lmqg/qag_squad huggingface dataset:
The period between the foundation of the Han dynasty and Wang Mang's reign is known as the Western Han dynasty (simplified Chinese: 西汉; traditional Chinese: 西漢; pinyin: Xī Hàn) or Former Han dynasty (simplified Chinese: 前汉; traditional Chinese: 前漢; pinyin: Qiánhàn) (206 BC – 9 AD). During this period the capital was at Chang'an (modern Xi'an). From the reign of Guangwu the capital was moved eastward to Luoyang. The era from his reign until the fall of Han is known as the Eastern Han dynasty (simplified Chinese: 东汉; traditional Chinese: 東漢; pinyin: Dōng Hàn) or the Later Han dynasty (simplified Chinese: 后汉; traditional Chinese: 後漢; pinyin: Hòu Hàn) (25–220 AD).

question: Where did the capital move to after the reign of Guangwu?, answer: Luoyang | question: What era does the reign of Guangwu fall under?, answer: Eastern Han dynasty | question: What can the Eastern Han dynasty also be called?, answer: Later Han dynasty | question: Where was the capital located during the Western Han dynasty?, answer: Chang'an | question: What can the Western Han dynasty also be called?, answer: Former Han dynasty
The period preceding, and contemporary with, the Protestant Reformation saw the translation of the Bible into local European languages—a development that contributed to Western Christianity's split into Roman Catholicism and Protestantism due to disparities between Catholic and Protestant versions of crucial words and passages (although the Protestant movement was largely based on other things, such as a perceived need for reformation of the Roman Catholic Church to eliminate corruption). Lasting effects on the religions, cultures and languages of their respective countries have been exerted by such Bible translations as Martin Luther's into German, Jakub Wujek's into Polish, and the King James Bible's translators' into English. Debate and religious schism over different translations of religious texts remain to this day, as demonstrated by, for example, the King James Only movement.

question: During the Protestant Reformation, what local languages was the bible translated into?, answer: European | question: Biblical translations have caused lasting effects on what?, answer: religions, cultures and languages of their respective countries | question: Disparities between versions of crucial words and passages in versions of the bible contributed to what split?, answer: Roman Catholicism and Protestantism | question: What does the fact of the King James Only movement demonstrate?, answer: religious schism over different translations of religious texts remain to this day | question: Who translated the Bible to German?, answer: Martin Luther
The period saw several important technical innovations, like the principle of linear perspective found in the work of Masaccio, and later described by Brunelleschi. Greater realism was also achieved through the scientific study of anatomy, championed by artists like Donatello. This can be seen particularly well in his sculptures, inspired by the study of classical models. As the centre of the movement shifted to Rome, the period culminated in the High Renaissance masters da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael.

question: Who championed the scientific study of anatomy for the benefit of art?, answer: Donatello | question: Which artistic principle was innovated by Brunelleschi?, answer: linear perspective | question: Along with da Vinci, who were two other artists regarded as masters of the High Renaissance?, answer: Michelangelo and Raphael | question: What was achieved though the use of the scientific study of anatomy in the field of art?, answer: Greater realism | question: What did Donatello study that inspired sculptures?, answer: classical models
The period saw the growth of a distinct and trained architectural profession; before the mid-century "the high-sounding title, 'architect' was adopted by anyone who could get away with it". But most buildings were still designed by builders and landlords together, and the wide spread of Georgian architecture, and the Georgian styles of design more generally, came from dissemination through pattern books and inexpensive suites of engravings. This contrasted with earlier styles, which were primarily disseminated among craftsmen through the direct experience of the apprenticeship system. Authors such as the prolific William Halfpenny (active 1723–1755) received editions in America as well as Britain. From the mid-18th century, Georgian styles were assimilated into an architectural vernacular that became part and parcel of the training of every architect, designer, builder, carpenter, mason and plasterer, from Edinburgh to Maryland.

question: What high sounding title was adopted by anyone who could get away with it?, answer: architect | question: How did most Georgian design styles disseminate?, answer: pattern books and inexpensive suites of engravings | question: How did styles disseminate before Georgian architecture?, answer: the apprenticeship system | question: Which American author received editions of Georgian architecture?, answer: William Halfpenny | question: What years were William Halfpenny active?, answer: 1723–1755
The permanent dissolution of clouds allows unhindered light and thermal radiation. The stability of the atmosphere above the desert prevents any convective overturning, thus making rainfall virtually non-existent. As a consequence, the weather tends to be sunny, dry and stable with a minimal risk of rainfall. Subsiding, diverging, dry air masses associated with subtropical high-pressure systems are extremely unfavorable for the development of convectional showers. The subtropical ridge is the predominate factor that explains the hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh) of this vast region. The lowering of air is the strongest and the most effective over the eastern part of the Great Desert, in the Libyan Desert which is the sunniest, the driest and the most nearly rainless place on the planet rivaling the Atacama Desert, lying in Chile and Peru.

question: What allows unhindered light and thermal radiation?, answer: dissolution of clouds | question: What weather is virtually non-existent?, answer: rainfall | question: Where is the air the strongest?, answer: eastern part of the Great Desert
The permanent headquarters of the Arab League are located in Cairo and the body's secretary general has traditionally been Egyptian. This position is currently held by former foreign minister Nabil el-Araby. The Arab League briefly moved from Egypt to Tunis in 1978 to protest the Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty, but it later returned to Cairo in 1989. Gulf monarchies, including the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia, have pledged billions of dollars to help Egypt overcome its economic difficulties since the July 2013 coup.

question: Where is the Arab League headquarters?, answer: Cairo | question: Who is the leader of Arab League?, answer: Nabil el-Araby | question: What 2 Gulf monarchies have pledged billions of dollars to help Egypt overcome recent economic difficulties?, answer: United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia
The permanent snow cover necessary for glacier formation is affected by factors such as the degree of slope on the land, amount of snowfall and the winds. Glaciers can be found in all latitudes except from 20° to 27° north and south of the equator where the presence of the descending limb of the Hadley circulation lowers precipitation so much that with high insolation snow lines reach above 6,500 m (21,330 ft). Between 19˚N and 19˚S, however, precipitation is higher and the mountains above 5,000 m (16,400 ft) usually have permanent snow.

question: Do glaciers require permanent snow or only temporary coverage?, answer: permanent snow cover | question: Between which north latitudes are glaciers not found?, answer: 20° to 27° north | question: Between which latitudes to mountains tend to have permanent snow?, answer: 19˚N and 19˚S | question: Why do mountains between 19N and 19S tend to have snow?, answer: precipitation is higher
The persecution reached a peak in Nazi Germany's Final Solution, which led to the Holocaust and the slaughter of approximately 6 million Jews. Of the world's 15 million Jews in 1939, more than a third were killed in the Holocaust. The Holocaust—the state-led systematic persecution and genocide of European Jews (and certain communities of North African Jews in European controlled North Africa) and other minority groups of Europe during World War II by Germany and its collaborators remains the most notable modern-day persecution of Jews. The persecution and genocide were accomplished in stages. Legislation to remove the Jews from civil society was enacted years before the outbreak of World War II. Concentration camps were established in which inmates were used as slave labour until they died of exhaustion or disease. Where the Third Reich conquered new territory in Eastern Europe, specialized units called Einsatzgruppen murdered Jews and political opponents in mass shootings. Jews and Roma were crammed into ghettos before being transported hundreds of miles by freight train to extermination camps where, if they survived the journey, the majority of them were killed in gas chambers. Virtually every arm of Germany's bureaucracy was involved in the logistics of the mass murder, turning the country into what one Holocaust scholar has called "a genocidal nation."

question: How many Jews were slaughtered in the Holocaust?, answer: approximately 6 million | question: Worldwide, how many Jews were there in 1939?, answer: 15 million | question: What was the state-led systematic persecution and genocide of European Jews and other minority groups?, answer: The Holocaust | question: In 1939, what fraction of Jews were killed in The Holocaust?, answer: more than a third
The person or organization submits a HCP and if approved by the agency (FWS or NMFS), will be issued an Incidental Take Permit (ITP) which allows a certain number of "takes" of the listed species. The permit may be revoked at any time and can allow incidental takes for varying amounts of time. For instance, the San Bruno Habitat Conservation Plan/ Incidental Take Permit is good for 30 years and the Wal-Mart store (in Florida) permit expires after one year. Because the permit is issued by a federal agency to a private party, it is a federal action-which means other federal laws can apply, such as the National Environmental Policy Act or NEPA. A notice of the permit application action is published in the Federal Register and a public comment period of 30 to 90 days begins.

question: An approved HCP results in what being issued for the species?, answer: an Incidental Take Permit (ITP) | question: How long do ITPs last?, answer: allow incidental takes for varying amounts of time | question: How is the public made aware of ITP applications?, answer: A notice of the permit application action is published in the Federal Register | question: How long does the public have to comment on ITP applications?, answer: 30 to 90 days
The personal copying exemption in the copyright law of EU member states stems from the EU Copyright Directive of 2001, which is generally devised to allow EU members to enact laws sanctioning making copies without authorization, as long as they are for personal, noncommerical use. The Copyright Directive was not intended to legitimize file-sharing, but rather the common practice of space shifting copyright-protected content from a legally purchased CD (for example) to certain kinds of devices and media, provided rights holders are compensated and no copy protection measures are circumvented. Rights-holder compensation takes various forms, depending on the country, but is generally either a levy on "recording" devices and media, or a tax on the content itself. In some countries, such as Canada, the applicability of such laws to copying onto general-purpose storage devices like computer hard drives, portable media players, and phones, for which no levies are collected, has been the subject of debate and further efforts to reform copyright law.

question: What directive in 2001 let European Union countries to enact laws that allowed making copies for personal use?, answer: EU Copyright Directive of 2001 | question: What was the directive NOT intended for?, answer: legitimize file-sharing | question: Compensation to the rights-holder is generally a levy or what else?, answer: a tax on the content itself | question: What is an example of a country that has no levies collected?, answer: Canada | question: What are examples of general purpose storage devices?, answer: computer hard drives, portable media players, and phones
The phase of reflection of electromagnetic waves depends on the polarization of the incident wave. Given the larger refractive index of the ground (typically n=2) compared to air (n=1), the phase of horizontally polarized radiation is reversed upon reflection (a phase shift of radians or 180°). On the other hand, the vertical component of the wave's electric field is reflected at grazing angles of incidence approximately in phase. These phase shifts apply as well to a ground modelled as a good electrical conductor.

question: What is the refractive index of the ground?, answer: n=2 | question: When is polarized radiation reversed?, answer: reflection | question: What is the refractive index of air?, answer: n=1 | question: Besides a ground, what has these phases apply well to?, answer: electrical conductor
The phenomenalist phase of post-Humean empiricism ended by the 1940s, for by that time it had become obvious that statements about physical things could not be translated into statements about actual and possible sense data. If a physical object statement is to be translatable into a sense-data statement, the former must be at least deducible from the latter. But it came to be realized that there is no finite set of statements about actual and possible sense-data from which we can deduce even a single physical-object statement. Remember that the translating or paraphrasing statement must be couched in terms of normal observers in normal conditions of observation. There is, however, no finite set of statements that are couched in purely sensory terms and can express the satisfaction of the condition of the presence of a normal observer. According to phenomenalism, to say that a normal observer is present is to make the hypothetical statement that were a doctor to inspect the observer, the observer would appear to the doctor to be normal. But, of course, the doctor himself must be a normal observer. If we are to specify this doctor's normality in sensory terms, we must make reference to a second doctor who, when inspecting the sense organs of the first doctor, would himself have to have the sense data a normal observer has when inspecting the sense organs of a subject who is a normal observer. And if we are to specify in sensory terms that the second doctor is a normal observer, we must refer to a third doctor, and so on (also see the third man).

question: What phase of empiricism ended in the 1940s?, answer: phenomenalist | question: How can't a finite set of statements be described?, answer: in purely sensory terms | question: What is necessary to explain a doctor's normality in sensory terms?, answer: a second doctor
The phenomenon known as "passing as white" is difficult to explain in other countries or to foreign students. Typical questions are: "Shouldn't Americans say that a person who is passing as white is white, or nearly all white, and has previously been passing as black?" or "To be consistent, shouldn't you say that someone who is one-eighth white is passing as black?" ... A person who is one-fourth or less American Indian or Korean or Filipino is not regarded as passing if he or she intermarries with and joins fully the life of the dominant community, so the minority ancestry need not be hidden. ... It is often suggested that the key reason for this is that the physical differences between these other groups and whites are less pronounced than the physical differences between African blacks and whites, and therefore are less threatening to whites. ... [W]hen ancestry in one of these racial minority groups does not exceed one-fourth, a person is not defined solely as a member of that group.

question: A person is not a member of a racial minority if ancetry does not what?, answer: exceed one-fourth | question: Who are consdered to have the most physical differences?, answer: African blacks and whites | question: What are groups other than blacks considered to be?, answer: less threatening to whites
The philosophies of Buddhism and Zen, and to a lesser extent Confucianism and Shinto, influenced the samurai culture. Zen meditation became an important teaching due to it offering a process to calm one's mind. The Buddhist concept of reincarnation and rebirth led samurai to abandon torture and needless killing, while some samurai even gave up violence altogether and became Buddhist monks after realizing how fruitless their killings were. Some were killed as they came to terms with these realizations in the battlefield. The most defining role that Confucianism played in samurai philosophy was to stress the importance of the lord-retainer relationship—the loyalty that a samurai was required to show his lord.

question: What philosophies were the samurai influenced by?, answer: Buddhism and Zen, and to a lesser extent Confucianism and Shinto | question: What type of meditation did samurai do?, answer: Zen | question: What caused some samurai to stop fighting?, answer: The Buddhist concept of reincarnation and rebirth | question: What was the contribution of Confucianism to samurai?, answer: to stress the importance of the lord-retainer relationship
The phonautograph, patented by Léon Scott in 1857, used a vibrating diaphragm and stylus to graphically record sound waves as tracings on sheets of paper, purely for visual analysis and without any intent of playing them back. In the 2000s, these tracings were first scanned by audio engineers and digitally converted into audible sound. Phonautograms of singing and speech made by Scott in 1860 were played back as sound for the first time in 2008. Along with a tuning fork tone and unintelligible snippets recorded as early as 1857, these are the earliest known recordings of sound.

question: What was the original intent of the phonautograph?, answer: visual analysis | question: In what years where phonautograms converted to audible sound?, answer: 2000s | question: What year were the earliest known recordings of sound?, answer: 1857 | question: By whom was the phonautograms patented?, answer: Léon Scott | question: In what year was phonautograms patented?, answer: 1857
The phonograph disc record was the primary medium used for music reproduction until late in the 20th century, replacing the phonograph cylinder record–with which it had co-existed from the late 1880s through to the 1920s–by the late 1920s. Records retained the largest market share even when new formats such as compact cassette were mass-marketed. By the late 1980s, digital media, in the form of the compact disc, had gained a larger market share, and the vinyl record left the mainstream in 1991. From the 1990s to the 2010s, records continued to be manufactured and sold on a much smaller scale, and were especially used by disc jockeys (DJ)s, released by artists in some genres, and listened to by a niche market of audiophiles. The phonograph record has made a niche resurgence in the early 21st century – 9.2 million records were sold in the U.S. in 2014, a 260% increase since 2009. Likewise, in the UK sales have increased five-fold from 2009 to 2014.

question: What was the primary use of a phonographic disc record?, answer: music reproduction | question: Which year did vinyl records leave the main steam media market?, answer: 1991 | question: From the 1990s to 2010s who was the primary consumer of vinyl records?, answer: disc jockeys (DJ)s | question: Approximately how many phonograph records were sold in 2014?, answer: 9.2 million | question: What is the niche market of phonograph record fans known as?, answer: audiophiles
The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons (called "photoelectrons") from a surface when light is shone on it. It was first observed by Alexandre Edmond Becquerel in 1839, although credit is usually reserved for Heinrich Hertz, who published the first thorough investigation in 1887. Another particularly thorough investigation was published by Philipp Lenard in 1902. Einstein's 1905 paper discussing the effect in terms of light quanta would earn him the Nobel Prize in 1921, when his predictions had been confirmed by the experimental work of Robert Andrews Millikan. The Nobel committee awarded the prize for his work on the photo-electric effect, rather than relativity, both because of a bias against purely theoretical physics not grounded in discovery or experiment, and dissent amongst its members as to the actual proof that relativity was real.

question: Who first observed the photoelectric effect?, answer: Alexandre Edmond Becquerel | question: When was the photoelectric effect first observed?, answer: 1839 | question: Who published the first thorough investigation of the photoelectric effect?, answer: Heinrich Hertz | question: Who received the Nobel Prize in 1921 for his work on the photoelectric effect?, answer: Einstein | question: What did Einstein with the 1921 Nobel Prize for?, answer: his work on the photo-electric effect | question: What is the photoelectric effect?, answer: the emission of electrons (called "photoelectrons") from a surface when light is shone on it | question: Who first observed the photoelectric effect?, answer: Alexandre Edmond Becquerel | question: Einstein's paper on the photoelectric effect earned him the Nobel Prize in what year?, answer: 1921 | question: Einstein's photoelectric effect work was rewards as opposed to his work on what other topic?, answer: relativity
The phrase "51st state" can be used in a positive sense, meaning that a region or territory is so aligned, supportive, and conducive with the United States, that it is like a U.S. state. It can also be used in a pejorative sense, meaning an area or region is perceived to be under excessive American cultural or military influence or control. In various countries around the world, people who believe their local or national culture has become too Americanized sometimes use the term "51st state" in reference to their own countries.

question: What types of control are considered when labeling a country with the perjorative "51st state" label?, answer: excessive American cultural or military influence or control | question: Sometimes, when a country refers to themselves as the 51st state, what has happened to their culture?, answer: their local or national culture has become too Americanized | question: What reasoning would cause a country to be referred to as the "51st state" in a positive way?, answer: a region or territory is so aligned, supportive, and conducive with the United States, that it is like a U.S. state | question: What is a positive connotation of the label "51st state"?, answer: a region or territory is so aligned, supportive, and conducive with the United States | question: What is a reason for one negative connotation of the term?, answer: an area or region is perceived to be under excessive American cultural or military influence or control | question: If a country refers to themselves as the "51st state" after cultural changes, what can we assume has changed?, answer: their local or national culture has become too Americanized