Answer: Turkish Fatherland Football Club

Context: The main sports Ottomans were engaged in were Turkish Wrestling, hunting, Turkish archery, horseback riding, Equestrian javelin throw, arm wrestling, and swimming. European model sports clubs were formed with the spreading popularity of football matches in 19th century Constantinople. The leading clubs, according to timeline, were Beşiktaş Gymnastics Club (1903), Galatasaray Sports Club (1905) and Fenerbahçe Sports Club (1907) in Istanbul. Football clubs were formed in other provinces too, such as Karşıyaka Sports Club (1912), Altay Sports Club (1914) and Turkish Fatherland Football Club (later Ülküspor) (1914) of İzmir.

Question: What was the football club known as Ülküspor formerly known as?


Answer: Philosophy of space and time

Context: Philosophy of space and time is the branch of philosophy concerned with the issues surrounding the ontology, epistemology, and character of space and time. While such ideas have been central to philosophy from its inception, the philosophy of space and time was both an inspiration for and a central aspect of early analytic philosophy. The subject focuses on a number of basic issues, including whether or not time and space exist independently of the mind, whether they exist independently of one another, what accounts for time's apparently unidirectional flow, whether times other than the present moment exist, and questions about the nature of identity (particularly the nature of identity over time).

Question: Which philosophy branch is concerned with issues surrounding ontology?


Answer: early analytic philosophy

Question: The philosophy of space and time was inspired by what kind of philosophy?


Answer: the mind

Question: The philosophy of space and time focuses on whether or not time and space exist independently of what?


Answer: unidirectional

Question: The philosophy of space and time focuses what kind of flow within time?


Answer: Ptahhotep

Context: The earliest recorded Western philosophy of time was expounded by the ancient Egyptian thinker Ptahhotep (c. 2650–2600 BC), who said, "Do not lessen the time of following desire, for the wasting of time is an abomination to the spirit." The Vedas, the earliest texts on Indian philosophy and Hindu philosophy, dating back to the late 2nd millennium BC, describe ancient Hindu cosmology, in which the universe goes through repeated cycles of creation, destruction, and rebirth, with each cycle lasting 4,320,000 years. Ancient Greek philosophers, including Parmenides and Heraclitus, wrote essays on the nature of time.

Question: Who expounded the earliest recorded Western philosophy of time?


Answer: late 2nd millennium BC

Question: When do the Vedas date back to?


Answer: Indian philosophy and Hindu philosophy

Question: Which philosophies are the Vedas oriented with?


Answer: ancient Hindu cosmology

Question: What do the Vedas describe?


Answer: 4,320,000 years

Question: How long is the cycle of rebirth discussed in the Vedas?


Answer: St. Augustine

Context: In Book 11 of St. Augustine's Confessions, he ruminates on the nature of time, asking, "What then is time? If no one asks me, I know: if I wish to explain it to one that asketh, I know not." He goes on to comment on the difficulty of thinking about time, pointing out the inaccuracy of common speech: "For but few things are there of which we speak properly; of most things we speak improperly, still the things intended are understood." But Augustine presented the first philosophical argument for the reality of Creation (against Aristotle) in the context of his discussion of time, saying that knowledge of time depends on the knowledge of the movement of things, and therefore time cannot be where there are no creatures to measure its passing (Confessions Book XI ¶30; City of God Book XI ch.6).

Question: Which christian philosopher ruminated on time?


Answer: the difficulty

Question: What did St. Augustine comment on in Book 11, regarding thinking about time?


Answer: Augustine

Question: Who presented the first philosophical argument for the reality of Creation?


Answer: the knowledge of the movement of things

Question: What did Augustine say that the knowledge of time depended on?


Answer: where there are no creatures to measure its passing

Question: Where did Augustine say time could not appear?


Answer: al-Haytham

Context: In the early 11th century, the Muslim physicist Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen or Alhazen) discussed space perception and its epistemological implications in his Book of Optics (1021), he also rejected Aristotle's definition of topos (Physics IV) by way of geometric demonstrations and defined place as a mathematical spatial extension. His experimental proof of the intromission model of vision led to changes in the understanding of the visual perception of space, contrary to the previous emission theory of vision supported by Euclid and Ptolemy. In "tying the visual perception of space to prior bodily experience, Alhacen unequivocally rejected the intuitiveness of spatial perception and, therefore, the autonomy of vision. Without tangible notions of distance and size for correlation, sight can tell us next to nothing about such things."

Question: Which 11th century Muslim physicist discussed space perception and its epistemological implications?


Answer: Book of Optics

Question: Which 11th century book discussed space perception and its epistemological implications?


Answer: Aristotle's

Question: Whose definition of topos did Alhazen reject?


Answer: Without tangible notions of distance and size for correlation, sight can tell us next to nothing about such things

Question: Alhazen's experimental proof of the intromission model of vision led to the change of understanding of what?


Answer: next to nothing

Question: Alhazen stated that without tangible notions of distance and size for correlation, sight can tell us what about spatial perception?


Answer: 1781

Context: In 1781, Immanuel Kant published the Critique of Pure Reason, one of the most influential works in the history of the philosophy of space and time. He describes time as an a priori notion that, together with other a priori notions such as space, allows us to comprehend sense experience. Kant denies that either space or time are substance, entities in themselves, or learned by experience; he holds, rather, that both are elements of a systematic framework we use to structure our experience. Spatial measurements are used to quantify how far apart objects are, and temporal measurements are used to quantitatively compare the interval between (or duration of) events. Although space and time are held to be transcendentally ideal in this sense, they are also empirically real—that is, not mere illusions.

Question: When did Kant publish one of the most influential works in the history of the philosophy of space and time.


Answer: Critique of Pure Reason

Question: What was Kant's influential work on the history of the philosophy of space and time titled?


Answer: a priori notion

Question: What did Kant describe time as?


Answer: space

Question: What did Kant say was similar notion to time?


Answer: sense experience

Question: What did Kant say time and space allow one to do?


Answer: the absolutist position

Context: Arguing against the absolutist position, Leibniz offers a number of thought experiments with the purpose of showing that there is contradiction in assuming the existence of facts such as absolute location and velocity. These arguments trade heavily on two principles central to his philosophy: the principle of sufficient reason and the identity of indiscernibles. The principle of sufficient reason holds that for every fact, there is a reason that is sufficient to explain what and why it is the way it is and not otherwise. The identity of indiscernibles states that if there is no way of telling two entities apart, then they are one and the same thing.

Question: What did Leibniz argue against?


Answer: the principle of sufficient reason and the identity of indiscernibles

Question: Which principles did Leibniz's arguments trade heavily upon?


Answer: fact

Question: Leibnitz held that there is a reason that is sufficient to explain what and why it is the way it is and not otherwise for every what?


Answer: identity of indiscernibles

Question: What states that if there is no way of telling two entities apart, then they are one and the same thing?


Answer: two

Context: The example Leibniz uses involves two proposed universes situated in absolute space. The only discernible difference between them is that the latter is positioned five feet to the left of the first. The example is only possible if such a thing as absolute space exists. Such a situation, however, is not possible, according to Leibniz, for if it were, a universe's position in absolute space would have no sufficient reason, as it might very well have been anywhere else. Therefore, it contradicts the principle of sufficient reason, and there could exist two distinct universes that were in all ways indiscernible, thus contradicting the identity of indiscernibles.

Question: Leibniz's example involves how many universes?


Answer: absolute space

Question: Where are Leibniz's universes situated?


Answer: five feet

Question: How far are Leibniz's universes situated apart?


Answer: absolute space exists

Question: What is the only way Leibniz's example would be possible?


Answer: the bucket argument

Context: Standing out in Clarke's (and Newton's) response to Leibniz's arguments is the bucket argument: Water in a bucket, hung from a rope and set to spin, will start with a flat surface. As the water begins to spin in the bucket, the surface of the water will become concave. If the bucket is stopped, the water will continue to spin, and while the spin continues, the surface will remain concave. The concave surface is apparently not the result of the interaction of the bucket and the water, since the surface is flat when the bucket first starts to spin, it becomes concave as the water starts to spin, and it remains concave as the bucket stops.

Question: What stood out in Clark's response to Leibniz?


Answer: flat

Question: According to Clark's argument, water in a bucket, hung from a rope and spun, will begin with kind of surface?


Answer: the water will become concave

Question: As the buck spins, what happens to the water?


Answer: continue to spin

Question: If the buck stops, the water will do what?


Answer: the interaction of the bucket and the water

Question: What is the surface of the water apparently not caused by?


Answer: objects

Context: Leibniz describes a space that exists only as a relation between objects, and which has no existence apart from the existence of those objects. Motion exists only as a relation between those objects. Newtonian space provided the absolute frame of reference within which objects can have motion. In Newton's system, the frame of reference exists independently of the objects contained within it. These objects can be described as moving in relation to space itself. For many centuries, the evidence of a concave water surface held authority.

Question: Leibniz describes space as existing only as a relation between what?


Answer: space

Question: According to Leibniz, what has no existence apart from the existence of objections?


Answer: Newtonian space

Question: What provides the absolute frame of reference within which objects can have motion?


Answer: independently

Question: In Newton's system, how does the frame of reference exist between objects within it?


Answer: many centuries

Question: For how long did the evidence of a concave water surface hold authority in reference to space?


Answer: problematic

Context: Mach suggested that thought experiments like the bucket argument are problematic. If we were to imagine a universe that only contains a bucket, on Newton's account, this bucket could be set to spin relative to absolute space, and the water it contained would form the characteristic concave surface. But in the absence of anything else in the universe, it would be difficult to confirm that the bucket was indeed spinning. It seems equally possible that the surface of the water in the bucket would remain flat.

Question: How did Mach describe thought experiments like the bucket argument?


Answer: that the bucket was indeed spinning

Question: What is difficult to confirm about the bucket in the absence of anything else in the universe?


Answer: would remain flat.

Question: What was equally possible about the surface of the water in the bucket?


Answer: would remain flat

Context: Mach argued that, in effect, the water experiment in an otherwise empty universe would remain flat. But if another object were introduced into this universe, perhaps a distant star, there would now be something relative to which the bucket could be seen as rotating. The water inside the bucket could possibly have a slight curve. To account for the curve that we observe, an increase in the number of objects in the universe also increases the curvature in the water. Mach argued that the momentum of an object, whether angular or linear, exists as a result of the sum of the effects of other objects in the universe (Mach's Principle).

Question: What did Mach argue about the water experiment in an otherwise empty universe?


Answer: the bucket could be seen as rotating

Question: What did Mach argue would happen if another object were introduce in the bucket's universe?


Answer: increases the curvature

Question: What does the increase in the number of objects in the universe do to the curvature of the water?


Answer: Mach's Principle

Question: The Mach argument is called what?


Answer: effects of other objects in the universe

Question: Mach argued that the momentum of an object exists as a result of the sum of the effects of what?


Answer: relativity

Context: Albert Einstein proposed that the laws of physics should be based on the principle of relativity. This principle holds that the rules of physics must be the same for all observers, regardless of the frame of reference that is used, and that light propagates at the same speed in all reference frames. This theory was motivated by Maxwell's equations, which show that electromagnetic waves propagate in a vacuum at the speed of light. However, Maxwell's equations give no indication of what this speed is relative to. Prior to Einstein, it was thought that this speed was relative to a fixed medium, called the luminiferous ether. In contrast, the theory of special relativity postulates that light propagates at the speed of light in all inertial frames, and examines the implications of this postulate.

Question: lbert Einstein proposed that the laws of physics should be based on what principle?


Answer: all observers

Question: The principle of relativity holds that the rules of physics must be the same for who?


Answer: the same

Question: In all reference frames, how is the the speed of light?


Answer: Maxwell

Question: Einstein's theory was motivated by who?


Answer: the luminiferous ether

Question: Before Einstein, speed was though to be relative to what?


Answer: does not accelerate

Context: In classical physics, an inertial reference frame is one in which an object that experiences no forces does not accelerate. In general relativity, an inertial frame of reference is one that is following a geodesic of space-time. An object that moves against a geodesic experiences a force. An object in free fall does not experience a force, because it is following a geodesic. An object standing on the earth, however, will experience a force, as it is being held against the geodesic by the surface of the planet. In light of this, the bucket of water rotating in empty space will experience a force because it rotates with respect to the geodesic. The water will become concave, not because it is rotating with respect to the distant stars, but because it is rotating with respect to the geodesic.

Question: In classical physics, an inertial reference frame is one in which an object without force does what?


Answer: an inertial frame of reference

Question: What follows a geodesic of space-time?


Answer: force

Question: An object in free fall does not experience what?


Answer: the surface of the planet

Question: What holds an object standing on earth against the geodesic?


Answer: it is rotating with respect to the geodesic.

Question: Why will water become concave, according to the relativity theory?


Answer: partially

Context: Einstein partially advocates Mach's principle in that distant stars explain inertia because they provide the gravitational field against which acceleration and inertia occur. But contrary to Leibniz's account, this warped space-time is as integral a part of an object as are its other defining characteristics, such as volume and mass. If one holds, contrary to idealist beliefs, that objects exist independently of the mind, it seems that relativistics commits them to also hold that space and temporality have exactly the same type of independent existence.

Question: How does Einstein advocate Mach's principle?


Answer: contrary

Question: How Einstein's theory compared to Leibniz's?


Answer: objects exist independently of the mind

Question: What is considered contrary to idealist beliefs in regards to space?


Answer: two

Context: Coordinative definition has two major features. The first has to do with coordinating units of length with certain physical objects. This is motivated by the fact that we can never directly apprehend length. Instead we must choose some physical object, say the Standard Metre at the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (International Bureau of Weights and Measures), or the wavelength of cadmium to stand in as our unit of length. The second feature deals with separated objects. Although we can, presumably, directly test the equality of length of two measuring rods when they are next to one another, we can not find out as much for two rods distant from one another. Even supposing that two rods, whenever brought near to one another are seen to be equal in length, we are not justified in stating that they are always equal in length. This impossibility undermines our ability to decide the equality of length of two distant objects. Sameness of length, to the contrary, must be set by definition.

Question: Coordinative definition has how many major features?


Answer: coordinating units of length with certain physical objects

Question: The first feature of Coordinative definition involves what?


Answer: we can never directly apprehend length

Question: What is the first feature motivated by?


Answer: separated objects

Question: The second feature of Coordinative definition involves what?


Answer: by definition

Question: Sameness of length must be set how?


Answer: all differentiable transformations

Context: In the classical case, the invariance, or symmetry, group and the covariance group coincide, but, interestingly enough, they part ways in relativistic physics. The symmetry group of the general theory of relativity includes all differentiable transformations, i.e., all properties of an object are dynamical, in other words there are no absolute objects. The formulations of the general theory of relativity, unlike those of classical mechanics, do not share a standard, i.e., there is no single formulation paired with transformations. As such the covariance group of the general theory of relativity is just the covariance group of every theory.

Question: The symmetry group of the general theory of relativity includes what?


Answer: the covariance group

Question: What else besides invariance, or symmetry and group part ways in relativistic physics?


Answer: classical mechanics

Question: Which theory does the relativity depart from?


Answer: single formulation

Question: What are not pair with transformations in the theory of relativity?


Answer: every

Question: The covariance group of the general theory of relativity is the covariance group of how many theories?


Answer: two

Context: The problem of the direction of time arises directly from two contradictory facts. Firstly, the fundamental physical laws are time-reversal invariant; if a cinematographic film were taken of any process describable by means of the aforementioned laws and then played backwards, it would still portray a physically possible process. Secondly, our experience of time, at the macroscopic level, is not time-reversal invariant. Glasses can fall and break, but shards of glass cannot reassemble and fly up onto tables. We have memories of the past, and none of the future. We feel we can't change the past but can influence the future.

Question: How many contradictory facts does the problem of the direction of time arise from?


Answer: fundamental

Question: What kind of physical laws are time-reversal invariant?


Answer: physically possible process

Question: If if a cinematographic film were taken by means of physical laws and then played backwards, it would still portray what?


Answer: not time-reversal invariant

Question: How is our experience of time at the macro level?


Answer: the future

Question: What do we not have memories of?


Answer: complicated

Context: But in statistical mechanics things get more complicated. On one hand, statistical mechanics is far superior to classical thermodynamics, in that thermodynamic behavior, such as glass breaking, can be explained by the fundamental laws of physics paired with a statistical postulate. But statistical mechanics, unlike classical thermodynamics, is time-reversal symmetric. The second law of thermodynamics, as it arises in statistical mechanics, merely states that it is overwhelmingly likely that net entropy will increase, but it is not an absolute law.

Question: How are things in statistical mechanics?


Answer: statistical mechanics

Question: What are superior to classical thermodynamics?


Answer: a statistical postulate

Question: In order to explain glass breaking, Fundamental laws of physics can be paired with what?


Answer: symmetric

Question: Is statistical mechanics asymmetric or symmetric in regards to time-reversal?


Answer: not an absolute law

Question: What kind of law is the second law of thermodynamics, as it arises in statistical mechanics?


Answer: the laws are not time-reversal symmetric

Context: A third type of solution to the problem of the direction of time, although much less represented, argues that the laws are not time-reversal symmetric. For example, certain processes in quantum mechanics, relating to the weak nuclear force, are not time-reversible, keeping in mind that when dealing with quantum mechanics time-reversibility comprises a more complex definition. But this type of solution is insufficient because 1) the time-asymmetric phenomena in quantum mechanics are too few to account for the uniformity of macroscopic time-asymmetry and 2) it relies on the assumption that quantum mechanics is the final or correct description of physical processes.[citation needed]

Question: What does the third type of solution to the problem of the direction of time argue?


Answer: weak nuclear force

Question: What is are kind of nuclear force is not time-reversibile?


Answer: macroscopic

Question: Time asymmetric phenomena in quantum mechanics are to few to account what kind of time-asymmetry?


Answer: Tim Maudlin

Context: One recent proponent of the laws solution is Tim Maudlin who argues that the fundamental laws of physics are laws of temporal evolution (see Maudlin ). However, elsewhere Maudlin argues: "[the] passage of time is an intrinsic asymmetry in the temporal structure of the world... It is the asymmetry that grounds the distinction between sequences that runs from past to future and sequences which run from future to past" [ibid, 2010 edition, p. 108]. Thus it is arguably difficult to assess whether Maudlin is suggesting that the direction of time is a consequence of the laws or is itself primitive.

Question: Who argues that the fundamental laws of physics are laws of temporal evolution?


Answer: intrinsic

Question: Maudlin argues that the passage of time is what kind of asymmetry?


Answer: asymmetry

Question: What grounds the distinction between sequences?


Answer: Maudlin

Question: Whose suggestion is difficult to assess in regards to the direction of time?


Answer: J. M. E. McTaggart

Context: The problem of the flow of time, as it has been treated in analytic philosophy, owes its beginning to a paper written by J. M. E. McTaggart. In this paper McTaggart proposes two "temporal series". The first series, which means to account for our intuitions about temporal becoming, or the moving Now, is called the A-series. The A-series orders events according to their being in the past, present or future, simpliciter and in comparison to each other. The B-series eliminates all reference to the present, and the associated temporal modalities of past and future, and orders all events by the temporal relations earlier than and later than.

Question: Who started the discussion within analytic philosophy on the problem of the flow of time?


Answer: two

Question: How many "temporal series" did McTaggart propose?


Answer: the A-series

Question: What was McTaggart's first series called?


Answer: each other

Question: The A-Series orders events according to their being in the past, present or future and in comparison to what else?


Answer: The B-series

Question: What is McTaggart's second series called?


Answer: Presentism

Context: According to Presentism, time is an ordering of various realities. At a certain time some things exist and others do not. This is the only reality we can deal with and we cannot for example say that Homer exists because at the present time he does not. An Eternalist, on the other hand, holds that time is a dimension of reality on a par with the three spatial dimensions, and hence that all things—past, present, and future—can be said to be just as real as things in the present. According to this theory, then, Homer really does exist, though we must still use special language when talking about somebody who exists at a distant time—just as we would use special language when talking about something far away (the very words near, far, above, below, and such are directly comparable to phrases such as in the past, a minute ago, and so on).

Question: According to what theory is time an ordering of various realities?


Answer: exist

Question: Presentism states that at a certain time some things do what?


Answer: Eternalist

Question: Who believes that time is a dimension of reality on a par with the three spatial dimensions


Answer: all things—past, present, and future

Question: According to an Eternalist, what can be said to be just as real as things in the present?


Answer: special language

Question: According to the Eternalist theory, what must we use to describe Homer?


Answer: somewhat similar

Context: The positions on the persistence of objects are somewhat similar. An endurantist holds that for an object to persist through time is for it to exist completely at different times (each instance of existence we can regard as somehow separate from previous and future instances, though still numerically identical with them). A perdurantist on the other hand holds that for a thing to exist through time is for it to exist as a continuous reality, and that when we consider the thing as a whole we must consider an aggregate of all its "temporal parts" or instances of existing. Endurantism is seen as the conventional view and flows out of our pre-philosophical ideas (when I talk to somebody I think I am talking to that person as a complete object, and not just a part of a cross-temporal being), but perdurantists have attacked this position. (An example of a perdurantist is David Lewis.) One argument perdurantists use to state the superiority of their view is that perdurantism is able to take account of change in objects.

Question: How similar are the positions on the persistence of objects?


Answer: endurantist

Question: Who holds that for an object to persist through time is for it to exist completely at different times?


Answer: perdurantist

Question: Who holds for a thing to exist through time is for it to exist as a continuous reality?


Answer: Endurantism

Question: Which view is seen as conventional?


Answer: David Lewis

Question: Who is an example of a perdurantist?


Answer: in a non-arbitrary way

Context: However, asymmetry of causation can be observed in a non-arbitrary way which is not metaphysical in the case of a human hand dropping a cup of water which smashes into fragments on a hard floor, spilling the liquid. In this order, the causes of the resultant pattern of cup fragments and water spill is easily attributable in terms of the trajectory of the cup, irregularities in its structure, angle of its impact on the floor, etc. However, applying the same event in reverse, it is difficult to explain why the various pieces of the cup should fly up into the human hand and reassemble precisely into the shape of a cup, or why the water should position itself entirely within the cup. The causes of the resultant structure and shape of the cup and the encapsulation of the water by the hand within the cup are not easily attributable, as neither hand nor floor can achieve such formations of the cup or water. This asymmetry is perceivable on account of two features: i) the relationship between the agent capacities of the human hand (i.e., what it is and is not capable of and what it is for) and non-animal agency (i.e., what floors are and are not capable of and what they are for) and ii) that the pieces of cup came to possess exactly the nature and number of those of a cup before assembling. In short, such asymmetry is attributable to the relationship between temporal direction on the one hand and the implications of form and functional capacity on the other.

Question: How can asymmetry of causation be observed?


Answer: two

Question: How many features of asymmetry in the cup example can be viewed?


Answer: temporal

Question: Asymmetry is attributable to a relation of what kind of direction?


Answer: implications of form and functional capacity

Question: What else, besides direction, is asymmetry attributable to?


Answer: the Neolithic

Context: Traditionally considered the last part of the Stone Age, the Neolithic followed the terminal Holocene Epipaleolithic period and commenced with the beginning of farming, which produced the "Neolithic Revolution". It ended when metal tools became widespread (in the Copper Age or Bronze Age; or, in some geographical regions, in the Iron Age). The Neolithic is a progression of behavioral and cultural characteristics and changes, including the use of wild and domestic crops and of domesticated animals.

Question: What era is commonly known as the final phase of the Stone Age?


Answer: Holocene Epipaleolithic period

Question: What era preceded the Neolithic?


Answer: Neolithic Revolution

Question: What event is associated with the start of farming?


Answer: Copper Age

Question: What era saw an increase in metal tool use?


Answer: 10,200 – 8,800 BC

Context: The beginning of the Neolithic culture is considered to be in the Levant (Jericho, modern-day West Bank) about 10,200 – 8,800 BC. It developed directly from the Epipaleolithic Natufian culture in the region, whose people pioneered the use of wild cereals, which then evolved into true farming. The Natufian period was between 12,000 and 10,200 BC, and the so-called "proto-Neolithic" is now included in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic (PPNA) between 10,200 and 8,800 BC. As the Natufians had become dependent on wild cereals in their diet, and a sedentary way of life had begun among them, the climatic changes associated with the Younger Dryas are thought to have forced people to develop farming.

Question: What time period marks the start of Neolithic culture?


Answer: Levant (Jericho, modern-day West Bank)

Question: Where did the Neolithic culture begin?


Answer: wild cereals

Question: What food item was the key to the evolution of farming?


Answer: The Natufian period

Question: What era lasted between 12,000 and 10,200 BC?


Answer: pottery

Context: Not all of these cultural elements characteristic of the Neolithic appeared everywhere in the same order: the earliest farming societies in the Near East did not use pottery. In other parts of the world, such as Africa, South Asia and Southeast Asia, independent domestication events led to their own regionally distinctive Neolithic cultures that arose completely independent of those in Europe and Southwest Asia. Early Japanese societies and other East Asian cultures used pottery before developing agriculture.

Question: What objects were not used by early farm societies in the Near East ?


Answer: agriculture

Question: What did the use of pottery help early Japanese societies develop?


Answer: independent domestication events

Question: What trend led to parts of the world developing their own local Neolithic cultures?


Answer: roughly 10,000 years ago

Context: The Neolithic 1 (PPNA) period began roughly 10,000 years ago in the Levant. A temple area in southeastern Turkey at Göbekli Tepe dated around 9,500 BC may be regarded as the beginning of the period. This site was developed by nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes, evidenced by the lack of permanent housing in the vicinity and may be the oldest known human-made place of worship. At least seven stone circles, covering 25 acres (10 ha), contain limestone pillars carved with animals, insects, and birds. Stone tools were used by perhaps as many as hundreds of people to create the pillars, which might have supported roofs. Other early PPNA sites dating to around 9,500 to 9,000 BCE have been found in Jericho, Israel (notably Ain Mallaha, Nahal Oren, and Kfar HaHoresh), Gilgal in the Jordan Valley, and Byblos, Lebanon. The start of Neolithic 1 overlaps the Tahunian and Heavy Neolithic periods to some degree.[citation needed]

Question: When did the The Neolithic 1 (PPNA) period start?


Answer: Turkey

Question: Where is the Göbekli Tepe temple located?


Answer: nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes

Question: Who built the Göbekli Tepe temple?


Answer: Göbekli Tepe

Question: What is the name of earliest man made place of worship?


Answer: around 8,800 BCE

Context: The Neolithic 2 (PPNB) began around 8,800 BCE according to the ASPRO chronology in the Levant (Jericho, Israel). As with the PPNA dates, there are two versions from the same laboratories noted above. This system of terminology, however, is not convenient for southeast Anatolia and settlements of the middle Anatolia basin. This era was before the Mesolithic era.[citation needed] A settlement of 3,000 inhabitants was found in the outskirts of Amman, Jordan. Considered to be one of the largest prehistoric settlements in the Near East, called 'Ain Ghazal, it was continuously inhabited from approximately 7,250 – 5,000 B.

Question: When did the The Neolithic 2 (PPNB) era start?


Answer: the Mesolithic era

Question: What era followed the The Neolithic 2 (PPNB) era?


Answer: 3,000 inhabitants

Question: How many settlers were found in Jordan?


Answer: Ain Ghazal

Question: What is the name of one of the biggest prehistoric settlements in the Near East?


Answer: Around 10,200 BC

Context: Around 10,200 BC the first fully developed Neolithic cultures belonging to the phase Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) appeared in the fertile crescent. Around 10,700 to 9,400 BC a settlement was established in Tell Qaramel, 10 miles north of Aleppo. The settlement included 2 temples dating back to 9,650. Around 9000 BC during the PPNA, one of the world's first towns, Jericho, appeared in the Levant. It was surrounded by a stone and marble wall and contained a population of 2000–3000 people and a massive stone tower. Around 6,400 BC the Halaf culture appeared in Lebanon, Israel and Palestine, Syria, Anatolia, and Northern Mesopotamia and subsisted on dryland agriculture.

Question: When did the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) phase start?


Answer: Around 10,700 to 9,400 BC

Question: When was a settlement developed in Tell Qaramel?


Answer: 2

Question: How many temples were built in Tell Qaramel?


Answer: Jericho

Question: What was the name of the town that first appeared during the PPNA?


Answer: stone and marble

Question: What materials were used to build the wall around Jericho?


Answer: Jacques Cauvin and Oliver Aurenche

Context: In 1981 a team of researchers from the Maison de l'Orient et de la Méditerranée, including Jacques Cauvin and Oliver Aurenche divided Near East neolithic chronology into ten periods (0 to 9) based on social, economic and cultural characteristics. In 2002 Danielle Stordeur and Frédéric Abbès advanced this system with a division into five periods. Natufian (1) between 12,000 and 10,200 BC, Khiamian (2) between 10,200-8,800 BC, PPNA: Sultanian (Jericho), Mureybetian, early PPNB (PPNB ancien) (3) between 8,800-7,600 BC, middle PPNB (PPNB moyen) 7,600-6,900 BC, late PPNB (PPNB récent) (4) between 7,500 and 7,000 BC and a PPNB (sometimes called PPNC) transitional stage (PPNB final) (5) where Halaf and dark faced burnished ware begin to emerge between 6,900-6,400 BC. They also advanced the idea of a transitional stage between the PPNA and PPNB between 8,800 and 8,600 BC at sites like Jerf el Ahmar and Tell Aswad.

Question: What are the names of two researchers who divided neolithic chronology into ten periods?


Answer: social, economic and cultural characteristics

Question: What traits did researchers use to divide the ten periods?


Answer: 2002

Question: When was the original division of 10 advanced to a division of 5?


Answer: Danielle Stordeur and Frédéric Abbès

Question: What are the names of two researchers who divided neolithic chronology into five periods?


Answer: 6,000 BC

Context: Domestication of sheep and goats reached Egypt from the Near East possibly as early as 6,000 BC. Graeme Barker states "The first indisputable evidence for domestic plants and animals in the Nile valley is not until the early fifth millennium bc in northern Egypt and a thousand years later further south, in both cases as part of strategies that still relied heavily on fishing, hunting, and the gathering of wild plants" and suggests that these subsistence changes were not due to farmers migrating from the Near East but was an indigenous development, with cereals either indigenous or obtained through exchange. Other scholars argue that the primary stimulus for agriculture and domesticated animals (as well as mud-brick architecture and other Neolithic cultural features) in Egypt was from the Middle East.

Question: When did the domestication of sheep first appear in Egypt?


Answer: fishing, hunting, and the gathering of wild plants

Question: How did Egyptians gather food before raising livestock?


Answer: the Middle East

Question: What region do some scholars see as the source for Egypt's start in agriculture?


Answer: 7th millennium BC

Context: In southeast Europe agrarian societies first appeared in the 7th millennium BC, attested by one of the earliest farming sites of Europe, discovered in Vashtëmi, southeastern Albania and dating back to 6,500 BC. Anthropomorphic figurines have been found in the Balkans from 6000 BC, and in Central Europe by c. 5800 BC (La Hoguette). Among the earliest cultural complexes of this area are the Sesklo culture in Thessaly, which later expanded in the Balkans giving rise to Starčevo-Körös (Cris), Linearbandkeramik, and Vinča. Through a combination of cultural diffusion and migration of peoples, the Neolithic traditions spread west and northwards to reach northwestern Europe by around 4500 BC. The Vinča culture may have created the earliest system of writing, the Vinča signs, though archaeologist Shan Winn believes they most likely represented pictograms and ideograms rather than a truly developed form of writing. The Cucuteni-Trypillian culture built enormous settlements in Romania, Moldova and Ukraine from 5300 to 2300 BC. The megalithic temple complexes of Ġgantija on the Mediterranean island of Gozo (in the Maltese archipelago) and of Mnajdra (Malta) are notable for their gigantic Neolithic structures, the oldest of which date back to c. 3600 BC. The Hypogeum of Ħal-Saflieni, Paola, Malta, is a subterranean structure excavated c. 2500 BC; originally a sanctuary, it became a necropolis, the only prehistoric underground temple in the world, and showing a degree of artistry in stone sculpture unique in prehistory to the Maltese islands. After 2500 BC, the Maltese Islands were depopulated for several decades until the arrival of a new influx of Bronze Age immigrants, a culture that cremated its dead and introduced smaller megalithic structures called dolmens to Malta. In most cases there are small chambers here, with the cover made of a large slab placed on upright stones. They are claimed to belong to a population certainly different from that which built the previous megalithic temples. It is presumed the population arrived from Sicily because of the similarity of Maltese dolmens to some small constructions found in the largest island of the Mediterranean sea.

Question: When did agrarian societies start to arise in Southeast Europe?


Answer: Vashtëmi, southeastern Albania

Question: Where was one of earliest farming sites in Europe found?


Answer: Anthropomorphic figurines

Question: What type of sculptures were found in the Balkans from 6000 BC?


Answer: cultural diffusion and migration of peoples

Question: What trend led to Neolithic traditions spreading to northwestern Europe by around 4500 BC?


Answer: The Vinča culture

Question: Who possibly created the earliest system of writing?


Answer: 2012

Context: In 2012, news was released about a new farming site discovered in Munam-ri, Goseong, Gangwon Province, South Korea, which may be the earliest farmland known to date in east Asia. "No remains of an agricultural field from the Neolithic period have been found in any East Asian country before, the institute said, adding that the discovery reveals that the history of agricultural cultivation at least began during the period on the Korean Peninsula". The farm was dated between 3600 and 3000 B.C. Pottery, stone projectile points, and possible houses were also found. "In 2002, researchers discovered prehistoric earthenware, jade earrings, among other items in the area". The research team will perform accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) dating to retrieve a more precise date for the site.

Question: When was the earliest known Asian farm site found in South Korea?


Answer: between 3600 and 3000 B.C.

Question: What time period was the Korean farm site dated?


Answer: Pottery, stone projectile points, and possible houses

Question: What items were found on the Korean farm site?


Answer: accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS)

Question: What technology will researchers use to measure a more accurate time period for the farm site?


Answer: crop domestication and sedentary lifestyles

Context: In Mesoamerica, a similar set of events (i.e., crop domestication and sedentary lifestyles) occurred by around 4500 BC, but possibly as early as 11,000–10,000 BC. These cultures are usually not referred to as belonging to the Neolithic; in America different terms are used such as Formative stage instead of mid-late Neolithic, Archaic Era instead of Early Neolithic and Paleo-Indian for the preceding period. The Formative stage is equivalent to the Neolithic Revolution period in Europe, Asia, and Africa. In the Southwestern United States it occurred from 500 to 1200 C.E. when there was a dramatic increase in population and development of large villages supported by agriculture based on dryland farming of maize, and later, beans, squash, and domesticated turkeys. During this period the bow and arrow and ceramic pottery were also introduced.

Question: What major trends appeared in Mesoamerica during 4500 BC?


Answer: Formative stage

Question: What term is used to describe the mid-late Neolithic era in American education?


Answer: Archaic Era

Question: What term is used to describe the Early Neolithic era in American education?


Answer: bow and arrow

Question: What hunting weapon was found in the Southwestern US during 500 to 1200 C.E.?


Answer: small tribes

Context: During most of the Neolithic age of Eurasia, people lived in small tribes composed of multiple bands or lineages. There is little scientific evidence of developed social stratification in most Neolithic societies; social stratification is more associated with the later Bronze Age. Although some late Eurasian Neolithic societies formed complex stratified chiefdoms or even states, states evolved in Eurasia only with the rise of metallurgy, and most Neolithic societies on the whole were relatively simple and egalitarian. Beyond Eurasia, however, states were formed during the local Neolithic in three areas, namely in the Preceramic Andes with the Norte Chico Civilization, Formative Mesoamerica and Ancient Hawaiʻi. However, most Neolithic societies were noticeably more hierarchical than the Paleolithic cultures that preceded them and hunter-gatherer cultures in general.

Question: What social groups were formed during the Neolithic age of Eurasia?


Answer: social stratification

Question: What cultural trend did not first appear in large amounts until the Bronze Age?


Answer: Paleolithic cultures

Question: What type of cultures preceded Neolithic societies?


Answer: domestication of large animals

Context: The domestication of large animals (c. 8000 BC) resulted in a dramatic increase in social inequality in most of the areas where it occurred; New Guinea being a notable exception. Possession of livestock allowed competition between households and resulted in inherited inequalities of wealth. Neolithic pastoralists who controlled large herds gradually acquired more livestock, and this made economic inequalities more pronounced. However, evidence of social inequality is still disputed, as settlements such as Catal Huyuk reveal a striking lack of difference in the size of homes and burial sites, suggesting a more egalitarian society with no evidence of the concept of capital, although some homes do appear slightly larger or more elaborately decorated than others.

Question: What caused a major increase in social inequality?


Answer: Possession of livestock

Question: What started competition between families for wealth?


Answer: Neolithic pastoralists

Question: Who was in possession of large herds that would produce more livestock?


Answer: Catal Huyuk

Question: What settlement featured equal sized homes with little evidence of capital?


Answer: the household

Context: Families and households were still largely independent economically, and the household was probably the center of life. However, excavations in Central Europe have revealed that early Neolithic Linear Ceramic cultures ("Linearbandkeramik") were building large arrangements of circular ditches between 4800 BC and 4600 BC. These structures (and their later counterparts such as causewayed enclosures, burial mounds, and henge) required considerable time and labour to construct, which suggests that some influential individuals were able to organise and direct human labour — though non-hierarchical and voluntary work remain possibilities.

Question: What was the cultural aspect was the major center of life?


Answer: 4800 BC and 4600 BC

Question: What time period were the huge circular ditches found in?


Answer: causewayed enclosures, burial mounds, and henge

Question: What did the ditches later evolve into?


Answer: required considerable time and labour to construct

Question: What features about the ditches suggests that it was built by people under a leader's command?


Answer: Linearbandkeramik

Context: There is a large body of evidence for fortified settlements at Linearbandkeramik sites along the Rhine, as at least some villages were fortified for some time with a palisade and an outer ditch. Settlements with palisades and weapon-traumatized bones have been discovered, such as at the Talheim Death Pit demonstrates "...systematic violence between groups" and warfare was probably much more common during the Neolithic than in the preceding Paleolithic period. This supplanted an earlier view of the Linear Pottery Culture as living a "peaceful, unfortified lifestyle".

Question: Where was evidence of fortified settlements found?


Answer: a palisade and an outer ditch

Question: What did some villages fortify their settlements with?


Answer: weapon-traumatized bones

Question: What tools were seen as evidence of violence among settlements?


Answer: the Talheim Death Pit

Question: What site in Talheim suggests violent warfare in the Neolithic era?


Answer: Control of labour

Context: Control of labour and inter-group conflict is characteristic of corporate-level or 'tribal' groups, headed by a charismatic individual; whether a 'big man' or a proto-chief, functioning as a lineage-group head. Whether a non-hierarchical system of organization existed is debatable, and there is no evidence that explicitly suggests that Neolithic societies functioned under any dominating class or individual, as was the case in the chiefdoms of the European Early Bronze Age. Theories to explain the apparent implied egalitarianism of Neolithic (and Paleolithic) societies have arisen, notably the Marxist concept of primitive communism.

Question: What production trait existed in tribal groups that were controlled by charismatic leaders?


Answer: Marxist concept of primitive communism

Question: What theory describes the implied egalitarianism of Neolithic societies?


Answer: inter-group conflict

Question: What type of disagreement existed in tribal groups that were controlled by charismatic leaders?


Answer: shelter

Context: The shelter of the early people changed dramatically from the paleolithic to the neolithic era. In the paleolithic, people did not normally live in permanent constructions. In the neolithic, mud brick houses started appearing that were coated with plaster. The growth of agriculture made permanent houses possible. Doorways were made on the roof, with ladders positioned both on the inside and outside of the houses. The roof was supported by beams from the inside. The rough ground was covered by platforms, mats, and skins on which residents slept. Stilt-houses settlements were common in the Alpine and Pianura Padana (Terramare) region. Remains have been found at the Ljubljana Marshes in Slovenia and at the Mondsee and Attersee lakes in Upper Austria, for example.

Question: What lifestyle element changed significantly from the paleolithic to the neolithic era?


Answer: paleolithic

Question: What era consisted of people living temporary homes?


Answer: mud brick houses

Question: What type of homes were built in the Neolithic era?


Answer: The growth of agriculture

Question: What societal trend was the cause of permanent homes?


Answer: Doorways were made on the roof

Question: Where were entrances located in early homes?


Answer: crop farming and cultivation

Context: A significant and far-reaching shift in human subsistence and lifestyle was to be brought about in areas where crop farming and cultivation were first developed: the previous reliance on an essentially nomadic hunter-gatherer subsistence technique or pastoral transhumance was at first supplemented, and then increasingly replaced by, a reliance upon the foods produced from cultivated lands. These developments are also believed to have greatly encouraged the growth of settlements, since it may be supposed that the increased need to spend more time and labor in tending crop fields required more localized dwellings. This trend would continue into the Bronze Age, eventually giving rise to permanently settled farming towns, and later cities and states whose larger populations could be sustained by the increased productivity from cultivated lands.

Question: What trend led to a major shift in the livelihoods of early cultures?


Answer: nomadic hunter-gatherer subsistence technique

Question: What behavior did humans rely on to survive before agriculture?


Answer: the Bronze Age

Question: What era saw an increase in permanently settled farming towns?


Answer: drought or pests

Context: However, early farmers were also adversely affected in times of famine, such as may be caused by drought or pests. In instances where agriculture had become the predominant way of life, the sensitivity to these shortages could be particularly acute, affecting agrarian populations to an extent that otherwise may not have been routinely experienced by prior hunter-gatherer communities. Nevertheless, agrarian communities generally proved successful, and their growth and the expansion of territory under cultivation continued.

Question: What were the causes of famine in early farm towns?


Answer: hunter-gatherer communities

Question: What type of societies were not affected by famine?


Answer: agrarian communities

Question: What type of societies were usually still successful after dealing with famine?


Answer: diet

Context: Another significant change undergone by many of these newly agrarian communities was one of diet. Pre-agrarian diets varied by region, season, available local plant and animal resources and degree of pastoralism and hunting. Post-agrarian diet was restricted to a limited package of successfully cultivated cereal grains, plants and to a variable extent domesticated animals and animal products. Supplementation of diet by hunting and gathering was to variable degrees precluded by the increase in population above the carrying capacity of the land and a high sedentary local population concentration. In some cultures, there would have been a significant shift toward increased starch and plant protein. The relative nutritional benefits and drawbacks of these dietary changes and their overall impact on early societal development is still debated.

Question: What food related trend was significant in the new agrarian societies?


Answer: local plant and animal resources

Question: What forms of availability dictated Pre-agrarian diets?


Answer: cereal grains, plants and to a variable extent domesticated animals and animal products.

Question: What was included in the Post-agrarian diet?


Answer: the increase in population

Question: What forced the need to supplement food supply with hunting and gathering?


Answer: farmers

Context: Neolithic people were skilled farmers, manufacturing a range of tools necessary for the tending, harvesting and processing of crops (such as sickle blades and grinding stones) and food production (e.g. pottery, bone implements). They were also skilled manufacturers of a range of other types of stone tools and ornaments, including projectile points, beads, and statuettes. But what allowed forest clearance on a large scale was the polished stone axe above all other tools. Together with the adze, fashioning wood for shelter, structures and canoes for example, this enabled them to exploit their newly won farmland.

Question: What type of occupation were Neolithic people considered to be proficient at?


Answer: tending, harvesting and processing of crops

Question: What purposes were the production of farm tools used for?


Answer: sickle blades and grinding stones

Question: What types of tools did early farmers use for crops?


Answer: pottery, bone implements)

Question: What types of tools did early farmers use for food production?


Answer: stone axe

Question: What tool allowed early farmers to convert forest into arable land?


Answer: houses and villages

Context: Neolithic peoples in the Levant, Anatolia, Syria, northern Mesopotamia and Central Asia were also accomplished builders, utilizing mud-brick to construct houses and villages. At Çatal höyük, houses were plastered and painted with elaborate scenes of humans and animals. In Europe, long houses built from wattle and daub were constructed. Elaborate tombs were built for the dead. These tombs are particularly numerous in Ireland, where there are many thousand still in existence. Neolithic people in the British Isles built long barrows and chamber tombs for their dead and causewayed camps, henges, flint mines and cursus monuments. It was also important to figure out ways of preserving food for future months, such as fashioning relatively airtight containers, and using substances like salt as preservatives.

Question: What did Neolithic people use mud-brick to build?


Answer: humans and animals

Question: What scenes did the paintings on homes depict?


Answer: wattle and daub

Question: What were European homes constructed from?


Answer: Elaborate tombs

Question: What types of sites were built for the deceased?


Answer: Ireland

Question: Where do thousands of early tombs still exist?


Answer: animal skins

Context: Most clothing appears to have been made of animal skins, as indicated by finds of large numbers of bone and antler pins which are ideal for fastening leather. Wool cloth and linen might have become available during the later Neolithic, as suggested by finds of perforated stones which (depending on size) may have served as spindle whorls or loom weights. The clothing worn in the Neolithic Age might be similar to that worn by Ötzi the Iceman, although he was not Neolithic (since he belonged to the later Copper age).

Question: What did early humans use to make clothing?


Answer: finds of large numbers of bone and antler pins

Question: What evidence suggested that humans used animal products for clothing?


Answer: spindle whorls or loom weights

Question: What were perforated stones used for?


Answer: Ötzi the Iceman

Question: What famous figure of the Copper Age wore clothes similar to the Neolithic Era?


Answer: Austria-Hungary

Context: Friedrich Hayek CH (German: [ˈfʁiːdʁɪç ˈaʊ̯ɡʊst ˈhaɪ̯ɛk]; 8 May 1899 – 23 March 1992), born in Austria-Hungary as Friedrich August von Hayek and frequently referred to as F. A. Hayek, was an Austrian and British economist and philosopher best known for his defense of classical liberalism. Hayek shared the 1974 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences with Gunnar Myrdal for his "pioneering work in the theory of money and economic fluctuations and ... penetrating analysis of the interdependence of economic, social and institutional phenomena."

Question: In which nation was Friedrich Hayek born?


Answer: F. A. Hayek

Question: Friedrich Hayek name was commonly shortened to what?


Answer: Nobel Memorial Prize

Question: What award did Hayek receive in 1974?


Answer: Gunnar Myrdal

Question: With whom did Hayek share his 1974 award?


Answer: philosopher

Question: Along with being an economist, what else was Hayek known as?


Answer: Order of the Companions of Honour

Context: In 1984, he was appointed a member of the Order of the Companions of Honour by Queen Elizabeth II on the advice of Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher for his "services to the study of economics". He was the first recipient of the Hanns Martin Schleyer Prize in 1984. He also received the US Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1991 from President George H. W. Bush. In 2011, his article "The Use of Knowledge in Society" was selected as one of the top 20 articles published in The American Economic Review during its first 100 years.

Question: Hayek became a member of which group in 1984?


Answer: services to the study of economics

Question: For what reason was Hayek inducted into the order?


Answer: Hanns Martin Schleyer Prize

Question: What award was Hayek the first to receive?


Answer: President George H. W. Bush

Question: Who awarded Hayek the Medal of Freedom?


Answer: The Use of Knowledge in Society

Question: Which of Hayek's articles received recognition in 2011?


Answer: August von Hayek

Context: Friedrich August von Hayek was born in Vienna to August von Hayek and Felicitas Hayek (née von Juraschek). Friedrich's father, from whom he received his middle name, was also born in Vienna in 1871. He was a medical doctor employed by the municipal ministry of health, with passion in botany, in which he wrote a number of monographs. August von Hayek was also a part-time botany lecturer at the University of Vienna. Friedrich's mother was born in 1875 to a wealthy, conservative, land-owning family. As her mother died several years prior to Friedrich's birth, Felicitas gained a significant inheritance which provided as much as half of her and August's income during the early years of their marriage. Hayek was the oldest of three brothers, Heinrich (1900–69) and Erich (1904–86), who were one-and-a-half and five years younger than him.

Question: Who was Hayek's father?


Answer: medical doctor

Question: What was August von Hayek's occupation?


Answer: botany

Question: What was August von Hayek particularly passionate about?


Answer: her mother

Question: From whom did Felicitas inherit her wealth?


Answer: three

Question: How many children did August von Hayek and his wife have?


Answer: His father's

Context: His father's career as a university professor influenced Friedrich's goals later in life. Both of his grandfathers, who lived long enough for Friedrich to know them, were scholars. Franz von Juraschek was a leading economist in Austria-Hungary and a close friend of Eugen Böhm von Bawerk, one of the founders of the Austrian School of Economics. Von Juraschek was a statistician and was later employed by the Austrian government. Friedrich's paternal grandfather, Gustav Edler von Hayek, taught natural sciences at the Imperial Realobergymnasium (secondary school) in Vienna. He wrote systematic works in biology, some of which are relatively well known.

Question: Who's occupation inspired Hayek when he was older?


Answer: Franz von Juraschek

Question: Eugen Bohm was friends with which of Hayek's grandfathers?


Answer: scholars

Question: What occupation did Hayek's grandfather's have?


Answer: systematic works in biology

Question: What did August von Hayek's father write?


Answer: Gustav Edler von Hayek

Question: Who was August von Hayek's father?


Answer: Hayek

Context: On his mother's side, Hayek was second cousin to the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein. His mother often played with Wittgenstein's sisters, and had known Ludwig well. As a result of their family relationship, Hayek became one of the first to read Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus when the book was published in its original German edition in 1921. Although Hayek met Wittgenstein on only a few occasions, Hayek said that Wittgenstein's philosophy and methods of analysis had a profound influence on his own life and thought. In his later years, Hayek recalled a discussion of philosophy with Wittgenstein, when both were officers during World War I. After Wittgenstein's death, Hayek had intended to write a biography of Wittgenstein and worked on collecting family materials; and he later assisted biographers of Wittgenstein.

Question: Who was among the first readers of Ludwig Wittgenstein's book?


Answer: on only a few occasions

Question: How often times did Hayek and Wittgenstein meet?


Answer: Ludwig Wittgenstein

Question: Whose philosophy heavily influenced Hayek?


Answer: both were officers

Question: What did Wittgenstein and Hayek do during the first world war?


Answer: Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

Question: What was the name of the book Wittgenstein published in 1921?


Answer: they were somehow of a different generation

Context: Hayek displayed an intellectual and academic bent from a very young age. He read fluently and frequently before going to school. At his father's suggestion, Hayek, as a teenager, read the genetic and evolutionary works of Hugo de Vries and the philosophical works of Ludwig Feuerbach. In school Hayek was much taken by one instructor's lectures on Aristotle's ethics. In his unpublished autobiographical notes, Hayek recalled a division between him and his younger brothers who were only few years younger than him, but he believed that they were somehow of a different generation. He preferred to associate with adults.

Question: What did Hayek conclude regarding his brothers?


Answer: adults

Question: With whom did Hayek more frequently converse?


Answer: read fluently and frequently

Question: Prior to his schooling, what was the state of Hayek's reading skills?


Answer: his father

Question: Who told Hayek he should begin reading Hugo de Vries works?


Answer: Aristotle

Question: Which philosopher did Hayek learn about in a school lecture?


Answer: University of Vienna

Context: At the University of Vienna, Hayek earned doctorates in law and political science in 1921 and 1923 respectively; and he also studied philosophy, psychology, and economics. For a short time, when the University of Vienna closed, Hayek studied in Constantin von Monakow's Institute of Brain Anatomy, where Hayek spent much of his time staining brain cells. Hayek's time in Monakow's lab, and his deep interest in the work of Ernst Mach, inspired Hayek's first intellectual project, eventually published as The Sensory Order (1952). It located connective learning at the physical and neurological levels, rejecting the "sense data" associationism of the empiricists and logical positivists. Hayek presented his work to the private seminar he had created with Herbert Furth called the Geistkreis.

Question: Where did Hayek acquire his doctorates?


Answer: Constantin von Monakow's Institute of Brain Anatomy

Question: Where did Hayek learn about the brain?


Answer: The Sensory Order

Question: What was the name of Hayek's first work?


Answer: Herbert Furth

Question: With whom did Hayek establish the Geistkreis?


Answer: the Geistkreis

Question: Where did first show his work?


Answer: research assistant

Context: During Hayek's years at the University of Vienna, Carl Menger's work on the explanatory strategy of social science and Friedrich von Wieser's commanding presence in the classroom left a lasting influence on him. Upon the completion of his examinations, Hayek was hired by Ludwig von Mises on the recommendation of Wieser as a specialist for the Austrian government working on the legal and economic details of the Treaty of Saint Germain. Between 1923 and 1924 Hayek worked as a research assistant to Prof. Jeremiah Jenks of New York University, compiling macroeconomic data on the American economy and the operations of the US Federal Reserve.

Question: What work did Hayek begin in 1923?


Answer: University of Vienna

Question: Where did Carl Menger and Friedrich von Wieser influence Hayek?


Answer: the Austrian government

Question: For whom did Hayek work upon being hired by Ludwig von Mises?


Answer: macroeconomic data

Question: What was Hayek gathering during his time as a research assistant?


Answer: Jeremiah Jenks

Question: What was the name of the professor Hayek worked for as a research assistant?


Answer: democratic socialism

Context: Initially sympathetic to Wieser's democratic socialism, Hayek's economic thinking shifted away from socialism and toward the classical liberalism of Carl Menger after reading von Mises' book Socialism. It was sometime after reading Socialism that Hayek began attending von Mises' private seminars, joining several of his university friends, including Fritz Machlup, Alfred Schutz, Felix Kaufmann, and Gottfried Haberler, who were also participating in Hayek's own, more general, private seminar. It was during this time that he also encountered and befriended noted political philosopher Eric Voegelin, with whom he retained a long-standing relationship.

Question: What ideology was Hayek originally in support of?


Answer: reading von Mises' book Socialism

Question: What caused Hayek to turn away from Wiser's ideology?


Answer: Eric Voegelin

Question: During his attendance to von Mises' seminars, who did Hayek become friends with?


Answer: classical liberalism

Question: What viewpoint did the book Socialism shift Hayek toward?


Answer: Carl Menger

Question: Who is the father of the ideology Hayek came to support?


Answer: director

Context: With the help of Mises, in the late 1920s Hayek founded and served as director of the Austrian Institute for Business Cycle Research, before joining the faculty of the London School of Economics (LSE) in 1931 at the behest of Lionel Robbins. Upon his arrival in London, Hayek was quickly recognised as one of the leading economic theorists in the world, and his development of the economics of processes in time and the co-ordination function of prices inspired the ground-breaking work of John Hicks, Abba Lerner, and many others in the development of modern microeconomics.

Question: What position did Hayek gain at the Austrian Institute?


Answer: Lionel Robbins

Question: Who requested that Hayek be employed by LSE?


Answer: one of the leading economic theorists in the world

Question: What sort of recognition had Hayek received when he came to London?


Answer: modern microeconomics

Question: What subject did Hayek's works influence and inspire?


Answer: 1931

Question: In what year did Hayek come to London?


Answer: The Road to Serfdom

Context: Hayek was concerned about the general view in Britain's academia that fascism was a capitalist reaction to socialism and The Road to Serfdom arose from those concerns. It was written between 1940 and 1943. The title was inspired by the French classical liberal thinker Alexis de Tocqueville's writings on the "road to servitude." It was first published in Britain by Routledge in March 1944 and was quite popular, leading Hayek to call it "that unobtainable book," also due in part to wartime paper rationing. When it was published in the United States by the University of Chicago in September of that year, it achieved greater popularity than in Britain. At the arrangement of editor Max Eastman, the American magazine Reader's Digest also published an abridged version in April 1945, enabling The Road to Serfdom to reach a far wider audience than academics. The book is widely popular among those advocating individualism and classical liberalism.

Question: What did Hayek write regarding fascism and socialism?


Answer: Alexis de Tocqueville

Question: Whose works served as inspiration for the title of Road to Serfdom?


Answer: March 1944

Question: When was the Road to Serfdom published?


Answer: United States

Question: Where was Road to Serfdom more popular than it was in Britain?


Answer: Max Eastman

Question: Who is responsible for Road to Serfdom being shortened for Reader's Digest in 1945?


Answer: University of Chicago

Context: In 1950, Hayek left the London School of Economics for the University of Chicago, where he became a professor in the Committee on Social Thought. Hayek's salary was funded not by the university, but by an outside foundation. University of Chicago President Robert Hutchins was in the midst of a war with the U. of Chicago faculty over departmental autonomy and control, and Hayek got caught in the middle of that battle. Hutchins had been attempting to force all departments to adopt the neo-Thomist Great Books program of Mortimer Adler, and the U. of Chicago economists were sick of Hutchins' meddling. As the result the Economics department rejected Hutchins' pressure to hire Hayek, and Hayek became a part of the new Committee on Social Thought.

Question: Upon leaving London, for what college did he choose to work?


Answer: an outside foundation

Question: Who supplied Hayek's salary?


Answer: departmental autonomy and control

Question: What was the cause for the feud between Robert Hutchins and faculty?


Answer: sick of Hutchins' meddling

Question: Why did the economics department turn down Hayek's employment?


Answer: Committee on Social Thought

Question: What did Hayek serve on after his initial rejection?


Answer: The Road to Serfdom

Context: Hayek had made contact with many at the U. of Chicago in the 1940s, with Hayek's The Road to Serfdom playing a seminal role in transforming how Milton Friedman and others understood how society works. Hayek conducted a number in influential faculty seminars while at the U. of Chicago, and a number of academics worked on research projects sympathetic to some of Hayek's own, such as Aaron Director, who was active in the Chicago School in helping to fund and establish what became the "Law and Society" program in the University of Chicago Law School. Hayek, Frank Knight, Friedman and George Stigler worked together in forming the Mont Pèlerin Society, an international forum for libertarian economists. Hayek and Friedman cooperated in support of the Intercollegiate Society of Individualists, later renamed the Intercollegiate Studies Institute, an American student organisation devoted to libertarian ideas.

Question: Which of Hayek's works had a profound influence on those at the University of Chicago?


Answer: Aaron Director

Question: Who played a critical role in the formation of the Law and Society program?


Answer: Mont Pèlerin Society

Question: What group did Hayek form with three other people?


Answer: Intercollegiate Studies Institute

Question: What was the group that Friedman and Hayek supported later renamed to?


Answer: the liberal order

Context: After editing a book on John Stuart Mill's letters he planned to publish two books on the liberal order, The Constitution of Liberty and "The Creative Powers of a Free Civilization" (eventually the title for the second chapter of The Constitution of Liberty). He completed The Constitution of Liberty in May 1959, with publication in February 1960. Hayek was concerned "with that condition of men in which coercion of some by others is reduced as much as is possible in society". Hayek was disappointed that the book did not receive the same enthusiastic general reception as The Road to Serfdom had sixteen years before.

Question: What topic were Hayek's next two books going to cover?


Answer: The Constitution of Liberty

Question: Which of Hayek's books was not as well received as The Road to Serfdom?


Answer: sixteen years

Question: As of the release of his 1960 book, how long had it been since The Road to Serfdom was released?


Answer: The Creative Powers of a Free Civilization

Question: What was the title of the his 1960 book's second chapter?


Answer: disappointed

Question: How did Hayek feel about the success of the book he released in 1960?


Answer: West Germany

Context: From 1962 until his retirement in 1968, he was a professor at the University of Freiburg, West Germany, where he began work on his next book, Law, Legislation and Liberty. Hayek regarded his years at Freiburg as "very fruitful". Following his retirement, Hayek spent a year as a visiting professor of philosophy at the University of California, Los Angeles, where he continued work on Law, Legislation and Liberty, teaching a graduate seminar by the same name and another on the philosophy of social science. Primary drafts of the book were completed by 1970, but Hayek chose to rework his drafts and finally brought the book to publication in three volumes in 1973, 1976 and 1979.

Question: What country did Hayek move to in 1962?


Answer: Law, Legislation and Liberty

Question: What is the name of the book Hayek started upon his arrival in West Germany?


Answer: University of California, Los Angeles

Question: Where did Hayek spend an entire year after his retirement?


Answer: 1979

Question: When was the final volume of Law, Legislation and Liberty released?


Answer: philosophy of social science

Question: During his time in Los Angeles, what was the topic of the seminars Hayek taught not related to his new book?


Answer: British Conservative Party

Context: In February 1975, Margaret Thatcher was elected leader of the British Conservative Party. The Institute of Economic Affairs arranged a meeting between Hayek and Thatcher in London soon after. During Thatcher's only visit to the Conservative Research Department in the summer of 1975, a speaker had prepared a paper on why the "middle way" was the pragmatic path the Conservative Party should take, avoiding the extremes of left and right. Before he had finished, Thatcher "reached into her briefcase and took out a book. It was Hayek's The Constitution of Liberty. Interrupting our pragmatist, she held the book up for all of us to see. 'This', she said sternly, 'is what we believe', and banged Hayek down on the table".

Question: What political party was Margaret Thatcher the head of in 1975?


Answer: Hayek

Question: Who did Thatcher meet with shortly after she was elected as the head of her party?


Answer: the "middle way"

Question: What path was suggested as the right one for Margaret Thatcher's party by a speaker?


Answer: The Constitution of Liberty

Question: Which of Hayek's works did Thatcher produce at the Conservative Research Department?


Answer: Lib-Lab pact

Context: In 1977, Hayek was critical of the Lib-Lab pact, in which the British Liberal Party agreed to keep the British Labour government in office. Writing to The Times, Hayek said, "May one who has devoted a large part of his life to the study of the history and the principles of liberalism point out that a party that keeps a socialist government in power has lost all title to the name 'Liberal'. Certainly no liberal can in future vote 'Liberal'". Hayek was criticised by Liberal politicians Gladwyn Jebb and Andrew Phillips, who both claimed that the purpose of the pact was to discourage socialist legislation.

Question: What was the name of the agreement Hayek criticized in 1977?


Answer: discourage socialist legislation

Question: What did some Liberal politicians claim the pact was meant to do?


Answer: British Liberal Party

Question: The agreement Hayek criticized was between the British Labour government and which political party?


Answer: all title to the name 'Liberal'

Question: What did Hayek believe was lost in the continued empowerment of a socialist government?


Answer: the Conservative Party

Context: In 1978, Hayek came into conflict with the Liberal Party leader, David Steel, who claimed that liberty was possible only with "social justice and an equitable distribution of wealth and power, which in turn require a degree of active government intervention" and that the Conservative Party were more concerned with the connection between liberty and private enterprise than between liberty and democracy. Hayek claimed that a limited democracy might be better than other forms of limited government at protecting liberty but that an unlimited democracy was worse than other forms of unlimited government because "its government loses the power even to do what it thinks right if any group on which its majority depends thinks otherwise".

Question: Which party was criticized for being less concerned about liberty and democracy?


Answer: Liberal Party

Question: With which political group was David Steel affiliated?


Answer: Hayek

Question: Who disagreed with David Steel's statements in 1978


Answer: limited democracy

Question: Which type of government was more favorable than others according to Hayek?


Answer: unlimited

Question: Hayek believed that which type of democracy was the worst of its alternatives?


Answer: Order of the Companions of Honour

Context: In 1984, he was appointed as a member of the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH) by Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom on the advice of the British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher for his "services to the study of economics". Hayek had hoped to receive a baronetcy, and after he was awarded the CH he sent a letter to his friends requesting that he be called the English version of Friedrich (Frederick) from now on. After his 20 min audience with the Queen, he was "absolutely besotted" with her according to his daughter-in-law, Esca Hayek. Hayek said a year later that he was "amazed by her. That ease and skill, as if she'd known me all my life." The audience with the Queen was followed by a dinner with family and friends at the Institute of Economic Affairs. When, later that evening, Hayek was dropped off at the Reform Club, he commented: "I've just had the happiest day of my life."

Question: What group was Hayek inducted into by the Queen of England?


Answer: Margaret Thatcher

Question: Who suggest Hayek for the honor of joining the Order?


Answer: Prime Minister

Question: In 1984, what was Margaret Thatcher's position within the British government?


Answer: Frederick

Question: How did Hayek wish to be referred to after his 1984 award?


Answer: "I've just had the happiest day of my life."

Question: At the end of the same day Hayek met with the Queen of England, what did he say?


Answer: a "lifetime of looking beyond the horizon"

Context: In 1991, US President George H. W. Bush awarded Hayek the Presidential Medal of Freedom, one of the two highest civilian awards in the United States, for a "lifetime of looking beyond the horizon". Hayek died on 23 March 1992 in Freiburg, Germany, and was buried on 4 April in the Neustift am Walde cemetery in the northern outskirts of Vienna according to the Catholic rite. In 2011, his article The Use of Knowledge in Society was selected as one of the top 20 articles published in the American Economic Review during its first 100 years.

Question: What was the reason given for Hayek's 1991 award from the President?


Answer: George H. W. Bush

Question: Which President presented the award to Hayek?


Answer: Freiburg, Germany

Question: Where was Hayek when he died?


Answer: northern outskirts

Question: Where was Hayek buried in relation to his home town of Vienna?


Answer: American Economic Review

Question: Where was The Use of Knowledge in Society published?


Answer: Theory of Money and Credit

Context: Hayek's principal investigations in economics concerned capital, money, and the business cycle. Mises had earlier applied the concept of marginal utility to the value of money in his Theory of Money and Credit (1912), in which he also proposed an explanation for "industrial fluctuations" based on the ideas of the old British Currency School and of Swedish economist Knut Wicksell. Hayek used this body of work as a starting point for his own interpretation of the business cycle, elaborating what later became known as the "Austrian Theory of the Business Cycle". Hayek spelled out the Austrian approach in more detail in his book, published in 1929, an English translation of which appeared in 1933 as Monetary Theory and the Trade Cycle. There he argued for a monetary approach to the origins of the cycle. In his Prices and Production (1931), Hayek argued that the business cycle resulted from the central bank's inflationary credit expansion and its transmission over time, leading to a capital misallocation caused by the artificially low interest rates. Hayek claimed that "the past instability of the market economy is the consequence of the exclusion of the most important regulator of the market mechanism, money, from itself being regulated by the market process".

Question: What is the name of Mises' 1912 book?


Answer: capital

Question: Hayek focused most of his economic works on the business cycle, money and what else?


Answer: Austrian Theory of the Business Cycle

Question: What work did Hayek produce as a result of studying Mises' book?


Answer: Monetary Theory and the Trade Cycle

Question: What is the English name for the book Hayek published in 1929?


Answer: artificially low interest rates

Question: According to Hayek, what was the cause of the banks' wrongful allocation of funds?


Answer: London School of Economics

Context: In 1929, Lionel Robbins assumed the helm of the London School of Economics (LSE). Eager to promote alternatives to what he regarded as the narrow approach of the school of economic thought that then dominated the English-speaking academic world (centred at the University of Cambridge and deriving largely from the work of Alfred Marshall), Robbins invited Hayek to join the faculty at LSE, which he did in 1931. According to Nicholas Kaldor, Hayek's theory of the time-structure of capital and of the business cycle initially "fascinated the academic world" and appeared to offer a less "facile and superficial" understanding of macroeconomics than the Cambridge school's.

Question: Lionel Robbins came to head which school in 1929?


Answer: narrow approach

Question: In regards to economics, Lionel Robbins believe English-speaking academics had what?


Answer: Alfred Marshall

Question: Which man's works were mostly the cause of the ''narrow approach''?


Answer: Lionel Robbins

Question: Who was responsible for bringing on Hayek at the LSE?


Answer: less "facile and superficial" understanding

Question: What did Nicholas Kaldor say Hayek brought to macroeconomics?


Answer: Prices and Production

Context: Also in 1931, Hayek critiqued Keynes's Treatise on Money (1930) in his "Reflections on the pure theory of Mr. J. M. Keynes" and published his lectures at the LSE in book form as Prices and Production. Unemployment and idle resources are, for Keynes, caused by a lack of effective demand; for Hayek, they stem from a previous, unsustainable episode of easy money and artificially low interest rates. Keynes asked his friend Piero Sraffa to respond. Sraffa elaborated on the effect of inflation-induced "forced savings" on the capital sector and about the definition of a "natural" interest rate in a growing economy. Others who responded negatively to Hayek's work on the business cycle included John Hicks, Frank Knight, and Gunnar Myrdal. Kaldor later wrote that Hayek's Prices and Production had produced "a remarkable crop of critics" and that the total number of pages in British and American journals dedicated to the resulting debate "could rarely have been equalled in the economic controversies of the past."

Question: Hayek's critical analysis of Keyne's work was published under what title?


Answer: artificially low interest rates

Question: Apart from easy money, what did Hayek believe unemployment was caused by?


Answer: Piero Sraffa

Question: Who did Keynes turn to for assistance in arguing his point to Hayek?


Answer: "a remarkable crop of critics"

Question: According to Nicholas Kaldor, what had Hayek's book created?


Answer: works were largely ignored

Context: Hayek continued his research on monetary and capital theory, revising his theories of the relations between credit cycles and capital structure in Profits, Interest and Investment (1939) and The Pure Theory of Capital (1941), but his reputation as an economic theorist had by then fallen so much that those works were largely ignored, except for scathing critiques by Nicholas Kaldor. Lionel Robbins himself, who had embraced the Austrian theory of the business cycle in The Great Depression (1934), later regretted having written the book and accepted many of the Keynesian counter-arguments.

Question: What was the result of Hayek's Prices and Production?


Answer: Nicholas Kaldor

Question: Who was particularly critical of Hayek's work following Prices and Production?


Answer: Profits, Interest and Investment

Question: What is the name of the first book Hayek released to revise his stances from Prices and Production?


Answer: the Austrian theory of the business cycle

Question: Lionel Robbins' The Great Depression was a result of his support for what?


Answer: Lionel Robbins

Question: Who did Keynes' arguments against the Austrian theory of the business cycle eventually influence?


Answer: the dynamics of capital

Context: Hayek never produced the book-length treatment of "the dynamics of capital" that he had promised in the Pure Theory of Capital. After 1941, he continued to publish works on the economics of information, political philosophy, the theory of law, and psychology, but seldom on macroeconomics. At the University of Chicago, Hayek was not part of the economics department and did not influence the rebirth of neoclassical theory which took place there (see Chicago school of economics). When, in 1974, he shared the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with Gunnar Myrdal, the latter complained about being paired with an "ideologue". Milton Friedman declared himself "an enormous admirer of Hayek, but not for his economics. I think Prices and Production is a very flawed book. I think his [Pure Theory of Capital] is unreadable. On the other hand, The Road to Serfdom is one of the great books of our time."

Question: What topic did Hayek never write a book about as he said he would?


Answer: macroeconomics

Question: What topic did Hayek shy away from following Pure Theory of Capital?


Answer: an "ideologue"

Question: What did Gunnar Myrdal call Hayek?


Answer: The Road to Serfdom

Question: Which of Hayeks books did Milton Friedman praise most?


Answer: Gunnar Myrdal

Question: Which whom did Hayek share a Nobel prize?


Answer: enough information

Context: Building on the earlier work of Ludwig von Mises and others, Hayek also argued that while in centrally planned economies an individual or a select group of individuals must determine the distribution of resources, these planners will never have enough information to carry out this allocation reliably. This argument, first proposed by Max Weber, says that the efficient exchange and use of resources can be maintained only through the price mechanism in free markets (see economic calculation problem).

Question: What did Hayek claim those who must distribute resources would lack most?


Answer: Max Weber

Question: Whose work most notably influenced Hayek's argument regarding resource distribution?


Answer: through the price mechanism in free markets

Question: What is the one way Hayek argued that resource distribution could succeed?


Answer: Ludwig von Mises

Question: Other than Max Weber, who was a notable influence to Hayek's statements regarding resource distribution?


Answer: general equilibrium theory

Context: Some socialists such as H. D. Dickinson and Oskar Lange, responded by invoking general equilibrium theory, which they argued disproved Mises's thesis. They noted that the difference between a planned and a free market system lay in who was responsible for solving the equations. They argued, if some of the prices chosen by socialist managers were wrong, gluts or shortages would appear, signalling them to adjust the prices up or down, just as in a free market. Through such a trial and error, a socialist economy could mimic the efficiency of a free market system, while avoiding its many problems.

Question: What did some socialists bring up as a rebuttal to Hayek's resource distribution argument?


Answer: Mises's thesis

Question: What did socialists believe equilibrium theory invalidated?


Answer: who was responsible for solving the equations

Question: According to those who argued against Hayek, what sets planned and free markets apart is what?


Answer: free market

Question: What type of economic system did the socialists want to avoid?


Answer: The Use of Knowledge in Society

Context: In The Use of Knowledge in Society (1945), Hayek argued that the price mechanism serves to share and synchronise local and personal knowledge, allowing society's members to achieve diverse, complicated ends through a principle of spontaneous self-organization. He contrasted the use of the price mechanism with central planning, arguing that the former allows for more rapid adaptation to changes in particular circumstances of time and place. Thus, he set the stage for Oliver Williamson's later contrast between markets and hierarchies as alternative co-ordination mechanisms for economic transactions. He used the term catallaxy to describe a "self-organizing system of voluntary co-operation". Hayek's research into this argument was specifically cited by the Nobel Committee in its press release awarding Hayek the Nobel prize.

Question: Which of Hayek's books argued against the socialist price mechanism?


Answer: central planning

Question: Which type of economy did Hayek believe the price mechanism to be less effective with?


Answer: Oliver Williamson

Question: The arguments presented in The Use of Knowledge in Society created an starting point for who?


Answer: the Nobel prize

Question: The arguments presented in Hayek's 1945 book were a large reason for being granted what award?


Answer: collectivism

Context: Hayek was one of the leading academic critics of collectivism in the 20th century. Hayek argued that all forms of collectivism (even those theoretically based on voluntary co-operation) could only be maintained by a central authority of some kind. In Hayek's view, the central role of the state should be to maintain the rule of law, with as little arbitrary intervention as possible. In his popular book, The Road to Serfdom (1944) and in subsequent academic works, Hayek argued that socialism required central economic planning and that such planning in turn leads towards totalitarianism.

Question: What was the name of the ideology Hayek criticized?


Answer: a central authority

Question: How did Hayek believe collectivism could be maintained?


Answer: central economic planning

Question: According to Hayek, what is necessary for the implementation of a socialist economy?


Answer: totalitarianism

Question: Hayek believed the requirements for a socialist economy would lead to what?


Answer: maintain the rule of law

Question: What did Hayek believe was the core responsibility of the state?


Answer: creating a "safety net"

Context: Hayek also wrote that the state can play a role in the economy, and specifically, in creating a "safety net". He wrote, "There is no reason why, in a society which has reached the general level of wealth ours has, the first kind of security should not be guaranteed to all without endangering general freedom; that is: some minimum of food, shelter and clothing, sufficient to preserve health. Nor is there any reason why the state should not help to organize a comprehensive system of social insurance in providing for those common hazards of life against which few can make adequate provision."

Question: Hayek believed the state could aid the economy by doing what?


Answer: all

Question: Who did Hayek say economic security should be guaranteed to?


Answer: sufficient to preserve health

Question: According to Hayek, clothing, food and shelter should be provided to what extent?


Answer: social insurance

Question: What sort of system did Hayek propose the government create?


Answer: microeconomics

Context: Hayek's work on the microeconomics of the choice theoretics of investment, non-permanent goods, potential permanent resources, and economically-adapted permanent resources mark a central dividing point between his work in areas of macroeconomics and that of almost all other economists. Hayek's work on the macroeconomic subjects of central planning, trade cycle theory, the division of knowledge, and entrepreneurial adaptation especially, differ greatly from the opinions of macroeconomic "Marshallian" economists in the tradition of John Maynard Keynes and the microeconomic "Walrasian" economists in the tradition of Abba Lerner.

Question: In what economic field of study does Hayek's views differ from those in macroeconomics?


Answer: "Marshallian"

Question: What is the term used to describe economists following Keynes school of thought?


Answer: Abba Lerner

Question: Whose works inspire the term "Walrasian" in economics?


Answer: During World War II

Context: During World War II, Hayek began the ‘Abuse of Reason’ project. His goal was to show how a number of then-popular doctrines and beliefs had a common origin in some fundamental misconceptions about the social science. In his philosophy of science, which has much in common with that of his good friend Karl Popper, Hayek was highly critical of what he termed scientism: a false understanding of the methods of science that has been mistakenly forced upon the social sciences, but that is contrary to the practices of genuine science. Usually, scientism involves combining the philosophers' ancient demand for demonstrative justification with the associationists' false view that all scientific explanations are simple two-variable linear relationships.

Question: When did Hayek start working on Abuse of Reason?


Answer: fundamental misconceptions about the social science

Question: What did Hayek specifically aim to expose in Abuse of Reason?


Answer: Karl Popper

Question: Whose beliefs in scientific philosophy were similar to Hayek's?


Answer: scientism

Question: What did Hayek use to refer to the spread of ignorance and misunderstanding within the social sciences?


Answer: simple two-variable linear relationships

Question: In scientism, it is typically believed that explanations in science are what?


Answer: 1952

Context: In The Sensory Order: An Inquiry into the Foundations of Theoretical Psychology (1952), Hayek independently developed a "Hebbian learning" model of learning and memory – an idea which he first conceived in 1920, prior to his study of economics. Hayek's expansion of the "Hebbian synapse" construction into a global brain theory has received continued attention in neuroscience, cognitive science, computer science, behavioural science, and evolutionary psychology, by scientists such as Gerald Edelman, and Joaquin Fuster.

Question: In what year was the book published in which Hayek developed Hebbian learning?


Answer: Hebbian learning

Question: Before he began studying economics, what concept did Hayek come up with that was later featured in his 1952 book?


Answer: "Hebbian synapse"

Question: What did Hayek present in his 1952 book that affected multiple areas of science?


Answer: The Sensory Order: An Inquiry into the Foundations of Theoretical Psychology

Question: What is the name of the book in which Hayek presented the Hebbian Synapse?


Answer: the latter half of his career

Context: In the latter half of his career Hayek made a number of contributions to social and political philosophy, which he based on his views on the limits of human knowledge, and the idea of spontaneous order in social institutions. He argues in favour of a society organised around a market order, in which the apparatus of state is employed almost (though not entirely) exclusively to enforce the legal order (consisting of abstract rules, and not particular commands) necessary for a market of free individuals to function. These ideas were informed by a moral philosophy derived from epistemological concerns regarding the inherent limits of human knowledge. Hayek argued that his ideal individualistic, free-market polity would be self-regulating to such a degree that it would be 'a society which does not depend for its functioning on our finding good men for running it'.

Question: When did Hayek begin presenting his ideas on the limits of human knowledge?


Answer: a market order

Question: What did Hayek want society to function around?