lmqg/qag_squad huggingface dataset:
Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy, written in the early 14th century, merged a medieval world view with classical ideals. Another promoter of the Italian language was Boccaccio with his Decameron. The application of the vernacular did not entail a rejection of Latin, and both Dante and Boccaccio wrote prolifically in Latin as well as Italian, as would Petrarch later (whose Canzoniere also promoted the vernacular and whose contents are considered the first modern lyric poems). Together the three poets established the Tuscan dialect as the norm for the modern Italian language.

question: Who wrote the Divine Comedy?, answer: Dante Alighieri | question: In what languages did Dante and Boccaccio create their works?, answer: Latin as well as Italian | question: Which dialect became the norm for the modern Italian language?, answer: Tuscan | question: What is one of Boccaccio's works that helped promote the Italian language?, answer: Decameron | question: Whose work, Canzoniere, is considered to be the first example of modern lyric poetry?, answer: Petrarch
Dante made Virgil his guide in Hell and the greater part of Purgatory in The Divine Comedy. Dante also mentions Virgil in De vulgari eloquentia, along with Ovid, Lucan and Statius, as one of the four regulati poetae (ii, vi, 7).

question: In which of Dante's works was Virgil a guide through Hell and Purgatory?, answer: Divine Comedy | question: Who was the author of the Divine Comedy?, answer: Dante | question: Who was Dante's guide through Purgatory and Hell in the Divine Comedy?, answer: Virgil
Daphne was a nymph, daughter of the river god Peneus, who had scorned Apollo. The myth explains the connection of Apollo with δάφνη (daphnē), the laurel whose leaves his priestess employed at Delphi. In Ovid's Metamorphoses, Phoebus Apollo chaffs Cupid for toying with a weapon more suited to a man, whereupon Cupid wounds him with a golden dart; simultaneously, however, Cupid shoots a leaden arrow into Daphne, causing her to be repulsed by Apollo. Following a spirited chase by Apollo, Daphne prays to her father, Peneus, for help, and he changes her into the laurel tree, sacred to Apollo.

question: Who was the daughter of Peneus?, answer: Daphne | question: Who is Daphne's father?, answer: Peneus | question: Who shot Daphne with a leaden arrow?, answer: Cupid
Dark meat, which avian myologists refer to as "red muscle", is used for sustained activity—chiefly walking, in the case of a chicken. The dark colour comes from the protein myoglobin, which plays a key role in oxygen uptake and storage within cells. White muscle, in contrast, is suitable only for short bursts of activity such as, for chickens, flying. Thus, the chicken's leg and thigh meat are dark, while its breast meat (which makes up the primary flight muscles) is white. Other birds with breast muscle more suitable for sustained flight, such as ducks and geese, have red muscle (and therefore dark meat) throughout. Some cuts of meat including poultry expose the microscopic regular structure of intracellular muscle fibrils which can diffract light and produce iridescent colours, an optical phenomenon sometimes called structural colouration.

question: Are there reasons for the dark meat that poultry has?, answer: The dark colour comes from the protein myoglobin, which plays a key role in oxygen uptake and storage within cells | question: What is the white meat of chicken actually used for by the animal ?, answer: White muscle, in contrast, is suitable only for short bursts of activity such as, for chickens, flying | question: What causes the meat of some poultry to show rainbow like colr striations?, answer: the microscopic regular structure of intracellular muscle fibrils which can diffract light and produce iridescent colours | question: Do some varities of poultry have more dark meat than others?, answer: birds with breast muscle more suitable for sustained flight, such as ducks and geese, have red muscle (and therefore dark meat) throughout
Darwin continued to research and extensively revise his theory while focusing on his main work of publishing the scientific results of the Beagle voyage. He tentatively wrote of his ideas to Lyell in January 1842; then in June he roughed out a 35-page "Pencil Sketch" of his theory. Darwin began correspondence about his theorising with the botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker in January 1844, and by July had rounded out his "sketch" into a 230-page "Essay", to be expanded with his research results and published if he died prematurely.

question: Who did Darwin write his ideas to in 1842?, answer: Lyell | question: What was the name of Darwin's 35-page writing of his theory?, answer: "Pencil Sketch" | question: Which botanist did Darwin begin a correspondence with about his theories?, answer: Joseph Dalton Hooker | question: What information was Darwin's essay based on?, answer: scientific results of the Beagle voyage | question: How many pages had Darwin's sketch grown to in 1844?, answer: 230-page
Darwin discusses morphology, including the importance of homologous structures. He says, "What can be more curious than that the hand of a man, formed for grasping, that of a mole for digging, the leg of the horse, the paddle of the porpoise, and the wing of the bat, should all be constructed on the same pattern, and should include the same bones, in the same relative positions?" He notes that animals of the same class often have extremely similar embryos. Darwin discusses rudimentary organs, such as the wings of flightless birds and the rudiments of pelvis and leg bones found in some snakes. He remarks that some rudimentary organs, such as teeth in baleen whales, are found only in embryonic stages.

question: What theory does Darwin discuss that is related to the importance of homologous structures?, answer: morphology | question: What are some examples that Darwin gives of species whose basic form of limbs is similar, but who have vastly different uses for them?, answer: the hand of a man, formed for grasping, that of a mole for digging, the leg of the horse, the paddle of the porpoise, and the wing of the bat | question: What does Darwin note about the embryos of many different species in the same class?, answer: animals of the same class often have extremely similar embryos | question: What are some examples of rudimentary organs that Darwin discusses in the chapter?, answer: e wings of flightless birds and the rudiments of pelvis and leg bones found in some snakes
Darwin had his basic theory of natural selection "by which to work" by December 1838, yet almost twenty years later, when Wallace's letter arrived on 18 June 1858, Darwin was still not ready to publish his theory. It was long thought that Darwin avoided or delayed making his ideas public for personal reasons. Reasons suggested have included fear of religious persecution or social disgrace if his views were revealed, and concern about upsetting his clergymen naturalist friends or his pious wife Emma. Charles Darwin's illness caused repeated delays. His paper on Glen Roy had proved embarrassingly wrong, and he may have wanted to be sure he was correct. David Quammen has suggested all these factors may have contributed, and notes Darwin's large output of books and busy family life during that time.

question: By which year did Darwin have the basic premise of his natural selection theory?, answer: 1838 | question: Why might Darwin have postponed publishing his theory of evolution for over 20 years?, answer: fear of religious persecution or social disgrace | question: Which paper did Darwin write that was incorrect?, answer: Glen Roy | question: Who might Darwin have feared upsetting by publishing his work?, answer: his clergymen naturalist friends or his pious wife Emma.
Darwin had initially decided to call his book An abstract of an Essay on the Origin of Species and Varieties Through natural selection, but with Murray's persuasion it was eventually changed to the snappier title: On the Origin of Species, with the title page adding by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. Here the term "races" is used as an alternative for "varieties" and does not carry the modern connotation of human races—the first use in the book refers to "the several races, for instance, of the cabbage" and proceeds to a discussion of "the hereditary varieties or races of our domestic animals and plants".

question: What title did Darwin's book ultimately have?, answer: On the Origin of Species | question: What had Darwin wanted to name his book?, answer: An abstract of an Essay on the Origin of Species and Varieties Through natural selection | question: Who convinced Darwin that his book needed a shorter, more compelling title?, answer: Murray | question: What does the word "races" mean as referenced in Darwin's book?, answer: an alternative for "varieties" and does not carry the modern connotation of human races | question: What is the extended name of The Origin of Species that is written on the title page?, answer: by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life
Darwin proposes sexual selection, driven by competition between males for mates, to explain sexually dimorphic features such as lion manes, deer antlers, peacock tails, bird songs, and the bright plumage of some male birds. He analysed sexual selection more fully in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex (1871). Natural selection was expected to work very slowly in forming new species, but given the effectiveness of artificial selection, he could "see no limit to the amount of change, to the beauty and infinite complexity of the coadaptations between all organic beings, one with another and with their physical conditions of life, which may be effected in the long course of time by nature's power of selection". Using a tree diagram and calculations, he indicates the "divergence of character" from original species into new species and genera. He describes branches falling off as extinction occurred, while new branches formed in "the great Tree of life ... with its ever branching and beautiful ramifications".

question: What does Darwin say can explain diverse feature such as antlers on deer and bright feathers on certain male birds?, answer: sexual selection, driven by competition between males for mates | question: Which of Darwin's written works has more in depth information about sexual selection?, answer: The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex | question: What did Darwin expect to see between species with the addition of artificial selection?, answer: no limit to the amount of change, to the beauty and infinite complexity of the coadaptations between all organic beings | question: What did Darwin use to illustrate the way that original species change and adapt into new ones?, answer: a tree diagram and calculations
Darwin was hard at work on his "big book" on Natural Selection, when on 18 June 1858 he received a parcel from Wallace, who stayed on the Maluku Islands (Ternate and Gilolo). It enclosed twenty pages describing an evolutionary mechanism, a response to Darwin's recent encouragement, with a request to send it on to Lyell if Darwin thought it worthwhile. The mechanism was similar to Darwin's own theory. Darwin wrote to Lyell that "your words have come true with a vengeance, ... forestalled" and he would "of course, at once write and offer to send [it] to any journal" that Wallace chose, adding that "all my originality, whatever it may amount to, will be smashed". Lyell and Hooker agreed that a joint publication putting together Wallace's pages with extracts from Darwin's 1844 Essay and his 1857 letter to Gray should be presented at the Linnean Society, and on 1 July 1858, the papers entitled On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection, by Wallace and Darwin respectively, were read out but drew little reaction. While Darwin considered Wallace's idea to be identical to his concept of natural selection, historians have pointed out differences. Darwin described natural selection as being analogous to the artificial selection practised by animal breeders, and emphasised competition between individuals; Wallace drew no comparison to selective breeding, and focused on ecological pressures that kept different varieties adapted to local conditions. Some historians have suggested that Wallace was actually discussing group selection rather than selection acting on individual variation.

question: Which book was Darwin working on when he received a package from Wallace?, answer: "big book" on Natural Selection, | question: What was in the packages Darwin received from Wallace?, answer: twenty pages describing an evolutionary mechanism | question: Who wrote the paper, On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties?, answer: Wallace | question: Who wrote the paper, On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties?, answer: Darwin | question: What do some historians think made Wallace's concept of natural selection different from Darwin's?, answer: Some historians have suggested that Wallace was actually discussing group selection rather than selection acting on individual variation.
Darwin went to Edinburgh University in 1825 to study medicine. In his second year he neglected his medical studies for natural history and spent four months assisting Robert Grant's research into marine invertebrates. Grant revealed his enthusiasm for the transmutation of species, but Darwin rejected it. Starting in 1827, at Cambridge University, Darwin learnt science as natural theology from botanist John Stevens Henslow, and read Paley, John Herschel and Alexander von Humboldt. Filled with zeal for science, he studied catastrophist geology with Adam Sedgwick.

question: When did Darwin begin attending university?, answer: 1825 | question: What university did Darwin attend?, answer: Edinburgh University | question: What was Darwin originally studying at university?, answer: medicine | question: Who did Darwin assist in researching marine invertebrates?, answer: Robert Grant | question: With whom did Darwin study about catastrophic geology?, answer: Adam Sedgwick
Darwin's aims were twofold: to show that species had not been separately created, and to show that natural selection had been the chief agent of change. He knew that his readers were already familiar with the concept of transmutation of species from Vestiges, and his introduction ridicules that work as failing to provide a viable mechanism. Therefore, the first four chapters lay out his case that selection in nature, caused by the struggle for existence, is analogous to the selection of variations under domestication, and that the accumulation of adaptive variations provides a scientifically testable mechanism for evolutionary speciation.

question: What were Darwin's two important aims about evolution?, answer: to show that species had not been separately created, and to show that natural selection had been the chief agent of change | question: What did heknow his readers were already familiar with from Vestiges?, answer: the concept of transmutation of species | question: How did Darwin view Vestiges in the introduction to On the Origin of Species?, answer: his introduction ridicules that work as failing to provide a viable mechanism. | question: What is Darwin's belief about the accumulation of adaptive variations?, answer: the accumulation of adaptive variations provides a scientifically testable mechanism for evolutionary speciation.
Darwin's barnacle studies convinced him that variation arose constantly and not just in response to changed circumstances. In 1854, he completed the last part of his Beagle-related writing and began working full-time on evolution. His thinking changed from the view that species formed in isolated populations only, as on islands, to an emphasis on speciation without isolation; that is, he saw increasing specialisation within large stable populations as continuously exploiting new ecological niches. He conducted empirical research focusing on difficulties with his theory. He studied the developmental and anatomical differences between different breeds of many domestic animals, became actively involved in fancy pigeon breeding, and experimented (with the help of his son Francis) on ways that plant seeds and animals might disperse across oceans to colonise distant islands. By 1856, his theory was much more sophisticated, with a mass of supporting evidence.

question: What creatures did Darwin study that made him believe variation arose constantly?, answer: barnacle | question: In what year did Darwin begin to work on his evolution theory full-time?, answer: 1854 | question: By which year had Darwin's theory become more complex and supported by a lot of evidence?, answer: 1856 | question: Which bird species did Darwin become extremely interested in studying?, answer: fancy pigeon | question: What species did Darwin study for dispersal across oceans>, answer: plant seeds and animals
Data compression can be viewed as a special case of data differencing: Data differencing consists of producing a difference given a source and a target, with patching producing a target given a source and a difference, while data compression consists of producing a compressed file given a target, and decompression consists of producing a target given only a compressed file. Thus, one can consider data compression as data differencing with empty source data, the compressed file corresponding to a "difference from nothing." This is the same as considering absolute entropy (corresponding to data compression) as a special case of relative entropy (corresponding to data differencing) with no initial data.

question: What can be looked at as a special case of data differencing?, answer: Data compression | question: What is made up of producing a difference given a source and a target?, answer: Data differencing | question: What can classified as data differencing with empty source data?, answer: data compression
Database access control deals with controlling who (a person or a certain computer program) is allowed to access what information in the database. The information may comprise specific database objects (e.g., record types, specific records, data structures), certain computations over certain objects (e.g., query types, or specific queries), or utilizing specific access paths to the former (e.g., using specific indexes or other data structures to access information). Database access controls are set by special authorized (by the database owner) personnel that uses dedicated protected security DBMS interfaces.

question: What does database access limit?, answer: who (a person or a certain computer program) is allowed to access what information | question: What are examples of database objects?, answer: record types, specific records, data structures | question: Who sets database access?, answer: special authorized (by the database owner) personnel
Database storage is the container of the physical materialization of a database. It comprises the internal (physical) level in the database architecture. It also contains all the information needed (e.g., metadata, "data about the data", and internal data structures) to reconstruct the conceptual level and external level from the internal level when needed. Putting data into permanent storage is generally the responsibility of the database engine a.k.a. "storage engine". Though typically accessed by a DBMS through the underlying operating system (and often utilizing the operating systems' file systems as intermediates for storage layout), storage properties and configuration setting are extremely important for the efficient operation of the DBMS, and thus are closely maintained by database administrators. A DBMS, while in operation, always has its database residing in several types of storage (e.g., memory and external storage). The database data and the additional needed information, possibly in very large amounts, are coded into bits. Data typically reside in the storage in structures that look completely different from the way the data look in the conceptual and external levels, but in ways that attempt to optimize (the best possible) these levels' reconstruction when needed by users and programs, as well as for computing additional types of needed information from the data (e.g., when querying the database).

question: What is responsible for putting information into permanent storage?, answer: database engine | question: What do database administrators closely monitor?, answer: storage properties and configuration setting | question: What is database storage?, answer: physical materialization of a database | question: While working, does DBMS store information in one place?, answer: several types of storage | question: What are huge quantities of information stored as?, answer: bits
Database transactions can be used to introduce some level of fault tolerance and data integrity after recovery from a crash. A database transaction is a unit of work, typically encapsulating a number of operations over a database (e.g., reading a database object, writing, acquiring lock, etc.), an abstraction supported in database and also other systems. Each transaction has well defined boundaries in terms of which program/code executions are included in that transaction (determined by the transaction's programmer via special transaction commands).

question: What is a unit of work called in a database?, answer: transaction | question: Are transactions limited?, answer: Each transaction has well defined boundaries | question: How can database transactions ensure accuracy after a crash?, answer: fault tolerance
Dating violence is fairly prevalent within adolescent relationships. When surveyed, 10-45% of adolescents reported having experienced physical violence in the context of a relationship while a quarter to a third of adolescents reported having experiencing psychological aggression. This reported aggression includes hitting, throwing things, or slaps, although most of this physical aggression does not result in a medical visit. Physical aggression in relationships tends to decline from high school through college and young adulthood. In heterosexual couples, there is no significant difference between the rates of male and female aggressors, unlike in adult relationships.

question: What percentage of adolescents reporting having experienced physical violence in a relationship?, answer: 10-45% | question: What percentage of adolescents reported experiencing psychological aggression?, answer: a quarter to a third | question: Hitting, throwing objects, and slaps are examples of what type of aggression?, answer: Physical | question: In heterosexual adolescent couples, is there a significant difference in the rates of male and female aggressors?, answer: no | question: Does physical aggression decline or increase during high-school, college, and early adulthood?, answer: decline
Datta (2005) shows that, following the collapse of militaristic Boulangism in the late 1880s, the Napoleonic legend was divorced from party politics and revived in popular culture. Concentrating on two plays and two novels from the period—Victorien Sardou's Madame Sans-Gêne (1893), Maurice Barrès's Les Déracinés (1897), Edmond Rostand's L'Aiglon (1900), and André de Lorde and Gyp's Napoléonette (1913) Datta examines how writers and critics of the Belle Époque exploited the Napoleonic legend for diverse political and cultural ends.

question: When did militaristic Boulangism collapse?, answer: the late 1880s | question: What year was Victorien Sardou's Madame Sans-Gêne written?, answer: 1893 | question: What year was Maurice Barrès's Les Déracinés written?, answer: 1897 | question: In what year was Edmond Rostand's L'Aiglon written?, answer: 1900 | question: In what year was André de Lorde and Gyp's Napoléonette written?, answer: 1913