lmqg/qag_squad huggingface dataset:
Matte solder is usually fused to provide a better bonding surface or stripped to bare copper. Treatments, such as benzimidazolethiol, prevent surface oxidation of bare copper. The places to which components will be mounted are typically plated, because untreated bare copper oxidizes quickly, and therefore is not readily solderable. Traditionally, any exposed copper was coated with solder by hot air solder levelling (HASL). The HASL finish prevents oxidation from the underlying copper, thereby guaranteeing a solderable surface. This solder was a tin-lead alloy, however new solder compounds are now used to achieve compliance with the RoHS directive in the EU and US, which restricts the use of lead. One of these lead-free compounds is SN100CL, made up of 99.3% tin, 0.7% copper, 0.05% nickel, and a nominal of 60ppm germanium.

question: What happens to untreated copper that makes it difficult to solder?, answer: oxidizes | question: What chemical treatment will prevent bare copper from oxidizing?, answer: benzimidazolethiol | question: What's the process by which bare copper gets covered in solder?, answer: hot air solder levelling | question: What does hot air solder leveling ensure the coated copper will have?, answer: solderable surface | question: What alloy can no longer be used in HASL because of restrictions on the use of one of its metal components?, answer: tin-lead
Matter commonly exists in four states (or phases): solid, liquid and gas, and plasma. However, advances in experimental techniques have revealed other previously theoretical phases, such as Bose–Einstein condensates and fermionic condensates. A focus on an elementary-particle view of matter also leads to new phases of matter, such as the quark–gluon plasma. For much of the history of the natural sciences people have contemplated the exact nature of matter. The idea that matter was built of discrete building blocks, the so-called particulate theory of matter, was first put forward by the Greek philosophers Leucippus (~490 BC) and Democritus (~470–380 BC).

question: How many phases of matter are there?, answer: four | question: What new phase of matter can be considered with a focus on elementary particles?, answer: quark–gluon plasma | question: What is the theory that matter is made up of discrete building blocks called?, answer: particulate theory of matter | question: What colleague of Democritus, also a Greek philosopher, helped him propose the particulate theory of matter?, answer: Leucippus | question: People have been wondering about the nature of matter for the entire history of what branch of science?, answer: natural sciences
Matter may be converted to energy (and vice versa), but mass cannot ever be destroyed; rather, mass/energy equivalence remains a constant for both the matter and the energy, during any process when they are converted into each other. However, since is extremely large relative to ordinary human scales, the conversion of ordinary amount of matter (for example, 1 kg) to other forms of energy (such as heat, light, and other radiation) can liberate tremendous amounts of energy (~ joules = 21 megatons of TNT), as can be seen in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. Conversely, the mass equivalent of a unit of energy is minuscule, which is why a loss of energy (loss of mass) from most systems is difficult to measure by weight, unless the energy loss is very large. Examples of energy transformation into matter (i.e., kinetic energy into particles with rest mass) are found in high-energy nuclear physics.

question: Matter may be converted to what?, answer: energy | question: Energy may be converted to what?, answer: Matter | question: Why is a loss of energy difficult to measure by weight?, answer: mass equivalent of a unit of energy is minuscule | question: Where are examples of energy transformation into matter found?, answer: high-energy nuclear physics
Matter should not be confused with mass, as the two are not quite the same in modern physics. For example, mass is a conserved quantity, which means that its value is unchanging through time, within closed systems. However, matter is not conserved in such systems, although this is not obvious in ordinary conditions on Earth, where matter is approximately conserved. Still, special relativity shows that matter may disappear by conversion into energy, even inside closed systems, and it can also be created from energy, within such systems. However, because mass (like energy) can neither be created nor destroyed, the quantity of mass and the quantity of energy remain the same during a transformation of matter (which represents a certain amount of energy) into non-material (i.e., non-matter) energy. This is also true in the reverse transformation of energy into matter.

question: What similar term is often used interchangeably with matter, although the two differ slightly in modern physics?, answer: mass | question: Being a conserved quantity means that the value of mass doesn't ever change as long as it's in what kind of system?, answer: closed | question: Special relativity says matter can disappear by conversion into what state?, answer: energy | question: What planet isn't a closed system but sometimes appears to be because of the approximate conservation of matter?, answer: Earth
Matthew Arnold contrasted "culture" with anarchy; other Europeans, following philosophers Thomas Hobbes and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, contrasted "culture" with "the state of nature". According to Hobbes and Rousseau, the Native Americans who were being conquered by Europeans from the 16th centuries on were living in a state of nature; this opposition was expressed through the contrast between "civilized" and "uncivilized." According to this way of thinking, one could classify some countries and nations as more civilized than others and some people as more cultured than others. This contrast led to Herbert Spencer's theory of Social Darwinism and Lewis Henry Morgan's theory of cultural evolution. Just as some critics have argued that the distinction between high and low cultures is really an expression of the conflict between European elites and non-elites, some critics have argued that the distinction between civilized and uncivilized people is really an expression of the conflict between European colonial powers and their colonial subjects.

question: How did Matthew Arnold view "Culture" with?, answer: anarchy | question: Which two philosophers contrasted "culture" with the state of nature?, answer: Thomas Hobbes and Jean-Jacques Rousseau | question: Which race was considered living "in a state of nature" by the Europeans?, answer: Native Americans | question: "In a state of nature" was divided into two groups, what where they?, answer: "civilized" and "uncivilized."
Maximilian was deeply dissatisfied with General Bazaine's decision to abandon the state capital of Chihuahua and immediately ordered Agustín B. Billaut to recapture the city. On December 11, 1865, Billaut with a force of 500 men took control of the city. By January 31, 1866 Billaut was ordered to leave Chihuahua, but he left behind 500 men to maintain control. At the zenith of their power, the imperialist forces controlled all but four states in Mexico; the only states to maintain strong opposition to the French were: Guerrero, Chihuahua, Sonora, and Baja California.

question: Who was deeply dissatisfied with Bazaine's decision to abandon Chihuahua?, answer: Maximilian | question: How many men did Billaut have when he recaptured the city?, answer: 500 | question: At its zenith, the imperialist forces controlled all but how many states in Mexico?, answer: four | question: Which four states opposed the French?, answer: Guerrero, Chihuahua, Sonora, and Baja California | question: In which year did Billaut capture Chihuahua?, answer: 1865
Maximum power transfer requires matching the impedance of an antenna system (as seen looking into the transmission line) to the complex conjugate of the impedance of the receiver or transmitter. In the case of a transmitter, however, the desired matching impedance might not correspond to the dynamic output impedance of the transmitter as analyzed as a source impedance but rather the design value (typically 50 ohms) required for efficient and safe operation of the transmitting circuitry. The intended impedance is normally resistive but a transmitter (and some receivers) may have additional adjustments to cancel a certain amount of reactance in order to "tweak" the match. When a transmission line is used in between the antenna and the transmitter (or receiver) one generally would like an antenna system whose impedance is resistive and near the characteristic impedance of that transmission line in order to minimize the standing wave ratio (SWR) and the increase in transmission line losses it entails, in addition to supplying a good match at the transmitter or receiver itself.

question: What requires matching of the empedance to an antenna system?, answer: Maximum power transfer | question: Why would a transmitter have additional adjustments?, answer: "tweak" the match | question: What is SWR?, answer: standing wave ratio | question: What is the desired design value for transmmiting circuitry?, answer: 50 ohms
McKerrow had articulated textual criticism's goal in terms of "our ideal of an author's fair copy of his work in its final state". Bowers asserted that editions founded on Greg's method would "represent the nearest approximation in every respect of the author's final intentions." Bowers stated similarly that the editor's task is to "approximate as nearly as possible an inferential authorial fair copy." Tanselle notes that, "Textual criticism ... has generally been undertaken with a view to reconstructing, as accurately as possible, the text finally intended by the author".

question: What are editors trying to ultimately accomplish?, answer: our ideal of an author's fair copy of his work in its final state | question: If an editor can't achieve an exact reproduction of an authors work, what should be the goal?, answer: approximate as nearly as possible an inferential authorial fair copy | question: What did Bower's say about Greg's method?, answer: represent the nearest approximation in every respect of the author's final intentions | question: What did Tanselle say about textual criticism?, answer: has generally been undertaken with a view to reconstructing, as accurately as possible, the text finally intended by the author
Mean speeds vary greatly, but is typically around 1 m (3 ft) per day. There may be no motion in stagnant areas; for example, in parts of Alaska, trees can establish themselves on surface sediment deposits. In other cases, glaciers can move as fast as 20–30 m (70–100 ft) per day, such as in Greenland's Jakobshavn Isbræ (Greenlandic: Sermeq Kujalleq). Velocity increases with increasing slope, increasing thickness, increasing snowfall, increasing longitudinal confinement, increasing basal temperature, increasing meltwater production and reduced bed hardness.

question: In what area of Greenland can glaciers move 20-30m per day?, answer: Jakobshavn Isbræ | question: Increasing slope, thickness, snowfall, longitudinal confinement, basal temperature, and meltwater production result in increased what?, answer: Velocity | question: How far do glaciers generally move per day?, answer: 1 m (3 ft) | question: Why are some glaciers stagnant in Alaska?, answer: trees can establish themselves on surface sediment deposits
Meanwhile, Andreas Papandreou founded the Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK) in response to Karamanlis's conservative New Democracy party, with the two political formations alternating in government ever since. Greece rejoined NATO in 1980. Greece became the tenth member of the European Communities (subsequently subsumed by the European Union) on 1 January 1981, ushering in a period of sustained growth. Widespread investments in industrial enterprises and heavy infrastructure, as well as funds from the European Union and growing revenues from tourism, shipping and a fast-growing service sector raised the country's standard of living to unprecedented levels. Traditionally strained relations with neighbouring Turkey improved when successive earthquakes hit both nations in 1999, leading to the lifting of the Greek veto against Turkey's bid for EU membership.

question: Who founded the PASOK?, answer: Andreas Papandreou | question: What does PASOK stand for?, answer: Panhellenic Socialist Movement | question: In what year did Greece rejoin NATO?, answer: 1980 | question: Earthquakes hit both Greece and Turkey in which year?, answer: 1999 | question: Greece joined what later became the European Union when?, answer: 1 January 1981
Meanwhile, Begin's government provided incentives for Israelis to settle in the occupied West Bank, increasing friction with the Palestinians in that area. The Basic Law: Jerusalem, the Capital of Israel, passed in 1980, was believed by some to reaffirm Israel's 1967 annexation of Jerusalem by government decree, and reignited international controversy over the status of the city. No Israeli legislation has defined the territory of Israel and no act specifically included East Jerusalem therein. The position of the majority of UN member states is reflected in numerous resolutions declaring that actions taken by Israel to settle its citizens in the West Bank, and impose its laws and administration on East Jerusalem, are illegal and have no validity. In 1981 Israel annexed the Golan Heights, although annexation was not recognized internationally.

question: When did Israel annex the Golan Heights?, answer: 1981 | question: What is the Capital of Israel?, answer: Jerusalem | question: Who provided incentives for Israelis to settle in the occupied West Bank?, answer: Begin's government
Meanwhile, Elisha Gray was also experimenting with acoustic telegraphy and thought of a way to transmit speech using a water transmitter. On February 14, 1876, Gray filed a caveat with the U.S. Patent Office for a telephone design that used a water transmitter. That same morning, Bell's lawyer filed Bell's application with the patent office. There is considerable debate about who arrived first and Gray later challenged the primacy of Bell's patent. Bell was in Boston on February 14 and did not arrive in Washington until February 26.

question: What material did Elisha Gray use to convey sound?, answer: water | question: On what date did Gray and Bell both put in for a patent?, answer: February 14, 1876 | question: On what day did Bell get to Washington?, answer: February 26 | question: What office in Washington did Bell and Gray visit?, answer: U.S. Patent Office | question: What sort of machine did Bell and Gray both try to patent at the same time?, answer: telephone
Meanwhile, Kerry's staff began their own investigations and, on October 14, issued a report that exposed illegal activities on the part of Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North, who had set up a private network involving the National Security Council and the CIA to deliver military equipment to right-wing Nicaraguan rebels (Contras). In effect, North and certain members of the President's administration were accused by Kerry's report of illegally funding and supplying armed militants without the authorization of Congress. Kerry's staff investigation, based on a year-long inquiry and interviews with fifty unnamed sources, is said to raise "serious questions about whether the United States has abided by the law in its handling of the contras over the past three years."

question: Who did Kerry's staff expose in an Oct 14 report?, answer: Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North | question: Who had Oliver North been supporting?, answer: right-wing Nicaraguan rebels (Contras) | question: What crime had Kerry said North committed?, answer: illegally funding and supplying armed militants without the authorization of Congress | question: Who were the Contras?, answer: right-wing Nicaraguan rebels | question: What government agencies worked with North?, answer: the National Security Council and the CIA
Meanwhile, Le Verrier by letter urged Berlin Observatory astronomer Johann Gottfried Galle to search with the observatory's refractor. Heinrich d'Arrest, a student at the observatory, suggested to Galle that they could compare a recently drawn chart of the sky in the region of Le Verrier's predicted location with the current sky to seek the displacement characteristic of a planet, as opposed to a fixed star. On the evening of 23 September 1846, the day Galle received the letter, he discovered Neptune within 1° of where Le Verrier had predicted it to be, about 12° from Adams' prediction. Challis later realised that he had observed the planet twice, on 4 and 12 August, but did not recognise it as a planet because he lacked an up-to-date star map and was distracted by his concurrent work on comet observations.

question: Who was Henrich d'Arrest?, answer: student at the observatory | question: When did Galle discover Neptune?, answer: 23 September 1846 | question: How many degrees off was Adams' prediction?, answer: 12° | question: What did Henrich d'Arrest seek to find?, answer: the displacement characteristic of a planet | question: What was Challis looking for when he saw Neptune the first two times?, answer: comet observations
Meanwhile, U.S. garrisons in Japan continually dispatched soldiers and matériel to reinforce defenders in the Pusan Perimeter. Tank battalions deployed to Korea directly from the U.S. mainland from the port of San Francisco to the port of Pusan, the largest Korean port. By late August, the Pusan Perimeter had some 500 medium tanks battle-ready. In early September 1950, ROK Army and UN Command forces outnumbered the KPA 180,000 to 100,000 soldiers. The UN forces, once prepared, counterattacked and broke out of the Pusan Perimeter.

question: Where in the United States was the tank battalion located?, answer: San Francisco | question: What is Korea's largest port?, answer: the port of Pusan | question: Besides the United States, what other country sent military personnel to Korea?, answer: Japan | question: Who had the fewest number of troops in Korea?, answer: KPA | question: Who was able to counterattack and move the KPA away from the Pusan Perimeter?, answer: UN forces
Meanwhile, he had written to Abu Ya'far, the prefect of the dynamic city of Isfahan, offering his services. The new emir of Hamadan, hearing of this correspondence and discovering where Ibn Sina was hiding, incarcerated him in a fortress. War meanwhile continued between the rulers of Isfahan and Hamadãn; in 1024 the former captured Hamadan and its towns, expelling the Tajik mercenaries. When the storm had passed, Ibn Sina returned with the emir to Hamadan, and carried on his literary labors. Later, however, accompanied by his brother, a favorite pupil, and two slaves, Ibn Sina escaped from the city in the dress of a Sufi ascetic. After a perilous journey, they reached Isfahan, receiving an honorable welcome from the prince.

question: Where did Ibn Sina hope to flee to after Hamadan?, answer: city of Isfahan | question: What two cities were at war during this time?, answer: Isfahan and Hamadãn | question: What year did Isfahan gain victory over Hamadan?, answer: 1024 | question: What mercenaries were expelled after Isfahan's victory over Hamadan?, answer: the Tajik | question: How did Ibn Sina escape from Hamadan?, answer: in the dress of a Sufi ascetic
Meanwhile, in January 1968, Nasser commenced the War of Attrition to reclaim territory captured by Israel, ordering attacks against Israeli positions east of the then-blockaded Suez Canal. In March, Nasser offered Yasser Arafat's Fatah movement arms and funds after their performance against Israeli forces in the Battle of Karameh that month. He also advised Arafat to think of peace with Israel and the establishment of a Palestinian state comprising the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. Nasser effectively ceded his leadership of the "Palestine issue" to Arafat.

question: What was the endeavor to reclaim territory from Israel called?, answer: War of Attrition | question: In what year did the War of Attrition begin?, answer: 1968 | question: Who led the Fatah movement?, answer: Yasser Arafat | question: In what battle had the Fatah movement distinguished itself?, answer: Battle of Karameh | question: To whom did Nasser give authority to deal with Israel?, answer: Arafat
Meanwhile, in Renaissance Italy, a new period in the history of translation had opened in Florence with the arrival, at the court of Cosimo de' Medici, of the Byzantine scholar Georgius Gemistus Pletho shortly before the fall of Constantinople to the Turks (1453). A Latin translation of Plato's works was undertaken by Marsilio Ficino. This and Erasmus' Latin edition of the New Testament led to a new attitude to translation. For the first time, readers demanded rigor of rendering, as philosophical and religious beliefs depended on the exact words of Plato, Aristotle and Jesus.

question: Whose court did Pletho arrive in and begin a new period of translation in Renaissance Italy?, answer: Cosimo de' Medici | question: What title did Georgius Gemistus Pletho carry?, answer: Byzantine scholar | question: When did Constantinople fall to the Turks?, answer: 1453 | question: Who undertook translating Plato's works to Latin?, answer: Marsilio Ficino | question: What did religious beliefs depend upon when it came to Plato, Aristotle and Jesus?, answer: the exact words
Meanwhile, on 10 October 1950, the 89th Tank Battalion was attached to the 1st Cavalry Division, increasing the armor available for the Northern Offensive. On 15 October, after moderate KPA resistance, the 7th Cavalry Regiment and Charlie Company, 70th Tank Battalion captured Namchonjam city. On 17 October, they flanked rightwards, away from the principal road (to Pyongyang), to capture Hwangju. Two days later, the 1st Cavalry Division captured Pyongyang, the North's capital city, on 19 October 1950. Kim Il Sung and his government temporarily moved its capital to Sinuiju – although as UNC forces approached, the government again moved – this time to Kanggye.

question: Who did not capture the city of Namchonjam?, answer: KPA | question: What was the capital city in the North?, answer: Pyongyang | question: Where did Kim Il-Sung temporarily move the capital?, answer: Sinuiju | question: What caused the North Koreans to move their capital for the second time?, answer: UNC forces approached | question: When was Pyongyang captured?, answer: October 1950
Meanwhile, producer Joe Pasternak, who had been successfully producing light musicals with young sopranos for Universal's German subsidiary, repeated his formula in America. Teenage singer Deanna Durbin starred in Pasternak's first American film, Three Smart Girls (1936). The film was a box-office hit and reputedly restored the studio's solvency. The success of the film led Universal to offer her a contract, which for the first five years of her career produced her most successful pictures.

question: Who produced the film Three Smart Girls?, answer: Joe Pasternak | question: Who starred in the film Three Smart Girls?, answer: Deanna Durbin | question: In what year was Three Smart Girls made?, answer: 1936 | question: Prior to his work in America, where was Joe Pasternak employed?, answer: Universal's German subsidiary | question: What type of films did Joe Pasternak produce in Germany?, answer: light musicals