Answer: 20th Street

Question: Which street is much wider from Avenue C to First Avenue?


Answer: in the opposite direction

Context: 20th Street starts at Avenue C, and 21st and 22nd Streets begin at First Avenue. They all end at Eleventh Avenue. Travel on the last block of the 20th, 21st and 22nd Streets, between Tenth and Eleventh Avenues, is in the opposite direction than it is on the rest of the respective street. 20th Street is very wide from the Avenue C to First Avenue.

Question: How does traffic travel on the last block of the 20th, 21st, and 22nd Streets?


Answer: 21st Street

Context: Between Second and Third Avenues, 21st Street is alternatively known as Police Officer Anthony Sanchez Way. Along the northern perimeter of Gramercy Park, between Gramercy Park East and Gramercy Park West, 21st Street is known as Gramercy Park North.

Question: Which Street is also known as Police Officer Anthony Sanchez Way?


Answer: Gramercy Park North

Question: What is 21st Street known as along the northern perimeter of Gramercy Park?


Answer: Second and Third Avenues

Question: Between what avenues is 21st Street known by Police Officer Anthony Sanchez Way?


Answer: Anthony Sanchez

Question: Which police officer does a section of 21st Street refer to?


Answer: FDR Drive

Context: 23rd Street is another main numbered street in Manhattan. It begins at FDR Drive and ends at Eleventh Avenue. Its length is 3.1 km/1.9m. It has two-way travel. On 23rd Street there are five local subway stations:

Question: Where does 23rd Street begin?


Answer: Eleventh Avenue

Question: Where does 23rd Street end?


Answer: 3.1 km

Question: What is the length of 23rd Street in kilometers?


Answer: two-way

Question: Does traffic move in one or two ways on 23rd Street?


Answer: five

Question: How many local subway stations are on 23rd Street?


Answer: 25th Street

Context: 24th Street is in two parts. 24th Street starts at First Avenue and it ends at Madison Avenue, because of Madison Square Park. 25th Street, which is in three parts, starts at FDR Drive, is a pedestrian plaza between Third Avenue and Lexington Avenue, and ends at Madison. Then West 24th and 25th Streets continue from Fifth Avenue to Eleventh Avenue (25th) or Twelfth Avenue (24th).

Question: Which street is a pedestrian plaza between Third Avenue and Lexington Avenue?


Answer: First Avenue

Question: Where does 24th street start?


Answer: Madison Square Park

Question: Which park is at the end of 24th Street and Madison Avenue?


Answer: Madison

Question: Where does 25th Street end?


Answer: Fifth Avenue

Question: After being interrupted, where do 24th and 25th Streets continue from?


Answer: 27th Street

Context: 27th Street is a one-way street runs from Second Avenue to the West Side Highway with an interruption between Eighth Avenue and Tenth Avenue. It is most noted for its strip between Tenth and Eleventh Avenues, known as Club Row because it features numerous nightclubs and lounges.

Question: Which street does Club Row occur on?


Answer: Club Row

Question: Which strip is known for its numerous nightclubs and lounges?


Answer: Club Row

Question: What is the strip of 27th Street between Tenth and Eleventh Avenues known as?


Answer: one-way

Question: Does traffuc on 27th Street run one-way or two-ways?


Answer: Second Avenue

Question: Where does 27th Street start?


Answer: fifteen blocks

Context: In recent years, the nightclubs on West 27th Street have succumbed to stiff competition from Manhattan's Meatpacking District about fifteen blocks south, and other venues in downtown Manhattan.

Question: How many blocks south of 27th Street is Manhattan's Meatpacking District?


Answer: nightclubs

Question: Which businesses on 27th Street face competition from other venues in dowtown Manhattan?


Answer: south

Question: What direction is Manhattan's Meatpacking District from West 27th Street?


Answer: Eighth

Context: Heading east, 27th Street passes through Chelsea Park between Tenth and Ninth Avenues, with the Fashion Institute of Technology (FIT) on the corner of Eighth. On Madison Avenue between 26th and 27th streets, on the site of the old Madison Square Garden, is the New York Life Building, built in 1928 and designed by Cass Gilbert, with a square tower topped by a striking gilded pyramid. Twenty-Seventh Street passes one block north of Madison Square Park and culminates at Bellevue Hospital Center on First Avenue.

Question: The Fashion Institute of Technology is on the corner of 27th Street and what Avenue?


Answer: 1928

Question: What year was the New York Life Building built?


Answer: Cass Gilbert

Question: Who designed the New York Life Building?


Answer: Bellevue

Question: Which hospital is located at the end if 27th Street?


Answer: Chelsea

Question: Which park does 27th Street pass through between Ninth and Tenth Avenues?


Answer: West Side Yard

Context: 31st Street begins on the West Side at the West Side Yard, while 32nd Street, which includes a segment officially known as Korea Way between Fifth Avenue and Broadway in Manhattan's Koreatown, begins at the entrance to Penn Station and Madison Square Garden. On the East Side, both streets end at Second Avenue at Kips Bay Towers and NYU Medical Center which occupy the area between 30th and 34th Streets. The Catholic church of St. Francis of Assisi is situated at 135–139 West 31st Street. At 210 West is the Capuchin Monastery of St. John the Baptist, part of St. John the Baptist Church on 30th Street. At the corner of Broadway and West 31st Street is the Grand Hotel. The former Hotel Pierrepont was located at 43 West 32nd Street, The Continental NYC tower is at the corner of Sixth Avenue and 32nd Street. 29 East 32nd Street was the location of the first building owned by the Grolier Club between 1890 and 1917.

Question: Where does 31st Street begin?


Answer: Catholic church of St. Francis of Assisi

Question: Which church is situated at 135-139 West 31st Street?


Answer: Grolier Club

Question: Who owned the building at 29 East 32nd Street between 1890 and 1917?


Answer: Grand Hotel

Question: The corner of Broadway and West 31st Street is home to what business?


Answer: Capuchin Monastery of St. John the Baptist

Question: Which religios center is located at 210 West?


Answer: FDR Drive

Context: 35th Street runs from FDR Drive to Eleventh Avenue. Notable locations include East River Ferry, LaptopMD headquarters, Mercy College Manhattan Campus, and Jacob K. Javits Convention Center.

Question: Where does 35th Street begin?


Answer: Eleventh Avenue

Question: Where does 35th Street end?


Answer: 35th Street

Question: On which street does LaptopMD headquarters sit?


Answer: 35th Street

Question: On which street is the Jacob K. Javits Convention Center located?


Answer: 35th Street

Question: Which street runs from FDR Drive to Eleventh Avenue?


Answer: Designers' Way

Context: A section of East 58th Street 40°45′40.3″N 73°57′56.9″W / 40.761194°N 73.965806°W / 40.761194; -73.965806 between Lexington and Second Avenues is known as Designers' Way and features a number of high end interior design and decoration establishments, including

Question: What is the section of East 58th Street between Lexington and Second Avenues known as?


Answer: Designers' Way

Question: Which section of Eat 58th Street features high end interior design and decoration establishments?


Answer: Second

Question: Designers' Way occurs on East 58th Street between Lexington and which other Avenue?


Answer: East 90th Street

Context: 90th Street is split into two segments. The first segment, West 90th Street begins at Riverside Drive and ends at Central Park West or West Drive, when it is open, in Central Park on the Upper West Side. The second segment of East 90th Street begins at East Drive, at Engineers Gate of Central Park. When East Drive is closed, East 90th Street begins at Fifth Avenue on the Upper East Side and curves to the right at the FDR Drive becoming East End Avenue. Our Lady of Good Counsel Church, is located on East 90th Street between Third Avenue and Second Avenue, across the street from Ruppert Towers (1601 and 1619 Third Avenue) and Ruppert Park. Asphalt Green, which is located on East 90th Street between York Avenue and East End Avenue.

Question: Which street begins at East Drive, at Engineers Gate of Central Park?


Answer: Our Lady of Good Counsel Church

Question: Which church is located on East 90th Street between Second and Third Avenue?


Answer: Ruppert Towers

Question: Which towers are located at 1601 and 1619 Third Avenue?


Answer: Asphalt Green

Question: What is located on East 90th Street between York Avenue and East End Avenue?


Answer: Morningside Heights

Context: 112th Street starts in Morningside Heights and runs from Riverside Drive to Amsterdam Avenue, where it meets the steps of the Cathedral of Saint John the Divine. The street resumes at the eastern edge of Morningside Park and extends through Harlem before ending at First Avenue adjacent Thomas Jefferson Park in East Harlem. Notable locations include:

Question: Where does 112th Street start?


Answer: 112th Street

Question: Which street runs from Riverside Drive to Amsterdam Avenue?


Answer: 112th Street

Question: Which road meets the steps of the Cathedral of Saint John the Divine?


Answer: Butler Library

Context: 114th Street marks the southern boundary of Columbia University’s Morningside Heights Campus and is the location of Butler Library, which is the University’s largest.

Question: Which library is Columbia University's largest?


Answer: Columbia University

Question: 114th Street marks the southern boundary of which university's Morningside Heights Campus?


Answer: southern

Question: 114th Street runs along which boundary of Columbia University's Morningside Heights Campus?


Answer: 114th Street

Context: Above 114th Street between Amsterdam Avenue and Morningside Drive, there is a private indoor pedestrian bridge connecting two buildings on the campus of St. Luke's–Roosevelt Hospital Center.

Question: On which street is a private indoor pedestrian bridge between Amsterdam Avenue and Morningside Drive?


Answer: St. Luke's–Roosevelt Hospital Center

Question: Aove 114th Street is a private pedestrian bridge connecting two buildings from what organization?


Answer: 114th Street

Question: A bridge connecting two of St. Luke's-Roosevelt Hospital Center's buildings crosses above which road?


Answer: Riverside Drive

Context: 40°48′27″N 73°57′18″W / 40.8076°N 73.9549°W / 40.8076; -73.9549 120th Street traverses the neighborhoods of Morningside Heights, Harlem, and Spanish Harlem. It begins on Riverside Drive at the Interchurch Center. It then runs east between the campuses of Barnard College and the Union Theological Seminary, then crosses Broadway and runs between the campuses of Columbia University and Teacher's College. The street is interrupted by Morningside Park. It then continues east, eventually running along the southern edge of Marcus Garvey Park, passing by 58 West, the former residence of Maya Angelou. It then continues through Spanish Harlem; when it crosses Pleasant Avenue it becomes a two‑way street and continues nearly to the East River, where for automobiles, it turns north and becomes Paladino Avenue, and for pedestrians, continues as a bridge across FDR Drive.

Question: On which road does 120th Street begin?


Answer: 120th Street

Question: The Interchurch Center is the start of which street?


Answer: 120th Street

Question: Morningside Park interrupts which street?


Answer: Maya Angelou

Question: Who formerly lived at 58 West?


Answer: FDR Drive

Question: 120th Street turns into Paladino Avenue and into a pedestrian bridge across what road?


Answer: Marcus Garvey

Context: 40°48′32″N 73°57′14″W / 40.8088°N 73.9540°W / 40.8088; -73.9540 122nd Street is divided into three noncontiguous segments, E 122nd Street, W 122nd Street, and W 122nd Street Seminary Row, by Marcus Garvey Memorial Park and Morningside Park.

Question: Which memorial park divides 122nd Street?


Answer: Morningside Park

Question: Which park divides 122nd Street along with Marcus Garvey Memorial Park?


Answer: three

Question: How many segments is 122nd Street divided into?


Answer: noncontiguous

Question: Are 122nd Street's three segments contiguous or noncontiguous?


Answer: four

Context: E 122nd Street runs four blocks (2,250 feet (690 m)) west from the intersection of Second Avenue and terminates at the intersection of Madison Avenue at Marcus Garvey Memorial Park. This segment runs in East Harlem and crosses portions of Third Avenue, Lexington, and Park (Fourth Avenue).

Question: How many blocks west of Second Avenue does E 122nd Street run?


Answer: Marcus Garvey Memorial Park

Question: At which park does E 122nd Street end?


Answer: Madison Avenue

Question: At which intersection does E 122nd Street terminate?


Answer: Park

Question: What is another name for Fourth Avenue?


Answer: E 122nd Street

Question: A segment of what road crosses portions of Third Avenue, Lexington, and Park and runs in East Harlem?


Answer: Morningside Avenue

Context: W 122nd Street runs six blocks (3,280 feet (1,000 m)) west from the intersection of Mount Morris Park West at Marcus Garvey Memorial Park and terminates at the intersection of Morningside Avenue at Morningside Park. This segment runs in the Mount Morris Historical District and crosses portions of Lenox Avenue (Sixth Avenue), Seventh Avenue, Frederick Douglass Boulevard (Eighth Avenue), and Manhattan Avenue.

Question: At which intersection does W 122nd Street terminate?


Answer: Morningside Park

Question: At which park does W 122nd Street end?


Answer: six

Question: How many blocks west from the intersection of Mount Morris Park does W 122nd Street run?


Answer: Mount Morris

Question: Through which historical district does W 122nd Street run?


Answer: Lenox Avenue

Question: What is an alternative name for Sixth Avenue?


Answer: Amsterdam Avenue

Context: W 122nd Street Seminary Row runs three blocks (1,500 feet (460 m)) west from the intersection of Amsterdam Avenue (Tenth Avenue) and terminates at the intersection of Riverside Drive. East of Amsterdam, Seminary Row bends south along Morningside Park and is resigned as Morningside Drive (Ninth Avenue). Seminary row runs in Morningside Heights, the district surrounding Columbia University, and crosses portions of Broadway and Claremont Avenue.

Question: What is another name for Tenth Avenue?


Answer: Riverside Drive

Question: At which intersection does W 122nd Street end?


Answer: Morningside Drive

Question: What is another name for Ninth Avenue?


Answer: Morningside Heights

Question: Which district surrounds Columbia University?


Answer: Jewish Theological

Context: Seminary Row is named for the Union Theological Seminary and the Jewish Theological Seminary which it touches. Seminary Row also runs by the Manhattan School of Music, Riverside Church, Sakura Park, Grant's Tomb, and Morningside Park.

Question: Besides the Union Theological Seminary, which other Seminary touches Seminary Row?


Answer: Union Theological

Question: Other than the Jewish Theological Seminary, which other Seminary touches Seminary Row?


Answer: Seminary Row

Question: Which road runs by two Seminaries, the Manhattan School of Music, Riverside Church, and Grant's Tomb?


Answer: Travis Bickle

Context: 122nd Street is mentioned in the movie Taxi Driver by main character Travis Bickle as the location where a fellow cab driver is assaulted with a knife. The street and the surrounding neighborhood of Harlem is then referred to as "Mau Mau Land" by another character named Wizard, slang indicating it is a majority black area.

Question: Who is the main character in Taxi Driver?


Answer: 122nd Street

Question: What street is mentioned in the movie Taxi Driver as the location where a cab driver is assaulted?


Answer: Wizard

Question: Which character in Taxi Driver deemed 122nd Street as "Mau Mau Land"?


Answer: "Mau Mau Land"

Question: What is the term given to 122nd Street by Wizard in Taxi Driver indicating the area is majority black?


Answer: Harlem

Question: Which neighborhood surrounds 122nd Street?


Answer: La Salle Street

Context: 40°48′47″N 73°57′27″W / 40.813°N 73.9575°W / 40.813; -73.9575 La Salle Street is a street in West Harlem that runs just two blocks between Amsterdam Avenue and Claremont Avenue. West of Convent Avenue, 125th Street was re-routed onto the old Manhattan Avenue. The original 125th Street west of Convent Avenue was swallowed up to make the super-blocks where the low income housing projects now exist. La Salle Street is the only vestige of the original routing.

Question: Which street in West Harlem runs just two blocks between Amersterdam Avenue and Claremont Avenue?


Answer: Claremont

Question: La Salle Street runs between Amsterdam Avenue and which other Avenue?


Answer: West Harlem

Question: In which neighborhood does La Salle Street run?


Answer: 125th Street

Question: Which street was swallowed up to make low income housing projects?


Answer: La Salle Street

Question: Which street is the only area left of the routing onto old Manhattan Avenue?


Answer: West 132nd Street

Context: 40°48′52″N 73°56′53″W / 40.814583°N 73.947944°W / 40.814583; -73.947944 132nd Street runs east-west above Central Park and is located in Harlem just south of Hamilton Heights. The main portion of 132nd Street runs eastbound from Frederick Douglass Boulevard to northern end of Park Avenue where there is a southbound exit from/entrance to the Harlem River Drive. After an interruption from St. Nicholas Park and City College, there is another small stretch of West 132nd Street between Broadway and Twelfth Avenue

Question: There is a small stretch of what road between Broadway and Twelfth Avenue?


Answer: 132nd Street

Question: The main portion of what road runs eastbound from Frederick Douglass Boulevard to Park Avenue?


Answer: Park Avenue

Question: On what Avenue is a southbound exit and entrance to the Harlem River Drive?


Answer: City College

Question: West 132nd Street is interrupted by St. Nicholas Park and which college?


Answer: St. Nicholas Park

Question: West 132nd Street is interrupted by City College and which park?


Answer: local residents

Context: The 132nd Street Community Garden is located on 132nd Street between Adam Clayton Powell Jr. Boulevard and Malcolm X Boulevard. In 1997, the lot received a garden makeover; the Borough President's office funded the installation of a $100,000 water distribution system that keeps the wide variety of trees green. The garden also holds a goldfish pond and several benches. The spirit of the neighborhood lives in gardens like this one, planted and tended by local residents.

Question: Who takes care of the 132nd Street Community Garden?


Answer: Adam Clayton Powell Jr.

Question: The 132nd Street Community Garden is located between Malcom X Boulevard and what other Boulevard?


Answer: 1997

Question: In which year did the garden receive a makover with a water distribution system?


Answer: Borough President's office

Question: Who funded the 132nd Street Community Garden's water distribution system?


Answer: $100,000

Question: How much did the 132nd Street Community Garden's water distribution system cost?


Answer: Manhattanville Bus Depot

Context: The Manhattanville Bus Depot (formerly known as the 132nd Street Bus Depot) is located on West 132nd and 133rd Street between Broadway and Riverside Drive in the Manhattanville neighborhood.

Question: What is the 132nd Street Bus Depot currently known as?


Answer: 132nd Street Bus Depot

Question: What was the Manhattanville Bus Depot formerly known as?


Answer: Manhattanville

Question: In which neighborhood is the Manhattanville Bus Depot?


Answer: Riverside Drive

Question: The former 132nd Street Bus Depot is located between Broadway and what other drive in the Manhattanville neighborhood?


Answer: 155

Context: 155th Street is a major crosstown street considered to form the boundary between Harlem and Washington Heights. It is the northernmost of the 155 crosstown streets mapped out in the Commissioner's Plan of 1811 that established the numbered street grid in Manhattan.

Question: How many crosstown streets are mapped in the Commissioner's Plan of 1811?


Answer: 155th Street

Question: Which street is the northernmost of the streets mapped in the Commissioner's Plan of 1811?


Answer: 155th Street

Question: Which street forms the boundary between Harlem and Washington Heights?


Answer: Commissioner's Plan of 1811

Question: What document established Manhattan's numbered street grid?


Answer: Washington Heights

Question: 155th Street forms the boundary between Harlem and what other neighborhood?


Answer: Riverside Drive

Context: 155th Street starts on the West Side at Riverside Drive, crossing Broadway, Amsterdam Avenue and St. Nicholas Avenue. At St. Nicholas Place, the terrain drops off steeply, and 155th Street is carried on a 1,600-foot (490 m) long viaduct, a City Landmark constructed in 1893, that slopes down towards the Harlem River, continuing onto the Macombs Dam Bridge, crossing over (but not intersecting with) the Harlem River Drive. A separate, unconnected section of 155th Street runs under the viaduct, connecting Bradhurst Avenue and the Harlem River Drive.

Question: Where does 155th Street start?


Answer: St. Nicholas

Question: 155th Street crosses Broadway, Amsterdam Avenue, and what other Avenue?


Answer: 490

Question: How many meters long is the viaduct on which 155th Street travels?


Answer: 1893

Question: In what year was the viaduct along 155th Street constructed?


Answer: Bradhurst

Question: A section of 155th Street connects Harlem River Drive and what Avenue?


Answer: Washington Heights

Context: 181st Street is a major thoroughfare running through the Washington Heights neighborhood. It runs from the Washington Bridge in the east, to the Henry Hudson Parkway in the west, near the George Washington Bridge and the Hudson River. The west end is called Plaza Lafayette.

Question: 181st Street runs through what neighborhood?


Answer: Plaza Lafayette

Question: What is the west end of 181st Street called?


Answer: west

Question: Does Plaza Lafayette refer to the east or west end of 181st Street?


Answer: Hudson River

Question: Which river does 181st Street run near?


Answer: 181st Street

Question: Which road runs from the Washington Bridge to the Henry Hudson Parkway?


Answer: West

Context: West of Fort Washington Avenue, 181st Street is largely residential, bordering Hudson Heights and having a few shops to serve the local residents. East of Fort Washington Avenue, the street becomes increasingly commercial, becoming dominated entirely by retail stores where the street reaches Broadway and continues as such until reaching the Harlem River. It is the area's major shopping district.

Question: In which direction is 181st Street largely residential?


Answer: East

Question: In which direction is 181st Street mostly commercial?


Answer: Fort Washington Avenue

Question: Which street marks the western boundary of the shopping distrit?


Answer: Harlem

Question: Which river touches the major shopping district near 181st Street?


Answer: two

Context: 181st Street is served by two New York City Subway lines; there is a 181st Street station at Fort Washington Avenue on the IND Eighth Avenue Line (A trains) and a 181st Street station at St. Nicholas Avenue on the IRT Broadway – Seventh Avenue Line (1 trains). The stations are about 500 metres (550 yd) from each other and are not connected. The George Washington Bridge Bus Terminal is a couple of blocks south on Fort Washington Avenue. 181st Street is also the last south/west exit in New York on the Trans-Manhattan Expressway (I-95), just before crossing the George Washington Bridge to New Jersey.

Question: How many subway lines serve 181st Street?


Answer: 500

Question: How many metres apart are 181st Street's two subway stations?


Answer: Fort Washington Avenue

Question: On what avenue is the George Wasington Bridge Bus Terminal?


Answer: 181st Street

Question: Which road is the Trans-Manhattan Expressway's last south/west exit?


Answer: Chittenden Avenue

Context: 187th Street crosses Washington Heights and running from Laurel Hill Terrace in the east to Chittenden Avenue in the west near the George Washington Bridge and Hudson River. The street is interrupted by a long set of stairs east of Fort Washington Avenue leading to the Broadway valley. West of there, it is mostly lined with store fronts and serves as a main shopping district for the Hudson Heights neighborhood.

Question: 187th Street runs from Laurel Hill Terrace in the east to which avenue in the west?


Answer: stairs

Question: What is 187th Street interrupted by?


Answer: Broadway valley

Question: Where do the stairs interrupting 187th street lead to?


Answer: Hudson Heights

Question: An area of 187th Street serves as the main shopping district for which neighborhood?


Answer: Laurel Hill Terrace

Context: 187th Street intersects with, from East to West, Laurel Hill Terrace, Amsterdam Avenue, Audubon Avenue, St. Nicholas Avenue, Wadsworth Avenue, Broadway, Bennett Avenue, Overlook Terrace, Fort Washington Avenue, Pinehurst Avenue, Cabrini Boulevard and Chittenden Avenue.

Question: Which is the eastmost intersection that 187th Street has?


Answer: Chittenden Avenue

Question: Which is the westernmost intersection that 187th Street has?


Answer: 187th Street

Question: Wadsworth Avenue is intersected by what street?


Answer: P.S. 187

Context: The many institutions on 187th Street include Mount Sinai Jewish Center, the Dombrov Shtiebel, and the uptown campus of Yeshiva University. The local public elementary school P.S. 187 is located on Cabrini Boulevard, just north of the eponymous 187th Street

Question: Which school is located on Cabrini Boulevard?


Answer: 187th Street

Question: On what street is the Dombrov Shtiebel?


Answer: Yeshiva University

Question: Which University has a campus on 187th Street?


Answer: 187th Street

Question: Cabrini Boulevard is just north of what street?


Answer: 187th Street

Question: On what street is the Mount Sinai Jewish Center?


Answer: The brain

Context: The brain is an organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals. Only a few invertebrates such as sponges, jellyfish, adult sea squirts and starfish do not have a brain; diffuse or localised nerve nets are present instead. The brain is located in the head, usually close to the primary sensory organs for such senses as vision, hearing, balance, taste, and smell. The brain is the most complex organ in a vertebrate's body. In a typical human, the cerebral cortex (the largest part) is estimated to contain 15–33 billion neurons, each connected by synapses to several thousand other neurons. These neurons communicate with one another by means of long protoplasmic fibers called axons, which carry trains of signal pulses called action potentials to distant parts of the brain or body targeting specific recipient cells.

Question: What is the center of the nervous system in all creatures?


Answer: The brain

Question: What is the most complex organ in an animal's body?


Answer: 15–33 billion

Question: In people, how many neurons make up the cerebral cortex?


Answer: axons

Question: Neurons in the brain interact with each other by fibers called what?


Answer: sponges, jellyfish, adult sea squirts

Question: A few animals without spines that do not have a brain are what?


Answer: The brain

Context: Physiologically, the function of the brain is to exert centralized control over the other organs of the body. The brain acts on the rest of the body both by generating patterns of muscle activity and by driving the secretion of chemicals called hormones. This centralized control allows rapid and coordinated responses to changes in the environment. Some basic types of responsiveness such as reflexes can be mediated by the spinal cord or peripheral ganglia, but sophisticated purposeful control of behavior based on complex sensory input requires the information integrating capabilities of a centralized brain.

Question: Hormones secreted are driven by what organ in the body?


Answer: reflexes

Question: What type of responsiveness can be used without a brain?


Answer: spinal cord or peripheral ganglia

Question: Reflexes only require one of what two structures in a body?


Answer: central processing unit (CPU)

Context: The operations of individual brain cells are now understood in considerable detail but the way they cooperate in ensembles of millions is yet to be solved. Recent models in modern neuroscience treat the brain as a biological computer, very different in mechanism from an electronic computer, but similar in the sense that it acquires information from the surrounding world, stores it, and processes it in a variety of ways, analogous to the central processing unit (CPU) in a computer.

Question: Which part of a computer does the brain most resemble?


Answer: vertebrates

Context: This article compares the properties of brains across the entire range of animal species, with the greatest attention to vertebrates. It deals with the human brain insofar as it shares the properties of other brains. The ways in which the human brain differs from other brains are covered in the human brain article. Several topics that might be covered here are instead covered there because much more can be said about them in a human context. The most important is brain disease and the effects of brain damage, covered in the human brain article because the most common diseases of the human brain either do not show up in other species, or else manifest themselves in different ways.

Question: Animals with a spine are called what?


Answer: invertebrates

Context: The shape and size of the brain varies greatly in different species, and identifying common features is often difficult. Nevertheless, there are a number of principles of brain architecture that apply across a wide range of species. Some aspects of brain structure are common to almost the entire range of animal species; others distinguish "advanced" brains from more primitive ones, or distinguish vertebrates from invertebrates.

Question: Animals without a spine are called what?


Answer: visual inspection

Context: The simplest way to gain information about brain anatomy is by visual inspection, but many more sophisticated techniques have been developed. Brain tissue in its natural state is too soft to work with, but it can be hardened by immersion in alcohol or other fixatives, and then sliced apart for examination of the interior. Visually, the interior of the brain consists of areas of so-called grey matter, with a dark color, separated by areas of white matter, with a lighter color. Further information can be gained by staining slices of brain tissue with a variety of chemicals that bring out areas where specific types of molecules are present in high concentrations. It is also possible to examine the microstructure of brain tissue using a microscope, and to trace the pattern of connections from one brain area to another.

Question: The easiest way to learn about brain anatomy is by what?


Answer: alcohol

Question: Brain tissue is naturally soft, but can be stiffened with what liquid?


Answer: grey matter, with a dark color, separated by areas of white matter

Question: The two main areas of the brain are what colors?


Answer: microscope

Question: What instrument can you use to examine the microstructure of the brain?


Answer: dark color

Question: Grey matter of the brain is what color?


Answer: neurons and glial cells

Context: The brains of all species are composed primarily of two broad classes of cells: neurons and glial cells. Glial cells (also known as glia or neuroglia) come in several types, and perform a number of critical functions, including structural support, metabolic support, insulation, and guidance of development. Neurons, however, are usually considered the most important cells in the brain. The property that makes neurons unique is their ability to send signals to specific target cells over long distances. They send these signals by means of an axon, which is a thin protoplasmic fiber that extends from the cell body and projects, usually with numerous branches, to other areas, sometimes nearby, sometimes in distant parts of the brain or body. The length of an axon can be extraordinary: for example, if a pyramidal cell, (an excitatory neuron) of the cerebral cortex were magnified so that its cell body became the size of a human body, its axon, equally magnified, would become a cable a few centimeters in diameter, extending more than a kilometer. These axons transmit signals in the form of electrochemical pulses called action potentials, which last less than a thousandth of a second and travel along the axon at speeds of 1–100 meters per second. Some neurons emit action potentials constantly, at rates of 10–100 per second, usually in irregular patterns; other neurons are quiet most of the time, but occasionally emit a burst of action potentials.

Question: Brains of organisms are made up mostly of what two classes of cells?


Answer: glia or neuroglia

Question: Glial cells are also referred to as what?


Answer: neurons

Question: Which of the two broad classes of cells: neurons and glial cells send signals to other cells?


Answer: action potentials

Question: Axons send signals that are named what?


Answer: 1–100 meters per second

Question: What is the typical speed that axons send their electrical signals?


Answer: synapses

Context: Axons transmit signals to other neurons by means of specialized junctions called synapses. A single axon may make as many as several thousand synaptic connections with other cells. When an action potential, traveling along an axon, arrives at a synapse, it causes a chemical called a neurotransmitter to be released. The neurotransmitter binds to receptor molecules in the membrane of the target cell.

Question: Axons send signals to other neurons by junctions known as what?


Answer: receptor molecules

Question: The neurotansmitter binds to what of a target cell?


Answer: several thousand

Question: An axon can connect to how many other cells?


Answer: 100 trillion synapses;

Context: Synapses are the key functional elements of the brain. The essential function of the brain is cell-to-cell communication, and synapses are the points at which communication occurs. The human brain has been estimated to contain approximately 100 trillion synapses; even the brain of a fruit fly contains several million. The functions of these synapses are very diverse: some are excitatory (exciting the target cell); others are inhibitory; others work by activating second messenger systems that change the internal chemistry of their target cells in complex ways. A large number of synapses are dynamically modifiable; that is, they are capable of changing strength in a way that is controlled by the patterns of signals that pass through them. It is widely believed that activity-dependent modification of synapses is the brain's primary mechanism for learning and memory.

Question: How many synapses does the human brain supposedly contain?


Answer: several million

Question: The fruit fly has a brain that has how many synapses?


Answer: excitatory

Question: A synapse whose purpose is to excite the target cell are called what?


Answer: cell-to-cell communication

Question: The primary job of the brain is what?


Answer: nerve fiber tracts

Context: Most of the space in the brain is taken up by axons, which are often bundled together in what are called nerve fiber tracts. A myelinated axon is wrapped in a fatty insulating sheath of myelin, which serves to greatly increase the speed of signal propagation. (There are also unmyelinated axons). Myelin is white, making parts of the brain filled exclusively with nerve fibers appear as light-colored white matter, in contrast to the darker-colored grey matter that marks areas with high densities of neuron cell bodies.

Question: Axons grouped together are known as what?


Answer: sheath of myelin

Question: An axon that can greatly increase speed of signals is wrapped in what?


Answer: white

Question: Myelin is what color in the brain?


Answer: axons

Question: Most of the space in the brain is made up of what structures?


Answer: neuron cell bodies

Question: Grey matter of the brain consist of lots of what?


Answer: cnidarians

Context: Except for a few primitive organisms such as sponges (which have no nervous system) and cnidarians (which have a nervous system consisting of a diffuse nerve net), all living multicellular animals are bilaterians, meaning animals with a bilaterally symmetric body shape (that is, left and right sides that are approximate mirror images of each other). All bilaterians are thought to have descended from a common ancestor that appeared early in the Cambrian period, 485-540 million years ago, and it has been hypothesized that this common ancestor had the shape of a simple tubeworm with a segmented body. At a schematic level, that basic worm-shape continues to be reflected in the body and nervous system architecture of all modern bilaterians, including vertebrates. The fundamental bilateral body form is a tube with a hollow gut cavity running from the mouth to the anus, and a nerve cord with an enlargement (a ganglion) for each body segment, with an especially large ganglion at the front, called the brain. The brain is small and simple in some species, such as nematode worms; in other species, including vertebrates, it is the most complex organ in the body. Some types of worms, such as leeches, also have an enlarged ganglion at the back end of the nerve cord, known as a "tail brain".

Question: Creatures that have a diffuse nerve net are called what?


Answer: symmetric body shape

Question: Bilaterians are animals that have what?


Answer: 485-540 million years ago

Question: The Cambrian period was how long ago?


Answer: a ganglion

Question: A nerve cord with an enlargement is called what?


Answer: leeches

Question: What type of creature has a ganglion at the back end of the nerve cord as well?


Answer: acoelomorphs

Context: There are a few types of existing bilaterians that lack a recognizable brain, including echinoderms, tunicates, and acoelomorphs (a group of primitive flatworms). It has not been definitively established whether the existence of these brainless species indicates that the earliest bilaterians lacked a brain, or whether their ancestors evolved in a way that led to the disappearance of a previously existing brain structure.

Question: A name for a group of primitive flatworms is what?


Answer: echinoderms, tunicates, and acoelomorphs

Question: Some bilaterians without a brain are what?


Answer: arthropods (insects, crustaceans, arachnids, and others), and cephalopods

Context: Two groups of invertebrates have notably complex brains: arthropods (insects, crustaceans, arachnids, and others), and cephalopods (octopuses, squids, and similar molluscs). The brains of arthropods and cephalopods arise from twin parallel nerve cords that extend through the body of the animal. Arthropods have a central brain with three divisions and large optical lobes behind each eye for visual processing. Cephalopods such as the octopus and squid have the largest brains of any invertebrates.

Question: Which two groups of invertebrates have complex brains?


Answer: parallel nerve cords

Question: Arthropods and cephalopods have brains that come from a pair of what?


Answer: octopus and squid

Question: The invertebrates with the largest brain are what two animals?


Answer: invertebrate

Context: There are several invertebrate species whose brains have been studied intensively because they have properties that make them convenient for experimental work:

Question: Which brains are easier to work on, vertebrates or invertebrates?


Answer: over 500 million years ago

Context: The first vertebrates appeared over 500 million years ago (Mya), during the Cambrian period, and may have resembled the modern hagfish in form. Sharks appeared about 450 Mya, amphibians about 400 Mya, reptiles about 350 Mya, and mammals about 200 Mya. Each species has an equally long evolutionary history, but the brains of modern hagfishes, lampreys, sharks, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals show a gradient of size and complexity that roughly follows the evolutionary sequence. All of these brains contain the same set of basic anatomical components, but many are rudimentary in the hagfish, whereas in mammals the foremost part (the telencephalon) is greatly elaborated and expanded.

Question: How long ago did the first vertebrate organisms appear?


Answer: Cambrian period

Question: During which scientific period did vertebrates appear?


Answer: 450 Mya

Question: Sharks appeared at about how many Mya?


Answer: (the telencephalon

Question: The foremost part of the brain in mammals is known as what?


Answer: 200 Mya

Question: At how many mya did mammals first appear in time?


Answer: larger

Context: Brains are most simply compared in terms of their size. The relationship between brain size, body size and other variables has been studied across a wide range of vertebrate species. As a rule, brain size increases with body size, but not in a simple linear proportion. In general, smaller animals tend to have larger brains, measured as a fraction of body size. For mammals, the relationship between brain volume and body mass essentially follows a power law with an exponent of about 0.75. This formula describes the central tendency, but every family of mammals departs from it to some degree, in a way that reflects in part the complexity of their behavior. For example, primates have brains 5 to 10 times larger than the formula predicts. Predators tend to have larger brains than their prey, relative to body size.

Question: Do predators have larger or smaller brains compared to their prey?


Answer: 0.75

Question: In mammals, brain volume and body mass follows a power law with an exponent of what?


Answer: primates

Question: Which group of animals have brains 5-10 times larger than the formula predicts?


Answer: prosencephalon

Context: All vertebrate brains share a common underlying form, which appears most clearly during early stages of embryonic development. In its earliest form, the brain appears as three swellings at the front end of the neural tube; these swellings eventually become the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain (the prosencephalon, mesencephalon, and rhombencephalon, respectively). At the earliest stages of brain development, the three areas are roughly equal in size. In many classes of vertebrates, such as fish and amphibians, the three parts remain similar in size in the adult, but in mammals the forebrain becomes much larger than the other parts, and the midbrain becomes very small.

Question: The forebrain during development is known as what?


Answer: mesencephalon

Question: The midbrain during development is known as what?


Answer: rhombencephalon

Question: The hindbrain during development is known as what?


Answer: mammals

Question: Which group of animals does the forebrain grow the largest?


Answer: neural tube;

Question: During development, the brain is made up of three swellings at the front of what?


Answer: pinkish

Context: The brains of vertebrates are made of very soft tissue. Living brain tissue is pinkish on the outside and mostly white on the inside, with subtle variations in color. Vertebrate brains are surrounded by a system of connective tissue membranes called meninges that separate the skull from the brain. Blood vessels enter the central nervous system through holes in the meningeal layers. The cells in the blood vessel walls are joined tightly to one another, forming the blood–brain barrier, which blocks the passage of many toxins and pathogens (though at the same time blocking antibodies and some drugs, thereby presenting special challenges in treatment of diseases of the brain).

Question: Brain tissue that is living is what color on the outside?


Answer: white

Question: The color of the brain inside is what?


Answer: meninges

Question: Brains are surrounded by what system of tissues?


Answer: the skull

Question: Meninges separate what structure from the brain?


Answer: cells in the blood vessel walls

Question: The blood-brain barrier is made up of what?


Answer: Neuroanatomists

Context: Neuroanatomists usually divide the vertebrate brain into six main regions: the telencephalon (cerebral hemispheres), diencephalon (thalamus and hypothalamus), mesencephalon (midbrain), cerebellum, pons, and medulla oblongata. Each of these areas has a complex internal structure. Some parts, such as the cerebral cortex and the cerebellar cortex, consist of layers that are folded or convoluted to fit within the available space. Other parts, such as the thalamus and hypothalamus, consist of clusters of many small nuclei. Thousands of distinguishable areas can be identified within the vertebrate brain based on fine distinctions of neural structure, chemistry, and connectivity.

Question: People who study the anatomy of the central nervous system are known as what?


Answer: telencephalon

Question: The cerebral hemispheres of the brain are called what?


Answer: diencephalon

Question: The thalamus and hypothalamus comprise what region of the brain?


Answer: mesencephalon

Question: The midbrain region of the brain is known as what?


Answer: thalamus and hypothalamus

Question: Clusters of small nuclei comprise what parts of the brain?


Answer: teleost fishes

Context: Although the same basic components are present in all vertebrate brains, some branches of vertebrate evolution have led to substantial distortions of brain geometry, especially in the forebrain area. The brain of a shark shows the basic components in a straightforward way, but in teleost fishes (the great majority of existing fish species), the forebrain has become "everted", like a sock turned inside out. In birds, there are also major changes in forebrain structure. These distortions can make it difficult to match brain components from one species with those of another species.

Question: The forebrain is everted in what type of fishes?


Answer: forebrain area

Question: Which part of the brain has led to many distortions among different species?


Answer: twice as large

Context: The most obvious difference between the brains of mammals and other vertebrates is in terms of size. On average, a mammal has a brain roughly twice as large as that of a bird of the same body size, and ten times as large as that of a reptile of the same body size.

Question: A mammal's brain is how many times larger than a birds relative to body size?


Answer: ten times

Question: A mammal's brain is how many times larger than a reptiles relative to body size?


Answer: size.

Question: The biggest difference between brains of mammals and other vertebrates is what?


Answer: The cerebral cortex

Context: Size, however, is not the only difference: there are also substantial differences in shape. The hindbrain and midbrain of mammals are generally similar to those of other vertebrates, but dramatic differences appear in the forebrain, which is greatly enlarged and also altered in structure. The cerebral cortex is the part of the brain that most strongly distinguishes mammals. In non-mammalian vertebrates, the surface of the cerebrum is lined with a comparatively simple three-layered structure called the pallium. In mammals, the pallium evolves into a complex six-layered structure called neocortex or isocortex. Several areas at the edge of the neocortex, including the hippocampus and amygdala, are also much more extensively developed in mammals than in other vertebrates.

Question: What part of the brain most strongly differentiates mammals from other vertebrates?


Answer: pallium

Question: The three-layered structure covering the cerebrum in non-mammals is known as what?


Answer: neocortex or isocortex

Question: Mammals have a pallium that involved into what?


Answer: neocortex

Question: The hippocampus and amygdala are ares inside what structure?


Answer: visual

Context: The elaboration of the cerebral cortex carries with it changes to other brain areas. The superior colliculus, which plays a major role in visual control of behavior in most vertebrates, shrinks to a small size in mammals, and many of its functions are taken over by visual areas of the cerebral cortex. The cerebellum of mammals contains a large portion (the neocerebellum) dedicated to supporting the cerebral cortex, which has no counterpart in other vertebrates.

Question: The superior colliculus is related to what sensual control of vertebrates?


Answer: (the neocerebellum

Question: The larger part of the cerebellum in mammals is called what?


Answer: cerebral cortex

Question: The Neocerebellum supports what other part of the brain?


Answer: encephalization quotient (EQ)

Context: The brains of humans and other primates contain the same structures as the brains of other mammals, but are generally larger in proportion to body size. The most widely accepted way of comparing brain sizes across species is the so-called encephalization quotient (EQ), which takes into account the nonlinearity of the brain-to-body relationship. Humans have an average EQ in the 7-to-8 range, while most other primates have an EQ in the 2-to-3 range. Dolphins have values higher than those of primates other than humans, but nearly all other mammals have EQ values that are substantially lower.

Question: Comparing brain sizes among different creatures is used most commonly by what?


Answer: 7-to-8 range

Question: What is the average EQ of a person?


Answer: 2-to-3

Question: Primates have an EQ in what range?


Answer: 30

Context: Most of the enlargement of the primate brain comes from a massive expansion of the cerebral cortex, especially the prefrontal cortex and the parts of the cortex involved in vision. The visual processing network of primates includes at least 30 distinguishable brain areas, with a complex web of interconnections. It has been estimated that visual processing areas occupy more than half of the total surface of the primate neocortex. The prefrontal cortex carries out functions that include planning, working memory, motivation, attention, and executive control. It takes up a much larger proportion of the brain for primates than for other species, and an especially large fraction of the human brain.

Question: Primates have a visual processing network of how many brain areas?


Answer: more than half

Question: The visual processing areas occupy how much of the surface of the neocortex or primates?


Answer: prefrontal cortex

Question: Planning, motivation, and attention are controlled by what area?


Answer: primates

Question: The prefrontal cortex is the largest in what animals?


Answer: the neural plate

Context: For vertebrates, the early stages of neural development are similar across all species. As the embryo transforms from a round blob of cells into a wormlike structure, a narrow strip of ectoderm running along the midline of the back is induced to become the neural plate, the precursor of the nervous system. The neural plate folds inward to form the neural groove, and then the lips that line the groove merge to enclose the neural tube, a hollow cord of cells with a fluid-filled ventricle at the center. At the front end, the ventricles and cord swell to form three vesicles that are the precursors of the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. At the next stage, the forebrain splits into two vesicles called the telencephalon (which will contain the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and related structures) and the diencephalon (which will contain the thalamus and hypothalamus). At about the same time, the hindbrain splits into the metencephalon (which will contain the cerebellum and pons) and the myelencephalon (which will contain the medulla oblongata). Each of these areas contains proliferative zones where neurons and glial cells are generated; the resulting cells then migrate, sometimes for long distances, to their final positions.

Question: The precursor of the nervous system is called what in vertebrates?


Answer: fluid-filled ventricle

Question: The neural groove is a hollow cord of cells with what in the center?


Answer: telencephalon (which will contain the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and related structures) and the diencephalon

Question: The forebrain splits during development into vesicles called what?


Answer: telencephalon

Question: The vesicle that contains the cerebral cortex is which one?


Answer: the diencephalon

Question: The thalamus and hypothalamus are contained in which vesicle?


Answer: protoplasm

Context: Once a neuron is in place, it extends dendrites and an axon into the area around it. Axons, because they commonly extend a great distance from the cell body and need to reach specific targets, grow in a particularly complex way. The tip of a growing axon consists of a blob of protoplasm called a growth cone, studded with chemical receptors. These receptors sense the local environment, causing the growth cone to be attracted or repelled by various cellular elements, and thus to be pulled in a particular direction at each point along its path. The result of this pathfinding process is that the growth cone navigates through the brain until it reaches its destination area, where other chemical cues cause it to begin generating synapses. Considering the entire brain, thousands of genes create products that influence axonal pathfinding.

Question: A growth cone of an axon is made up of a blob of what?


Answer: dendrites and an axon

Question: What two structures does a neuron extend when it is in place during development?


Answer: neurons

Context: In humans and many other mammals, new neurons are created mainly before birth, and the infant brain contains substantially more neurons than the adult brain. There are, however, a few areas where new neurons continue to be generated throughout life. The two areas for which adult neurogenesis is well established are the olfactory bulb, which is involved in the sense of smell, and the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, where there is evidence that the new neurons play a role in storing newly acquired memories. With these exceptions, however, the set of neurons that is present in early childhood is the set that is present for life. Glial cells are different: as with most types of cells in the body, they are generated throughout the lifespan.

Question: The infant brain contains more of what type of cells in the brain than the adult brain?


Answer: sense of smell

Question: The olfactory bulb is related to what sense?


Answer: dentate gyrus of the hippocampus

Question: What area of the hippocampus plays a role in storing new memories?


Answer: Glial cells

Question: Which type of cells in the brain are generated throughout your lifetime?


Answer: neurons continue to be generated throughout life

Question: Neurogenesis is the process of what?


Answer: neurotransmitters and receptors that take place at synapses

Context: The functions of the brain depend on the ability of neurons to transmit electrochemical signals to other cells, and their ability to respond appropriately to electrochemical signals received from other cells. The electrical properties of neurons are controlled by a wide variety of biochemical and metabolic processes, most notably the interactions between neurotransmitters and receptors that take place at synapses.

Question: The electrical properties of neurons are controlled by what?


Answer: electrochemical

Question: What type of signals do neurons transfer from one another?


Answer: synapses

Context: Neurotransmitters are chemicals that are released at synapses when an action potential activates them—neurotransmitters attach themselves to receptor molecules on the membrane of the synapse's target cell, and thereby alter the electrical or chemical properties of the receptor molecules. With few exceptions, each neuron in the brain releases the same chemical neurotransmitter, or combination of neurotransmitters, at all the synaptic connections it makes with other neurons; this rule is known as Dale's principle. Thus, a neuron can be characterized by the neurotransmitters that it releases. The great majority of psychoactive drugs exert their effects by altering specific neurotransmitter systems. This applies to drugs such as cannabinoids, nicotine, heroin, cocaine, alcohol, fluoxetine, chlorpromazine, and many others.

Question: Chemicals called neurotransmitters are released at what part of the brain?


Answer: receptor molecules on the membrane of the synapse's target cell

Question: What do neurotransmitters attach to?


Answer: Dale's principle

Question: Neurons that release the same chemicals are following what rule?


Answer: gamma-aminobutyric acid

Context: The two neurotransmitters that are used most widely in the vertebrate brain are glutamate, which almost always exerts excitatory effects on target neurons, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which is almost always inhibitory. Neurons using these transmitters can be found in nearly every part of the brain. Because of their ubiquity, drugs that act on glutamate or GABA tend to have broad and powerful effects. Some general anesthetics act by reducing the effects of glutamate; most tranquilizers exert their sedative effects by enhancing the effects of GABA.

Question: GABA is the abbreviation for what?


Answer: gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

Question: Which of two neurotransmitters is usually inhibitory?


Answer: glutamate,

Question: The neurostransmitter that usually excites targets is called what?


Answer: gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

Question: Tranquilizers affect which of the two common neurotransmitters?


Answer: Raphe nuclei

Context: There are dozens of other chemical neurotransmitters that are used in more limited areas of the brain, often areas dedicated to a particular function. Serotonin, for example—the primary target of antidepressant drugs and many dietary aids—comes exclusively from a small brainstem area called the Raphe nuclei. Norepinephrine, which is involved in arousal, comes exclusively from a nearby small area called the locus coeruleus. Other neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine and dopamine have multiple sources in the brain, but are not as ubiquitously distributed as glutamate and GABA.

Question: Serotonin comes from what part of the brain?


Answer: Serotonin

Question: Antidepressants typically affect what chemical of the brain?


Answer: Norepinephrine

Question: Which chemical of the brain is involved with arousal?


Answer: locus coeruleus

Question: Norepinephrine comes from an area of the brain known as what?


Answer: electroencephalography

Context: As a side effect of the electrochemical processes used by neurons for signaling, brain tissue generates electric fields when it is active. When large numbers of neurons show synchronized activity, the electric fields that they generate can be large enough to detect outside the skull, using electroencephalography (EEG) or magnetoencephalography (MEG). EEG recordings, along with recordings made from electrodes implanted inside the brains of animals such as rats, show that the brain of a living animal is constantly active, even during sleep. Each part of the brain shows a mixture of rhythmic and nonrhythmic activity, which may vary according to behavioral state. In mammals, the cerebral cortex tends to show large slow delta waves during sleep, faster alpha waves when the animal is awake but inattentive, and chaotic-looking irregular activity when the animal is actively engaged in a task. During an epileptic seizure, the brain's inhibitory control mechanisms fail to function and electrical activity rises to pathological levels, producing EEG traces that show large wave and spike patterns not seen in a healthy brain. Relating these population-level patterns to the computational functions of individual neurons is a major focus of current research in neurophysiology.

Question: An EEG of the brain stands for what?


Answer: magnetoencephalography

Question: MEG of the brain is an abbreviation of what?


Answer: EEG

Question: What type of test is used to tell that a brain is active even during sleep?


Answer: large slow delta waves

Question: What type of brain waves are seen in mammals during sleep?


Answer: faster alpha waves

Question: What type of brain waves are sen when a creature is awake, but inattentive?


Answer: Glial cells

Context: All vertebrates have a blood–brain barrier that allows metabolism inside the brain to operate differently from metabolism in other parts of the body. Glial cells play a major role in brain metabolism by controlling the chemical composition of the fluid that surrounds neurons, including levels of ions and nutrients.

Question: What type of cells have a huge role in brain metabolism?


Answer: chemical composition of the fluid that surrounds neurons

Question: Glial cells control what inside the brain?


Answer: glucose (i.e., blood sugar

Context: Brain tissue consumes a large amount of energy in proportion to its volume, so large brains place severe metabolic demands on animals. The need to limit body weight in order, for example, to fly, has apparently led to selection for a reduction of brain size in some species, such as bats. Most of the brain's energy consumption goes into sustaining the electric charge (membrane potential) of neurons. Most vertebrate species devote between 2% and 8% of basal metabolism to the brain. In primates, however, the percentage is much higher—in humans it rises to 20–25%. The energy consumption of the brain does not vary greatly over time, but active regions of the cerebral cortex consume somewhat more energy than inactive regions; this forms the basis for the functional brain imaging methods PET, fMRI, and NIRS. The brain typically gets most of its energy from oxygen-dependent metabolism of glucose (i.e., blood sugar), but ketones provide a major alternative source, together with contributions from medium chain fatty acids (caprylic and heptanoic acids), lactate, acetate, and possibly amino acids.

Question: Where does the brain usually get most of its energy from inside the body?


Answer: 20–25%

Question: The energy used for metabolism of the brain in humans is what percentage?


Answer: ketones

Question: Other sources than glucose that provide energy to the brain are what?


Answer: 2% and 8%

Question: Most vertebrates usually devote how much metabolism to the brain?


Answer: provide coherent control over the actions of an animal

Context: From an evolutionary-biological perspective, the function of the brain is to provide coherent control over the actions of an animal. A centralized brain allows groups of muscles to be co-activated in complex patterns; it also allows stimuli impinging on one part of the body to evoke responses in other parts, and it can prevent different parts of the body from acting at cross-purposes to each other.

Question: The function of the brain from an evolutionary-biological thought is what?


Answer: 1940s

Context: The invention of electronic computers in the 1940s, along with the development of mathematical information theory, led to a realization that brains can potentially be understood as information processing systems. This concept formed the basis of the field of cybernetics, and eventually gave rise to the field now known as computational neuroscience. The earliest attempts at cybernetics were somewhat crude in that they treated the brain as essentially a digital computer in disguise, as for example in John von Neumann's 1958 book, The Computer and the Brain. Over the years, though, accumulating information about the electrical responses of brain cells recorded from behaving animals has steadily moved theoretical concepts in the direction of increasing realism.

Question: Computers were invented in what decade in history?


Answer: cybernetics

Question: Neuroscience spawned from what field of science in history?


Answer: John von Neumann's

Question: Who wrote the book, The Computer and the Brain?


Answer: 1958

Question: When was John von Neumann's book, The Computer and the Brain published?


Answer: 1959

Context: The essence of the information processing approach is to try to understand brain function in terms of information flow and implementation of algorithms. One of the most influential early contributions was a 1959 paper titled What the frog's eye tells the frog's brain: the paper examined the visual responses of neurons in the retina and optic tectum of frogs, and came to the conclusion that some neurons in the tectum of the frog are wired to combine elementary responses in a way that makes them function as "bug perceivers". A few years later David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel discovered cells in the primary visual cortex of monkeys that become active when sharp edges move across specific points in the field of view—a discovery for which they won a Nobel Prize. Follow-up studies in higher-order visual areas found cells that detect binocular disparity, color, movement, and aspects of shape, with areas located at increasing distances from the primary visual cortex showing increasingly complex responses. Other investigations of brain areas unrelated to vision have revealed cells with a wide variety of response correlates, some related to memory, some to abstract types of cognition such as space.

Question: The scientific paper, What the frog's eye tells the frog's brain was released in what year?


Answer: David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel

Question: Who won a Nobel Prize for the discovery that cells in the visual cortex of monkeys become active when sharp edges move?


Answer: the Human Brain Project

Context: Furthermore, even single neurons appear to be complex and capable of performing computations. So, brain models that don't reflect this are arguably too abstractive to be representative of brain operation; models that do try to capture this are very computationally expensive and arguably intractable with present computational resources. However, having said this, the Human Brain Project is trying to build a realistic, detailed computational model of the entire human brain. It remains to be seen what level of success they can achieve in the time frame of the project and the wisdom of it has been publicly contested, with high-profile scientists on both sides of the argument.

Question: What is the project called that is trying to build a realistic, detailed computer model of the human brain?


Answer: bats

Context: One of the primary functions of a brain is to extract biologically relevant information from sensory inputs. The human brain is provided with information about light, sound, the chemical composition of the atmosphere, temperature, head orientation, limb position, the chemical composition of the bloodstream, and more. In other animals additional senses may be present, such as the infrared heat-sense of snakes, the magnetic field sense of some birds, or the electric field sense of some types of fish. Moreover, other animals may develop existing sensory systems in new ways, such as the adaptation by bats of the auditory sense into a form of sonar. One way or another, all of these sensory modalities are initially detected by specialized sensors that project signals into the brain.

Question: What type of animal has a sense that adapted into sonar?


Answer: snakes

Question: What type of animal uses infrared heat to sense?


Answer: birds

Question: The group of animals that can detect magnetic fields is what?


Answer: fish

Question: The group of creatures that can sense electric fields is what?


Answer: retina

Context: Each sensory system begins with specialized receptor cells, such as light-receptive neurons in the retina of the eye, vibration-sensitive neurons in the cochlea of the ear, or pressure-sensitive neurons in the skin. The axons of sensory receptor cells travel into the spinal cord or brain, where they transmit their signals to a first-order sensory nucleus dedicated to one specific sensory modality. This primary sensory nucleus sends information to higher-order sensory areas that are dedicated to the same modality. Eventually, via a way-station in the thalamus, the signals are sent to the cerebral cortex, where they are processed to extract biologically relevant features, and integrated with signals coming from other sensory systems.

Question: Light-receptive neurons are located in what part of the eye?


Answer: cochlea

Question: Vibration-sensitive neurons are found in what part of the ear?


Answer: cerebral cortex

Question: Signals are sent from the thalamus to what part of the brain?


Answer: the eye,

Context: Motor systems are areas of the brain that are directly or indirectly involved in producing body movements, that is, in activating muscles. Except for the muscles that control the eye, which are driven by nuclei in the midbrain, all the voluntary muscles in the body are directly innervated by motor neurons in the spinal cord and hindbrain. Spinal motor neurons are controlled both by neural circuits intrinsic to the spinal cord, and by inputs that descend from the brain. The intrinsic spinal circuits implement many reflex responses, and contain pattern generators for rhythmic movements such as walking or swimming. The descending connections from the brain allow for more sophisticated control.

Question: What part of the body is controlled by nuclei in the midbrain?


Answer: spinal cord and hindbrain

Question: All the muscles controlled by motor neurons in the body are controlled by what?


Answer: the medulla and pons,

Context: The brain contains several motor areas that project directly to the spinal cord. At the lowest level are motor areas in the medulla and pons, which control stereotyped movements such as walking, breathing, or swallowing. At a higher level are areas in the midbrain, such as the red nucleus, which is responsible for coordinating movements of the arms and legs. At a higher level yet is the primary motor cortex, a strip of tissue located at the posterior edge of the frontal lobe. The primary motor cortex sends projections to the subcortical motor areas, but also sends a massive projection directly to the spinal cord, through the pyramidal tract. This direct corticospinal projection allows for precise voluntary control of the fine details of movements. Other motor-related brain areas exert secondary effects by projecting to the primary motor areas. Among the most important secondary areas are the premotor cortex, basal ganglia, and cerebellum.

Question: Which motor areas of the brain control breathing and swallowing?


Answer: the medulla and pons

Question: At the lowest level of the brain and spinal cord, are what areas?


Answer: coordinating movements of the arms and legs

Question: The red nucleus controls what part(s) of the body?


Answer: primary motor cortex

Question: A strip of tissue found at the edge of the frontal lobe is called what?


Answer: pyramidal tract.

Question: The primary motor cortex sends signals to the spinal cord through what?


Answer: autonomic nervous system

Context: In addition to all of the above, the brain and spinal cord contain extensive circuitry to control the autonomic nervous system, which works by secreting hormones and by modulating the "smooth" muscles of the gut. The autonomic nervous system affects heart rate, digestion, respiration rate, salivation, perspiration, urination, and sexual arousal, and several other processes. Most of its functions are not under direct voluntary control.

Question: The brain and spinal cord work together to control what system of the body?


Answer: autonomic nervous system

Question: What system in the body controls heart rate?


Answer: autonomic nervous system

Question: What system in the body controls salivation?


Answer: not under direct voluntary control

Question: Most of the processes of the autonomic nervous system are called what?


Answer: The autonomic nervous system

Question: Which system in the body controls urination?


Answer: suprachiasmatic nucleus

Context: A key component of the arousal system is the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), a tiny part of the hypothalamus located directly above the point at which the optic nerves from the two eyes cross. The SCN contains the body's central biological clock. Neurons there show activity levels that rise and fall with a period of about 24 hours, circadian rhythms: these activity fluctuations are driven by rhythmic changes in expression of a set of "clock genes". The SCN continues to keep time even if it is excised from the brain and placed in a dish of warm nutrient solution, but it ordinarily receives input from the optic nerves, through the retinohypothalamic tract (RHT), that allows daily light-dark cycles to calibrate the clock.

Question: The SCN of the nervous system is an abbreviation for what?


Answer: the hypothalamus

Question: The suprachiasmatic nucleus is a small part of what part of the brain?


Answer: the suprachiasmatic nucleus

Question: Which part of the arousal system controls the body's biological clock?


Answer: retinohypothalamic tract

Question: The RHT is an abbreviation for what?


Answer: the retinohypothalamic tract (RHT

Question: THE SCN receives information from the optic nerves through what?


Answer: the reticular formation

Context: The SCN projects to a set of areas in the hypothalamus, brainstem, and midbrain that are involved in implementing sleep-wake cycles. An important component of the system is the reticular formation, a group of neuron-clusters scattered diffusely through the core of the lower brain. Reticular neurons send signals to the thalamus, which in turn sends activity-level-controlling signals to every part of the cortex. Damage to the reticular formation can produce a permanent state of coma.

Question: A group of neuron-clusters scattered in the core of the lower brain is called what?


Answer: the thalamus

Question: Reticular neurons transfer signals to what part of the brain?


Answer: state of coma

Question: Damage to the reticular formation can cause what?


Answer: sleep-wake cycles.

Question: The SCN transfers signals to a set of areas that implement what?


Answer: REM sleep (with dreaming) and NREM

Context: Sleep involves great changes in brain activity. Until the 1950s it was generally believed that the brain essentially shuts off during sleep, but this is now known to be far from true; activity continues, but patterns become very different. There are two types of sleep: REM sleep (with dreaming) and NREM (non-REM, usually without dreaming) sleep, which repeat in slightly varying patterns throughout a sleep episode. Three broad types of distinct brain activity patterns can be measured: REM, light NREM and deep NREM. During deep NREM sleep, also called slow wave sleep, activity in the cortex takes the form of large synchronized waves, whereas in the waking state it is noisy and desynchronized. Levels of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin drop during slow wave sleep, and fall almost to zero during REM sleep; levels of acetylcholine show the reverse pattern.

Question: There are two types of sleep called what?


Answer: REM sleep

Question: What type of sleep involves dreaming?


Answer: REM, light NREM and deep NREM

Question: The three types of brain activity that can be measured are what?


Answer: deep NREM sleep

Question: Slow wave sleep is also known as what?


Answer: slow wave sleep

Question: During what stage of sleep do serotonin and norepinephrine levels drop?


Answer: The ability of an animal to regulate the internal environment of its body

Context: For any animal, survival requires maintaining a variety of parameters of bodily state within a limited range of variation: these include temperature, water content, salt concentration in the bloodstream, blood glucose levels, blood oxygen level, and others. The ability of an animal to regulate the internal environment of its body—the milieu intérieur, as pioneering physiologist Claude Bernard called it—is known as homeostasis (Greek for "standing still"). Maintaining homeostasis is a crucial function of the brain. The basic principle that underlies homeostasis is negative feedback: any time a parameter diverges from its set-point, sensors generate an error signal that evokes a response that causes the parameter to shift back toward its optimum value. (This principle is widely used in engineering, for example in the control of temperature using a thermostat.)

Question: Homeostasis is defined as what?


Answer: "standing still"

Question: Homeostasis is Greek for what phrase?


Answer: Claude Bernard

Question: The milieu interieur term was used by what physiologist?


Answer: a thermostat.

Question: Homeostasis is like what household tool?


Answer: the forebrain

Context: In vertebrates, the part of the brain that plays the greatest role is the hypothalamus, a small region at the base of the forebrain whose size does not reflect its complexity or the importance of its function. The hypothalamus is a collection of small nuclei, most of which are involved in basic biological functions. Some of these functions relate to arousal or to social interactions such as sexuality, aggression, or maternal behaviors; but many of them relate to homeostasis. Several hypothalamic nuclei receive input from sensors located in the lining of blood vessels, conveying information about temperature, sodium level, glucose level, blood oxygen level, and other parameters. These hypothalamic nuclei send output signals to motor areas that can generate actions to rectify deficiencies. Some of the outputs also go to the pituitary gland, a tiny gland attached to the brain directly underneath the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland secretes hormones into the bloodstream, where they circulate throughout the body and induce changes in cellular activity.

Question: The hypothalamus is located at the base of what?


Answer: the hypothalamus,

Question: In vertebrates, the most important part of the brain is what?


Answer: the hypothalamus,

Question: A collection of small nuclei at the base of the forebrain is called what?


Answer: the pituitary gland

Question: The gland directly underneath the hypothalamus is which gland?


Answer: the bloodstream

Question: The pituitary gland sends hormones through what in the body?


Answer: basal ganglia

Context: Most organisms studied to date utilize a reward–punishment mechanism: for instance, worms and insects can alter their behavior to seek food sources or to avoid dangers. In vertebrates, the reward-punishment system is implemented by a specific set of brain structures, at the heart of which lie the basal ganglia, a set of interconnected areas at the base of the forebrain. There is substantial evidence that the basal ganglia are the central site at which decisions are made: the basal ganglia exert a sustained inhibitory control over most of the motor systems in the brain; when this inhibition is released, a motor system is permitted to execute the action it is programmed to carry out. Rewards and punishments function by altering the relationship between the inputs that the basal ganglia receive and the decision-signals that are emitted. The reward mechanism is better understood than the punishment mechanism, because its role in drug abuse has caused it to be studied very intensively. Research has shown that the neurotransmitter dopamine plays a central role: addictive drugs such as cocaine, amphetamine, and nicotine either cause dopamine levels to rise or cause the effects of dopamine inside the brain to be enhanced.

Question: A set of interconnected areas at the base of the forebrain is called what?


Answer: decisions

Question: The basal ganglia is thought to be the central location at which what are made?


Answer: dopamine

Question: Which neurotransmitter plays a large role in drug abuse?


Answer: The reward mechanism

Question: Which of the two systems, reward or punishment is better understood?


Answer: 1971

Context: Almost all animals are capable of modifying their behavior as a result of experience—even the most primitive types of worms. Because behavior is driven by brain activity, changes in behavior must somehow correspond to changes inside the brain. Theorists dating back to Santiago Ramón y Cajal argued that the most plausible explanation is that learning and memory are expressed as changes in the synaptic connections between neurons. Until 1970, however, experimental evidence to support the synaptic plasticity hypothesis was lacking. In 1971 Tim Bliss and Terje Lømo published a paper on a phenomenon now called long-term potentiation: the paper showed clear evidence of activity-induced synaptic changes that lasted for at least several days. Since then technical advances have made these sorts of experiments much easier to carry out, and thousands of studies have been made that have clarified the mechanism of synaptic change, and uncovered other types of activity-driven synaptic change in a variety of brain areas, including the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, basal ganglia, and cerebellum. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and physical activity appear to play a beneficial role in the process.

Question: In what year did Tim Bliss and Terje Lomo publish a paper about long-term potentiation?


Answer: Brain-derived neurotrophic factor

Question: BDNF is an abbreviation for what term?


Answer: Santiago Ramón y Cajal

Question: Learning and memory expressed as changes in the synaptic connections was first theorized by whom?


Answer: neuroscience

Context: The field of neuroscience encompasses all approaches that seek to understand the brain and the rest of the nervous system. Psychology seeks to understand mind and behavior, and neurology is the medical discipline that diagnoses and treats diseases of the nervous system. The brain is also the most important organ studied in psychiatry, the branch of medicine that works to study, prevent, and treat mental disorders. Cognitive science seeks to unify neuroscience and psychology with other fields that concern themselves with the brain, such as computer science (artificial intelligence and similar fields) and philosophy.

Question: What field of science studies the brain and the central nervous system?


Answer: Psychology

Question: What scientific field tries to understand the mind and behavior?


Answer: neurology

Question: What field of science strives to diagnose and treat diseases of the nervous system?


Answer: study, prevent, and treat mental disorders

Question: Psychiatry is the branch of science that does what?


Answer: neuroscience and psychology

Question: Cognitive science seeks to join what two branches of science with other fields?


Answer: anatomical,

Context: The oldest method of studying the brain is anatomical, and until the middle of the 20th century, much of the progress in neuroscience came from the development of better cell stains and better microscopes. Neuroanatomists study the large-scale structure of the brain as well as the microscopic structure of neurons and their components, especially synapses. Among other tools, they employ a plethora of stains that reveal neural structure, chemistry, and connectivity. In recent years, the development of immunostaining techniques has allowed investigation of neurons that express specific sets of genes. Also, functional neuroanatomy uses medical imaging techniques to correlate variations in human brain structure with differences in cognition or behavior.

Question: The oldest known method of studying the brain is what?


Answer: the large-scale structure of the brain

Question: What do neuroanatomists study?


Answer: neuroanatomy

Question: What type of study uses medical imaging techniques to correlate changes in brain structure?


Answer: the middle of the 20th century,

Question: Until what century was brain studying mostly anatomical?


Answer: the chemical, pharmacological, and electrical properties of the brain

Context: Neurophysiologists study the chemical, pharmacological, and electrical properties of the brain: their primary tools are drugs and recording devices. Thousands of experimentally developed drugs affect the nervous system, some in highly specific ways. Recordings of brain activity can be made using electrodes, either glued to the scalp as in EEG studies, or implanted inside the brains of animals for extracellular recordings, which can detect action potentials generated by individual neurons. Because the brain does not contain pain receptors, it is possible using these techniques to record brain activity from animals that are awake and behaving without causing distress. The same techniques have occasionally been used to study brain activity in human patients suffering from intractable epilepsy, in cases where there was a medical necessity to implant electrodes to localize the brain area responsible for epileptic seizures. Functional imaging techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging are also used to study brain activity; these techniques have mainly been used with human subjects, because they require a conscious subject to remain motionless for long periods of time, but they have the great advantage of being noninvasive.

Question: What do neurophysiologists study?


Answer: drugs and recording devices

Question: The most common tools that neurophysiologists use are what?


Answer: pain receptors

Question: What type of receptors does the brain lack?


Answer: the scalp

Question: Electrodes are often glued to what like in EEG studies?


Answer: cerebrospinal fluid

Context: Another approach to brain function is to examine the consequences of damage to specific brain areas. Even though it is protected by the skull and meninges, surrounded by cerebrospinal fluid, and isolated from the bloodstream by the blood–brain barrier, the delicate nature of the brain makes it vulnerable to numerous diseases and several types of damage. In humans, the effects of strokes and other types of brain damage have been a key source of information about brain function. Because there is no ability to experimentally control the nature of the damage, however, this information is often difficult to interpret. In animal studies, most commonly involving rats, it is possible to use electrodes or locally injected chemicals to produce precise patterns of damage and then examine the consequences for behavior.

Question: The brain is surrounded by what type of fluid?


Answer: the blood–brain barrier

Question: The brain is separated from the bloodstream by what feature?


Answer: the skull and meninges

Question: The two main structures that protect the brain are what?


Answer: strokes

Question: What type of disease if often studied to understand damage to the brain?


Answer: rats

Question: What type of animal is most commonly used to study brain damage?


Answer: the use of computers to study the brain; second, the study of how brains perform computation.

Context: Computational neuroscience encompasses two approaches: first, the use of computers to study the brain; second, the study of how brains perform computation. On one hand, it is possible to write a computer program to simulate the operation of a group of neurons by making use of systems of equations that describe their electrochemical activity; such simulations are known as biologically realistic neural networks. On the other hand, it is possible to study algorithms for neural computation by simulating, or mathematically analyzing, the operations of simplified "units" that have some of the properties of neurons but abstract out much of their biological complexity. The computational functions of the brain are studied both by computer scientists and neuroscientists.

Question: Computational neuroscience is concerned with what two studies?


Answer: mice

Context: Recent years have seen increasing applications of genetic and genomic techniques to the study of the brain and a focus on the roles of neurotrophic factors and physical activity in neuroplasticity. The most common subjects are mice, because of the availability of technical tools. It is now possible with relative ease to "knock out" or mutate a wide variety of genes, and then examine the effects on brain function. More sophisticated approaches are also being used: for example, using Cre-Lox recombination it is possible to activate or deactivate genes in specific parts of the brain, at specific times.

Question: What is the most common test subjects for studying of the brain?


Answer: Armenia

Context: The oldest brain to have been discovered was in Armenia in the Areni-1 cave complex. The brain, estimated to be over 5,000 years old, was found in the skull of a 12 to 14-year-old girl. Although the brains were shriveled, they were well preserved due to the climate found inside the cave.

Question: Where was the oldest brain that was found?


Answer: over 5,000 years old

Question: How old was the oldest brain discovered thought to be?


Answer: 12 to 14-year-old

Question: The oldest known brain discovered was found in how old of a person?


Answer: girl

Question: The oldest brain found in a cave was from what gender of human?


Answer: brain or heart.

Context: Early philosophers were divided as to whether the seat of the soul lies in the brain or heart. Aristotle favored the heart, and thought that the function of the brain was merely to cool the blood. Democritus, the inventor of the atomic theory of matter, argued for a three-part soul, with intellect in the head, emotion in the heart, and lust near the liver. Hippocrates, the "father of medicine", came down unequivocally in favor of the brain. In his treatise on epilepsy he wrote:

Question: The seal of the soul was debated to lie in what two organs of the body?


Answer: the heart

Question: Aristotle thought the soul lied in what organ?


Answer: Democritus,

Question: Who invented the atomic theory of matter?


Answer: Hippocrates

Question: The "father of medicine" is a name given to whom in history?


Answer: Democritus

Question: What philosopher in history argued for a three-part soul?


Answer: Roman

Context: The Roman physician Galen also argued for the importance of the brain, and theorized in some depth about how it might work. Galen traced out the anatomical relationships among brain, nerves, and muscles, demonstrating that all muscles in the body are connected to the brain through a branching network of nerves. He postulated that nerves activate muscles mechanically by carrying a mysterious substance he called pneumata psychikon, usually translated as "animal spirits". Galen's ideas were widely known during the Middle Ages, but not much further progress came until the Renaissance, when detailed anatomical study resumed, combined with the theoretical speculations of René Descartes and those who followed him. Descartes, like Galen, thought of the nervous system in hydraulic terms. He believed that the highest cognitive functions are carried out by a non-physical res cogitans, but that the majority of behaviors of humans, and all behaviors of animals, could be explained mechanistically.

Question: The physician Galen was from which country in history?


Answer: the Renaissance

Question: What period in history was anatomical studies of nerves greatly increased?


Answer: The Roman physician Galen

Question: Who coined the term pneumata psychikon?


Answer: animal spirits

Question: Penumata psychikon is usually translated as what?


Answer: Luigi Galvani

Context: The first real progress toward a modern understanding of nervous function, though, came from the investigations of Luigi Galvani, who discovered that a shock of static electricity applied to an exposed nerve of a dead frog could cause its leg to contract. Since that time, each major advance in understanding has followed more or less directly from the development of a new technique of investigation. Until the early years of the 20th century, the most important advances were derived from new methods for staining cells. Particularly critical was the invention of the Golgi stain, which (when correctly used) stains only a small fraction of neurons, but stains them in their entirety, including cell body, dendrites, and axon. Without such a stain, brain tissue under a microscope appears as an impenetrable tangle of protoplasmic fibers, in which it is impossible to determine any structure. In the hands of Camillo Golgi, and especially of the Spanish neuroanatomist Santiago Ramón y Cajal, the new stain revealed hundreds of distinct types of neurons, each with its own unique dendritic structure and pattern of connectivity.

Question: Who found out that a shock of electricity to an exposed nerve of a dead frog caused contractions?


Answer: the Golgi stain

Question: The tool that was invented to stain only a small fractions of neurons was called what?


Answer: Spanish

Question: What nationality was santiago Ramon y Cajal?


Answer: Alan Hodgkin, Andrew Huxley

Context: In the first half of the 20th century, advances in electronics enabled investigation of the electrical properties of nerve cells, culminating in work by Alan Hodgkin, Andrew Huxley, and others on the biophysics of the action potential, and the work of Bernard Katz and others on the electrochemistry of the synapse. These studies complemented the anatomical picture with a conception of the brain as a dynamic entity. Reflecting the new understanding, in 1942 Charles Sherrington visualized the workings of the brain waking from sleep:

Question: Work in the first half the 20th century in electrical properties of nerve cells were by what two main scientists?


Answer: the 1990s

Context: In the second half of the 20th century, developments in chemistry, electron microscopy, genetics, computer science, functional brain imaging, and other fields progressively opened new windows into brain structure and function. In the United States, the 1990s were officially designated as the "Decade of the Brain" to commemorate advances made in brain research, and to promote funding for such research.

Question: Which decade in history was officially called the "Decade of the Brain"?


Answer: the activity of many brain cells to be recorded all at the same time;

Context: In the 21st century, these trends have continued, and several new approaches have come into prominence, including multielectrode recording, which allows the activity of many brain cells to be recorded all at the same time; genetic engineering, which allows molecular components of the brain to be altered experimentally; genomics, which allows variations in brain structure to be correlated with variations in DNA properties and neuroimaging.

Question: Multielectrode recording allows what?


Answer: molecular components of the brain to be altered experimentally;

Question: Genetic engineering allows what?


Answer: variations in brain structure to be correlated with variations in DNA properties and neuroimaging.

Question: What does genomics allow the study of?


Answer: the 21st century,

Question: During what century was multielectrode recording invented?


Answer: the 21st century,

Question: Genetic engineering was first discovered in what century?


Answer: Near East (French: Proche-Orient)

Context: Near East (French: Proche-Orient) is a geographical term that roughly encompasses Western Asia. Despite having varying definitions within different academic circles, the term was originally applied to the maximum extent of the Ottoman Empire. The term has fallen into disuse in English, and has been replaced by the term Middle East.

Question: What is a geographical term that roughly encompasses Western Asia?


Answer: Ottoman Empire

Question: The term near east was originally applies to the maximum extent of what empire?


Answer: English

Question: The term Near East has fallen into disuses in what language?


Answer: Middle East

Question: What has replaced the term Near East?


Answer: The Encyclopædia Britannica

Context: The Encyclopædia Britannica defines the Near East as including Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Cyprus, Egypt, Georgia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Turkey, the United Arab Emirates, the West Bank, and Yemen. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations defines the region similarly, but also includes Afghanistan while excluding the countries of North Africa and the Palestinian territories. According to the National Geographic Society, the terms Near East and Middle East denote the same territories and are 'generally accepted as comprising the countries of the Arabian Peninsula, Cyprus, Egypt, Iraq, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestinian territories, Syria, and Turkey'.

Question: Who defines the Near East as including Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Cyprus, Egypt. Georgia, Iran, Iraq, Isreal, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Turkey, the United Arab Emirates, the West Bank, and Yemen?


Answer: Afghanistan

Question: The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations also includes what Country in the definition of Near East?


Answer: the National Geographic Society

Question: What group believes the terms Near East and Middle East denote the same territories?


Answer: the Ottoman Empire

Context: At the beginning of the 19th century the Ottoman Empire included all of the Balkan Peninsula north to the southern edge of the Hungarian Plain, but by 1914 had lost all of it except Constantinople and Eastern Thrace to the rise of Balkan nationalism, which saw the independence of Greece, Serbia, the Danubian Principalities and Bulgaria. Up until 1912 the Ottomans retained a band of territory including Albania, Macedonia and Thrace, which were lost in the two Balkan Wars of 1912–13.

Question: What empire included all of the Balkan Peninsula north to the southern edge of the Hungarian Plain at the beginning of the 19th century?


Answer: 1914

Question: When did the Ottoman Empire lose all of it's empire except Constantinople and Eastern Thrace?


Answer: the rise of Balkan nationalism

Question: The rise of what saw the independence of Greece, Serbia, the Danubian Principalities and Bulgaria?


Answer: 1912

Question: Until what year did the Ottomans retain a band of territory including Albania, Macedonia and Thrace?


Answer: the two Balkan Wars of 1912–13

Question: When did the Ottomans lose the territory of Albania, Macedonia and Thrace?