Answer: three

Context: North Carolina is home to three major league sports franchises: the Carolina Panthers of the National Football League and the Charlotte Hornets of the National Basketball Association are based in Charlotte, while the Raleigh-based Carolina Hurricanes play in the National Hockey League. The Panthers and Hurricanes are the only two major professional sports teams that have the same geographical designation while playing in different metropolitan areas. The Hurricanes are the only major professional team from North Carolina to have won a league championship, having captured the Stanley Cup in 2006. North Carolina is also home to Charlotte Hounds of the Major League Lacrosse.

Question: How many major league sports franchises make North carolina home?


Answer: The Hurricanes

Question: What is the only professional team from North carolina to have won a league championship?


Answer: National Hockey League

Question: The Carolina Hurricanes belong to what league?


Answer: National Basketball Association

Question: The Charlotte Hornets belong to what league?


Answer: National Football League

Question: The Caroli8na panthers belong to what league?


Answer: Charlotte Motor Speedway

Context: In addition to professional team sports, North Carolina has a strong affiliation with NASCAR and stock-car racing, with Charlotte Motor Speedway in Concord hosting two Sprint Cup Series races every year. Charlotte also hosts the NASCAR Hall of Fame, while Concord is the home of several top-flight racing teams, including Hendrick Motorsports, Roush Fenway Racing, Richard Petty Motorsports, Stewart-Haas Racing, and Chip Ganassi Racing. Numerous other tracks around North Carolina host races from low-tier NASCAR circuits as well.

Question: What Speedway in North Carolina hosts two Sprint cupseries races each year?


Answer: Concord

Question: Where is Charlotte motor Speedway located?


Answer: Charlotte

Question: What North Carolina city hosts the NASCAR Hall of Fame?


Answer: Concord

Question: What North carolina city is home to several top racing teams?


Answer: 18

Context: College sports are also popular in North Carolina, with 18 schools competing at the Division I level. The Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) is headquartered in Greensboro, and both the ACC Football Championship Game (Charlotte) and the ACC Men's Basketball Tournament (Greensboro) were most recently held in North Carolina. College basketball in particular is very popular, buoyed by the Tobacco Road rivalries between Duke, North Carolina, North Carolina State, and Wake Forest. The ACC Championship Game and The Belk Bowl are held annually in Charlotte's Bank of America Stadium, featuring teams from the ACC and the Southeastern Conference. Additionally, the state has hosted the NCAA Men's Basketball Final Four on two occasions, in Greensboro in 1974 and in Charlotte in 1994.

Question: How many colleges compete at the Division 1 level in North Carolina?


Answer: Greensboro

Question: Where is the ACC headquarters?


Answer: North Carolina

Question: Where were the ACC football and basketball championships recently held?


Answer: Charlotte's Bank of America Stadium

Question: What stadium host the ACC championship game and the Belk Bowl each year?


Answer: two

Question: How many times has North Carolina hosted the NCAA final four?


Answer: several million

Context: Every year the Appalachian Mountains attract several million tourists to the Western part of the state, including the historic Biltmore Estate. The scenic Blue Ridge Parkway and Great Smoky Mountains National Park are the two most visited national park and unit in the United States with over 25 million visitors in 2013. The City of Asheville is consistently voted as one of the top places to visit and live in the United States, known for its rich art deco architecture, mountain scenery and outdoor activities, and liberal and happy residents.

Question: How many people go to see the Appalachian Mountains each year?


Answer: Western

Question: What part of the state are the Appalachian Mountains in?


Answer: Appalachian

Question: Great Smoky mountain and Blue Ridge Parkway are located in what mountain range?


Answer: over 25 million

Question: How many tourists visited the Smoky Mountains and Blue Ridge parkway in 2013?


Answer: Asheville

Question: What North Carolina City is consistently voted one of the top places to live in the United States?


Answer: Carolina Hurricanes

Context: In Raleigh many tourists visit the Capital, African American Cultural Complex, Contemporary Art Museum of Raleigh, Gregg Museum of Art & Design at NCSU, Haywood Hall House & Gardens, Marbles Kids Museum, North Carolina Museum of Art, North Carolina Museum of History, North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, North Carolina Sports Hall of Fame, Raleigh City Museum, J. C. Raulston Arboretum, Joel Lane House, Mordecai House, Montfort Hall, and the Pope House Museum. The Carolina Hurricanes NHL hockey team is also located in the city.

Question: What Hockey team is located in Raleigh?


Answer: NHL

Question: What league do the Carolina Hurricanes belong to?


Answer: North Carolina Sports Hall of Fame

Question: What Hall of Fame is located in Raleigh?


Answer: J. C. Raulston Arboretum

Question: What arboretum is located in Raleigh?


Answer: The Piedmont Triad

Context: The Piedmont Triad, or center of the state, is home to Krispy Kreme, Mayberry, Texas Pete, the Lexington Barbecue Festival, and Moravian cookies. The internationally acclaimed North Carolina Zoo in Asheboro attracts visitors to its animals, plants, and a 57-piece art collection along five miles of shaded pathways in the world's largest-land-area natural-habitat park. Seagrove, in the central portion of the state, attracts many tourists along Pottery Highway (NC Hwy 705). MerleFest in Wilkesboro attracts more than 80,000 people to its four-day music festival; and Wet 'n Wild Emerald Pointe water park in Greensboro is another attraction.

Question: What is the center of North Carolina called?


Answer: The Piedmont Triad

Question: Where is the Krispy kreme headquarters located?


Answer: Asheboro

Question: What city is the North Carolina Zoo in?


Answer: five

Question: How many miles of shaded pathways does the Nort Carolina Zoo have?


Answer: Wilkesboro

Question: What North Carolina City hosts the Merlefest?


Answer: recreational

Context: North Carolina provides a large range of recreational activities, from swimming at the beach to skiing in the mountains. North Carolina offers fall colors, freshwater and saltwater fishing, hunting, birdwatching, agritourism, ATV trails, ballooning, rock climbing, biking, hiking, skiing, boating and sailing, camping, canoeing, caving (spelunking), gardens, and arboretums. North Carolina has theme parks, aquariums, museums, historic sites, lighthouses, elegant theaters, concert halls, and fine dining.

Question: Fishing, hunting, and birdwatching are what kind of activities that are provided in North Carolina?


Answer: fall colors

Question: In the Fall, people go to North Carolina to see what?


Answer: spelunking

Question: What is another name for caving?


Answer: 34

Context: North Carolinians enjoy outdoor recreation utilizing numerous local bike paths, 34 state parks, and 14 national parks. National Park Service units include the Appalachian National Scenic Trail, the Blue Ridge Parkway, Cape Hatteras National Seashore, Cape Lookout National Seashore, Carl Sandburg Home National Historic Site at Flat Rock, Fort Raleigh National Historic Site at Manteo, Great Smoky Mountains National Park, Guilford Courthouse National Military Park in Greensboro, Moores Creek National Battlefield near Currie in Pender County, the Overmountain Victory National Historic Trail, Old Salem National Historic Site in Winston-Salem, the Trail of Tears National Historic Trail, and Wright Brothers National Memorial in Kill Devil Hills. National Forests include Uwharrie National Forest in central North Carolina, Croatan National Forest in Eastern North Carolina, Pisgah National Forest in the northern mountains, and Nantahala National Forest in the southwestern part of the state.

Question: Howmany state parks are in North Carolina?


Answer: 14

Question: How many national parks are in North Carolina?


Answer: central North Carolina

Question: Where is the Uwharrie national Forest located?


Answer: Eastern North Carolina

Question: Where is Croatan National Forest located?


Answer: Greensboro

Question: Where is the Guilford Courthouse National Military Park?


Answer: nonprofit arts and culture

Context: North Carolina has rich traditions in art, music, and cuisine. The nonprofit arts and culture industry generates $1.2 billion in direct economic activity in North Carolina, supporting more than 43,600 full-time equivalent jobs and generating $119 million in revenue for local governments and the state of North Carolina. North Carolina established the North Carolina Museum of Art as the first major museum collection in the country to be formed by state legislation and funding and continues to bring millions into the NC economy. Also see this list of museums in North Carolina.

Question: What industry generates 1.2 billion in economic activity each year for North carolina?


Answer: 43,600

Question: How many full time jobs are held by those in the non profit arts and culture industry?


Answer: $119 million

Question: How much money does the nonprofit arts and culture industry raise for government?


Answer: North Carolina Museum of Art

Question: What was the first museum in the country to be formed by legislature?


Answer: millions

Question: How much money does the North Carolina Museum of art generate?


Answer: Charlotte

Context: North Carolina has a variety of shopping choices. SouthPark Mall in Charlotte is currently the largest in the Carolinas, with almost 2.0 million square feet. Other major malls in Charlotte include Northlake Mall and Carolina Place Mall in nearby suburb Pineville. Other major malls throughout the state include Hanes Mall in Winston-Salem; Crabtree Valley Mall, North Hills Mall, and Triangle Town Center in Raleigh; Friendly Center and Four Seasons Town Centre in Greensboro; Oak Hollow Mall in High Point; Concord Mills in Concord; Valley Hills Mall in Hickory; and The Streets at Southpoint and Northgate Mall in Durham and Independence Mall in Wilmington, NC, and Tanger Outlets in Charlotte, Nags Head, Blowing Rock, and Mebane, NC.

Question: Where is SouthPark Mall located?


Answer: SouthPark Mall

Question: What is the largest mall in the carolinas?


Answer: 2.0 million square feet

Question: How big is SouthPark Mall?


Answer: Winston-Salem

Question: Where is the hanes Mall located?


Answer: Greensboro

Question: Where is the Four Seasons Town Center located?


Answer: pork barbecue

Context: A culinary staple of North Carolina is pork barbecue. There are strong regional differences and rivalries over the sauces and methods used in making the barbecue. The common trend across Western North Carolina is the use of premium grade Boston butt. Western North Carolina pork barbecue uses a tomato-based sauce, and only the pork shoulder (dark meat) is used. Western North Carolina barbecue is commonly referred to as Lexington barbecue after the Piedmont Triad town of Lexington, home of the Lexington Barbecue Festival, which attracts over 100,000 visitors each October. Eastern North Carolina pork barbecue uses a vinegar-and-red-pepper-based sauce and the "whole hog" is cooked, thus integrating both white and dark meat.

Question: What is a culinary staple of North Carolina?


Answer: Boston butt

Question: What cut of pork do those in western North carolina prefer for BBQ?


Answer: Lexington barbecue

Question: What is another name for Western North Carolina Barbecue?


Answer: pork shoulder

Question: What cut of pork do those in Western North Carolina prefer for BBQ?


Answer: over 100,000

Question: How many people visit the lexington Barbecue festival each year?


Answer: doughnut

Context: Krispy Kreme, an international chain of doughnut stores, was started in North Carolina; the company's headquarters are in Winston-Salem. Pepsi-Cola was first produced in 1898 in New Bern. A regional soft drink, Cheerwine, was created and is still based in the city of Salisbury. Despite its name, the hot sauce Texas Pete was created in North Carolina; its headquarters are also in Winston-Salem. The Hardee's fast-food chain was started in Rocky Mount. Another fast-food chain, Bojangles', was started in Charlotte, and has its corporate headquarters there. A popular North Carolina restaurant chain is Golden Corral. Started in 1973, the chain was founded in Fayetteville, with headquarters located in Raleigh. Popular pickle brand Mount Olive Pickle Company was founded in Mount Olive in 1926. Fast casual burger chain Hwy 55 Burgers, Shakes & Fries also makes its home in Mount Olive. Cook Out, a popular fast-food chain featuring burgers, hot dogs, and milkshakes in a wide variety of flavors, was founded in Greensboro in 1989 and has begun expanding outside of North Carolina. In 2013, Southern Living named Durham - Chapel Hill the South's "Tastiest City."

Question: Krispy kreme is a chain of what kind of stores?


Answer: Winston-Salem

Question: Where is the Krispy kreme headquarters?


Answer: 1898

Question: When was pepsi-Cola first produced?


Answer: New Bern

Question: Where was pepsi first produced?


Answer: Salisbury

Question: What city was Cheerwine created and based in?


Answer: Noni Bacca Winery

Context: Over the last decade, North Carolina has become a cultural epicenter and haven for internationally prize-winning wine (Noni Bacca Winery), internationally prized cheeses (Ashe County), "L'institut International aux Arts Gastronomiques: Conquerront Les Yanks les Truffes, January 15, 2010" international hub for truffles (Garland Truffles), and beer making, as tobacco land has been converted to grape orchards while state laws regulating alcohol content in beer allowed a jump in ABV from 6% to 15%. The Yadkin Valley in particular has become a strengthening market for grape production, while Asheville recently won the recognition of being named 'Beer City USA.' Asheville boasts the largest breweries per capita of any city in the United States. Recognized and marketed brands of beer in North Carolina include Highland Brewing, Duck Rabbit Brewery, Mother Earth Brewery, Weeping Radish Brewery, Big Boss Brewing, Foothills Brewing, Carolina Brewing Company, Lonerider Brewing, and White Rabbit Brewing Company.

Question: What international prize winning winery is located in North Carolina?


Answer: Ashe County

Question: What prized cheeses are made in North Carolina?


Answer: grape

Question: Much tobacco land has been transformed into what kind of orchards?


Answer: 15%.

Question: North carolina state law allowed a jump in alcohol volume from 6% to what percent?


Answer: Asheville

Question: What city was named Beer City USA?


Answer: R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company

Context: Tobacco was one of the first major industries to develop after the Civil War. Many farmers grew some tobacco, and the invention of the cigarette made the product especially popular. Winston-Salem is the birthplace of R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company (RJR), founded by R. J. Reynolds in 1874 as one of 16 tobacco companies in the town. By 1914 it was selling 425 million packs of Camels a year. Today it is the second-largest tobacco company in the U.S. (behind Altria Group). RJR is an indirect wholly owned subsidiary of Reynolds American Inc., which in turn is 42% owned by British American Tobacco.

Question: Winston Salem is the headquarters of what tobacco Company?


Answer: Tobacco

Question: The invention of cigarettes made what popular?


Answer: 1874

Question: What year was RJ Reynolds Tobacco Company founded?


Answer: 425 million

Question: How many packs of camel cigarettes were sold per year in 1914?


Answer: Tobacco

Question: What was one of the first growing industries to develope after the civil war?


Answer: Jacksonville

Context: Located in Jacksonville, Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune, combined with nearby bases Marine Corps Air Station (MCAS) Cherry Point, MCAS New River, Camp Geiger, Camp Johnson, Stone Bay and Courthouse Bay, makes up the largest concentration of Marines and sailors in the world. MCAS Cherry Point is home of the 2nd Marine Aircraft Wing. Located in Goldsboro, Seymour Johnson Air Force Base is home of the 4th Fighter Wing and 916th Air Refueling Wing. One of the busiest air stations in the United States Coast Guard is located at the Coast Guard Air Station in Elizabeth City. Also stationed in North Carolina is the Military Ocean Terminal Sunny Point in Southport.

Question: Where is Camp Lejeune located?


Answer: Marine Corps Base Camp

Question: What is Camp Lejeune?


Answer: Jacksonville

Question: Bases making up the larges concentration of marines and sailors in the world is located in what NC city?


Answer: Goldsboro

Question: Where is Seymour johnson air force base located?


Answer: Southport

Question: Where is the military Ocean Terminal Sunny Point stationed?


Answer: Heian

Context: The Heian period (平安時代, Heian jidai?) is the last division of classical Japanese history, running from 794 to 1185. The period is named after the capital city of Heian-kyō, or modern Kyōto. It is the period in Japanese history when Buddhism, Taoism and other Chinese influences were at their height. The Heian period is also considered the peak of the Japanese imperial court and noted for its art, especially poetry and literature. Although the Imperial House of Japan had power on the surface, the real power was in the hands of the Fujiwara clan, a powerful aristocratic family who had intermarried with the imperial family. Many emperors actually had mothers from the Fujiwara family. Heian (平安?) means "peace" in Japanese.

Question: What is the name of the last period of classical Japanese history?


Answer: Heian-kyō

Question: The Heian period is named after what city?


Answer: peace

Question: What does heian mean in Japanese?


Answer: Fujiwara

Question: What was the name of the prominent clan during the Heian period?


Answer: poetry and literature

Question: The Heian period was known for what types of art?


Answer: Nara

Context: The Heian period was preceded by the Nara period and began in 794 A.D after the movement of the capital of Japan to Heian-kyō (present day Kyōto京都), by the 50th emperor, Emperor Kanmu. Kanmu first tried to move the capital to Nagaoka-kyō, but a series of disasters befell the city, prompting the emperor to relocate the capital a second time, to Heian. The Heian Period is considered a high point in Japanese culture that later generations have always admired. The period is also noted for the rise of the samurai class, which would eventually take power and start the feudal period of Japan.

Question: What was the name of the period before the Heian era?


Answer: 794 A.D

Question: The Heian period began in what year?


Answer: samurai

Question: What warrior class rose during the Heian era?


Answer: Kyōto

Question: Heian-kyo is now what present-day city?


Answer: Kanmu

Question: What was the name of the emperor who moved Japan's capital to Heian?


Answer: Fujiwara

Context: Nominally, sovereignty lay in the emperor but in fact power was wielded by the Fujiwara nobility. However, to protect their interests in the provinces, the Fujiwara and other noble families required guards, police and soldiers. The warrior class made steady political gains throughout the Heian period. As early as 939 A.D, Taira no Masakado threatened the authority of the central government, leading an uprising in the eastern province of Hitachi, and almost simultaneously, Fujiwara no Sumitomo rebelled in the west. Still, a true military takeover of the Japanese government was centuries away, when much of the strength of the government would lie within the private armies of the shogunate.

Question: What noble family wielded power during the Heian period?


Answer: Taira no Masakado

Question: Who threatened the authority of Japan's central government?


Answer: Hitachi

Question: Masakado led an uprising in what province?


Answer: Fujiwara no Sumitomo

Question: What member of the Fujiwara family rebelled in western Japan?


Answer: 939 A.D

Question: In what year did Masakado begin his rebellion?


Answer: 1,000

Context: When Emperor Kammu moved the capital to Heian-kyō (Kyōto), which remained the imperial capital for the next 1,000 years, he did so not only to strengthen imperial authority but also to improve his seat of government geopolitically. Nara was abandoned after only 70 years in part due to the ascendancy of Dōkyō and the encroaching secular power of the Buddhist institutions there. Kyōto had good river access to the sea and could be reached by land routes from the eastern provinces. The early Heian period (784–967) continued Nara culture; the Heian capital was patterned on the Chinese Tang capital at Chang'an, as was Nara, but on a larger scale than Nara. Kammu endeavoured to improve the Tang-style administrative system which was in use. Known as the ritsuryō, this system attempted to recreate the Tang imperium in Japan, despite the "tremendous differences in the levels of development between the two countries". Despite the decline of the Taika-Taihō reforms, imperial government was vigorous during the early Heian period. Indeed, Kammu's avoidance of drastic reform decreased the intensity of political struggles, and he became recognized as one of Japan's most forceful emperors.

Question: Heian was Japan's capital for how many years?


Answer: 70

Question: Nara was the former capital for how many years?


Answer: Buddhist

Question: What religion was gaining popularity in Nara?


Answer: 784–967

Question: What time period was the early Heian era?


Answer: Tang

Question: Kanmu modeled his government after what Chinese capital?


Answer: Emishi

Context: Although Kammu had abandoned universal conscription in 792, he still waged major military offensives to subjugate the Emishi, possible descendants of the displaced Jōmon, living in northern and eastern Japan. After making temporary gains in 794, in 797 Kammu appointed a new commander, Sakanoue no Tamuramaro, under the title Sei-i Taishōgun (Barbarian-subduing generalissimo). By 801 the shogun had defeated the Emishi and had extended the imperial domains to the eastern end of Honshū. Imperial control over the provinces was tenuous at best, however. In the ninth and tenth centuries, much authority was lost to the great families, who disregarded the Chinese-style land and tax systems imposed by the government in Kyoto. Stability came to Japan, but, even though succession was ensured for the imperial family through heredity, power again concentrated in the hands of one noble family, the Fujiwara which also helped Japan develop more.

Question: What was the name of the possible descendants of Jōmon?


Answer: Sakanoue no Tamuramaro

Question: What was the name of the new commander Kanmu appointed in the year 797?


Answer: Sei-i Taishōgun

Question: What was Tamuramaro's military title?


Answer: 801

Question: The Emishi were defeated in what year?


Answer: Honshū

Question: The imperial capital extended to the eastern edge of which Japanese island?


Answer: 806

Context: Following Kammu's death in 806 and a succession struggle among his sons, two new offices were established in an effort to adjust the Taika-Taihō administrative structure. Through the new Emperor's Private Office, the emperor could issue administrative edicts more directly and with more self-assurance than before. The new Metropolitan Police Board replaced the largely ceremonial imperial guard units. While these two offices strengthened the emperor's position temporarily, soon they and other Chinese-style structures were bypassed in the developing state. In 838 the end of the imperial-sanctioned missions to Tang China, which had begun in 630, marked the effective end of Chinese influence. Tang China was in a state of decline, and Chinese Buddhists were severely persecuted, undermining Japanese respect for Chinese institutions. Japan began to turn inward.

Question: In what year did Emperor Kanmu die?


Answer: Metropolitan Police Board

Question: What office replaced the imperial guards?


Answer: Emperor's Private Office

Question: What new office allowed government to issue administrative orders faster?


Answer: 838

Question: Tang China's influence over Japan ended in what year?


Answer: sixth

Context: As the Soga clan had taken control of the throne in the sixth century, the Fujiwara by the ninth century had intermarried with the imperial family, and one of their members was the first head of the Emperor's Private Office. Another Fujiwara became regent, Sesshō for his grandson, then a minor emperor, and yet another was appointed Kampaku. Toward the end of the ninth century, several emperors tried, but failed, to check the Fujiwara. For a time, however, during the reign of Emperor Daigo (897-930), the Fujiwara regency was suspended as he ruled directly.

Question: In what century did the Soga family take the throne?


Answer: Fujiwara

Question: A member of what clan became the head of the Emperor's Private Office?


Answer: Daigo

Question: Which emperor suspended the Fujiwara clan's power?


Answer: 897-930

Question: Emperor Daigo ruled during what years?


Answer: shōen

Context: Nevertheless, the Fujiwara were not demoted by Daigo but actually became stronger during his reign. Central control of Japan had continued to decline, and the Fujiwara, along with other great families and religious foundations, acquired ever larger shōen and greater wealth during the early tenth century. By the early Heian period, the shōen had obtained legal status, and the large religious establishments sought clear titles in perpetuity, waiver of taxes, and immunity from government inspection of the shōen they held. Those people who worked the land found it advantageous to transfer title to shōen holders in return for a share of the harvest. People and lands were increasingly beyond central control and taxation, a de facto return to conditions before the Taika Reform.

Question: What type of property obtained legal status during the early Heian period?


Answer: a share of the harvest

Question: Farm laborers traded titles to shoen holders in exchange for what?


Answer: early tenth century

Question: The Fujiwara and other noble families became richer during which century?


Answer: katakana

Context: Despite their usurpation of imperial authority, the Fujiwara presided over a period of cultural and artistic flowering at the imperial court and among the aristocracy. There was great interest in graceful poetry and vernacular literature. Two types of phonetic Japanese script: katakana, a simplified script that was developed by using parts of Chinese characters, was abbreviated to hiragana, a cursive syllabary with a distinct writing method that was uniquely Japanese. Hiragana gave written expression to the spoken word and, with it, to the rise in Japan's famous vernacular literature, much of it written by court women who had not been trained in Chinese as had their male counterparts. Three late tenth century and early eleventh century women presented their views of life and romance at the Heian court in Kagerō Nikki by "the mother of Fujiwara Michitsuna", The Pillow Book by Sei Shōnagon and The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu. Indigenous art also flourished under the Fujiwara after centuries of imitating Chinese forms. Vividly colored yamato-e, Japanese style paintings of court life and stories about temples and shrines became common in the mid- and late Heian periods, setting patterns for Japanese art to this day.

Question: What script was developed with parts of Chinese characters?


Answer: hiragana

Question: What was the name of the cursive script that gave expression to spoken words?


Answer: Sei Shōnagon

Question: Who is the author of The Pillow Book?


Answer: Murasaki Shikibu

Question: Who is the author of The Tale of Genji?


Answer: yamato-e

Question: What was the name of the brightly colored paintings depicting court life?


Answer: Land management

Context: As culture flourished, so did decentralization. Whereas the first phase of shōen development in the early Heian period had seen the opening of new lands and the granting of the use of lands to aristocrats and religious institutions, the second phase saw the growth of patrimonial "house governments," as in the old clan system. (In fact, the form of the old clan system had remained largely intact within the great old centralized government.) New institutions were now needed in the face of social, economic, and political changes. The Taihō Code lapsed, its institutions relegated to ceremonial functions. Family administrations now became public institutions. As the most powerful family, the Fujiwara governed Japan and determined the general affairs of state, such as succession to the throne. Family and state affairs were thoroughly intermixed, a pattern followed among other families, monasteries, and even the imperial family. Land management became the primary occupation of the aristocracy, not so much because direct control by the imperial family or central government had declined but more from strong family solidarity and a lack of a sense of Japan as a single nation.

Question: What became the aristocracy's primary occupation?


Answer: "house governments,"

Question: What grew during the second phase of shoen development?


Answer: Taihō Code

Question: What governmental reorganization lapsed during the period of shoen development?


Answer: Fujiwara

Question: Succession to the throne was determined by what clan?


Answer: 792

Context: Under the early courts, when military conscription had been centrally controlled, military affairs had been taken out of the hands of the provincial aristocracy. But as the system broke down after 792, local power holders again became the primary source of military strength. The re-establishment of an efficient military system was made gradually through a process of trial-and-error. At that time the imperial court did not possess an army but rather relied on an organization of professional warriors composed mainly of oryoshi, which were appointed to an individual province and tsuibushi, which were appointed over imperial circuits or for specific tasks. This gave rise to the Japanese military class. Nonetheless final authority rested with the imperial court.

Question: The early courts' military conscription broke down around what year?


Answer: oryoshi

Question: Warriors appointed to a province were called what?


Answer: tsuibushi

Question: Warriors appointed for specific tasks were called what?


Answer: imperial court

Question: Where did final authority over the military lie?


Answer: Shōen holders

Context: Shōen holders had access to manpower and, as they obtained improved military technology (such as new training methods, more powerful bows, armor, horses, and superior swords) and faced worsening local conditions in the ninth century, military service became part of shōen life. Not only the shōen but also civil and religious institutions formed private guard units to protect themselves. Gradually, the provincial upper class was transformed into a new military elite based on the ideals of the bushi (warrior) or samurai (literally, one who serves).

Question: Who had increased access to better military technology?


Answer: civil and religious

Question: Which institutions also hired private guards for protection?


Answer: provincial upper class

Question: Which class became a new military elite?


Answer: warrior

Question: What does the word "bushi" mean?


Answer: tenth

Context: Bushi interests were diverse, cutting across old power structures to form new associations in the tenth century. Mutual interests, family connections, and kinship were consolidated in military groups that became part of family administration. In time, large regional military families formed around members of the court aristocracy who had become prominent provincial figures. These military families gained prestige from connections to the imperial court and court-granted military titles and access to manpower. The Fujiwara family, Taira clan, and Minamoto clan were among the most prominent families supported by the new military class.

Question: Bushi formed new associations in what century?


Answer: connections to the imperial court

Question: How did military families gain prestige?


Answer: Fujiwara family, Taira clan, and Minamoto clan

Question: Who were the three prominent families during the rise of the warrior classes?


Answer: Go-Sanjō

Context: The Fujiwara controlled the throne until the reign of Emperor Go-Sanjō (1068-1073), the first emperor not born of a Fujiwara mother since the ninth century. Go-Sanjo, determined to restore imperial control through strong personal rule, implemented reforms to curb Fujiwara influence. He also established an office to compile and validate estate records with the aim of reasserting central control. Many shōen were not properly certified, and large landholders, like the Fujiwara, felt threatened with the loss of their lands. Go-Sanjo also established the In-no-cho (ja:院庁 Office of the Cloistered Emperor), which was held by a succession of emperors who abdicated to devote themselves to behind-the-scenes governance, or insei.

Question: Who was the first non-Fujiwara emperor since the ninth century?


Answer: Go-Sanjō

Question: Who implemented reforms to reduce the Fujiwara's influence on government?


Answer: insei

Question: What term was used for behind the scenes governance?


Answer: In-no-cho

Context: The In-no-cho filled the void left by the decline of Fujiwara power. Rather than being banished, the Fujiwara were mostly retained in their old positions of civil dictator and minister of the center while being bypassed in decision making. In time, many of the Fujiwara were replaced, mostly by members of the rising Minamoto family. While the Fujiwara fell into disputes among themselves and formed northern and southern factions, the insei system allowed the paternal line of the imperial family to gain influence over the throne. The period from 1086 to 1156 was the age of supremacy of the In-no-cho and of the rise of the military class throughout the country. Military might rather than civil authority dominated the government.

Question: The decline of the Fujiwara's governmental power was filled by what?


Answer: Minamoto

Question: The members of what clan gradually replaced the Fujiwaras?


Answer: insei system

Question: What allowed the paternal line of the imperial family to gain influence over royal succession?


Answer: 1086 to 1156

Question: The In-no-cho was prominent during what years?


Answer: Fujiwara no Yorinaga

Context: A struggle for succession in the mid-twelfth century gave the Fujiwara an opportunity to regain their former power. Fujiwara no Yorinaga sided with the retired emperor in a violent battle in 1156 against the heir apparent, who was supported by the Taira and Minamoto (Hōgen Rebellion). In the end, the Fujiwara were destroyed, the old system of government supplanted, and the insei system left powerless as bushi took control of court affairs, marking a turning point in Japanese history. In 1159, the Taira and Minamoto clashed (Heiji Rebellion), and a twenty-year period of Taira ascendancy began.

Question: What member of the Fujiwara attempted to rebel in the mid-twelfth century?


Answer: Hōgen Rebellion

Question: What battle resulted in the destruction of the Fujiwara?


Answer: Taira and Minamoto

Question: What clans fought during the Heiji Rebellion?


Answer: 1159

Question: In what year did the Heiji Rebellion occur?


Answer: Taira

Question: After the Heiji Rebellion, what clan grew in power?


Answer: Taira Kiyomori

Context: Taira Kiyomori emerged as the real power in Japan following the Minamoto's destruction, and he would remain in command for the next 20 years. He gave his daughter Tokuko in marriage to the young emperor Takakura, who died at only 19, leaving their infant son Antoku to succeed to the throne. Kiyomori filled no less than 50 government posts with his relatives, rebuilt the Inland Sea, and encouraged trade with Sung China. He also took aggressive actions to safeguard his power when necessary, including the removal and exile of 45 court officials and the razing of two troublesome temples, Todai-ji and Kofuku-ji.

Question: What military commander gained power after the fall of the Minamoto clan?


Answer: 19

Question: How old was Emperor Takakura when he died?


Answer: Antoku

Question: What was the name of Takakura's successor?


Answer: 45

Question: Kiyomori removed how many court officials to protect his power?


Answer: Todai-ji and Kofuku-ji

Question: What were the names of the temples that Kiyomori destroyed?


Answer: daimyos

Context: With Yoritomo firmly established, the bakufu system that would govern Japan for the next seven centuries was in place. He appointed military governors, or daimyos, to rule over the provinces, and stewards, or jito to supervise public and private estates. Yoritomo then turned his attention to the elimination of the powerful Fujiwara family, which sheltered his rebellious brother Yoshitsune. Three years later, he was appointed shogun in Kyoto. One year before his death in 1199, Yoritomo expelled the teenage emperor Go-Toba from the throne. Two of Go-Toba's sons succeeded him, but they would also be removed by Yoritomo's successors to the shogunate.

Question: What was the term used to describe military governors?


Answer: jito

Question: What was the term used to describe supervisors of estates?


Answer: Go-Toba

Question: What was the name of the emperor that Yoritomo removed from the throne?


Answer: Buddhism

Context: Buddhism began to spread throughout Japan during the Heian period, primarily through two major esoteric sects, Tendai and Shingon. Tendai originated in China and is based on the Lotus Sutra, one of the most important sutras of Mahayana Buddhism; Saichō was key to its transmission to Japan. Shingon is the Japanese transmission of the Chinese Chen Yen school. Shingon, brought to Japan by the monk Kūkai, emphasizes Esoteric Buddhism. Both Kūkai and Saichō aimed to connect state and religion and establish support from the aristocracy, leading to the notion of 'aristocratic Buddhism'. An important element of Tendai doctrine was the suggestion that enlightenment was accessible to "every creature". Saichō also sought independent ordination for Tendai monks. A close relationship developed between the Tendai monastery complex on Mount Hiei and the imperial court in its new capital at the foot of the mountain. As a result, Tendai emphasized great reverence for the emperor and the nation. Kammu himself was a notable patron of the otherworldly Tendai sect, which rose to great power over the ensuing centuries. Kūkai greatly impressed the emperors who succeeded Emperor Kammu, and also generations of Japanese, not only with his holiness but also with his poetry, calligraphy, painting, and sculpture. Shingon, through its use of "rich symbols, rituals and mandalas" held a wide-ranging appeal.

Question: What religion spread during the Heian period?


Answer: Tendai and Shingon

Question: What were the two Japanese sects of Buddhism?


Answer: Kūkai

Question: Who brought Shingon Buddhism to Japan?


Answer: every creature

Question: Tendai Buddhism suggested that enlightenment was accessible to who?


Answer: poetry

Context: Poetry, in particular, was a staple of court life. Nobles and ladies-in-waiting were expected to be well versed in the art of writing poetry as a mark of their status. Every occasion could call for the writing of a verse, from the birth of a child to the coronation of an emperor, or even a pretty scene of nature. A well-written poem or haiku could easily make or break one's reputation, and often was a key part of social interaction.Almost as important was the choice of calligraphy, or handwriting, used. The Japanese of this period believed handwriting could reflect the condition of a person's soul: therefore, poor or hasty writing could be considered a sign of poor breeding. Whether the script was Chinese or Japanese, good writing and artistic skill was paramount to social reputation when it came to poetry. Sei Shonagon mentions in her Pillow Book that when a certain courtesan tried to ask her advice about how to write a poem to the empress Sadako, she had to politely rebuke him because his writing was so poor.

Question: What artform became a mark of status in the courts?


Answer: handwriting

Question: During the Heian period, what did the Japanese think could reflect one's soul?


Answer: poor or hasty writing

Question: What was said to show low status or "poor breeding"?


Answer: Kimi ga Yo

Context: The lyrics of the modern Japanese national anthem, Kimi ga Yo, were written in the Heian period, as was The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu, one of the first novels ever written. Murasaki Shikibu's contemporary and rival Sei Shōnagon's revealing observations and musings as an attendant in the Empress' court were recorded collectively as The Pillow Book in the 990s, which revealed the quotidian capital lifestyle. The Heian period produced a flowering of poetry including works of Ariwara no Narihira, Ono no Komachi, Izumi Shikibu, Murasaki Shikibu, Saigyō and Fujiwara no Teika. The famous Japanese poem known as the Iroha (いろは), of uncertain authorship, was also written during the Heian period.

Question: What is the name of the Japanese national anthem?


Answer: Iroha

Question: What famous poem with an unknown author was written during the Heian period?


Answer: Sei Shōnagon

Question: The Pillow Book was a collection of whose observations of the imperial court?


Answer: rice

Context: While on one hand the Heian period was an unusually long period of peace, it can also be argued that the period weakened Japan economically and led to poverty for all but a tiny few of its inhabitants. The control of rice fields provided a key source of income for families such as the Fujiwara and were a fundamental base for their power. The aristocratic beneficiaries of Heian culture, the Ryōmin (良民 "Good People") numbered about five thousand in a land of perhaps five million. One reason the samurai were able to take power was that the ruling nobility proved incompetent at managing Japan and its provinces. By the year 1000 the government no longer knew how to issue currency and money was gradually disappearing. Instead of a fully realised system of money circulation, rice was the primary unit of exchange. The lack of a solid medium of economic exchange is implicitly illustrated in novels of the time. For instance, messengers were rewarded with useful objects, e.g., an old silk kimono, rather than paid a fee.

Question: What crop was a primary source of income during the Heian period?


Answer: Ryōmin

Question: What was the name of the beneficiaries of Heian culture?


Answer: 1000

Question: Currency gradually disappeared around what year?


Answer: rice

Question: What crop became the primary unit of exchange?


Answer: Heian-kyō and Nara

Context: The Fujiwara rulers failed to maintain adequate police forces, which left robbers free to prey on travelers. This is implicitly illustrated in novels by the terror that night travel inspired in the main characters. The shōen system enabled the accumulation of wealth by an aristocratic elite; the economic surplus can be linked to the cultural developments of the Heian period and the "pursuit of arts". The major Buddhist temples in Heian-kyō and Nara also made use of the shōen. The establishment of branches rurally and integration of some Shinto shrines within these temple networks reflects a greater "organizational dynamism".

Question: Buddhist temples in which two cities made use of the shoen system?


Answer: The Fujiwara rulers failed to maintain adequate police forces

Question: Why were travelers often robbed under Fujiwara rule?


Answer: organizational dynamism

Question: The integration of Shinto shrines into government branches reflected a greater what?


Answer: Shogun 2

Context: The game Total War: Shogun 2 has the Rise of the Samurai expansion pack as downloadable campaign. It allows the player to make their own version of the Gempei War which happened during the Heian period. The player is able to choose one of the most powerful families of Japan at the time, the Taira, Minamoto or Fujiwara; each family fielding two branches for a total of six playable clans. The expansion pack features a different set of land units, ships and buildings and is also playable in the multiplayer modes.

Question: Which Total War game has an expansion set during the Heian period?


Answer: Taira, Minamoto or Fujiwara

Question: What families are playable characters in Total War: Shogun 2?


Answer: Gempei War

Question: The Rise of the Samurai expansion for Total War: Shogun 2 depicts which war during the Heian period?


Answer: 24 November 1859

Context: On the Origin of Species, published on 24 November 1859, is a work of scientific literature by Charles Darwin which is considered to be the foundation of evolutionary biology. Darwin's book introduced the scientific theory that populations evolve over the course of generations through a process of natural selection. It presented a body of evidence that the diversity of life arose by common descent through a branching pattern of evolution. Darwin included evidence that he had gathered on the Beagle expedition in the 1830s and his subsequent findings from research, correspondence, and experimentation.

Question: When was the Origin of Species published?


Answer: Charles Darwin

Question: Who wrote The Origin of Species?


Answer: evolutionary biology

Question: What branch of biology was The Origin of Species founded on?


Answer: Beagle expedition

Question: What was the expedition called that Charles Darwin discovered some of his evidence?


Answer: through a process of natural selection

Question: How do populations evolve according to Charles Darwin's theory?


Answer: dissident anatomists

Context: Various evolutionary ideas had already been proposed to explain new findings in biology. There was growing support for such ideas among dissident anatomists and the general public, but during the first half of the 19th century the English scientific establishment was closely tied to the Church of England, while science was part of natural theology. Ideas about the transmutation of species were controversial as they conflicted with the beliefs that species were unchanging parts of a designed hierarchy and that humans were unique, unrelated to other animals. The political and theological implications were intensely debated, but transmutation was not accepted by the scientific mainstream.

Question: Which group of scientists began to support evolutionary ideas?


Answer: the Church of England

Question: Which powerful religious institution was a big part of scientific study in the 19th century?


Answer: Ideas about the transmutation of species were controversial

Question: What was the general opinion about transmutation of species in the 19th century?


Answer: that humans were unique, unrelated to other animals.

Question: How did the majority of science see humanity in relation to animals in the 19th century?


Answer: natural theology

Question: Which theology did everyone agree science was a part of in the 19th century?


Answer: non-specialist readers

Context: The book was written for non-specialist readers and attracted widespread interest upon its publication. As Darwin was an eminent scientist, his findings were taken seriously and the evidence he presented generated scientific, philosophical, and religious discussion. The debate over the book contributed to the campaign by T. H. Huxley and his fellow members of the X Club to secularise science by promoting scientific naturalism. Within two decades there was widespread scientific agreement that evolution, with a branching pattern of common descent, had occurred, but scientists were slow to give natural selection the significance that Darwin thought appropriate. During "the eclipse of Darwinism" from the 1880s to the 1930s, various other mechanisms of evolution were given more credit. With the development of the modern evolutionary synthesis in the 1930s and 1940s, Darwin's concept of evolutionary adaptation through natural selection became central to modern evolutionary theory, and it has now become the unifying concept of the life sciences.

Question: What section of the population was Darwin's book written for?


Answer: T. H. Huxley

Question: Who attempted to secularize science during the debate over Darwin's book?


Answer: scientific naturalism

Question: What was T.H. Huxley promoting?


Answer: "the eclipse of Darwinism"

Question: What was the growing change in opinion about evolution called?


Answer: in the 1930s and 1940s

Question: When did Darwin's concept of evolution become widely believed and central to the modern theory of evolution?


Answer: Aristotle

Context: In later editions of the book, Darwin traced evolutionary ideas as far back as Aristotle; the text he cites is a summary by Aristotle of the ideas of the earlier Greek philosopher Empedocles. Early Christian Church Fathers and Medieval European scholars interpreted the Genesis creation narrative allegorically rather than as a literal historical account; organisms were described by their mythological and heraldic significance as well as by their physical form. Nature was widely believed to be unstable and capricious, with monstrous births from union between species, and spontaneous generation of life.

Question: To what ancient philosopher did Darwin trace some of his evolutionary ideas?


Answer: Greek philosopher Empedocles

Question: Whose ideas were summarized by Aristotle in the work Darwin studied?


Answer: allegorically

Question: How did medieval scholars view the Genesis creation story?


Answer: monstrous births from union between species, and spontaneous generation of life.

Question: What kind of births did the Christian Church fathers believe occurred in nature?


Answer: the Royal Society

Context: The Protestant Reformation inspired a literal interpretation of the Bible, with concepts of creation that conflicted with the findings of an emerging science seeking explanations congruent with the mechanical philosophy of René Descartes and the empiricism of the Baconian method. After the turmoil of the English Civil War, the Royal Society wanted to show that science did not threaten religious and political stability. John Ray developed an influential natural theology of rational order; in his taxonomy, species were static and fixed, their adaptation and complexity designed by God, and varieties showed minor differences caused by local conditions. In God's benevolent design, carnivores caused mercifully swift death, but the suffering caused by parasitism was a puzzling problem. The biological classification introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1735 also viewed species as fixed according to the divine plan. In 1766, Georges Buffon suggested that some similar species, such as horses and asses, or lions, tigers, and leopards, might be varieties descended from a common ancestor. The Ussher chronology of the 1650s had calculated creation at 4004 BC, but by the 1780s geologists assumed a much older world. Wernerians thought strata were deposits from shrinking seas, but James Hutton proposed a self-maintaining infinite cycle, anticipating uniformitarianism.

Question: Which group wanted to assuage fears that science was a threat to religious stability?


Answer: John Ray

Question: Whose theory claimed that species were unchanging and designed by God?


Answer: Carl Linnaeus

Question: Who created a biological classification in 1735?


Answer: 4004 BC

Question: When did the Ussher chronology state that creation began?


Answer: James Hutton

Question: Who proposed that life is a self-maintaining, infinite cycle?


Answer: Erasmus Darwin

Context: Charles Darwin's grandfather Erasmus Darwin outlined a hypothesis of transmutation of species in the 1790s, and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck published a more developed theory in 1809. Both envisaged that spontaneous generation produced simple forms of life that progressively developed greater complexity, adapting to the environment by inheriting changes in adults caused by use or disuse. This process was later called Lamarckism. Lamarck thought there was an inherent progressive tendency driving organisms continuously towards greater complexity, in parallel but separate lineages with no extinction. Geoffroy contended that embryonic development recapitulated transformations of organisms in past eras when the environment acted on embryos, and that animal structures were determined by a constant plan as demonstrated by homologies. Georges Cuvier strongly disputed such ideas, holding that unrelated, fixed species showed similarities that reflected a design for functional needs. His palæontological work in the 1790s had established the reality of extinction, which he explained by local catastrophes, followed by repopulation of the affected areas by other species.

Question: What was the name of Charles Darwin's grandfather?


Answer: hypothesis of transmutation of species

Question: What theory did Erasmus Darwin outline in the 1790s?


Answer: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

Question: What was the name of the scientist who developed and published a more complex version of Erasmus Darwin's theory in 1809?


Answer: Lamarckism

Question: What is the process of adapting to the environment and inheriting changes through use or disuse called?


Answer: Georges Cuvier

Question: Whose paleontology work in the 1790s established the reality of extinction?


Answer: William Paley's

Context: In Britain, William Paley's Natural Theology saw adaptation as evidence of beneficial "design" by the Creator acting through natural laws. All naturalists in the two English universities (Oxford and Cambridge) were Church of England clergymen, and science became a search for these laws. Geologists adapted catastrophism to show repeated worldwide annihilation and creation of new fixed species adapted to a changed environment, initially identifying the most recent catastrophe as the biblical flood. Some anatomists such as Robert Grant were influenced by Lamarck and Geoffroy, but most naturalists regarded their ideas of transmutation as a threat to divinely appointed social order.

Question: Whose work considered adaptation to be evidence of God's design?


Answer: Natural Theology

Question: What was the name of William Paley's book claiming divine beneficial design?


Answer: Church of England

Question: What religion were all naturalists working at the two English universities?


Answer: a threat to divinely appointed social order.

Question: How did most naturalists view the concept of transmutation of species?


Answer: adapted catastrophism to show repeated worldwide annihilation and creation of new fixed species adapted to a changed environment

Question: How did geologists explain the creation of new species in keeping with their belief in divine creation?


Answer: 1825

Context: Darwin went to Edinburgh University in 1825 to study medicine. In his second year he neglected his medical studies for natural history and spent four months assisting Robert Grant's research into marine invertebrates. Grant revealed his enthusiasm for the transmutation of species, but Darwin rejected it. Starting in 1827, at Cambridge University, Darwin learnt science as natural theology from botanist John Stevens Henslow, and read Paley, John Herschel and Alexander von Humboldt. Filled with zeal for science, he studied catastrophist geology with Adam Sedgwick.

Question: When did Darwin begin attending university?


Answer: Edinburgh University

Question: What university did Darwin attend?


Answer: medicine

Question: What was Darwin originally studying at university?


Answer: Robert Grant

Question: Who did Darwin assist in researching marine invertebrates?


Answer: Adam Sedgwick

Question: With whom did Darwin study about catastrophic geology?


Answer: Beagle expedition

Context: In December 1831, he joined the Beagle expedition as a gentleman naturalist and geologist. He read Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology and from the first stop ashore, at St. Jago, found Lyell's uniformitarianism a key to the geological history of landscapes. Darwin discovered fossils resembling huge armadillos, and noted the geographical distribution of modern species in hope of finding their "centre of creation". The three Fuegian missionaries the expedition returned to Tierra del Fuego were friendly and civilised, yet to Darwin their relatives on the island seemed "miserable, degraded savages", and he no longer saw an unbridgeable gap between humans and animals. As the Beagle neared England in 1836, he noted that species might not be fixed.

Question: What expedition did Darwin join in 1831?


Answer: Charles Lyell

Question: Who wrote The Principles of Geology?


Answer: St. Jago

Question: Where was the first stop of the Beagle Expedition?


Answer: huge armadillos

Question: What did some of the fossils Darwin found on St. Jago resemble?


Answer: their relatives on the island seemed "miserable, degraded savages"

Question: What caused Darwin to change his mind about the unbridgeable gap between animals and humans?


Answer: Richard Owen

Context: Richard Owen showed that fossils of extinct species Darwin found in South America were allied to living species on the same continent. In March 1837, ornithologist John Gould announced that Darwin's rhea was a separate species from the previously described rhea (though their territories overlapped), that mockingbirds collected on the Galápagos Islands represented three separate species each unique to a particular island, and that several distinct birds from those islands were all classified as finches. Darwin began speculating, in a series of notebooks, on the possibility that "one species does change into another" to explain these findings, and around July sketched a genealogical branching of a single evolutionary tree, discarding Lamarck's independent lineages progressing to higher forms. Unconventionally, Darwin asked questions of fancy pigeon and animal breeders as well as established scientists. At the zoo he had his first sight of an ape, and was profoundly impressed by how human the orangutan seemed.

Question: Who showed that extinct South American fossils were related to living species?


Answer: Darwin's rhea was a separate species from the previously described rhea

Question: What did John Gould announce in 1837?


Answer: three separate species

Question: How many species of mockingbirds were found to be present on the Galapagos Islands?


Answer: ornithologist

Question: What type of scientist was John Gould?


Answer: an ape

Question: Which animal did Darwin see at a zoo that made him further consider evolution?


Answer: An Essay on the Principle of Population

Context: In late September 1838, he started reading Thomas Malthus's An Essay on the Principle of Population with its statistical argument that human populations, if unrestrained, breed beyond their means and struggle to survive. Darwin related this to the struggle for existence among wildlife and botanist de Candolle's "warring of the species" in plants; he immediately envisioned "a force like a hundred thousand wedges" pushing well-adapted variations into "gaps in the economy of nature", so that the survivors would pass on their form and abilities, and unfavourable variations would be destroyed. By December 1838, he had noted a similarity between the act of breeders selecting traits and a Malthusian Nature selecting among variants thrown up by "chance" so that "every part of newly acquired structure is fully practical and perfected".

Question: Which book did Darwin begin reading in 1838?


Answer: breed beyond their means and struggle to survive

Question: What did Thomas Malthus' book theorize would happen to human populations if they were unrestrained?


Answer: plants

Question: Which species did Darwin compare with the human struggle to survive?


Answer: "warring of the species"

Question: What concept was de Candolle considering as he studied plants?


Answer: Lyell

Context: Darwin continued to research and extensively revise his theory while focusing on his main work of publishing the scientific results of the Beagle voyage. He tentatively wrote of his ideas to Lyell in January 1842; then in June he roughed out a 35-page "Pencil Sketch" of his theory. Darwin began correspondence about his theorising with the botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker in January 1844, and by July had rounded out his "sketch" into a 230-page "Essay", to be expanded with his research results and published if he died prematurely.

Question: Who did Darwin write his ideas to in 1842?


Answer: "Pencil Sketch"

Question: What was the name of Darwin's 35-page writing of his theory?


Answer: Joseph Dalton Hooker

Question: Which botanist did Darwin begin a correspondence with about his theories?


Answer: scientific results of the Beagle voyage

Question: What information was Darwin's essay based on?


Answer: 230-page

Question: How many pages had Darwin's sketch grown to in 1844?


Answer: Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation

Context: In November 1844, the anonymously published popular science book Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, written by Scottish journalist Robert Chambers, widened public interest in the concept of transmutation of species. Vestiges used evidence from the fossil record and embryology to support the claim that living things had progressed from the simple to the more complex over time. But it proposed a linear progression rather than the branching common descent theory behind Darwin's work in progress, and it ignored adaptation. Darwin read it soon after publication, and scorned its amateurish geology and zoology, but he carefully reviewed his own arguments after leading scientists, including Adam Sedgwick, attacked its morality and scientific errors. Vestiges had significant influence on public opinion, and the intense debate helped to pave the way for the acceptance of the more scientifically sophisticated Origin by moving evolutionary speculation into the mainstream. While few naturalists were willing to consider transmutation, Herbert Spencer became an active proponent of Lamarckism and progressive development in the 1850s.

Question: What was the name of the anonymously published science book?


Answer: a linear progression

Question: What kind of progression did Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation propose?


Answer: Robert Chambers

Question: Who wrote Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation?


Answer: that living things had progressed from the simple to the more complex over time.

Question: What was the evidence in Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation used to support?


Answer: Herbert Spencer

Question: Which scientist was in favor of Lamarckism in the 1850s?


Answer: barnacle

Context: Darwin's barnacle studies convinced him that variation arose constantly and not just in response to changed circumstances. In 1854, he completed the last part of his Beagle-related writing and began working full-time on evolution. His thinking changed from the view that species formed in isolated populations only, as on islands, to an emphasis on speciation without isolation; that is, he saw increasing specialisation within large stable populations as continuously exploiting new ecological niches. He conducted empirical research focusing on difficulties with his theory. He studied the developmental and anatomical differences between different breeds of many domestic animals, became actively involved in fancy pigeon breeding, and experimented (with the help of his son Francis) on ways that plant seeds and animals might disperse across oceans to colonise distant islands. By 1856, his theory was much more sophisticated, with a mass of supporting evidence.

Question: What creatures did Darwin study that made him believe variation arose constantly?


Answer: 1854

Question: In what year did Darwin begin to work on his evolution theory full-time?


Answer: 1856

Question: By which year had Darwin's theory become more complex and supported by a lot of evidence?


Answer: fancy pigeon

Question: Which bird species did Darwin become extremely interested in studying?


Answer: plant seeds and animals

Question: What species did Darwin study for dispersal across oceans>


Answer: 1855

Context: An 1855 paper on the "introduction" of species, written by Alfred Russel Wallace, claimed that patterns in the geographical distribution of living and fossil species could be explained if every new species always came into existence near an already existing, closely related species. Charles Lyell recognised the implications of Wallace's paper and its possible connection to Darwin's work, although Darwin did not, and in a letter written on 1–2 May 1856 Lyell urged Darwin to publish his theory to establish priority. Darwin was torn between the desire to set out a full and convincing account and the pressure to quickly produce a short paper. He met Lyell, and in correspondence with Joseph Dalton Hooker affirmed that he did not want to expose his ideas to review by an editor as would have been required to publish in an academic journal. He began a "sketch" account on 14 May 1856, and by July had decided to produce a full technical treatise on species. His theory including the principle of divergence was complete by 5 September 1857 when he sent Asa Gray a brief but detailed abstract of his ideas.

Question: When was the "Introduction of Species" paper written?


Answer: Alfred Russel Wallace

Question: Who wrote the "Introduction of Species" paper?


Answer: if every new species always came into existence near an already existing, closely related species

Question: How did Wallace claim that patterns in the distribution of species could be explained?


Answer: Charles Lyell

Question: Which scientist recognized the possible validity and implications of Wallace's paper?


Answer: 1–2 May 1856

Question: When did Lyell ask Darwin to publish his theory to give it priority?


Answer: "big book" on Natural Selection,

Context: Darwin was hard at work on his "big book" on Natural Selection, when on 18 June 1858 he received a parcel from Wallace, who stayed on the Maluku Islands (Ternate and Gilolo). It enclosed twenty pages describing an evolutionary mechanism, a response to Darwin's recent encouragement, with a request to send it on to Lyell if Darwin thought it worthwhile. The mechanism was similar to Darwin's own theory. Darwin wrote to Lyell that "your words have come true with a vengeance, ... forestalled" and he would "of course, at once write and offer to send [it] to any journal" that Wallace chose, adding that "all my originality, whatever it may amount to, will be smashed". Lyell and Hooker agreed that a joint publication putting together Wallace's pages with extracts from Darwin's 1844 Essay and his 1857 letter to Gray should be presented at the Linnean Society, and on 1 July 1858, the papers entitled On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection, by Wallace and Darwin respectively, were read out but drew little reaction. While Darwin considered Wallace's idea to be identical to his concept of natural selection, historians have pointed out differences. Darwin described natural selection as being analogous to the artificial selection practised by animal breeders, and emphasised competition between individuals; Wallace drew no comparison to selective breeding, and focused on ecological pressures that kept different varieties adapted to local conditions. Some historians have suggested that Wallace was actually discussing group selection rather than selection acting on individual variation.

Question: Which book was Darwin working on when he received a package from Wallace?


Answer: twenty pages describing an evolutionary mechanism

Question: What was in the packages Darwin received from Wallace?


Answer: Wallace

Question: Who wrote the paper, On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties?


Answer: Darwin

Question: Who wrote the paper, On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties?


Answer: Some historians have suggested that Wallace was actually discussing group selection rather than selection acting on individual variation.

Question: What do some historians think made Wallace's concept of natural selection different from Darwin's?


Answer: "an abstract of my whole work".

Context: After the meeting, Darwin decided to write "an abstract of my whole work". He started work on 20 July 1858, while on holiday at Sandown, and wrote parts of it from memory. Lyell discussed arrangements with publisher John Murray III, of the publishing house John Murray, who responded immediately to Darwin's letter of 31 March 1859 with an agreement to publish the book without even seeing the manuscript, and an offer to Darwin of 2⁄3 of the profits. (eventually Murray paid £180 to Darwin for the 1st edition and by Darwin's death in 1882 the book was in its 6th edition, earning Darwin nearly £3000.)

Question: What did Darwin decide to write in July, 1858?


Answer: John Murray III

Question: Which publisher did Lyell convince to arrange publication of Darwin's work?


Answer: 2⁄3 of the profits

Question: What did the publisher offer Darwin in payment for the book?


Answer: 6th edition

Question: What edition was the book in by the time of Darwin's death?


Answer: nearly £3000

Question: How much had the book earned Darwin by the time he died?


Answer: On the Origin of Species

Context: Darwin had initially decided to call his book An abstract of an Essay on the Origin of Species and Varieties Through natural selection, but with Murray's persuasion it was eventually changed to the snappier title: On the Origin of Species, with the title page adding by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. Here the term "races" is used as an alternative for "varieties" and does not carry the modern connotation of human races—the first use in the book refers to "the several races, for instance, of the cabbage" and proceeds to a discussion of "the hereditary varieties or races of our domestic animals and plants".

Question: What title did Darwin's book ultimately have?


Answer: An abstract of an Essay on the Origin of Species and Varieties Through natural selection

Question: What had Darwin wanted to name his book?


Answer: Murray

Question: Who convinced Darwin that his book needed a shorter, more compelling title?


Answer: an alternative for "varieties" and does not carry the modern connotation of human races

Question: What does the word "races" mean as referenced in Darwin's book?


Answer: by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life

Question: What is the extended name of The Origin of Species that is written on the title page?


Answer: 1838

Context: Darwin had his basic theory of natural selection "by which to work" by December 1838, yet almost twenty years later, when Wallace's letter arrived on 18 June 1858, Darwin was still not ready to publish his theory. It was long thought that Darwin avoided or delayed making his ideas public for personal reasons. Reasons suggested have included fear of religious persecution or social disgrace if his views were revealed, and concern about upsetting his clergymen naturalist friends or his pious wife Emma. Charles Darwin's illness caused repeated delays. His paper on Glen Roy had proved embarrassingly wrong, and he may have wanted to be sure he was correct. David Quammen has suggested all these factors may have contributed, and notes Darwin's large output of books and busy family life during that time.

Question: By which year did Darwin have the basic premise of his natural selection theory?


Answer: fear of religious persecution or social disgrace

Question: Why might Darwin have postponed publishing his theory of evolution for over 20 years?


Answer: Glen Roy

Question: Which paper did Darwin write that was incorrect?


Answer: his clergymen naturalist friends or his pious wife Emma.

Question: Who might Darwin have feared upsetting by publishing his work?


Answer: Darwin's contemporaries thought the time he took was reasonable

Context: A more recent study by science historian John van Wyhe has determined that the idea that Darwin delayed publication only dates back to the 1940s, and Darwin's contemporaries thought the time he took was reasonable. Darwin always finished one book before starting another. While he was researching, he told many people about his interest in transmutation without causing outrage. He firmly intended to publish, but it was not until September 1854 that he could work on it full-time. His estimate that writing his "big book" would take five years was optimistic.

Question: What did Darwin's contemporaries think of the long delays on his publishing?


Answer: Darwin always finished one book before starting another

Question: What was Darwin's process on writing his books?


Answer: five years

Question: What was Darwin's original estimate for the amount of time his book would take to write?


Answer: John van Wyhe

Question: Which scientist's study theorized that the idea of Darwin's work being delayed dates to the 1940s?


Answer: fifteen shillings

Context: On the Origin of Species was first published on Thursday 24 November 1859, priced at fifteen shillings with a first printing of 1250 copies. The book had been offered to booksellers at Murray's autumn sale on Tuesday 22 November, and all available copies had been taken up immediately. In total, 1,250 copies were printed but after deducting presentation and review copies, and five for Stationers' Hall copyright, around 1,170 copies were available for sale. Significantly, 500 were taken by Mudie's Library, ensuring that the book promptly reached a large number of subscribers to the library. The second edition of 3,000 copies was quickly brought out on 7 January 1860, and incorporated numerous corrections as well as a response to religious objections by the addition of a new epigraph on page ii, a quotation from Charles Kingsley, and the phrase "by the Creator" added to the closing sentence. During Darwin's lifetime the book went through six editions, with cumulative changes and revisions to deal with counter-arguments raised. The third edition came out in 1861, with a number of sentences rewritten or added and an introductory appendix, An Historical Sketch of the Recent Progress of Opinion on the Origin of Species, while the fourth in 1866 had further revisions. The fifth edition, published on 10 February 1869, incorporated more changes and for the first time included the phrase "survival of the fittest", which had been coined by the philosopher Herbert Spencer in his Principles of Biology (1864).

Question: What was the cost for the first published copies of On the Origin of Species?


Answer: 1250 copies

Question: How many copies of On the Origin of Species were created in the first printing?


Answer: Murray's autumn sale

Question: Where was the book, On the Origin of Species first offered for sale?


Answer: six editions

Question: How many editions did On the Origin of Species go through during Darwin's lifetime?


Answer: Mudie's Library

Question: Which institution bought 500 copies of the book, ensuring that a large number of people would have access to it?


Answer: claimed it included false metaphysics

Context: In January 1871, George Jackson Mivart's On the Genesis of Species listed detailed arguments against natural selection, and claimed it included false metaphysics. Darwin made extensive revisions to the sixth edition of the Origin (this was the first edition in which he used the word "evolution" which had commonly been associated with embryological development, though all editions concluded with the word "evolved"), and added a new chapter VII, Miscellaneous objections, to address Mivart's arguments.

Question: What did On the Genesis of Species argue against natural selection?


Answer: George Jackson Mivart

Question: Who wrote On the Genesis of Species?


Answer: the sixth edition

Question: When did Charles Darwin first use the word "evolution" in On the Origin of Species?


Answer: added a new chapter VII,

Question: What did Charles Darwin do to address Mivart's arguments?


Answer: Miscellaneous objections

Question: What was chapter VII entitled?


Answer: two New York publishing firms were already planning to exploit the absence of international copyright to print Origin

Context: In the United States, botanist Asa Gray an American colleague of Darwin negotiated with a Boston publisher for publication of an authorised American version, but learnt that two New York publishing firms were already planning to exploit the absence of international copyright to print Origin. Darwin was delighted by the popularity of the book, and asked Gray to keep any profits. Gray managed to negotiate a 5% royalty with Appleton's of New York, who got their edition out in mid January 1860, and the other two withdrew. In a May letter, Darwin mentioned a print run of 2,500 copies, but it is not clear if this referred to the first printing only as there were four that year.

Question: Why couldn't Asa Gray use a Boston publisher for an American version of On the Origin of Species?


Answer: a 5% royalty

Question: How much of a royalty was Gray able to negotiate with a New York publisher for On the Origin of Species?


Answer: mid January 1860

Question: When was the first American edition of On the Origin of Species published?


Answer: asked Gray to keep any profits

Question: What did Darwin decide to do with the profits of the American version of On the Origin of Species?


Answer: 2,500 copies

Question: What was the print run that Darwin mentioned for On the Origin of Species?


Answer: Heinrich Georg Bronn,

Context: The book was widely translated in Darwin's lifetime, but problems arose with translating concepts and metaphors, and some translations were biased by the translator's own agenda. Darwin distributed presentation copies in France and Germany, hoping that suitable applicants would come forward, as translators were expected to make their own arrangements with a local publisher. He welcomed the distinguished elderly naturalist and geologist Heinrich Georg Bronn, but the German translation published in 1860 imposed Bronn's own ideas, adding controversial themes that Darwin had deliberately omitted. Bronn translated "favoured races" as "perfected races", and added essays on issues including the origin of life, as well as a final chapter on religious implications partly inspired by Bronn's adherence to Naturphilosophie. In 1862, Bronn produced a second edition based on the third English edition and Darwin's suggested additions, but then died of a heart attack. Darwin corresponded closely with Julius Victor Carus, who published an improved translation in 1867. Darwin's attempts to find a translator in France fell through, and the translation by Clémence Royer published in 1862 added an introduction praising Darwin's ideas as an alternative to religious revelation and promoting ideas anticipating social Darwinism and eugenics, as well as numerous explanatory notes giving her own answers to doubts that Darwin expressed. Darwin corresponded with Royer about a second edition published in 1866 and a third in 1870, but he had difficulty getting her to remove her notes and was troubled by these editions. He remained unsatisfied until a translation by Edmond Barbier was published in 1876. A Dutch translation by Tiberius Cornelis Winkler was published in 1860. By 1864, additional translations had appeared in Italian and Russian. In Darwin's lifetime, Origin was published in Swedish in 1871, Danish in 1872, Polish in 1873, Hungarian in 1873–1874, Spanish in 1877 and Serbian in 1878. By 1977, it had appeared in an additional 18 languages.

Question: Who was the German translator that Darwin welcomed for On the Origin of Species?


Answer: the German translation published in 1860 imposed Bronn's own ideas, adding controversial themes that Darwin had deliberately omitted.

Question: What did Bronn do in his translation that went completely against what Darwin wanted in On the Origin of Species?


Answer: "perfected races"

Question: What did Bronn change "Favoured Races" to in his translated edition of On the Origin of Species?


Answer: Julius Victor Carus

Question: Who published an improved translation of On the Origin of Species in 1867?


Answer: numerous explanatory notes giving her own answers to doubts that Darwin expressed

Question: Why was Darwin unhappy with the first French translation of On the Origins of Species?


Answer: a rational God who established a law-abiding cosmos

Context: Page ii contains quotations by William Whewell and Francis Bacon on the theology of natural laws, harmonising science and religion in accordance with Isaac Newton's belief in a rational God who established a law-abiding cosmos. In the second edition, Darwin added an epigraph from Joseph Butler affirming that God could work through scientific laws as much as through miracles, in a nod to the religious concerns of his oldest friends. The Introduction establishes Darwin's credentials as a naturalist and author, then refers to John Herschel's letter suggesting that the origin of species "would be found to be a natural in contradistinction to a miraculous process":

Question: What was Isaac Newton's belief about God on the theory of natural law?


Answer: Joseph Butler

Question: Whose epigraph did Darwin add to On the Origin of Species harmonizing God with science and miracles together?


Answer: John Herschel

Question: Whose letter does the introduction to On the Origin of Species refer?


Answer: the second edition

Question: In which edition of On the Origin of Species was the epigraph from Joseph Butler added?


Answer: ancient Egypt

Context: Chapter I covers animal husbandry and plant breeding, going back to ancient Egypt. Darwin discusses contemporary opinions on the origins of different breeds under cultivation to argue that many have been produced from common ancestors by selective breeding. As an illustration of artificial selection, he describes fancy pigeon breeding, noting that "[t]he diversity of the breeds is something astonishing", yet all were descended from one species of rock pigeon. Darwin saw two distinct kinds of variation: (1) rare abrupt changes he called "sports" or "monstrosities" (example: ancon sheep with short legs), and (2) ubiquitous small differences (example: slightly shorter or longer bill of pigeons). Both types of hereditary changes can be used by breeders. However, for Darwin the small changes were most important in evolution.

Question: How far back does Chapter One of On the Origin of Species go in its coverage of animal and plant species?


Answer: fancy pigeon breeding

Question: What does Darwin use to illustrate the effects of artificial selection?


Answer: one species of rock pigeon

Question: From what does Darwin assert all pigeons are descended?


Answer: the small changes

Question: Which evolutionary changes were the most important to Darwin?


Answer: is arbitrary

Context: In Chapter II, Darwin specifies that the distinction between species and varieties is arbitrary, with experts disagreeing and changing their decisions when new forms were found. He concludes that "a well-marked variety may be justly called an incipient species" and that "species are only strongly marked and permanent varieties". He argues for the ubiquity of variation in nature. Historians have noted that naturalists had long been aware that the individuals of a species differed from one another, but had generally considered such variations to be limited and unimportant deviations from the archetype of each species, that archetype being a fixed ideal in the mind of God. Darwin and Wallace made variation among individuals of the same species central to understanding the natural world.

Question: What does Darwin believe about the differences between species and varieties?


Answer: "species are only strongly marked and permanent varieties"

Question: What does Darwin theorize about different species with regard to variety?


Answer: variation among individuals of the same species

Question: What did Darwin and Wallace make central to understanding the natural world?


Answer: incipient species"

Question: What did Darwin say that a "well marked variety" could be called?


Answer: generally considered such variations to be limited and unimportant deviations from the archetype of each species

Question: What did historians say that naturalists generally thought about the differences in variations in a species?


Answer: doctrine of Malthus

Context: He notes that both A. P. de Candolle and Charles Lyell had stated that all organisms are exposed to severe competition. Darwin emphasizes that he used the phrase "struggle for existence" in "a large and metaphorical sense, including dependence of one being on another"; he gives examples ranging from plants struggling against drought to plants competing for birds to eat their fruit and disseminate their seeds. He describes the struggle resulting from population growth: "It is the doctrine of Malthus applied with manifold force to the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms." He discusses checks to such increase including complex ecological interdependencies, and notes that competition is most severe between closely related forms "which fill nearly the same place in the economy of nature".

Question: What is the struggle that Darwin describes about population likened to?


Answer: "a large and metaphorical sense

Question: Within what frame of reference does Darwin use the phrase "Struggle for Existence?"


Answer: all organisms are exposed to severe competition

Question: What was Charles Lyell's perception of what organisms are exposed to in their struggle for survival?


Answer: competition is most severe between closely related forms

Question: When is competition strongest in the natural world?


Answer: fill nearly the same place in the economy of nature".

Question: Why is competition so fierce between related species?


Answer: sharp divergence in character between breeds,

Context: Chapter IV details natural selection under the "infinitely complex and close-fitting ... mutual relations of all organic beings to each other and to their physical conditions of life". Darwin takes as an example a country where a change in conditions led to extinction of some species, immigration of others and, where suitable variations occurred, descendants of some species became adapted to new conditions. He remarks that the artificial selection practised by animal breeders frequently produced sharp divergence in character between breeds, and suggests that natural selection might do the same, saying:

Question: What did Darwin say that artificial selection by animal breeders often causes?


Answer: extinction of some species

Question: What did Darwin say could happen somewhere if there is a change in conditions?


Answer: descendants of some species became adapted to new conditions

Question: What can happen if species immigrate to a new location?


Answer: sexual selection, driven by competition between males for mates

Context: Darwin proposes sexual selection, driven by competition between males for mates, to explain sexually dimorphic features such as lion manes, deer antlers, peacock tails, bird songs, and the bright plumage of some male birds. He analysed sexual selection more fully in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex (1871). Natural selection was expected to work very slowly in forming new species, but given the effectiveness of artificial selection, he could "see no limit to the amount of change, to the beauty and infinite complexity of the coadaptations between all organic beings, one with another and with their physical conditions of life, which may be effected in the long course of time by nature's power of selection". Using a tree diagram and calculations, he indicates the "divergence of character" from original species into new species and genera. He describes branches falling off as extinction occurred, while new branches formed in "the great Tree of life ... with its ever branching and beautiful ramifications".

Question: What does Darwin say can explain diverse feature such as antlers on deer and bright feathers on certain male birds?


Answer: The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex

Question: Which of Darwin's written works has more in depth information about sexual selection?


Answer: no limit to the amount of change, to the beauty and infinite complexity of the coadaptations between all organic beings

Question: What did Darwin expect to see between species with the addition of artificial selection?


Answer: a tree diagram and calculations

Question: What did Darwin use to illustrate the way that original species change and adapt into new ones?


Answer: Lamarckism

Context: In Darwin's time there was no agreed-upon model of heredity; in Chapter I Darwin admitted, "The laws governing inheritance are quite unknown." He accepted a version of the inheritance of acquired characteristics (which after Darwin's death came to be called Lamarckism), and Chapter V discusses what he called the effects of use and disuse; he wrote that he thought "there can be little doubt that use in our domestic animals strengthens and enlarges certain parts, and disuse diminishes them; and that such modifications are inherited", and that this also applied in nature. Darwin stated that some changes that were commonly attributed to use and disuse, such as the loss of functional wings in some island dwelling insects, might be produced by natural selection. In later editions of Origin, Darwin expanded the role attributed to the inheritance of acquired characteristics. Darwin also admitted ignorance of the source of inheritable variations, but speculated they might be produced by environmental factors. However, one thing was clear: whatever the exact nature and causes of new variations, Darwin knew from observation and experiment that breeders were able to select such variations and produce huge differences in many generations of selection. The observation that selection works in domestic animals is not destroyed by lack of understanding of the underlying hereditary mechanism.

Question: What is the theory that is based on acquired characteristics within a species?


Answer: use in our domestic animals strengthens and enlarges certain parts, and disuse diminishes them

Question: What did Darwin learn about about the characteristics of domestic animals?


Answer: environmental factors

Question: What did Darwin speculate might be how inheritable variations might come about in a species?


Answer: "The laws governing inheritance are quite unknown."

Question: What did Darwin admit about acquired characteristics in chapter one of On the Origin of Species?


Answer: breeders were able to select such variations and produce huge differences in many generations of selection

Question: What did Darwin learn about variations by observing breeders?


Answer: 1868

Context: More detail was given in Darwin's 1868 book on The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication, which tried to explain heredity through his hypothesis of pangenesis. Although Darwin had privately questioned blending inheritance, he struggled with the theoretical difficulty that novel individual variations would tend to blend into a population. However, inherited variation could be seen, and Darwin's concept of selection working on a population with a range of small variations was workable. It was not until the modern evolutionary synthesis in the 1930s and 1940s that a model of heredity became completely integrated with a model of variation. This modern evolutionary synthesis had been dubbed Neo Darwinian Evolution because it encompasses Charles Darwin's theories of evolution with Gregor Mendel's theories of genetic inheritance.

Question: When was The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication by Charles Darwin published?


Answer: hypothesis of pangenesis.

Question: What was the hypothesis that attempted to explain heredity?


Answer: Darwin's concept of selection working on a population with a range of small variations was workable

Question: While Darwin wasn't sure about blending inherited traits, what was his opinion about utilizing inherited variation?


Answer: in the 1930s and 1940s

Question: When did a model of heredity begin to be integrated with that of variation?


Answer: Neo Darwinian Evolution

Question: What was the modern evolutionary synthesis named?


Answer: often no intermediate forms between closely related species are found

Context: Chapter VI begins by saying the next three chapters will address possible objections to the theory, the first being that often no intermediate forms between closely related species are found, though the theory implies such forms must have existed. As Darwin noted, "Firstly, why, if species have descended from other species by insensibly fine gradations, do we not everywhere see innumerable transitional forms? Why is not all nature in confusion, instead of the species being, as we see them, well defined?" Darwin attributed this to the competition between different forms, combined with the small number of individuals of intermediate forms, often leading to extinction of such forms. This difficulty can be referred to as the absence or rarity of transitional varieties in habitat space.

Question: What is one possible objection to the theory of integrated variation?


Answer: why, if species have descended from other species by insensibly fine gradations, do we not everywhere see innumerable transitional forms?

Question: Why did Darwin wonder why all of nature isn't chaotic and random?


Answer: the competition between different forms, combined with the small number of individuals of intermediate forms, often leading to extinction of such forms.

Question: What did Darwin ultimately decide was the reason that nature is not a chaos of variation?


Answer: flying squirrels, and flying lemurs

Context: His answer was that in many cases animals exist with intermediate structures that are functional. He presented flying squirrels, and flying lemurs as examples of how bats might have evolved from non-flying ancestors. He discussed various simple eyes found in invertebrates, starting with nothing more than an optic nerve coated with pigment, as examples of how the vertebrate eye could have evolved. Darwin concludes: "If it could be demonstrated that any complex organ existed, which could not possibly have been formed by numerous, successive, slight modifications, my theory would absolutely break down. But I can find out no such case."

Question: What are some flying animals that Darwin thought might have evolved from bats?


Answer: simple eyes found in invertebrates, starting with nothing more than an optic nerve coated with pigment

Question: What example did Darwin give of eyes evolving?


Answer: any complex organ existed, which could not possibly have been formed by numerous, successive, slight modifications, my theory would absolutely break down.

Question: How did Darwin justify his theory not breaking down?


Answer: He thought it reasonable that species with an extreme dependency on slave workers had evolved in incremental steps.

Context: Chapter VII (of the first edition) addresses the evolution of instincts. His examples included two he had investigated experimentally: slave-making ants and the construction of hexagonal cells by honey bees. Darwin noted that some species of slave-making ants were more dependent on slaves than others, and he observed that many ant species will collect and store the pupae of other species as food. He thought it reasonable that species with an extreme dependency on slave workers had evolved in incremental steps. He suggested that bees that make hexagonal cells evolved in steps from bees that made round cells, under pressure from natural selection to economise wax. Darwin concluded:

Question: How does Darwin theorize that instincts have evolved in slave-making ants?


Answer: He suggested that bees that make hexagonal cells evolved in steps from bees that made round cells, under pressure from natural selection to economise wax

Question: How does Darwin theorize that instincts have evolved in bees?


Answer: some species of slave-making ants were more dependent on slaves than others

Question: What did Darwin notice specifically about slave-making ants?


Answer: in order to preserve separately created species

Context: Chapter VIII addresses the idea that species had special characteristics that prevented hybrids from being fertile in order to preserve separately created species. Darwin said that, far from being constant, the difficulty in producing hybrids of related species, and the viability and fertility of the hybrids, varied greatly, especially among plants. Sometimes what were widely considered to be separate species produced fertile hybrid offspring freely, and in other cases what were considered to be mere varieties of the same species could only be crossed with difficulty. Darwin concluded: "Finally, then, the facts briefly given in this chapter do not seem to me opposed to, but even rather to support the view, that there is no fundamental distinction between species and varieties."

Question: Why would hybrids have characteristics that keep them from being fertile?


Answer: the viability and fertility of the hybrids, varied greatly, especially among plants

Question: What are Darwin's thoughts on producing hybrids of related species?


Answer: support the view, that there is no fundamental distinction between species and varieties

Question: What conclusion did Darwin come to after realizing that some diverse species were able to create variations easily, while other species thought to be closely related had difficulty?