lmqg/qag_squad huggingface dataset:
City transportation in Strasbourg includes the futurist-looking Strasbourg tramway that opened in 1994 and is operated by the regional transit company Compagnie des Transports Strasbourgeois (CTS), consisting of 6 lines with a total length of 55.8 km (34.7 mi). The CTS also operates a comprehensive bus network throughout the city that is integrated with the trams. With more than 500 km (311 mi) of bicycle paths, biking in the city is convenient and the CTS operates a cheap bike-sharing scheme named Vélhop'. The CTS, and its predecessors, also operated a previous generation of tram system between 1878 and 1960, complemented by trolleybus routes between 1939 and 1962.

question: What year did the Strasbourg tramway open?, answer: 1994 | question: Who operates the Strasbourg tramway?, answer: regional transit company Compagnie des Transports Strasbourgeois | question: How many lines does the Strasbourg tramway have?, answer: 6 | question: What is the length of the Strasbourg tramway in total?, answer: 55.8 km | question: How far do bike paths stretch in Strasbourg?, answer: 500 km
Civil strife in the early 1990s greatly increased the size of the Somali diaspora, as many of the best educated Somalis left for the Middle East, Europe and North America. In Canada, the cities of Toronto, Ottawa, Calgary, Edmonton, Montreal, Vancouver, Winnipeg and Hamilton all harbor Somali populations. Statistics Canada's 2006 census ranks people of Somali descent as the 69th largest ethnic group in Canada.

question: What led to an increase in the number of Somalis leaving the country?, answer: Civil strife | question: Along with the Middle East and North America, to what continent did the Somali diaspora go in the 1990s?, answer: Europe | question: Along with Ottawa, Calgary, Edmonton, Montreal, Winnipeg, Hamilton and Vancouver, what Canadian city has a significant Somali population?, answer: Toronto | question: As of 2006, where did Somalis rank in terms of population by ethnicity in Canada?, answer: 69th
Cladistics is a technique borrowed from biology, where it was originally named phylogenetic systematics by Willi Hennig. In biology, the technique is used to determine the evolutionary relationships between different species. In its application in textual criticism, the text of a number of different manuscripts is entered into a computer, which records all the differences between them. The manuscripts are then grouped according to their shared characteristics. The difference between cladistics and more traditional forms of statistical analysis is that, rather than simply arranging the manuscripts into rough groupings according to their overall similarity, cladistics assumes that they are part of a branching family tree and uses that assumption to derive relationships between them. This makes it more like an automated approach to stemmatics. However, where there is a difference, the computer does not attempt to decide which reading is closer to the original text, and so does not indicate which branch of the tree is the "root"—which manuscript tradition is closest to the original. Other types of evidence must be used for that purpose.

question: What is the biological basis for Cladistics?, answer: to determine the evolutionary relationships between different species | question: How is evolution applied to textual criticism?, answer: manuscripts are then grouped according to their shared characteristics | question: How is cladistics similar to the stemmatic method?, answer: cladistics assumes that they are part of a branching family tree | question: What is the main difference between cladistics and stemmatics?, answer: does not indicate which branch of the tree is the "root"
Cladistics is another method of classification. A clade is a taxonomic group of organisms consisting of a single common ancestor and all the descendants of that ancestor. Every creature produced by sexual reproduction has two immediate lineages, one maternal and one paternal. Whereas Carl Linnaeus established a taxonomy of living organisms based on anatomical similarities and differences, cladistics seeks to establish a taxonomy—the phylogenetic tree—based on genetic similarities and differences and tracing the process of acquisition of multiple characteristics by single organisms. Some researchers have tried to clarify the idea of race by equating it to the biological idea of the clade. Often mitochondrial DNA or Y chromosome sequences are used to study ancient human migration paths. These single-locus sources of DNA do not recombine and are inherited from a single parent. Individuals from the various continental groups tend to be more similar to one another than to people from other continents, and tracing either mitochondrial DNA or non-recombinant Y-chromosome DNA explains how people in one place may be largely derived from people in some remote location.

question: What is cladistics a method of?, answer: classification | question: What is a clade a taxonomic group of?, answer: organisms | question: How many common ancestors does a clade have?, answer: single | question: What is another term for a phylogenetic tree?, answer: taxonomy | question: Which chromosome sequences are used to study ancient human migration paths?, answer: Y
Claiming the right to name his discovery, Le Verrier quickly proposed the name Neptune for this new planet, though falsely stating that this had been officially approved by the French Bureau des Longitudes. In October, he sought to name the planet Le Verrier, after himself, and he had loyal support in this from the observatory director, François Arago. This suggestion met with stiff resistance outside France. French almanacs quickly reintroduced the name Herschel for Uranus, after that planet's discoverer Sir William Herschel, and Leverrier for the new planet.

question: Who claimed the right to name Neptune?, answer: Le Verrier | question: What country approved Neptune's first name?, answer: France | question: What did the discoverer want to name Neptune first?, answer: Le Verrier | question: What first introduced Neptune and Uranus's names?, answer: French almanacs | question: Who did not approve of the first name for Neptune?, answer: French Bureau des Longitudes
Classical India refers to the period when much of the Indian subcontinent was reunited under the Gupta Empire (c. 320–550 CE). This period has been called the Golden Age of India and was marked by extensive achievements in science, technology, engineering, art, dialectic, literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion, and philosophy that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as Hindu culture. The Hindu-Arabic numerals, a positional numeral system, originated in India and was later transmitted to the West through the Arabs. Early Hindu numerals had only nine symbols, until 600 to 800 CE, when a symbol for zero was developed for the numeral system. The peace and prosperity created under leadership of Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors in India.

question: By what is India under the Gupta Empire referered?, answer: Classical India | question: What was the time span of the Gupta Empire?, answer: c. 320–550 CE | question: What is the period of the Gupta Empire called?, answer: Golden Age of India | question: What philosophy formed at the time of the Gupta Empire?, answer: Hindu culture | question: What numeral system originated in India?, answer: Hindu-Arabic
Classical immunology ties in with the fields of epidemiology and medicine. It studies the relationship between the body systems, pathogens, and immunity. The earliest written mention of immunity can be traced back to the plague of Athens in 430 BCE. Thucydides noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of the disease could nurse the sick without contracting the illness a second time. Many other ancient societies have references to this phenomenon, but it was not until the 19th and 20th centuries before the concept developed into scientific theory.

question: Which two fields of study are associated with immunology?, answer: epidemiology and medicine | question: Immunology studies how which three areas impact one another?, answer: the body systems, pathogens, and immunity | question: When was the first written mention of immunity as it pertains to the body?, answer: 430 BCE | question: Which Greek historian made that notation?, answer: Thucydides | question: When did immunology start to become codified as a scientific theory?, answer: 19th and 20th centuries
Classical music has often incorporated elements or material from popular music of the composer's time. Examples include occasional music such as Brahms' use of student drinking songs in his Academic Festival Overture, genres exemplified by Kurt Weill's The Threepenny Opera, and the influence of jazz on early- and mid-20th-century composers including Maurice Ravel, exemplified by the movement entitled "Blues" in his sonata for violin and piano. Certain postmodern, minimalist and postminimalist classical composers acknowledge a debt to popular music.

question: Popular music from the composer's time was incorporation into what?, answer: Classical music | question: What did Brahms sometimes use in his Academic Festival Overture?, answer: student drinking songs | question: What type of music was Maurice Ravel influenced by?, answer: jazz | question: Who wrote The Threepenny Opera?, answer: Kurt Weill | question: What type of music do certain composers acknowledge a debt to?, answer: popular
Classical music is art music produced or rooted in the traditions of Western music, including both liturgical (religious) and secular music. While a similar term is also used to refer to the period from 1750 to 1820 (the Classical period), this article is about the broad span of time from roughly the 11th century to the present day, which includes the Classical period and various other periods. The central norms of this tradition became codified between 1550 and 1900, which is known as the common practice period. The major time divisions of classical music are as follows: the early music period, which includes the Medieval (500–1400) and the Renaissance (1400–1600) eras; the Common practice period, which includes the Baroque (1600–1750), Classical (1750–1820), and Romantic eras (1804–1910); and the 20th century (1901–2000) which includes the modern (1890–1930) that overlaps from the late 19th-century, the high modern (mid 20th-century), and contemporary or postmodern (1975–2015) eras.[citation needed]

question: What term is used to refer to the period from 1750 to 1820?, answer: the Classical period | question: What years are termed the Renaissance period?, answer: 1400–1600 | question: What years are termed the Baroque period?, answer: 1600–1750 | question: From 1804-1910 was called what era?, answer: Romantic | question: Classical music is rooted in what kind of tradition?, answer: Western music | question: Classical music is rooted the the traditions of what kind of music?, answer: Western | question: What is the period from 1750 to 1820 called?, answer: the Classical period | question: What time period is known at the common practice period?, answer: between 1550 and 1900 | question: When was the Renaissance era?, answer: 1400–1600 | question: When was the modern era?, answer: 1890–1930
Classical musicians continued to use many of instruments from the Baroque era, such as the cello, contrabass, recorder, trombone, timpani, fortepiano and organ. While some Baroque instruments fell into disuse (e.g., the theorbo and rackett), many Baroque instruments were changed into the versions that are still in use today, such as the Baroque violin (which became the violin), the Baroque oboe (which became the oboe) and the Baroque trumpet, which transitioned to the regular valved trumpet.

question: Classical musicians continued to use many instruments from what era?, answer: Baroque | question: The theorbo and what other Baroque instrument fell into disuse?, answer: rackett | question: The Baroque violin became what modern instrument?, answer: the violin | question: What did the Baroque trumpet become?, answer: the regular valved trumpet
Classical statistical mechanics requires the existence of h (but does not define its value). Eventually, following upon Planck's discovery, it was recognized that physical action cannot take on an arbitrary value. Instead, it must be some multiple of a very small quantity, the "quantum of action", now called the Planck constant. Classical physics cannot explain this fact. In many cases, such as for monochromatic light or for atoms, this quantum of action also implies that only certain energy levels are allowed, and values in between are forbidden.

question: What does classical statistics mechanics not define the value of?, answer: h | question: What is required to exist in classical statistics mechanics?, answer: h | question: After Planck's findings, what was determined could not take on an arbitrary value?, answer: physical action | question: What is the "quantum of action" called?, answer: the Planck constant | question: What does the Planck Constant refer to?, answer: quantum of action | question: Classical statistical mechanics requires the existence of what?, answer: h | question: What was realized after Planck's discovery?, answer: that physical action cannot take on an arbitrary value | question: What is the Planck constant formerly known as?, answer: quantum of action | question: Regarding atoms, what does the Planck constant imply?, answer: that only certain energy levels are allowed | question: Regarding atoms, what are values in between certain energy levels considered by the Planck constant?, answer: forbidden | question: Following Planck's discovery, what was realized about values of physical action?, answer: physical action cannot take on an arbitrary value | question: The Planck constant initially was given what name?, answer: the "quantum of action" | question: How is the proportional nature of the Planck constant explained?, answer: Classical physics cannot explain this fact | question: For certain cases of light or atoms, what does the quantum of action yield?, answer: only certain energy levels are allowed, and values in between are forbidden.
Classification of predators by the extent to which they feed on and interact with their prey is one way ecologists may wish to categorize the different types of predation. Instead of focusing on what they eat, this system classifies predators by the way in which they eat, and the general nature of the interaction between predator and prey species. Two factors are considered here: How close the predator and prey are (in the latter two cases the term prey may be replaced with host) and whether or not the prey are directly murdered by the predator is considered, with true predation and parasitoidism involving certain death.

question: How many synergetic qualities are there in the predator-prey mechanism?, answer: Two factors | question: Proximity and the ending of life is called?, answer: true predation | question: If the prey is not killed the predator-prey interaction is called?, answer: parasitoidism | question: Instead of what predators eat, how else can they be classified?, answer: the way in which they eat | question: Certain death is involved with true predation and what other classification?, answer: parasitoidism | question: The study in which ecologists examine the way predators interact with their prey is called what?, answer: predation
Classification seeks to describe the diversity of bacterial species by naming and grouping organisms based on similarities. Bacteria can be classified on the basis of cell structure, cellular metabolism or on differences in cell components, such as DNA, fatty acids, pigments, antigens and quinones. While these schemes allowed the identification and classification of bacterial strains, it was unclear whether these differences represented variation between distinct species or between strains of the same species. This uncertainty was due to the lack of distinctive structures in most bacteria, as well as lateral gene transfer between unrelated species. Due to lateral gene transfer, some closely related bacteria can have very different morphologies and metabolisms. To overcome this uncertainty, modern bacterial classification emphasizes molecular systematics, using genetic techniques such as guanine cytosine ratio determination, genome-genome hybridization, as well as sequencing genes that have not undergone extensive lateral gene transfer, such as the rRNA gene. Classification of bacteria is determined by publication in the International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology, and Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology. The International Committee on Systematic Bacteriology (ICSB) maintains international rules for the naming of bacteria and taxonomic categories and for the ranking of them in the International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria.

question: How can we classify the vast variety of bacterial species?, answer: grouping organisms based on similarities | question: Can classification be helpful in determining differences between distinct species?, answer: unclear | question: What supports the uncertainty in classification between the same kind of bacteria?, answer: lack of distinctive structures in most bacteria, | question: What can lateral gene transfer create in bacteria?, answer: different morphologies and metabolisms | question: What is the way modern classification tries to determine species?, answer: emphasizes molecular systematics
Classified as a Subtropical Mediterranean climate (Köppen Csb), Santa Monica enjoys an average of 310 days of sunshine a year. It is located in USDA plant hardiness zone 11a. Because of its location, nestled on the vast and open Santa Monica Bay, morning fog is a common phenomenon in May, June and early July (caused by ocean temperature variations and currents). Like other inhabitants of the greater Los Angeles area, residents have a particular terminology for this phenomenon: the "May Gray" and the "June Gloom". Overcast skies are common during June mornings, but usually the strong sun burns the fog off by noon. In the late winter/early summer, daily fog is a phenomenon too. It happens suddenly and it may last some hours or past sunset time. Nonetheless, it will sometimes stay cloudy and cool all day during June, even as other parts of the Los Angeles area enjoy sunny skies and warmer temperatures. At times, the sun can be shining east of 20th Street, while the beach area is overcast. As a general rule, the beach temperature is from 5 to 10 degrees Fahrenheit (3 to 6 degrees Celsius) cooler than it is inland during summer days, and 5–10 degrees warmer during winter nights.

question: Roughly how many days of sunshine does Santa Monica get annually?, answer: 310 | question: What USDA hardiness zone is Santa Monica located in?, answer: 11a | question: What commonly occurs on the mornings in May?, answer: fog | question: What have locals coined the morning time in May?, answer: "May Gray" | question: What is the beach temperature in Fahrenheit during the summer ?, answer: 5 to 10 degrees
Clay models of ducks found in China dating back to 4000 BC may indicate the domestication of ducks took place there during the Yangshao culture. Even if this is not the case, domestication of the duck took place in the Far East at least 1500 years earlier than in the West. Lucius Columella, writing in the first century BC, advised those who sought to rear ducks to collect wildfowl eggs and put them under a broody hen, because when raised in this way, the ducks "lay aside their wild nature and without hesitation breed when shut up in the bird pen". Despite this, ducks did not appear in agricultural texts in Western Europe until about 810 AD, when they began to be mentioned alongside geese, chickens, and peafowl as being used for rental payments made by tenants to landowners.

question: How long have ducks possibly been in domesticated domicile with humans?, answer: Clay models of ducks found in China dating back to 4000 BC may indicate the domestication of ducks took place there during the Yangshao culture | question: How far behind the east society was the western culture in domesticating ducks?, answer: domestication of the duck took place in the Far East at least 1500 years earlier than in the West | question: How did Lucius Columella recommend that one go abbout the business of domesticating ducks.?, answer: collect wildfowl eggs and put them under a broody hen, | question: When did ducks begin to appear in the books of Western Europeon Society ?, answer: ducks did not appear in agricultural texts in Western Europe until about 810 AD | question: Where ducks ever used as a type of commerence in the world?, answer: mentioned alongside geese, chickens, and peafowl as being used for rental payments made by tenants to landowners.
Clickjacking, also known as "UI redress attack or User Interface redress attack", is a malicious technique in which an attacker tricks a user into clicking on a button or link on another webpage while the user intended to click on the top level page. This is done using multiple transparent or opaque layers. The attacker is basically "hijacking" the clicks meant for the top level page and routing them to some other irrelevant page, most likely owned by someone else. A similar technique can be used to hijack keystrokes. Carefully drafting a combination of stylesheets, iframes, buttons and text boxes, a user can be led into believing that they are typing the password or other information on some authentic webpage while it is being channeled into an invisible frame controlled by the attacker.

question: UI redress attack or User Interface redress attack is also known as what?, answer: Clickjacking | question: What is a malicious technique in which an attacker tricks the user into clicking on a button or link?, answer: Clickjacking | question: Where are the clicks meant for the top level page routed?, answer: some other irrelevant page | question: Where would a password typed on a seemingly authetic webpage be directed?, answer: into an invisible frame controlled by the attacker | question: How istricking the user accomplished in clickjacking?, answer: using multiple transparent or opaque layers
Clinical immunology is the study of diseases caused by disorders of the immune system (failure, aberrant action, and malignant growth of the cellular elements of the system). It also involves diseases of other systems, where immune reactions play a part in the pathology and clinical features.

question: The study of diseases caused by immune system disorders is called?, answer: Clinical immunology | question: What are three problems of the immune system studied by clinical immunology?, answer: failure, aberrant action, and malignant growth | question: Where can these three elements occur in the immune system?, answer: cellular elements | question: What else does clinical immunology concern itself with?, answer: diseases of other systems | question: Why does clinical immunology extend to those areas?, answer: immune reactions play a part in the pathology and clinical features
Clinton returned in 1780 with 14,000 soldiers. American General Benjamin Lincoln was trapped and surrendered his entire 5,400-man force after a long fight, and the Siege of Charles Towne was the greatest American defeat of the war. Several Americans who escaped the carnage joined other militias, including those of Francis Marion, the "Swamp Fox"; and Andrew Pickens. The British retained control of the city until December 1782. After the British left, the city's name was officially changed to Charleston in 1783.

question: What was the greatest American defeat of the American Revolution?, answer: Siege of Charles Towne | question: How many soldiers did General Clinton return with?, answer: 14,000 | question: In what year did General Clinton return to Charles Towne?, answer: 1780 | question: Who was the leader of the American forces defending Charles Towne?, answer: General Benjamin Lincoln | question: How many soldiers did General Lincoln lead?, answer: 5,400