lmqg/qg_squad huggingface dataset:
Philosophy of space and time is the branch of philosophy concerned with the issues surrounding the ontology, epistemology, and character of space and time. While such ideas have been central to philosophy from its inception, the philosophy of space and time was both an inspiration for and a central aspect of early analytic philosophy. The subject focuses on a number of basic issues, including whether or not time and space exist independently of the mind, whether they exist independently of one another, what accounts for time's apparently unidirectional flow, whether times other than the present moment exist, and questions about the nature of identity (particularly the nature of identity over time).

Question: Which philosophy branch is concerned with issues surrounding ontology?
Answer: Philosophy of space and time

Question: The philosophy of space and time was inspired by what kind of philosophy?
Answer: early analytic philosophy

Question: The philosophy of space and time focuses on whether or not time and space exist independently of what?
Answer: the mind

Question: The philosophy of space and time focuses what kind of flow within time?
Answer: unidirectional
In Book 11 of St. Augustine's Confessions, he ruminates on the nature of time, asking, "What then is time? If no one asks me, I know: if I wish to explain it to one that asketh, I know not." He goes on to comment on the difficulty of thinking about time, pointing out the inaccuracy of common speech: "For but few things are there of which we speak properly; of most things we speak improperly, still the things intended are understood." But Augustine presented the first philosophical argument for the reality of Creation (against Aristotle) in the context of his discussion of time, saying that knowledge of time depends on the knowledge of the movement of things, and therefore time cannot be where there are no creatures to measure its passing (Confessions Book XI ¶30; City of God Book XI ch.6).

Question: Which christian philosopher ruminated on time?
Answer: St. Augustine

Question: What did St. Augustine comment on in Book 11, regarding thinking about time?
Answer: the difficulty

Question: Who presented the first philosophical argument for the reality of Creation?
Answer: Augustine

Question: What did Augustine say that the knowledge of time depended on?
Answer: the knowledge of the movement of things

Question: Where did Augustine say time could not appear?
Answer: where there are no creatures to measure its passing
In the early 11th century, the Muslim physicist Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen or Alhazen) discussed space perception and its epistemological implications in his Book of Optics (1021), he also rejected Aristotle's definition of topos (Physics IV) by way of geometric demonstrations and defined place as a mathematical spatial extension. His experimental proof of the intromission model of vision led to changes in the understanding of the visual perception of space, contrary to the previous emission theory of vision supported by Euclid and Ptolemy. In "tying the visual perception of space to prior bodily experience, Alhacen unequivocally rejected the intuitiveness of spatial perception and, therefore, the autonomy of vision. Without tangible notions of distance and size for correlation, sight can tell us next to nothing about such things."

Question: Which 11th century Muslim physicist discussed space perception and its epistemological implications?
Answer: al-Haytham

Question: Which 11th century book discussed space perception and its epistemological implications?
Answer: Book of Optics

Question: Whose definition of topos did Alhazen reject?
Answer: Aristotle's

Question: Alhazen's experimental proof of the intromission model of vision led to the change of understanding of what?
Answer: Without tangible notions of distance and size for correlation, sight can tell us next to nothing about such things

Question: Alhazen stated that without tangible notions of distance and size for correlation, sight can tell us what about spatial perception?
Answer: next to nothing
In the classical case, the invariance, or symmetry, group and the covariance group coincide, but, interestingly enough, they part ways in relativistic physics. The symmetry group of the general theory of relativity includes all differentiable transformations, i.e., all properties of an object are dynamical, in other words there are no absolute objects. The formulations of the general theory of relativity, unlike those of classical mechanics, do not share a standard, i.e., there is no single formulation paired with transformations. As such the covariance group of the general theory of relativity is just the covariance group of every theory.

Question: The symmetry group of the general theory of relativity includes what?
Answer: all differentiable transformations

Question: What else besides invariance, or symmetry and group part ways in relativistic physics?
Answer: the covariance group

Question: Which theory does the relativity depart from?
Answer: classical mechanics

Question: What are not pair with transformations in the theory of relativity?
Answer: single formulation

Question: The covariance group of the general theory of relativity is the covariance group of how many theories?
Answer: every
The problem of the direction of time arises directly from two contradictory facts. Firstly, the fundamental physical laws are time-reversal invariant; if a cinematographic film were taken of any process describable by means of the aforementioned laws and then played backwards, it would still portray a physically possible process. Secondly, our experience of time, at the macroscopic level, is not time-reversal invariant. Glasses can fall and break, but shards of glass cannot reassemble and fly up onto tables. We have memories of the past, and none of the future. We feel we can't change the past but can influence the future.

Question: How many contradictory facts does the problem of the direction of time arise from?
Answer: two

Question: What kind of physical laws are time-reversal invariant?
Answer: fundamental

Question: If if a cinematographic film were taken by means of physical laws and then played backwards, it would still portray what?
Answer: physically possible process

Question: How is our experience of time at the macro level?
Answer: not time-reversal invariant

Question: What do we not have memories of?
Answer: the future
The positions on the persistence of objects are somewhat similar. An endurantist holds that for an object to persist through time is for it to exist completely at different times (each instance of existence we can regard as somehow separate from previous and future instances, though still numerically identical with them). A perdurantist on the other hand holds that for a thing to exist through time is for it to exist as a continuous reality, and that when we consider the thing as a whole we must consider an aggregate of all its "temporal parts" or instances of existing. Endurantism is seen as the conventional view and flows out of our pre-philosophical ideas (when I talk to somebody I think I am talking to that person as a complete object, and not just a part of a cross-temporal being), but perdurantists have attacked this position. (An example of a perdurantist is David Lewis.) One argument perdurantists use to state the superiority of their view is that perdurantism is able to take account of change in objects.

Question: How similar are the positions on the persistence of objects?
Answer: somewhat similar

Question: Who holds that for an object to persist through time is for it to exist completely at different times?
Answer: endurantist

Question: Who holds for a thing to exist through time is for it to exist as a continuous reality?
Answer: perdurantist

Question: Which view is seen as conventional?
Answer: Endurantism

Question: Who is an example of a perdurantist?
Answer: David Lewis
The Neolithic 2 (PPNB) began around 8,800 BCE according to the ASPRO chronology in the Levant (Jericho, Israel). As with the PPNA dates, there are two versions from the same laboratories noted above. This system of terminology, however, is not convenient for southeast Anatolia and settlements of the middle Anatolia basin. This era was before the Mesolithic era.[citation needed] A settlement of 3,000 inhabitants was found in the outskirts of Amman, Jordan. Considered to be one of the largest prehistoric settlements in the Near East, called 'Ain Ghazal, it was continuously inhabited from approximately 7,250 – 5,000 B.

Question: When did the The Neolithic 2 (PPNB) era start?
Answer: around 8,800 BCE

Question: What era followed the The Neolithic 2 (PPNB) era?
Answer: the Mesolithic era

Question: How many settlers were found in Jordan?
Answer: 3,000 inhabitants

Question: What is the name of one of the biggest prehistoric settlements in the Near East?
Answer: Ain Ghazal
Around 10,200 BC the first fully developed Neolithic cultures belonging to the phase Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) appeared in the fertile crescent. Around 10,700 to 9,400 BC a settlement was established in Tell Qaramel, 10 miles north of Aleppo. The settlement included 2 temples dating back to 9,650. Around 9000 BC during the PPNA, one of the world's first towns, Jericho, appeared in the Levant. It was surrounded by a stone and marble wall and contained a population of 2000–3000 people and a massive stone tower. Around 6,400 BC the Halaf culture appeared in Lebanon, Israel and Palestine, Syria, Anatolia, and Northern Mesopotamia and subsisted on dryland agriculture.

Question: When did the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) phase start?
Answer: Around 10,200 BC

Question: When was a settlement developed in Tell Qaramel?
Answer: Around 10,700 to 9,400 BC

Question: How many temples were built in Tell Qaramel?
Answer: 2

Question: What was the name of the town that first appeared during the PPNA?
Answer: Jericho

Question: What materials were used to build the wall around Jericho?
Answer: stone and marble
In Mesoamerica, a similar set of events (i.e., crop domestication and sedentary lifestyles) occurred by around 4500 BC, but possibly as early as 11,000–10,000 BC. These cultures are usually not referred to as belonging to the Neolithic; in America different terms are used such as Formative stage instead of mid-late Neolithic, Archaic Era instead of Early Neolithic and Paleo-Indian for the preceding period. The Formative stage is equivalent to the Neolithic Revolution period in Europe, Asia, and Africa. In the Southwestern United States it occurred from 500 to 1200 C.E. when there was a dramatic increase in population and development of large villages supported by agriculture based on dryland farming of maize, and later, beans, squash, and domesticated turkeys. During this period the bow and arrow and ceramic pottery were also introduced.

Question: What major trends appeared in Mesoamerica during 4500 BC?
Answer: crop domestication and sedentary lifestyles

Question: What term is used to describe the mid-late Neolithic era in American education?
Answer: Formative stage

Question: What term is used to describe the Early Neolithic era in American education?
Answer: Archaic Era

Question: What hunting weapon was found in the Southwestern US during 500 to 1200 C.E.?
Answer: bow and arrow
On his mother's side, Hayek was second cousin to the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein. His mother often played with Wittgenstein's sisters, and had known Ludwig well. As a result of their family relationship, Hayek became one of the first to read Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus when the book was published in its original German edition in 1921. Although Hayek met Wittgenstein on only a few occasions, Hayek said that Wittgenstein's philosophy and methods of analysis had a profound influence on his own life and thought. In his later years, Hayek recalled a discussion of philosophy with Wittgenstein, when both were officers during World War I. After Wittgenstein's death, Hayek had intended to write a biography of Wittgenstein and worked on collecting family materials; and he later assisted biographers of Wittgenstein.

Question: Who was among the first readers of Ludwig Wittgenstein's book?
Answer: Hayek

Question: How often times did Hayek and Wittgenstein meet?
Answer: on only a few occasions

Question: Whose philosophy heavily influenced Hayek?
Answer: Ludwig Wittgenstein

Question: What did Wittgenstein and Hayek do during the first world war?
Answer: both were officers

Question: What was the name of the book Wittgenstein published in 1921?
Answer: Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus
Proper nutrition is important for health and functioning, including the prevention of infectious diarrhea. It is especially important to young children who do not have a fully developed immune system. Zinc deficiency, a condition often found in children in developing countries can, even in mild cases, have a significant impact on the development and proper functioning of the human immune system. Indeed, this relationship between zinc deficiency reduced immune functioning corresponds with an increased severity of infectious diarrhea. Children who have lowered levels of zinc have a greater number of instances of diarrhea, severe diarrhea, and diarrhea associated with fever. Similarly, vitamin A deficiency can cause an increase in the severity of diarrheal episodes, however there is some discrepancy when it comes to the impact of vitamin A deficiency on the rate of disease. While some argue that a relationship does not exist between the rate of disease and vitamin A status, others suggest an increase in the rate associated with deficiency. Given that estimates suggest 127 million preschool children worldwide are vitamin A deficient, this population has the potential for increased risk of disease contraction.

Question: Why is proper nutrition important?
Answer: for health and functioning, including the prevention of infectious diarrhea

Question: What effects does lower levels of zinc have in children?
Answer: greater number of instances of diarrhea, severe diarrhea, and diarrhea associated with fever

Question: What can having a vitamin A deficiency cause?
Answer: cause an increase in the severity of diarrheal episodes

Question: What is the rate of vitamin A deficiency in children worldwide?
Answer: 127 million
The term "Islamic education" means education in the light of Islam itself, which is rooted in the teachings of the Quran - holy book of Muslims. Islamic education and Muslim education are not the same. Because Islamic education has epistemological integration which is founded on Tawhid - Oneness or monotheism. For details Read "A Qur’anic Methodology for Integrating Knowledge and Education: Implications for Malaysia’s Islamic Education Strategy" written Tareq M Zayed and "Knowledge of Shariah and Knowledge to Manage ‘Self’ and ‘System’: Integration of Islamic Epistemology with the Knowledge and Education" authored by Tareq M Zayed

Question: What is the meaning of Islamic education?
Answer: education in the light of Islam itself

Question: What book is the basis for education in Islamic traditions?
Answer: Quran

Question: What types of education greatly differs from Islamic education?
Answer: Muslim education

Question: What is Islamic religion traditionally considered as far as theology is concerned?
Answer: monotheism
The Compacts of Free Association between the United States, the Federated States of Micronesia, the Republic of the Marshall Islands and the Republic of Palau accorded the former entities of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands a political status of "free association" with the United States. The Compacts give citizens of these island nations generally no restrictions to reside in the United States (also its territories), and many were attracted to Guam due to its proximity, environmental, and cultural familiarity. Over the years, it was claimed by some in Guam that the territory has had to bear the brunt of this agreement in the form of public assistance programs and public education for those from the regions involved, and the federal government should compensate the states and territories affected by this type of migration.[citation needed] Over the years, Congress had appropriated "Compact Impact" aids to Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands and Hawaii, and eventually this appropriation was written into each renewed Compact. Some, however, continue to claim the compensation is not enough or that the distribution of actual compensation received is significantly disproportionate.[citation needed]

Question: What is the name of the pact held between the United States, Micronesia, Marshal Islands, and Palau?
Answer: The Compacts of Free Association

Question: What is the benefit of the Compacts of Free Association?
Answer: no restrictions to reside in the United States (also its territories)

Question: What has Guam claimed about Compacts of Free Association?
Answer: the territory has had to bear the brunt of this agreement
Subjective idealists like George Berkeley are anti-realists in terms of a mind-independent world, whereas transcendental idealists like Immanuel Kant are strong skeptics of such a world, affirming epistemological and not metaphysical idealism. Thus Kant defines idealism as "the assertion that we can never be certain whether all of our putative outer experience is not mere imagining". He claimed that, according to idealism, "the reality of external objects does not admit of strict proof. On the contrary, however, the reality of the object of our internal sense (of myself and state) is clear immediately through consciousness." However, not all idealists restrict the real or the knowable to our immediate subjective experience. Objective idealists make claims about a transempirical world, but simply deny that this world is essentially divorced from or ontologically prior to the mental. Thus Plato and Gottfried Leibniz affirm an objective and knowable reality transcending our subjective awareness—a rejection of epistemological idealism—but propose that this reality is grounded in ideal entities, a form of metaphysical idealism. Nor do all metaphysical idealists agree on the nature of the ideal; for Plato, the fundamental entities were non-mental abstract forms, while for Leibniz they were proto-mental and concrete monads.

Question: Who is a notable subjective idealist?
Answer: George Berkeley

Question: What famous philosopher was a transcendental idealist?
Answer: Immanuel Kant

Question: Who are subjective idealists opposed to?
Answer: realists

Question: Along with Plato, what notable philosopher rejected epistemological idealism?
Answer: Gottfried Leibniz

Question: Who believed the essence of reality to be composed of monads?
Answer: Leibniz
Howison's personal idealism was also called "California Personalism" by others to distinguish it from the "Boston Personalism" which was of Bowne. Howison maintained that both impersonal, monistic idealism and materialism run contrary to the experience of moral freedom. To deny freedom to pursue truth, beauty, and "benignant love" is to undermine every profound human venture, including science, morality, and philosophy. Personalistic idealists Borden Parker Bowne and Edgar S. Brightman and realistic personal theist Saint Thomas Aquinas address a core issue, namely that of dependence upon an infinite personal God.

Question: Who was an exponent of so-called "Boston Personalism"?
Answer: Bowne

Question: What was the term given to the personal idealism of Howison?
Answer: California Personalism

Question: Who is a notable realistic personal theist?
Answer: Saint Thomas Aquinas

Question: What issue do both Aquinas and Brightman discuss?
Answer: dependence upon an infinite personal God

Question: What sort of freedom did Howison believe was incompatible with materialism?
Answer: moral
After the Fall of Rome, the Catholic Church became the sole preserver of literate scholarship in Western Europe. The church established cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as centers of advanced education. Some of these establishments ultimately evolved into medieval universities and forebears of many of Europe's modern universities. During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the famous and influential Chartres Cathedral School. The medieval universities of Western Christendom were well-integrated across all of Western Europe, encouraged freedom of inquiry, and produced a great variety of fine scholars and natural philosophers, including Thomas Aquinas of the University of Naples, Robert Grosseteste of the University of Oxford, an early expositor of a systematic method of scientific experimentation, and Saint Albert the Great, a pioneer of biological field research. Founded in 1088, the University of Bologne is considered the first, and the oldest continually operating university.

Question: What occurred after the Fall of Rome with literature?
Answer: Catholic Church became the sole preserver

Question: What happened with education during the Early Middle Ages?
Answer: church established cathedral schools

Question: What did these early schools during the Middle Ages evolve into?
Answer: medieval universities

Question: What was the name of the famous school during the high middle ages?
Answer: Chartres Cathedral School
Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. Although the terms "educational psychology" and "school psychology" are often used interchangeably, researchers and theorists are likely to be identified as educational psychologists, whereas practitioners in schools or school-related settings are identified as school psychologists. Educational psychology is concerned with the processes of educational attainment in the general population and in sub-populations such as gifted children and those with specific disabilities.

Question: What is the meaning of Education psychology?
Answer: the study of how humans learn in educational settings

Question: What is also used interchangeably with Education psychology?
Answer: school psychology

Question: Who are likely to be identified as educational psychologist?
Answer: researchers and theorists

Question: What is educational psychology concerned with?
Answer: the processes of educational attainment
The scope of the term "post-punk" has been subject to controversy. While some critics, such as AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine, have employed the term "post-punk" to denote "a more adventurous and arty form of punk", others have suggested it pertains to a set of artistic sensibilities and approaches rather than any unifying style. Music journalist and post-punk scholar Simon Reynolds has advocated that post-punk be conceived as "less a genre of music than a space of possibility", suggesting that "what unites all this activity is a set of open-ended imperatives: innovation; willful oddness; the willful jettisoning of all things precedented or 'rock'n'roll'". Nicholas Lezard, problematizing the categorization of post-punk as a genre, described the movement as "so multifarious that only the broadest use of the term is possible".

Question: Who described post-punk as "a more adventurous and arty form of punk"?
Answer: Stephen Thomas Erlewine

Question: Who described post-punk as "less a genre of music than a space of possibility"?
Answer: Simon Reynolds

Question: Who said "so multifarious that only the broadest use of the term is possible" with regards to post-punk?
Answer: Nicholas Lezard

Question: Who does music critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine work for?
Answer: AllMusic

Question: What as the blanket term "post-punk" been the target of?
Answer: controversy

Question: What organization is Stephen Thomas Erlewine associated with?
Answer: AllMusic

Question: What have some people suggested post-punk doesn't have, instead being more about approaches and sensibilities?
Answer: unifying style

Question: Why type of scholar is music journalist Simon Reynolds?
Answer: post-punk

Question: Why is only the broadest use of genre possible when trying to categorize what actually defines post-punk?
Answer: multifarious