manjusri vasthu vidya sastra of sri lanka . 
in many asian countries , pantheistic religion led to architectural forms that were designed specifically to enhance the natural landscape . 
buddhist architecture , in particular , showed great regional diversity . 
hindu temple architecture , which developed around the 3rd century bce , is governed by concepts laid down in the shastras , and is concerned with expressing the macrocosm and the microcosm . 
hindu temple architecture , which developed around the 3rd century bce , is governed by concepts laid down in the shastras , and is concerned with expressing the macrocosm and the microcosm . 
hindu temple architecture , which developed around the 3rd century bce , is governed by concepts laid down in the shastras , and is concerned with expressing the macrocosm and the microcosm . 
buddhist architecture , in particular , showed great regional diversity . 
in many asian countries , pantheistic religion led to architectural forms that were designed specifically to enhance the natural landscape . 
the widespread application of the pointed arch was to influence european architecture of the medieval period . 
islamic architecture began in the 7th century ce , incorporating architectural forms from the ancient middle east and byzantium , but also developing features to suit the religious and social needs of the society . 
islamic architecture began in the 7th century ce , incorporating architectural forms from the ancient middle east and byzantium , but also developing features to suit the religious and social needs of the society . 
islamic architecture began in the 7th century ce , incorporating architectural forms from the ancient middle east and byzantium , but also developing features to suit the religious and social needs of the society . 
the widespread application of the pointed arch was to influence european architecture of the medieval period . 
the major architectural undertakings were the buildings of abbeys and cathedrals . 
the major architectural undertakings were the buildings of abbeys and cathedrals . 
from about 900 ce onwards , the movements of both clerics and tradesmen carried architectural knowledge across europe , resulting in the pan-european styles romanesque and gothic . 
from about 900 ce onwards , the movements of both clerics and tradesmen carried architectural knowledge across europe , resulting in the pan-european styles romanesque and gothic . 
from about 900 ce onwards , the movements of both clerics and tradesmen carried architectural knowledge across europe , resulting in the pan-european styles romanesque and gothic . 
from about 900 ce onwards , the movements of both clerics and tradesmen carried architectural knowledge across europe , resulting in the pan-european styles romanesque and gothic . 
in renaissance europe , from about 1400 onwards , there was a revival of classical learning accompanied by the development of renaissance humanism which placed greater emphasis on the role of the individual in society than had been the case during the medieval period . 
in renaissance europe , from about 1400 onwards , there was a revival of classical learning accompanied by the development of renaissance humanism which placed greater emphasis on the role of the individual in society than had been the case during the medieval period . 
in renaissance europe , from about 1400 onwards , there was a revival of classical learning accompanied by the development of renaissance humanism which placed greater emphasis on the role of the individual in society than had been the case during the medieval period . 
in renaissance europe , from about 1400 onwards , there was a revival of classical learning accompanied by the development of renaissance humanism which placed greater emphasis on the role of the individual in society than had been the case during the medieval period . 
in renaissance europe , from about 1400 onwards , there was a revival of classical learning accompanied by the development of renaissance humanism which placed greater emphasis on the role of the individual in society than had been the case during the medieval period . 
there was still no dividing line between artist , architect and engineer , or any of the related vocations , and the appellation was often one of regional preference . 
architecture has to do with planning and designing form , space and ambience to reflect functional , technical , social , environmental and aesthetic considerations . 
architecture has to do with planning and designing form , space and ambience to reflect functional , technical , social , environmental and aesthetic considerations . 
the practice of architecture also encompasses the pragmatic aspects of realizing buildings and structures , including scheduling , cost estimation and construction administration . 
nunzia rondanini stated , `` through its aesthetic dimension architecture goes beyond the functional aspects that it has in common with other human sciences . 
nunzia rondanini stated , `` through its aesthetic dimension architecture goes beyond the functional aspects that it has in common with other human sciences . 
through its own particular way of expressing values , architecture can stimulate and influence social life without presuming that , in and of itself , it will promote social development . ' 
through its own particular way of expressing values , architecture can stimulate and influence social life without presuming that , in and of itself , it will promote social development . ' 
nunzia rondanini stated , `` through its aesthetic dimension architecture goes beyond the functional aspects that it has in common with other human sciences . 
to restrict the meaning of -lrb- architectural -rrb- formalism to art for art 's sake is not only reactionary ; it can also be a purposeless quest for perfection or originality which degrades form into a mere instrumentality '' . 
to restrict the meaning of -lrb- architectural -rrb- formalism to art for art 's sake is not only reactionary ; it can also be a purposeless quest for perfection or originality which degrades form into a mere instrumentality '' . 
to restrict the meaning of -lrb- architectural -rrb- formalism to art for art 's sake is not only reactionary ; it can also be a purposeless quest for perfection or originality which degrades form into a mere instrumentality '' . 
the architecture and urbanism of the classical civilizations such as the greek and the roman evolved from civic ideals rather than religious or empirical ones and new building types emerged . 
the architecture and urbanism of the classical civilizations such as the greek and the roman evolved from civic ideals rather than religious or empirical ones and new building types emerged . 
the architecture and urbanism of the classical civilizations such as the greek and the roman evolved from civic ideals rather than religious or empirical ones and new building types emerged . 
architectural `` style '' developed in the form of the classical orders . 
texts on architecture have been written since ancient time . 
these texts provided both general advice and specific formal prescriptions or canons . 
these texts provided both general advice and specific formal prescriptions or canons . 
some examples of canons are found in the writings of the 1st-century bce roman architect vitruvius . 
some of the most important early examples of canonic architecture are religious . 
in europe during the medieval period , guilds were formed by craftsmen to organise their trades and written contracts have survived , particularly in relation to ecclesiastical buildings . 
in europe during the medieval period , guilds were formed by craftsmen to organise their trades and written contracts have survived , particularly in relation to ecclesiastical buildings . 
in europe during the medieval period , guilds were formed by craftsmen to organise their trades and written contracts have survived , particularly in relation to ecclesiastical buildings . 
the role of architect was usually one with that of master mason , or magister lathomorum as they are sometimes described in contemporary documents . 
a revival of the classical style in architecture was accompanied by a burgeoning of science and engineering which affected the proportions and structure of buildings . 
at this stage , it was still possible for an artist to design a bridge as the level of structural calculations involved was within the scope of the generalist . 
with the emerging knowledge in scientific fields and the rise of new materials and technology , architecture and engineering began to separate , and the architect began to concentrate on aesthetics and the humanist aspects , often at the expense of technical aspects of building design . 
with the emerging knowledge in scientific fields and the rise of new materials and technology , architecture and engineering began to separate , and the architect began to concentrate on aesthetics and the humanist aspects , often at the expense of technical aspects of building design . 
there was also the rise of the `` gentleman architect '' who usually dealt with wealthy clients and concentrated predominantly on visual qualities derived usually from historical prototypes , typified by the many country houses of great britain that were created in the neo gothic or scottish baronial styles . 
formal architectural training in the 19th century , for example at école des beaux-arts in france , gave much emphasis to the production of beautiful drawings and little to context and feasibility . 
effective architects generally received their training in the offices of other architects , graduating to the role from draughtsmen or clerks . 
meanwhile , the industrial revolution laid open the door for mass production and consumption . 
aesthetics became a criterion for the middle class as ornamented products , once within the province of expensive craftsmanship , became cheaper under machine production . 
aesthetics became a criterion for the middle class as ornamented products , once within the province of expensive craftsmanship , became cheaper under machine production . 
house builders could use current architectural design in their work by combining features found in pattern books and architectural journals . 
house builders could use current architectural design in their work by combining features found in pattern books and architectural journals . 
around the beginning of the 20th century , a general dissatisfaction with the emphasis on revivalist architecture and elaborate decoration gave rise to many new lines of thought that served as precursors to modern architecture . 
around the beginning of the 20th century , a general dissatisfaction with the emphasis on revivalist architecture and elaborate decoration gave rise to many new lines of thought that served as precursors to modern architecture . 
notable among these is the deutscher werkbund , formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine made objects . 
notable among these is the deutscher werkbund , formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine made objects . 
following this lead , the bauhaus school , founded in weimar , germany in 1919 , redefined the architectural bounds prior set throughout history , viewing the creation of a building as the ultimate synthesis -- the apex -- of art , craft , and technology . 
when modern architecture was first practiced , it was an avant-garde movement with moral , philosophical , and aesthetic underpinnings . 
immediately after world war i , pioneering modernist architects sought to develop a completely new style appropriate for a new post-war social and economic order , focused on meeting the needs of the middle and working classes . 
they rejected the architectural practice of the academic refinement of historical styles which served the rapidly declining aristocratic order . 
the approach of the modernist architects was to reduce buildings to pure forms , removing historical references and ornament in favor of functionalist details . 
the approach of the modernist architects was to reduce buildings to pure forms , removing historical references and ornament in favor of functionalist details . 
architects such as frank lloyd wright developed organic architecture , in which the form was defined by its environment and purpose , with an aim to promote harmony between human habitation and the natural world with prime examples being robie house and fallingwater . 
architects such as frank lloyd wright developed organic architecture , in which the form was defined by its environment and purpose , with an aim to promote harmony between human habitation and the natural world with prime examples being robie house and fallingwater . 
architects such as frank lloyd wright developed organic architecture , in which the form was defined by its environment and purpose , with an aim to promote harmony between human habitation and the natural world with prime examples being robie house and fallingwater . 
architects such as mies van der rohe , philip johnson and marcel breuer worked to create beauty based on the inherent qualities of building materials and modern construction techniques , trading traditional historic forms for simplified geometric forms , celebrating the new means and methods made possible by the industrial revolution , including steel-frame construction , which gave birth to high-rise superstructures . 
architects such as mies van der rohe , philip johnson and marcel breuer worked to create beauty based on the inherent qualities of building materials and modern construction techniques , trading traditional historic forms for simplified geometric forms , celebrating the new means and methods made possible by the industrial revolution , including steel-frame construction , which gave birth to high-rise superstructures . 
by mid-century , modernism had morphed into the international style , an aesthetic epitomized in many ways by the twin towers of new york 's world trade center designed by minoru yamasaki . 
by mid-century , modernism had morphed into the international style , an aesthetic epitomized in many ways by the twin towers of new york 's world trade center designed by minoru yamasaki . 
by mid-century , modernism had morphed into the international style , an aesthetic epitomized in many ways by the twin towers of new york 's world trade center designed by minoru yamasaki . 
many architects resisted modernism , finding it devoid of the decorative richness of historical styles . 
as the first generation of modernists began to die after wwii , a second generation of architects including paul rudolph , marcel breuer , and eero saarinen tried to expand the aesthetics of modernism with brutalism , buildings with expressive sculptural facades made of unfinished concrete . 
as the first generation of modernists began to die after wwii , a second generation of architects including paul rudolph , marcel breuer , and eero saarinen tried to expand the aesthetics of modernism with brutalism , buildings with expressive sculptural facades made of unfinished concrete . 
but an even new younger postwar generation critiqued modernism and brutalism for being too austere , standardized , monotone , and not taking into account the richness of human experience offered in historical buildings across time and in different places and cultures . 
one such reaction to the cold aesthetic of modernism and brutalism is the school of metaphoric architecture , which includes such things as biomorphism and zoomorphic architecture , both using nature as the primary source of inspiration and design . 
one such reaction to the cold aesthetic of modernism and brutalism is the school of metaphoric architecture , which includes such things as biomorphism and zoomorphic architecture , both using nature as the primary source of inspiration and design . 
one such reaction to the cold aesthetic of modernism and brutalism is the school of metaphoric architecture , which includes such things as biomorphism and zoomorphic architecture , both using nature as the primary source of inspiration and design . 
while it is considered by some to be merely an aspect of postmodernism , others consider it to be a school in its own right and a later development of expressionist architecture . 
beginning in the late 1950s and 1960s , architectural phenomenology emerged as an important movement in the early reaction against modernism , with architects like charles moore in the usa , christian norberg-schulz in norway , and ernesto nathan rogers and vittorio gregotti in italy , who collectively popularized an interest in a new contemporary architecture aimed at expanding human experience using historical buildings as models and precedents . 
beginning in the late 1950s and 1960s , architectural phenomenology emerged as an important movement in the early reaction against modernism , with architects like charles moore in the usa , christian norberg-schulz in norway , and ernesto nathan rogers and vittorio gregotti in italy , who collectively popularized an interest in a new contemporary architecture aimed at expanding human experience using historical buildings as models and precedents . 
beginning in the late 1950s and 1960s , architectural phenomenology emerged as an important movement in the early reaction against modernism , with architects like charles moore in the usa , christian norberg-schulz in norway , and ernesto nathan rogers and vittorio gregotti in italy , who collectively popularized an interest in a new contemporary architecture aimed at expanding human experience using historical buildings as models and precedents . 
robert venturi famously defined postmodern architecture as a `` decorated shed '' -lrb- an ordinary building which is functionally designed inside and embellished on the outside -rrb- , and upheld it against modernist and brutalist `` ducks '' -lrb- buildings with unnecessarily expressive tectonic forms -rrb- . 
robert venturi famously defined postmodern architecture as a `` decorated shed '' -lrb- an ordinary building which is functionally designed inside and embellished on the outside -rrb- , and upheld it against modernist and brutalist `` ducks '' -lrb- buildings with unnecessarily expressive tectonic forms -rrb- . 
since the 1980s , as the complexity of buildings began to increase -lrb- in terms of structural systems , services , energy and technologies -rrb- , the field of architecture became multi-disciplinary with specializations for each project type , technological expertise or project delivery methods . 
a large structure can no longer be the design of one person but must be the work of many . 
modernism and postmodernism have been criticised by some members of the architectural profession who feel that successful architecture is not a personal , philosophical , or aesthetic pursuit by individualists ; rather it has to consider everyday needs of people and use technology to create liveable environments , with the design process being informed by studies of behavioral , environmental , and social sciences . 
environmental sustainability has become a mainstream issue , with profound effect on the architectural profession . 
this major shift in architecture has also changed architecture schools to focus more on the environment . 
sustainability in architecture was pioneered by frank lloyd wright , in the 1960s by buckminster fuller and in the 1970s by architects such as ian mcharg and sim van der ryn in the us and brenda and robert vale in the uk and new zealand . 
sustainability in architecture was pioneered by frank lloyd wright , in the 1960s by buckminster fuller and in the 1970s by architects such as ian mcharg and sim van der ryn in the us and brenda and robert vale in the uk and new zealand . 
the u.s. green building council 's leed -lrb- leadership in energy and environmental design -rrb- rating system has been instrumental in this . 
concurrently , the recent movements of new urbanism , metaphoric architecture and new classical architecture promote a sustainable approach towards construction , that appreciates and develops smart growth , architectural tradition and classical design . 
this in contrast to modernist and globally uniform architecture , as well as leaning against solitary housing estates and suburban sprawl . 
concurrently , the recent movements of new urbanism , metaphoric architecture and new classical architecture promote a sustainable approach towards construction , that appreciates and develops smart growth , architectural tradition and classical design . 
this in contrast to modernist and globally uniform architecture , as well as leaning against solitary housing estates and suburban sprawl . 
the human development index -lrb- hdi -rrb- is a composite statistic of life expectancy , education , and income per capita indicators , which are used to rank countries into four tiers of human development . 
a country scores higher hdi when the life expectancy at birth is longer , the education period is longer , and the income per capita is higher . 
the hdi was developed by the pakistani economist mahbub ul haq , often framed in terms of whether people are able to `` be '' and `` do '' desirable things in their life , and was published by the united nations development programme . 
the hdi was developed by the pakistani economist mahbub ul haq , often framed in terms of whether people are able to `` be '' and `` do '' desirable things in their life , and was published by the united nations development programme . 
a country scores higher hdi when the life expectancy at birth is longer , the education period is longer , and the income per capita is higher . 
the 2010 human development report introduced an inequality-adjusted human development index -lrb- ihdi -rrb- . 
the 2010 human development report introduced an inequality-adjusted human development index -lrb- ihdi -rrb- . 
while the simple hdi remains useful , it stated that `` the ihdi is the actual level of human development -lrb- accounting for inequality -rrb- , '' and `` the hdi can be viewed as an index of ` potential ' human development -lrb- or the maximum ihdi that could be achieved if there were no inequality -rrb- . '' 
while the simple hdi remains useful , it stated that `` the ihdi is the actual level of human development -lrb- accounting for inequality -rrb- , '' and `` the hdi can be viewed as an index of ` potential ' human development -lrb- or the maximum ihdi that could be achieved if there were no inequality -rrb- . '' 
these were devised and launched by pakistani economist mahbub ul haq in 1990 and had the explicit purpose `` to shift the focus of development economics from national income accounting to people-centered policies '' . 
working alongside nobel laureate amartya sen , they worked on capabilities and functions that provided the underlying conceptual framework . 
these were devised and launched by pakistani economist mahbub ul haq in 1990 and had the explicit purpose `` to shift the focus of development economics from national income accounting to people-centered policies '' . 
these were devised and launched by pakistani economist mahbub ul haq in 1990 and had the explicit purpose `` to shift the focus of development economics from national income accounting to people-centered policies '' . 
le : life expectancy at birth mys : mean years of schooling -lrb- years that a person 25 years-of-age or older has spent in schools -rrb- eys : expected years of schooling -lrb- years that a 5-year-old child will spend in schools throughout his life -rrb- gnipc : gross national income at purchasing power parity per capita 
le : life expectancy at birth mys : mean years of schooling -lrb- years that a person 25 years-of-age or older has spent in schools -rrb- eys : expected years of schooling -lrb- years that a 5-year-old child will spend in schools throughout his life -rrb- gnipc : gross national income at purchasing power parity per capita 
le : life expectancy at birth mys : mean years of schooling -lrb- years that a person 25 years-of-age or older has spent in schools -rrb- eys : expected years of schooling -lrb- years that a 5-year-old child will spend in schools throughout his life -rrb- gnipc : gross national income at purchasing power parity per capita 
le : life expectancy at birth mys : mean years of schooling -lrb- years that a person 25 years-of-age or older has spent in schools -rrb- eys : expected years of schooling -lrb- years that a 5-year-old child will spend in schools throughout his life -rrb- gnipc : gross national income at purchasing power parity per capita 
the formula defining the hdi is promulgated by the united nations development programme -lrb- undp -rrb- . 
the 2015 human development report by the united nations development program was released on december 14 , 2015 , and calculates hdi values based on estimates for 2014 . 
the 2015 human development report by the united nations development program was released on december 14 , 2015 , and calculates hdi values based on estimates for 2014 . 
the 2014 human development report by the united nations development program was released on july 24 , 2014 , and calculates hdi values based on estimates for 2013 . 
the 2014 human development report by the united nations development program was released on july 24 , 2014 , and calculates hdi values based on estimates for 2013 . 
the inequality-adjusted human development index -lrb- ihdi -rrb- is a `` measure of the average level of human development of people in a society once inequality is taken into account . '' 
the inequality-adjusted human development index -lrb- ihdi -rrb- is a `` measure of the average level of human development of people in a society once inequality is taken into account . '' 
countries in the top quartile of hdi -lrb- `` very high human development '' group -rrb- with a missing ihdi : new zealand , singapore , hong kong , liechtenstein , brunei , qatar , saudi arabia , andorra , united arab emirates , bahrain , cuba , and kuwait . 
countries in the top quartile of hdi -lrb- `` very high human development '' group -rrb- with a missing ihdi : new zealand , singapore , hong kong , liechtenstein , brunei , qatar , saudi arabia , andorra , united arab emirates , bahrain , cuba , and kuwait . 
some countries were not included for various reasons , primarily the lack of necessary data . 
the following united nations member states were not included in the 2014 report : north korea , marshall islands , monaco , nauru , san marino , somalia , india , pakistan , south sudan , and tuvalu . 
the 2013 human development report by the united nations development program was released on march 14 , 2013 , and calculates hdi values based on estimates for 2012 . 
the 2013 human development report by the united nations development program was released on march 14 , 2013 , and calculates hdi values based on estimates for 2012 . 
the inequality-adjusted human development index -lrb- ihdi -rrb- is a `` measure of the average level of human development of people in a society once inequality is taken into account . '' 
countries in the top quartile of hdi -lrb- `` very high human development '' group -rrb- with a missing ihdi : new zealand , chile , japan , hong kong , singapore , taiwan , liechtenstein , brunei , andorra , qatar , barbados , united arab emirates , and seychelles . 
countries in the top quartile of hdi -lrb- `` very high human development '' group -rrb- with a missing ihdi : new zealand , chile , japan , hong kong , singapore , taiwan , liechtenstein , brunei , andorra , qatar , barbados , united arab emirates , and seychelles . 
the 2011 human development report was released on 2 november 2011 , and calculated hdi values based on estimates for 2011 . 
countries in the top quartile of hdi -lrb- `` very high human development '' group -rrb- with a missing ihdi include : new zealand , liechtenstein , japan , hong kong , singapore , taiwan , united arab emirates , andorra , brunei , malta , qatar , bahrain , chile , argentina and barbados . 
countries in the top quartile of hdi -lrb- `` very high human development '' group -rrb- with a missing ihdi include : new zealand , liechtenstein , japan , hong kong , singapore , taiwan , united arab emirates , andorra , brunei , malta , qatar , bahrain , chile , argentina and barbados . 
some countries were not included for various reasons , mainly the unavailability of certain crucial data . 
the following united nations member states were not included in the 2011 report : north korea , marshall islands , monaco , nauru , san marino , south sudan , somalia and tuvalu . 
the 2010 human development report by the united nations development program was released on november 4 , 2010 , and calculates hdi values based on estimates for 2010 . 
the 2010 human development report by the united nations development program was released on november 4 , 2010 , and calculates hdi values based on estimates for 2010 . 
the 2010 human development report was the first to calculate an inequality-adjusted human development index -lrb- ihdi -rrb- , which factors in inequalities in the three basic dimensions of human development -lrb- income , life expectancy , and education -rrb- . 
countries in the top quartile of hdi -lrb- `` very high human development '' group -rrb- with a missing ihdi include : new zealand , liechtenstein , japan , hong kong , singapore , republic of china -lrb- taiwan -rrb- , andorra , united arab emirates , malta , brunei , qatar , bahrain and barbados . 
some countries were not included for various reasons , mainly the unavailability of certain crucial data . 
cuba lodged a formal protest at its lack of inclusion . 
the situation has been addressed and , in later years , cuba has ranked as a high human development country . 
the 2009 human development report by undp was released on october 5 , 2009 , and covers the period up to 2007 . 
the 2009 human development report by undp was released on october 5 , 2009 , and covers the period up to 2007 . 
it was titled `` overcoming barriers : human mobility and development '' . 
the top countries by hdi were grouped in a new category called `` very high human development '' . 
the report refers to these countries as developed countries . 
some countries were not included for various reasons , such as being a non-un member or unable or unwilling to provide the necessary data at the time of publication . 
this so-called `` statistical update '' covered the period up to 2006 and was published without an accompanying human development report . 
this so-called `` statistical update '' covered the period up to 2006 and was published without an accompanying human development report . 
this so-called `` statistical update '' covered the period up to 2006 and was published without an accompanying human development report . 
the human development report for 2007/2008 was launched in brasília , brazil , on november 27 , 2007 . 
its focus was on `` fighting climate change : human solidarity in a divided world . '' 
most of the data used for the report are derived largely from 2005 or earlier , thus indicating an hdi for 2005 . 
most of the data used for the report are derived largely from 2005 or earlier , thus indicating an hdi for 2005 . 
the human development report for 2007/2008 was launched in brasília , brazil , on november 27 , 2007 . 
this marked improvement at the bottom was offset with a decrease in hdi of high income countries . 
a hdi below 0.5 is considered to represent `` low development '' . 
all 22 countries in that category are located in africa . 
the highest-scoring sub-saharan countries , gabon and south africa , are ranked 119th and 121st , respectively . 
the highest-scoring sub-saharan countries , gabon and south africa , are ranked 119th and 121st , respectively . 
the highest-scoring sub-saharan countries , gabon and south africa , are ranked 119th and 121st , respectively . 
a hdi of 0.8 or more is considered to represent `` high development '' . 
seven countries were promoted to this category this year , leaving the `` medium development '' group : albania , belarus , brazil , libya , macedonia , russia and saudi arabia . 
seven countries were promoted to this category this year , leaving the `` medium development '' group : albania , belarus , brazil , libya , macedonia , russia and saudi arabia . 
on the following table , green arrows -lrb- -rrb- represent an increase in ranking over the previous study , while red arrows -lrb- -rrb- represent a decrease in ranking . 
on the following table , green arrows -lrb- -rrb- represent an increase in ranking over the previous study , while red arrows -lrb- -rrb- represent a decrease in ranking . 
blue dashes -lrb- -rrb- represent a nation that did not move in the rankings since the previous study . 
norway has been ranked the highest twelve times , canada eight times , followed by japan which has been ranked highest three times . 
iceland has been ranked highest twice . 
the human development index has been criticized on a number of grounds including alleged ideological biases towards egalitarianism and so-called `` western models of development '' , failure to include any ecological considerations , lack of consideration of technological development or contributions to the human civilization , focusing exclusively on national performance and ranking , lack of attention to development from a global perspective , measurement error of the underlying statistics , and on the undp 's changes in formula which can lead to severe misclassification in the categorisation of ` low ' , ` medium ' , ` high ' or ` very high ' human development countries . 
the human development index has been criticized on a number of grounds including alleged ideological biases towards egalitarianism and so-called `` western models of development '' , failure to include any ecological considerations , lack of consideration of technological development or contributions to the human civilization , focusing exclusively on national performance and ranking , lack of attention to development from a global perspective , measurement error of the underlying statistics , and on the undp 's changes in formula which can lead to severe misclassification in the categorisation of ` low ' , ` medium ' , ` high ' or ` very high ' human development countries . 
the human development index has been criticized on a number of grounds including alleged ideological biases towards egalitarianism and so-called `` western models of development '' , failure to include any ecological considerations , lack of consideration of technological development or contributions to the human civilization , focusing exclusively on national performance and ranking , lack of attention to development from a global perspective , measurement error of the underlying statistics , and on the undp 's changes in formula which can lead to severe misclassification in the categorisation of ` low ' , ` medium ' , ` high ' or ` very high ' human development countries . 
the human development index has been criticized on a number of grounds including alleged ideological biases towards egalitarianism and so-called `` western models of development '' , failure to include any ecological considerations , lack of consideration of technological development or contributions to the human civilization , focusing exclusively on national performance and ranking , lack of attention to development from a global perspective , measurement error of the underlying statistics , and on the undp 's changes in formula which can lead to severe misclassification in the categorisation of ` low ' , ` medium ' , ` high ' or ` very high ' human development countries . 
they identified three sources of data error which are due to -lrb- i -rrb- data updating , -lrb- ii -rrb- formula revisions and -lrb- iii -rrb- thresholds to classify a country 's development status and conclude that 11 % , 21 % and 34 % of all countries can be interpreted as currently misclassified in the development bins due to the three sources of data error , respectively . 
-lsb- citation needed -rsb- in 2010 the undp reacted to the criticism and updated the thresholds to classify nations as low , medium , and high human development countries . 
in a comment to the economist in early january 2011 , the human development report office responded to a january 6 , 2011 article in the magazine which discusses the wolff et al. paper . 
the hdi has extended its geographical coverage : david hastings , of the united nations economic and social commission for asia and the pacific , published a report geographically extending the hdi to 230 + economies , whereas the undp hdi for 2009 enumerates 182 economies and coverage for the 2010 hdi dropped to 169 countries . 
the hdi has extended its geographical coverage : david hastings , of the united nations economic and social commission for asia and the pacific , published a report geographically extending the hdi to 230 + economies , whereas the undp hdi for 2009 enumerates 182 economies and coverage for the 2010 hdi dropped to 169 countries . 
some definitions of southern europe , also known as mediterranean europe , include the countries of the iberian peninsula -lrb- spain and portugal -rrb- , the italian peninsula , southern france and greece . 
some definitions of southern europe , also known as mediterranean europe , include the countries of the iberian peninsula -lrb- spain and portugal -rrb- , the italian peninsula , southern france and greece . 
other definitions sometimes include the balkan countries of southeast europe , which are geographically in the southern part of europe , but which have different historical , political , economic , and cultural backgrounds . 
some definitions of southern europe , also known as mediterranean europe , include the countries of the iberian peninsula -lrb- spain and portugal -rrb- , the italian peninsula , southern france and greece . 
different methods can be used to define southern europe , including its political , economic , and cultural attributes . 
southern europe can also be defined by its natural features -- its geography , climate , and flora . 
the mediterranean climate covers much of portugal , spain , southeast france , italy , croatia , albania , montenegro , greece , the western and southern coastal regions of turkey as well as the mediterranean islands . 
the mediterranean climate covers much of portugal , spain , southeast france , italy , croatia , albania , montenegro , greece , the western and southern coastal regions of turkey as well as the mediterranean islands . 
those areas of mediterranean climate present similar vegetations and landscapes throughout , including dry hills , small plains , pine forests and olive trees . 
cooler climates can be found in certain parts of southern european countries , for example within the mountain ranges of spain and italy . 
additionally , the north coast of spain experiences a wetter atlantic climate . 
additionally , the north coast of spain experiences a wetter atlantic climate . 
southern europe 's flora is that of the mediterranean region , one of the phytochoria recognized by armen takhtajan . 
southern europe 's flora is that of the mediterranean region , one of the phytochoria recognized by armen takhtajan . 
the period known as classical antiquity began with the rise of the city-states of ancient greece . 
the period known as classical antiquity began with the rise of the city-states of ancient greece . 
greek influence reached its zenith under the expansive empire of alexander the great , spreading throughout asia . 
by 300 ad the roman empire was divided into the western roman empire based in rome , and the eastern roman empire based in constantinople . 
by 300 ad the roman empire was divided into the western roman empire based in rome , and the eastern roman empire based in constantinople . 
the attacks of the germanic peoples of northern europe led to the fall of the western roman empire in ad 476 , a date which traditionally marks the end of the classical period and the start of the middle ages . 
the attacks of the germanic peoples of northern europe led to the fall of the western roman empire in ad 476 , a date which traditionally marks the end of the classical period and the start of the middle ages . 
by 300 ad the roman empire was divided into the western roman empire based in rome , and the eastern roman empire based in constantinople . 
during the middle ages , the eastern roman empire survived , though modern historians refer to this state as the byzantine empire . 
in western europe , germanic peoples moved into positions of power in the remnants of the former western roman empire and established kingdoms and empires of their own . 
in western europe , germanic peoples moved into positions of power in the remnants of the former western roman empire and established kingdoms and empires of their own . 
the period known as the crusades , a series of religiously motivated military expeditions originally intended to bring the levant back into christian rule , began . 
their sack of constantinople in 1204 brought an abrupt end to the byzantine empire . 
the crusaders would establish trade routes that would develop into the silk road and open the way for the merchant republics of genoa and venice to become major economic powers . 
the reconquista , a related movement , worked to reconquer iberia for christendom . 
their sack of constantinople in 1204 brought an abrupt end to the byzantine empire . 
the late middle ages represented a period of upheaval in europe . 
the epidemic known as the black death and an associated famine caused demographic catastrophe in europe as the population plummeted . 
in the balkans , the ottoman empire , a turkish state originating in anatolia , encroached steadily on former byzantine lands , culminating in the fall of constantinople in 1453 . 
in the balkans , the ottoman empire , a turkish state originating in anatolia , encroached steadily on former byzantine lands , culminating in the fall of constantinople in 1453 . 
beginning roughly in the 14th century in florence , and later spreading through europe with the development of the printing press , a renaissance of knowledge challenged traditional doctrines in science and theology , with the arabic texts and thought bringing about rediscovery of classical greek and roman knowledge . 
beginning roughly in the 14th century in florence , and later spreading through europe with the development of the printing press , a renaissance of knowledge challenged traditional doctrines in science and theology , with the arabic texts and thought bringing about rediscovery of classical greek and roman knowledge . 
beginning roughly in the 14th century in florence , and later spreading through europe with the development of the printing press , a renaissance of knowledge challenged traditional doctrines in science and theology , with the arabic texts and thought bringing about rediscovery of classical greek and roman knowledge . 
beginning roughly in the 14th century in florence , and later spreading through europe with the development of the printing press , a renaissance of knowledge challenged traditional doctrines in science and theology , with the arabic texts and thought bringing about rediscovery of classical greek and roman knowledge . 
the reconquista of portugal and spain led to a series of oceanic explorations resulting in the age of discovery that established direct links with africa , the americas , and asia , while religious wars continued to be fought in europe , which ended in 1648 with the peace of westphalia . 
the reconquista of portugal and spain led to a series of oceanic explorations resulting in the age of discovery that established direct links with africa , the americas , and asia , while religious wars continued to be fought in europe , which ended in 1648 with the peace of westphalia . 
the spanish crown maintained its hegemony in europe and was the leading power on the continent until the signing of the treaty of the pyrenees , which ended a conflict between spain and france that had begun during the thirty years ' war . 
galileo galilei , invented the telescope and the thermometer which allowed him to observe and describe the solar system . 
guglielmo marconi invented the radio . 
european overseas expansion led to the rise of colonial empires , producing the columbian exchange . 
european overseas expansion led to the rise of colonial empires , producing the columbian exchange . 
the combination of resource inflows from the new world and the industrial revolution of great britain , allowed a new economy based on manufacturing instead of subsistence agriculture . 
the combination of resource inflows from the new world and the industrial revolution of great britain , allowed a new economy based on manufacturing instead of subsistence agriculture . 
the period between 1815 and 1871 saw a large number of revolutionary attempts and independence wars . 
balkan nations began to regain independence from the ottoman empire . 
the capture of rome in 1870 ended the papal temporal power . 
rivalry in a scramble for empires spread in what is known as the age of empire . 
the outbreak of world war i in 1914 was precipitated by the rise of nationalism in southeastern europe as the great powers took up sides . 
the allies defeated the central powers in 1918 . 
during the paris peace conference the big four imposed their terms in a series of treaties , especially the treaty of versailles . 
the nazi regime under adolf hitler came to power in 1933 , and along with mussolini 's italy sought to gain control of the continent by the second world war . 
the nazi regime under adolf hitler came to power in 1933 , and along with mussolini 's italy sought to gain control of the continent by the second world war . 
the nazi regime under adolf hitler came to power in 1933 , and along with mussolini 's italy sought to gain control of the continent by the second world war . 
the nazi regime under adolf hitler came to power in 1933 , and along with mussolini 's italy sought to gain control of the continent by the second world war . 
the countries in the soviet sphere of influence joined the military alliance known as the warsaw pact and the economic bloc called comecon . 
the european union -lrb- eu -rrb- involved the division of powers , with taxation , health and education handled by the nation states , while the eu had charge of market rules , competition , legal standards and environmentalism . 
the european union -lrb- eu -rrb- involved the division of powers , with taxation , health and education handled by the nation states , while the eu had charge of market rules , competition , legal standards and environmentalism . 
the soviet economic and political system collapsed , leading to the end of communism in the satellite countries in 1989 , and the dissolution of the soviet union itself in 1991 . 
the soviet economic and political system collapsed , leading to the end of communism in the satellite countries in 1989 , and the dissolution of the soviet union itself in 1991 . 
as a consequence , europe 's integration deepened , the continent became depolarised , and the european union expanded to subsequently include many of the formerly communist european countries -- romania and bulgaria -lrb- 2007 -rrb- and croatia -lrb- 2013 -rrb- . 
the most widely spoken family of languages in southern europe are the romance languages , the heirs of latin , which have spread from the italian peninsula , and are emblematic of southwestern europe . 
by far the most common romance languages in southern europe are : italian , which is spoken by over 50 million people in italy , san marino , and the vatican ; and spanish , which is spoken by over 40 million people in spain and gibraltar . 
other common romance languages include : romanian , which is spoken in romania and moldova ; portuguese , which is spoken in portugal ; catalan , which is spoken in eastern spain ; and galician , which is spoken in northwestern spain . 
other common romance languages include : romanian , which is spoken in romania and moldova ; portuguese , which is spoken in portugal ; catalan , which is spoken in eastern spain ; and galician , which is spoken in northwestern spain . 
by far the most common romance languages in southern europe are : italian , which is spoken by over 50 million people in italy , san marino , and the vatican ; and spanish , which is spoken by over 40 million people in spain and gibraltar . 
the hellenic languages or greek language are widely spoken in greece and in the greek part of cyprus . 
the hellenic languages or greek language are widely spoken in greece and in the greek part of cyprus . 
serbian is spoken in serbia , bosnia , and croatia ; bulgarian is spoken in bulgaria ; croatian is spoken in croatia and bosnia ; bosnian is spoken in bosnia ; slovene is spoken in slovenia ; and macedonian is spoken in macedonia . 
serbian is spoken in serbia , bosnia , and croatia ; bulgarian is spoken in bulgaria ; croatian is spoken in croatia and bosnia ; bosnian is spoken in bosnia ; slovene is spoken in slovenia ; and macedonian is spoken in macedonia . 
serbian is spoken in serbia , bosnia , and croatia ; bulgarian is spoken in bulgaria ; croatian is spoken in croatia and bosnia ; bosnian is spoken in bosnia ; slovene is spoken in slovenia ; and macedonian is spoken in macedonia . 
english is used as a second language in parts of southern europe . 
as a primary language , however , english has only a small presence in southern europe , only in gibraltar -lrb- alongside spanish -rrb- and malta -lrb- secondary to maltese -rrb- . 
as a primary language , however , english has only a small presence in southern europe , only in gibraltar -lrb- alongside spanish -rrb- and malta -lrb- secondary to maltese -rrb- . 
albanian is spoken in albania , kosovo , macedoonia , and parts of greece . 
maltese is a semitic language that is the official language of malta . 
the basque language is spoken in the basque country , a region in northern spain and southwestern france . 
the predominant religion is southern europe is christianity . 
christianity spread throughout southern europe during the roman empire , and christianity was adopted as the official religion of the roman empire in the year 380 ad . 
christians in the western half of southern europe -- e.g. , portugal , spain , italy -- are generally roman catholic . 
christians in the eastern half of southern europe -- e.g. , greece , macedonia -- are generally greek orthodox . 
for its official works and publications , the united nations organization groups countries under a classification of regions . 
the assignment of countries or areas to specific groupings is for statistical convenience and does not imply any assumption regarding political or other affiliation of countries or territories by the united nations . 
southern europe , as grouped for statistical convenience by the united nations -lrb- the sub-regions according to the un -rrb- , includes following countries and territories : 
european travel commission divides the european region on the basis of tourism decision metrics -lrb- tdm -rrb- model . 
european travel commission divides the european region on the basis of tourism decision metrics -lrb- tdm -rrb- model . 
bbc television is a service of the british broadcasting corporation . 
the corporation , which has operated in the united kingdom under the terms of a royal charter since 1927 , has produced television programmes from its own since 1932 , although the start of its regular service of television broadcasts is dated to 2 november 1936 . 
the corporation , which has operated in the united kingdom under the terms of a royal charter since 1927 , has produced television programmes from its own since 1932 , although the start of its regular service of television broadcasts is dated to 2 november 1936 . 
the corporation , which has operated in the united kingdom under the terms of a royal charter since 1927 , has produced television programmes from its own since 1932 , although the start of its regular service of television broadcasts is dated to 2 november 1936 . 
the corporation , which has operated in the united kingdom under the terms of a royal charter since 1927 , has produced television programmes from its own since 1932 , although the start of its regular service of television broadcasts is dated to 2 november 1936 . 
the domestic tv bbc television channels are broadcast without any commercial advertising and collectively they account for more than 30 % of all uk viewing . 
as well as being a broadcaster , the corporation also produces a large number of its own programmes in-house , thereby ranking as one of the world 's largest television production companies . 
baird television ltd. made britain 's first television broadcast , on 30 september 1929 from its studio in long acre , london , via the bbc 's london transmitter , using the electromechanical system pioneered by john logie baird . 
baird television ltd. made britain 's first television broadcast , on 30 september 1929 from its studio in long acre , london , via the bbc 's london transmitter , using the electromechanical system pioneered by john logie baird . 
baird television ltd. made britain 's first television broadcast , on 30 september 1929 from its studio in long acre , london , via the bbc 's london transmitter , using the electromechanical system pioneered by john logie baird . 
baird broadcasts via the bbc continued until june 1932 . 
simultaneous transmission of sound and picture was achieved on 30 march 1930 , by using the bbc 's new twin transmitter at brookmans park . 
the bbc began its own regular television programming from the basement of broadcasting house , london , on 22 august 1932 . 
the studio moved to larger quarters in 16 portland place , london , in february 1934 , and continued broadcasting the 30-line images , carried by telephone line to the medium wave transmitter at brookmans park , until 11 september 1935 , by which time advances in all-electronic television systems made the electromechanical broadcasts obsolete . 
the studio moved to larger quarters in 16 portland place , london , in february 1934 , and continued broadcasting the 30-line images , carried by telephone line to the medium wave transmitter at brookmans park , until 11 september 1935 , by which time advances in all-electronic television systems made the electromechanical broadcasts obsolete . 
the studio moved to larger quarters in 16 portland place , london , in february 1934 , and continued broadcasting the 30-line images , carried by telephone line to the medium wave transmitter at brookmans park , until 11 september 1935 , by which time advances in all-electronic television systems made the electromechanical broadcasts obsolete . 
the studio moved to larger quarters in 16 portland place , london , in february 1934 , and continued broadcasting the 30-line images , carried by telephone line to the medium wave transmitter at brookmans park , until 11 september 1935 , by which time advances in all-electronic television systems made the electromechanical broadcasts obsolete . 
after a series of test transmissions and special broadcasts that began in august , regular bbc television broadcasts officially resumed on 1 october 1936 , from a converted wing of alexandra palace in london , which housed two studios , various scenery stores , make-up areas , dressing rooms , offices , and the transmitter itself , now broadcasting on the vhf band . 
after a series of test transmissions and special broadcasts that began in august , regular bbc television broadcasts officially resumed on 1 october 1936 , from a converted wing of alexandra palace in london , which housed two studios , various scenery stores , make-up areas , dressing rooms , offices , and the transmitter itself , now broadcasting on the vhf band . 
bbc television initially used two systems , on alternate weeks : the 240-line baird intermediate film system and the 405-line marconi-emi system , each making the bbc the world 's first regular high-definition television service , broadcasting monday to saturday from 15:00 to 16:00 and 21:00 to 22:00 . 
bbc television initially used two systems , on alternate weeks : the 240-line baird intermediate film system and the 405-line marconi-emi system , each making the bbc the world 's first regular high-definition television service , broadcasting monday to saturday from 15:00 to 16:00 and 21:00 to 22:00 . 
bbc television initially used two systems , on alternate weeks : the 240-line baird intermediate film system and the 405-line marconi-emi system , each making the bbc the world 's first regular high-definition television service , broadcasting monday to saturday from 15:00 to 16:00 and 21:00 to 22:00 . 
the two systems were to run on a trial basis for six months ; early television sets supported both resolutions . 
however , the baird system , which used a mechanical camera for filmed programming and farnsworth image dissector cameras for live programming , proved too cumbersome and visually inferior , and ended with closedown -lrb- at 22:00 -rrb- on saturday 13 february 1937 . 
however , the baird system , which used a mechanical camera for filmed programming and farnsworth image dissector cameras for live programming , proved too cumbersome and visually inferior , and ended with closedown -lrb- at 22:00 -rrb- on saturday 13 february 1937 . 
initially , the station 's range was officially a 40 kilometres radius of the alexandra palace transmitter -- in practice , however , transmissions could be picked up a good deal further away , and on one occasion in 1938 were picked up by engineers at rca in new york , who were experimenting with a british television set . 
initially , the station 's range was officially a 40 kilometres radius of the alexandra palace transmitter -- in practice , however , transmissions could be picked up a good deal further away , and on one occasion in 1938 were picked up by engineers at rca in new york , who were experimenting with a british television set . 
initially , the station 's range was officially a 40 kilometres radius of the alexandra palace transmitter -- in practice , however , transmissions could be picked up a good deal further away , and on one occasion in 1938 were picked up by engineers at rca in new york , who were experimenting with a british television set . 
initially , the station 's range was officially a 40 kilometres radius of the alexandra palace transmitter -- in practice , however , transmissions could be picked up a good deal further away , and on one occasion in 1938 were picked up by engineers at rca in new york , who were experimenting with a british television set . 
mechanically scanned , 30-line television broadcasts by john logie baird began in 1929 , using the bbc transmitter in london , and by 1930 a regular schedule of programmes was transmitted from the bbc antenna in brookmans park . 
television production was switched from baird 's company to what is now known as bbc one on 2 august 1932 , and continued until september 1935 . 
the first programme broadcast -- and thus the first ever , on a dedicated tv channel -- was `` opening of the bbc television service '' at 15:00 . 
the first major outside broadcast was the coronation of king george vi and queen elizabeth in may 1937 . 
the service was reaching an estimated 25,000 -- 40,000 homes before the outbreak of world war ii which caused the service to be suspended in september 1939 . 
on 1 september 1939 , two days before britain declared war on germany , the station was taken off air with little warning ; the government was concerned that the vhf transmissions would act as a beacon to enemy aircraft homing in on london . 
also , many of the television service 's technical staff and engineers would be needed for the war effort , in particular on the radar programme . 
the last programme transmitted was a mickey mouse cartoon , mickey 's gala premier -lrb- 1933 -rrb- , which was followed by test transmissions ; this account refuted the popular memory according to which broadcasting was suspended before the end of the cartoon . 
the last programme transmitted was a mickey mouse cartoon , mickey 's gala premier -lrb- 1933 -rrb- , which was followed by test transmissions ; this account refuted the popular memory according to which broadcasting was suspended before the end of the cartoon . 
according to figures from britain 's radio manufacturers association , 18,999 television sets had been manufactured from 1936 to september 1939 , when production was halted by the war . 
jasmine bligh , one of the original announcers , made the first announcement , saying , ` good afternoon everybody . 
bbc television returned on 7 june 1946 at 15:00 . 
alexandra palace was the home base of the channel until the early 1950s when the majority of production moved into the newly acquired lime grove studios . 
the mickey mouse cartoon of 1939 was repeated twenty minutes later . 
postwar broadcast coverage was extended to birmingham in 1949 with the opening of the sutton coldfield transmitting station , and by the mid-1950s most of the country was covered , transmitting a 405-line interlaced image on vhf . 
postwar broadcast coverage was extended to birmingham in 1949 with the opening of the sutton coldfield transmitting station , and by the mid-1950s most of the country was covered , transmitting a 405-line interlaced image on vhf . 
postwar broadcast coverage was extended to birmingham in 1949 with the opening of the sutton coldfield transmitting station , and by the mid-1950s most of the country was covered , transmitting a 405-line interlaced image on vhf . 
postwar broadcast coverage was extended to birmingham in 1949 with the opening of the sutton coldfield transmitting station , and by the mid-1950s most of the country was covered , transmitting a 405-line interlaced image on vhf . 
the bbc television service -lrb- renamed `` bbc tv '' in 1960 -rrb- showed popular programming , including drama , comedies , documentaries , game shows , and soap operas , covering a wide range of genres and regularly competed with itv to become the channel with the highest ratings for that week . 
the bbc television service -lrb- renamed `` bbc tv '' in 1960 -rrb- showed popular programming , including drama , comedies , documentaries , game shows , and soap operas , covering a wide range of genres and regularly competed with itv to become the channel with the highest ratings for that week . 
the channel also introduced the science fiction show doctor who on 23 november 1963 - at 17:16 - which went on to become one of britain 's most iconic and beloved television programmes . 
television transmissions resumed from alexandra palace in 1946 . 
bbc tv was renamed bbc1 in 1964 , after the launch of bbc2 -lrb- now bbc two -rrb- , the third television station -lrb- itv was the second -rrb- for the uk ; its remit , to provide more niche programming . 
bbc tv was renamed bbc1 in 1964 , after the launch of bbc2 -lrb- now bbc two -rrb- , the third television station -lrb- itv was the second -rrb- for the uk ; its remit , to provide more niche programming . 
the channel was due to launch on 20 april 1964 , but was put off the air by a massive power failure that affected much of london , caused by a fire at battersea power station . 
the channel was due to launch on 20 april 1964 , but was put off the air by a massive power failure that affected much of london , caused by a fire at battersea power station . 
in the end the launch went ahead the following night , hosted by denis tuohy holding a candle . 
on 1 july 1967 , bbc two became the first television channel in europe to broadcast regularly in colour , using the west german pal system that is still in use today although being gradually superseded by digital systems . 
-lrb- bbc one and itv began 625-line colour broadcasts simultaneously on 15 november 1969 -rrb- . 
unlike other terrestrial channels , bbc two does not have soap opera or standard news programming , but a range of programmes intended to be eclectic and diverse -lrb- although if a programme has high audience ratings it is often eventually repositioned to bbc one -rrb- . 
the different remit of bbc2 allowed its first controller , sir david attenborough to commission the first heavyweight documentaries and documentary series such as civilisation , the ascent of man and horizon . 
the different remit of bbc2 allowed its first controller , sir david attenborough to commission the first heavyweight documentaries and documentary series such as civilisation , the ascent of man and horizon . 
in 1967 tom and jerry cartoons first aired on bbc one , with around 2 episodes shown every evening at 17:00 , with occasional morning showings on cbbc . 
the bbc stopped airing the famous cartoon duo in 2000 . 
in 1967 tom and jerry cartoons first aired on bbc one , with around 2 episodes shown every evening at 17:00 , with occasional morning showings on cbbc . 
in 1967 tom and jerry cartoons first aired on bbc one , with around 2 episodes shown every evening at 17:00 , with occasional morning showings on cbbc . 
david attenborough was later granted sabbatical leave from his job as controller to work with the bbc natural history unit which had existed since the 1950s . 
david attenborough was later granted sabbatical leave from his job as controller to work with the bbc natural history unit which had existed since the 1950s . 
this unit is now famed throughout the world for producing high quality programmes with attenborough such as life on earth , the private life of plants , the blue planet , the life of mammals , planet earth and frozen planet . 
england 's bbc one output is split up into fifteen regions -lrb- such as south west and east -rrb- , which exist mainly to produce local news programming , but also occasionally opt out of the network to show programmes of local importance -lrb- such as major local events -rrb- . 
the other nations of the united kingdom -lrb- wales , scotland and northern ireland -rrb- have been granted more autonomy from the english network ; for example , programmes are mostly introduced by local announcers , rather than by those in london . 
the other nations of the united kingdom -lrb- wales , scotland and northern ireland -rrb- have been granted more autonomy from the english network ; for example , programmes are mostly introduced by local announcers , rather than by those in london . 
england 's bbc one output is split up into fifteen regions -lrb- such as south west and east -rrb- , which exist mainly to produce local news programming , but also occasionally opt out of the network to show programmes of local importance -lrb- such as major local events -rrb- . 
programmes , such as the politically fuelled give my head peace -lrb- produced by bbc northern ireland -rrb- and the soap opera river city -lrb- produced by bbc scotland -rrb- , have been created specifically to cater for some viewers in their respective nations , who may have found programmes created for english audiences irrelevant . 
programmes , such as the politically fuelled give my head peace -lrb- produced by bbc northern ireland -rrb- and the soap opera river city -lrb- produced by bbc scotland -rrb- , have been created specifically to cater for some viewers in their respective nations , who may have found programmes created for english audiences irrelevant . 
bbc scotland produces daily programmes for its gaelic-speaking viewers , including current affairs , political and children 's programming such as the popular eòrpa and dè a-nis ? 
bbc scotland produces daily programmes for its gaelic-speaking viewers , including current affairs , political and children 's programming such as the popular eòrpa and dè a-nis ? 
the uk nations also produce a number of programmes that are shown across the uk , such as bbc scotland 's comedy series chewin ' the fat , and bbc northern ireland 's talk show patrick kielty almost live . 
the bbc has come under pressure to commission more programmes from independent british production companies , and indeed is legally required to source 25 % of its output from such companies by the terms of the broadcasting act 1990 . 
programmes have also been imported mainly from english-speaking countries : notable -- though no longer shown -- examples include the simpsons from the united states and neighbours from australia . 
programmes have also been imported mainly from english-speaking countries : notable -- though no longer shown -- examples include the simpsons from the united states and neighbours from australia . 
the bbc also introduced ceefax , the first teletext service , starting in 1974 . 
the bbc also introduced ceefax , the first teletext service , starting in 1974 . 
ceefax has not made a full transition to digital television , instead being replaced by the new interactive bbci service . 
in march 2003 the bbc announced that from the end of may 2003 -lrb- subsequently deferred to 14 july -rrb- it intended to transmit all eight of its domestic television channels -lrb- including the 15 regional variations of bbc 1 -rrb- unencrypted from the astra 2d satellite . 
in march 2003 the bbc announced that from the end of may 2003 -lrb- subsequently deferred to 14 july -rrb- it intended to transmit all eight of its domestic television channels -lrb- including the 15 regional variations of bbc 1 -rrb- unencrypted from the astra 2d satellite . 
in march 2003 the bbc announced that from the end of may 2003 -lrb- subsequently deferred to 14 july -rrb- it intended to transmit all eight of its domestic television channels -lrb- including the 15 regional variations of bbc 1 -rrb- unencrypted from the astra 2d satellite . 
this move was estimated to save the bbc # 85 million over the next five years . 
while the `` footprint '' of the astra 2d satellite was smaller than that of astra 2a , from which it was previously broadcast encrypted , it meant that viewers with appropriate equipment were able to receive bbc channels `` free-to-air '' over much of western europe . 
consequently , some rights concerns have needed to be resolved with programme providers such as hollywood studios and sporting organisations , which have expressed concern about the unencrypted signal leaking out . 
this led to some broadcasts being made unavailable on the sky digital platform , such as scottish premier league and scottish cup football , while on other platforms such broadcasts were not disrupted . 
this led to some broadcasts being made unavailable on the sky digital platform , such as scottish premier league and scottish cup football , while on other platforms such broadcasts were not disrupted . 
on 5 july 2004 , the bbc celebrated the fiftieth anniversary of its television news bulletins -lrb- although it had produced the television newsreel for several years before 1954 -rrb- . 
this event was marked by the release of a dvd , which showed highlights of the bbc 's television coverage of significant events over the half-century , as well as changes in the format of the bbc television news ; from the newsreel format of the first bbc television news bulletins , to the 24-hour , worldwide news coverage available in 2004 . 
on 5 july 2004 , the bbc celebrated the fiftieth anniversary of its television news bulletins -lrb- although it had produced the television newsreel for several years before 1954 -rrb- . 
in 2005 the pioneering bbc television series little angels won a bafta award . 
the bbc television department headed by jana bennett was absorbed into a new , much larger group ; bbc vision , in late 2006 . 
the bbc television department headed by jana bennett was absorbed into a new , much larger group ; bbc vision , in late 2006 . 
the new group was part of larger restructuring within the bbc with the onset of new media outlets and technology . 
in 2008 , the bbc began experimenting with live streaming of certain channels in the uk , and in november 2008 , all standard bbc television channels were made available to watch online . 
in 2008 , the bbc began experimenting with live streaming of certain channels in the uk , and in november 2008 , all standard bbc television channels were made available to watch online . 
in february 2016 , it was confirmed by bbc worldwide that keeping up appearances is the corporation 's most exported television programme , being sold nearly 1000 times to overseas broadcasters . 
in february 2016 , it was confirmed by bbc worldwide that keeping up appearances is the corporation 's most exported television programme , being sold nearly 1000 times to overseas broadcasters . 
in february 2016 , it was confirmed by bbc worldwide that keeping up appearances is the corporation 's most exported television programme , being sold nearly 1000 times to overseas broadcasters . 
the bbc domestic television channels do not broadcast advertisements ; they are instead funded by a television licence fee which tv viewers are required to pay annually . 
the bbc 's international television channels are funded by advertisements and subscription . 
as a division within the bbc , television was formerly known as bbc vision for a few years in the early 21st century , until its name reverted to television in 2013 . 
it is responsible for the commissioning , producing , scheduling and broadcasting of all programming on the bbc 's television channels , and is led by danny cohen . 
it is responsible for the commissioning , producing , scheduling and broadcasting of all programming on the bbc 's television channels , and is led by danny cohen . 
bbc japan was a general entertainment channel , which operated between december 2004 and april 2006 . 
bbc japan was a general entertainment channel , which operated between december 2004 and april 2006 . 
bbc japan was a general entertainment channel , which operated between december 2004 and april 2006 . 
arnold alois schwarzenegger -lrb- / ˈʃwɔːrtsənˌɛɡər / ; german : -lsb- ˈaɐ̯nɔlt ˈalɔʏs ˈʃvaɐ̯tsn̩ˌɛɡɐ -rsb- ; born july 30 , 1947 -rrb- is an austrian-american actor , filmmaker , businessman , investor , author , philanthropist , activist , former professional bodybuilder and politician . 
arnold alois schwarzenegger -lrb- / ˈʃwɔːrtsənˌɛɡər / ; german : -lsb- ˈaɐ̯nɔlt ˈalɔʏs ˈʃvaɐ̯tsn̩ˌɛɡɐ -rsb- ; born july 30 , 1947 -rrb- is an austrian-american actor , filmmaker , businessman , investor , author , philanthropist , activist , former professional bodybuilder and politician . 
he served two terms as the 38th governor of california from 2003 until 2011 . 
schwarzenegger began weight training at the age of 15 . 
he won the mr. universe title at age 20 and went on to win the mr. olympia contest seven times . 
his breakthrough film was the sword-and-sorcery epic conan the barbarian in 1982 , which was a box-office hit and resulted in a sequel . 
he won the mr. universe title at age 20 and went on to win the mr. olympia contest seven times . 
he was nicknamed the `` austrian oak '' in his bodybuilding days , `` arnie '' during his acting career , and `` the governator '' -lrb- a portmanteau of `` governor '' and `` the terminator '' , one of his best-known movie roles -rrb- . 
in 2011 , schwarzenegger completed his second term as governor . 
as a republican , he was first elected on october 7 , 2003 , in a special recall election to replace then-governor gray davis . 
as a republican , he was first elected on october 7 , 2003 , in a special recall election to replace then-governor gray davis . 
schwarzenegger was sworn in for his second term on january 5 , 2007 . 
schwarzenegger was born in thal , a village bordering the city of graz in styria , austria and christened arnold alois . 
his parents were gustav schwarzenegger -lrb- august 17 , 1907 -- december 13 , 1972 -rrb- , and aurelia schwarzenegger -lrb- née jadrny ; july 29 , 1922 -- august 2 , 1998 -rrb- . 
his parents were gustav schwarzenegger -lrb- august 17 , 1907 -- december 13 , 1972 -rrb- , and aurelia schwarzenegger -lrb- née jadrny ; july 29 , 1922 -- august 2 , 1998 -rrb- . 
gustav was the local chief of police , and had served in world war ii as a hauptfeldwebel after voluntarily joining the nazi party in 1938 , though he was discharged in 1943 following a bout of malaria . 
gustav had a preference for his elder son , meinhard -lrb- july 17 , 1946 -- may 20 , 1971 -rrb- , over arnold . 
money was a problem in their household ; schwarzenegger recalled that one of the highlights of his youth was when the family bought a refrigerator . 
he picked up his first barbell in 1960 , when his soccer coach took his team to a local gym . 
the first real movie i saw , that i distinctly remember , was a john wayne movie . '' 
my father had wanted me to be a police officer like he was . 
schwarzenegger took to visiting a gym in graz , where he also frequented the local movie theaters to see bodybuilding idols such as reg park , steve reeves , and johnny weissmuller on the big screen . 
on may 20 , 1971 , his brother , meinhard , died in a car accident . 
meinhard was due to marry erika knapp , and the couple had a three-year-old son , patrick . 
gustav died the following year from a stroke . 
barbara baker , his first serious girlfriend , has said he informed her of his father 's death without emotion and that he never spoke of his brother . 
in an interview with fortune in 2004 , schwarzenegger told how he suffered what `` would now be called child abuse '' at the hands of his father : `` my hair was pulled . 
`` the mr. universe title was my ticket to america -- the land of opportunity , where i could become a star and get rich . '' 
during his army service , he won the junior mr. europe contest . 
schwarzenegger made his first plane trip in 1966 , attending the nabba mr. universe competition in london . 
schwarzenegger made his first plane trip in 1966 , attending the nabba mr. universe competition in london . 
also in 1966 , schwarzenegger had the opportunity to meet childhood idol reg park , who became his friend and mentor . 
yorton 's leg definition had been judged superior , and schwarzenegger , under a training program devised by bennett , concentrated on improving the muscle definition and power in his legs . 
schwarzenegger then flew back to munich , training for four to six hours daily , attending business school and working in a health club -lrb- rolf putziger 's gym where he worked and trained from 1966 -- 1968 -rrb- , returning in 1968 to london to win his next mr. universe title . 
schwarzenegger then flew back to munich , training for four to six hours daily , attending business school and working in a health club -lrb- rolf putziger 's gym where he worked and trained from 1966 -- 1968 -rrb- , returning in 1968 to london to win his next mr. universe title . 
schwarzenegger , who dreamed of moving to the u.s. since the age of 10 , and saw bodybuilding as the avenue through which to do so , realized his dream by moving to the united states in september 1968 at the age of 21 , speaking little english . 
schwarzenegger , who dreamed of moving to the u.s. since the age of 10 , and saw bodybuilding as the avenue through which to do so , realized his dream by moving to the united states in september 1968 at the age of 21 , speaking little english . 
in 1970 , at age 23 , he captured his first mr. olympia title in new york , and would go on to win the title a total of seven times . 
from 1970 to 1974 , one of schwarzenegger 's weight training partners was ric drasin , a professional wrestler who designed the original gold 's gym logo in 1973 . 
la weekly would later say in 2002 that schwarzenegger is the most famous immigrant in america , who `` overcame a thick austrian accent and transcended the unlikely background of bodybuilding to become the biggest movie star in the world in the 1990s '' . 
in 1977 , schwarzenegger 's autobiography/weight-training guide arnold : the education of a bodybuilder was published and became a huge success . 
after taking english classes at santa monica college in california , he earned a ba by correspondence from the university of wisconsin -- superior , where he graduated with a degree in international marketing of fitness and business administration in 1979 . 
he tells that during this time he ran into a friend who told him that he was teaching transcendental meditation -lrb- tm -rrb- , which prompted schwarzenegger to reveal he had been struggling with anxiety for the first time in his life : `` even today , i still benefit from -lsb- the year of tm -rsb- because i do n't merge and bring things together and see everything as one big problem . '' 
he tells that during this time he ran into a friend who told him that he was teaching transcendental meditation -lrb- tm -rrb- , which prompted schwarzenegger to reveal he had been struggling with anxiety for the first time in his life : `` even today , i still benefit from -lsb- the year of tm -rsb- because i do n't merge and bring things together and see everything as one big problem . '' 
schwarzenegger is considered among the most important figures in the history of bodybuilding , and his legacy is commemorated in the arnold classic annual bodybuilding competition . 
for many years , he wrote a monthly column for the bodybuilding magazines muscle & fitness and flex . 
the magazines agreed to donate $ 250,000 a year to the governor 's various physical fitness initiatives . 
shortly after being elected governor , he was appointed executive editor of both magazines , in a largely symbolic capacity . 
one of the first competitions he won was the junior mr. europe contest in 1965 . 
his bodybuilding victories included five mr. universe -lrb- 4 -- nabba -lsb- england -rsb- , 1 -- ifbb -lsb- usa -rsb- -rrb- wins , and seven mr. olympia wins , a record which would stand until lee haney won his eighth consecutive mr. olympia title in 1991 . 
when asked about his personal training during the 2011 arnold classic he said that he was still working out a half an hour with weights every day . 
in 1967 , schwarzenegger won the munich stone-lifting contest , in which a stone weighing 508 german pounds -lrb- 254 kg/560 lbs . -rrb- 
his first attempt was in 1969 , when he lost to three-time champion sergio oliva . 
his first attempt was in 1969 , when he lost to three-time champion sergio oliva . 
however , schwarzenegger came back in 1970 and won the competition , making him the youngest ever mr. olympia at the age of 23 , a record he still holds to this day . 
however , schwarzenegger came back in 1970 and won the competition , making him the youngest ever mr. olympia at the age of 23 , a record he still holds to this day . 
in 1975 , schwarzenegger was once again in top form , and won the title for the sixth consecutive time , beating franco columbu . 
in 1975 , schwarzenegger was once again in top form , and won the title for the sixth consecutive time , beating franco columbu . 
after the 1975 mr. olympia contest , schwarzenegger announced his retirement from professional bodybuilding . 
months before the 1975 mr. olympia contest , filmmakers george butler and robert fiore persuaded schwarzenegger to compete , in order to film his training in the bodybuilding documentary called pumping iron . 
schwarzenegger had only three months to prepare for the competition , after losing significant weight to appear in the film stay hungry with jeff bridges . 
schwarzenegger had only three months to prepare for the competition , after losing significant weight to appear in the film stay hungry with jeff bridges . 
schwarzenegger was training for his role in conan , and he got into such good shape because of the running , horseback riding and sword training , that he decided he wanted to win the mr. olympia contest one last time . 
schwarzenegger ended up winning the event with only seven weeks of preparation . 
schwarzenegger ended up winning the event with only seven weeks of preparation . 
schwarzenegger has admitted to using performance-enhancing anabolic steroids while they were legal , writing in 1977 that `` steroids were helpful to me in maintaining muscle size while on a strict diet in preparation for a contest . 
in 1999 , schwarzenegger sued dr. willi heepe , a german doctor who publicly predicted his early death on the basis of a link between his steroid use and his later heart problems . 
as the doctor had never examined him personally , schwarzenegger collected a us$ 10,000 libel judgment against him in a german court . 
in 1999 , schwarzenegger also sued and settled with the globe , a u.s. tabloid which had made similar predictions about the bodybuilder 's future health . 
schwarzenegger wanted to move from bodybuilding into acting , finally achieving it when he was chosen to play the role of hercules in 1970 's hercules in new york . 
credited under the name `` arnold strong , '' his accent in the film was so thick that his lines were dubbed after production . 
his second film appearance was as a deaf mute hit-man for the mob in director robert altman 's the long goodbye -lrb- 1973 -rrb- , which was followed by a much more significant part in the film stay hungry -lrb- 1976 -rrb- , for which he was awarded a golden globe for new male star of the year . 
his second film appearance was as a deaf mute hit-man for the mob in director robert altman 's the long goodbye -lrb- 1973 -rrb- , which was followed by a much more significant part in the film stay hungry -lrb- 1976 -rrb- , for which he was awarded a golden globe for new male star of the year . 
`` it was very difficult for me in the beginning -- i was told by agents and casting people that my body was ` too weird ' , that i had a funny accent , and that my name was too long . 
schwarzenegger drew attention and boosted his profile in the bodybuilding film pumping iron -lrb- 1977 -rrb- , elements of which were dramatized ; in 1991 , he purchased the rights to the film , its outtakes , and associated still photography . 
in 1980 , he starred in a biographical film of the 1950s actress jayne mansfield as mansfield 's husband , mickey hargitay . 
schwarzenegger auditioned for the title role of the incredible hulk , but did not win the role because of his height . 
schwarzenegger appeared with kirk douglas and ann-margret in the 1979 comedy the villain . 
this was followed by a sequel , conan the destroyer , in 1984 , although it was not as successful as its predecessor . 
this was followed by a sequel , conan the destroyer , in 1984 , although it was not as successful as its predecessor . 
in 1984 , he made his first appearance as the eponymous character , and what some would say was his acting career 's signature role , in james cameron 's science fiction thriller film the terminator . 
during the 1980s , audiences had an appetite for action films , with both schwarzenegger and sylvester stallone becoming international stars . 
he made a number of successful films , such as commando -lrb- 1985 -rrb- , raw deal -lrb- 1986 -rrb- , the running man -lrb- 1987 -rrb- , predator -lrb- 1987 -rrb- , and red heat -lrb- 1988 -rrb- . 
twins -lrb- 1988 -rrb- , a comedy with danny devito , also proved successful . 
total recall -lrb- 1990 -rrb- netted schwarzenegger $ 10 million and 15 % of the film 's gross . 
schwarzenegger had a brief foray into directing , first with a 1990 episode of the tv series tales from the crypt , entitled `` the switch '' , and then with the 1992 telemovie christmas in connecticut . 
schwarzenegger had a brief foray into directing , first with a 1990 episode of the tv series tales from the crypt , entitled `` the switch '' , and then with the 1992 telemovie christmas in connecticut . 
schwarzenegger 's commercial peak was his return as the title character in 1991 's terminator 2 : judgment day , which was the highest-grossing film of 1991 . 
in 1993 , the national association of theatre owners named him the `` international star of the decade '' . 
his next film , the comedy drama true lies -lrb- 1994 -rrb- , was a popular spy film , and saw schwarzenegger reunited with james cameron . 
that same year , the comedy junior was released , the last of schwarzenegger 's three collaborations with ivan reitman and again co-starring danny devito . 
in 2003 , he made his third appearance as the title character in terminator 3 : rise of the machines , which went on to earn over $ 150 million domestically . 
in tribute to schwarzenegger in 2002 , forum stadtpark , a local cultural association , proposed plans to build a 25-meter -lrb- 82 ft -rrb- tall terminator statue in a park in central graz . 
in tribute to schwarzenegger in 2002 , forum stadtpark , a local cultural association , proposed plans to build a 25-meter -lrb- 82 ft -rrb- tall terminator statue in a park in central graz . 
in 2005 , he appeared as himself in the film the kid & i . 
the character was later revealed to be the governator , star of the comic book and animated series of the same name . 
schwarzenegger inspired the character and co-developed it with stan lee , who would have produced the series . 
in january 2011 , just weeks after leaving office in california , schwarzenegger announced that he was reading several new scripts for future films , one of them being the world war ii action drama with wings as eagles , written by randall wallace , based on a true story . 
in january 2011 , just weeks after leaving office in california , schwarzenegger announced that he was reading several new scripts for future films , one of them being the world war ii action drama with wings as eagles , written by randall wallace , based on a true story . 
on may 20 , 2011 , schwarzenegger 's entertainment counsel announced that all movie projects currently in development were being halted : `` schwarzenegger is focusing on personal matters and is not willing to commit to any production schedules or timelines '' . 
he appeared in the expendables 2 -lrb- 2012 -rrb- , and starred in the last stand -lrb- 2013 -rrb- , his first leading role in 10 years , and escape plan -lrb- 2013 -rrb- , his first co-starring role alongside sylvester stallone . 
he appeared in the expendables 2 -lrb- 2012 -rrb- , and starred in the last stand -lrb- 2013 -rrb- , his first leading role in 10 years , and escape plan -lrb- 2013 -rrb- , his first co-starring role alongside sylvester stallone . 
he starred in the fifth terminator movie terminator genisys in 2015 and will reprise his role as conan the barbarian in the legend of conan . 
he starred in the fifth terminator movie terminator genisys in 2015 and will reprise his role as conan the barbarian in the legend of conan . 
at the 2004 republican national convention , schwarzenegger gave a speech and explained why he was a republican : 
in 1985 , schwarzenegger appeared in `` stop the madness '' , an anti-drug music video sponsored by the reagan administration . 
he first came to wide public notice as a republican during the 1988 presidential election , accompanying then-vice president george h.w. bush at a campaign rally . 
he first came to wide public notice as a republican during the 1988 presidential election , accompanying then-vice president george h.w. bush at a campaign rally . 
he was nominated by george h. w. bush , who dubbed him `` conan the republican '' . 
in an interview with talk magazine in late 1999 , schwarzenegger was asked if he thought of running for office . 
the hollywood reporter claimed shortly after that schwarzenegger sought to end speculation that he might run for governor of california . 
schwarzenegger announced his candidacy in the 2003 california recall election for governor of california on the august 6 , 2003 episode of the tonight show with jay leno . 
his candidacy immediately became national and international news , with media outlets dubbing him the `` governator '' -lrb- referring to the terminator movies , see above -rrb- and `` the running man '' -lrb- the name of another one of his films -rrb- , and calling the recall election `` total recall '' -lrb- yet another movie starring schwarzenegger -rrb- . 
on october 7 , 2003 , the recall election resulted in governor gray davis being removed from office with 55.4 % of the yes vote in favor of a recall . 
schwarzenegger defeated democrat cruz bustamante , fellow republican tom mcclintock , and others . 
in total , schwarzenegger won the election by about 1.3 million votes . 
his nearest rival , bustamante , received 31 % of the vote . 
schwarzenegger was the second foreign-born governor of california after irish-born governor john g. downey in 1862 . 
as soon as schwarzenegger was elected governor , willie brown said he would start a drive to recall the governor . 
building on a catchphrase from the sketch `` hans and franz '' from saturday night live -lrb- which partly parodied his bodybuilding career -rrb- , schwarzenegger called the democratic state politicians `` girlie men '' . 
key among his reckoning with political realities was a special election he called in november 2005 , in which four ballot measures he sponsored were defeated . 
key among his reckoning with political realities was a special election he called in november 2005 , in which four ballot measures he sponsored were defeated . 
schwarzenegger then went against the advice of fellow republican strategists and appointed a democrat , susan kennedy , as his chief of staff . 
schwarzenegger ran for re-election against democrat phil angelides , the california state treasurer , in the 2006 elections , held on november 7 , 2006 . 
after hearing a speech by schwarzenegger at the 2006 martin luther king , jr. breakfast , san francisco mayor gavin newsom said that , '' -lsb- h -rsb- e 's becoming a democrat -lsb- ... h -rsb- e 's running back , not even to the center . 
it was rumored that schwarzenegger might run for the united states senate in 2010 , as his governorship would be term-limited by that time . 
wendy leigh , who wrote an unofficial biography on schwarzenegger , claims he plotted his political rise from an early age using the movie business and bodybuilding as building blocks to escape a depressing home . 
i was exposed to the idea of being a public servant and eunice and sargent shriver became my heroes . '' 
in the simpsons movie -lrb- 2007 -rrb- , he is portrayed as the president , and in the sylvester stallone movie , demolition man -lrb- 1993 , ten years before his first run for political office -rrb- , it is revealed that a constitutional amendment passed which allowed schwarzenegger to become president . 
he holds austrian citizenship by birth and has held u.s. citizenship since becoming naturalized in 1983 . 
schwarzenegger is a dual austrian/united states citizen . 
schwarzenegger 's endorsement in the republican primary of the 2008 u.s. presidential election was highly sought ; despite being good friends with candidates rudy giuliani and senator john mccain , schwarzenegger remained neutral throughout 2007 and early 2008 . 
schwarzenegger 's endorsement in the republican primary of the 2008 u.s. presidential election was highly sought ; despite being good friends with candidates rudy giuliani and senator john mccain , schwarzenegger remained neutral throughout 2007 and early 2008 . 
schwarzenegger 's endorsement was thought to be a boost for senator mccain 's campaign ; both spoke about their concerns for the environment and economy . 
in its april 2010 report , progressive ethics watchdog group citizens for responsibility and ethics in washington named schwarzenegger one of 11 `` worst governors '' in the united states because of various ethics issues throughout schwarzenegger 's term as governor . 
although he began his tenure as governor with record high approval ratings -lrb- as high as 89 % in december 2003 -rrb- , he left office with a record low 23 % , only one percent higher than that of gray davis 's when he was recalled in october 2003 . 
although he began his tenure as governor with record high approval ratings -lrb- as high as 89 % in december 2003 -rrb- , he left office with a record low 23 % , only one percent higher than that of gray davis 's when he was recalled in october 2003 . 
during his initial campaign for governor , allegations of sexual and personal misconduct were raised against schwarzenegger , dubbed `` gropegate '' . 
within the last five days before the election , news reports appeared in the los angeles times recounting allegations of sexual misconduct from several individual women , six of whom eventually came forward with their personal stories . 
within the last five days before the election , news reports appeared in the los angeles times recounting allegations of sexual misconduct from several individual women , six of whom eventually came forward with their personal stories . 
a fifth woman claimed schwarzenegger tried to take off her bathing suit in a hotel elevator , and the last said he pulled her onto his lap and asked her about a sex act . 
in an interview with gq magazine in october 2007 , schwarzenegger said , '' -lsb- marijuana -rsb- is not a drug . 
this came after an interview in adult magazine oui from 1977 surfaced , in which schwarzenegger discussed attending sexual orgies and using substances such as marijuana . 
british television personality anna richardson settled a libel lawsuit in august 2006 against schwarzenegger , his top aide , sean walsh , and his publicist , sheryl main . 
richardson claimed they tried to tarnish her reputation by dismissing her allegations that schwarzenegger touched her breast during a press event for the 6th day in london . 
she claimed walsh and main libeled her in a los angeles times article when they contended she encouraged his behavior . 
in 2005 , peter pilz , a member of the austrian parliament from the austrian green party , demanded that parliament revoke schwarzenegger 's austrian citizenship due to his decision not to prevent the executions of donald beardslee and stanley williams , causing damage of reputation to austria , where the death penalty has been abolished since 1968 . 
in 2005 , peter pilz , a member of the austrian parliament from the austrian green party , demanded that parliament revoke schwarzenegger 's austrian citizenship due to his decision not to prevent the executions of donald beardslee and stanley williams , causing damage of reputation to austria , where the death penalty has been abolished since 1968 . 
on september 27 , 2006 schwarzenegger signed a bill creating the nation 's first cap on greenhouse gas emissions . 
the law set new regulations on the amount of emissions utilities , refineries and manufacturing plants are allowed to release into the atmosphere . 
the two bills are part of a plan to reduce california 's emissions by 25 percent to 1990s levels by 2020 . 
schwarzenegger signed another executive order on october 17 , 2006 allowing california to work with the northeast 's regional greenhouse gas initiative . 
he has also installed solar panels to heat his home . 
the plan took effect in 2009 . 
they plan to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by issuing a limited amount of carbon credits to each power plant in participating states . 
in respect of his contribution to the direction of the us motor industry , schwarzenegger was invited to open the 2009 sae world congress in detroit , on april 20 , 2009 . 
the former california governor would face a constitutional hurdle ; article ii , section i , clause v nominally prevents individuals who are not natural-born citizens of the united states from assuming the office . 
in october 2013 , the new york post reported that schwarzenegger was exploring a future run for president . 
columbia university law professor michael dorf observed that schwarzenegger 's possible lawsuit could ultimately win him the right to run for the office , noting , `` the law is very clear , but it 's not 100 percent clear that the courts would enforce that law rather than leave it to the political process . '' 
following his move to the united states , schwarzenegger became a `` prolific goal setter '' and would write his objectives at the start of the year on index cards , like starting a mail order business or buying a new car -- and succeed in doing so . 
by the age of 30 , schwarzenegger was a millionaire , well before his career in hollywood . 
in 1968 , schwarzenegger and fellow bodybuilder franco columbu started a bricklaying business . 
the business flourished thanks to the pair 's marketing savvy and an increased demand following the 1971 san fernando earthquake . 
schwarzenegger rolled profits from the mail order business and his bodybuilding competition winnings into his first real estate investment venture : an apartment building he purchased for $ 10,000 . 
schwarzenegger was a founding celebrity investor in the planet hollywood chain of international theme restaurants -lrb- modeled after the hard rock cafe -rrb- along with bruce willis , sylvester stallone and demi moore . 
schwarzenegger severed his financial ties with the business in early 2000 . 
schwarzenegger was a founding celebrity investor in the planet hollywood chain of international theme restaurants -lrb- modeled after the hard rock cafe -rrb- along with bruce willis , sylvester stallone and demi moore . 
he has significant ownership in dimensional fund advisors , an investment firm . 
he also invested in a shopping mall in columbus , ohio . 
he also owns a movie production company called oak productions , inc. and fitness publications , a joint publishing venture with simon & schuster . 
he also owns a movie production company called oak productions , inc. and fitness publications , a joint publishing venture with simon & schuster . 
in 1992 , schwarzenegger and his wife opened a restaurant in santa monica called schatzi on main . 
in 1992 , schwarzenegger and his wife opened a restaurant in santa monica called schatzi on main . 
schatzi literally means `` little treasure , '' colloquial for `` honey '' or `` darling '' in german . 
in 1998 , he sold his restaurant . 
after separating from his wife , maria shriver , in 2011 , it has been estimated that his net worth has been approximately $ 400 million , and even as high as $ 800 million , based on tax returns he filed in 2006 . 
in june 1997 , schwarzenegger spent $ 38 million of his own money on a private gulfstream jet . 
baker published her memoir in 2006 , entitled arnold and me : in the shadow of the austrian oak . 
although baker claims that when she first met him , he had `` little understanding of polite society '' and she found him a turn-off , she says , `` he 's as much a self-made man as it 's possible to be -- he never got encouragement from his parents , his family , his brother . 
the couple first met six to eight months after his arrival in the u.s -- their first date was watching the first apollo moon landing on television . 
schwarzenegger met his next paramour , sue moray , a beverly hills hairdresser 's assistant , on venice beach in july 1977 . 
schwarzenegger met maria shriver at the robert f. kennedy tennis tournament in august 1977 , and went on to have a relationship with both women until august 1978 , when moray -lrb- who knew of his relationship with shriver -rrb- issued an ultimatum . 
schwarzenegger met maria shriver at the robert f. kennedy tennis tournament in august 1977 , and went on to have a relationship with both women until august 1978 , when moray -lrb- who knew of his relationship with shriver -rrb- issued an ultimatum . 
on april 26 , 1986 , schwarzenegger married television journalist maria shriver , niece of president john f. kennedy , in hyannis , massachusetts . 
on april 26 , 1986 , schwarzenegger married television journalist maria shriver , niece of president john f. kennedy , in hyannis , massachusetts . 
they have four children : katherine eunice schwarzenegger -lrb- born december 13 , 1989 in los angeles -rrb- ; christina maria aurelia schwarzenegger -lrb- born july 23 , 1991 in los angeles -rrb- ; patrick arnold shriver schwarzenegger -lrb- born september 18 , 1993 in los angeles -rrb- ; and christopher sargent shriver schwarzenegger -lrb- born september 27 , 1997 in los angeles -rrb- . 
following their separation , it is reported that schwarzenegger is dating physical therapist heather milligan . 
on may 9 , 2011 , shriver and schwarzenegger ended their relationship after 25 years of marriage , with shriver moving out of the couple 's brentwood mansion . 
on may 16 , 2011 , the los angeles times revealed that schwarzenegger had fathered a son more than fourteen years earlier with an employee in their household , mildred patricia ` patty ' baena . 
fifty-year-old baena , of guatemalan origin , was employed by the family for 20 years and retired in january 2011 . 
baena 's son with schwarzenegger , joseph , was born on october 2 , 1997 ; shriver gave birth to christopher on september 27 , 1997 . 
knx 1070 radio reported that in 2010 he bought a new four-bedroom house , with a pool , for baena and their son in bakersfield , about 112 miles -lrb- 180 km -rrb- north of los angeles . 
schwarzenegger has consulted an attorney , bob kaufman . 
schwarzenegger has consulted an attorney , bob kaufman . 
schwarzenegger came under fire after the initial petition did not include spousal support and a reimbursement of attorney 's fees . 
after the scandal , actress brigitte nielsen came forward and stated that she too had an affair with schwarzenegger while he was in a relationship with shriver , saying , `` maybe i would n't have got into it if he said ` i 'm going to marry maria ' and this is dead serious , but he did n't , and our affair carried on . '' 
schwarzenegger was born with a bicuspid aortic valve , an aortic valve with only two leaflets -lrb- a normal aortic valve has three leaflets -rrb- . 
schwarzenegger opted in 1997 for a replacement heart valve made of his own transplanted tissue ; medical experts predicted he would require heart valve replacement surgery in the following two to eight years as his valve would progressively degrade . 
on january 8 , 2006 , while schwarzenegger was riding his harley davidson motorcycle in los angeles , with his son patrick in the sidecar , another driver backed into the street he was riding on , causing him and his son to collide with the car at a low speed . 
schwarzenegger tripped over his ski pole and broke his right femur while skiing in sun valley , idaho , with his family on december 23 , 2006 . 
schwarzenegger tripped over his ski pole and broke his right femur while skiing in sun valley , idaho , with his family on december 23 , 2006 . 
schwarzenegger 's private jet made an emergency landing at van nuys airport on june 19 , 2009 , after the pilot reported smoke coming from the cockpit , according to a statement released by the governor 's press secretary . 
schwarzenegger 's official height of 6 ' 2 '' -lrb- 1.88 m -rrb- has been brought into question by several articles . 
as governor , schwarzenegger engaged in a light-hearted exchange with assemblyman herb wesson over their heights . 
bob mulholland also claimed schwarzenegger was 5 ' 10 '' -lrb- 1.78 m -rrb- and that he wore risers in his boots . 
schwarzenegger 's autobiography , total recall , was released in october 2012 . 
he devotes one chapter called `` the secret '' to his extramarital affair . 
schwarzenegger 's autobiography , total recall , was released in october 2012 . 
he was so enamored by the vehicle that he lobbied the humvee 's manufacturer , am general , to produce a street-legal , civilian version , which they did in 1992 ; the first two hummers they sold were also purchased by schwarzenegger . 
he was so enamored by the vehicle that he lobbied the humvee 's manufacturer , am general , to produce a street-legal , civilian version , which they did in 1992 ; the first two hummers they sold were also purchased by schwarzenegger . 
he was spotted and filmed in 2015 summer in his car , silver painted with bright aluminium forged wheels . 
the hummers that schwarzenegger bought 1992 are so large -- each weighs 6,300 lb -lrb- 2,900 kg -rrb- and is 7 feet -lrb- 2.1 m -rrb- wide -- that they are classified as large trucks , and u.s. fuel economy regulations do not apply to them . 
the conversion was reported to have cost about us$ 21,000 . 
after the election , he signed an executive order to jump-start the building of hydrogen refueling plants called the california hydrogen highway network , and gained a u.s. department of energy grant to help pay for its projected us$ 91,000,000 cost . 
after the election , he signed an executive order to jump-start the building of hydrogen refueling plants called the california hydrogen highway network , and gained a u.s. department of energy grant to help pay for its projected us$ 91,000,000 cost . 
in 1995 , he founded the inner city games foundation -lrb- icg -rrb- which provides cultural , educational and community enrichment programming to youth . 
in 2007 , schwarzenegger was the official spokesperson for the special olympics which were held in shanghai , china . 
icg is active in 15 cities around the country and serves over 250,000 children in over 400 schools countrywide . 
in 2012 , schwarzenegger helped to found the schwarzenegger institute for state and global policy , which is a part of the usc sol price school of public policy at the university of southern california . 
in 2012 , schwarzenegger helped to found the schwarzenegger institute for state and global policy , which is a part of the usc sol price school of public policy at the university of southern california . 
schwarzenegger serves as chairman of the institute . 
plymouth -lrb- i / ˈplɪməθ / -rrb- is a city on the south coast of devon , england , about 37 miles -lrb- 60 km -rrb- south-west of exeter and 190 miles -lrb- 310 km -rrb- west-south-west of london , between the mouths of the rivers plym to the east and tamar to the west where they join plymouth sound to form the boundary with cornwall . 
plymouth -lrb- i / ˈplɪməθ / -rrb- is a city on the south coast of devon , england , about 37 miles -lrb- 60 km -rrb- south-west of exeter and 190 miles -lrb- 310 km -rrb- west-south-west of london , between the mouths of the rivers plym to the east and tamar to the west where they join plymouth sound to form the boundary with cornwall . 
plymouth -lrb- i / ˈplɪməθ / -rrb- is a city on the south coast of devon , england , about 37 miles -lrb- 60 km -rrb- south-west of exeter and 190 miles -lrb- 310 km -rrb- west-south-west of london , between the mouths of the rivers plym to the east and tamar to the west where they join plymouth sound to form the boundary with cornwall . 
plymouth -lrb- i / ˈplɪməθ / -rrb- is a city on the south coast of devon , england , about 37 miles -lrb- 60 km -rrb- south-west of exeter and 190 miles -lrb- 310 km -rrb- west-south-west of london , between the mouths of the rivers plym to the east and tamar to the west where they join plymouth sound to form the boundary with cornwall . 
plymouth -lrb- i / ˈplɪməθ / -rrb- is a city on the south coast of devon , england , about 37 miles -lrb- 60 km -rrb- south-west of exeter and 190 miles -lrb- 310 km -rrb- west-south-west of london , between the mouths of the rivers plym to the east and tamar to the west where they join plymouth sound to form the boundary with cornwall . 
plymouth 's early history extends to the bronze age , when a first settlement emerged at mount batten . 
this settlement continued as a trading post for the roman empire , until it was surpassed by the more prosperous village of sutton , now called plymouth . 
in 1620 , the pilgrim fathers departed plymouth for the new world and established plymouth colony -- the second english settlement in what is now the united states of america . 
during the english civil war the town was held by the parliamentarians and was besieged between 1642 and 1646 . 
in 1620 , the pilgrim fathers departed plymouth for the new world and established plymouth colony -- the second english settlement in what is now the united states of america . 
throughout the industrial revolution , plymouth grew as a commercial shipping port , handling imports and passengers from the americas , and exporting local minerals -lrb- tin , copper , lime , china clay and arsenic -rrb- while the neighbouring town of devonport became a strategic royal naval shipbuilding and dockyard town . 
the combined town took the name of plymouth which , in 1928 , achieved city status . 
the city 's naval importance later led to its targeting and partial destruction during world war ii , an act known as the plymouth blitz . 
after the war the city centre was completely rebuilt and subsequent expansion led to the incorporation of plympton and plymstock along with other outlying suburbs in 1967 . 
in 1914 three neighbouring independent towns , viz. , the county borough of plymouth , the county borough of devonport , and the urban district of east stonehouse were merged to form a single county borough . 
the city is home to 261,546 -lrb- mid-2014 est. -rrb- people , making it the 30th most populous built-up area in the united kingdom . 
the city is home to 261,546 -lrb- mid-2014 est. -rrb- people , making it the 30th most populous built-up area in the united kingdom . 
it is governed locally by plymouth city council and is represented nationally by three mps . 
plymouth 's economy remains strongly influenced by shipbuilding and seafaring including ferry links to brittany -lrb- roscoff and st malo -rrb- and spain -lrb- santander -rrb- , but has tended toward a service-based economy since the 1990s . 
it has the largest operational naval base in western europe -- hmnb devonport and is home to plymouth university . 
an unidentified settlement named ` tamari ostia ' -lrb- mouth/estuaries of the tamar -rrb- is listed in ptolemy 's geographia and is presumed to be located in the area of the modern city . 
upper palaeolithic deposits , including bones of homo sapiens , have been found in local caves , and artefacts dating from the bronze age to the middle iron age have been found at mount batten showing that it was one of the main trading ports of the country at that time . 
an unidentified settlement named ` tamari ostia ' -lrb- mouth/estuaries of the tamar -rrb- is listed in ptolemy 's geographia and is presumed to be located in the area of the modern city . 
the settlement of plympton , further up the river plym than the current plymouth , was also an early trading port , but the river silted up in the early 11th century and forced the mariners and merchants to settle at the current day barbican near the river mouth . 
at the time this village was called sutton , meaning south town in old english . 
the name plym mouth , meaning `` mouth of the river plym '' was first mentioned in a pipe roll of 1211 . 
the name plymouth first officially replaced sutton in a charter of king henry vi in 1440 . 
the name plym mouth , meaning `` mouth of the river plym '' was first mentioned in a pipe roll of 1211 . 
during the hundred years ' war a french attack -lrb- 1340 -rrb- burned a manor house and took some prisoners , but failed to get into the town . 
in 1403 the town was burned by breton raiders . 
this location was further strengthened by the building of a fort -lrb- later known as drake 's fort -rrb- in 1596 , which itself went on to provide the site for the citadel , established in the 1660s -lrb- see below -rrb- . 
the castle served to protect sutton pool , which is where the fleet was based in plymouth prior to the establishment of plymouth dockyard . 
in 1512 an act of parliament was passed for further fortifying plymouth , and a series of fortifications were then built , including defensive walls at the entrance to sutton pool -lrb- across which a chain would be extended in time of danger -rrb- . 
plymouth was the home port for successful maritime traders , among them sir john hawkins , who led england 's first foray into the atlantic slave trade , as well as sir francis drake , mayor of plymouth in 1581 and 1593 . 
plymouth was the home port for successful maritime traders , among them sir john hawkins , who led england 's first foray into the atlantic slave trade , as well as sir francis drake , mayor of plymouth in 1581 and 1593 . 
according to legend , drake insisted on completing his game of bowls on the hoe before engaging the spanish armada in 1588 . 
in 1620 the pilgrim fathers set sail for the new world from plymouth , establishing plymouth colony -- the second english colony in what is now the united states of america . 
in 1620 the pilgrim fathers set sail for the new world from plymouth , establishing plymouth colony -- the second english colony in what is now the united states of america . 
during the english civil war plymouth sided with the parliamentarians and was besieged for almost four years by the royalists . 
during the english civil war plymouth sided with the parliamentarians and was besieged for almost four years by the royalists . 
the last major attack by the royalist was by sir richard grenville leading thousands of soldiers towards plymouth , but they were defeated by the plymothians at freedom fields park . 
the civil war ended as a parliamentary win , but monarchy was restored by king charles ii in 1660 , who imprisoned many of the parliamentary heroes on drake 's island . 
the civil war ended as a parliamentary win , but monarchy was restored by king charles ii in 1660 , who imprisoned many of the parliamentary heroes on drake 's island . 
by the mid-17th century commodities manufactured elsewhere in england cost too much to transport to plymouth and the city had no means of processing sugar or tobacco imports , although it did play a relatively small part in the atlantic slave trade during the early 18th century . 
throughout the 17th century plymouth had gradually lost its pre-eminence as a trading port . 
in the nearby parish of stoke damerel the first dockyard , hmnb devonport , opened in 1690 on the eastern bank of the river tamar . 
in the nearby parish of stoke damerel the first dockyard , hmnb devonport , opened in 1690 on the eastern bank of the river tamar . 
in 1712 there were 318 men employed and by 1733 it had grown to a population of 3,000 people . 
in 1712 there were 318 men employed and by 1733 it had grown to a population of 3,000 people . 
in the nearby parish of stoke damerel the first dockyard , hmnb devonport , opened in 1690 on the eastern bank of the river tamar . 
before the latter half of the 18th century , grain , timber and then coal were plymouth 's main imports . 
during this time the real source of wealth was from the neighbouring town of plymouth dock -lrb- renamed in 1824 to devonport -rrb- and the major employer in the entire region was the dockyard . 
the three towns conurbation of plymouth , stonehouse and devonport enjoyed some prosperity during the late 18th and early 19th century and were enriched by a series of neo-classical urban developments designed by london architect john foulston . 
the three towns conurbation of plymouth , stonehouse and devonport enjoyed some prosperity during the late 18th and early 19th century and were enriched by a series of neo-classical urban developments designed by london architect john foulston . 
foulston was important for both devonport and plymouth and was responsible for several grand public buildings , many now destroyed , including the athenaeum , the theatre royal and royal hotel , and much of union street . 
local chemist william cookworthy established his somewhat short-lived plymouth porcelain venture in 1768 to exploit the recently discovered deposits of local china clay - an industry which continues to make up a portion of the city income . 
local chemist william cookworthy established his somewhat short-lived plymouth porcelain venture in 1768 to exploit the recently discovered deposits of local china clay - an industry which continues to make up a portion of the city income . 
local chemist william cookworthy established his somewhat short-lived plymouth porcelain venture in 1768 to exploit the recently discovered deposits of local china clay - an industry which continues to make up a portion of the city income . 
as an associate and host of engineer john smeaton he was indirectly involved with the development of the eddystone lighthouse . 
the 1-mile-long -lrb- 2 km -rrb- breakwater in plymouth sound was designed by john rennie in order to protect the fleet moving in and out of devonport ; work started in 1812 . 
the 1-mile-long -lrb- 2 km -rrb- breakwater in plymouth sound was designed by john rennie in order to protect the fleet moving in and out of devonport ; work started in 1812 . 
numerous technical difficulties and repeated storm damage meant that it was not completed until 1841 , twenty years after rennie 's death . 
the 1-mile-long -lrb- 2 km -rrb- breakwater in plymouth sound was designed by john rennie in order to protect the fleet moving in and out of devonport ; work started in 1812 . 
the 1-mile-long -lrb- 2 km -rrb- breakwater in plymouth sound was designed by john rennie in order to protect the fleet moving in and out of devonport ; work started in 1812 . 
some of the greatest imports to plymouth from the americas and europe during the latter half of the 19th century included maize , wheat , barley , sugar cane , guano , sodium nitrate and phosphate aside from the dockyard in the town of devonport , industries in plymouth such as the gasworks , the railways and tramways and a number of small chemical works had begun to develop in the 19th century , continuing into the 20th century . 
some of the greatest imports to plymouth from the americas and europe during the latter half of the 19th century included maize , wheat , barley , sugar cane , guano , sodium nitrate and phosphate aside from the dockyard in the town of devonport , industries in plymouth such as the gasworks , the railways and tramways and a number of small chemical works had begun to develop in the 19th century , continuing into the 20th century . 
although major units of the royal navy moved to the safety of scapa flow , devonport was an important base for escort vessels and repairs . 
although major units of the royal navy moved to the safety of scapa flow , devonport was an important base for escort vessels and repairs . 
flying boats operated from mount batten . 
in the first world war , devonport was the headquarters of western approaches command until 1941 and sunderland flying boats were operated by the royal australian air force . 
in the first world war , devonport was the headquarters of western approaches command until 1941 and sunderland flying boats were operated by the royal australian air force . 
the city was heavily bombed by the luftwaffe , in a series of 59 raids known as the plymouth blitz . 
although the dockyards were the principal targets , much of the city centre and over 3,700 houses were completely destroyed and more than 1,000 civilians lost their lives . 
although the dockyards were the principal targets , much of the city centre and over 3,700 houses were completely destroyed and more than 1,000 civilians lost their lives . 
the redevelopment of the city was planned by sir patrick abercrombie in his 1943 plan for plymouth whilst simultaneously working on the reconstruction plan for london . 
between 1951 and 1957 over 1000 homes were completed every year mostly using innovative prefabricated systems of just three main types ; by 1964 over 20,000 new homes had been built transforming the dense overcrowded and unsanitary slums of the pre-war city into a low density , dispersed suburbia . 
between 1951 and 1957 over 1000 homes were completed every year mostly using innovative prefabricated systems of just three main types ; by 1964 over 20,000 new homes had been built transforming the dense overcrowded and unsanitary slums of the pre-war city into a low density , dispersed suburbia . 
in 1962 the modernist high rise of the civic centre was constructed , an architecturally significant example of mid twentieth century civic slab-and-tower set piece allowed to fall into disrepair by its owner plymouth city council but recently grade ii listed by english heritage to prevent its demolition . 
in 1962 the modernist high rise of the civic centre was constructed , an architecturally significant example of mid twentieth century civic slab-and-tower set piece allowed to fall into disrepair by its owner plymouth city council but recently grade ii listed by english heritage to prevent its demolition . 
post-war , devonport dockyard was kept busy refitting aircraft carriers such as the ark royal and , later , nuclear submarines while new light industrial factories were constructed in the newly zoned industrial sector attracting rapid growth of the urban population . 
the army had substantially left the city by 1971 , with barracks pulled down in the 1960s , however the city remains home to the 42 commando of the royal marines . 
the army had substantially left the city by 1971 , with barracks pulled down in the 1960s , however the city remains home to the 42 commando of the royal marines . 
the first record of the existence of a settlement at plymouth was in the domesday book in 1086 as sudtone , saxon for south farm , located at the present day barbican . 
the first record of the existence of a settlement at plymouth was in the domesday book in 1086 as sudtone , saxon for south farm , located at the present day barbican . 
the first record of the existence of a settlement at plymouth was in the domesday book in 1086 as sudtone , saxon for south farm , located at the present day barbican . 
in 1254 it gained status as a town and in 1439 , became the first town in england to be granted a charter by parliament . 
in 1254 it gained status as a town and in 1439 , became the first town in england to be granted a charter by parliament . 
in 1919 nancy astor was elected the first ever female member of parliament to take office in the british houses of parliament for the constituency of plymouth sutton . 
in 1919 nancy astor was elected the first ever female member of parliament to take office in the british houses of parliament for the constituency of plymouth sutton . 
plymouth was granted city status on 18 october 1928 . 
the city 's first lord mayor was appointed in 1935 and its boundaries further expanded in 1967 to include the town of plympton and the parish of plymstock . 
the city 's first lord mayor was appointed in 1935 and its boundaries further expanded in 1967 to include the town of plympton and the parish of plymstock . 
in 1945 , plymouth-born michael foot was elected labour mp for the war-torn constituency of plymouth devonport and after serving as secretary of state for education and responsible for the 1974 health and safety at work act , went on to become one of the most distinguished leaders of the labour party . 
in 1945 , plymouth-born michael foot was elected labour mp for the war-torn constituency of plymouth devonport and after serving as secretary of state for education and responsible for the 1974 health and safety at work act , went on to become one of the most distinguished leaders of the labour party . 
in 1945 , plymouth-born michael foot was elected labour mp for the war-torn constituency of plymouth devonport and after serving as secretary of state for education and responsible for the 1974 health and safety at work act , went on to become one of the most distinguished leaders of the labour party . 
in 1945 , plymouth-born michael foot was elected labour mp for the war-torn constituency of plymouth devonport and after serving as secretary of state for education and responsible for the 1974 health and safety at work act , went on to become one of the most distinguished leaders of the labour party . 
in 1945 , plymouth-born michael foot was elected labour mp for the war-torn constituency of plymouth devonport and after serving as secretary of state for education and responsible for the 1974 health and safety at work act , went on to become one of the most distinguished leaders of the labour party . 
the 1971 local government white paper proposed abolishing county boroughs , which would have left plymouth , a town of 250,000 people , being administered from a council based at the smaller exeter , on the other side of the county . 
the 1971 local government white paper proposed abolishing county boroughs , which would have left plymouth , a town of 250,000 people , being administered from a council based at the smaller exeter , on the other side of the county . 
this led to plymouth lobbying for the creation of a tamarside county , to include plymouth , torpoint , saltash , and the rural hinterland . 
the campaign was not successful , and plymouth ceased to be a county borough on 1 april 1974 with responsibility for education , social services , highways and libraries transferred to devon county council . 
all powers returned when the city become a unitary authority on 1 april 1998 under recommendations of the banham commission . 
in the parliament of the united kingdom , plymouth is represented by the three constituencies of plymouth moor view , plymouth sutton and devonport and south west devon and within the european parliament as south west england . 
in the 2015 general election all three constituencies returned conservative mps , who were oliver colvile -lrb- for devon south west -rrb- , gary streeter -lrb- for sutton and devonport -rrb- and johnny mercer for moor view . 
in the 2015 general election all three constituencies returned conservative mps , who were oliver colvile -lrb- for devon south west -rrb- , gary streeter -lrb- for sutton and devonport -rrb- and johnny mercer for moor view . 
in the parliament of the united kingdom , plymouth is represented by the three constituencies of plymouth moor view , plymouth sutton and devonport and south west devon and within the european parliament as south west england . 
the city of plymouth is divided into 20 wards , 17 of which elect three councillors and the other three electing two councillors , making up a total council of 57 . 
the city of plymouth is divided into 20 wards , 17 of which elect three councillors and the other three electing two councillors , making up a total council of 57 . 
each year a third of the council is up for election for three consecutive years -- there are no elections on the following `` fourth '' year , which is when county council elections take place . 
plymouth city council is formally twinned with : brest , france -lrb- 1963 -rrb- , gdynia , poland -lrb- 1976 -rrb- , novorossiysk , russia -lrb- 1990 -rrb- san sebastián , spain -lrb- 1990 -rrb- and plymouth , united states -lrb- 2001 -rrb- . 
plymouth city council is formally twinned with : brest , france -lrb- 1963 -rrb- , gdynia , poland -lrb- 1976 -rrb- , novorossiysk , russia -lrb- 1990 -rrb- san sebastián , spain -lrb- 1990 -rrb- and plymouth , united states -lrb- 2001 -rrb- . 
plymouth was granted the dignity of lord mayor by king george v in 1935 . 
the position is elected each year by a group of six councillors . 
it is traditional that the position of the lord mayor alternates between the conservative party and the labour party annually and that the lord mayor chooses the deputy lord mayor . 
conservative councillor dr john mahony is the incumbent for 2015 -- 16 . 
the lord mayor 's official residence is 3 elliot terrace , located on the hoe . 
once a home of waldorf and nancy astor , it was given by lady astor to the city of plymouth as an official residence for future lord mayors and is also used today for civic hospitality , as lodgings for visiting dignitaries and high court judges and it is also available to hire for private events . 
the civic centre municipal office building in armada way became a listed building in june 2007 because of its quality and period features , but has become the centre of a controversy as the council planned for its demolition estimating that it could cost # 40m to refurbish it , resulting in possible job losses . 
the civic centre municipal office building in armada way became a listed building in june 2007 because of its quality and period features , but has become the centre of a controversy as the council planned for its demolition estimating that it could cost # 40m to refurbish it , resulting in possible job losses . 
the civic centre municipal office building in armada way became a listed building in june 2007 because of its quality and period features , but has become the centre of a controversy as the council planned for its demolition estimating that it could cost # 40m to refurbish it , resulting in possible job losses . 
plymouth lies between the river plym to the east and the river tamar to the west ; both rivers flow into the natural harbour of plymouth sound . 
plymouth lies between the river plym to the east and the river tamar to the west ; both rivers flow into the natural harbour of plymouth sound . 
the river tamar forms the county boundary between devon and cornwall and its estuary forms the hamoaze on which is sited devonport dockyard . 
plymouth lies between the river plym to the east and the river tamar to the west ; both rivers flow into the natural harbour of plymouth sound . 
since 1967 , the unitary authority of plymouth has included the , once independent , towns of plympton and plymstock which lie along the east of the river plym . 
the river plym , which flows off dartmoor to the north-east , forms a smaller estuary to the east of the city called cattewater . 
plymouth sound is protected from the sea by the plymouth breakwater , in use since 1814 . 
in the sound is drake 's island which is seen from plymouth hoe , a flat public area on top of limestone cliffs . 
the unitary authority of plymouth is 79.84 square kilometres -lrb- 30.83 sq mi -rrb- . 
the topography rises from sea level to a height , at roborough , of about 509 feet -lrb- 155 m -rrb- above ordnance datum -lrb- aod -rrb- . 
plymouth sound , shores and cliffs is a site of special scientific interest , because of its geology . 
the bulk of the city is built upon upper devonian slates and shales and the headlands at the entrance to plymouth sound are formed of lower devonian slates , which can withstand the power of the sea . 
geologically , plymouth has a mixture of limestone , devonian slate , granite and middle devonian limestone . 
the bulk of the city is built upon upper devonian slates and shales and the headlands at the entrance to plymouth sound are formed of lower devonian slates , which can withstand the power of the sea . 
plymouth sound , shores and cliffs is a site of special scientific interest , because of its geology . 
a band of middle devonian limestone runs west to east from cremyll to plymstock including the hoe . 
to the north and north east of the city is the granite mass of dartmoor ; the granite was mined and exported via plymouth . 
rocks brought down the tamar from dartmoor include ores containing tin , copper , tungsten , lead and other minerals . 
there is evidence that the middle devonian limestone belt at the south edge of plymouth and in plymstock was quarried at west hoe , cattedown and radford . 
a band of middle devonian limestone runs west to east from cremyll to plymstock including the hoe . 
on 27 april 1944 sir patrick abercrombie 's plan for plymouth to rebuild the bomb-damaged city was published ; it called for demolition of the few remaining pre-war buildings in the city centre to make way for their replacement with wide , parallel , modern boulevards aligned east -- west linked by a north -- south avenue -lrb- armada way -rrb- linking the railway station with the vista of plymouth hoe . 
on 27 april 1944 sir patrick abercrombie 's plan for plymouth to rebuild the bomb-damaged city was published ; it called for demolition of the few remaining pre-war buildings in the city centre to make way for their replacement with wide , parallel , modern boulevards aligned east -- west linked by a north -- south avenue -lrb- armada way -rrb- linking the railway station with the vista of plymouth hoe . 
on 27 april 1944 sir patrick abercrombie 's plan for plymouth to rebuild the bomb-damaged city was published ; it called for demolition of the few remaining pre-war buildings in the city centre to make way for their replacement with wide , parallel , modern boulevards aligned east -- west linked by a north -- south avenue -lrb- armada way -rrb- linking the railway station with the vista of plymouth hoe . 
a peripheral road system connecting the historic barbican on the east and union street to the west determines the principal form of the city centre , even following pedestrianisation of the shopping centre in the late 1980s , and continues to inform the present ` vision for plymouth ' developed by a team led by barcelona-based architect david mackay in 2003 which calls for revivification of the city centre with mixed-use and residential . 
plymouth is home to 28 parks with an average size of 45,638 square metres -lrb- 491,240 sq ft -rrb- . 
along with the rest of south west england , plymouth has a temperate oceanic climate -lrb- köppen cfb -rrb- which is generally wetter and milder than the rest of england . 
the annual mean temperature is approximately 11 °c -lrb- 52 °f -rrb- . 
as a result of this summer highs are lower than its southerly latitude should warrant , but as a contrast the coldest month of february has mean minimum temperatures as mild as between 3 and 4 °c -lrb- 37 and 39 °f -rrb- . 
snow is rare , not usually equating to more than a few flakes , but there have been exclusions , namely the european winter storms of 2009-10 which , in early january , covered plymouth in at least 1 inch -lrb- 2.5 cm -rrb- of snow ; more on higher ground . 
july and august are the warmest months with mean daily maxima over 19 °c -lrb- 66 °f -rrb- . 
rainfall tends to be associated with atlantic depressions or with convection . 
the atlantic depressions are more vigorous in autumn and winter and most of the rain which falls in those seasons in the south-west is from this source . 
average annual rainfall is around 980 millimetres -lrb- 39 in -rrb- . 
november to march have the highest mean wind speeds , with june to august having the lightest winds . 
the atlantic depressions are more vigorous in autumn and winter and most of the rain which falls in those seasons in the south-west is from this source . 
coastal areas have average annual sunshine totals over 1,600 hours . 
south west england has a favoured location when the azores high pressure area extends north-eastwards towards the uk , particularly in summer . 
typically , the warmest day of the year -lrb- 1971 -- 2000 -rrb- will achieve a temperature of 26.6 °c -lrb- 80 °f -rrb- , although in june 1976 the temperature reached 31.6 °c -lrb- 89 °f -rrb- , the site record . 
typically , the warmest day of the year -lrb- 1971 -- 2000 -rrb- will achieve a temperature of 26.6 °c -lrb- 80 °f -rrb- , although in june 1976 the temperature reached 31.6 °c -lrb- 89 °f -rrb- , the site record . 
on average , 4.25 days of the year will report a maximum temperature of 25.1 °c -lrb- 77 °f -rrb- or above . 
during the winter half of the year , the coldest night will typically fall to − 4.1 °c -lrb- 25 °f -rrb- although in january 1979 the temperature fell to − 8.8 °c -lrb- 16 °f -rrb- . 
during the winter half of the year , the coldest night will typically fall to − 4.1 °c -lrb- 25 °f -rrb- although in january 1979 the temperature fell to − 8.8 °c -lrb- 16 °f -rrb- . 
the university of plymouth enrolls 25,895 total students as of 2014/15 -lrb- 22nd largest in the uk out of 165 -rrb- . 
the university of plymouth enrolls 25,895 total students as of 2014/15 -lrb- 22nd largest in the uk out of 165 -rrb- . 
it also employs 3,000 staff with an annual income of around # 160 million . 
it also employs 3,000 staff with an annual income of around # 160 million . 
it was founded in 1992 from polytechnic south west -lrb- formerly plymouth polytechnic -rrb- following the further and higher education act 1992 . 
the university of st mark & st john -lrb- known as `` marjon '' or `` marjons '' -rrb- specialises in teacher training , and offers training across the country and abroad . 
the university of st mark & st john -lrb- known as `` marjon '' or `` marjons '' -rrb- specialises in teacher training , and offers training across the country and abroad . 
plymouth college of art offers a selection of courses including media . 
the city college plymouth provides courses from the most basic to foundation degrees for approximately 26,000 students . 
it was started 153 years ago and is now one of only four independent colleges of art and design in the uk . 
it was started 153 years ago and is now one of only four independent colleges of art and design in the uk . 
the city is also home to two large colleges . 
plymouth also has 71 state primary phase schools , 13 state secondary schools , eight special schools and three selective state grammar schools , devonport high school for girls , devonport high school for boys and plymouth high school for girls . 
plymouth also has 71 state primary phase schools , 13 state secondary schools , eight special schools and three selective state grammar schools , devonport high school for girls , devonport high school for boys and plymouth high school for girls . 
plymouth also has 71 state primary phase schools , 13 state secondary schools , eight special schools and three selective state grammar schools , devonport high school for girls , devonport high school for boys and plymouth high school for girls . 
there is also an independent school plymouth college . 
plymouth also has 71 state primary phase schools , 13 state secondary schools , eight special schools and three selective state grammar schools , devonport high school for girls , devonport high school for boys and plymouth high school for girls . 
the city was also home to the royal naval engineering college ; opened in 1880 in keyham , it trained engineering students for five years before they completed the remaining two years of the course at greenwich . 
the college closed in 1910 , but in 1940 a new college opened at manadon . 
this was renamed dockyard technical college in 1959 before finally closing in 1994 ; training was transferred to the university of southampton . 
this was renamed dockyard technical college in 1959 before finally closing in 1994 ; training was transferred to the university of southampton . 
this was renamed dockyard technical college in 1959 before finally closing in 1994 ; training was transferred to the university of southampton . 
plymouth is home to the marine biological association of the united kingdom -lrb- mba -rrb- which conducts research in all areas of the marine sciences . 
together with the national marine aquarium , the sir alister hardy foundation for ocean sciences , plymouth university 's marine institute and the diving diseases research centre , these marine-related organisations form the plymouth marine sciences partnership . 
together with the national marine aquarium , the sir alister hardy foundation for ocean sciences , plymouth university 's marine institute and the diving diseases research centre , these marine-related organisations form the plymouth marine sciences partnership . 
together with the national marine aquarium , the sir alister hardy foundation for ocean sciences , plymouth university 's marine institute and the diving diseases research centre , these marine-related organisations form the plymouth marine sciences partnership . 
together with the national marine aquarium , the sir alister hardy foundation for ocean sciences , plymouth university 's marine institute and the diving diseases research centre , these marine-related organisations form the plymouth marine sciences partnership . 
from the 2011 census , the office for national statistics published that plymouth 's unitary authority area population was 256,384 ; 15,664 more people than that of the last census from 2001 , which indicated that plymouth had a population of 240,720 . 
from the 2011 census , the office for national statistics published that plymouth 's unitary authority area population was 256,384 ; 15,664 more people than that of the last census from 2001 , which indicated that plymouth had a population of 240,720 . 
from the 2011 census , the office for national statistics published that plymouth 's unitary authority area population was 256,384 ; 15,664 more people than that of the last census from 2001 , which indicated that plymouth had a population of 240,720 . 
the city 's average household size was 2.3 persons . 
at the time of the 2011 uk census , the ethnic composition of plymouth 's population was 96.2 % white -lrb- of 92.9 % was white british -rrb- , with the largest minority ethnic group being chinese at 0.5 % . 
plymouth 's gross value added -lrb- a measure of the size of its economy -rrb- was 5,169 million gbp in 2013 making up 25 % of devon 's gva . 
plymouth 's gross value added -lrb- a measure of the size of its economy -rrb- was 5,169 million gbp in 2013 making up 25 % of devon 's gva . 
its gva per person was # 19,943 and compared to the national average of # 23,755 , was # 3,812 lower . 
its gva per person was # 19,943 and compared to the national average of # 23,755 , was # 3,812 lower . 
plymouth 's unemployment rate was 7.0 % in 2014 which was 2.0 points higher than the south west average and 0.8 points higher than the average for great britain -lrb- england , wales and scotland -rrb- . 
a 2014 profile by the national health service showed plymouth had higher than average levels of poverty and deprivation -lrb- 26.2 % of population among the poorest 20.4 % nationally -rrb- . 
life expectancy , at 78.3 years for men and 82.1 for women , was the lowest of any region in the south west of england . 
life expectancy , at 78.3 years for men and 82.1 for women , was the lowest of any region in the south west of england . 
life expectancy , at 78.3 years for men and 82.1 for women , was the lowest of any region in the south west of england . 
because of its coastal location , the economy of plymouth has traditionally been maritime , in particular the defence sector with over 12,000 people employed and approximately 7,500 in the armed forces . 
because of its coastal location , the economy of plymouth has traditionally been maritime , in particular the defence sector with over 12,000 people employed and approximately 7,500 in the armed forces . 
the plymouth gin distillery has been producing plymouth gin since 1793 , which was exported around the world by the royal navy . 
the plymouth gin distillery has been producing plymouth gin since 1793 , which was exported around the world by the royal navy . 
during the 1930s , it was the most widely distributed gin and has a controlled term of origin . 
devonport dockyard is the uk 's only naval base that refits nuclear submarines and the navy estimates that the dockyard generates about 10 % of plymouth 's income . 
devonport dockyard is the uk 's only naval base that refits nuclear submarines and the navy estimates that the dockyard generates about 10 % of plymouth 's income . 
plymouth has the largest cluster of marine and maritime businesses in the south west with 270 firms operating within the sector . 
other substantial employers include the university with almost 3,000 staff , as well as the tamar science park employing 500 people in 50 companies . 
several employers have chosen to locate their headquarters in plymouth , including hemsley fraser . 
at the west end of the zone inside a grade ii listed building is the pannier market that was completed in 1959 -- pannier meaning `` basket '' from french , so it translates as `` basket market '' . 
at the west end of the zone inside a grade ii listed building is the pannier market that was completed in 1959 -- pannier meaning `` basket '' from french , so it translates as `` basket market '' . 
in terms of retail floorspace , plymouth is ranked in the top five in the south west , and 29th nationally . 
the tinside pool is situated at the foot of the hoe and became a grade ii listed building in 1998 before being restored to its 1930s look for # 3.4 million . 
the tinside pool is situated at the foot of the hoe and became a grade ii listed building in 1998 before being restored to its 1930s look for # 3.4 million . 
plymouth council is currently undertaking a project of urban redevelopment called the `` vision for plymouth '' launched by the architect david mackay and backed by both plymouth city council and the plymouth chamber of commerce -lrb- pcc -rrb- . 
plymouth council is currently undertaking a project of urban redevelopment called the `` vision for plymouth '' launched by the architect david mackay and backed by both plymouth city council and the plymouth chamber of commerce -lrb- pcc -rrb- . 
plymouth council is currently undertaking a project of urban redevelopment called the `` vision for plymouth '' launched by the architect david mackay and backed by both plymouth city council and the plymouth chamber of commerce -lrb- pcc -rrb- . 
its projects range from shopping centres , a cruise terminal , a boulevard and to increase the population to 300,000 and build 33,000 dwellings . 
its projects range from shopping centres , a cruise terminal , a boulevard and to increase the population to 300,000 and build 33,000 dwellings . 
in 2004 the old drake circus shopping centre and charles cross car park were demolished and replaced by the latest drake circus shopping centre , which opened in october 2006 . 
in 2004 the old drake circus shopping centre and charles cross car park were demolished and replaced by the latest drake circus shopping centre , which opened in october 2006 . 
in contrast , the theatre royal 's production and education centre , tr2 , which was built on wasteland at cattedown , was a runner-up for the riba stirling prize for architecture in 2003 . 
in contrast , the theatre royal 's production and education centre , tr2 , which was built on wasteland at cattedown , was a runner-up for the riba stirling prize for architecture in 2003 . 
it received negative feedback before opening when david mackay said it was already `` ten years out of date '' . 
there is a project involving the future relocation of plymouth city council 's headquarters , the civic centre , to the current location of the bretonside bus station ; it would involve both the bus station and civic centre being demolished and a rebuilt together at the location with the land from the civic centre being sold off . 
other suggestions include the demolition of the plymouth pavilions entertainment arena to create a canal `` boulevard '' linking millbay to the city centre . 
other suggestions include the demolition of the plymouth pavilions entertainment arena to create a canal `` boulevard '' linking millbay to the city centre . 
within the city it is designated as ` the parkway ' and represents the boundary between the urban parts of the city and the generally more recent suburban areas . 
heading east , it connects plymouth to the m5 motorway about 40 miles -lrb- 65 km -rrb- away near exeter ; and heading west it connects cornwall and devon via the tamar bridge . 
heading east , it connects plymouth to the m5 motorway about 40 miles -lrb- 65 km -rrb- away near exeter ; and heading west it connects cornwall and devon via the tamar bridge . 
there are three park and ride services located at milehouse , coypool -lrb- plympton -rrb- and george junction -lrb- plymouth city airport -rrb- , which are operated by first south west . 
regular bus services are provided by plymouth citybus , first south west and target travel . 
a regular international ferry service provided by brittany ferries operates from millbay taking cars and foot passengers directly to france -lrb- roscoff -rrb- and spain -lrb- santander -rrb- on the three ferries , mv armorique , mv bretagne and mv pont-aven . 
a regular international ferry service provided by brittany ferries operates from millbay taking cars and foot passengers directly to france -lrb- roscoff -rrb- and spain -lrb- santander -rrb- on the three ferries , mv armorique , mv bretagne and mv pont-aven . 
a regular international ferry service provided by brittany ferries operates from millbay taking cars and foot passengers directly to france -lrb- roscoff -rrb- and spain -lrb- santander -rrb- on the three ferries , mv armorique , mv bretagne and mv pont-aven . 
there is a passenger ferry between stonehouse and the cornish hamlet of cremyll , which is believed to have operated continuously since 1204 . 
there is a passenger ferry between stonehouse and the cornish hamlet of cremyll , which is believed to have operated continuously since 1204 . 
the city 's airport was plymouth city airport about 4 miles -lrb- 6 km -rrb- north of the city centre . 
the city 's airport was plymouth city airport about 4 miles -lrb- 6 km -rrb- north of the city centre . 
however , flyplymouth plans to reopen the city airport by 2018 , which will provide daily services to various destinations including london . 
however , flyplymouth plans to reopen the city airport by 2018 , which will provide daily services to various destinations including london . 
plymouth railway station , which opened in 1877 , is managed by great western railway and also sees trains on the crosscountry network . 
plymouth railway station , which opened in 1877 , is managed by great western railway and also sees trains on the crosscountry network . 
smaller stations are served by local trains on the tamar valley line and cornish main line . 
three mps from the three main political parties in the region have lobbied that the train services are vital to its economy . 
plymouth railway station , which opened in 1877 , is managed by great western railway and also sees trains on the crosscountry network . 
on the night of 4 february 2014 , amid high winds and extremely rough seas , part of the sea wall at dawlish was breached washing away around 40 metres -lrb- 130 ft -rrb- of the wall and the ballast under the railway immediately behind . 
on the night of 4 february 2014 , amid high winds and extremely rough seas , part of the sea wall at dawlish was breached washing away around 40 metres -lrb- 130 ft -rrb- of the wall and the ballast under the railway immediately behind . 
network rail began repair work and the line reopened on 4 april 2014 . 
on the night of 4 february 2014 , amid high winds and extremely rough seas , part of the sea wall at dawlish was breached washing away around 40 metres -lrb- 130 ft -rrb- of the wall and the ballast under the railway immediately behind . 
plymouth has about 150 churches and its roman catholic cathedral -lrb- 1858 -rrb- is in stonehouse . 
plymouth has about 150 churches and its roman catholic cathedral -lrb- 1858 -rrb- is in stonehouse . 
the city 's oldest church is st andrew 's -lrb- anglican -rrb- located at the top of royal parade -- it is the largest parish church in devon and has been a site of gathering since ad 800 . 
the city 's oldest church is st andrew 's -lrb- anglican -rrb- located at the top of royal parade -- it is the largest parish church in devon and has been a site of gathering since ad 800 . 
the city also includes five baptist churches , over twenty methodist chapels , and thirteen roman catholic churches . 
plymouth has the first known reference to jews in the south west from sir francis drake 's voyages in 1577 to 1580 , as his log mentioned `` moses the jew '' -- a man from plymouth . 
the plymouth synagogue is a listed grade ii * building , built in 1762 and is the oldest ashkenazi synagogue in the english speaking world . 
the plymouth synagogue is a listed grade ii * building , built in 1762 and is the oldest ashkenazi synagogue in the english speaking world . 
the plymouth synagogue is a listed grade ii * building , built in 1762 and is the oldest ashkenazi synagogue in the english speaking world . 
58.1 % of the population described themselves in the 2011 census return as being at least nominally christian and 0.8 % as muslim with all other religions represented by less than 0.5 % each . 
58.1 % of the population described themselves in the 2011 census return as being at least nominally christian and 0.8 % as muslim with all other religions represented by less than 0.5 % each . 
the portion of people without a religion is 32.9 % ; above the national average of 24.7 % . 
the portion of people without a religion is 32.9 % ; above the national average of 24.7 % . 
the portion of people without a religion is 32.9 % ; above the national average of 24.7 % . 
built in 1815 , union street was at the heart of plymouth 's historical culture . 
during the 1930s , there were 30 pubs and it attracted such performers as charlie chaplin to the new palace theatre . 
during the 1930s , there were 30 pubs and it attracted such performers as charlie chaplin to the new palace theatre . 
it became known as the servicemen 's playground , as it was where sailors from the royal navy would seek entertainment of all kinds . 
outdoor events and festivals are held including the annual british firework championships in august , which attracts tens of thousands of people across the waterfront . 
in august 2006 the world record for the most amount of simultaneous fireworks was surpassed , by roy lowry of the university of plymouth , over plymouth sound . 
in august 2006 the world record for the most amount of simultaneous fireworks was surpassed , by roy lowry of the university of plymouth , over plymouth sound . 
in august 2006 the world record for the most amount of simultaneous fireworks was surpassed , by roy lowry of the university of plymouth , over plymouth sound . 
since 1992 the music of the night has been performed in the royal citadel by the 29 commando regiment and local performers to raise money for local and military charities . 
the city 's main theatres are the theatre royal -lrb- 1,315 capacity -rrb- , its drum theatre -lrb- 200 capacity -rrb- , and its production and creative learning centre , the tr2 . 
the city 's main theatres are the theatre royal -lrb- 1,315 capacity -rrb- , its drum theatre -lrb- 200 capacity -rrb- , and its production and creative learning centre , the tr2 . 
the plymouth city museum and art gallery is operated by plymouth city council allowing free admission -- it has six galleries . 
the plymouth city museum and art gallery is operated by plymouth city council allowing free admission -- it has six galleries . 
from 1961 to 2009 it also housed a theatre . 
plymouth is the regional television centre of bbc south west . 
a team of journalists are headquartered at plymouth for the itv west country regional station , after a merger with itv west forced itv westcountry to close on 16 february 2009 . 
a team of journalists are headquartered at plymouth for the itv west country regional station , after a merger with itv west forced itv westcountry to close on 16 february 2009 . 
a team of journalists are headquartered at plymouth for the itv west country regional station , after a merger with itv west forced itv westcountry to close on 16 february 2009 . 
the main local newspapers serving plymouth are the herald and western morning news with radio plymouth , bbc radio devon , heart south west , and pirate fm being the main local radio stations . 
plymouth is home to plymouth argyle f.c. , who play in the fourth tier of english football league known as football league two . 
plymouth is home to plymouth argyle f.c. , who play in the fourth tier of english football league known as football league two . 
the team 's home ground is called home park and is located in central park . 
it links itself with the group of english non-conformists that left plymouth for the new world in 1620 : its nickname is `` the pilgrims '' . 
the city also has four non-league football clubs ; plymouth parkway f.c. who play at bolitho park , elburton villa f.c. who play at haye road , vospers oak villa f.c. who play at weston mill and plymstock united f.c. who play at deans cross . 
other sports clubs include plymouth albion r.f.c. and the plymouth raiders basketball club . 
other sports clubs include plymouth albion r.f.c. and the plymouth raiders basketball club . 
plymouth albion rugby football club is a rugby union club that was founded in 1875 and are currently competing in the third tier of professional english rugby . 
they play at the plymouth pavilions entertainment arena and were founded in 1983 . 
they play at the plymouth pavilions entertainment arena and were founded in 1983 . 
the port of plymouth regatta is one of the oldest regattas in the world , and has been held regularly since 1823 . 
in september 2011 , plymouth hosted the america 's cup world series for nine days . 
in september 2011 , plymouth hosted the america 's cup world series for nine days . 
since 1973 plymouth has been supplied water by south west water . 
prior to the 1973 take over it was supplied by plymouth county borough corporation . 
a watercourse , known as plymouth or drake 's leat , was opened on 24 april 1591 to tap the river meavy . 
a watercourse , known as plymouth or drake 's leat , was opened on 24 april 1591 to tap the river meavy . 
it seems to have been carrying water since 1797 , but it was officially completed in 1801 . 
plymouth city council is responsible for waste management throughout the city and south west water is responsible for sewerage . 
plymouth city council is responsible for waste management throughout the city and south west water is responsible for sewerage . 
plymouth 's electricity is supplied from the national grid and distributed to plymouth via western power distribution . 
on the outskirts of plympton a combined cycle gas-powered station , the langage power station , which started to produce electricity for plymouth at the end of 2009 . 
on the outskirts of plympton a combined cycle gas-powered station , the langage power station , which started to produce electricity for plymouth at the end of 2009 . 
the plymouth borough police , formed in 1836 , eventually became part of devon and cornwall constabulary . 
there are police stations at charles cross and crownhill -lrb- the divisional hq -rrb- and smaller stations at plympton and plymstock . 
plymouth has five fire stations located in camel 's head , crownhill , greenbank , plympton and plymstock which is part of devon and somerset fire and rescue service . 
the royal national lifeboat institution have an atlantic 85 class lifeboat and severn class lifeboat stationed at millbay docks . 
the plymouth borough police , formed in 1836 , eventually became part of devon and cornwall constabulary . 
plymouth is served by plymouth hospitals nhs trust and the city 's nhs hospital is derriford hospital 4 miles -lrb- 6 km -rrb- north of the city centre . 
plymouth is served by plymouth hospitals nhs trust and the city 's nhs hospital is derriford hospital 4 miles -lrb- 6 km -rrb- north of the city centre . 
the royal eye infirmary is located at derriford hospital . 
south western ambulance service nhs foundation trust operates in plymouth and the rest of the south west ; its headquarters are in exeter . 
south western ambulance service nhs foundation trust operates in plymouth and the rest of the south west ; its headquarters are in exeter . 
the mid-19th century burial ground at ford park cemetery was reopened in 2007 by a successful trust and the city council operate two large early 20th century cemeteries at weston mill and efford both with crematoria and chapels . 
the mid-19th century burial ground at ford park cemetery was reopened in 2007 by a successful trust and the city council operate two large early 20th century cemeteries at weston mill and efford both with crematoria and chapels . 
there is also a privately owned cemetery on the outskirts of the city , drake memorial park which does not allow headstones to mark graves , but a brass plaque set into the ground . 
there is also a privately owned cemetery on the outskirts of the city , drake memorial park which does not allow headstones to mark graves , but a brass plaque set into the ground . 
the mid-19th century burial ground at ford park cemetery was reopened in 2007 by a successful trust and the city council operate two large early 20th century cemeteries at weston mill and efford both with crematoria and chapels . 
after the english civil war the royal citadel was built in 1666 on the east end of plymouth hoe , to defend the port from naval attacks , suppress plymothian parliamentary leanings and to train the armed forces . 
after the english civil war the royal citadel was built in 1666 on the east end of plymouth hoe , to defend the port from naval attacks , suppress plymothian parliamentary leanings and to train the armed forces . 
further west is smeaton 's tower , which was built in 1759 as a lighthouse on rocks 14 miles -lrb- 23 km -rrb- off shore , but dismantled and the top two thirds rebuilt on the hoe in 1877 . 
further west is smeaton 's tower , which was built in 1759 as a lighthouse on rocks 14 miles -lrb- 23 km -rrb- off shore , but dismantled and the top two thirds rebuilt on the hoe in 1877 . 
plymouth has 20 war memorials of which nine are on the hoe including : plymouth naval memorial , to remember those killed in world wars i and ii , and the armada memorial , to commemorate the defeat of the spanish armada . 
the early port settlement of plymouth , called `` sutton '' , approximates to the area now referred to as the barbican and has 100 listed buildings and the largest concentration of cobbled streets in britain . 
the pilgrim fathers left for the new world in 1620 near the commemorative mayflower steps in sutton pool . 
the pilgrim fathers left for the new world in 1620 near the commemorative mayflower steps in sutton pool . 
also on sutton pool is the national marine aquarium which displays 400 marine species and includes britain 's deepest aquarium tank . 
the early port settlement of plymouth , called `` sutton '' , approximates to the area now referred to as the barbican and has 100 listed buildings and the largest concentration of cobbled streets in britain . 
on the northern outskirts of the city , crownhill fort is a well restored example of a `` palmerston 's folly '' . 
on the northern outskirts of the city , crownhill fort is a well restored example of a `` palmerston 's folly '' . 
it is owned by the landmark trust and is open to the public . 
to the west of the city is devonport , one of plymouth 's historic quarters . 
as part of devonport 's millennium regeneration project , the devonport heritage trail has been introduced , complete with over 70 waymarkers outlining the route . 
plymouth is often used as a base by visitors to dartmoor , the tamar valley and the beaches of south-east cornwall . 
kingsand , cawsand and whitsand bay are popular . 
plymouth is often used as a base by visitors to dartmoor , the tamar valley and the beaches of south-east cornwall . 
designed by leading architect henning larsen , the building was opened in 2008 and houses the university 's arts faculty . 
designed by leading architect henning larsen , the building was opened in 2008 and houses the university 's arts faculty . 
the roland levinsky building , the landmark building of the university of plymouth , is located in the city 's central quarter . 
designed by leading architect henning larsen , the building was opened in 2008 and houses the university 's arts faculty . 
the roland levinsky building , the landmark building of the university of plymouth , is located in the city 's central quarter . 
people from plymouth are known as plymothians or less formally as janners . 
people from plymouth are known as plymothians or less formally as janners . 
its meaning is described as a person from devon , deriving from cousin jan -lrb- the devon form of john -rrb- , but more particularly in naval circles anyone from the plymouth area . 
its meaning is described as a person from devon , deriving from cousin jan -lrb- the devon form of john -rrb- , but more particularly in naval circles anyone from the plymouth area . 
the elizabethan navigator , sir francis drake was born in the nearby town of tavistock and was the mayor of plymouth . 
he was the first englishman to circumnavigate the world and was known by the spanish as el draco meaning `` the dragon '' after he raided many of their ships . 
he died of dysentery in 1596 off the coast of puerto rico . 
he died of dysentery in 1596 off the coast of puerto rico . 
painter sir joshua reynolds , founder and first president of the royal academy was born and educated in nearby plympton , now part of plymouth . 
artists include beryl cook whose paintings depict the culture of plymouth and robert lenkiewicz , whose paintings investigated themes of vagrancy , sexual behaviour and suicide , lived in the city from the 1960s until his death in 2002 . 
illustrator and creator of children 's series mr benn and king rollo , david mckee , was born and brought up in south devon and trained at plymouth college of art . 
jazz musician john surman , born in nearby tavistock , has close connections to the area , evidenced by his 2012 album saltash bells . 
the avant garde prepared guitarist keith rowe was born in the city before establishing the jazz free improvisation band amm in london in 1965 and mimeo in 1997 . 
george passmore of turner prize winning duo gilbert and george was born in the city , as was labour politician michael foot whose family reside at nearby trematon castle . 
notable athletes include swimmer sharron davies , diver tom daley , dancer wayne sleep , and footballer trevor francis . 
canadian politician and legal scholar chris axworthy hails from plymouth . 
america based actor donald moffat , whose roles include american vice president lyndon b. johnson in the film the right stuff , and fictional president bennett in clear and present danger , was born in plymouth . 
america based actor donald moffat , whose roles include american vice president lyndon b. johnson in the film the right stuff , and fictional president bennett in clear and present danger , was born in plymouth . 
other past residents include composer journalist and newspaper editor william henry wills , ron goodwin , and journalist angela rippon and comedian dawn french .