Answer: Wildfires

Context: Wildfires plague the forested areas of Guam every dry season despite the island's humid climate. Most fires are man-caused with 80% resulting from arson. Poachers often start fires to attract deer to the new growth. Invasive grass species that rely on fire as part of their natural life cycle grow in many regularly burned areas. Grasslands and "barrens" have replaced previously forested areas leading to greater soil erosion. During the rainy season sediment is carried by the heavy rains into the Fena Lake Reservoir and Ugum River, leading to water quality problems for southern Guam. Eroded silt also destroys the marine life in reefs around the island. Soil stabilization efforts by volunteers and forestry workers (planting trees) have had little success in preserving natural habitats.

Question: What plagues the Guam dry season?


Answer: man

Question: What are the cause of the majority of the fires in the area?


Answer: sediment is carried by the heavy rains into the Fena Lake Reservoir and Ugum River

Question: What causes water quality problems in Guam?


Answer: coral reef habitats

Context: Efforts have been made to protect Guam's coral reef habitats from pollution, eroded silt and overfishing, problems that have led to decreased fish populations. (Since Guam is a significant vacation spot for scuba divers, this is important.) In recent years, the Department of Agriculture, Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources has established several new marine preserves where fish populations are monitored by biologists. Before adopting U.S. Environmental Protection Agency standards, portions of Tumon Bay were dredged by the hotel chains to provide a better experience for hotel guests. Tumon Bay has since been made into a preserve. A federal Guam National Wildlife Refuge in northern Guam protects the decimated sea turtle population in addition to a small colony of Mariana fruit bats.

Question: What has Guam recently being trying to protect?


Answer: pollution, eroded silt and overfishing

Question: What has led to the decrease of fish near Guam?


Answer: Mariana fruit bats

Question: What is the name of the flying mammal in Guam that some are concerned for?


Answer: The University of Guam (UOG) and Guam Community College

Context: The University of Guam (UOG) and Guam Community College, both fully accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges, offer courses in higher education. UOG is a member of the exclusive group of only 76 U.S. land-grant institutions in the entire United States. Pacific Islands University is a small Christian liberal arts institution nationally accredited by the Transnational Association of Christian Colleges and Schools. They offer courses at both the undergraduate and graduate levels.

Question: What are the names of the two colleges in Guam?


Answer: Western Association of Schools and Colleges

Question: Who are these two schools accredited by?


Answer: Pacific Islands University

Question: What is the name of the small Christian college in Guam?


Answer: 32,000

Context: The Guam Department of Education serves the entire island of Guam. In 2000, 32,000 students attended Guam's public schools. Guam Public Schools have struggled with problems such as high dropout rates and poor test scores. Guam's educational system has always faced unique challenges as a small community located 6,000 miles (9,700 km) from the U.S. mainland with a very diverse student body including many students who come from backgrounds without traditional American education. An economic downturn in Guam since the mid-1990s has compounded the problems in schools.

Question: How many students as of 2000 were attending public schools in Guam?


Answer: high dropout rates and poor test scores

Question: What has plagued Guam public schools?


Answer: The Guam Department of Education

Question: What is the name of the governing body of the school in all of Guam?


Answer: The Government of Guam

Context: The Government of Guam maintains the island's main health care facility, Guam Memorial Hospital, in Tamuning. U.S. board certified doctors and dentists practice in all specialties. In addition, the U.S. Naval Hospital in Agana Heights serves active-duty members and dependents of the military community. There is one subscriber-based air ambulance located on the island, CareJet, which provides emergency patient transportation across Guam and surrounding islands. A private hospital, the Guam Regional Medical City opened its doors in early 2016.

Question: Who runs Guam's main health care facility?


Answer: Guam Memorial Hospital

Question: What is the name of the main health care facility in Guam?


Answer: Guam Regional Medical City

Question: Which privately owned medical facility opened in 2016?


Answer: rationalism

Context: Philosophical empiricists hold no knowledge to be properly inferred or deduced unless it is derived from one's sense-based experience. This view is commonly contrasted with rationalism, which states that knowledge may be derived from reason independently of the senses. For example, John Locke held that some knowledge (e.g. knowledge of God's existence) could be arrived at through intuition and reasoning alone. Similarly Robert Boyle, a prominent advocate of the experimental method, held that we have innate ideas. The main continental rationalists (Descartes, Spinoza, and Leibniz) were also advocates of the empirical "scientific method".

Question: What is commonly contrasted with empiricism?


Answer: reason independently of the senses

Question: Where does rationalism say knowledge comes from?


Answer: knowledge of God's existence

Question: What is an example knowledge being derived from intuition?


Answer: intuition and reasoning alone

Question: What did Locke think some knowledge could come from?


Answer: Descartes, Spinoza, and Leibniz

Question: Where were the main European rationalists?


Answer: his theory of potentiality and actuality

Context: Aristotle's explanation of how this was possible was not strictly empiricist in a modern sense, but rather based on his theory of potentiality and actuality, and experience of sense perceptions still requires the help of the active nous. These notions contrasted with Platonic notions of the human mind as an entity that pre-existed somewhere in the heavens, before being sent down to join a body on Earth (see Plato's Phaedo and Apology, as well as others). Aristotle was considered to give a more important position to sense perception than Plato, and commentators in the Middle Ages summarized one of his positions as "nihil in intellectu nisi prius fuerit in sensu" (Latin for "nothing in the intellect without first being in the senses").

Question: What theory was Aristotle's explanation based on?


Answer: an entity that pre-existed somewhere in the heavens, before being sent down to join a body on Earth

Question: How did Plato's Phaedo and Apology think of the mind?


Answer: Aristotle

Question: Who thought the senses were more important, Aristotle or Plato?


Answer: Plato

Question: Who thought the senses were less important, Aristotle or Plato?


Answer: Latin for "nothing in the intellect without first being in the senses"

Question: What does "nihil in intellectu nisi prius fuerit in sensu" mean?


Answer: the mind starts blank, but acquires knowledge as the outside world is impressed upon it

Context: This idea was later developed in ancient philosophy by the Stoic school. Stoic epistemology generally emphasized that the mind starts blank, but acquires knowledge as the outside world is impressed upon it. The doxographer Aetius summarizes this view as "When a man is born, the Stoics say, he has the commanding part of his soul like a sheet of paper ready for writing upon." Later stoics, such as Sextus of Chaeronea, would continue this idea of empiricism in later Stoic writings as well. As Sextus contends "For every thought comes from sense-perception or not without sense-perception and either from direct experience or not without direct experience" (Against the Professors, 8.56-8).

Question: What is the Stoic view?


Answer: doxographer

Question: What was Aetius's career?


Answer: Chaeronea

Question: Where was Sextus from?


Answer: Sextus

Question: Who wrote 'Against the Professors'?


Answer: Aetius

Question: Whose ideas did Sextus build on?


Answer: Aristotle

Context: During the Middle Ages Aristotle's theory of tabula rasa was developed by Islamic philosophers starting with Al Farabi, developing into an elaborate theory by Avicenna and demonstrated as a thought experiment by Ibn Tufail. For Avicenna (Ibn Sina), for example, the tabula rasa is a pure potentiality that is actualized through education, and knowledge is attained through "empirical familiarity with objects in this world from which one abstracts universal concepts" developed through a "syllogistic method of reasoning in which observations lead to propositional statements which when compounded lead to further abstract concepts". The intellect itself develops from a material intellect (al-'aql al-hayulani), which is a potentiality "that can acquire knowledge to the active intellect (al-'aql al-fa'il), the state of the human intellect in conjunction with the perfect source of knowledge". So the immaterial "active intellect", separate from any individual person, is still essential for understanding to occur.

Question: Whose idea was 'tabula rasa'?


Answer: Islamic

Question: What religion was Al Farabi?


Answer: material intellect

Question: What does al-'aql al-hayulani mean?


Answer: active intellect

Question: What does al-'aql al-fa'il mean?


Answer: the immaterial "active intellect"

Question: What is crucial for understanding?


Answer: Abu Bakr Ibn Tufail

Context: In the 12th century CE the Andalusian Muslim philosopher and novelist Abu Bakr Ibn Tufail (known as "Abubacer" or "Ebn Tophail" in the West) included the theory of tabula rasa as a thought experiment in his Arabic philosophical novel, Hayy ibn Yaqdhan in which he depicted the development of the mind of a feral child "from a tabula rasa to that of an adult, in complete isolation from society" on a desert island, through experience alone. The Latin translation of his philosophical novel, entitled Philosophus Autodidactus, published by Edward Pococke the Younger in 1671, had an influence on John Locke's formulation of tabula rasa in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding.

Question: What was 'Abubacer' normally called?


Answer: Abu Bakr Ibn Tufail

Question: What was 'Ebn Topnail' normally called?


Answer: Muslim

Question: What was Ibn Tufail's religion?


Answer: Andalusian

Question: What was Ibn Tufail's ethnicity?


Answer: 12th century CE

Question: When did Ibn Tufail live?


Answer: 1452

Context: In the late renaissance various writers began to question the medieval and classical understanding of knowledge acquisition in a more fundamental way. In political and historical writing Niccolò Machiavelli and his friend Francesco Guicciardini initiated a new realistic style of writing. Machiavelli in particular was scornful of writers on politics who judged everything in comparison to mental ideals and demanded that people should study the "effectual truth" instead. Their contemporary, Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) said, "If you find from your own experience that something is a fact and it contradicts what some authority has written down, then you must abandon the authority and base your reasoning on your own findings."

Question: When was da Vinci born?


Answer: 1519

Question: When did da Vinci die?


Answer: the medieval and classical understanding of knowledge acquisition

Question: What did renaissance writers question?


Answer: writers on politics who judged everything in comparison to mental ideals

Question: Who did Machiavelli disdain?


Answer: abandon the authority and base your reasoning on your own findings

Question: What did da Vinci advise when your experience contradicted authority?


Answer: ca. 1520

Context: The decidedly anti-Aristotelian and anti-clerical music theorist Vincenzo Galilei (ca. 1520–1591), father of Galileo and the inventor of monody, made use of the method in successfully solving musical problems, firstly, of tuning such as the relationship of pitch to string tension and mass in stringed instruments, and to volume of air in wind instruments; and secondly to composition, by his various suggestions to composers in his Dialogo della musica antica e moderna (Florence, 1581). The Italian word he used for "experiment" was esperienza. It is known that he was the essential pedagogical influence upon the young Galileo, his eldest son (cf. Coelho, ed. Music and Science in the Age of Galileo Galilei), arguably one of the most influential empiricists in history. Vincenzo, through his tuning research, found the underlying truth at the heart of the misunderstood myth of 'Pythagoras' hammers' (the square of the numbers concerned yielded those musical intervals, not the actual numbers, as believed), and through this and other discoveries that demonstrated the fallibility of traditional authorities, a radically empirical attitude developed, passed on to Galileo, which regarded "experience and demonstration" as the sine qua non of valid rational enquiry.

Question: When was Vincenzo Galilei born?


Answer: 1591

Question: When did Vincenzo Galilei die?


Answer: Galileo

Question: Who was Vincenzo Galilei's oldest son?


Answer: experiment

Question: What does 'esperienza' mean?


Answer: 17th century

Context: British empiricism, though it was not a term used at the time, derives from the 17th century period of early modern philosophy and modern science. The term became useful in order to describe differences perceived between two of its founders Francis Bacon, described as empiricist, and René Descartes, who is described as a rationalist. Thomas Hobbes and Baruch Spinoza, in the next generation, are often also described as an empiricist and a rationalist respectively. John Locke, George Berkeley, and David Hume were the primary exponents of empiricism in the 18th century Enlightenment, with Locke being the person who is normally known as the founder of empiricism as such.

Question: When was the British empiricism period?


Answer: empiricist

Question: What type of philosopher was Francis Bacon?


Answer: rationalist

Question: What type of philosopher was Descartes?


Answer: empiricist

Question: What type of philosopher was Hobbes?


Answer: rationalist

Question: What type of philosopher was Spinoza?


Answer: 1689

Context: In response to the early-to-mid-17th century "continental rationalism" John Locke (1632–1704) proposed in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689) a very influential view wherein the only knowledge humans can have is a posteriori, i.e., based upon experience. Locke is famously attributed with holding the proposition that the human mind is a tabula rasa, a "blank tablet", in Locke's words "white paper", on which the experiences derived from sense impressions as a person's life proceeds are written. There are two sources of our ideas: sensation and reflection. In both cases, a distinction is made between simple and complex ideas. The former are unanalysable, and are broken down into primary and secondary qualities. Primary qualities are essential for the object in question to be what it is. Without specific primary qualities, an object would not be what it is. For example, an apple is an apple because of the arrangement of its atomic structure. If an apple was structured differently, it would cease to be an apple. Secondary qualities are the sensory information we can perceive from its primary qualities. For example, an apple can be perceived in various colours, sizes, and textures but it is still identified as an apple. Therefore, its primary qualities dictate what the object essentially is, while its secondary qualities define its attributes. Complex ideas combine simple ones, and divide into substances, modes, and relations. According to Locke, our knowledge of things is a perception of ideas that are in accordance or discordance with each other, which is very different from the quest for certainty of Descartes.

Question: When was 'An Essay Concerning Human Understanding' published?


Answer: John Locke

Question: Who wrote 'An Essay Concerning Human Understanding'?


Answer: blank tablet

Question: What does 'tabula rasa' mean?


Answer: white paper

Question: What did Locke say 'tabula rasa' meant?


Answer: on which the experiences derived from sense impressions as a person's life proceeds are written

Question: What did Locke's 'tabula rasa' concept say happens to the mind?


Answer: George Berkeley

Context: A generation later, the Irish Anglican bishop, George Berkeley (1685–1753), determined that Locke's view immediately opened a door that would lead to eventual atheism. In response to Locke, he put forth in his Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge (1710) an important challenge to empiricism in which things only exist either as a result of their being perceived, or by virtue of the fact that they are an entity doing the perceiving. (For Berkeley, God fills in for humans by doing the perceiving whenever humans are not around to do it.) In his text Alciphron, Berkeley maintained that any order humans may see in nature is the language or handwriting of God. Berkeley's approach to empiricism would later come to be called subjective idealism.

Question: Who wrote 'Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge'?


Answer: George Berkeley

Question: Who wrote 'Alciphron'?


Answer: 1710

Question: When was 'Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge' published?


Answer: Anglican

Question: What religion was George Berkeley?


Answer: Irish

Question: What nationality was George Berkeley?


Answer: a new level of skepticism

Context: The Scottish philosopher David Hume (1711–1776) responded to Berkeley's criticisms of Locke, as well as other differences between early modern philosophers, and moved empiricism to a new level of skepticism. Hume argued in keeping with the empiricist view that all knowledge derives from sense experience, but he accepted that this has implications not normally acceptable to philosophers. He wrote for example, "Locke divides all arguments into demonstrative and probable. On this view, we must say that it is only probable that all men must die or that the sun will rise to-morrow, because neither of these can be demonstrated. But to conform our language more to common use, we ought to divide arguments into demonstrations, proofs, and probabilities—by ‘proofs’ meaning arguments from experience that leave no room for doubt or opposition." And,

Question: What did Hume bring to empiricism?


Answer: Scottish

Question: What was Hume's nationality?


Answer: demonstrative and probable

Question: What two types of arguments did Locke say there are?


Answer: 1776

Question: When did Hume die?


Answer: 1711

Question: When was Hume born?


Answer: relations of ideas and matters of fact

Context: Hume divided all of human knowledge into two categories: relations of ideas and matters of fact (see also Kant's analytic-synthetic distinction). Mathematical and logical propositions (e.g. "that the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the two sides") are examples of the first, while propositions involving some contingent observation of the world (e.g. "the sun rises in the East") are examples of the second. All of people's "ideas", in turn, are derived from their "impressions". For Hume, an "impression" corresponds roughly with what we call a sensation. To remember or to imagine such impressions is to have an "idea". Ideas are therefore the faint copies of sensations.

Question: What types of human knowledge did Hume say there are?


Answer: relations of ideas

Question: What type of human knowledge is math?


Answer: matters of fact

Question: What type of human knowledge is observing the world?


Answer: matters of fact

Question: What type of human knowledge is "the sun rises in the East"?


Answer: their "impressions"

Question: Where did Hume say people's ideas come from?


Answer: a result of accumulated habits, developed in response to accumulated sense experiences

Context: Hume maintained that all knowledge, even the most basic beliefs about the natural world, cannot be conclusively established by reason. Rather, he maintained, our beliefs are more a result of accumulated habits, developed in response to accumulated sense experiences. Among his many arguments Hume also added another important slant to the debate about scientific method — that of the problem of induction. Hume argued that it requires inductive reasoning to arrive at the premises for the principle of inductive reasoning, and therefore the justification for inductive reasoning is a circular argument. Among Hume's conclusions regarding the problem of induction is that there is no certainty that the future will resemble the past. Thus, as a simple instance posed by Hume, we cannot know with certainty by inductive reasoning that the sun will continue to rise in the East, but instead come to expect it to do so because it has repeatedly done so in the past.

Question: What did Hume think our beliefs are?


Answer: reason

Question: What did Hume think our beliefs can't be established solely by?


Answer: the justification for inductive reasoning

Question: What did Hume think is a circular argument?


Answer: that the sun will continue to rise in the East

Question: What did Hume say we can't know by inductive reasoning?


Answer: because it has repeatedly done so in the past

Question: Why did Hume say we expect the sun to rise?


Answer: that belief in an external world is rationally unjustifiable

Context: Most of Hume's followers have disagreed with his conclusion that belief in an external world is rationally unjustifiable, contending that Hume's own principles implicitly contained the rational justification for such a belief, that is, beyond being content to let the issue rest on human instinct, custom and habit. According to an extreme empiricist theory known as phenomenalism, anticipated by the arguments of both Hume and George Berkeley, a physical object is a kind of construction out of our experiences. Phenomenalism is the view that physical objects, properties, events (whatever is physical) are reducible to mental objects, properties, events. Ultimately, only mental objects, properties, events, exist — hence the closely related term subjective idealism. By the phenomenalistic line of thinking, to have a visual experience of a real physical thing is to have an experience of a certain kind of group of experiences. This type of set of experiences possesses a constancy and coherence that is lacking in the set of experiences of which hallucinations, for example, are a part. As John Stuart Mill put it in the mid-19th century, matter is the "permanent possibility of sensation". Mill's empiricism went a significant step beyond Hume in still another respect: in maintaining that induction is necessary for all meaningful knowledge including mathematics. As summarized by D.W. Hamlin:

Question: What conclusion do most of Hume's followers disagree with?


Answer: belief in an external world

Question: What did Hume say can't be rationally justified?


Answer: physical objects, properties, events (whatever is physical) are reducible to mental objects, properties, events

Question: What is phenomenalism?


Answer: Phenomenalism

Question: What is subjective idealism closely related to?


Answer: the "permanent possibility of sensation"

Question: What did John Stuart Mill say matter is?


Answer: an inductive inference from direct experience

Context: Mill's empiricism thus held that knowledge of any kind is not from direct experience but an inductive inference from direct experience. The problems other philosophers have had with Mill's position center around the following issues: Firstly, Mill's formulation encounters difficulty when it describes what direct experience is by differentiating only between actual and possible sensations. This misses some key discussion concerning conditions under which such "groups of permanent possibilities of sensation" might exist in the first place. Berkeley put God in that gap; the phenomenalists, including Mill, essentially left the question unanswered. In the end, lacking an acknowledgement of an aspect of "reality" that goes beyond mere "possibilities of sensation", such a position leads to a version of subjective idealism. Questions of how floor beams continue to support a floor while unobserved, how trees continue to grow while unobserved and untouched by human hands, etc., remain unanswered, and perhaps unanswerable in these terms. Secondly, Mill's formulation leaves open the unsettling possibility that the "gap-filling entities are purely possibilities and not actualities at all". Thirdly, Mill's position, by calling mathematics merely another species of inductive inference, misapprehends mathematics. It fails to fully consider the structure and method of mathematical science, the products of which are arrived at through an internally consistent deductive set of procedures which do not, either today or at the time Mill wrote, fall under the agreed meaning of induction.

Question: What did Mill say knowledge comes from?


Answer: actual and possible sensations

Question: What sensations did Mill differentiate?


Answer: God

Question: When Mill left a question of sensations unanswered, how did Berkeley answer it?


Answer: gap-filling entities

Question: What did Mill say might not actually exist?


Answer: the structure and method of mathematical science, the products of which are arrived at through an internally consistent deductive set of procedures

Question: What did Mill misrepresent about math?


Answer: phenomenalist

Context: The phenomenalist phase of post-Humean empiricism ended by the 1940s, for by that time it had become obvious that statements about physical things could not be translated into statements about actual and possible sense data. If a physical object statement is to be translatable into a sense-data statement, the former must be at least deducible from the latter. But it came to be realized that there is no finite set of statements about actual and possible sense-data from which we can deduce even a single physical-object statement. Remember that the translating or paraphrasing statement must be couched in terms of normal observers in normal conditions of observation. There is, however, no finite set of statements that are couched in purely sensory terms and can express the satisfaction of the condition of the presence of a normal observer. According to phenomenalism, to say that a normal observer is present is to make the hypothetical statement that were a doctor to inspect the observer, the observer would appear to the doctor to be normal. But, of course, the doctor himself must be a normal observer. If we are to specify this doctor's normality in sensory terms, we must make reference to a second doctor who, when inspecting the sense organs of the first doctor, would himself have to have the sense data a normal observer has when inspecting the sense organs of a subject who is a normal observer. And if we are to specify in sensory terms that the second doctor is a normal observer, we must refer to a third doctor, and so on (also see the third man).

Question: What phase of empiricism ended in the 1940s?


Answer: in purely sensory terms

Question: How can't a finite set of statements be described?


Answer: a second doctor

Question: What is necessary to explain a doctor's normality in sensory terms?


Answer: logical positivism or neopositivism

Context: Logical empiricism (also logical positivism or neopositivism) was an early 20th-century attempt to synthesize the essential ideas of British empiricism (e.g. a strong emphasis on sensory experience as the basis for knowledge) with certain insights from mathematical logic that had been developed by Gottlob Frege and Ludwig Wittgenstein. Some of the key figures in this movement were Otto Neurath, Moritz Schlick and the rest of the Vienna Circle, along with A.J. Ayer, Rudolf Carnap and Hans Reichenbach.

Question: What are other terms for logical empiricism?


Answer: early 20th-century

Question: When was logical empricism formulated?


Answer: British empiricism

Question: What did logical empiricism try to combine with mathematical logic?


Answer: Logical empiricism

Question: What was Otto Neurath an important member of?


Answer: Logical empiricism

Question: What was AJ Ayer an important member of?


Answer: 1872

Context: The neopositivists subscribed to a notion of philosophy as the conceptual clarification of the methods, insights and discoveries of the sciences. They saw in the logical symbolism elaborated by Frege (1848–1925) and Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) a powerful instrument that could rationally reconstruct all scientific discourse into an ideal, logically perfect, language that would be free of the ambiguities and deformations of natural language. This gave rise to what they saw as metaphysical pseudoproblems and other conceptual confusions. By combining Frege's thesis that all mathematical truths are logical with the early Wittgenstein's idea that all logical truths are mere linguistic tautologies, they arrived at a twofold classification of all propositions: the analytic (a priori) and the synthetic (a posteriori). On this basis, they formulated a strong principle of demarcation between sentences that have sense and those that do not: the so-called verification principle. Any sentence that is not purely logical, or is unverifiable is devoid of meaning. As a result, most metaphysical, ethical, aesthetic and other traditional philosophical problems came to be considered pseudoproblems.

Question: When was Bertrand Russell born?


Answer: 1970

Question: When did Bertrand Russell die?


Answer: all mathematical truths are logical

Question: What did Frege say about math?


Answer: all logical truths are mere linguistic tautologies

Question: What did Wittgenstein say about logic?


Answer: most metaphysical, ethical, aesthetic and other traditional philosophical problems

Question: What are pseudoproblems?


Answer: neopositivists

Context: In the extreme empiricism of the neopositivists—at least before the 1930s—any genuinely synthetic assertion must be reducible to an ultimate assertion (or set of ultimate assertions) that expresses direct observations or perceptions. In later years, Carnap and Neurath abandoned this sort of phenomenalism in favor of a rational reconstruction of knowledge into the language of an objective spatio-temporal physics. That is, instead of translating sentences about physical objects into sense-data, such sentences were to be translated into so-called protocol sentences, for example, "X at location Y and at time T observes such and such." The central theses of logical positivism (verificationism, the analytic-synthetic distinction, reductionism, etc.) came under sharp attack after World War II by thinkers such as Nelson Goodman, W.V. Quine, Hilary Putnam, Karl Popper, and Richard Rorty. By the late 1960s, it had become evident to most philosophers that the movement had pretty much run its course, though its influence is still significant among contemporary analytic philosophers such as Michael Dummett and other anti-realists.

Question: Who were extreme empiricists?


Answer: Nelson Goodman, W.V. Quine, Hilary Putnam, Karl Popper, and Richard Rorty

Question: Who attacked logical positivism?


Answer: anti-realists

Question: What position does Dummett take?


Answer: Carnap and Neurath

Question: Who abandoned phenomenalism?


Answer: In the late 19th and early 20th century

Context: In the late 19th and early 20th century several forms of pragmatic philosophy arose. The ideas of pragmatism, in its various forms, developed mainly from discussions between Charles Sanders Peirce and William James when both men were at Harvard in the 1870s. James popularized the term "pragmatism", giving Peirce full credit for its patrimony, but Peirce later demurred from the tangents that the movement was taking, and redubbed what he regarded as the original idea with the name of "pragmaticism". Along with its pragmatic theory of truth, this perspective integrates the basic insights of empirical (experience-based) and rational (concept-based) thinking.

Question: When did pragmatism arise?


Answer: Charles Sanders Peirce and William James

Question: Who developed pragmatism?


Answer: Harvard

Question: Where did Peirce and James meet?


Answer: in the 1870s

Question: When did Peirce and James meet?


Answer: pragmaticism

Question: What did Peirce later call his ideas instead of pragmatism?


Answer: 1839

Context: Charles Peirce (1839–1914) was highly influential in laying the groundwork for today's empirical scientific method.[citation needed] Although Peirce severely criticized many elements of Descartes' peculiar brand of rationalism, he did not reject rationalism outright. Indeed, he concurred with the main ideas of rationalism, most importantly the idea that rational concepts can be meaningful and the idea that rational concepts necessarily go beyond the data given by empirical observation. In later years he even emphasized the concept-driven side of the then ongoing debate between strict empiricism and strict rationalism, in part to counterbalance the excesses to which some of his cohorts had taken pragmatism under the "data-driven" strict-empiricist view.

Question: When was Peirce born?


Answer: 1914

Question: When did Peirce die?


Answer: the "data-driven" strict-empiricist view

Question: What view did Peirce think had been driven to excess?


Answer: Charles Peirce

Question: Who formed the basis for modern scientific method?


Answer: Descartes

Question: Whose rationalism did Peirce criticize?


Answer: a century

Context: Among Peirce's major contributions was to place inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning in a complementary rather than competitive mode, the latter of which had been the primary trend among the educated since David Hume wrote a century before. To this, Peirce added the concept of abductive reasoning. The combined three forms of reasoning serve as a primary conceptual foundation for the empirically based scientific method today. Peirce's approach "presupposes that (1) the objects of knowledge are real things, (2) the characters (properties) of real things do not depend on our perceptions of them, and (3) everyone who has sufficient experience of real things will agree on the truth about them. According to Peirce's doctrine of fallibilism, the conclusions of science are always tentative. The rationality of the scientific method does not depend on the certainty of its conclusions, but on its self-corrective character: by continued application of the method science can detect and correct its own mistakes, and thus eventually lead to the discovery of truth".

Question: How long before Peirce did Hume write?


Answer: complementary

Question: How did Peirce view inductive vs deductive reasoning?


Answer: competitive

Question: How did Hume view inductive vs deductive reasoning?


Answer: the conclusions of science are always tentative

Question: What did fallibilism say?


Answer: its self-corrective character

Question: What does the scientific method's rationality depend on?


Answer: Peirce

Context: In his Harvard "Lectures on Pragmatism" (1903), Peirce enumerated what he called the "three cotary propositions of pragmatism" (L: cos, cotis whetstone), saying that they "put the edge on the maxim of pragmatism". First among these he listed the peripatetic-thomist observation mentioned above, but he further observed that this link between sensory perception and intellectual conception is a two-way street. That is, it can be taken to say that whatever we find in the intellect is also incipiently in the senses. Hence, if theories are theory-laden then so are the senses, and perception itself can be seen as a species of abductive inference, its difference being that it is beyond control and hence beyond critique – in a word, incorrigible. This in no way conflicts with the fallibility and revisability of scientific concepts, since it is only the immediate percept in its unique individuality or "thisness" – what the Scholastics called its haecceity – that stands beyond control and correction. Scientific concepts, on the other hand, are general in nature, and transient sensations do in another sense find correction within them. This notion of perception as abduction has received periodic revivals in artificial intelligence and cognitive science research, most recently for instance with the work of Irvin Rock on indirect perception.

Question: Who wrote 'Lectures on Pragmatism'?


Answer: 1903

Question: When was 'Lectures on Pragmatism' published?


Answer: unique individuality or "thisness"

Question: What is 'haecceity'?


Answer: indirect perception

Question: What did Irvin Rock write about?


Answer: in artificial intelligence and cognitive science research

Question: Where has 'perception as abduction' come up repeatedly?


Answer: William James

Context: Around the beginning of the 20th century, William James (1842–1910) coined the term "radical empiricism" to describe an offshoot of his form of pragmatism, which he argued could be dealt with separately from his pragmatism – though in fact the two concepts are intertwined in James's published lectures. James maintained that the empirically observed "directly apprehended universe needs ... no extraneous trans-empirical connective support", by which he meant to rule out the perception that there can be any value added by seeking supernatural explanations for natural phenomena. James's "radical empiricism" is thus not radical in the context of the term "empiricism", but is instead fairly consistent with the modern use of the term "empirical". (His method of argument in arriving at this view, however, still readily encounters debate within philosophy even today.)

Question: Who came up with 'radical empiricism'?


Answer: in James's published lectures

Question: Where were James's pragmatism and radical empiricism intertwined?


Answer: 1842

Question: When was William James born?


Answer: 1910

Question: When did William James die?


Answer: Around the beginning of the 20th century

Question: When did James come up with 'radical empiricism'?


Answer: John Dewey

Context: John Dewey (1859–1952) modified James' pragmatism to form a theory known as instrumentalism. The role of sense experience in Dewey's theory is crucial, in that he saw experience as unified totality of things through which everything else is interrelated. Dewey's basic thought, in accordance with empiricism was that reality is determined by past experience. Therefore, humans adapt their past experiences of things to perform experiments upon and test the pragmatic values of such experience. The value of such experience is measured experientially and scientifically, and the results of such tests generate ideas that serve as instruments for future experimentation, in physical sciences as in ethics. Thus, ideas in Dewey's system retain their empiricist flavour in that they are only known a posteriori.

Question: Who came up with 'instrumentalism'?


Answer: reality is determined by past experience

Question: What did Dewey think about reality?


Answer: 1859

Question: When was Dewey born?


Answer: 1952

Question: When did Dewey die?


Answer: James' pragmatism

Question: What was instrumentalism a modification of?


Answer: reality

Context: In philosophy, idealism is the group of philosophies which assert that reality, or reality as we can know it, is fundamentally mental, mentally constructed, or otherwise immaterial. Epistemologically, idealism manifests as a skepticism about the possibility of knowing any mind-independent thing. In a sociological sense, idealism emphasizes how human ideas—especially beliefs and values—shape society. As an ontological doctrine, idealism goes further, asserting that all entities are composed of mind or spirit. Idealism thus rejects physicalist and dualist theories that fail to ascribe priority to the mind.

Question: What do idealist philosophies say is constructed in our minds?


Answer: mind-independent

Question: What types of things are idealist philosophies skeptical about?


Answer: dualist

Question: Along with physicalist theories, what theories is idealism in conflict with?


Answer: beliefs and values

Question: In sociology, what sorts of ideas does idealism focus on?


Answer: Hindu

Context: The earliest extant arguments that the world of experience is grounded in the mental derive from India and Greece. The Hindu idealists in India and the Greek Neoplatonists gave panentheistic arguments for an all-pervading consciousness as the ground or true nature of reality. In contrast, the Yogācāra school, which arose within Mahayana Buddhism in India in the 4th century CE, based its "mind-only" idealism to a greater extent on phenomenological analyses of personal experience. This turn toward the subjective anticipated empiricists such as George Berkeley, who revived idealism in 18th-century Europe by employing skeptical arguments against materialism.

Question: What Indian thinkers were early idealists?


Answer: Neoplatonists

Question: What Greek philosophers had idealistic views?


Answer: Mahayana

Question: With what sect of Buddhism was the Yogācāra school affiliated?


Answer: 4th

Question: In what century did the Yogācāra school arise?


Answer: 18th

Question: What century did George Berkeley live in?


Answer: German

Context: Beginning with Immanuel Kant, German idealists such as G. W. F. Hegel, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, and Arthur Schopenhauer dominated 19th-century philosophy. This tradition, which emphasized the mental or "ideal" character of all phenomena, gave birth to idealistic and subjectivist schools ranging from British idealism to phenomenalism to existentialism. The historical influence of this branch of idealism remains central even to the schools that rejected its metaphysical assumptions, such as Marxism, pragmatism and positivism.

Question: What was the ethnicity of Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling?


Answer: 19th

Question: In what century did Hegel write?


Answer: phenomenalism

Question: Along with British idealism and existentialism, what philosophy was influenced by the German idealistic tradition?


Answer: Marxism

Question: Along with positivism and pragmatism, what philosophy rejected idealism's metaphysical views but what nevertheless influenced by it?


Answer: to see

Context: Idealism is a term with several related meanings. It comes via idea from the Greek idein (ἰδεῖν), meaning "to see". The term entered the English language by 1743. In ordinary use, as when speaking of Woodrow Wilson's political idealism, it generally suggests the priority of ideals, principles, values, and goals over concrete realities. Idealists are understood to represent the world as it might or should be, unlike pragmatists, who focus on the world as it presently is. In the arts, similarly, idealism affirms imagination and attempts to realize a mental conception of beauty, a standard of perfection, juxtaposed to aesthetic naturalism and realism.

Question: What does ἰδεῖν mean in English?


Answer: 1743

Question: By what year was "idealism" a word in English?


Answer: pragmatists

Question: Whose worldview contrasts with that of idealists in the ordinary sense of the word?


Answer: Greek

Question: What language is ἰδεῖν?


Answer: idealist

Context: Any philosophy that assigns crucial importance to the ideal or spiritual realm in its account of human existence may be termed "idealist". Metaphysical idealism is an ontological doctrine that holds that reality itself is incorporeal or experiential at its core. Beyond this, idealists disagree on which aspects of the mental are more basic. Platonic idealism affirms that abstractions are more basic to reality than the things we perceive, while subjective idealists and phenomenalists tend to privilege sensory experience over abstract reasoning. Epistemological idealism is the view that reality can only be known through ideas, that only psychological experience can be apprehended by the mind.

Question: What is the term used for philosophies that consider the spiritual to be of paramount importance?


Answer: Metaphysical

Question: What branch of idealism believes that reality is fundamentally nonphysical?


Answer: Platonic

Question: What branch of idealism sees abstracts as more real than perceived objects?


Answer: subjective

Question: Along with phenomenalists, what idealists believe the senses are more important than reason?


Answer: Epistemological

Question: What branch of idealism believes that we can only know the real world via ideas?


Answer: George Berkeley

Context: Subjective idealists like George Berkeley are anti-realists in terms of a mind-independent world, whereas transcendental idealists like Immanuel Kant are strong skeptics of such a world, affirming epistemological and not metaphysical idealism. Thus Kant defines idealism as "the assertion that we can never be certain whether all of our putative outer experience is not mere imagining". He claimed that, according to idealism, "the reality of external objects does not admit of strict proof. On the contrary, however, the reality of the object of our internal sense (of myself and state) is clear immediately through consciousness." However, not all idealists restrict the real or the knowable to our immediate subjective experience. Objective idealists make claims about a transempirical world, but simply deny that this world is essentially divorced from or ontologically prior to the mental. Thus Plato and Gottfried Leibniz affirm an objective and knowable reality transcending our subjective awareness—a rejection of epistemological idealism—but propose that this reality is grounded in ideal entities, a form of metaphysical idealism. Nor do all metaphysical idealists agree on the nature of the ideal; for Plato, the fundamental entities were non-mental abstract forms, while for Leibniz they were proto-mental and concrete monads.

Question: Who is a notable subjective idealist?


Answer: Immanuel Kant

Question: What famous philosopher was a transcendental idealist?


Answer: realists

Question: Who are subjective idealists opposed to?


Answer: Gottfried Leibniz

Question: Along with Plato, what notable philosopher rejected epistemological idealism?


Answer: Leibniz

Question: Who believed the essence of reality to be composed of monads?


Answer: Neoplatonism

Context: Christian theologians have held idealist views, often based on Neoplatonism, despite the influence of Aristotelian scholasticism from the 12th century onward. Later western theistic idealism such as that of Hermann Lotze offers a theory of the "world ground" in which all things find their unity: it has been widely accepted by Protestant theologians. Several modern religious movements, for example the organizations within the New Thought Movement and the Unity Church, may be said to have a particularly idealist orientation. The theology of Christian Science includes a form of idealism: it teaches that all that truly exists is God and God's ideas; that the world as it appears to the senses is a distortion of the underlying spiritual reality, a distortion that may be corrected (both conceptually and in terms of human experience) through a reorientation (spiritualization) of thought.

Question: In what philosophy was Christian idealism often rooted?


Answer: Aristotelian scholasticism

Question: What philosophy influential in the medieval church was opposed to Christian idealism?


Answer: 12th

Question: In what century did Christian thought begin to be influenced by the scholasticism of Aristotle?


Answer: New Thought

Question: Along with the Unity Church, what contemporary religious movement may be regarded as idealist?


Answer: Hermann Lotze

Question: What notable idealist was responsible for a "world ground" theory?


Answer: Simone Klein

Context: Plato's theory of forms or "ideas" describes ideal forms (for example the platonic solids in geometry or abstracts like Goodness and Justice), as universals existing independently of any particular instance. Arne Grøn calls this doctrine "the classic example of a metaphysical idealism as a transcendent idealism", while Simone Klein calls Plato "the earliest representative of metaphysical objective idealism". Nevertheless, Plato holds that matter is real, though transitory and imperfect, and is perceived by our body and its senses and given existence by the eternal ideas that are perceived directly by our rational soul. Plato was therefore a metaphysical and epistemological dualist, an outlook that modern idealism has striven to avoid: Plato's thought cannot therefore be counted as idealist in the modern sense, although quantum physics' assertion that man's consciousness is an immutable and primary requisite for not merely perceiving but shaping matter, and thus his reality, would give more credence to Plato's dualist position.[citation needed]

Question: Who regarded Plato as the oldest exponent of metaphysical objective idealism?


Answer: metaphysical and epistemological

Question: What sort of dualist is Plato regarded as?


Answer: ideas

Question: What was another term for forms in Plato's theory of forms?


Answer: quantum

Question: What branch of physics might support a worldview similar to Platonic dualism?


Answer: neoplatonist

Context: With the neoplatonist Plotinus, wrote Nathaniel Alfred Boll; "there even appears, probably for the first time in Western philosophy, idealism that had long been current in the East even at that time, for it taught... that the soul has made the world by stepping from eternity into time...". Similarly, in regard to passages from the Enneads, "The only space or place of the world is the soul" and "Time must not be assumed to exist outside the soul", Ludwig Noiré wrote: "For the first time in Western philosophy we find idealism proper in Plotinus, However, Plotinus does not address whether we know external objects, unlike Schopenhauer and other modern philosophers.

Question: What sort of philosopher was Plotinus?


Answer: Plotinus

Question: According to Noiré, who was the first true Western idealist?


Answer: whether we know external objects

Question: What issue did Schopenhauer discuss that Plotinus did not?


Answer: Time

Question: What did the Enneads believe might not have existence outside of the soul?


Answer: immaterialism

Context: Subjective Idealism (immaterialism or phenomenalism) describes a relationship between experience and the world in which objects are no more than collections or "bundles" of sense data in the perceiver. Proponents include Berkeley, Bishop of Cloyne, an Anglo-Irish philosopher who advanced a theory he called immaterialism, later referred to as "subjective idealism", contending that individuals can only know sensations and ideas of objects directly, not abstractions such as "matter", and that ideas also depend upon being perceived for their very existence - esse est percipi; "to be is to be perceived".

Question: Along with phenomenalism, what is another term for subjective idealism?


Answer: Cloyne

Question: Of what see was Berkeley bishop?


Answer: Anglo-Irish

Question: What was Berkeley's ethnicity?


Answer: to be is to be perceived

Question: What does esse est percipi mean?


Answer: abstractions

Question: What did Berkeley consider things like matter to be?


Answer: John Norris

Context: Arthur Collier published similar assertions though there seems to have been no influence between the two contemporary writers. The only knowable reality is the represented image of an external object. Matter as a cause of that image, is unthinkable and therefore nothing to us. An external world as absolute matter unrelated to an observer does not exist as far as we are concerned. The universe cannot exist as it appears if there is no perceiving mind. Collier was influenced by An Essay Towards the Theory of the Ideal or Intelligible World by "Cambridge Platonist" John Norris (1701).

Question: Who was known as the "Cambridge Platonist"?


Answer: Arthur Collier

Question: Who was notably influenced by John Norris?


Answer: 1701

Question: When was An Essay Towards the Theory of the Ideal or Intelligible World written?


Answer: represented image of an external object

Question: What sort of reality did Collier believe was knowable?


Answer: Immanuel Kant

Context: and proliferation of hyphenated entities such as "thing-in-itself" (Immanuel Kant), "things-as-interacted-by-us" (Arthur Fine), "table-of-commonsense" and "table-of-physics" (Sir Arthur Eddington) which are "warning signs" for conceptual idealism according to Musgrave because they allegedly do not exist but only highlight the numerous ways in which people come to know the world. This argument does not take into account the issues pertaining to hermeneutics, especially at the backdrop of analytic philosophy. Musgrave criticized Richard Rorty and Postmodernist philosophy in general for confusion of use and mention.

Question: Who coined the term "thing-in-itself"?


Answer: Sir Arthur Eddington

Question: Who invented the idea of a "table-of-commonsense"?


Answer: Arthur Fine

Question: Who came up with the idea of "things-as-interacted-by-us"?


Answer: Musgrave

Question: Who spoke of the "warning signs" of idealism?


Answer: Postmodernist

Question: What sort of philosopher was Richard Rorty?


Answer: subjectivists

Context: A. A. Luce and John Foster are other subjectivists. Luce, in Sense without Matter (1954), attempts to bring Berkeley up to date by modernizing his vocabulary and putting the issues he faced in modern terms, and treats the Biblical account of matter and the psychology of perception and nature. Foster's The Case for Idealism argues that the physical world is the logical creation of natural, non-logical constraints on human sense-experience. Foster's latest defense of his views is in his book A World for Us: The Case for Phenomenalistic Idealism.

Question: What sort of thinkers were Foster and Luce?


Answer: Sense without Matter

Question: What book was written by A.A. Luce?


Answer: 1954

Question: What year saw the publication of Sense without Matter?


Answer: Foster

Question: Who wrote A World for Us: The Case for Phenomenalistic Idealism?


Answer: Berkeley

Question: Whose work is Sense without Matter regarded as updating?


Answer: Subjective Idealism

Context: The 2nd edition (1787) contained a Refutation of Idealism to distinguish his transcendental idealism from Descartes's Sceptical Idealism and Berkeley's anti-realist strain of Subjective Idealism. The section Paralogisms of Pure Reason is an implicit critique of Descartes' idealism. Kant says that it is not possible to infer the 'I' as an object (Descartes' cogito ergo sum) purely from "the spontaneity of thought". Kant focused on ideas drawn from British philosophers such as Locke, Berkeley and Hume but distinguished his transcendental or critical idealism from previous varieties;

Question: What school of thought did Berkeley belong to?


Answer: Sceptical

Question: What sort of idealist was Descartes?


Answer: Paralogisms of Pure Reason

Question: In what section was Descartes criticized?


Answer: 2nd

Question: In what edition was there a Refutation of Idealism?


Answer: 1787

Question: When was the second edition published?


Answer: Schopenhauer

Context: In the first volume of his Parerga and Paralipomena, Schopenhauer wrote his "Sketch of a History of the Doctrine of the Ideal and the Real". He defined the ideal as being mental pictures that constitute subjective knowledge. The ideal, for him, is what can be attributed to our own minds. The images in our head are what comprise the ideal. Schopenhauer emphasized that we are restricted to our own consciousness. The world that appears is only a representation or mental picture of objects. We directly and immediately know only representations. All objects that are external to the mind are known indirectly through the mediation of our mind. He offered a history of the concept of the "ideal" as "ideational" or "existing in the mind as an image".

Question: Who wrote Parerga and Paralipomena?


Answer: subjective

Question: What type of knowledge did Schopenhauer believe the ideal to be?


Answer: our own minds

Question: According to Schopenhauer, to what can the ideal be attributed?


Answer: our own consciousness

Question: What did Schopenhauer believe we were restricted to?


Answer: representations

Question: What did Schopenhauer believe were the only things we could know?


Answer: Friedrich Nietzsche

Context: Friedrich Nietzsche argued that Kant commits an agnostic tautology and does not offer a satisfactory answer as to the source of a philosophical right to such-or-other metaphysical claims; he ridicules his pride in tackling "the most difficult thing that could ever be undertaken on behalf of metaphysics." The famous "thing-in-itself" was called a product of philosophical habit, which seeks to introduce a grammatical subject: because wherever there is cognition, there must be a thing that is cognized and allegedly it must be added to ontology as a being (whereas, to Nietzsche, only the world as ever changing appearances can be assumed). Yet he attacks the idealism of Schopenhauer and Descartes with an argument similar to Kant's critique of the latter (see above).

Question: Who censured Kant for his agnostic tautology?


Answer: Descartes

Question: Along with Schopenhauer, whose idealism did Nietzsche attack?


Answer: Descartes

Question: Nietzsche's attack on Schopenhauer used an argument similar to Kant's attack on who?


Answer: transcendental

Context: Absolute idealism is G. W. F. Hegel's account of how existence is comprehensible as an all-inclusive whole. Hegel called his philosophy "absolute" idealism in contrast to the "subjective idealism" of Berkeley and the "transcendental idealism" of Kant and Fichte, which were not based on a critique of the finite and a dialectical philosophy of history as Hegel's idealism was. The exercise of reason and intellect enables the philosopher to know ultimate historical reality, the phenomenological constitution of self-determination, the dialectical development of self-awareness and personality in the realm of History.

Question: According to Hegel, what sort of idealist was Fichte?


Answer: Berkeley

Question: Who did Hegel see as a subjective idealist?


Answer: Absolute

Question: What sort of idealist did Hegel define himself as?


Answer: exercise of reason and intellect

Question: How did Hegel believe historical reality to be knowable to a philosopher?


Answer: 1812–1814

Context: In his Science of Logic (1812–1814) Hegel argues that finite qualities are not fully "real" because they depend on other finite qualities to determine them. Qualitative infinity, on the other hand, would be more self-determining and hence more fully real. Similarly finite natural things are less "real"—because they are less self-determining—than spiritual things like morally responsible people, ethical communities and God. So any doctrine, such as materialism, that asserts that finite qualities or natural objects are fully real is mistaken.

Question: When was Science of Logic written?


Answer: Hegel

Question: Who was the author of Science of Logic?


Answer: less self-determining

Question: Why did Hegel believe natural things are less real than spiritual things?


Answer: ethical communities

Question: Along with God and morally responsible people, what is an example of a spiritual thing to Hegel?


Answer: materialism

Question: What is an example of a school of thought Hegel believed to be wrong?


Answer: Spirit

Context: Hegel certainly intends to preserve what he takes to be true of German idealism, in particular Kant's insistence that ethical reason can and does go beyond finite inclinations. For Hegel there must be some identity of thought and being for the "subject" (any human observer)) to be able to know any observed "object" (any external entity, possibly even another human) at all. Under Hegel's concept of "subject-object identity," subject and object both have Spirit (Hegel's ersatz, redefined, nonsupernatural "God") as their conceptual (not metaphysical) inner reality—and in that sense are identical. But until Spirit's "self-realization" occurs and Spirit graduates from Spirit to Absolute Spirit status, subject (a human mind) mistakenly thinks every "object" it observes is something "alien," meaning something separate or apart from "subject." In Hegel's words, "The object is revealed to it [to "subject"] by [as] something alien, and it does not recognize itself." Self-realization occurs when Hegel (part of Spirit's nonsupernatural Mind, which is the collective mind of all humans) arrives on the scene and realizes that every "object" is himself, because both subject and object are essentially Spirit. When self-realization occurs and Spirit becomes Absolute Spirit, the "finite" (man, human) becomes the "infinite" ("God," divine), replacing the imaginary or "picture-thinking" supernatural God of theism: man becomes God. Tucker puts it this way: "Hegelianism . . . is a religion of self-worship whose fundamental theme is given in Hegel's image of the man who aspires to be God himself, who demands 'something more, namely infinity.'" The picture Hegel presents is "a picture of a self-glorifying humanity striving compulsively, and at the end successfully, to rise to divinity."

Question: In Hegel's thought, what inner reality is possessed by both subject and object?


Answer: any human observer

Question: What is another term for Hegel's "subject"?


Answer: Absolute Spirit

Question: What does Spirit turn into when a person arrives at self-realization?


Answer: any external entity

Question: What does Hegel mean by "object"?


Answer: self

Question: Who did Tucker argue that Hegel's philosophy involved the worship of?


Answer: Kierkegaard

Context: Kierkegaard criticised Hegel's idealist philosophy in several of his works, particularly his claim to a comprehensive system that could explain the whole of reality. Where Hegel argues that an ultimate understanding of the logical structure of the world is an understanding of the logical structure of God's mind, Kierkegaard asserting that for God reality can be a system but it cannot be so for any human individual because both reality and humans are incomplete and all philosophical systems imply completeness. A logical system is possible but an existential system is not. "What is rational is actual; and what is actual is rational". Hegel's absolute idealism blurs the distinction between existence and thought: our mortal nature places limits on our understanding of reality;

Question: Who was a notable critic of Hegel?


Answer: human

Question: For whom did Kierkegaard argue reality cannot be a system?


Answer: humans are incomplete

Question: According to Kierkegaard, why can't reality be a system for human beings?


Answer: logical

Question: Even though Kierkegaard does not believe in the possibility of an existential system of reality, what sort of system can exist?


Answer: Hegel

Context: A major concern of Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit (1807) and of the philosophy of Spirit that he lays out in his Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences (1817–1830) is the interrelation between individual humans, which he conceives in terms of "mutual recognition." However, what Climacus means by the aforementioned statement, is that Hegel, in the Philosophy of Right, believed the best solution was to surrender one's individuality to the customs of the State, identifying right and wrong in view of the prevailing bourgeois morality. Individual human will ought, at the State's highest level of development, to properly coincide with the will of the State. Climacus rejects Hegel's suppression of individuality by pointing out it is impossible to create a valid set of rules or system in any society which can adequately describe existence for any one individual. Submitting one's will to the State denies personal freedom, choice, and responsibility.

Question: Who wrote Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences?


Answer: 1807

Question: When was Phenomenology of Spirit published?


Answer: individuality

Question: What trait did Climacus believe that Hegel suppressed?


Answer: State

Question: Whose will did Hegel believe should prevail over that of the individual?


Answer: bourgeois

Question: What conception of right and wrong did Climacus believe Hegel endorsed?


Answer: ultimate

Context: In addition, Hegel does believe we can know the structure of God's mind, or ultimate reality. Hegel agrees with Kierkegaard that both reality and humans are incomplete, inasmuch as we are in time, and reality develops through time. But the relation between time and eternity is outside time and this is the "logical structure" that Hegel thinks we can know. Kierkegaard disputes this assertion, because it eliminates the clear distinction between ontology and epistemology. Existence and thought are not identical and one cannot possibly think existence. Thought is always a form of abstraction, and thus not only is pure existence impossible to think, but all forms in existence are unthinkable; thought depends on language, which merely abstracts from experience, thus separating us from lived experience and the living essence of all beings. In addition, because we are finite beings, we cannot possibly know or understand anything that is universal or infinite such as God, so we cannot know God exists, since that which transcends time simultaneously transcends human understanding.

Question: What sort of reality did Hegel perceive God's mind to be?


Answer: Kierkegaard

Question: Along with Hegel, who also argued for human incompleteness?


Answer: abstraction

Question: According to Hegel, what form does thought necessarily take?


Answer: we are finite beings

Question: Why does Hegel believe we cannot know God?


Answer: human understanding

Question: If something transcends time, what does it, according to Hegel, also transcend?


Answer: Moore

Context: Bradley was the apparent target of G. E. Moore's radical rejection of idealism. Moore claimed that Bradley did not understand the statement that something is real. We know for certain, through common sense and prephilosophical beliefs, that some things are real, whether they are objects of thought or not, according to Moore. The 1903 article The Refutation of Idealism is one of the first demonstrations of Moore's commitment to analysis. He examines each of the three terms in the Berkeleian aphorism esse est percipi, "to be is to be perceived", finding that it must mean that the object and the subject are necessarily connected so that "yellow" and "the sensation of yellow" are identical - "to be yellow" is "to be experienced as yellow". But it also seems there is a difference between "yellow" and "the sensation of yellow" and "that esse is held to be percipi, solely because what is experienced is held to be identical with the experience of it". Though far from a complete refutation, this was the first strong statement by analytic philosophy against its idealist predecessors, or at any rate against the type of idealism represented by Berkeley. This argument did not show that the GEM (in post–Stove vernacular, see below) is logically invalid.

Question: Who wrote The Refutation of Idealism?


Answer: Bradley

Question: In his rejection of idealism, whose thought did Moore attack?


Answer: Berkeley

Question: Who originated the saying 'esse est percipi'?


Answer: Gottfried Leibniz

Context: Pluralistic idealism such as that of Gottfried Leibniz takes the view that there are many individual minds that together underlie the existence of the observed world and make possible the existence of the physical universe. Unlike absolute idealism, pluralistic idealism does not assume the existence of a single ultimate mental reality or "Absolute". Leibniz' form of idealism, known as Panpsychism, views "monads" as the true atoms of the universe and as entities having perception. The monads are "substantial forms of being",elemental, individual, subject to their own laws, non-interacting, each reflecting the entire universe. Monads are centers of force, which is substance while space, matter and motion are phenomenal and their form and existence is dependent on the simple and immaterial monads. There is a pre-established harmony established by God, the central monad, between the world in the minds of the monads and the external world of objects. Leibniz's cosmology embraced traditional Christian Theism. The English psychologist and philosopher James Ward inspired by Leibniz had also defended a form of pluralistic idealism. According to Ward the universe is composed of "psychic monads" of different levels, interacting for mutual self- betterment.

Question: Who is a notable exponent of pluralistic idealism?


Answer: Panpsychism

Question: What is the term for the type of idealism preached by Leibniz?


Answer: monads

Question: What did Leibniz believe the universe is fundamentally composed of?


Answer: James Ward

Question: Who was a notable disciple of Leibniz?


Answer: self- betterment

Question: What does Ward see as the purpose of interaction between monads?


Answer: Bowne

Context: Howison's personal idealism was also called "California Personalism" by others to distinguish it from the "Boston Personalism" which was of Bowne. Howison maintained that both impersonal, monistic idealism and materialism run contrary to the experience of moral freedom. To deny freedom to pursue truth, beauty, and "benignant love" is to undermine every profound human venture, including science, morality, and philosophy. Personalistic idealists Borden Parker Bowne and Edgar S. Brightman and realistic personal theist Saint Thomas Aquinas address a core issue, namely that of dependence upon an infinite personal God.

Question: Who was an exponent of so-called "Boston Personalism"?


Answer: California Personalism

Question: What was the term given to the personal idealism of Howison?


Answer: Saint Thomas Aquinas

Question: Who is a notable realistic personal theist?


Answer: dependence upon an infinite personal God

Question: What issue do both Aquinas and Brightman discuss?


Answer: moral

Question: What sort of freedom did Howison believe was incompatible with materialism?


Answer: Cambridge

Context: J. M. E. McTaggart of Cambridge University, argued that minds alone exist and only relate to each other through love. Space, time and material objects are unreal. In The Unreality of Time he argued that time is an illusion because it is impossible to produce a coherent account of a sequence of events. The Nature of Existence (1927) contained his arguments that space, time, and matter cannot possibly be real. In his Studies in Hegelian Cosmology (Cambridge, 1901, p196) he declared that metaphysics are not relevant to social and political action. McTaggart "thought that Hegel was wrong in supposing that metaphysics could show that the state is more than a means to the good of the individuals who compose it". For McTaggart "philosophy can give us very little, if any, guidance in action... Why should a Hegelian citizen be surprised that his belief as to the organic nature of the Absolute does not help him in deciding how to vote? Would a Hegelian engineer be reasonable in expecting that his belief that all matter is spirit should help him in planning a bridge?

Question: With what university is J.M.E. McTaggart affiliated?


Answer: 1927

Question: In what year was The Nature of Existence published?


Answer: minds

Question: According to McTaggart, what are the only things that have real existence?


Answer: unreal

Question: What does McTaggart believe space and time to be?


Answer: love

Question: How does McTaggart believe minds relate to one another?


Answer: apeirotheism

Context: Thomas Davidson taught a philosophy called "apeirotheism", a "form of pluralistic idealism...coupled with a stern ethical rigorism" which he defined as "a theory of Gods infinite in number." The theory was indebted to Aristotle's pluralism and his concepts of Soul, the rational, living aspect of a living substance which cannot exist apart from the body because it is not a substance but an essence, and nous, rational thought, reflection and understanding. Although a perennial source of controversy, Aristotle arguably views the latter as both eternal and immaterial in nature, as exemplified in his theology of unmoved movers. Identifying Aristotle's God with rational thought, Davidson argued, contrary to Aristotle, that just as the soul cannot exist apart from the body, God cannot exist apart from the world.

Question: What was the name of the philosophy preached by Thomas Davidson?


Answer: pluralistic

Question: What type of idealism was Thomas Davidson's philosophy?


Answer: infinite

Question: According to Davidson, how many gods are there?


Answer: Aristotle

Question: By whose philosophy was Davidson influenced?


Answer: rational thought

Question: What did Davidson believe the God of Aristotle is synonymous with?


Answer: physicists

Context: Idealist notions took a strong hold among physicists of the early 20th century confronted with the paradoxes of quantum physics and the theory of relativity. In The Grammar of Science, Preface to the 2nd Edition, 1900, Karl Pearson wrote, "There are many signs that a sound idealism is surely replacing, as a basis for natural philosophy, the crude materialism of the older physicists." This book influenced Einstein's regard for the importance of the observer in scientific measurements[citation needed]. In § 5 of that book, Pearson asserted that "...science is in reality a classification and analysis of the contents of the mind...." Also, "...the field of science is much more consciousness than an external world."

Question: Among what twentieth century scientists was idealism popular?


Answer: relativity

Question: Along with quantum physics generally, what scientific doctrine caused some physicists to embrace idealism?


Answer: 1900

Question: In what year was the second edition of The Grammar of Science published?


Answer: contents of the mind

Question: What did Pearson claim that science classifies?


Answer: Einstein

Question: Who is claimed to have been influenced by The Grammar of Science?


Answer: messages transmitted along the nerves to the seat of consciousness

Context: "The mind-stuff of the world is, of course, something more general than our individual conscious minds.... The mind-stuff is not spread in space and time; these are part of the cyclic scheme ultimately derived out of it.... It is necessary to keep reminding ourselves that all knowledge of our environment from which the world of physics is constructed, has entered in the form of messages transmitted along the nerves to the seat of consciousness.... Consciousness is not sharply defined, but fades into subconsciousness; and beyond that we must postulate something indefinite but yet continuous with our mental nature.... It is difficult for the matter-of-fact physicist to accept the view that the substratum of everything is of mental character. But no one can deny that mind is the first and most direct thing in our experience, and all else is remote inference."

Question: How do receive information from the physical world?


Answer: subconsciousness

Question: What type of consciousness is similar but not identical to consciousness itself?


Answer: mental

Question: What is the nature of the fundamental character of reality?


Answer: physicist

Question: According to the author, who would have particular trouble in accepting that reality is fundamentally mental?


Answer: mind

Question: What is the main thing that we experience?


Answer: knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits

Context: Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits. Educational methods include storytelling, discussion, teaching, training, and directed research. Education frequently takes place under the guidance of educators, but learners may also educate themselves. Education can take place in formal or informal settings and any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts may be considered educational. The methodology of teaching is called pedagogy.

Question: What makes up Education?


Answer: storytelling, discussion, teaching, training, and directed research

Question: What methods make up Education?


Answer: the guidance of educators

Question: Where does education usually take place under?


Answer: Catholic Church became the sole preserver

Context: After the Fall of Rome, the Catholic Church became the sole preserver of literate scholarship in Western Europe. The church established cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as centers of advanced education. Some of these establishments ultimately evolved into medieval universities and forebears of many of Europe's modern universities. During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the famous and influential Chartres Cathedral School. The medieval universities of Western Christendom were well-integrated across all of Western Europe, encouraged freedom of inquiry, and produced a great variety of fine scholars and natural philosophers, including Thomas Aquinas of the University of Naples, Robert Grosseteste of the University of Oxford, an early expositor of a systematic method of scientific experimentation, and Saint Albert the Great, a pioneer of biological field research. Founded in 1088, the University of Bologne is considered the first, and the oldest continually operating university.

Question: What occurred after the Fall of Rome with literature?


Answer: church established cathedral schools

Question: What happened with education during the Early Middle Ages?


Answer: medieval universities

Question: What did these early schools during the Middle Ages evolve into?


Answer: Chartres Cathedral School

Question: What was the name of the famous school during the high middle ages?


Answer: school environment

Context: Formal education occurs in a structured environment whose explicit purpose is teaching students. Usually, formal education takes place in a school environment with classrooms of multiple students learning together with a trained, certified teacher of the subject. Most school systems are designed around a set of values or ideals that govern all educational choices in that system. Such choices include curriculum, organizational models, design of the physical learning spaces (e.g. classrooms), student-teacher interactions, methods of assessment, class size, educational activities, and more.

Question: Where does formal education take place?


Answer: student-teacher interactions, methods of assessment, class size,

Question: What are some of the sets or ideals most school systems follow?


Answer: certified teacher

Question: Who guides the students in a formal environment?


Answer: three to seven

Context: Preschools provide education from ages approximately three to seven, depending on the country, when children enter primary education. These are also known as nursery schools and as kindergarten, except in the US, where kindergarten is a term used for primary education.[citation needed] Kindergarten "provide[s] a child-centered, preschool curriculum for three- to seven-year-old children that aim[s] at unfolding the child's physical, intellectual, and moral nature with balanced emphasis on each of them."

Question: Whats the typical age range for pre-school?


Answer: nursery schools and as kindergarten,

Question: What are pre-schools also known as?


Answer: US

Question: In what country is Kindergarten a term used for primary education?


Answer: elementary

Context: Primary (or elementary) education consists of the first five to seven years of formal, structured education. In general, primary education consists of six to eight years of schooling starting at the age of five or six, although this varies between, and sometimes within, countries. Globally, around 89% of children aged six to twelve are enrolled in primary education, and this proportion is rising. Under the Education For All programs driven by UNESCO, most countries have committed to achieving universal enrollment in primary education by 2015, and in many countries, it is compulsory. The division between primary and secondary education is somewhat arbitrary, but it generally occurs at about eleven or twelve years of age. Some education systems have separate middle schools, with the transition to the final stage of secondary education taking place at around the age of fourteen. Schools that provide primary education, are mostly referred to as primary schools or elementary schools. Primary schools are often subdivided into infant schools and junior school.

Question: What is another term used for Primary education?


Answer: first five to seven years of formal, structured education

Question: What does primary school consist of?


Answer: UNESCO

Question: What is the name of the orgination who is striving to get all the countries on the same path with primary education?


Answer: formal education that occurs during adolescence

Context: In most contemporary educational systems of the world, secondary education comprises the formal education that occurs during adolescence. It is characterized by transition from the typically compulsory, comprehensive primary education for minors, to the optional, selective tertiary, "postsecondary", or "higher" education (e.g. university, vocational school) for adults. Depending on the system, schools for this period, or a part of it, may be called secondary or high schools, gymnasiums, lyceums, middle schools, colleges, or vocational schools. The exact meaning of any of these terms varies from one system to another. The exact boundary between primary and secondary education also varies from country to country and even within them, but is generally around the seventh to the tenth year of schooling. Secondary education occurs mainly during the teenage years. In the United States, Canada and Australia, primary and secondary education together are sometimes referred to as K-12 education, and in New Zealand Year 1–13 is used. The purpose of secondary education can be to give common knowledge, to prepare for higher education, or to train directly in a profession.

Question: What does secondary education comprise of?


Answer: university, vocational school

Question: What two examples were given of what "postsecondary" or "higher" education?


Answer: teenage years

Question: When does secondary schooling typically take place?


Answer: to prepare for higher education, or to train directly in a profession.

Question: What is the purpose of secondary education?


Answer: 1910

Context: Secondary education in the United States did not emerge until 1910, with the rise of large corporations and advancing technology in factories, which required skilled workers. In order to meet this new job demand, high schools were created, with a curriculum focused on practical job skills that would better prepare students for white collar or skilled blue collar work. This proved beneficial for both employers and employees, since the improved human capital lowered costs for the employer, while skilled employees received a higher wages.

Question: When did secondary education emerge in the United States?


Answer: rise of large corporations and advancing technology

Question: Why was secondary school introduced in the U.S?


Answer: employers and employees

Question: Who benefited from secondary schools?


Answer: tertiary, third stage, or postsecondary education

Context: Higher education, also called tertiary, third stage, or postsecondary education, is the non-compulsory educational level that follows the completion of a school such as a high school or secondary school. Tertiary education is normally taken to include undergraduate and postgraduate education, as well as vocational education and training. Colleges and universities mainly provide tertiary education. Collectively, these are sometimes known as tertiary institutions. Individuals who complete tertiary education generally receive certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees.

Question: What was another name used for Higher Education?


Answer: follows the completion of a school such as a high school

Question: What is High Education?


Answer: undergraduate and postgraduate education

Question: What does Tertiary education include?


Answer: teaching, research, and social services activities,

Context: University education includes teaching, research, and social services activities, and it includes both the undergraduate level (sometimes referred to as tertiary education) and the graduate (or postgraduate) level (sometimes referred to as graduate school). Universities are generally composed of several colleges. In the United States, universities can be private and independent like Yale University; public and state-governed like the Pennsylvania State System of Higher Education; or independent but state-funded like the University of Virginia. A number of career specific courses are now available to students through the Internet.

Question: What does University education include?


Answer: several colleges

Question: What are usually Universities made up of?


Answer: independent

Question: What type of University would Yale fall under?


Answer: not eligible for public education

Context: In the past, those who were disabled were often not eligible for public education. Children with disabilities were repeatedly denied an education by physicians or special tutors. These early physicians (people like Itard, Seguin, Howe, Gallaudet) set the foundation for special education today. They focused on individualized instruction and functional skills. In its early years, special education was only provided to people with severe disabilities, but more recently it has been opened to anyone who has experienced difficulty learning.

Question: What was a rule for disabled people in the past for education?


Answer: physicians or special tutors

Question: Who denied children with disabilities to be unable to attend a public school?


Answer: Itard, Seguin, Howe, Gallaudet

Question: Who were some of these early physicians?


Answer: people with severe disabilities

Question: What would Special Education usually only apply to in the early years of schooling in the U.S?


Answer: alternative

Context: While considered "alternative" today, most alternative systems have existed since ancient times. After the public school system was widely developed beginning in the 19th century, some parents found reasons to be discontented with the new system. Alternative education developed in part as a reaction to perceived limitations and failings of traditional education. A broad range of educational approaches emerged, including alternative schools, self learning, homeschooling and unschooling. Example alternative schools include Montessori schools, Waldorf schools (or Steiner schools), Friends schools, Sands School, Summerhill School, The Peepal Grove School, Sudbury Valley School, Krishnamurti schools, and open classroom schools. Charter schools are another example of alternative education, which have in the recent years grown in numbers in the US and gained greater importance in its public education system.

Question: What is another term used for Special Education Services?


Answer: 19th century

Question: When were public schools become more and more developed?


Answer: Montessori schools, Waldorf schools (or Steiner schools), Friends schools

Question: What are some examples of alternative schools?


Answer: Friedrich Fröbel's

Context: In time, some ideas from these experiments and paradigm challenges may be adopted as the norm in education, just as Friedrich Fröbel's approach to early childhood education in 19th-century Germany has been incorporated into contemporary kindergarten classrooms. Other influential writers and thinkers have included the Swiss humanitarian Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi; the American transcendentalists Amos Bronson Alcott, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Henry David Thoreau; the founders of progressive education, John Dewey and Francis Parker; and educational pioneers such as Maria Montessori and Rudolf Steiner, and more recently John Caldwell Holt, Paul Goodman, Frederick Mayer, George Dennison and Ivan Illich.

Question: Whos educatgion approach was introduced in Germany in the 19th century and is used in most Kindergartens?


Answer: Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi

Question: Who from Switzerland was an influential in education?


Answer: John Dewey and Francis Parker

Question: Who were the founders of progressive education?


Answer: indigenous knowledge, models, methods, and content

Context: Indigenous education refers to the inclusion of indigenous knowledge, models, methods, and content within formal and non-formal educational systems. Often in a post-colonial context, the growing recognition and use of indigenous education methods can be a response to the erosion and loss of indigenous knowledge and language through the processes of colonialism. Furthermore, it can enable indigenous communities to "reclaim and revalue their languages and cultures, and in so doing, improve the educational success of indigenous students."

Question: What makes up Indigenous education?


Answer: formal and non-formal educational systems

Question: In which two systems can Indigenous education be used?


Answer: improve the educational success of indigenous students

Question: What is one of the main purposes for Indigenous education?


Answer: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)

Context: Informal learning is one of three forms of learning defined by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Informal learning occurs in a variety of places, such as at home, work, and through daily interactions and shared relationships among members of society. For many learners this includes language acquisition, cultural norms and manners. Informal learning for young people is an ongoing process that also occurs in a variety of places, such as out of school time, in youth programs at community centers and media labs.

Question: Who defines informal learning?


Answer: home, work, and through daily interactions

Question: Where does informal learning occur?


Answer: language acquisition, cultural norms and manners

Question: What does informal leaning usually consist of amongst people who take this route of learning?


Answer: outside educational establishments

Context: Informal learning usually takes place outside educational establishments, does not follow a specified curriculum and may originate accidentally, sporadically, in association with certain occasions, from changing practical requirements. It is not necessarily planned to be pedagogically conscious, systematic and according to subjects, but rather unconsciously incidental, holistically problem-related, and related to situation management and fitness for life. It is experienced directly in its "natural" function of everyday life and is often spontaneous.

Question: Where does informal learning usually take place?


Answer: to be pedagogically conscious, systematic and according to subjects

Question: What is not necessary for informal learning?


Answer: unconsciously incidental, holistically problem-related, and related to situation management

Question: What falls under the informal learning umbrella?


Answer: 19th century

Context: The concept of 'education through recreation' was applied to childhood development in the 19th century. In the early 20th century, the concept was broadened to include young adults but the emphasis was on physical activities. L.P. Jacks, also an early proponent of lifelong learning, described education through recreation: "A master in the art of living draws no sharp distinction between his work and his play, his labour and his leisure, his mind and his body, his education and his recreation. He hardly knows which is which. He simply pursues his vision of excellence through whatever he is doing and leaves others to determine whether he is working or playing. To himself he always seems to be doing both. Enough for him that he does it well." Education through recreation is the opportunity to learn in a seamless fashion through all of life's activities. The concept has been revived by the University of Western Ontario to teach anatomy to medical students.

Question: When was the 'education through recreation" applied to childhood?


Answer: 20th century

Question: When was the concept of 'education through recreation' changed and expanded?


Answer: to include young adults

Question: What changed when the concept was broadened?


Answer: learning on your own

Context: Autodidacticism (also autodidactism) is a contemplative, absorbing process, of "learning on your own" or "by yourself", or as a self-teacher. Some autodidacts spend a great deal of time reviewing the resources of libraries and educational websites. One may become an autodidact at nearly any point in one's life. While some may have been informed in a conventional manner in a particular field, they may choose to inform themselves in other, often unrelated areas. Notable autodidacts include Abraham Lincoln (U.S. president), Srinivasa Ramanujan (mathematician), Michael Faraday (chemist and physicist), Charles Darwin (naturalist), Thomas Alva Edison (inventor), Tadao Ando (architect), George Bernard Shaw (playwright), Frank Zappa (composer, recording engineer, film director), and Leonardo da Vinci (engineer, scientist, mathematician).

Question: What does Auto didacticism generally mean?


Answer: any point in one's life

Question: When can you become an Autodidact?


Answer: Abraham Lincoln

Question: Which famous U.S president was a Autodidact?


Answer: Thomas Alva Edison

Question: Which famous inventor was a Autodidact?


Answer: 2012

Context: In 2012, the modern use of electronic educational technology (also called e-learning) had grown at 14 times the rate of traditional learning.[clarification needed] Open education is fast growing to become the dominant form of education, for many reasons such as its efficiency and results compared to traditional methods. Cost of education has been an issue throughout history, and a major political issue in most countries today. Online courses often can be more expensive than face-to-face classes. Out of 182 colleges surveyed in 2009 nearly half said tuition for online courses was higher than for campus based ones. Many large university institutions are now starting to offer free or almost free full courses such as Harvard, MIT and Berkeley teaming up to form edX. Other universities offering open education are Stanford, Princeton, Duke, Johns Hopkins, Edinburgh, U. Penn, U. Michigan, U. Virginia, U. Washington, and Caltech. It has been called the biggest change in the way we learn since the printing press. Despite favorable studies on effectiveness, many people may still desire to choose traditional campus education for social and cultural reasons.

Question: In what year did e-learning jump 14 times over traditional leaning?


Answer: Open education

Question: Which form of education looks to be the dominant form i the coming years?


Answer: Cost of education

Question: What has been a constant issue with education for as long as education has been around itself?


Answer: Online courses

Question: Which type of schooling can be most expensive?


Answer: merit-system degree

Context: The conventional merit-system degree is currently not as common in open education as it is in campus universities, although some open universities do already offer conventional degrees such as the Open University in the United Kingdom. Presently, many of the major open education sources offer their own form of certificate. Due to the popularity of open education, these new kind of academic certificates are gaining more respect and equal "academic value" to traditional degrees. Many open universities are working to have the ability to offer students standardized testing and traditional degrees and credentials. A culture is beginning to form around distance learning for people who are looking to social connections enjoyed on traditional campuses. For example, students may create study groups, meetups and movements such as UnCollege.

Question: What is not as common in open education?


Answer: Open University in the United Kingdom

Question: Which University offers conventional degrees?


Answer: own form of certificate

Question: What do most open education sources offer?


Answer: international Millennium Development Goals

Context: Universal Primary Education is one of the eight international Millennium Development Goals, towards which progress has been made in the past decade, though barriers still remain. Securing charitable funding from prospective donors is one particularly persistent problem. Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute have indicated that the main obstacles to funding for education include conflicting donor priorities, an immature aid architecture, and a lack of evidence and advocacy for the issue. Additionally, Transparency International has identified corruption in the education sector as a major stumbling block to achieving Universal Primary Education in Africa. Furthermore, demand in the developing world for improved educational access is not as high as foreigners have expected. Indigenous governments are reluctant to take on the ongoing costs involved. There is also economic pressure from some parents, who prefer their children to earn money in the short term rather than work towards the long-term benefits of education.[citation needed]

Question: What does Universal Primary Education belong to?


Answer: charitable funding

Question: What is one issue that hurts Universal Primary Education?


Answer: Transparency International

Question: Which organization has discovered corruption in the educator sector?