lmqg/qag_squad huggingface dataset:
Popes called for crusades to take place elsewhere besides the Holy Land: in Spain, southern France, and along the Baltic. The Spanish crusades became fused with the Reconquista of Spain from the Muslims. Although the Templars and Hospitallers took part in the Spanish crusades, similar Spanish military religious orders were founded, most of which had become part of the two main orders of Calatrava and Santiago by the beginning of the 12th century. Northern Europe also remained outside Christian influence until the 11th century or later, and became a crusading venue as part of the Northern Crusades of the 12th to 14th centuries. These crusades also spawned a military order, the Order of the Sword Brothers. Another order, the Teutonic Knights, although originally founded in the crusader states, focused much of its activity in the Baltic after 1225, and in 1309 moved its headquarters to Marienburg in Prussia.

question: Along with the Baltic and Spain, in what area were crusades called?, answer: southern France | question: Where was the Teutonic Order headquartered in 1309?, answer: Marienburg | question: What military order was founded as a result of the Northern Crusades?, answer: the Order of the Sword Brothers | question: In what century did the Northern Crusades begin?, answer: 12th | question: What century saw the end of the Northern Crusades?, answer: 14th
Popper claimed to have recognised already in the 1934 version of his Logic of Discovery a fact later stressed by Kuhn, "that scientists necessarily develop their ideas within a definite theoretical framework", and to that extent to have anticipated Kuhn's central point about "normal science". (But Popper criticised what he saw as Kuhn's relativism.) Also, in his collection Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge (Harper & Row, 1963), Popper writes, "Science must begin with myths, and with the criticism of myths; neither with the collection of observations, nor with the invention of experiments, but with the critical discussion of myths, and of magical techniques and practices. The scientific tradition is distinguished from the pre-scientific tradition in having two layers. Like the latter, it passes on its theories; but it also passes on a critical attitude towards them. The theories are passed on, not as dogmas, but rather with the challenge to discuss them and improve upon them."

question: Popper believed he had already discussed similar ideas to Kuhn's about scientific communities in what work?, answer: Logic of Discovery | question: What aspect of Kuhn's thinking did Popper criticize?, answer: relativism | question: What did Popper say must be the beginning phase of science?, answer: the critical discussion of myths | question: According to Popper, what second layer does scientific inquiry have that pre-scientific inquiry does not?, answer: a critical attitude
Popper coined the term "critical rationalism" to describe his philosophy. Concerning the method of science, the term indicates his rejection of classical empiricism, and the classical observationalist-inductivist account of science that had grown out of it. Popper argued strongly against the latter, holding that scientific theories are abstract in nature, and can be tested only indirectly, by reference to their implications. He also held that scientific theory, and human knowledge generally, is irreducibly conjectural or hypothetical, and is generated by the creative imagination to solve problems that have arisen in specific historico-cultural settings.

question: What term did Popper use for his philosophy?, answer: critical rationalism | question: Which account of scientific method did Popper's repudiate?, answer: the classical observationalist-inductivist account | question: What was Popper's position on classical empiricism?, answer: rejection | question: According to Popper, what is the only way one can test scientific theories because they are necessarily abstract?, answer: indirectly
Popper contrasts his views with the notion of the "hopeful monster" that has large phenotype mutations and calls it the "hopeful behavioural monster". After behaviour has changed radically, small but quick changes of the phenotype follow to make the organism fitter to its changed goals. This way it looks as if the phenotype were changing guided by some invisible hand, while it is merely natural selection working in combination with the new behaviour. For example, according to this hypothesis, the eating habits of the giraffe must have changed before its elongated neck evolved. Popper contrasted this view as "evolution from within" or "active Darwinism" (the organism actively trying to discover new ways of life and being on a quest for conquering new ecological niches), with the naturalistic "evolution from without" (which has the picture of a hostile environment only trying to kill the mostly passive organism, or perhaps segregate some of its groups).

question: Which view of evolution emphasizing large changes in organisms' phenotypes does Popper oppose to his own?, answer: hopeful monster | question: Which aspect of organisms changes most radically in the process of evolution Popper envisions?, answer: behaviour | question: How does Popper describe the "monsters" that evolve in his view of evolutionary processes?, answer: hopeful behavioural monster | question: What kind of Darwinism does Popper subscribe to in contrast to the naturalistic kind?, answer: active
Popper died of "complications of cancer, pneumonia and kidney failure" in Kenley at the age of 92 on 17 September 1994. He had been working continuously on his philosophy until two weeks before, when he suddenly fell terminally ill. After cremation, his ashes were taken to Vienna and buried at Lainzer cemetery adjacent to the ORF Centre, where his wife Josefine Anna Popper (called ‘Hennie’) had already been buried. Popper's estate is managed by his secretary and personal assistant Melitta Mew and her husband Raymond. Popper's manuscripts went to the Hoover Institution at Stanford University, partly during his lifetime and partly as supplementary material after his death. Klagenfurt University possesses Popper's library, including his precious bibliophilia, as well as hard copies of the original Hoover material and microfilms of the supplementary material. The remaining parts of the estate were mostly transferred to The Karl Popper Charitable Trust. In October 2008 Klagenfurt University acquired the copyrights from the estate.

question: How old was Popper when he died?, answer: 92 | question: Which cemetery in Vienna received Popper's ashes?, answer: Lainzer | question: Where are Popper's manuscripts kept now?, answer: Hoover Institution at Stanford University | question: Which university has the contents of Popper's library?, answer: Klagenfurt University | question: What was Popper's wife's name?, answer: Josefine Anna Popper
Popper had his own sophisticated views on evolution that go much beyond what the frequently-quoted passages say. In effect, Popper agreed with some of the points of both creationists and naturalists, but also disagreed with both views on crucial aspects. Popper understood the universe as a creative entity that invents new things, including life, but without the necessity of something like a god, especially not one who is pulling strings from behind the curtain. He said that evolution must, as the creationists say, work in a goal-directed way but disagreed with their view that it must necessarily be the hand of god that imposes these goals onto the stage of life.

question: Along with some creationists, Popper believed that evolution must have what quality to its progress?, answer: goal-directed | question: Popper disagreed with creationists that whose hand must be directing evolution?, answer: god | question: What kind of an entity did Popper believe the universe to be?, answer: creative
Popper held that rationality is not restricted to the realm of empirical or scientific theories, but that it is merely a special case of the general method of criticism, the method of finding and eliminating contradictions in knowledge without ad-hoc-measures. According to this view, rational discussion about metaphysical ideas, about moral values and even about purposes is possible. Popper's student W.W. Bartley III tried to radicalise this idea and made the controversial claim that not only can criticism go beyond empirical knowledge, but that everything can be rationally criticised.

question: Popper's rational approach opposes what technique sometimes used to remove contradictions in knowledge?, answer: ad-hoc-measures | question: Which of Popper's students argued that rational criticism should be most widely applied?, answer: W.W. Bartley III | question: What type of knowledge is not the only sphere of rational criticism, according to Popper's student W.W. Bartley III?, answer: empirical
Popper is known for his rejection of the classical inductivist views on the scientific method, in favour of empirical falsification: A theory in the empirical sciences can never be proven, but it can be falsified, meaning that it can and should be scrutinized by decisive experiments. He used the black swan fallacy to discuss falsification. If the outcome of an experiment contradicts the theory, one should refrain from ad hoc manoeuvres that evade the contradiction merely by making it less falsifiable. Popper is also known for his opposition to the classical justificationist account of knowledge, which he replaced with critical rationalism, "the first non-justificational philosophy of criticism in the history of philosophy."

question: Which classical views about the method of science did Popper reject?, answer: inductivist | question: Who proposed empirical falsification as the central principle of the scientific method?, answer: Popper | question: What is necessary for a scientific theory to be falsified?, answer: decisive experiments | question: Which account of knowledge did Popper contest?, answer: classical justificationist | question: What is the term for Popper's non-justificational theory of criticism?, answer: critical rationalism
Popper left school at the age of 16 and attended lectures in mathematics, physics, philosophy, psychology and the history of music as a guest student at the University of Vienna. In 1919, Popper became attracted by Marxism and subsequently joined the Association of Socialist School Students. He also became a member of the Social Democratic Workers' Party of Austria, which was at that time a party that fully adopted the Marxist ideology. After the street battle in the Hörlgasse on 15 June 1919, when police shot eight of his unarmed party comrades, he became disillusioned by what he saw to be the "pseudo-scientific" historical materialism of Marx, abandoned the ideology, and remained a supporter of social liberalism throughout his life.

question: At which age did Popper first attend university?, answer: 16 | question: What political doctrine interested Popper in 1919?, answer: Marxism | question: Which Austrian political party did Popper join as a youth?, answer: Social Democratic Workers' Party of Austria | question: What incident killed several of Poppers Marxist political comrades?, answer: street battle in the Hörlgasse | question: To which political philosophy did Popper continue to adhere after moving away from Marxism?, answer: social liberalism
Popper played a vital role in establishing the philosophy of science as a vigorous, autonomous discipline within philosophy, through his own prolific and influential works, and also through his influence on his own contemporaries and students. Popper founded in 1946 the Department of Philosophy, Logic and Scientific Method at the London School of Economics and there lectured and influenced both Imre Lakatos and Paul Feyerabend, two of the foremost philosophers of science in the next generation of philosophy of science. (Lakatos significantly modified Popper's position,:1 and Feyerabend repudiated it entirely, but the work of both is deeply influenced by Popper and engaged with many of the problems that Popper set.)

question: What branch of philosophy did Popper advance the most?, answer: philosophy of science | question: Which department did Popper found at the London School of Economics?, answer: Department of Philosophy, Logic and Scientific Method | question: Which two major philosophers of science learned a great deal from Popper at the London School Economics?, answer: Imre Lakatos and Paul Feyerabend | question: What did Paul Feyerabend ultimate do to Popper's philosophy of science?, answer: repudiated it entirely | question: Where did Popper establish a university department for the philosophy of science in 1946?, answer: London School of Economics
Popper puzzled over the stark contrast between the non-scientific character of Freud and Adler's theories in the field of psychology and the revolution set off by Einstein's theory of relativity in physics in the early 20th century. Popper thought that Einstein's theory, as a theory properly grounded in scientific thought and method, was highly "risky", in the sense that it was possible to deduce consequences from it which were, in the light of the then-dominant Newtonian physics, highly improbable (e.g., that light is deflected towards solid bodies—confirmed by Eddington's experiments in 1919), and which would, if they turned out to be false, falsify the whole theory. In contrast, nothing could, even in principle, falsify psychoanalytic theories. He thus came to the conclusion that psychoanalytic theories had more in common with primitive myths than with genuine science.

question: Which two important psychologists did Popper view as advancing non-scientific theories?, answer: Freud and Adler | question: Whose recent breakthrough in physics did Popper view as paradigmatic science?, answer: Einstein | question: What quality of the theory of relativity did Popper believe made it proper science?, answer: risky | question: What did Popper think psychoanalytic theory shared more feature with than real science ?, answer: primitive myths | question: What could you not do to psychoanalytic theory that Popper believed crucial in genuine science?, answer: falsify
Popper won many awards and honours in his field, including the Lippincott Award of the American Political Science Association, the Sonning Prize, the Otto Hahn Peace Medal of the United Nations Association of Germany in Berlin and fellowships in the Royal Society, British Academy, London School of Economics, King's College London, Darwin College, Cambridge, and Charles University, Prague. Austria awarded him the Grand Decoration of Honour in Gold for Services to the Republic of Austria in 1986, and the Federal Republic of Germany its Grand Cross with Star and Sash of the Order of Merit, and the peace class of the Order Pour le Mérite. He received the Humanist Laureate Award from the International Academy of Humanism. He was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II in 1965, and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1976. He was invested with the Insignia of a Companion of Honour in 1982.

question: Which award did Popper receive from the American Political Science Association?, answer: Lippincott Award | question: What recognition did Austria bestow on Popper in 1986?, answer: Grand Decoration of Honour in Gold for Services to the Republic of Austria | question: Who gave Popper its Humanist Laureate Award?, answer: International Academy of Humanism | question: Which English monarch knighted Popper?, answer: Queen Elizabeth II | question: Which central European university made Popper a fellow?, answer: Charles University, Prague
Popular music in Cyprus is generally influenced by the Greek Laïka scene; artists who play in this genre include international platinum star Anna Vissi, Evridiki, and Sarbel. Hip Hop, R&B and reggae have been supported by the emergence of Cypriot rap and the urban music scene at Ayia Napa. Cypriot rock music and Éntekhno rock is often associated with artists such as Michalis Hatzigiannis and Alkinoos Ioannidis. Metal also has a small following in Cyprus represented by bands such as Armageddon (rev.16:16), Blynd, Winter's Verge and Quadraphonic.

question: What influences popular music in Cyprus?, answer: Greek Laïka scene | question: What are some famous Cypriot artists?, answer: Anna Vissi, Evridiki, and Sarbel | question: What other genres of music are enjoyed in Cyprus?, answer: Hip Hop, R&B and reggae | question: What are some famous metal Cypriot bands?, answer: Armageddon (rev.16:16), Blynd, Winter's Verge and Quadraphonic | question: Which artists are associated with Cypriot rock music?, answer: Michalis Hatzigiannis and Alkinoos Ioannidis
Popular opinion remained firmly behind the celebration of Mary's conception. In 1439, the Council of Basel, which is not reckoned an ecumenical council, stated that belief in the immaculate conception of Mary is in accord with the Catholic faith. By the end of the 15th century the belief was widely professed and taught in many theological faculties, but such was the influence of the Dominicans, and the weight of the arguments of Thomas Aquinas (who had been canonised in 1323 and declared "Doctor Angelicus" of the Church in 1567) that the Council of Trent (1545–63)—which might have been expected to affirm the doctrine—instead declined to take a position.

question: Where did the mass majority stand in relation to having or not having the Mary inception festivals ?, answer: Popular opinion remained firmly behind the celebration of Mary's conception. | question: How did the Holy Roman Church rule on the matter of the festivals ?, answer: stated that belief in the immaculate conception of Mary is in accord with the Catholic faith. | question: Was the practce behind the meaning of the Mary inception festivals taught at Universities of theology ?, answer: end of the 15th century the belief was widely professed and taught in many theological faculties | question: In what year was the famous friar named Tom given a position as a saint of the Holy Roman Catholic Church ?, answer: Thomas Aquinas (who had been canonised in 1323 | question: What happened to Tom at one of the 1567 that changed his title ?, answer: declared "Doctor Angelicus" of the Church in 1567
Popular representations of John first began to emerge during the Tudor period, mirroring the revisionist histories of the time. The anonymous play The Troublesome Reign of King John portrayed the king as a "proto-Protestant martyr", similar to that shown in John Bale's morality play Kynge Johan, in which John attempts to save England from the "evil agents of the Roman Church". By contrast, Shakespeare's King John, a relatively anti-Catholic play that draws on The Troublesome Reign for its source material, offers a more "balanced, dual view of a complex monarch as both a proto-Protestant victim of Rome's machinations and as a weak, selfishly motivated ruler". Anthony Munday's play The Downfall and The Death of Robert Earl of Huntington portrays many of John's negative traits, but adopts a positive interpretation of the king's stand against the Roman Catholic Church, in line with the contemporary views of the Tudor monarchs. By the middle of the 17th century, plays such as Robert Davenport's King John and Matilda, although based largely on the earlier Elizabethan works, were transferring the role of Protestant champion to the barons and focusing more on the tyrannical aspects of John's behaviour.

question: When did popular representations of John begin to emerge?, answer: Tudor period | question: What was Anthony Munday's play?, answer: The Downfall and The Death of Robert Earl of Huntington | question: In The Troublesome Reign of King John, John portrayed the king as what?, answer: proto-Protestant martyr
Population geneticists have debated whether the concept of population can provide a basis for a new conception of race. In order to do this, a working definition of population must be found. Surprisingly, there is no generally accepted concept of population that biologists use. Although the concept of population is central to ecology, evolutionary biology and conservation biology, most definitions of population rely on qualitative descriptions such as "a group of organisms of the same species occupying a particular space at a particular time" Waples and Gaggiotti identify two broad types of definitions for populations; those that fall into an ecological paradigm, and those that fall into an evolutionary paradigm. Examples of such definitions are:

question: What type of geneticists have debates about what can provide a basis for a new conception of race?, answer: Population | question: What class of researchers surprisingly have no generally accepted concept of population?, answer: biologists | question: What do most definitions of population rely on?, answer: qualitative descriptions | question: What do Waples and Gaggiotti identify two broad types of?, answer: definitions for populations | question: What are both ecological and evolutionary definition modifiers of?, answer: paradigm
Population growth is higher than the national average, with a 6.4% increase, in the Somerset County Council area, since 1991, and a 17% increase since 1981. The population density is 1.4 persons per hectare, which can be compared to 2.07 persons per hectare for the South West region. Within the county, population density ranges 0.5 in West Somerset to 2.2 persons per hectare in Taunton Deane. The percentage of the population who are economically active is higher than the regional and national average, and the unemployment rate is lower than the regional and national average.

question: What is the population growth rate of Somerset county, answer: Population growth is higher than the national average, with a 6.4% increase, in the Somerset County Council area, since 1991, and a 17% increase since 1981 | question: The unemployment rate of the county, answer: the unemployment rate is lower than the regional and national average. | question: What percentage of the population is economically active, answer: is higher than the regional and national average
Population has outstripped the supply of freshwater, usually from rainfall. The northern atolls get 50 inches (1,300 mm) of rainfall annually; the southern atolls about twice that. The threat of drought is commonplace throughout the island chains.

question: How many millimeters of rain do the northern atolls of the Marshall Islands receive?, answer: 1,300 | question: What is the main source of fresh water for the Marshall Islands?, answer: rainfall | question: What is the Marshall Islands often threatened with?, answer: drought | question: How much more rain do the southern atolls get compared to the northern?, answer: twice
Population testing is still being done. Some Native American groups that have been sampled may not have shared the pattern of markers being searched for. Geneticists acknowledge that DNA testing cannot yet distinguish among members of differing cultural Native American nations. There is genetic evidence for three major migrations into North America, but not for more recent historic differentiation. In addition, not all Native Americans have been tested, so scientists do not know for sure that Native Americans have only the genetic markers they have identified.

question: Who says genetic tests can't tell the difference between different Native American nations?, answer: Geneticists | question: What are geneticists looking for?, answer: the pattern of markers | question: What is there genetic evidence of?, answer: three major migrations into North America