lmqg/qag_squad huggingface dataset:
Early human genetic cluster analysis studies were conducted with samples taken from ancestral population groups living at extreme geographic distances from each other. It was thought that such large geographic distances would maximize the genetic variation between the groups sampled in the analysis and thus maximize the probability of finding cluster patterns unique to each group. In light of the historically recent acceleration of human migration (and correspondingly, human gene flow) on a global scale, further studies were conducted to judge the degree to which genetic cluster analysis can pattern ancestrally identified groups as well as geographically separated groups. One such study looked at a large multiethnic population in the United States, and "detected only modest genetic differentiation between different current geographic locales within each race/ethnicity group. Thus, ancient geographic ancestry, which is highly correlated with self-identified race/ethnicity—as opposed to current residence—is the major determinant of genetic structure in the U.S. population." (Tang et al. (2005))

question: What groups were early samples from for genetic cluster analysis?, answer: ancestral population | question: Where did the groups the genetic clusters were taken from live from each other?, answer: extreme geographic distances | question: What was thought might maximize the odds of finding unique cluster patterns in groups?, answer: large geographic distances | question: What human activity has only recently accelerated?, answer: migration | question: Human migration tends to accelerate this type of what flow?, answer: gene
Early humanists saw no conflict between reason and their Christian faith (see Christian Humanism). They inveighed against the abuses of the Church, but not against the Church itself, much less against religion. For them, the word "secular" carried no connotations of disbelief – that would come later, in the nineteenth century. In the Renaissance to be secular meant simply to be in the world rather than in a monastery. Petrarch frequently admitted that his brother Gherardo's life as a Carthusian monk was superior to his own (although Petrarch himself was in Minor Orders and was employed by the Church all his life). He hoped that he could do some good by winning earthly glory and praising virtue, inferior though that might be to a life devoted solely to prayer. By embracing a non-theistic philosophic base, however, the methods of the humanists, combined with their eloquence, would ultimately have a corrosive effect on established authority.

question: Who was able to reconcile their religious beliefs with those of humanism?, answer: Early humanists | question: What phrase that has come to be associated with a lack of faith was not seen as an issue for Christians?, answer: secular | question: During what time period did secular have a more neutral connotation?, answer: Renaissance | question: Petrarch felt that although he tried to do his own form of good whose life may have more meaning?, answer: Gherardo
Early in 1953, the French asked Eisenhower for help in French Indochina against the Communists, supplied from China, who were fighting the First Indochina War. Eisenhower sent Lt. General John W. "Iron Mike" O'Daniel to Vietnam to study and assess the French forces there. Chief of Staff Matthew Ridgway dissuaded the President from intervening by presenting a comprehensive estimate of the massive military deployment that would be necessary. Eisenhower stated prophetically that "this war would absorb our troops by divisions."

question: What war was being fought by France in 1953?, answer: First Indochina War | question: What was John W. O'Daniel's nickname?, answer: Iron Mike | question: Who convinced Eisenhower not to intervene in Vietnam?, answer: Matthew Ridgway | question: Who was providing supplies to the Vietnamese communists fighting against France?, answer: China | question: How large of a military deployment did Ridgway say would be necessary in Vietnam?, answer: massive
Early on, American courts, even after the Revolution, often did cite contemporary English cases. This was because appellate decisions from many American courts were not regularly reported until the mid-19th century; lawyers and judges, as creatures of habit, used English legal materials to fill the gap. But citations to English decisions gradually disappeared during the 19th century as American courts developed their own principles to resolve the legal problems of the American people. The number of published volumes of American reports soared from eighteen in 1810 to over 8,000 by 1910. By 1879 one of the delegates to the California constitutional convention was already complaining: "Now, when we require them to state the reasons for a decision, we do not mean they shall write a hundred pages of detail. We [do] not mean that they shall include the small cases, and impose on the country all this fine judicial literature, for the Lord knows we have got enough of that already."

question: early on American courts cited what cases?, answer: contemporary English | question: What century were apellate decisions regularly reported?, answer: 19th century | question: When did cotations to English decisions gradually disappear?, answer: 19th century | question: How many published reports of American volumes existed in 1810?, answer: eighteen | question: How many published reports of American volumes existed in 1910?, answer: over 8,000 | question: When did Americans really begin to establish their own laws independent of the English?, answer: mid-19th century | question: How many published volumes of American reports were released in 1810?, answer: eighteen | question: By 1910, how many volumes of American reports were there?, answer: 8,000 | question: What did the lawmakers think of the increase in reports?, answer: By 1879 one of the delegates to the California constitutional convention was already complaining | question: What were the lawmakers beginning to drown in?, answer: judicial literature
Early philosophers were divided as to whether the seat of the soul lies in the brain or heart. Aristotle favored the heart, and thought that the function of the brain was merely to cool the blood. Democritus, the inventor of the atomic theory of matter, argued for a three-part soul, with intellect in the head, emotion in the heart, and lust near the liver. Hippocrates, the "father of medicine", came down unequivocally in favor of the brain. In his treatise on epilepsy he wrote:

question: The seal of the soul was debated to lie in what two organs of the body?, answer: brain or heart. | question: Aristotle thought the soul lied in what organ?, answer: the heart | question: Who invented the atomic theory of matter?, answer: Democritus, | question: The "father of medicine" is a name given to whom in history?, answer: Hippocrates | question: What philosopher in history argued for a three-part soul?, answer: Democritus
Early progress toward the development of vaccines occurred throughout this period, primarily in the form of academic and government-funded basic research directed toward the identification of the pathogens responsible for common communicable diseases. In 1885 Louis Pasteur and Pierre Paul Émile Roux created the first rabies vaccine. The first diphtheria vaccines were produced in 1914 from a mixture of diphtheria toxin and antitoxin (produced from the serum of an inoculated animal), but the safety of the inoculation was marginal and it was not widely used. The United States recorded 206,000 cases of diphtheria in 1921 resulting in 15,520 deaths. In 1923 parallel efforts by Gaston Ramon at the Pasteur Institute and Alexander Glenny at the Wellcome Research Laboratories (later part of GlaxoSmithKline) led to the discovery that a safer vaccine could be produced by treating diphtheria toxin with formaldehyde. In 1944, Maurice Hilleman of Squibb Pharmaceuticals developed the first vaccine against Japanese encephelitis. Hilleman would later move to Merck where he would play a key role in the development of vaccines against measles, mumps, chickenpox, rubella, hepatitis A, hepatitis B, and meningitis.

question: Who created the first rabies vaccine?, answer: Louis Pasteur and Pierre Paul Émile Roux | question: How many cases of Diphtheria were there in 1921?, answer: 206,000 | question: In 1923, what was discovered to be safer to treat Diphtheria Toxin?, answer: formaldehyde | question: Who created a vaccine to treat Japanese Encephalitis?, answer: Maurice Hilleman | question: How many deaths occurred due to Diphtheria?, answer: 15,520 | question: The rabies vaccine was created in what year?, answer: 1885 | question: In what year was the diphtheria vaccine made?, answer: 1914 | question: What compound made the diphtheria vaccine safer to use?, answer: formaldehyde | question: Who developed the first encephalitis vaccine?, answer: Maurice Hilleman | question: What company did Hilleman later work for?, answer: Merck
Early recommendations for the quantity of water required for maintenance of good health suggested that 6–8 glasses of water daily is the minimum to maintain proper hydration. However the notion that a person should consume eight glasses of water per day cannot be traced to a credible scientific source. The original water intake recommendation in 1945 by the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Research Council read: "An ordinary standard for diverse persons is 1 milliliter for each calorie of food. Most of this quantity is contained in prepared foods." More recent comparisons of well-known recommendations on fluid intake have revealed large discrepancies in the volumes of water we need to consume for good health. Therefore, to help standardize guidelines, recommendations for water consumption are included in two recent European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) documents (2010): (i) Food-based dietary guidelines and (ii) Dietary reference values for water or adequate daily intakes (ADI). These specifications were provided by calculating adequate intakes from measured intakes in populations of individuals with “desirable osmolarity values of urine and desirable water volumes per energy unit consumed.” For healthful hydration, the current EFSA guidelines recommend total water intakes of 2.0 L/day for adult females and 2.5 L/day for adult males. These reference values include water from drinking water, other beverages, and from food. About 80% of our daily water requirement comes from the beverages we drink, with the remaining 20% coming from food. Water content varies depending on the type of food consumed, with fruit and vegetables containing more than cereals, for example. These values are estimated using country-specific food balance sheets published by the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations. Other guidelines for nutrition also have implications for the beverages we consume for healthy hydration- for example, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommend that added sugars should represent no more than 10% of total energy intake.

question: What was the early recommended amount of water that was supposedly required to keep the body hydrated?, answer: 6–8 glasses of water daily | question: Who originally made a water intake recommendation in 1945?, answer: Food and Nutrition Board of the National Research Council | question: How much water should be taken in for each calorie of food that is consumed?, answer: 1 milliliter | question: What does ADI stand for?, answer: adequate daily intakes | question: Where do humans get the 20% of water that does not come from the beverages we drink?, answer: food
Early recordings were made entirely acoustically, the sound being collected by a horn and piped to a diaphragm, which vibrated the cutting stylus. Sensitivity and frequency range were poor, and frequency response was very irregular, giving acoustic recordings an instantly recognizable tonal quality. A singer practically had to put his or her face in the recording horn. Lower-pitched orchestral instruments such as cellos and double basses were often doubled (or replaced) by louder wind instruments, such as tubas. Standard violins in orchestral ensembles were commonly replaced by Stroh violins, which became popular with recording studios.

question: What were two drawback of early recordings?, answer: Sensitivity and frequency range were poor | question: How would one make to early recordings?, answer: face in the recording horn | question: What types of violins worked best with early recordings?, answer: Stroh violins | question: What instruments did not record well?, answer: Lower-pitched orchestral instruments | question: How was the frequency response in early recordings?, answer: very irregular
Early releases of the Washington coin included error coins shipped primarily from the Philadelphia mint to Florida and Tennessee banks. Highly sought after by collectors, and trading for as much as $850 each within a week of discovery, the error coins were identified by the absence of the edge impressions "E PLURIBUS UNUM IN GOD WE TRUST 2007 P". The mint of origin is generally accepted to be mostly Philadelphia, although identifying the source mint is impossible without opening a mint pack also containing marked units. Edge lettering is minted in both orientations with respect to "heads", some amateur collectors were initially duped into buying "upside down lettering error" coins. Some cynics also erroneously point out that the Federal Reserve makes more profit from dollar bills than dollar coins because they wear out in a few years, whereas coins are more permanent. The fallacy of this argument arises because new notes printed to replace worn out notes, which have been withdrawn from circulation, bring in no net revenue to the government to offset the costs of printing new notes and destroying the old ones. As most vending machines are incapable of making change in banknotes, they commonly accept only $1 bills, though a few will give change in dollar coins.

question: Other than Florida, which other state got send error coins?, answer: Tennessee | question: Where did error coins originate?, answer: Philadelphia mint | question: How much were error coins initially worth for collectors?, answer: profit | question: What were some amateur collectors duped into buying?, answer: "upside down lettering error" coins | question: What do vending machines commonly only accept?, answer: $1 bills
Early reports of Europeans reaching this area include those of the Venetian Alvise Cadamosto's voyage of 1455, the 1479–1480 voyage by Flemish-French trader Eustache de la Fosse, and Diogo Cão. In the 1480s this Portuguese explorer reached the Congo River and the lands of Bakongo, setting up the foundations of modern Angola, some 4200 km down the African coast from Guinea-Bissau.

question: When was Alvise Cadamosto's voyage?, answer: 1455 | question: When was Eustache de la Fosse's voyage?, answer: 1479–1480 | question: What was the name of the Portuguese explorer?, answer: Diogo Cão | question: What river did Diogo Cao reach in the 1480's?, answer: Congo River | question: What country is about 4200 km from Guinea-Bissau?, answer: Angola
Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli like daylight and timekeeping. However, this research was faulty because it failed to shield the participants from artificial light. Although subjects were shielded from time cues (like clocks) and daylight, the researchers were not aware of the phase-delaying effects of indoor electric lights.[dubious – discuss] The subjects were allowed to turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase.[citation needed] A more stringent study conducted in 1999 by Harvard University estimated the natural human rhythm to be closer to 24 hours, 11 minutes: much closer to the solar day but still not perfectly in sync.

question: What did early research show people preferred as a day length?, answer: 25 hours | question: What was the fault not considered in the early theories of day length?, answer: artificial light | question: What did electric lighting in the evening do to the test subjects circadian phase?, answer: delayed | question: To what is the 24 hours, 11 minutes day outcome of research closest ?, answer: solar day | question: When did more stringent testing determine that humans preferred a 24 hour day?, answer: 1999
Early web browsers supported only a very simple version of HTML. The rapid development of proprietary web browsers led to the development of non-standard dialects of HTML, leading to problems with interoperability. Modern web browsers support a combination of standards-based and de facto HTML and XHTML, which should be rendered in the same way by all browsers.

question: Quick development of what kind of browsers led to non-standard HTML dialects?, answer: proprietary web browsers | question: Non-standard dialects led to what?, answer: problems with interoperability | question: Modern browser support standards-based and defacto what?, answer: HTML and XHTML | question: HTML and XHTML should be what by all browsers?, answer: rendered in the same way
Early work in molecular genetics suggested the model that one gene makes one protein. This model has been refined since the discovery of genes that can encode multiple proteins by alternative splicing and coding sequences split in short section across the genome whose mRNAs are concatenated by trans-splicing.

question: What model did early work in molecular genetics suggest?, answer: the model that one gene makes one protein. | question: What discovery caused the model that one gene makes one protein to be refined?, answer: the discovery of genes that can encode multiple proteins | question: How do genes encode multiple proteins?, answer: by alternative splicing and coding sequences | question: How are alternative splicing and coding sequences distributed?, answer: split in short section across the genome | question: In order for a gene to encode multiple proteins, how must its mRNAs be arranged?, answer: concatenated by trans-splicing.
Early writings on the subject tended to judge states by the realist criterion, as expressed by the historian A. J. P. Taylor when he noted that "The test of a great power is the test of strength for war." Later writers have expanded this test, attempting to define power in terms of overall military, economic, and political capacity. Kenneth Waltz, the founder of the neorealist theory of international relations, uses a set of five criteria to determine great power: population and territory; resource endowment; economic capability; political stability and competence; and military strength. These expanded criteria can be divided into three heads: power capabilities, spatial aspects, and status.

question: What one criteria was used in early times to judge a great power's status?, answer: strength for war | question: Besides military, what two other capacities were used to describe great powers in later times?, answer: economic, and political | question: Who is the founder of the neorealist theory of international relations?, answer: Kenneth Waltz | question: How many criteria are used to judge a great power in the neorealist theory?, answer: five | question: Who wrote, "The test of a great power is the test of strength for war."?, answer: A. J. P. Taylor | question: What 5 criteria did neorealist use to determine great powers?, answer: population and territory; resource endowment; economic capability; political stability and competence; and military strength | question: Whos was the founder of the neorealist theory of international relations?, answer: Kenneth Waltz | question: What 3 areas can summarize the great power determination?, answer: power capabilities, spatial aspects, and status
Early-years education is quite common in Thuringia. Since the 1950s, nearly all children have been using the service, whereas early-years education is less developed in western Germany. Its inventor Friedrich Fröbel lived in Thuringia and founded the world's first Kindergartens there in the 19th century. The Thuringian primary school takes four years and most primary schools are all-day schools offering optional extracurricular activities in the afternoon. At the age of ten, pupils are separated according to aptitude and proceed to either the Gymnasium or the Regelschule. The former leads to the Abitur exam after a further eight years and prepares for higher education, while the latter has a more vocational focus and finishes with exams after five or six years, comparable to the Hauptschule and Realschule found elsewhere in Germany.

question: How long is Thuringian primary school?, answer: four years | question: For how long have Thuringian children been using the current education system?, answer: Since the 1950s | question: When do children graduate from primary school in Thuringia?, answer: At the age of ten | question: Who invented the early years education in Thuringia?, answer: Friedrich Fröbel | question: How many years of school do students attend after primary?, answer: eight years
Earth was initially molten due to extreme volcanism and frequent collisions with other bodies. Eventually, the outer layer of the planet cooled to form a solid crust when water began accumulating in the atmosphere. The Moon formed soon afterwards, possibly as the result of a Mars-sized object with about 10% of the Earth's mass impacting the planet in a glancing blow. Some of this object's mass merged with the Earth, significantly altering its internal composition, and a portion was ejected into space. Some of the material survived to form an orbiting moon. Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere. Condensing water vapor, augmented by ice delivered from comets, produced the oceans.

question: The initial state of earth was what?, answer: molten | question: What formed on the outside of the earth after it cooled?, answer: a solid crust | question: How does the mass of the moon compare to earth?, answer: about 10% of the Earth's mass | question: What created a primordial atmosphere on earth?, answer: Outgassing and volcanic activity | question: Ice from what source helped to create earths oceans?, answer: comets | question: Powerful volcanism contributed to cause early earth to be in what state?, answer: molten | question: What occurred in the atmosphere of the earth after the crust was formed?, answer: water began accumulating | question: What size of object may have created the moon?, answer: Mars | question: When water was creating the oceans what was happening to atmospheric water vapor?, answer: Condensing
Earth's surface and the clouds absorb visible and invisible radiation from the sun and re-emit much of the energy as infrared back to atmosphere. Certain substances in the atmosphere, chiefly cloud droplets and water vapor, but also carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulfur hexafluoride, and chlorofluorocarbons, absorb this infrared, and re-radiate it in all directions including back to Earth. Thus, the greenhouse effect keeps the atmosphere and surface much warmer than if the infrared absorbers were absent from the atmosphere.

question: Along with the surface of the Earth, what objects absorb radiation from the sun?, answer: clouds | question: After Earth surface's absorbs radiation, in what spectrum is much of it re-emitted?, answer: infrared | question: Along with water vapor, what atmospheric substance primarily absorbs the infrared emitted by the Earth?, answer: cloud droplets | question: What notable warming effect does the presence of infrared absorbers contribute to?, answer: greenhouse