lmqg/qag_squad huggingface dataset:
In the human digestive system, food enters the mouth and mechanical digestion of the food starts by the action of mastication (chewing), a form of mechanical digestion, and the wetting contact of saliva. Saliva, a liquid secreted by the salivary glands, contains salivary amylase, an enzyme which starts the digestion of starch in the food; the saliva also contains mucus, which lubricates the food, and hydrogen carbonate, which provides the ideal conditions of pH (alkaline) for amylase to work. After undergoing mastication and starch digestion, the food will be in the form of a small, round slurry mass called a bolus. It will then travel down the esophagus and into the stomach by the action of peristalsis. Gastric juice in the stomach starts protein digestion. Gastric juice mainly contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin. As these two chemicals may damage the stomach wall, mucus is secreted by the stomach, providing a slimy layer that acts as a shield against the damaging effects of the chemicals. At the same time protein digestion is occurring, mechanical mixing occurs by peristalsis, which is waves of muscular contractions that move along the stomach wall. This allows the mass of food to further mix with the digestive enzymes.

question: What is the first step in the human digestive system?, answer: the action of mastication (chewing) | question: What is saliva?, answer: a liquid secreted by the salivary glands | question: What is in saliva that starts to digest the starches?, answer: salivary amylase | question: What is the definition of bolus?, answer: a small, round slurry mass | question: What is the action of the food morving down the esophagus into the stomach called?, answer: peristalsis
In the humanities, one sense of culture, as an attribute of the individual, has been the degree to which they have cultivated a particular level of sophistication, in the arts, sciences, education, or manners. The level of cultural sophistication has also sometimes been seen to distinguish civilizations from less complex societies. Such hierarchical perspectives on culture are also found in class-based distinctions between a high culture of the social elite and a low culture, popular culture or folk culture of the lower classes, distinguished by the stratified access to cultural capital. In common parlance, culture is often used to refer specifically to the symbolic markers used by ethnic groups to distinguish themselves visibly from each other such as body modification, clothing or jewelry.[dubious – discuss] Mass culture refers to the mass-produced and mass mediated forms of consumer culture that emerged in the 20th century. Some schools of philosophy, such as Marxism and critical theory, have argued that culture is often used politically as a tool of the elites to manipulate the lower classes and create a false consciousness, such perspectives common in the discipline of cultural studies. In the wider social sciences, the theoretical perspective of cultural materialism holds that human symbolic culture arises from the material conditions of human life, as humans create the conditions for physical survival, and that the basis of culture is found in evolved biological dispositions.

question: What was sometimes used or worn by early humans to form some type of culture visibly?, answer: body modification, clothing or jewelry | question: Around what time did Mass Culture emerge?, answer: 20th century | question: What do some schools of philosophy suggest culture is used for?, answer: as a tool of the elites to manipulate the lower classes and create a false consciousness
In the immediate aftermath of World War II, there occurred several armed incidents between Yugoslavia and the Western Allies. Following the war, Yugoslavia acquired the Italian territory of Istria as well as the cities of Zadar and Rijeka. Yugoslav leadership was looking to incorporate Trieste into the country as well, which was opposed by the Western Allies. This led to several armed incidents, notably attacks by Yugoslav fighter planes on US transport aircraft, causing bitter criticism from the west. From 1945 to 1948, at least four US aircraft were shot down.[better source needed] Stalin was opposed to these provocations, as he felt the USSR unready to face the West in open war so soon after the losses of World War II and at the time when US had operational nuclear weapons whereas USSR had yet to conduct its first test. In addition, Tito was openly supportive of the Communist side in the Greek Civil War, while Stalin kept his distance, having agreed with Churchill not to pursue Soviet interests there, although he did support the Greek communist struggle politically, as demonstrated in several assemblies of the UN Security Council. In 1948, motivated by the desire to create a strong independent economy, Tito modeled his economic development plan independently from Moscow, which resulted in a diplomatic escalation followed by a bitter exchange of letters in which Tito affirmed that

question: What Italian territory did Yugoslavia acquire after the war?, answer: Istria | question: What territory did Yugoslavia leadership want to incorporate?, answer: Trieste | question: At least how many American aircraft were shot down between 1945 and 1948?, answer: four | question: Who openly supported the Communist side in the Greek Civil War?, answer: Tito | question: In what year did Tito model his economic development plan independently from Moscow?, answer: 1948
In the immediate years after Eisenhower left office, his reputation declined. He was widely seen by critics as an inactive, uninspiring, golf-playing president compared to his vigorous young successor. Despite his unprecedented use of Army troops to enforce a federal desegregation order at Central High School in Little Rock, Eisenhower was criticized for his reluctance to support the civil rights movement to the degree that activists wanted. Eisenhower also attracted criticism for his handling of the 1960 U-2 incident and the associated international embarrassment, for the Soviet Union's perceived leadership in the nuclear arms race and the Space Race, and for his failure to publicly oppose McCarthyism.

question: In popular memory, what sport was Eisenhower known for playing?, answer: golf | question: What did critics feel that Eisenhower should have opposed in public?, answer: McCarthyism | question: Where was Central High school located?, answer: Little Rock | question: How did critics characterize Kennedy in comparison to Eisenhower?, answer: vigorous young successor | question: What nation was considered the leader in the nuclear arms race?, answer: Soviet Union
In the increasingly globalized film industry, videoconferencing has become useful as a method by which creative talent in many different locations can collaborate closely on the complex details of film production. For example, for the 2013 award-winning animated film Frozen, Burbank-based Walt Disney Animation Studios hired the New York City-based husband-and-wife songwriting team of Robert Lopez and Kristen Anderson-Lopez to write the songs, which required two-hour-long transcontinental videoconferences nearly every weekday for about 14 months.

question: In what industry has videoconferencing become useful?, answer: film | question: On what film was videoconferencing widely used?, answer: Frozen | question: What year was the movie Frozen released?, answer: 2013 | question: In what city were the songwriting team of Frozen located?, answer: New York City | question: How many months did the songwriters work on the movie via videoconferencing?, answer: 14
In the instance when the Presidency and both Houses of Congress are controlled by one party, the Speaker normally assumes a lower profile and defers to the President. For that situation the House Minority Leader can play the role of a de facto "leader of the opposition", often more so than the Senate Minority Leader, due to the more partisan nature of the House and the greater role of leadership. Minority Leaders who have played prominent roles in opposing the incumbent President have included Gerald Ford, Richard Gephardt, Nancy Pelosi, and John Boehner.

question: What is the leadership structure when party controls house and presidency?, answer: Speaker normally assumes a lower profile and defers to the President | question: Is the Senate or the House more partisan?, answer: more partisan nature of the House | question: What minority leaders have played prominenct roles to opposing incumbent president?, answer: Gerald Ford, Richard Gephardt, Nancy Pelosi, and John Boehner
In the inter-war years and after 1940, Hugh Dowding, Air Officer Commanding Fighter Command has received credit for the defence of British air space and the failure of the Luftwaffe to achieve air superiority. However, Dowding had spent so much effort preparing day fighter defences, there was little to prevent the Germans carrying out an alternative strategy by bombing at night. When the Luftwaffe struck at British cities for the first time on 7 September 1940, a number of civic and political leaders were worried by Dowding's apparent lack of reaction to the new crisis.

question: Who was the Air Officer Commanding Fighter Command after 1940?, answer: Hugh Dowding | question: What credit did Dowding receive?, answer: defence of British air space | question: What strategy could the German's have used instead of day raids?, answer: bombing at night | question: Why were civic and political leaders worried about Dowdings?, answer: lack of reaction to the new crisis
In the judgment of political scientist Randall Ripley, since 1883 "the candidate for Speaker nominated by the minority party has clearly been the Minority Leader." However, this assertion is subject to dispute. On December 3, 1883, the House elected Democrat John G. Carlisle of Kentucky as Speaker. Republicans placed in nomination for the speakership J. Warren Keifer of Ohio, who was Speaker the previous Congress. Clearly, Keifer was not the Republicans' minority leader. He was a discredited leader in part because as Speaker he arbitrarily handed out "choice jobs to close relatives ... all at handsome salaries." Keifer received "the empty honor of the minority nomination. But with it came a sting -- for while this naturally involves the floor leadership, he was deserted by his [partisan] associates and his career as a national figure terminated ingloriously." Representative Thomas Reed, R-ME, who later became Speaker, assumed the de facto role of minority floor leader in Keifer's stead. "[A]lthough Keifer was the minority's candidate for Speaker, Reed became its acknowledged leader, and ever after, so long as he served in the House, remained the most conspicuous member of his party.

question: Why was Keifer discredited/empty leader?, answer: arbitrarily handed out "choice jobs to close relatives ... all at handsome salaries. | question: Who's contention is it that the minority party candidate is clearly Minority Leader since 1883?, answer: Randall Ripley | question: Although Keifer held minority leader role, who was actual gloof leader?, answer: Thomas Reed,
In the laboratory, bacteria are usually grown using solid or liquid media. Solid growth media, such as agar plates, are used to isolate pure cultures of a bacterial strain. However, liquid growth media are used when measurement of growth or large volumes of cells are required. Growth in stirred liquid media occurs as an even cell suspension, making the cultures easy to divide and transfer, although isolating single bacteria from liquid media is difficult. The use of selective media (media with specific nutrients added or deficient, or with antibiotics added) can help identify specific organisms.

question: In what environment are bacteria being cultivated in labs?, answer: solid or liquid media | question: What is typical solid setting?, answer: agar plates | question: What can help to indentify specific bacteria?, answer: The use of selective media | question: Which environment is better to isolate a single example of bacteria strain?, answer: agar plates | question: Which media is preffered to grow larger volumes of bacteria?, answer: liquid growth media
In the last two decades of the 18th century, the theory of polygenism, the belief that different races had evolved separately in each continent and shared no common ancestor, was advocated in England by historian Edward Long and anatomist Charles White, in Germany by ethnographers Christoph Meiners and Georg Forster, and in France by Julien-Joseph Virey. In the US, Samuel George Morton, Josiah Nott and Louis Agassiz promoted this theory in the mid-nineteenth century. Polygenism was popular and most widespread in the 19th century, culminating in the founding of the Anthropological Society of London (1863) during the period of the American Civil War, in opposition to the Ethnological Society, which had abolitionist sympathies.

question: What theory is the belief that differences races had evolved independently on each continent?, answer: polygenism | question: What country did Edward Long and Charles White advocated the belief of polygenism in?, answer: England | question: What was the profession of Christoph Meiners and Georg Forster?, answer: ethnographers | question: In what century was polygenism most widespread?, answer: 19th century | question: The Ethnological Society was sympathetic towards what cause?, answer: abolitionist
In the last two weeks of February 1951, Operation Roundup was followed by Operation Killer, carried out by the revitalized Eighth Army. It was a full-scale, battlefront-length attack staged for maximum exploitation of firepower to kill as many KPA and PVA troops as possible. Operation Killer concluded with I Corps re-occupying the territory south of the Han River, and IX Corps capturing Hoengseong. On 7 March 1951, the Eighth Army attacked with Operation Ripper, expelling the PVA and the KPA from Seoul on 14 March 1951. This was the city's fourth conquest in a years' time, leaving it a ruin; the 1.5 million pre-war population was down to 200,000, and people were suffering from severe food shortages.

question: What Operation was initiated after the successful Operation Roundup?, answer: Operation Killer | question: What the the goal of the operation that followed Operation Roundup?, answer: to kill as many KPA and PVA troops as possible | question: What signified the end of Operation Killer?, answer: capturing Hoengseong | question: How many times was Seoul captured in a year?, answer: This was the city's fourth conquest | question: Other than the drastic decrease in population, what other issue did the people in Seoul face?, answer: severe food shortages
In the last years of the 19th century the term "Near East" acquired considerable disrepute in eyes of the English-speaking public as did the Ottoman Empire itself. The cause of the onus was the Hamidian Massacres of Armenians because they were Christians, but it seemed to spill over into the protracted conflicts of the Balkans. For a time, "Near East" meant primarily the Balkans. Robert Hichens' book The Near East (1913) is subtitled Dalmatia, Greece and Constantinople.

question: When did the term "Near East" acquire considerable disrepute?, answer: the 19th century | question: The term "Near East" acquired considerable disrepute in whose eyes?, answer: English-speaking public | question: What was the cause of the onus?, answer: the Hamidian Massacres of Armenians | question: What was the cause of the Hamidian Massacres of Armenians?, answer: they were Christians | question: When was Robert Hickens' book wrote?, answer: 1913)
In the last years of the nineteenth century, Planck was investigating the problem of black-body radiation first posed by Kirchhoff some forty years earlier. It is well known that hot objects glow, and that hotter objects glow brighter than cooler ones. The electromagnetic field obeys laws of motion similarly to a mass on a spring, and can come to thermal equilibrium with hot atoms. The hot object in equilibrium with light absorbs just as much light as it emits. If the object is black, meaning it absorbs all the light that hits it, then its thermal light emission is maximized.

question: What type of radiation was Planck studying in the late 19th century?, answer: black-body | question: How many years prior to Planck's study had the scientific community first discussed black body radiation?, answer: forty | question: What scientist first studied black body radiation?, answer: Kirchhoff | question: What is required for the electromagnetic field to come to thermal equilibrium?, answer: hot atoms | question: What does a hot object in equilibrium absorb as much as it emits?, answer: light | question: What was Planck studying in the last part of the nineteenth century?, answer: the problem of black-body radiation | question: Who posed the problem of black-body radiation?, answer: Kirchhoff | question: Cooler objects glow less than objects that are what?, answer: hotter | question: What does a black object do to any of the light that hits it?, answer: it absorbs all the light | question: What is maximized as a result of a black object absorbing all the light that hits it?, answer: thermal light emission | question: Planck studied what problem posed originally by Kirchhoff?, answer: black-body radiation | question: If an object is black, what is known about its thermal light emission?, answer: its thermal light emission is maximized. | question: What is known about the light absorption of a hot object in equilibrium with light?, answer: absorbs just as much light as it emits | question: Electromagnetic fields obey what laws?, answer: laws of motion
In the late 1130s, Arnold of Brescia, an Italian canon regular became one of the first theologians to attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church. After his death, his teachings on apostolic poverty gained currency among Arnoldists, and later more widely among Waldensians and the Spiritual Franciscans, though no written word of his has survived the official condemnation. In the early 1170s, Peter Waldo founded the Waldensians. He advocated an interpretation of the Gospel that led to conflicts with the Roman Catholic Church. By 1215, the Waldensians were declared heretical and subject to persecution. Despite that, the movement continues to exist to this day in Italy, as a part of the wider Reformed tradition.

question: Who was one of the first to try to reform the Catholic Church?, answer: Arnold of Brescia | question: When were the Waldensians created?, answer: the early 1170s | question: In what year were the Waldensians labeled as heretics?, answer: 1215 | question: Where does the Waldensian movement still exist currently?, answer: Italy | question: What teachings originated with Arnold of Brescia?, answer: apostolic poverty
In the late 12th and early 13th centuries the border and political relationship between England and Scotland was disputed, with the kings of Scotland claiming parts of what is now northern England. John's father, Henry II, had forced William the Lion to swear fealty to him at the Treaty of Falaise in 1174. This had been rescinded by Richard I in exchange for financial compensation in 1189, but the relationship remained uneasy. John began his reign by reasserting his sovereignty over the disputed northern counties. He refused William's request for the earldom of Northumbria, but did not intervene in Scotland itself and focused on his continental problems. The two kings maintained a friendly relationship, meeting in 1206 and 1207, until it was rumoured in 1209 that William was intending to ally himself with Philip II of France. John invaded Scotland and forced William to sign the Treaty of Norham, which gave John control of William's daughters and required a payment of £10,000. This effectively crippled William's power north of the border, and by 1212 John had to intervene militarily to support the Scottish king against his internal rivals.[nb 16] John made no efforts to reinvigorate the Treaty of Falaise, though, and both William and Alexander remained independent kings, supported by, but not owing fealty to, John.

question: When was the political relationship between England and Scotland disputed?, answer: late 12th and early 13th centuries | question: Who forced William the Lion to swear fealty to him?, answer: Henry II | question: What did John force William to sign?, answer: Treaty of Norham
In the late 12th-century, a school of polyphony was established at the Notre-Dame. A group of Parisian aristocrats, known as Trouvères, became known for their poetry and songs. Troubadors were also popular. During the reign of Francois I, the lute became popular in the French court, and a national musical printing house was established. During the Renaissance era, the French Boleroroyals "disported themselves in masques, ballets, allegorical dances, recitals, and opera and comedy". Baroque-era composers include Jean-Baptiste Lully, Jean-Philippe Rameau, and François Couperin and were popular. The Conservatoire de Musique de Paris was founded in 1795. By 1870, Paris had become an important centre for symphony, ballet and operatic music. Romantic-era composers (in Paris) include Hector Berlioz (La Symphonie fantastique), Charles Gounod (Faust), Camille Saint-Saëns (Samson et Delilah), Léo Delibes (Lakmé) and Jules Massenet (Thaïs), among others. Georges Bizet's Carmen premiered 3 March 1875. Carmen has since become one of the most popular and frequently-performed operas in the classical canon; Impressionist composers Claude Debussy ((La Mer) and Maurice Ravel (Boléro) also made significant contributions to piano (Clair de lune, Miroirs), orchestra, opera (Palléas et Mélisande), and other musical forms. Foreign-born composers have made their homes in Paris and have made significant contributions both with their works and their influence. They include Frédéric Chopin (Poland), Franz Liszt (Hungary), Jacques Offenbach (Germany), and Igor Stravinsky (Russia).

question: in what century was a school of polyphony established at Notre Dame?, answer: 12th | question: In what year was the Conservatoire de Musique de Paris founded?, answer: 1795 | question: Under whos reign did the lute become popular?, answer: Francois I | question: Who wrote Carmen?, answer: Georges Bizet's | question: Where was Frederic Chopin from?, answer: Poland
In the late 13th and early 14th centuries, a process took place – primarily in Italy but partly also in the Empire – that historians have termed a 'commercial revolution'. Among the innovations of the period were new forms of partnership and the issuing of insurance, both of which contributed to reducing the risk of commercial ventures; the bill of exchange and other forms of credit that circumvented the canonical laws for gentiles against usury, and eliminated the dangers of carrying bullion; and new forms of accounting, in particular double-entry bookkeeping, which allowed for better oversight and accuracy.

question: What new form of accounting was created during the late 13th and early 14th centuries?, answer: double-entry bookkeeping | question: In which country did the so-called 'commercial revolution' primarily take place?, answer: Italy | question: What was the main benefit of the creation of new forms of partnerships during the commercial revolution?, answer: reducing the risk of commercial ventures | question: Laws against what lending practice were addressed by the creation of bills of exchange?, answer: usury | question: What were the benefits of the new system of double-entry bookkeeping?, answer: better oversight and accuracy