lmqg/qag_squad huggingface dataset:
However, the classification of madaris as "universities" is disputed on the question of understanding of each institution on its own terms. In madaris, the ijāzahs were only issued in one field, the Islamic religious law of sharīʻah, and in no other field of learning. Other academic subjects, including the natural sciences, philosophy and literary studies, were only treated "ancillary" to the study of the Sharia. For example, a natural science like astronomy was only studied (if at all) to supply religious needs, like the time for prayer. This is why Ptolemaic astronomy was considered adequate, and is still taught in some modern day madaris. The Islamic law undergraduate degree from al-Azhar, the most prestigious madrasa, was traditionally granted without final examinations, but on the basis of the students' attentive attendance to courses. In contrast to the medieval doctorate which was granted by the collective authority of the faculty, the Islamic degree was not granted by the teacher to the pupil based on any formal criteria, but remained a "personal matter, the sole prerogative of the person bestowing it; no one could force him to give one".

question: What field does the ijazah signify expertise in?, answer: Islamic religious law of sharīʻah | question: What was the purpose of studying natural sciences in madaris?, answer: supply religious needs | question: Who decided if a student earned a law degree in undergraduate madaris?, answer: the teacher | question: What scientific discipline is still taught in modern madaris?, answer: Ptolemaic astronomy | question: What is considered the most famous madrasa?, answer: al-Azhar
However, the collapsing Ottoman economy could not sustain the fleet's strength for too long. Sultan Abdülhamid II distrusted the admirals who sided with the reformist Midhat Pasha, and claimed that the large and expensive fleet was of no use against the Russians during the Russo-Turkish War. He locked most of the fleet inside the Golden Horn, where the ships decayed for the next 30 years. Following the Young Turk Revolution in 1908, the Committee of Union and Progress sought to develop a strong Ottoman naval force. The Ottoman Navy Foundation was established in 1910 to buy new ships through public donations.

question: Which sultan distrusted his admirals during the Russo-Turkish war?, answer: Sultan Abdülhamid II | question: Who was the reformist that had the backing of Ottoman admirals during the Russo-Turkish war?, answer: Midhat Pasha | question: Where was the Ottoman fleet left to decay?, answer: the Golden Horn | question: When was the Young Turk Revolution?, answer: 1908 | question: What Ottoman group wanted to form a stronger navy in the early 20th century?, answer: the Committee of Union and Progress
However, the crisis did not exist in a void; it came after a long series of diplomatic clashes between the Great Powers over European and colonial issues in the decade prior to 1914 which had left tensions high. The diplomatic clashes can be traced to changes in the balance of power in Europe since 1870. An example is the Baghdad Railway which was planned to connect the Ottoman Empire cities of Konya and Baghdad with a line through modern-day Turkey, Syria and Iraq. The railway became a source of international disputes during the years immediately preceding World War I. Although it has been argued that they were resolved in 1914 before the war began, it has also been argued that the railroad was a cause of the First World War. Fundamentally the war was sparked by tensions over territory in the Balkans. Austria-Hungary competed with Serbia and Russia for territory and influence in the region and they pulled the rest of the great powers into the conflict through their various alliances and treaties. The Balkan Wars were two wars in South-eastern Europe in 1912–1913 in the course of which the Balkan League (Bulgaria, Montenegro, Greece, and Serbia) first captured Ottoman-held remaining part of Thessaly, Macedonia, Epirus, Albania and most of Thrace and then fell out over the division of the spoils, with incorporation of Romania this time.

question: Where was the Baghdad Railway Suppose to connect?, answer: Ottoman Empire cities of Konya and Baghdad with a line through modern-day Turkey, Syria and Iraq | question: What fundamental cause started the war in 1914?, answer: tensions over territory in the Balkans. | question: Who did Austria-Hungary war with over territory?, answer: Serbia and Russia | question: Where did the Balkan wars take place?, answer: South-eastern Europe | question: Why did Albania fall out with Thessaly, Macedonia and Epirus?, answer: over the division of the spoils
However, the division of power as foreseen by the constitution soon resulted in legal impasses and discontent on both sides, and nationalist militants started training again, with the military support of Greece and Turkey respectively. The Greek Cypriot leadership believed that the rights given to Turkish Cypriots under the 1960 constitution were too extensive and designed the Akritas plan, which was aimed at reforming the constitution in favour of Greek Cypriots, persuading the international community about the correctness of the changes and violently subjugating Turkish Cypriots in a few days should they not accept the plan. Tensions were heightened when Cypriot President Archbishop Makarios III called for constitutional changes, which were rejected by Turkey and opposed by Turkish Cypriots.

question: National militants had the support of what two countries?, answer: Greece and Turkey | question: What was the goal of the Akritas plan?, answer: reforming the constitution in favour of Greek Cypriots | question: Which president called for constitutional changes?, answer: President Archbishop Makarios | question: Who rejected the constitutional changes proposed by President Archbishop Makarios?, answer: Turkey
However, the formation of one's identity occurs through one's identifications with significant others (primarily with parents and other individuals during one's biographical experiences, and also with "groups" as they are perceived). These others may be benign - such that one aspires to their characteristics, values and beliefs (a process of idealistic-identification), or malign - when one wishes to dissociate from their characteristics (a process of defensive contra-identification) (Weinreich & Saunderson 2003, Chapter 1, pp 54–61).

question: What is it called when someone aspires to the characteristics of significant others?, answer: benign | question: What is it called when someone wants to dissociate from the characteristics of significant others?, answer: malign | question: Dissociating from the characteristics of significant others is a process of what?, answer: defensive contra-identification | question: The formation of identity occurs through identifications with whom?, answer: significant others
However, the lifecycles of most living polychaetes, which are almost all marine animals, are unknown, and only about 25% of the 300+ species whose lifecycles are known follow this pattern. About 14% use a similar external fertilization but produce yolk-rich eggs, which reduce the time the larva needs to spend among the plankton, or eggs from which miniature adults emerge rather than larvae. The rest care for the fertilized eggs until they hatch – some by producing jelly-covered masses of eggs which they tend, some by attaching the eggs to their bodies and a few species by keeping the eggs within their bodies until they hatch. These species use a variety of methods for sperm transfer; for example, in some the females collect sperm released into the water, while in others the males have a penis that inject sperm into the female. There is no guarantee that this is a representative sample of polychaetes' reproductive patterns, and it simply reflects scientists' current knowledge.

question: How many species of polychaetes have known lifecycles?, answer: about 25% | question: What percent of polychaetes produce yolk-rich eggs?, answer: 14% | question: What is the benefit of yolk-rich eggs?, answer: reduce the time the larva needs to spend among the plankton | question: What are most polychaetes' eggs covered in?, answer: jelly
However, the prime example of reference works that systematized scientific knowledge in the age of Enlightenment were universal encyclopedias rather than technical dictionaries. It was the goal of universal encyclopedias to record all human knowledge in a comprehensive reference work. The most well-known of these works is Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert's Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers. The work, which began publication in 1751, was composed of thirty-five volumes and over 71 000 separate entries. A great number of the entries were dedicated to describing the sciences and crafts in detail, and provided intellectuals across Europe with a high-quality survey of human knowledge. In d'Alembert's Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot, the work's goal to record the extent of human knowledge in the arts and sciences is outlined:

question: What were the prime examples of reference works that systemasized scientific knowledge in the age oif Enlightenment?, answer: universal encyclopedias | question: What was the goal of universal encyclopedias?, answer: to record all human knowledge in a comprehensive reference work | question: Which universal encyclopedia began publication in 1751 and was composed of 35 volumes and over 71,000 seperate entries?, answer: Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers | question: In what work is the goal to record the extent of human knowledge in the arts and sciences outlined?, answer: Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot | question: Who wrote the Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot?, answer: d'Alembert's
However, the problem of deflection settings — 'aim-off' — required knowing the rate of change in the target's position. Both France and UK introduced tachymetric devices to track targets and produce vertical and horizontal deflection angles. The French Brocq system was electrical, the operator entered the target range and had displays at guns; it was used with their 75 mm. The British Wilson-Dalby gun director used a pair of trackers and mechanical tachymetry; the operator entered the fuse length, and deflection angles were read from the instruments.

question: What did the tachymetric devices do?, answer: track targets and produce vertical and horizontal deflection angles | question: Which system had electrical tracking?, answer: French Brocq | question: What gun was the French Brocq system used with?, answer: 75 mm | question: Which system used a pair of trackers?, answer: British Wilson-Dalby gun director | question: Deflection settings were also called what?, answer: aim-off
However, there is significant disagreement within Orthodox Judaism, particularly between Haredi Judaism and Modern Orthodox Judaism, about the extent and circumstances under which the proper application of Halakha should be re-examined as a result of changing realities. As a general rule, Haredi Jews believe that when at all possible the law should be maintained as it was understood by their authorities at the haskalah, believing that it had never changed. Modern Orthodox authorities are more willing to assume that under scrupulous examination, identical principles may lead to different applications in the context of modern life. To the Orthodox Jew, halakha is a guide, God's Law, governing the structure of daily life from the moment he or she wakes up to the moment he goes to sleep. It includes codes of behaviour applicable to a broad range of circumstances (and many hypothetical ones). There are though a number of halakhic meta-principles that guide the halakhic process and in an instance of opposition between a specific halakha and a meta-principle, the meta-principle often wins out . Examples of Halakhic Meta-Principles are: "Deracheha Darchei Noam" - the ways of Torah are pleasant, "Kavod Habriyot" - basic respect for human beings, "Pikuach Nefesh" - the sanctity of human life.

question: What do haredi Judaism and modern orthodox Judaism disagree about the application of?, answer: Halakha | question: what law is halakha to the Orthodox Jew?, answer: God's Law, | question: Basic respect for human beings is known as what?, answer: "Kavod Habriyot" | question: The sanctiy of human life is known as what?, answer: "Pikuach Nefesh" | question: What does halakha guide?, answer: structure of daily life
However, this was not always the case; in the early 20th century, once it became apparent that the "sport" was worked, pro wrestling was looked down on as a cheap entertainment for the uneducated working class — an attitude that still exists to varying degrees today. The French theorist Roland Barthes was among the first to propose that wrestling was worthy of deeper analysis, in his essay "The World of Wrestling" from his book Mythologies, first published in 1957. Barthes argued that it should be looked at not as a scamming of the ignorant, but as spectacle; a mode of theatric performance for a willing, if bloodthirsty, audience. Wrestling is described as performed art which demands an immediate reading of the juxtaposed meanings. The logical conclusion is given least importance over the theatrical performers of the wrestlers and the referee. According to Barthes, the function of a wrestler is not to win: it is to go exactly through the motions which are expected of them and to give the audience a theatrical spectacle. This work is considered a foundation of all later study.

question: What impact did the revelation of wrestling being "fixed" have?, answer: looked down on as a cheap entertainment for the uneducated working class | question: When was Roland Barthes book published?, answer: 1957 | question: What did Barthes believe a wrestler give the audience?, answer: a theatrical spectacle | question: What was the name of Roland Barthes' essay?, answer: "The World of Wrestling"
However, with the Glorious Revolution of 1688 the Church of Scotland was finally unequivocally recognised as a Presbyterian institution by the monarch due to Scottish Presbyterian support for the aforementioned revolution and the Acts of Union 1707 between Scotland and England guaranteed the Church of Scotland's form of government. However, legislation by the United Kingdom parliament allowing patronage led to splits in the Church. In 1733, a group of ministers seceded from the Church of Scotland to form the Associate Presbytery, another group seceded in 1761 to form the Relief Church and the Disruption of 1843 led to the formation of the Free Church of Scotland. Further splits took place, especially over theological issues, but most Presbyterians in Scotland were reunited by 1929 union of the established Church of Scotland and the United Free Church of Scotland.

question: In what year was the Church of Scotland recognized as a Presbyterian institution by the moncarh?, answer: 1688 | question: Which group was formed when ministries seceded from The Church of Scotland in 1733?, answer: Associate Presbytery | question: What year were most Presbyterians in Scotland reunited?, answer: 1929 | question: Which two groups were involved in the reuniting of Scotland's Presbyterian churches?, answer: Church of Scotland and the United Free Church of Scotland
Howison's personal idealism was also called "California Personalism" by others to distinguish it from the "Boston Personalism" which was of Bowne. Howison maintained that both impersonal, monistic idealism and materialism run contrary to the experience of moral freedom. To deny freedom to pursue truth, beauty, and "benignant love" is to undermine every profound human venture, including science, morality, and philosophy. Personalistic idealists Borden Parker Bowne and Edgar S. Brightman and realistic personal theist Saint Thomas Aquinas address a core issue, namely that of dependence upon an infinite personal God.

question: Who was an exponent of so-called "Boston Personalism"?, answer: Bowne | question: What was the term given to the personal idealism of Howison?, answer: California Personalism | question: Who is a notable realistic personal theist?, answer: Saint Thomas Aquinas | question: What issue do both Aquinas and Brightman discuss?, answer: dependence upon an infinite personal God | question: What sort of freedom did Howison believe was incompatible with materialism?, answer: moral
Human interference has nearly exterminated the trees in many areas, and, except for the beech forests of the Austrian Alps, forests of deciduous trees are rarely found after the extreme deforestation between the 17th and 19th centuries. The vegetation has changed since the second half of the 20th century, as the high alpine meadows cease to be harvested for hay or used for grazing which eventually might result in a regrowth of forest. In some areas the modern practice of building ski runs by mechanical means has destroyed the underlying tundra from which the plant life cannot recover during the non-skiing months, whereas areas that still practice a natural piste type of ski slope building preserve the fragile underlayers.

question: What has nearly exterminated the trees in many areas?, answer: Human interference | question: What are rarely found after the extreme deforestation between the 17th and 19th centuries?, answer: forests of deciduous trees | question: What has changed since the second half of the 20th century?, answer: The vegetation | question: The practice of building ski runs by mechanical means has destroyed what?, answer: the underlying tundra
Human sacrifice in ancient Rome was rare but documented. After the Roman defeat at Cannae two Gauls and two Greeks were buried under the Forum Boarium, in a stone chamber "which had on a previous occasion [228 BC] also been polluted by human victims, a practice most repulsive to Roman feelings". Livy avoids the word "sacrifice" in connection with this bloodless human life-offering; Plutarch does not. The rite was apparently repeated in 113 BC, preparatory to an invasion of Gaul. Its religious dimensions and purpose remain uncertain.

question: What type of sacrifice was rare in Rome?, answer: Human | question: What act was repulsive to Romans?, answer: Human sacrifice | question: How were sacrifices of humans carried out in Rome?, answer: buried | question: Before the invasion of what area was human sacrifice carried out?, answer: Gaul | question: When was the invasion of Gaul by Rome?, answer: 113 BC
Human settlement of the New World occurred in stages from the Bering sea coast line, with an initial 15,000 to 20,000-year layover on Beringia for the small founding population. The micro-satellite diversity and distributions of the Y lineage specific to South America indicates that certain indigenous peoples of the Americas populations have been isolated since the initial colonization of the region. The Na-Dené, Inuit and Indigenous Alaskan populations exhibit haplogroup Q (Y-DNA) mutations, however are distinct from other indigenous peoples of the Americas with various mtDNA and atDNA mutations. This suggests that the earliest migrants into the northern extremes of North America and Greenland derived from later migrant populations.

question: What did human settlement of the New World occur in?, answer: stages | question: How long of a layover did the human nomads have in Beringia?, answer: 15,000 to 20,000-year | question: What do the diversity and distributions of Y lineage specific to South America indicate about certain peoples there?, answer: isolated since the initial colonization of the region | question: What population has mtDNA and atDNA mutations, making them distinct from other indigenous peoples of the Americas?, answer: Alaskan | question: What does the DNA evidence suggest about the migrants into the northern extremes of North America?, answer: later migrant populations
Humanism is a philosophical and ethical stance that emphasizes the value and agency of human beings, individually and collectively, and generally prefers critical thinking and evidence (rationalism, empiricism) over acceptance of dogma or superstition. The meaning of the term humanism has fluctuated according to the successive intellectual movements which have identified with it. Generally, however, humanism refers to a perspective that affirms some notion of human freedom and progress. In modern times, humanist movements are typically aligned with secularism, and today humanism typically refers to a non-theistic life stance centred on human agency and looking to science rather than revelation from a supernatural source to understand the world.

question: What can be seen as of essential importance to a practiced of humanism?, answer: human beings | question: What is a common tenant of humanism?, answer: freedom and progress | question: What can be credited for the changes in the definition of humanism?, answer: intellectual movements | question: These days humanism could be viewed as a form of what?, answer: secularism | question: Instead of turning to a spiritual or divine source practicers of humanism turn to what?, answer: science
Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective which rose to prominence in the mid-20th century in response to Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory and B. F. Skinner's Behaviorism. The approach emphasizes an individual's inherent drive towards self-actualization and creativity. Psychologists Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow introduced a positive, humanistic psychology in response to what they viewed as the overly pessimistic view of psychoanalysis in the early 1960s. Other sources include the philosophies of existentialism and phenomenology.

question: Who wotked with Carl Rogers on humanistic phycology?, answer: Abraham Maslow | question: What is human phycology?, answer: psychological perspective | question: In what century did humanistic phycology rise in prominence?, answer: 20th century | question: They introduced it in response to what?, answer: psychoanalysis
Humanists reacted against this utilitarian approach and the narrow pedantry associated with it. They sought to create a citizenry (frequently including women) able to speak and write with eloquence and clarity and thus capable of engaging the civic life of their communities and persuading others to virtuous and prudent actions. This was to be accomplished through the study of the studia humanitatis, today known as the humanities: grammar, rhetoric, history, poetry and moral philosophy. As a program to revive the cultural – and particularly the literary – legacy and moral philosophy of classical antiquity, Humanism was a pervasive cultural mode and not the program of a few isolated geniuses like Rabelais or Erasmus as is still sometimes popularly believed.

question: What was it about the utilitatian beliefs that humanism believers did not like?, answer: narrow pedantry | question: What group that had been to this point neglected was included in this thought?, answer: women | question: What foundation of study allowed for the accomplishment of the goal of a scholarly people?, answer: humanities | question: Was the humanism of the time limited to scholars?, answer: pervasive cultural mode