Answer: a grazing pastures in the alpine regions below the glaciers, not the peaks

Context: In modern languages the term alp, alm, albe or alpe refers to a grazing pastures in the alpine regions below the glaciers, not the peaks. An alp refers to a high mountain pasture where cows are taken to be grazed during the summer months and where hay barns can be found, and the term "the Alps", referring to the mountains, is a misnomer. The term for the mountain peaks varies by nation and language: words such as horn, kogel, gipfel, spitz, and berg are used in German speaking regions: mont, pic, dent and aiguille in French speaking regions; and monte, picco or cima in Italian speaking regions.

Question: The term alp, alm, albe or alpe refers to what in modern languages?


Answer: An alp

Question: What refers to a high mountain pasture where cows are taken to be grazed during the summer months?


Answer: German speaking regions

Question: Words such as horn, kogel, gipfel, spitz, and berd are used in what regions?


Answer: French speaking regions

Question: Mont, pic, dent and aiguille are words used in what regions?


Answer: The Alps

Context: The Alps are a crescent shaped geographic feature of central Europe that ranges in a 800 km (500 mi) arc from east to west and is 200 km (120 mi) in width. The mean height of the mountain peaks is 2.5 km (1.6 mi). The range stretches from the Mediterranean Sea north above the Po basin, extending through France from Grenoble, eastward through mid and southern Switzerland. The range continues toward Vienna in Austria, and east to the Adriatic Sea and into Slovenia. To the south it dips into northern Italy and to the north extends to the south border of Bavaria in Germany. In areas like Chiasso, Switzerland, and Neuschwanstein, Bavaria, the demarcation between the mountain range and the flatlands are clear; in other places such as Geneva, the demarcation is less clear. The countries with the greatest alpine territory are Switzerland, France, Austria and Italy.

Question: What are the crescent shaped geographic feature of central Europe?


Answer: 2.5 km (1.6 mi)

Question: What is the mean height of the Alp's peak?


Answer: the Mediterranean Sea north above the Po basin, extending through France from Grenoble, eastward through mid and southern Switzerland

Question: How far does the Alps range stretch?


Answer: alpine territory

Question: Switzerland, France, Austria and Italy have the greatest what?


Answer: the glacial trough of the Rhone valley

Context: The highest portion of the range is divided by the glacial trough of the Rhone valley, with the Pennine Alps from Mont Blanc to the Matterhorn and Monte Rosa on the southern side, and the Bernese Alps on the northern. The peaks in the easterly portion of the range, in Austria and Slovenia, are smaller than those in the central and western portions.

Question: The highest portion of the Alp's range is divided by what?


Answer: the easterly portion

Question: Where are the peaks smaller in the range?


Answer: northern

Question: The Bernese Alps are located in what part of the range?


Answer: The variances in nomenclature

Context: The variances in nomenclature in the region spanned by the Alps makes classification of the mountains and subregions difficult, but a general classification is that of the Eastern Alps and Western Alps with the divide between the two occurring in eastern Switzerland according to geologist Stefan Schmid, near the Splügen Pass.

Question: What makes the classification of the mountains and subregions difficult?


Answer: geologist Stefan Schmid

Question: Who came up with the general classification?


Answer: Splügen Pass

Question: Where is the divide between the Eastern Alps and Western Alps near?


Answer: Mont Blanc

Context: The highest peaks of the Western Alps and Eastern Alps, respectively, are Mont Blanc, at 4,810 m (15,780 ft) and Piz Bernina at 4,049 metres (13,284 ft). The second-highest major peaks are Monte Rosa at 4,634 m (15,200 ft) and Ortler at 3,905 m (12,810 ft), respectively

Question: The highest peak of the Western Alps is where?


Answer: 4,810 m

Question: How tall is the peak at Mont Blanc?


Answer: Piz Bernina

Question: The highest peak of the Eastern Alps is where?


Answer: 4,049 metres

Question: How tall is the peak of Piz Bernina


Answer: France

Context: Series of lower mountain ranges run parallel to the main chain of the Alps, including the French Prealps in France and the Jura Mountains in Switzerland and France. The secondary chain of the Alps follows the watershed from the Mediterranean Sea to the Wienerwald, passing over many of the highest and most well-known peaks in the Alps. From the Colle di Cadibona to Col de Tende it runs westwards, before turning to the northwest and then, near the Colle della Maddalena, to the north. Upon reaching the Swiss border, the line of the main chain heads approximately east-northeast, a heading it follows until its end near Vienna.

Question: Where are the French Prealps located?


Answer: the Jura Mountains

Question: What mountains are located in Switzerland and France?


Answer: The secondary chain of the Alps

Question: What follows the watershed from the Mediterranean Sea to the Wienerwald?


Answer: the line of the main chain

Question: What heads approximately east-northeast once at the Swiss bored?


Answer: The Alps

Context: The Alps have been crossed for war and commerce, and by pilgrims, students and tourists. Crossing routes by road, train or foot are known as passes, and usually consist of depressions in the mountains in which a valley leads from the plains and hilly pre-mountainous zones. In the medieval period hospices were established by religious orders at the summits of many of the main passes. The most important passes are the Col de l'Iseran (the highest), the Brenner Pass, the Mont-Cenis, the Great St. Bernard Pass, the Col de Tende, the Gotthard Pass, the Semmering Pass, and the Stelvio Pass.

Question: What have been crossed for war and commerce?


Answer: hospices

Question: What was established during medieval periods by religious orders?


Answer: the summits of many of the main passes

Question: Where were hospices established?


Answer: Col de l'Iseran

Question: What is the highest of the most important passes of the Alps?


Answer: the Brenner Pass

Context: Crossing the Italian-Austrian border, the Brenner Pass separates the Ötztal Alps and Zillertal Alps and has been in use as a trading route since the 14th century. The lowest of the Alpine passes at 985 m (3,232 ft), the Semmering crosses from Lower Austria to Styria; since the 12th century when a hospice was built there it has seen continuous use. A railroad with a tunnel 1 mile (1.6 km) long was built along the route of the pass in the mid-19th century. With a summit of 2,469 m (8,100 ft), the Great St. Bernard Pass is one of the highest in the Alps, crossing the Italian-Swiss border east of the Pennine Alps along the flanks of Mont Blanc. The pass was used by Napoleon Bonaparte to cross 40,000 troops in 1800. The Saint Gotthard Pass crosses from Central Switzerland to Ticino; in the late 19th century the 14 km (9 mi) long Saint Gotthard Tunnel was built connecting Lucerne in Switzerland, with Milan in Italy. The Mont Cenis pass has been a major commercial road between Western Europe and Italy. Now the pass has been supplanted by the Fréjus Road and Rail tunnel. At 2,756 m (9,042 ft), the Stelvio Pass in northern Italy is one of the highest of the Alpine passes; the road was built in the 1820s. The highest pass in the alps is the col de l'Iseran in Savoy (France) at 2,770 m (9,088 ft).

Question: What seperates the Otztal Alps and Zillertal Alps?


Answer: since the 14th century

Question: How long has the Brenner Pass been used as a trading route?


Answer: 985 m (3,232 ft)

Question: The lowest of the Alpine passes at what elevation?


Answer: Napoleon Bonaparte

Question: Who crossed the Great St. Bernard Pass with 40,000 troops?


Answer: col de l'Iseran in Savoy (France)

Question: Where is the highest point in the alps located?


Answer: naturalists

Context: Important geological concepts were established as naturalists began studying the rock formations of the Alps in the 18th century. In the mid-19th century the now defunct theory of geosynclines was used to explain the presence of "folded" mountain chains but by the mid-20th century the theory of plate tectonics became widely accepted.

Question: Who began studying the rock formations of the Alps


Answer: the 18th century

Question: When did the studying of rock formations begin in the Alps?


Answer: theory of geosynclines

Question: What was used in the mid-19th century to explain the presence of "folded" mountain chains?


Answer: the theory of plate tectonics

Question: What theory was more widely accepted by the mid-20th century?


Answer: about 300 million years ago

Context: The formation of the Alps (the Alpine orogeny) was an episodic process that began about 300 million years ago. In the Paleozoic Era the Pangaean supercontinent consisted of a single tectonic plate; it broke into separate plates during the Mesozoic Era and the Tethys sea developed between Laurasia and Gondwana during the Jurassic Period. The Tethys was later squeezed between colliding plates causing the formation of mountain ranges called the Alpide belt, from Gibraltar through the Himalayas to Indonesia—a process that began at the end of the Mesozoic and continues into the present. The formation of the Alps was a segment of this orogenic process, caused by the collision between the African and the Eurasian plates that began in the late Cretaceous Period.

Question: When did the formation of the alps began?


Answer: a single tectonic plate

Question: What did the Pangaean supercontinent consisted of what during the Paleozoic Era?


Answer: the Mesozoic Era

Question: When did the single tectonic plate break into separate plates?


Answer: Jurassic Period

Question: The Tethys sea developed during what period of time?


Answer: the late Cretaceous Period

Question: The collision between the African and the Eurasian plates began during what time?


Answer: marine sedimentary rocks

Context: Under extreme compressive stresses and pressure, marine sedimentary rocks were uplifted, creating characteristic recumbent folds, or nappes, and thrust faults. As the rising peaks underwent erosion, a layer of marine flysch sediments was deposited in the foreland basin, and the sediments became involved in younger nappes (folds) as the orogeny progressed. Coarse sediments from the continual uplift and erosion were later deposited in foreland areas as molasse. The molasse regions in Switzerland and Bavaria were well-developed and saw further upthrusting of flysch.

Question: What was uplifted from extreme compressive stresses and pressure?


Answer: As the rising peaks underwent erosion

Question: When did the layer of marine flysch sediments get deposited in the foreland basin?


Answer: Coarse sediments

Question: What were later deposited in foreland areas as molasse?


Answer: flysch

Question: Switzerland and Bavaria saw a further upthrusting of what?


Answer: a late-stage orogeny

Context: The Alpine orogeny occurred in ongoing cycles through to the Paleogene causing differences in nappe structures, with a late-stage orogeny causing the development of the Jura Mountains. A series of tectonic events in the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous periods caused different paleogeographic regions. The Alps are subdivided by different lithology (rock composition) and nappe structure according to the orogenic events that affected them. The geological subdivision differentiates the Western, Eastern Alps and Southern Alps: the Helveticum in the north, the Penninicum and Austroalpine system in the center and, south of the Periadriatic Seam, the Southern Alpine system.

Question: What caused the development of the Jura Mountains?


Answer: A series of tectonic events

Question: What cause different paleogeographic regions in the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous periods?


Answer: lithology

Question: What is another word for rock composition?


Answer: Helveticum

Question: What geological subdivision is located in the north?


Answer: geologist

Context: According to geologist Stefan Schmid, because the Western Alps underwent a metamorphic event in the Cenozoic Era while the Austroalpine peaks underwent an event in the Cretaceous Period, the two areas show distinct differences in nappe formations. Flysch deposits in the Southern Alps of Lombardy probably occurred in the Cretaceous or later.

Question: What is Stefan Schmid's profession?


Answer: a metamorphic event

Question: What happened to the Western Alps during the Cenozoic Era


Answer: the Cretaceous Period

Question: When did the Austroalpine peaks undergo their event?


Answer: nappe formations

Question: The Western Alps and the Austroalpine peaks show distinct differences in what?


Answer: Cretaceous

Question: When did Flysch deposits probably occur in the Southern Alps of Lombardy?


Answer: Houillière zone

Context: Peaks in France, Italy and Switzerland lie in the "Houillière zone", which consists of basement with sediments from the Mesozoic Era. High "massifs" with external sedimentary cover are more common in the Western Alps and were affected by Neogene Period thin-skinned thrusting whereas the Eastern Alps have comparatively few high peaked massifs. Similarly the peaks in Switzerland extending to western Austria (Helvetic nappes) consist of thin-skinned sedimentary folding that detached from former basement rock.

Question: What area do peaks in France, Italy, and Switzerland lie in?


Answer: High "massifs"

Question: What are more common in the Western Alps?


Answer: Eastern Alps

Question: When compared to the Western Alps, what area has few high peaked massifs?


Answer: the structure of the Alps

Context: In simple terms the structure of the Alps consists of layers of rock of European, African and oceanic (Tethyan) origin. The bottom nappe structure is of continental European origin, above which are stacked marine sediment nappes, topped off by nappes derived from the African plate. The Matterhorn is an example of the ongoing orogeny and shows evidence of great folding. The tip of the mountain consists of gneisses from the African plate; the base of the peak, below the glaciated area, consists of European basement rock. The sequence of Tethyan marine sediments and their oceanic basement is sandwiched between rock derived from the African and European plates.

Question: Layers of rock from Europe, Africa and the ocean make up what?


Answer: continental Europe

Question: What is the origin of the bottom nappe structure?


Answer: the African plate

Question: Where are the top of the nappes derived from?


Answer: The Matterhorn

Question: What is an example of the ongoing orogeny?


Answer: folded and fractured

Context: The core regions of the Alpine orogenic belt have been folded and fractured in such a manner that erosion created the characteristic steep vertical peaks of the Swiss Alps that rise seemingly straight out of the foreland areas. Peaks such as Mont Blanc, the Matterhorn, and high peaks in the Pennine Alps, the Briançonnais, and Hohe Tauern consist of layers of rock from the various orogenies including exposures of basement rock.

Question: What happened to the Alpine orogenic belt that gave it the steep vertical peak?


Answer: layers of rock from the various orogenies

Question: Mont Blanc, the Matterhorn, and peaks in the Pennine Alps cosist of what?


Answer: steep vertical peaks

Question: What are the common characteristics of the Alpine Orogenic Belt?


Answer: Union Internationale des Associations d'Alpinisme (UIAA)

Context: The Union Internationale des Associations d'Alpinisme (UIAA) has defined a list of 82 "official" Alpine summits that reach at least 4,000 m (13,123 ft). The list includes not only mountains, but also subpeaks with little prominence that are considered important mountaineering objectives. Below are listed the 22 "four-thousanders" with at least 500 m (1,640 ft) of prominence.

Question: What group defined a list of 82 official Apline summits that reach 4,000m?


Answer: subpeaks with little prominence that are considered important mountaineering objectives

Question: What is included in the list of 82 official Apline summits other than Mountains?


Answer: 500 m (1,640 ft)

Question: The list of twenty two summits has summits with at least how much prominence?


Answer: 1786

Context: While Mont Blanc was first climbed in 1786, most of the Alpine four-thousanders were climbed during the first half of the 19th century; the ascent of the Matterhorn in 1865 marked the end of the golden age of alpinism. Karl Blodig (1859–1956) was among the first to successfully climb all the major 4,000 m peaks. He completed his series of ascents in 1911.

Question: When was Mont Blanc first climbed?


Answer: first half of the 19th century

Question: When were most of the Alpine fourthousanders climber?


Answer: 1865

Question: When was the ascent of the Matterhorn?


Answer: the end of the golden age of alpinism

Question: What did the ascent of the Matterhorn mark?


Answer: Karl Blodig

Question: Who was among the first to successfully climb all the major 4,000m peaks?


Answer: 1788

Context: The first British Mont Blanc ascent was in 1788; the first female ascent in 1819. By the mid-1850s Swiss mountaineers had ascended most of the peaks and were eagerly sought as mountain guides. Edward Whymper reached the top of the Matterhorn in 1865 (after seven attempts), and in 1938 the last of the six great north faces of the Alps was climbed with the first ascent of the Eiger Nordwand (north face of the Eiger).

Question: When was the first British Mont Blanc ascent?


Answer: 1819

Question: When was the first female ascent on Mont Blanc?


Answer: the mid-1850s

Question: When had Swiss mountaineers ascended most of the peaks?


Answer: 1865

Question: What year did Edward Whymper reach the top of the Matterhorn?


Answer: 1938

Question: When were the last of the six great north faces of the Alps climbed?


Answer: minerals

Context: The Alps are a source of minerals that have been mined for thousands of years. In the 8th to 6th centuries BC during the Hallstatt culture, Celtic tribes mined copper; later the Romans mined gold for coins in the Bad Gastein area. Erzberg in Styria furnishes high-quality iron ore for the steel industry. Crystals are found throughout much of the Alpine region such as cinnabar, amethyst, and quartz. The cinnabar deposits in Slovenia are a notable source of cinnabar pigments.

Question: What have been mined in the Alps for thousands of years?


Answer: copper

Question: What did Celtic tribes mine from the Alps?


Answer: gold

Question: What did the Romans mine in the Bad Gastein area?


Answer: high-quality iron ore

Question: What does Erzberd in Styria furnish?


Answer: Slovenia

Question: The cinnabar deposits are found in what area?


Answer: hundreds of years

Context: Alpine crystals have been studied and collected for hundreds of years, and began to be classified in the 18th century. Leonhard Euler studied the shapes of crystals, and by the 19th century crystal hunting was common in Alpine regions. David Friedrich Wiser amassed a collection of 8000 crystals that he studied and documented. In the 20th century Robert Parker wrote a well-known work about the rock crystals of the Swiss Alps; at the same period a commission was established to control and standardize the naming of Alpine minerals.

Question: How long have Alpine crystals been studied and collected?


Answer: the 18th century

Question: When did the alpine crystals begin to be classified?


Answer: Leonhard Euler

Question: Who studied the shapes of crystals?


Answer: crystal hunting

Question: By the 19th century what was common in the Alpine regions?


Answer: David Friedrich Wiser

Question: Who amassed a collection 8000 crystals?


Answer: Miocene Epoch

Context: In the Miocene Epoch the mountains underwent severe erosion because of glaciation, which was noted in the mid-19th century by naturalist Louis Agassiz who presented a paper proclaiming the Alps were covered in ice at various intervals—a theory he formed when studying rocks near his Neuchâtel home which he believed originated to the west in the Bernese Oberland. Because of his work he came to be known as the "father of the ice-age concept" although other naturalists before him put forth similar ideas.

Question: Where did the mountains undergo serve erosion?


Answer: glaciation

Question: What was the cause of the severe erosion?


Answer: Louis Agassiz

Question: Who noted the severe erosion of the mountains?


Answer: the "father of the ice-age concept"

Question: What was Louis Agassiz also known as?


Answer: the Unteraar Glacier

Context: Agassiz studied glacier movement in the 1840s at the Unteraar Glacier where he found the glacier moved 100 m (328 ft) per year, more rapidly in the middle than at the edges. His work was continued by other scientists and now a permanent laboratory exists inside a glacier under the Jungfraujoch, devoted exclusively to the study of Alpine glaciers.

Question: Where did Agassiz study during the 1840s?


Answer: 100 m (328 ft)

Question: Agassiz found that the Unteraar Glacier moved how much per year?


Answer: the middle

Question: The movement of the Unteraar Glacier moved more rapidly in what part?


Answer: The Inn valley

Context: Glaciers pick up rocks and sediment with them as they flow. This causes erosion and the formation of valleys over time. The Inn valley is an example of a valley carved by glaciers during the ice ages with a typical terraced structure caused by erosion. Eroded rocks from the most recent ice age lie at the bottom of the valley while the top of the valley consists of erosion from earlier ice ages. Glacial valleys have characteristically steep walls (reliefs); valleys with lower reliefs and talus slopes are remnants of glacial troughs or previously infilled valleys. Moraines, piles of rock picked up during the movement of the glacier, accumulate at edges, center and the terminus of glaciers.

Question: What is an example of a valley carved by glaciers during the ice ages?


Answer: Eroded rocks from the most recent ice age

Question: What lays at the bottom of the Inn Valley


Answer: erosion from earlier ice ages

Question: The top of the Inn Valley consists of what?


Answer: piles of rock picked up during the movement of the glacier

Question: What are Moraines?


Answer: at edges, center and the terminus of glaciers.

Question: Where have moraines accumulated?


Answer: spread in a fan-like shape

Context: Alpine glaciers can be straight rivers of ice, long sweeping rivers, spread in a fan-like shape (Piedmont glaciers), and curtains of ice that hang from vertical slopes of the mountain peaks. The stress of the movement causes the ice to break and crack loudly, perhaps explaining why the mountains were believed to be home to dragons in the medieval period. The cracking creates unpredictable and dangerous crevasses, often invisible under new snowfall, which cause the greatest danger to mountaineers.

Question: How do Piedmont glaciers appear?


Answer: The stress of the movement

Question: What causes the ice to break and crack loudly?


Answer: unpredictable and dangerous crevasses

Question: What does the cracking of the ice create?


Answer: a piece of glacier will detach or break

Context: Glaciers end in ice caves (the Rhone Glacier), by trailing into a lake or river, or by shedding snowmelt on a meadow. Sometimes a piece of glacier will detach or break resulting in flooding, property damage and loss of life. In the 17th century about 2500 people were killed by an avalanche in a village on the French-Italian border; in the 19th century 120 homes in a village near Zermatt were destroyed by an avalanche.

Question: What causes flooding, property damage, and loss of life?


Answer: an avalanche

Question: What killed about 2500 people in the 17th century?


Answer: 120 homes

Question: How many homes in a village near Zermatt were destroyed by an avalanche in the 19th century?


Answer: High levels of precipitation

Context: High levels of precipitation cause the glaciers to descend to permafrost levels in some areas whereas in other, more arid regions, glaciers remain above about the 3,500 m (11,483 ft) level. The 1,817 square kilometres (702 sq mi) of the Alps covered by glaciers in 1876 had shrunk to 1,342 km2 (518 sq mi) by 1973, resulting in decreased river run-off levels. Forty percent of the glaciation in Austria has disappeared since 1850, and 30% of that in Switzerland.

Question: What cause the glaciers to descend to permafrost levels in some areas?


Answer: to 1,342 km2 (518 sq mi)

Question: From 1876 to 1973, how much did the glaciers that covered the Alps shrink?


Answer: decreased river run-off levels.

Question: What resulted from the loss of the area the glaciers over the Alps?


Answer: Forty percent

Question: How much of the glaciation in Austria disappeared?


Answer: 30%

Question: How much of the glaciation disappeared in Switzerland?


Answer: The Alps

Context: The Alps provide lowland Europe with drinking water, irrigation, and hydroelectric power. Although the area is only about 11 percent of the surface area of Europe, the Alps provide up to 90 percent of water to lowland Europe, particularly to arid areas and during the summer months. Cities such as Milan depend on 80 percent of water from Alpine runoff. Water from the rivers is used in over 500 hydroelectricity power plants, generating as much as 2900 kilowatts of electricity.

Question: What provides Europe with drinking water, irrigation, and hydroelectric power?


Answer: 11 percent of the surface area

Question: How much of Europe does the Alps cover?


Answer: 90 percent

Question: How much water does the Alps provide to lowland Europe?


Answer: 80 percent

Question: How much water does Milan depend on from the Alpine runoff?


Answer: 500

Question: Water from the rivers is used in over how many hydroelectric power plants?


Answer: Switzerland

Context: Major European rivers flow from Switzerland, such as the Rhine, the Rhone, the Inn, the Ticino and the Po, all of which have headwaters in the Alps and flow into neighbouring countries, finally emptying into the North Sea, the Mediterranean Sea, the Adriatic Sea and the Black Sea. Other rivers such as the Danube have major tributaries flowing into them that originate in the Alps. The Rhone is second to the Nile as a freshwater source to the Mediterranean Sea; the river begins as glacial meltwater, flows into Lake Geneva, and from there to France where one of its uses is to cool nuclear power plants. The Rhine originates in a 30 square kilometre area in Switzerland and represents almost 60 percent of water exported from the country. Tributary valleys, some of which are complicated, channel water to the main valleys which can experience flooding during the snow melt season when rapid runoff causes debris torrents and swollen rivers.

Question: The Rhine, the Rhone, the Inn, the Ticino and the Po rivers flow from what Country?


Answer: the Alps

Question: Where do the major tributaries that flow through the Danube originate from?


Answer: The Rhone

Question: Which river is second to the Nile as a freshwater source to the Mediterranean?


Answer: glacial meltwater

Question: What does The Rhone begin as?


Answer: a 30 square kilometre area in Switzerland

Question: Where does the Rhine originate?


Answer: Germany

Context: The rivers form lakes, such as Lake Geneva, a crescent shaped lake crossing the Swiss border with Lausanne on the Swiss side and the town of Evian-les-Bains on the French side. In Germany, the medieval St. Bartholomew's chapel was built on the south side of the Königssee, accessible only by boat or by climbing over the abutting peaks.

Question: Where is the medieval St. Bartholomew Chapel located?


Answer: south side

Question: What side of the Konigssee was St. Bartholomew's chapel built?


Answer: lakes

Question: What do the rivers form?


Answer: Scientists

Context: Scientists have been studying the impact of climate change and water use. For example, each year more water is diverted from rivers for snowmaking in the ski resorts, the effect of which is yet unknown. Furthermore, the decrease of glaciated areas combined with a succession of winters with lower-than-expected precipitation may have a future impact on the rivers in the Alps as well as an effect on the water availability to the lowlands.

Question: Who have been studying the impact of climate change and water use?


Answer: snowmaking in the ski resorts

Question: Water is diverted from rivers for what purpose?


Answer: unknown

Question: What are the effects of diverting the water from rivers?


Answer: The Alps

Context: The Alps are a classic example of what happens when a temperate area at lower altitude gives way to higher-elevation terrain. Elevations around the world that have cold climates similar to those of the polar regions have been called Alpine. A rise from sea level into the upper regions of the atmosphere causes the temperature to decrease (see adiabatic lapse rate). The effect of mountain chains on prevailing winds is to carry warm air belonging to the lower region into an upper zone, where it expands in volume at the cost of a proportionate loss of temperature, often accompanied by precipitation in the form of snow or rain. The height of the Alps is sufficient to divide the weather patterns in Europe into a wet north and a dry south because moisture is sucked from the air as it flows over the high peaks.

Question: What are a classic example of what happens when a temperate area at lower altitude gives way to higher-elevation terrain?


Answer: Alpine

Question: Elevations around the world that have a cold climate similar to that of the polar region have been called what?


Answer: A rise from sea level into the upper regions of the atmosphere

Question: What causes the temperature to decrease?


Answer: The height of the Alps

Question: What is sufficient to divide the weather patterns in Europe into a wet north and dry south?


Answer: the 18th century

Context: The severe weather in the Alps has been studied since the 18th century; particularly the weather patterns such as the seasonal foehn wind. Numerous weather stations were placed in the mountains early in the early 20th century, providing continuous data for climatologists. Some of the valleys are quite arid such as the Aosta valley in Italy, the Maurienne in France, the Valais in Switzerland, and northern Tyrol.

Question: Since when has the severe weather in the Alps been studied?


Answer: the weather patterns

Question: Particularly what part of the weather has been studied?


Answer: Numerous weather stations

Question: What was placed in the mountains early in the 20th century?


Answer: Italy

Question: Where is the Aosta valley located?


Answer: Switzerland

Question: Where is the Valais located?


Answer: The areas that are not arid and receive high precipitation

Context: The areas that are not arid and receive high precipitation experience periodic flooding from rapid snowmelt and runoff. The mean precipitation in the Alps ranges from a low of 2,600 mm (100 in) per year to 3,600 mm (140 in) per year, with the higher levels occurring at high altitudes. At altitudes between 1,000 and 3,000 m (3,281 and 9,843 ft), snowfall begins in November and accumulates through to April or May when the melt begins. Snow lines vary from 2,400 to 3,000 m (7,874 to 9,843 ft), above which the snow is permanent and the temperatures hover around the freezing point even July and August. High-water levels in streams and rivers peak in June and July when the snow is still melting at the higher altitudes.

Question: What areas experience periodic flooding from rapid snowmelt and runoff?


Answer: 2,600 mm (100 in) per year to 3,600 mm (140 in) per year

Question: What are the ranges of mean precipitation in the Alps?


Answer: high altitudes

Question: Where do the higher levels of precipitation occur?


Answer: At altitudes between 1,000 and 3,000 m

Question: At what altitude does snowfall begin in November?


Answer: five climatic zones

Context: The Alps are split into five climatic zones, each with different vegetation. The climate, plant life and animal life vary among the different sections or zones of the mountains. The lowest zone is the colline zone, which exists between 500 and 1,000 m (1,640 and 3,281 ft), depending on the location. The montane zone extends from 800 to 1,700 m (2,625 to 5,577 ft), followed by the sub-Alpine zone from 1,600 to 2,400 m (5,249 to 7,874 ft). The Alpine zone, extending from tree line to snow line, is followed by the glacial zone, which covers the glaciated areas of the mountain. Climatic conditions show variances within the same zones; for example, weather conditions at the head of a mountain valley, extending directly from the peaks, are colder and more severe than those at the mouth of a valley which tend to be less severe and receive less snowfall.

Question: How many zones are the Alps split into?


Answer: colline zone

Question: What is the lowest zone of the Alps called?


Answer: between 500 and 1,000 m

Question: Where does the lowest zone of the Alps exist?


Answer: from 800 to 1,700 m

Question: Where does the montane zone extend from?


Answer: from 1,600 to 2,400 m

Question: Where does the sub-Alpine zone extend from?


Answer: Various models of climate change

Context: Various models of climate change have been projected into the 22nd century for the Alps, with an expectation that a trend toward increased temperatures will have an effect on snowfall, snowpack, glaciation, and river runoff.

Question: What has been projected into the 22nd century for the Alps?


Answer: increased temperatures

Question: What will have an effect on snowfall, snowpack, glaciation, and river runoff?


Answer: climate change

Question: What have the various models been of?


Answer: Thirteen thousand

Context: Thirteen thousand species of plants have been identified in the Alpine regions. Alpine plants are grouped by habitat and soil type which can be limestone or non-calcerous. The habitats range from meadows, bogs, woodland (deciduous and coniferous) areas to soilless scree and moraines, and rock faces and ridges. A natural vegetation limit with altitude is given by the presence of the chief deciduous trees—oak, beech, ash and sycamore maple. These do not reach exactly to the same elevation, nor are they often found growing together; but their upper limit corresponds accurately enough to the change from a temperate to a colder climate that is further proved by a change in the presence of wild herbaceous vegetation. This limit usually lies about 1,200 m (3,940 ft) above the sea on the north side of the Alps, but on the southern slopes it often rises to 1,500 m (4,920 ft), sometimes even to 1,700 m (5,580 ft).

Question: How many species of plants have been identified in the Alpine regions?


Answer: by habitat and soil type

Question: How are Alpine plants grouped?


Answer: chief deciduous trees

Question: Oak, beech, ash, and sycamore maple make up what group of trees?


Answer: a band of short pine trees

Context: Above the forestry, there is often a band of short pine trees (Pinus mugo), which is in turn superseded by Alpenrosen, dwarf shrubs, typically Rhododendron ferrugineum (on acid soils) or Rhododendron hirsutum (on alkaline soils). Although the Alpenrose prefers acidic soil, the plants are found throughout the region. Above the tree line is the area defined as "alpine" where in the alpine meadow plants are found that have adapted well to harsh conditions of cold temperatures, aridity, and high altitudes. The alpine area fluctuates greatly because of regional fluctuations in tree lines.

Question: What is often above the forestry?


Answer: acidic soil

Question: What type of soil does Alpenrose prefer?


Answer: alpine

Question: What is the area above the treeline defined as?


Answer: because of regional fluctuations in tree lines.

Question: Why does the alpine area fluctuate greatly?


Answer: Alpine plants such the Alpine gentian

Context: Alpine plants such the Alpine gentian grow in abundance in areas such as the meadows above the Lauterbrunnental. Gentians are named after the Illyrian king Gentius, and 40 species of the early-spring blooming flower grow in the Alps, in a range of 1,500 to 2,400 m (4,921 to 7,874 ft). Writing about the gentians in Switzerland D. H. Lawrence described them as "darkening the day-time, torch-like with the smoking blueness of Pluto's gloom." Gentians tend to "appear" repeatedly as the spring blooming takes place at progressively later dates, moving from the lower altitude to the higher altitude meadows where the snow melts much later than in the valleys. On the highest rocky ledges the spring flowers bloom in the summer.

Question: What grows in abundance in areas such as the meadows above the Lauterbrunnental?


Answer: the Illyrian king Gentius

Question: What are Gentians named after?


Answer: 40 species

Question: How many species of the early-spring blooming flower grow in the Alps?


Answer: isolated cushions

Context: At these higher altitudes, the plants tend to form isolated cushions. In the Alps, several species of flowering plants have been recorded above 4,000 m (13,120 ft), including Ranunculus glacialis, Androsace alpina and Saxifraga biflora. The Eritrichium nanum, commonly known as the King of the Alps, is the most elusive of the alpine flowers, growing on rocky ridges at 2,600 to 3,750 m (8,530 to 12,303 ft). Perhaps the best known of the alpine plants is the Edelweiss which grows in rocky areas and can be found at altitudes as low as 1,400 m (4,593 ft) and as high as 3,400 m (11,155 ft). The plants that grow at the highest altitudes have adapted to conditions by specialization such as growing in rock screes that give protection from winds.

Question: What do the plants tend to form at higher altitudes?


Answer: above 4,000 m

Question: Ranunculus glacialis have been recorded to have been found how far in the alps?


Answer: the King of the Alps

Question: What is Eritrichium nanum commonly known as?


Answer: Edelweiss

Question: What is the best known of the alpine plants?


Answer: extreme and stressful climatic conditions

Context: The extreme and stressful climatic conditions give way to the growth of plant species with secondary metabolites important for medicinal purposes. Origanum vulgare, Prunella vulgaris, Solanum nigrum and Urtica dioica are some of the more useful medicinal species found in the Alps.

Question: What gives way to the growth of plant species with secondary metabolites important for medicinal purposes?


Answer: medicinal

Question: Origanum Vulgare has what useful properties?


Answer: the Alps

Question: Where are Urtica dioica found?


Answer: Human interference

Context: Human interference has nearly exterminated the trees in many areas, and, except for the beech forests of the Austrian Alps, forests of deciduous trees are rarely found after the extreme deforestation between the 17th and 19th centuries. The vegetation has changed since the second half of the 20th century, as the high alpine meadows cease to be harvested for hay or used for grazing which eventually might result in a regrowth of forest. In some areas the modern practice of building ski runs by mechanical means has destroyed the underlying tundra from which the plant life cannot recover during the non-skiing months, whereas areas that still practice a natural piste type of ski slope building preserve the fragile underlayers.

Question: What has nearly exterminated the trees in many areas?


Answer: forests of deciduous trees

Question: What are rarely found after the extreme deforestation between the 17th and 19th centuries?


Answer: The vegetation

Question: What has changed since the second half of the 20th century?


Answer: the underlying tundra

Question: The practice of building ski runs by mechanical means has destroyed what?


Answer: 30,000 species

Context: The Alps are a habitat for 30,000 species of wildlife, ranging from the tiniest snow fleas to brown bears, many of which have made adaptations to the harsh cold conditions and high altitudes to the point that some only survive in specific micro-climates either directly above or below the snow line.

Question: How many species of wildlife habitat the Alps?


Answer: made adaptations

Question: What have the wildlife done to survive the harsh conditions of the Alps?


Answer: directly above or below the snow line

Question: Some species of wildlife can only survive in what specific environment?


Answer: alpine ibex

Context: The largest mammal to live in the highest altitudes are the alpine ibex, which have been sighted as high as 3,000 m (9,843 ft). The ibex live in caves and descend to eat the succulent alpine grasses. Classified as antelopes, chamois are smaller than ibex and found throughout the Alps, living above the tree line and are common in the entire alpine range. Areas of the eastern Alps are still home to brown bears. In Switzerland the canton of Bern was named for the bears but the last bear is recorded as having been killed in 1792 above Kleine Scheidegg by three hunters from Grindelwald.

Question: What is the largest mammal to live in the highest altitudes?


Answer: as high as 3,000 m (9,843 ft)

Question: How high have the Alpine Ibex been sighted?


Answer: in caves

Question: Where do the ibex live?


Answer: chamois

Question: What animal that live in the Alps are classified as antelopes?


Answer: 1792

Question: What year was the last brown bear recorded to have been killed?


Answer: underground

Context: Many rodents such as voles live underground. Marmots live almost exclusively above the tree line as high as 2,700 m (8,858 ft). They hibernate in large groups to provide warmth, and can be found in all areas of the Alps, in large colonies they build beneath the alpine pastures. Golden eagles and bearded vultures are the largest birds to be found in the Alps; they nest high on rocky ledges and can be found at altitudes of 2,400 m (7,874 ft). The most common bird is the alpine chough which can be found scavenging at climber's huts or at the Jungfraujoch, a high altitude tourist destination.

Question: Where do many rodents live?


Answer: almost exclusively above the tree line as high as 2,700 m (8,858 ft)

Question: Where do Marmots live?


Answer: beneath the alpine pastures

Question: Where do marmots build their colonies?


Answer: the alpine chough

Question: What is the most common bird found in the Alps?


Answer: they cannot bear the cold temperatures

Context: Reptiles such as adders and vipers live up to the snow line; because they cannot bear the cold temperatures they hibernate underground and soak up the warmth on rocky ledges. The high-altitude Alpine salamanders have adapted to living above the snow line by giving birth to fully developed young rather than laying eggs. Brown trout can be found in the streams up to the snow line. Molluscs such as the wood snail live up the snow line. Popularly gathered as food, the snails are now protected.

Question: Why do reptiles only live up to the snow line?


Answer: they hibernate underground

Question: What do reptiles due since they cannot bear the cold temperatures?


Answer: by giving birth to fully developed young rather than laying eggs

Question: How have the Alpine salamanders adapted to living above the snow line?


Answer: Brown trout

Question: What can be found in the streams up to the snow line?


Answer: 120 million years

Context: A number of species of moths live in the Alps, some of which are believed to have evolved in the same habitat up to 120 million years ago, long before the Alps were created. Blue moths can commonly be seen drinking from the snow melt; some species of blue moths fly as high as 1,800 m (5,906 ft). The butterflies tend to be large, such as those from the swallowtail Parnassius family, with a habitat that ranges to 1,800 m (5,906 ft). Twelve species of beetles have habitats up to the snow line; the most beautiful and formerly collected for its colours but now protected is the Rosalia alpina. Spiders, such as the large wolf spider, live above the snow line and can be seen as high as 400 m (1,312 ft). Scorpions can be found in the Italian Alps.

Question: How long have some species of moths believed to have evolved from the same habitat?


Answer: Blue moths

Question: What can be commonly seen drinking from the snow melt?


Answer: 1,800 m (5,906 ft)

Question: The swallowtail Parnassius family of butterfly habitat ranges up to how much?


Answer: Rosalia alpina

Question: What species of beetles are were collected for their colors before being protected?


Answer: having been indigenous to the area

Context: Some of the species of moths and insects show evidence of having been indigenous to the area from as long ago as the Alpine orogeny. In Emosson in Valais, Switzerland, dinosaur tracks were found in the 1970s, dating probably from the Triassic Period.

Question: Some species of moths and insects show evidence of what?


Answer: the Alpine orogeny

Question: How long ago does the evidence show moths and insects to have been indigenous?


Answer: Valais, Switzerland

Question: Where is Emosson located?


Answer: the 1970s

Question: When were dinosaur tracks found in Emosson?


Answer: About 10,000 years ago

Context: About 10,000 years ago, when the ice melted after the last glacial period, late Paleolithic communities were established along the lake shores and in cave systems. Evidence of human habitation has been found in caves near Vercors, close to Grenoble; in Austria the Mondsee culture shows evidence of houses built on piles to keep them dry. Standing stones have been found in Alpine areas of France and Italy. The rock drawings in Valcamonica are more than 5000 years old; more than 200,000 drawings and etchings have been identified at the site.

Question: When were late Paleolithic communities established along the lake shores?


Answer: Evidence of human habitation

Question: What has been found in caves near Vercors?


Answer: to keep them dry

Question: Why were houses built on piles?


Answer: Standing stones

Question: What have been found in Alpine areas of France and Italy?


Answer: more than 5000 years old

Question: How old are rock drawings in Valcamonica?


Answer: a mummy of a neolithic body

Context: In 1991 a mummy of a neolithic body, known as Ötzi the Iceman, was discovered by hikers on the Similaun glacier. His clothing and gear indicate that he lived in an alpine farming community, while the location and manner of his death - an arrowhead was discovered in his shoulder - suggests he was travelling from one place to another. Analysis of the mitochondrial DNA of Ötzi, has shown that he belongs to the K1 subclade which cannot be categorized into any of the three modern branches of that subclade. The new subclade has provisionally been named K1ö for Ötzi.

Question: Who was Otzi the Iceman?


Answer: In 1991

Question: When was Otzi the Iceman found?


Answer: the Similaun glacier

Question: Where was Otzi the Iceman discovered?


Answer: between 1000 to 1500 BC

Context: Celtic tribes settled in Switzerland between 1000 to 1500 BC. The Raetians lived in the eastern regions, while the west was occupied by the Helvetii and the Allobrogi settled in the Rhone valley and in Savoy. Among the many substances Celtic tribes mined was salt in areas such as Salzburg in Austria where evidence of the Hallstatt culture was found by a mine manager in the 19th century. By the 6th century BC the La Tène culture was well established in the region, and became known for high quality decorated weapons and jewelry. The Celts were the most widespread of the mountain tribes—they had warriors that were strong, tall and fair skinned skilled with iron weapons, which gave them an advantage in warfare.

Question: When did Celtic tribes settle in Switzerland?


Answer: the eastern regions

Question: The Raetians lived in what region?


Answer: the west

Question: The Helvetii occupied which region?


Answer: salt

Question: What did the Celtic tribes mine?


Answer: The Celts

Question: Which were the most widespread of the mountain tribes?


Answer: 218 BC

Context: During the Second Punic War in 218 BC, the Carthaginian general Hannibal probably crossed the Alps with an army numbering 38,000 infantry, 8,000 cavalry, and 37 war elephants. This was one of the most celebrated achievements of any military force in ancient warfare, although no evidence exists of the actual crossing or the place of crossing. The Romans, however, had built roads along the mountain passes, which continued to be used through the medieval period to cross the mountains and Roman road markers can still be found on the mountain passes.

Question: When was the Second Punic War?


Answer: Hannibal

Question: Who was the Carthaginian general?


Answer: roads

Question: What did the Romans build along the mountain passes?


Answer: Roman road markers

Question: What can still be found on the mountain passes?


Answer: The Roman expansion

Context: The Roman expansion brought the defeat of the Allobrogi in 121 BC and during the Gallic Wars in 58 BC Julius Caesar overcame the Helvetii. The Rhaetians continued to resist but were eventually conquered when the Romans turned northward to the Danube valley in Austria and defeated the Brigantes. The Romans built settlements in the Alps; towns such as Aosta (named for Augustus) in Italy, Martigny and Lausanne in Switzerland, and Partenkirchen in Bavaria show remains of Roman baths, villas, arenas and temples. Much of the Alpine region was gradually settled by Germanic tribes, (Lombards, Alemanni, Bavarii, and Franks) from the 6th to the 13th centuries mixing with the local Celtic tribes.

Question: What brought the defeat of the Allobrogi?


Answer: in 121 BC

Question: When were the Allobrogi defeated?


Answer: 58 BC

Question: When did Julius Caesar overcome the Helvetii?


Answer: Germanic tribes

Question: What tribes settled much of the Alpine region?


Answer: Romans

Context: Christianity was established in the region by the Romans, and saw the establishment of monasteries and churches in the high regions. The Frankish expansion of the Carolingian Empire and the Bavarian expansion in the eastern Alps introduced feudalism and the building of castles to support the growing number of dukedoms and kingdoms. Castello del Buonconsiglio in Trento, Italy, still has intricate frescoes, excellent examples of Gothic art, in a tower room. In Switzerland, Château de Chillon is preserved as an example of medieval architecture.

Question: Who established Christianity in the region?


Answer: feudalism

Question: What did the Frankish expansion and the Bavarian expansion introduce?


Answer: Castello del Buonconsiglio in Trento, Italy

Question: What area still has intricate frescoes?


Answer: Château de Chillon

Question: What is preserved as an example of medieval architecture?


Answer: power struggles

Context: Much of the medieval period was a time of power struggles between competing dynasties such as the House of Savoy, the Visconti in northern Italy and the House of Habsburg in Austria and Slovenia. In 1291 to protect themselves from incursions by the Habsburgs, four cantons in the middle of Switzerland drew up a charter that is considered to be a declaration of independence from neighboring kingdoms. After a series of battles fought in the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries, more cantons joined the confederacy and by the 16th century Switzerland was well-established as a separate state.

Question: Much of the medieval period was a time of what?


Answer: northern Italy

Question: Where were the Visconti from?


Answer: the House of Habsburg

Question: What dynastie was from Austria and Slovenia?


Answer: Switzerland

Question: What Country was a well-established separate state by the 16th century?


Answer: the Napoleonic Wars

Context: During the Napoleonic Wars in the late 18th century and early 19th century, Napoleon annexed territory formerly controlled by the Habsburgs and Savoys. In 1798 he established the Helvetic Republic in Switzerland; two years later he led an army across the St. Bernard pass and conquered almost all of the Alpine regions.

Question: What wars took place during the late 18th century and early 19th century?


Answer: Napoleon

Question: Who annexed territory formerly controlled by the Habsburgs and Savoys?


Answer: 1798

Question: When was the Helvetic Republic established?


Answer: Switzerland

Question: Where was the Helvetic Republic established?


Answer: After the fall of Napoléon

Context: After the fall of Napoléon, many alpine countries developed heavy protections to prevent any new invasion. Thus, Savoy built a series of fortifications in the Maurienne valley in order to protect the major alpine passes, such as the col du Mont-Cenis that was even crossed by, Charlemagne and his father to defeat the Lombarts. The later indeed became very popular after the construction of a paved road ordered by Napoléon Bonaparte. The Barrière de l'Esseillon is a serie of forts with heavy batteries, built on a cliff with a perfect view on the valley, a gorge on one side and steep mountains on the other side.

Question: When did many alpine countries develop heavy protection to prevent new invasion?


Answer: Savoy

Question: Who built a series of fortifications in the Maurienne valley?


Answer: to protect the major alpine passes

Question: Why were a series of fortifications in the Maurienne valley built?


Answer: Napoléon Bonaparte

Question: Who ordered the construction of a paved road?


Answer: the monasteries built in the high Alps

Context: In the 19th century, the monasteries built in the high Alps during the medieval period to shelter travelers and as places of pilgrimage, became tourist destinations. The Benedictines had built monasteries in Lucerne, Switzerland, and Oberammergau; the Cistercians in the Tyrol and at Lake Constance; and the Augustinians had abbeys in the Savoy and one in the center of Interlaken, Switzerland. The Great St Bernard Hospice, built in the 9th or 10th centuries, at the summit of the Great Saint Bernard Pass was shelter for travelers and place for pilgrims since its inception; by the 19th century it became a tourist attraction with notable visitors such as author Charles Dickens and mountaineer Edward Whymper.

Question: What became tourist destinations during the 19th century?


Answer: The Benedictines

Question: Who built monasteries in Lucerne, Switzerland and Oberammergau?


Answer: the Augustinians

Question: Who had abbeys in the Savor and one in the center of Interlaken?


Answer: the 9th or 10th centuries

Question: When was the Great St. Bernard Hospice built?


Answer: 50,000 years

Context: Radiocarbon dated charcoal placed around 50,000 years ago was found in the Drachloch (Dragon's Hole) cave above the village of Vattis in the canton of St. Gallen, proving that the high peaks were visited by prehistoric people. Seven bear skulls from the cave may have been buried by the same prehistoric people. The peaks, however, were mostly ignored except for a few notable examples, and long left to the exclusive attention of the people of the adjoining valleys. The mountain peaks were seen as terrifying, the abode of dragons and demons, to the point that people blindfolded themselves to cross the Alpine passes. The glaciers remained a mystery and many still believed the highest areas to be inhabited by dragons.

Question: How old was the charcoal placed in the Drachloch cave?


Answer: the high peaks were visited by prehistoric people

Question: What does the finding of charcoal in Dragon's Hole prove?


Answer: Seven bear skulls

Question: What may have been buried by the same prehistoric people?


Answer: Alpine passes

Question: People blindfolded themselves to cross what?


Answer: France

Context: Charles VII of France ordered his chamberlain to climb Mont Aiguille in 1356. The knight reached the summit of Rocciamelone where he left a bronze triptych of three crosses, a feat which he conducted with the use of ladders to traverse the ice. In 1492 Antoine de Ville climbed Mont Aiguille, without reaching the summit, an experience he described as "horrifying and terrifying." Leonardo da Vinci was fascinated by variations of light in the higher altitudes, and climbed a mountain—scholars are uncertain which one; some believe it may have been Monte Rosa. From his description of a "blue like that of a gentian" sky it is thought that he reached a significantly high altitude. In the 18th century four Chamonix man almost made the summit of Mont Blanc but were overcome by altitude sickness and snowblindness.

Question: Where was Charles VII from?


Answer: climb Mont Aiguille

Question: What was Charles VII chamberlain ordered to do?


Answer: a bronze triptych of three crosses

Question: What did the knight leave at the summit of Rocciamelone?


Answer: 1492

Question: When did Antioine de Ville climb Mont Aiguille?


Answer: 18th century

Question: When did four Chamonix men almost reach the summit of Mont Blanc?


Answer: Conrad Gessner

Context: Conrad Gessner was the first naturalist to ascend the mountains in the 16th century, to study them, writing that in the mountains he found the "theatre of the Lord". By the 19th century more naturalists began to arrive to explore, study and conquer the high peaks; they were followed by artists, writers and painters. Two men who first explored the regions of ice and snow were Horace-Bénédict de Saussure (1740–1799) in the Pennine Alps, and the Benedictine monk of Disentis Placidus a Spescha (1752–1833). Born in Geneva, Saussure was enamored with the mountains from an early age; he left a law career to become a naturalist and spent many years trekking through the Bernese Oberland, the Savoy, the Piedmont and Valais, studying the glaciers and the geology, as he became an early proponent of the theory of rock upheaval. Saussure, in 1787, was a member of the third ascent of Mont Blanc—today the summits of all the peaks have been climbed.

Question: Who was the first naturalist to ascend the mountains?


Answer: Geneva

Question: Where was Horace-Benedict de Saussure born?


Answer: Saussure

Question: Who was a member of the third ascent of Mont Blanc?


Answer: Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Context: Jean-Jacques Rousseau was the first of many to present the Alps as a place of allure and beauty, banishing the prevalent conception of the mountains as a hellish wasteland inhabited by demons. Rousseau's conception of alpine purity was later emphasized with the publication of Albrecht von Haller's poem Die Alpen that described the mountains as an area of mythical purity. Late in the 18th century the first wave of Romantics such as Goethe and Turner came to admire the scenery; Wordsworth visited the area in 1790, writing of his experiences in The Prelude. Schiller later wrote the play William Tell romanticising Swiss independence. After the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the Alpine countries began to see an influx of poets, artists, and musicians, as visitors came to experience the sublime effects of monumental nature.

Question: Who was the first of many to present the Alps as a place of allure and beauty?


Answer: Albrecht von Haller

Question: Who wrote the poem Die Alpen?


Answer: After the end of the Napoleonic Wars

Question: When did the Alpine countries see an influx of poets, artists, and musicians?


Answer: the sublime effects of monumental nature

Question: What did the visitors come to experience in the Alpine countries?


Answer: Geneva

Context: In 1816 Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley and his wife Mary Shelley visited Geneva and all three were inspired by the scenery in their writings. During these visits Shelley wrote the poem "Mont Blanc", Byron wrote "The Prisoner of Chillon" and the dramatic poem Manfred, and Mary Shelley, who found the scenery overwhelming, conceived the idea for the novel Frankenstein in her villa on the shores of Lake Geneva in the midst of a thunderstorm. When Coleridge travelled to Chamonix, he declaimed, in defiance of Shelley, who had signed himself "Atheos" in the guestbook of the Hotel de Londres near Montenvers, "Who would be, who could be an atheist in this valley of wonders". By the mid-19th century scientists began to arrive en masse to study the geology and ecology of the region.

Question: Percy and Mary Shelley were inspired by what region's scenery?


Answer: Mont Blanc

Question: What poem did Shelley write during the visits to Geneva?


Answer: the mid-19th century

Question: When did scientists began to arrive en masse to study the geology and ecology of the Alpine region?


Answer: Austrian

Context: Austrian-born Adolf Hitler had a lifelong romantic fascination with the Alps and by the 1930s established a home in the Obersalzberg region outside of Berchtesgaden. His first visit to the area was in 1923 and he maintained a strong tie there until the end of his life. At the end of World War II the US Army occupied Obersalzberg, to prevent Hitler from retreating with the Wehrmacht into the mountains.

Question: Where was Adolf Hitler born?


Answer: the Alps

Question: What did Adolf Hitler have a lifelong romantic fascination with?


Answer: the Obersalzberg region

Question: Where did Adolf Hitler establish a home in the 1930s?


Answer: 1923

Question: When was Adolf Hitlers first visit to the Alps?


Answer: the Third Reich

Context: By 1940 the Third Reich had occupied many of the Alpine countries. Austria underwent a political coup that made it part of the Third Reich; France had been invaded and Italy was a fascist regime. Switzerland was the only country to luckily avoid invasion. The Swiss Confederate mobilized its troops—the country follows the doctrine of "armed neutrality" with all males required to have military training—a number that General Eisenhower estimated to be about 850,000. The Swiss commanders wired the infrastructure leading into the country, and threatening to destroy bridges, railway tunnels and passes in the event of a Nazi invasion, and then they retreated to the heart of the mountain peaks where conditions were harsher and a military invasion would involve difficult and protracted battles.

Question: By 1940 who occupied many of the Alpine countries?


Answer: Austria

Question: What country underwent a political coup that made it part of the Third Reich?


Answer: Switzerland

Question: What was the only country that avoided invasion from the Third Reich?


Answer: The Swiss commanders

Question: Who wired the infrastructure leading into Switzerland?


Answer: Ski troops

Context: Ski troops were trained for the war, and battles were waged in mountainous areas such as the battle at Riva Ridge in Italy, where the American 10th Mountain Division encountered heavy resistance in February 1945. At the end of the war, a substantial amount of Nazi plunder was found stored in Austria, where Hitler had hoped to retreat as the war drew to a close. The salt mines surrounding the Altaussee area, where American troops found 75 kilos of gold coins stored in a single mine, were used to store looted art, jewels, and currency; vast quantities of looted art were found and returned to the owners.

Question: Who were trained for the war?


Answer: Italy

Question: Where was the battle at Riva Ridge?


Answer: Austria

Question: Where was a substantial amount of Nazi plunder found at the end of the war?


Answer: The salt mines surrounding the Altaussee area

Question: Where did American troops find 75 kilos of gold coins?


Answer: 14 million

Context: The population of the region is 14 million spread across eight countries. On the rim of the mountains, on the plateaus and the plains the economy consists of manufacturing and service jobs whereas in the higher altitudes and in the mountains farming is still essential to the economy. Farming and forestry continue to be mainstays of Alpine culture, industries that provide for export to the cities and maintain the mountain ecology.

Question: What is the population of the Alpine region?


Answer: manufacturing and service jobs

Question: What does the economy consist of on the rim of the mountains?


Answer: Alpine culture

Question: Farming and Forestry continue to be a mainstay of what?


Answer: Alpine culture

Context: Much of the Alpine culture is unchanged since the medieval period when skills that guaranteed survival in the mountain valleys and in the highest villages became mainstays, leading to strong traditions of carpentry, woodcarving, baking and pastry-making, and cheesemaking.

Question: Much of what has not changed since the medieval period?


Answer: the medieval period

Question: When were skills that guaranteed survival in the mountain valleys most important?


Answer: carpentry

Question: What is one of the strongest traditions in Alpine culture?


Answer: Farming

Context: Farming had been a traditional occupation for centuries, although it became less dominant in the 20th century with the advent of tourism. Grazing and pasture land are limited because of the steep and rocky topography of the Alps. In mid-June cows are moved to the highest pastures close to the snowline, where they are watched by herdsmen who stay in the high altitudes often living in stone huts or wooden barns during the summers. Villagers celebrate the day the cows are herded up to the pastures and again when they return in mid-September. The Alpanschluss or Désalpes ("coming down from the alps") is celebrated by decorating the cows with garlands and enormous cowbells while the farmers dress in traditional costumes.

Question: What has been a traditional occupation for centuries?


Answer: tourism

Question: What made farming less dominant in the 20th century?


Answer: because of the steep and rocky topography of the Alps

Question: Why is pasture land limited?


Answer: mid-June

Question: When are cows moved to the highest pastures close to the snowline?


Answer: Cheesemaking

Context: Cheesemaking is an ancient tradition in most Alpine countries. A wheel of cheese from the Emmental in Switzerland can weigh up to 45 kg (100 lb), and the Beaufort in Savoy can weight up to 70 kilograms (150 lb). Owners of the cows traditionally receive from the cheesemakers a portion in relation to the proportion of the cows' milk from the summer months in the high alps. Haymaking is an important farming activity in mountain villages which has become somewhat mechanized in recent years, although the slopes are so steep that usually scythes are necessary to cut the grass. Hay is normally brought in twice a year, often also on festival days. Alpine festivals vary from country to country and often include the display of local costumes such as dirndl and trachten, the playing of Alpenhorns, wrestling matches, some pagan traditions such as Walpurgis Night and, in many areas, Carnival is celebrated before Lent.

Question: What is an ancient tradition in most Alpine countries?


Answer: up to 45 kg (100 lb)

Question: How much can a wheel of cheese from the Emmental weigh?


Answer: Haymaking

Question: What is an important farming activity in mountain villages?


Answer: twice

Question: How many times is Hay normally brought each year?


Answer: before Lent

Question: When is Carnival celebrated?


Answer: medieval designs that withstand cold winters

Context: In the high villages people live in homes built according to medieval designs that withstand cold winters. The kitchen is separated from the living area (called the stube, the area of the home heated by a stove), and second-floor bedrooms benefit from rising heat. The typical Swiss chalet originated in the Bernese Oberland. Chalets often face south or downhill, and are built of solid wood, with a steeply gabled roof to allow accumulated snow to slide off easily. Stairs leading to upper levels are sometimes built on the outside, and balconies are sometimes enclosed.

Question: What do people in high villages build their homes according to?


Answer: the stube

Question: What is the area of the home heated by a stove called?


Answer: the Bernese Oberland

Question: The typic Swiss chalet originated from where?


Answer: south or downhill

Question: Which direction do Chalets often face?


Answer: solid wood

Question: What are Chalets built of?


Answer: the stube

Context: Food is passed from the kitchen to the stube, where the dining room table is placed. Some meals are communal, such as fondue, where a pot is set in the middle of the table for each person to dip into. Other meals are still served in a traditional manner on carved wooden plates. Furniture has been traditionally elaborately carved and in many Alpine countries carpentry skills are passed from generation to generation.

Question: The food is passed from the kitchen to where?


Answer: the stube

Question: Where is the dining room table placed?


Answer: carved wooden plates

Question: Traditionally, what are meals served on?


Answer: elaborately

Question: How is furniture traditionally carved?


Answer: Alpine rocks

Context: Roofs are traditionally constructed from Alpine rocks such as pieces of schist, gneiss or slate. Such chalets are typically found in the higher parts of the valleys, as in the Maurienne valley in Savoy, where the amount of snow during the cold months is important. The inclination of the roof cannot exceed 40%, allowing the snow to stay on top, thereby functioning as insulation from the cold. In the lower areas where the forests are widespread, wooden tiles are traditionally used. Commonly made of Norway spruce, they are called "tavaillon". The Alpine regions are multicultural and linguistically diverse. Dialects are common, and vary from valley to valley and region to region. In the Slavic Alps alone 19 dialects have been identified. Some of the French dialects spoken in the French, Swiss and Italian alps of Aosta Valley derive from Arpitan, while the southern part of the western range is related to Old Provençal; the German dialects derive from Germanic tribal languages. Romansh, spoken by two percent of the population in southeast Switzerland, is an ancient Rhaeto-Romanic language derived from Latin, remnants of ancient Celtic languages and perhaps Etruscan.

Question: What are roofs traditionally constructed from?


Answer: the higher parts of the valleys

Question: Where are chalets typically used for roof construction found??


Answer: 40%

Question: The inclination of the roof cannot exceed how much?


Answer: 19

Question: How many dialects have been identified in the Slavic Alps?


Answer: Romansh

Question: What language is spoken by two percent of the population in southeast Switzerland?


Answer: the Alps

Context: At present the Alps are one of the more popular tourist destinations in the world with many resorts such Oberstdorf, in Bavaria, Saalbach in Austria, Davos in Switzerland, Chamonix in France, and Cortina d'Ampezzo in Italy recording more than a million annual visitors. With over 120 million visitors a year tourism is integral to the Alpine economy with much it coming from winter sports although summer visitors are an important component of the tourism industry.

Question: What's one of the most popular tourist destinations in the world?


Answer: Austria

Question: Where is Saalbach located?


Answer: over 120 million

Question: How many people visit the Alps every year?


Answer: tourism

Question: What is an integral part of the Alpine economy?


Answer: the early 19th century

Context: The tourism industry began in the early 19th century when foreigners visited the Alps, traveled to the bases of the mountains to enjoy the scenery, and stayed at the spa-resorts. Large hotels were built during the Belle Époque; cog-railways, built early in the 20th century, brought tourists to ever higher elevations, with the Jungfraubahn terminating at the Jungfraujoch, well above the eternal snow-line, after going through a tunnel in Eiger. During this period winter sports were slowly introduced: in 1882 the first figure skating championship was held in St. Moritz, and downhill skiing became a popular sport with English visitors early in the 20th century, as the first ski-lift was installed in 1908 above Grindelwald.

Question: When did the tourism industry begin?


Answer: during the Belle Époque

Question: When were large hotels built in the Alps?


Answer: early in the 20th century

Question: When were cog-railways built in the Alps?


Answer: 1882

Question: When was the first figure skating championship held?


Answer: St. Moritz

Question: Where was the first figure skating championship held?


Answer: Chamonix, France

Context: In the first half of the 20th century the Olympic Winter Games were held three times in Alpine venues: the 1924 Winter Olympics in Chamonix, France; the 1928 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz, Switzerland; and the 1936 Winter Olympics in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany. During World War II the winter games were canceled but after that time the Winter Games have been held in St. Moritz (1948), Cortina d'Ampezzo (1956), Innsbruck, Austria (1964 and 1976), Grenoble, France, (1968), Albertville, France, (1992), and Torino (2006). In 1930 the Lauberhorn Rennen (Lauberhorn Race), was run for the first time on the Lauberhorn above Wengen; the equally demanding Hahnenkamm was first run in the same year in Kitzbühl, Austria. Both races continue to be held each January on successive weekends. The Lauberhorn is the more strenuous downhill race at 4.5 km (2.8 mi) and poses danger to racers who reach 130 km/h (81 mph) within seconds of leaving the start gate.

Question: Where were the Winter Olympics held in 1924?


Answer: St. Moritz, Switzerland

Question: Where were the Winter Olympics held in 1928?


Answer: Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany

Question: Where were the Winter Olympics held in 1936?


Answer: 1930

Question: When was the Lauberhorn Rennen ran for the first time on the Lauberhorn above Wengen?


Answer: (1992)

Question: When were the Winter Olympics held in Albertville, France?


Answer: post-World War I

Context: During the post-World War I period ski-lifts were built in Swiss and Austrian towns to accommodate winter visitors, but summer tourism continued to be important; by the mid-20th century the popularity of downhill skiing increased greatly as it became more accessible and in the 1970s several new villages were built in France devoted almost exclusively to skiing, such as Les Menuires. Until this point Austria and Switzerland had been the traditional and more popular destinations for winter sports, but by the end of the 20th century and into the early 21st century, France, Italy and the Tyrol began to see increases in winter visitors. From 1980 to the present, ski-lifts have been modernized and snow-making machines installed at many resorts, leading to concerns regarding the loss of traditional Alpine culture and questions regarding sustainable development as the winter ski industry continues to develop quickly and the number of summer tourists decline.

Question: When were ski-lifts built in Swiss and Austrian towns?


Answer: the 1970s

Question: When were several new villages built in France almost exclusively for skiing?


Answer: France

Question: Where is Les Menuires located?


Answer: 4,200 km (2,600 mi)

Context: The region is serviced by 4,200 km (2,600 mi) of roads used by 6 million vehicles. Train travel is well established in the Alps, with, for instance 120 km (75 mi) of track for every 1,000 km2 (390 sq mi) in a country such as Switzerland. Most of Europe's highest railways are located there. Moreover, plans are underway to build a 57 km (35 mi)-long sub-alpine tunnel connecting the older Lötschberg and Gotthard tunnels built in the 19th century.

Question: How much area is devoted to roads in the Alpine region?


Answer: 6 million

Question: How many vehicles use the roads?


Answer: Switzerland

Question: Where are most of Europe's highest railways located?


Answer: 57 km

Question: How long is the tunnel connecting Lotschberg and Gotthard planned to be?


Answer: France

Context: Some high mountain villages, such as Avoriaz (in France), Wengen, and Zermatt (in Switzerland) are accessible only by cable car or cog-rail trains, and are car free. Other villages in the Alps are considering becoming car free zones or limiting the number of cars for reasons of sustainability of the fragile Alpine terrain.

Question: Where is the village of Avoriaz located?


Answer: Switzerland

Question: Where are the villages of Wengen and Zermatt located?


Answer: reasons of sustainability

Question: Why are villages considering becoming car free zones?


Answer: winter

Context: The lower regions and larger towns of the Alps are well-served by motorways and main roads, but higher mountain passes and byroads, which are amongst the highest in Europe, can be treacherous even in summer due to steep slopes. Many passes are closed in winter. A multitude of airports around the Alps (and some within), as well as long-distance rail links from all neighbouring countries, afford large numbers of travellers easy access from abroad.

Question: When are many passes in the Alps closed?


Answer: motorways

Question: The lower regions and larger towns of the Alps are well-served by what?


Answer: mountain passes

Question: What can be treacherous even in summer due to steep slopes?


Answer: a locus (or region) of DNA that encodes a functional RNA or protein product

Context: A gene is a locus (or region) of DNA that encodes a functional RNA or protein product, and is the molecular unit of heredity.:Glossary The transmission of genes to an organism's offspring is the basis of the inheritance of phenotypic traits. Most biological traits are under the influence of polygenes (many different genes) as well as the gene–environment interactions. Some genetic traits are instantly visible, such as eye colour or number of limbs, and some are not, such as blood type, risk for specific diseases, or the thousands of basic biochemical processes that comprise life.

Question: What is a gene?


Answer: The transmission of genes to an organism's offspring

Question: What is the basis of inheritance of phenotypic traits?


Answer: polygenes (many different genes)

Question: What influence are most biological traits under?


Answer: eye colour or number of limbs

Question: What is one instantly visible genetic trait?


Answer: blood type, risk for specific diseases, or the thousands of basic biochemical processes that comprise life

Question: What is one invisible genetic trait?


Answer: different variants, known as alleles

Context: Genes can acquire mutations in their sequence, leading to different variants, known as alleles, in the population. These alleles encode slightly different versions of a protein, which cause different phenotype traits. Colloquial usage of the term "having a gene" (e.g., "good genes," "hair colour gene") typically refers to having a different allele of the gene. Genes evolve due to natural selection or survival of the fittest of the alleles.

Question: What do mutations in a gene sequence lead to?


Answer: encode slightly different versions of a protein

Question: What do alleles do?


Answer: different phenotype traits

Question: What do alleles cause?


Answer: having a different allele of the gene

Question: What does "having a gene" or a "good gene" typically refer to?


Answer: natural selection or survival of the fittest of the alleles

Question: What causes genes to evolve?


Answer: its coding regions

Context: The concept of a gene continues to be refined as new phenomena are discovered. For example, regulatory regions of a gene can be far removed from its coding regions, and coding regions can be split into several exons. Some viruses store their genome in RNA instead of DNA and some gene products are functional non-coding RNAs. Therefore, a broad, modern working definition of a gene is any discrete locus of heritable, genomic sequence which affect an organism's traits by being expressed as a functional product or by regulation of gene expression.

Question: What can regulatory regions of a gene be far removed from?


Answer: several exons

Question: What can coding regions be split into?


Answer: RNA

Question: What do some viruses store their genome in instead of DNA?


Answer: functional non-coding RNAs

Question: What are some gene products?


Answer: any discrete locus of heritable, genomic sequence which affect an organism's traits by being expressed as a functional product

Question: What is a broad, modern working definition of a gene?


Answer: Gregor Mendel (1822–1884)

Context: The existence of discrete inheritable units was first suggested by Gregor Mendel (1822–1884). From 1857 to 1864, he studied inheritance patterns in 8000 common edible pea plants, tracking distinct traits from parent to offspring. He described these mathematically as 2n combinations where n is the number of differing characteristics in the original peas. Although he did not use the term gene, he explained his results in terms of discrete inherited units that give rise to observable physical characteristics. This description prefigured the distinction between genotype (the genetic material of an organism) and phenotype (the visible traits of that organism). Mendel was also the first to demonstrate independent assortment, the distinction between dominant and recessive traits, the distinction between a heterozygote and homozygote, and the phenomenon of discontinuous inheritance.

Question: Who first suggested the existence of discrete inheritable units?


Answer: n is the number of differing characteristics in the original peas

Question: If a distinct trait in edible pea plants is mathematically described as a 2n combination, what does n represent?


Answer: independent assortment

Question: What is one thing that Gregor Mendel was the first to demonstrate?


Answer: the distinction between dominant and recessive traits

Question: What is another thing that Gregor Mendel was the first to demonstrate?


Answer: discrete inherited units that give rise to observable physical characteristics

Question: What did Gregor Mendel explain his results in terms of?


Answer: one of blending inheritance

Context: Prior to Mendel's work, the dominant theory of heredity was one of blending inheritance, which suggested that each parent contributed fluids to the fertilisation process and that the traits of the parents blended and mixed to produce the offspring. Charles Darwin developed a theory of inheritance he termed pangenesis, which used the term gemmule to describe hypothetical particles that would mix during reproduction. Although Mendel's work was largely unrecognized after its first publication in 1866, it was 'rediscovered' in 1900 by three European scientists, Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, and Erich von Tschermak, who claimed to have reached similar conclusions in their own research.

Question: What was the dominant theory of heredity prior to Mendel's work?


Answer: Charles Darwin

Question: Who developed the theory of inheritance known as pangenesis?


Answer: hypothetical particles that would mix during reproduction

Question: What does the term gemmule describe?


Answer: 1866

Question: What year was Mendel's work first published?


Answer: Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, and Erich von Tschermak

Question: Who are the three scientists that claimed to have reached conclusions similar to Mendel's?


Answer: γένος (génos)

Context: The word gene is derived (via pangene) from the Ancient Greek word γένος (génos) meaning "race, offspring". Gene was coined in 1909 by Danish botanist Wilhelm Johannsen to describe the fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity, while the related word genetics was first used by William Bateson in 1905.

Question: What ancient Greek word is the word 'gene' derived from?


Answer: "race, offspring"

Question: What does the ancient Greek word 'génos' mean?


Answer: Wilhelm Johannsen

Question: What Danish botanist coined the word 'gene'?


Answer: the fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity

Question: What was the word 'gene' used to describe in 1909?


Answer: William Bateson

Question: Who first used the word 'genetics' in 1905?


Answer: Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

Context: Advances in understanding genes and inheritance continued throughout the 20th century. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was shown to be the molecular repository of genetic information by experiments in the 1940s to 1950s. The structure of DNA was studied by Rosalind Franklin using X-ray crystallography, which led James D. Watson and Francis Crick to publish a model of the double-stranded DNA molecule whose paired nucleotide bases indicated a compelling hypothesis for the mechanism of genetic replication. Collectively, this body of research established the central dogma of molecular biology, which states that proteins are translated from RNA, which is transcribed from DNA. This dogma has since been shown to have exceptions, such as reverse transcription in retroviruses. The modern study of genetics at the level of DNA is known as molecular genetics.

Question: What was shown to be the molecular repository of genetic information by experiments in the 1940s to 1950s?


Answer: Rosalind Franklin

Question: Who studied the structure of DNA using x-ray crystallography?


Answer: James D. Watson and Francis Crick

Question: What two scientists published a model of the double stranded DNA molecule?


Answer: reverse transcription in retroviruses

Question: What is one exception to the central dogma of molecular biology?


Answer: molecular genetics

Question: What is the modern study of genetics at the level of DNA known as?


Answer: In 1972

Context: In 1972, Walter Fiers and his team at the University of Ghent were the first to determine the sequence of a gene: the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein. The subsequent development of chain-termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger improved the efficiency of sequencing and turned it into a routine laboratory tool. An automated version of the Sanger method was used in early phases of the Human Genome Project.

Question: When was the first sequence of a gene determined?


Answer: the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein

Question: What was the first gene to be sequenced?


Answer: Frederick Sanger

Question: Who developed chain termination DNA sequencing in 1977?


Answer: improved the efficiency of sequencing and turned it into a routine laboratory tool.

Question: What did the devlopment of the chain termination DNA sequencing method do for the sequencing process?


Answer: the Human Genome Project

Question: What project used an automated version of the Sanger method in its early stages?


Answer: the 1930s and 1940s

Context: The theories developed in the 1930s and 1940s to integrate molecular genetics with Darwinian evolution are called the modern evolutionary synthesis, a term introduced by Julian Huxley. Evolutionary biologists subsequently refined this concept, such as George C. Williams' gene-centric view of evolution. He proposed an evolutionary concept of the gene as a unit of natural selection with the definition: "that which segregates and recombines with appreciable frequency.":24 In this view, the molecular gene transcribes as a unit, and the evolutionary gene inherits as a unit. Related ideas emphasizing the centrality of genes in evolution were popularized by Richard Dawkins.

Question: In what time span were the theories to integrate molecular genetic with Darwinian evolution developed?


Answer: the modern evolutionary synthesis

Question: What are the theories that integrate molecular genetics with Darwinian evolution called?


Answer: George C. Williams

Question: Who proposed an evolutionary concept of the gene as a unit of natural selection?


Answer: "that which segregates and recombines with appreciable frequency."

Question: What is the definition of the concept of the gene as a unit of natural selection?


Answer: Richard Dawkins

Question: Who popularized ideas emphasizing the centrality of genes in evolution?


Answer: long strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

Context: The vast majority of living organisms encode their genes in long strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA consists of a chain made from four types of nucleotide subunits, each composed of: a five-carbon sugar (2'-deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and one of the four bases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine.:2.1

Question: What do the vast majority of living organisms encode their genes in?


Answer: a chain made from four types of nucleotide subunits

Question: What does DNA consist of?


Answer: a five-carbon sugar (2'-deoxyribose)

Question: What type of sugar composes part of the DNA molecule?


Answer: adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine

Question: What are the four bases used in nucleotide subunits?


Answer: a phosphate group

Question: Besides the sugar and the four bases, what else does DNA consist of?


Answer: phosphate-sugar

Context: Two chains of DNA twist around each other to form a DNA double helix with the phosphate-sugar backbone spiralling around the outside, and the bases pointing inwards with adenine base pairing to thymine and guanine to cytosine. The specificity of base pairing occurs because adenine and thymine align form two hydrogen bonds, whereas cytosine and guanine form three hydrogen bonds. The two strands in a double helix must therefore be complementary, with their sequence of bases matching such that the adenines of one strand are paired with the thymines of the other strand, and so on.:4.1

Question: What is the backbone of a DNA double helix made of?


Answer: adenine

Question: What base pairs with thymine?


Answer: cytosine

Question: What base does guanine pair with?


Answer: adenine and thymine align form two hydrogen bonds, whereas cytosine and guanine form three hydrogen bonds

Question: What causes the specificity of base pairing?


Answer: The two strands in a double helix must therefore be complementary

Question: Due to the cause of the specificity of base pairing, what must be true of the two strands in a double helix?


Answer: the chemical composition of the pentose residues of the bases

Context: Due to the chemical composition of the pentose residues of the bases, DNA strands have directionality. One end of a DNA polymer contains an exposed hydroxyl group on the deoxyribose; this is known as the 3' end of the molecule. The other end contains an exposed phosphate group; this is the 5' end. The two strands of a double-helix run in opposite directions. Nucleic acid synthesis, including DNA replication and transcription occurs in the 5'→3' direction, because new nucleotides are added via a dehydration reaction that uses the exposed 3' hydroxyl as a nucleophile.:27.2

Question: What causes the directionality of DNA strands?


Answer: an exposed hydroxyl group on the deoxyribose

Question: What is known as the 3' end?


Answer: an exposed phosphate group

Question: What is known as the 5' end?


Answer: Nucleic acid synthesis

Question: What type of synthesis occurs in the 5'→3' direction?


Answer: because new nucleotides are added via a dehydration reaction that uses the exposed 3' hydroxyl as a nucleophile

Question: Why does DNA replication and transcription occur in the 5'→3' direction?


Answer: by transcribing the gene into RNA

Context: The expression of genes encoded in DNA begins by transcribing the gene into RNA, a second type of nucleic acid that is very similar to DNA, but whose monomers contain the sugar ribose rather than deoxyribose. RNA also contains the base uracil in place of thymine. RNA molecules are less stable than DNA and are typically single-stranded. Genes that encode proteins are composed of a series of three-nucleotide sequences called codons, which serve as the "words" in the genetic "language". The genetic code specifies the correspondence during protein translation between codons and amino acids. The genetic code is nearly the same for all known organisms.:4.1

Question: How does the expression of genes encoded in DNA begin?


Answer: a second type of nucleic acid that is very similar to DNA

Question: What is RNA?


Answer: the base uracil

Question: What base does RNA have in place of thymine?


Answer: a series of three-nucleotide sequences

Question: What are codons?


Answer: The genetic code

Question: What specifies the correspondence between codons and amino acids during protein translation?


Answer: its genome

Context: The total complement of genes in an organism or cell is known as its genome, which may be stored on one or more chromosomes. A chromosome consists of a single, very long DNA helix on which thousands of genes are encoded.:4.2 The region of the chromosome at which a particular gene is located is called its locus. Each locus contains one allele of a gene; however, members of a population may have different alleles at the locus, each with a slightly different gene sequence.

Question: What is the total complement of genes in an organism or cell known as?


Answer: a single, very long DNA helix

Question: What does a chromosome consist of?


Answer: thousands of genes

Question: What is encoded on a chromosome?


Answer: its locus

Question: What is the region of the chromosome at which a particular gene is located called?


Answer: one allele of a gene

Question: What does each locus contain?


Answer: on a set of large, linear chromosomes

Context: The majority of eukaryotic genes are stored on a set of large, linear chromosomes. The chromosomes are packed within the nucleus in complex with storage proteins called histones to form a unit called a nucleosome. DNA packaged and condensed in this way is called chromatin.:4.2 The manner in which DNA is stored on the histones, as well as chemical modifications of the histone itself, regulate whether a particular region of DNA is accessible for gene expression. In addition to genes, eukaryotic chromosomes contain sequences involved in ensuring that the DNA is copied without degradation of end regions and sorted into daughter cells during cell division: replication origins, telomeres and the centromere.:4.2 Replication origins are the sequence regions where DNA replication is initiated to make two copies of the chromosome. Telomeres are long stretches of repetitive sequence that cap the ends of the linear chromosomes and prevent degradation of coding and regulatory regions during DNA replication. The length of the telomeres decreases each time the genome is replicated and has been implicated in the aging process. The centromere is required for binding spindle fibres to separate sister chromatids into daughter cells during cell division.:18.2

Question: Where are the majority of eukaryotic genes stored?


Answer: a nucleosome

Question: Chromosomes that are packed within the nucleus in complex with histones are called what?


Answer: whether a particular region of DNA is accessible for gene expression

Question: What does the manner of DNA storage on the histone and the chemical modifications of the histone itself regulate?


Answer: regions where DNA replication is initiated to make two copies of the chromosome

Question: What are replication origins?


Answer: Telomeres

Question: Long stretches of repetitive sequence that cap the ends of the linear chromosomes are called what?


Answer: bacteria and archaea

Context: Prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) typically store their genomes on a single large, circular chromosome. Similarly, some eukaryotic organelles contain a remnant circular chromosome with a small number of genes.:14.4 Prokaryotes sometimes supplement their chromosome with additional small circles of DNA called plasmids, which usually encode only a few genes and are transferable between individuals. For example, the genes for antibiotic resistance are usually encoded on bacterial plasmids and can be passed between individual cells, even those of different species, via horizontal gene transfer.

Question: What are prokaryotes?


Answer: on a single large, circular chromosome

Question: How do prokaryotes store their genomes?


Answer: a remnant circular chromosome with a small number of genes

Question: What type of chromosome do some eukaryotic organelles contain?


Answer: plasmids

Question: Small circles of DNA that encode only a few genes and are transferable between individuals are called what?


Answer: horizontal gene transfer

Question: What allows genes for antibiotic resistance to be passed between individual cells?


Answer: prokaryotes

Context: Whereas the chromosomes of prokaryotes are relatively gene-dense, those of eukaryotes often contain regions of DNA that serve no obvious function. Simple single-celled eukaryotes have relatively small amounts of such DNA, whereas the genomes of complex multicellular organisms, including humans, contain an absolute majority of DNA without an identified function. This DNA has often been referred to as "junk DNA". However, more recent analyses suggest that, although protein-coding DNA makes up barely 2% of the human genome, about 80% of the bases in the genome may be expressed, so the term "junk DNA" may be a misnomer.

Question: What type of organism has relatively gene dense chromosomes?


Answer: eukaryotes

Question: Regions of DNA that serve no obvious function are often found in what type of organism?


Answer: DNA without an identified function

Question: What is referred to as "junk DNA"?


Answer: barely 2%

Question: What percentage of the human genome is made of protein coding DNA?


Answer: about 80%

Question: What percentage of bases in the human genome are expressed by protein coding DNA


Answer: often only a small part

Context: The structure of a gene consists of many elements of which the actual protein coding sequence is often only a small part. These include DNA regions that are not transcribed as well as untranslated regions of the RNA.

Question: Often, how large a part of the structure of a gene is the protein coding sequence?


Answer: the actual protein coding sequence

Question: What often plays only a small part in the structure of a gene?


Answer: DNA regions that are not transcribed

Question: What is one of the many elements that the structure of a gene consists of?


Answer: untranslated regions of the RNA

Question: What is another element of the structure of a gene?


Answer: DNA regions that are not transcribed as well as untranslated regions of the RNA

Question: What elements does the structure of a gene consist of?