lmqg/qag_squad huggingface dataset:
However, in English, the term madrasah usually refers to the specifically Islamic institutions. A typical Islamic school usually offers two courses of study: a ḥifẓ course teaching memorization of the Qur'an (the person who commits the entire Qurʼan to memory is called a ḥāfiẓ); and an ʻālim course leading the candidate to become an accepted scholar in the community. A regular curriculum includes courses in Arabic, tafsir (Qur'anic interpretation), sharīʻah (Islamic law), hadiths (recorded sayings and deeds of Muhammad), mantiq (logic), and Muslim history. In the Ottoman Empire, during the Early Modern Period, the study of hadiths was introduced by Süleyman I. Depending on the educational demands, some madaris also offer additional advanced courses in Arabic literature, English and other foreign languages, as well as science and world history. Ottoman madaris along with religious teachings also taught "styles of writing, grammary, syntax, poetry, composition, natural sciences, political sciences, and etiquette."

question: What is the English connotative understanding of the word madrash?, answer: Islamic institutions | question: What is taught through a hifz class or set of classes?, answer: memorization of the Qur'an | question: What is shariah?, answer: Islamic law | question: What is the discipline taught in mantiq courses?, answer: logic | question: What set of courses does someone need to take for preparation to be considered as a scholar?, answer: ʻālim
However, in order to manage the tensions present in the Spanish transition to democracy, the drafters of the current Spanish constitution avoided giving labels such as 'federal' to the territorial arrangements. Besides, unlike in the federal system, the main taxes are taken centrally from Madrid (except for the Basque Country and Navarre, which were recognized in the Spanish democratic constitution as charter territories drawing from historical reasons) and then distributed to the Autonomous Communities.

question: Which cities are recognized in the Spanish Democratic Constitution?, answer: Basque Country and Navarre | question: How did they manage the tensions in the present of Spanish Transition to democracy?, answer: the drafters of the current Spanish constitution avoided giving labels such as 'federal' to the territorial arrangements. | question: Where are the main taxes taken?, answer: Madrid
However, it is important to understand that despite the presence of reception statutes, much of contemporary American common law has diverged significantly from English common law. The reason is that although the courts of the various Commonwealth nations are often influenced by each other's rulings, American courts rarely follow post-Revolution Commonwealth rulings unless there is no American ruling on point, the facts and law at issue are nearly identical, and the reasoning is strongly persuasive.

question: A lot of American common law diverged from where?, answer: English common law | question: When would American courts follow post-revolution commonwealth rulings?, answer: there is no American ruling on point | question: Courts in commonwealth nations are often influenced by what?, answer: by each other's rulings | question: Most modern American common law came from what kind of law?, answer: English common law | question: Couts of commonwealth nations are often influenced by who's rulings?, answer: each other's | question: What rulings do American courts rarely follow?, answer: post-Revolution Commonwealth rulings | question: What is one reason American courts may follow a post Revolutionary Commonwealth ruling under what circumstances?, answer: there is no American ruling on point | question: How close is current American law to English law?, answer: diverged significantly | question: What differs about American and English law?, answer: American courts rarely follow post-Revolution Commonwealth rulings | question: When would American law be more likely to follow English law?, answer: no American ruling on point | question: How close do the issues have to be in order for an English law to be used?, answer: nearly identical
However, leeches and their closest relatives have a body structure that is very uniform within the group but significantly different from that of other annelids, including other members of the Clitellata. In leeches there are no septa, the connective tissue layer of the body wall is so thick that it occupies much of the body, and the two coelomata are widely separated and run the length of the body. They function as the main blood vessels, although they are side-by-side rather than upper and lower. However, they are lined with mesothelium, like the coelomata and unlike the blood vessels of other annelids. Leeches generally use suckers at their front and rear ends to move like inchworms. The anus is on the upper surface of the pygidium.

question: What type of annelids are very different from others?, answer: leeches and their closest relatives | question: What type of tissue takes up most of the body of a leech?, answer: connective tissue layer of the body wall | question: How many coelomata do leeches have?, answer: two | question: What lines the coelomata of leeches?, answer: mesothelium | question: What do leeches use to move?, answer: suckers at their front and rear ends
However, memory performance can be enhanced when material is linked to the learning context, even when learning occurs under stress. A separate study by cognitive psychologists Schwabe and Wolf shows that when retention testing is done in a context similar to or congruent with the original learning task (i.e., in the same room), memory impairment and the detrimental effects of stress on learning can be attenuated. Seventy-two healthy female and male university students, randomly assigned to the SECPT stress test or to a control group, were asked to remember the locations of 15 pairs of picture cards – a computerized version of the card game "Concentration" or "Memory". The room in which the experiment took place was infused with the scent of vanilla, as odour is a strong cue for memory. Retention testing took place the following day, either in the same room with the vanilla scent again present, or in a different room without the fragrance. The memory performance of subjects who experienced stress during the object-location task decreased significantly when they were tested in an unfamiliar room without the vanilla scent (an incongruent context); however, the memory performance of stressed subjects showed no impairment when they were tested in the original room with the vanilla scent (a congruent context). All participants in the experiment, both stressed and unstressed, performed faster when the learning and retrieval contexts were similar.

question: What can impact memory performance in a positive way?, answer: when material is linked to the learning context, | question: In their study what was the relationship that both groups shared?, answer: both stressed and unstressed, performed faster when the learning and retrieval contexts were similar. | question: What can the scent of vanilla be used for?, answer: strong cue for memory. | question: What did a study performed by Schwabe and wolf show?, answer: memory impairment and the detrimental effects of stress on learning can be attenuated. | question: In Schwabe and wolfs study what where particpants asked to memorize?, answer: were asked to remember the locations of 15 pairs of picture cards –
However, most intellectuals and writers from Dalmatia who used the Štokavian dialect and practiced the Catholic faith saw themselves as part of a Croatian nation as far back as the mid-16th to 17th centuries, some 300 years before Serbo-Croatian ideology appeared. Their loyalty was first and foremost to Catholic Christendom, but when they professed an ethnic identity, they referred to themselves as "Slovin" and "Illyrian" (a sort of forerunner of Catholic baroque pan-Slavism) and Croat – these 30-odd writers over the span of c. 350 years always saw themselves as Croats first and never as part of a Serbian nation. It should also be noted that, in the pre-national era, Catholic religious orientation did not necessarily equate with Croat ethnic identity in Dalmatia. A Croatian follower of Vuk Karadžić, Ivan Broz, noted that for a Dalmatian to identify oneself as a Serb was seen as foreign as identifying oneself as Macedonian or Greek. Vatroslav Jagić pointed out in 1864:

question: To which group did the people of the Catholic faith refer to themselves primarily?, answer: Catholic Christendom | question: After allowing for their religion, did the people of the Catholic faith see themselves as Serbian or Croatian?, answer: Croatian | question: Ivan Broz stated that a Dalmatian identifiying as a Serb was just as foreign as what two other ethnicities?, answer: Macedonian or Greek
However, most of the major FBS teams annually schedule early season non-conference preseason home games against lesser opponents that are lower-tier FBS, Football Championship, or Division II schools, which often result in lopsided victories in favor of the FBS teams and act as exhibition games in all but name, though they additionally provide a large appearance fee and at least one guaranteed television appearance for the smaller school. These games also receive the same criticism as NFL exhibition games, but instead it is targeted to schools scheduling low-quality opponents and the simplicity for a team to run up the score against a weak opponent. However, these games are susceptible to backfiring, resulting in damage in poll position and public perception, especially if the higher ranked team loses, although the mere act of scheduling a weak opponent is harmful to a team's overall strength of schedule itself. Games an FBS team schedules against lower division opponents do not count toward the minimum seven wins required for bowl eligibility, and only one game against an FCS team can be counted. With the start of the College Football Playoff system for the 2014 season, major teams are now discouraged from scheduling weaker opponents for their non-conference schedule because of a much higher emphasis on strength of schedule than in the Bowl Championship Series era.

question: Major FBS teams can have lopsided victories against what kinds of lesser opponents?, answer: lower-tier FBS, Football Championship, or Division II schools | question: Why do smaller schools want to play against major FBS teams?, answer: a large appearance fee and at least one guaranteed television appearance | question: How many wins are required for an FBS team to be eligible for the bowl?, answer: seven | question: How many games between FBS and FCS teams count towards the FBS's bowl eligibility?, answer: one | question: When did the College Football Playoff System begin?, answer: 2014
However, not all highest courts are named as such. Civil law states do not tend to have singular highest courts. Additionally, the highest court in some jurisdictions is not named the "Supreme Court", for example, the High Court of Australia; this is because decisions by the High Court could formerly be appealed to the Privy Council. On the other hand, in some places the court named the "Supreme Court" is not in fact the highest court; examples include the New York Supreme Court, the Supreme Courts of several Canadian provinces/territories and the former Supreme Court of Judicature of England and Wales, which are all superseded by higher Courts of Appeal.

question: What kinds of governed nations may not have a specific, individual high court?, answer: Civil law states | question: What is an example of a highest court not being specifically called a Supreme Court?, answer: the High Court of Australia | question: To which body can decisions made by this specific high court be appealed?, answer: the Privy Council | question: What Canadian courts also are not specifically the highest courts in that country?, answer: the Supreme Courts of several Canadian provinces/territories
However, performance enhancements cannot be generalized as the benefits and limitations of the system are dependent on many factors. One problem is that the system is subject to gaming. Sometimes, one person enters the destination for a large group of people going to the same floor. The dispatching algorithm is usually unable to completely cater for the variation, and latecomers may find the elevator they are assigned to is already full. Also, occasionally, one person may press the floor multiple times. This is common with up/down buttons when people believe this to be an effective way to hurry elevators. However, this will make the computer think multiple people are waiting and will allocate empty cars to serve this one person.

question: What is one example of a limitation on the system?, answer: the system is subject to gaming | question: What is generally unable to support variations in the number of people for a particular destination?, answer: The dispatching algorithm | question: For what reason do people repeatedly push the up/down buttons on a panel?, answer: people believe this to be an effective way to hurry elevators | question: Why is this a bad practice?, answer: this will make the computer think multiple people are waiting and will allocate empty cars to serve this one person
However, relatively few organisations maintain computer systems with effective detection systems, and fewer still have organised response mechanisms in place. As result, as Reuters points out: "Companies for the first time report they are losing more through electronic theft of data than physical stealing of assets". The primary obstacle to effective eradication of cyber crime could be traced to excessive reliance on firewalls and other automated "detection" systems. Yet it is basic evidence gathering by using packet capture appliances that puts criminals behind bars.

question: How many organisations are estimated to maintain computer systems with effective detection systems?, answer: relatively few | question: What is the basic evidence gathered by that puts criminals behind bars?, answer: packet capture appliances | question: The primary obstacle to the eradication of cyber crime is the excessive reliance on what?, answer: firewalls and other automated "detection" systems | question: What is the source of the quote?, answer: Reuters | question: Electronic theft of data is causing more loss than what?, answer: physical stealing of assets
However, several de facto standards for tag formats exist. As of 2010, the most widespread are ID3v1 and ID3v2, and the more recently introduced APEv2. These tags are normally embedded at the beginning or end of MP3 files, separate from the actual MP3 frame data. MP3 decoders either extract information from the tags, or just treat them as ignorable, non-MP3 junk data.

question: Other than the ID3v1, which similar standard format for tag exists?, answer: ID3v2 | question: What is the most recently introduced standard for tag formatting?, answer: APEv2 | question: What is the second place in a file that tags are normally stored, with the first being at the beginning?, answer: end | question: What is important to note about where the tags are stored?, answer: separate from the actual MP3 frame data | question: If the MP3 decoders do not extract information from the tags, what do they do to them?, answer: treat them as ignorable, non-MP3 junk data
However, since the 20th century, indigenous peoples in the Americas have been more vocal about the ways they wish to be referred to, pressing for the elimination of terms widely considered to be obsolete, inaccurate, or racist. During the latter half of the 20th century and the rise of the Indian rights movement, the United States government responded by proposing the use of the term "Native American," to recognize the primacy of indigenous peoples' tenure in the nation, but this term was not fully accepted. Other naming conventions have been proposed and used, but none are accepted by all indigenous groups.

question: What have the peoples in the Americas been more vocal about since the 20th century?, answer: the ways they wish to be referred to | question: What terms do the indigenous people press to eliminate?, answer: obsolete, inaccurate, or racist. | question: Who initially proposed using the term "Native American" to recognize the primacy of the native population?, answer: United States government | question: What naming convention is accepted by all indigenous groups?, answer: none
However, some scholars contest the idea of a Proto-Euphratean language or one substrate language. It has been suggested by them and others, that the Sumerian language was originally that of the hunter and fisher peoples, who lived in the marshland and the Eastern Arabia littoral region, and were part of the Arabian bifacial culture. Reliable historical records begin much later; there are none in Sumer of any kind that have been dated before Enmebaragesi (c. 26th century BC). Professor Juris Zarins believes the Sumerians were settled along the coast of Eastern Arabia, today's Persian Gulf region, before it flooded at the end of the Ice Age.

question: Some scholars contest that there was only one what?, answer: substrate language | question: Who do some scholars think the Sumerian language originally belonged to?, answer: hunter and fisher peoples | question: Where did the original Sumerians live?, answer: marshland | question: What culture did the peoples who would be called Sumerian have a part in?, answer: Arabian bifacial | question: When were the earliest historical records of Sumer?, answer: 26th century BC
However, the 18th century saw the European empires gradually expand across the world, as European states developed economies built on maritime trade. The dynasty was confronted with newly developing concepts of the international system and state to state relations. European trading posts expanded into territorial control in nearby India and on the islands that are now Indonesia. The Qing response, successful for a time, was in 1756 to establish the Canton System, which restricted maritime trade to that city and gave monopoly trading rights to private Chinese merchants. The British East India Company and the Dutch East India Company had long before been granted similar monopoly rights by their governments.

question: Which empires grew during the 18th century?, answer: European states | question: What country near China did the Europeans first control?, answer: India | question: What was the only city the Chinese allowed the Europeans into to trade?, answer: Canton | question: What were the economies of the European empires built on?, answer: maritime trade | question: Which two European companies traded in Canton?, answer: British East India Company and the Dutch East India Company
However, the NSA's report was completely disproved by Croatian experts. The report failed to recognize that Tito was a native speaker of the very distinctive local Kajkavian dialect of Zagorje. The acute accent, present only in Croatian dialects, which Tito is perfectly pronouncing, is the strongest proof of Tito's belonging to Kajkavian dialect.

question: Experts from what country disproved the NSA's report?, answer: Croatian | question: What was the distinct local dialect Tito spoke?, answer: Zagorje | question: Croatian experts disproved the report from which group concerning Tito's ethnic origins?, answer: NSA | question: Tito's acute accent is present only in what type of dialects?, answer: Croatian
However, the Orthodox claim to absolute fidelity to past tradition has been challenged by scholars who contend that the Judaism of the Middle Ages bore little resemblance to that practiced by today's Orthodox. Rather, the Orthodox community, as a counterreaction to the liberalism of the Haskalah movement, began to embrace far more stringent halachic practices than their predecessors, most notably in matters of Kashrut and Passover dietary laws, where the strictest possible interpretation becomes a religious requirement, even where the Talmud explicitly prefers a more lenient position, and even where a more lenient position was practiced by prior generations.

question: what is the name of the movement of liberalism?, answer: Haskalah | question: what sometimes prefers a more lenient position on Dietray laws?, answer: Talmud | question: previous generations typically praciced a more lenient position in regard to what?, answer: dietary laws | question: What are dietary laws known as?, answer: halachic practices
However, the army was hopeless in battle against the western forces, particularly against the young Mahmud of Ghazni. In the year 1001, soon after Sultan Mahmud came to power and was occupied with the Qarakhanids north of the Hindu Kush, Jaipal attacked Ghazni once more and upon suffering yet another defeat by the powerful Ghaznavid forces, near present-day Peshawar. After the Battle of Peshawar, he committed suicide because his subjects thought he had brought disaster and disgrace to the Shahi dynasty.

question: In what year was Jaipal again soundly defeated by the Muslims?, answer: 1001 | question: Where was the location of the Shahi defeat by the Muslims?, answer: Battle of Peshawar | question: What was Jaipal action after his last defeat?, answer: committed suicide | question: Upon what did Jaipal's subjects think he brought disaster?, answer: Shahi dynasty | question: Who was the ruler of Ghazni?, answer: Mahmud of Ghazni
However, the battle was one-sided almost from the beginning. The reasons for this are the subject of continuing study by military strategists and academics. There is general agreement that US technological superiority was a crucial factor but the speed and scale of the Iraqi collapse has also been attributed to poor strategic and tactical leadership and low morale among Iraqi troops, which resulted from a history of incompetent leadership. After devastating initial strikes against Iraqi air defenses and command and control facilities on 17 January 1991, coalition forces achieved total air superiority almost immediately. The Iraqi air force was destroyed within a few days, with some planes fleeing to Iran, where they were interned for the duration of the conflict. The overwhelming technological advantages of the US, such as stealth aircraft and infrared sights, quickly turned the air war into a "turkey shoot". The heat signature of any tank which started its engine made an easy target. Air defense radars were quickly destroyed by radar-seeking missiles fired from wild weasel aircraft. Grainy video clips, shot from the nose cameras of missiles as they aimed at impossibly small targets, were a staple of US news coverage and revealed to the world a new kind of war, compared by some to a video game. Over 6 weeks of relentless pounding by planes and helicopters, the Iraqi army was almost completely beaten but did not retreat, under orders from Iraqi President Saddam Hussein, and by the time the ground forces invaded on 24 February, many Iraqi troops quickly surrendered to forces much smaller than their own; in one instance, Iraqi forces attempted to surrender to a television camera crew that was advancing with coalition forces.

question: What is the main reason the US-led coalition won a decisive victory in the Persian Gulf War?, answer: US technological superiority | question: US airstrikes on Iraqi air defenses and command and control facilities began when?, answer: on 17 January 1991 | question: What faults in the Iraqi forces led to their rapid defeat?, answer: poor strategic and tactical leadership and low morale | question: Who ordered Iraqi forces to hold their ground despite air bombardments?, answer: Iraqi President Saddam Hussein | question: When did US ground forces attack Iraqi positions?, answer: 24 February