lmqg/qag_squad huggingface dataset:
Generally, American civil procedure has several notable features, including extensive pretrial discovery, heavy reliance on live testimony obtained at deposition or elicited in front of a jury, and aggressive pretrial "law and motion" practice designed to result in a pretrial disposition (that is, summary judgment) or a settlement. U.S. courts pioneered the concept of the opt-out class action, by which the burden falls on class members to notify the court that they do not wish to be bound by the judgment, as opposed to opt-in class actions, where class members must join into the class. Another unique feature is the so-called American Rule under which parties generally bear their own attorneys' fees (as opposed to the English Rule of "loser pays"), though American legislators and courts have carved out numerous exceptions.

question: What is extensive pretrial discovery a part of?, answer: American civil procedure | question: What is a pretrial deposition?, answer: summary judgment | question: What is an opt-out class action?, answer: the burden falls on class members to notify the court that they do not wish to be bound by the judgment | question: What is an opt-in class action?, answer: class members must join into the class | question: What is the American Rule?, answer: parties generally bear their own attorneys' fees
Generally, post-punk music is defined as music that emerged from the cultural milieu of punk rock in the late 1970s, although many groups now categorized as post-punk were initially subsumed under the broad umbrella of punk or new wave music, only becoming differentiated as the terms came to signify more narrow styles. Additionally, the accuracy of the term's chronological prefix "post" has been disputed, as various groups commonly labeled post-punk in fact predate the punk rock movement. Reynolds defined the post-punk era as occurring loosely between 1978 and 1984.

question: What is post-punk?, answer: music that emerged from the cultural milieu of punk rock in the late 1970s | question: What else was music incorrectly catagorized into before post-punk?, answer: new wave music | question: Why is the term post-punk sometimes disputed?, answer: various groups commonly labeled post-punk in fact predate the punk rock movement | question: What is the acctepted era of post-punk?, answer: between 1978 and 1984 | question: What previous movement is post-punk often identified as coming after?, answer: punk rock | question: What were many groups now labeled as post-punk initially categorized as?, answer: punk or new wave music | question: Why has the prefix 'post' caused a bit of dispute as it relates to various post-punk groups?, answer: predate the punk rock movement | question: Who has defined a period of when the post-punk era was?, answer: Reynolds | question: Between what years did Reynolds identify the post-punk era as existing?, answer: 1978 and 1984
Generally, the greater the contact and exchange that have existed between two languages, or between those languages and a third one, the greater is the ratio of metaphrase to paraphrase that may be used in translating among them. However, due to shifts in ecological niches of words, a common etymology is sometimes misleading as a guide to current meaning in one or the other language. For example, the English actual should not be confused with the cognate French actuel ("present", "current"), the Polish aktualny ("present", "current," "topical," "timely," "feasible"), the Swedish aktuell ("topical", "presently of importance"), the Russian актуальный ("urgent", "topical") or the Dutch actueel.

question: A greater ratio of metaphrase to paraphrase can be used translating when there as been greater what between languages?, answer: contact and exchange | question: What is a common etymology sometimes misleading as?, answer: guide to current meaning | question: What does the French "actuel" mean in English?, answer: present | question: How would you convey that something is "presently of importance" in Swedish?, answer: aktuell | question: To indicate something is feasible in Polish, what word could be used?, answer: aktualny
Generally, this pattern is a circuit consisting of five "legs" that form a rectangle (two legs and the runway form one side, with the remaining legs forming three more sides). Each leg is named (see diagram), and ATC directs pilots on how to join and leave the circuit. Traffic patterns are flown at one specific altitude, usually 800 or 1,000 ft (244 or 305 m) above ground level (AGL). Standard traffic patterns are left-handed, meaning all turns are made to the left. One of the main reason for this is that pilots sit on the left side of the airplane, and a Left-hand patterns improves their visibility of the airport and pattern. Right-handed patterns do exist, usually because of obstacles such as a mountain, or to reduce noise for local residents. The predetermined circuit helps traffic flow smoothly because all pilots know what to expect, and helps reduce the chance of a mid-air collision.

question: Traffic patterns are usually flown at what altitude above ground level?, answer: 800 or 1,000 ft | question: Are standard traffic patterns right-handed or left-handed?, answer: left-handed | question: What does AGL stand for?, answer: above ground level | question: What is one of the main reasons pilots sit on the left side of the airplane?, answer: Standard traffic patterns are left-handed
Genes are regulated so that they are expressed only when the product is needed, since expression draws on limited resources.:7 A cell regulates its gene expression depending on its external environment (e.g. available nutrients, temperature and other stresses), its internal environment (e.g. cell division cycle, metabolism, infection status), and its specific role if in a multicellular organism. Gene expression can be regulated at any step: from transcriptional initiation, to RNA processing, to post-translational modification of the protein. The regulation of lactose metabolism genes in E. coli (lac operon) was the first such mechanism to be described in 1961.

question: When are genes expressed?, answer: only when the product is needed | question: What are examples of a cell's external environment?, answer: available nutrients, temperature and other stresses | question: What are examples of a cell's internal environment?, answer: cell division cycle, metabolism, infection status | question: At which step can gene expression be regulated?, answer: at any step | question: What example of post-translational modification of a protein was first described in 1961?, answer: The regulation of lactose metabolism genes in E. coli
Genes can acquire mutations in their sequence, leading to different variants, known as alleles, in the population. These alleles encode slightly different versions of a protein, which cause different phenotype traits. Colloquial usage of the term "having a gene" (e.g., "good genes," "hair colour gene") typically refers to having a different allele of the gene. Genes evolve due to natural selection or survival of the fittest of the alleles.

question: What do mutations in a gene sequence lead to?, answer: different variants, known as alleles | question: What do alleles do?, answer: encode slightly different versions of a protein | question: What do alleles cause?, answer: different phenotype traits | question: What does "having a gene" or a "good gene" typically refer to?, answer: having a different allele of the gene | question: What causes genes to evolve?, answer: natural selection or survival of the fittest of the alleles
Genes with a most recent common ancestor, and thus a shared evolutionary ancestry, are known as homologs. These genes appear either from gene duplication within an organism's genome, where they are known as paralogous genes, or are the result of divergence of the genes after a speciation event, where they are known as orthologous genes,:7.6 and often perform the same or similar functions in related organisms. It is often assumed that the functions of orthologous genes are more similar than those of paralogous genes, although the difference is minimal.

question: What are genes with a most recent common ancestor called?, answer: homologs | question: What is one reason for homologs to appear?, answer: gene duplication within an organism's genome | question: What are genes that occur from duplication within an organism's genome called?, answer: paralogous genes | question: What are genes that result from divergence of the genes after a speciation event called?, answer: orthologous genes
Genetic engineering is now a routine research tool with model organisms. For example, genes are easily added to bacteria and lineages of knockout mice with a specific gene's function disrupted are used to investigate that gene's function. Many organisms have been genetically modified for applications in agriculture, industrial biotechnology, and medicine.

question: What has become a common research tool with model organisms?, answer: Genetic engineering | question: What do scientists explore by adding genes to mice with a certain gene's function disrupted?, answer: that gene's function | question: What is an application for which organisms have been modified for?, answer: agriculture | question: What is another for which organisms have been modified for?, answer: industrial biotechnology | question: What is yet another application for which organisms have been modified for?, answer: medicine
Genetic engineering is the modification of an organism's genome through biotechnology. Since the 1970s, a variety of techniques have been developed to specifically add, remove and edit genes in an organism. Recently developed genome engineering techniques use engineered nuclease enzymes to create targeted DNA repair in a chromosome to either disrupt or edit a gene when the break is repaired. The related term synthetic biology is sometimes used to refer to extensive genetic engineering of an organism.

question: What is known as the modification of an organism's genome through biotechnology?, answer: Genetic engineering | question: When did techniques begin to be developed to add, remove and edit genes?, answer: the 1970s | question: What sort of enzymes do recently developed genome engineering techniques use?, answer: engineered nuclease enzymes | question: What sort of DNA repair is created by modern genetic engineering techniques?, answer: targeted | question: What term refers to extensive genetic engineering of an organism?, answer: synthetic biology
Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas primarily focus on Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups and Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroups. "Y-DNA" is passed solely along the patrilineal line, from father to son, while "mtDNA" is passed down the matrilineal line, from mother to offspring of both sexes. Neither recombines, and thus Y-DNA and mtDNA change only by chance mutation at each generation with no intermixture between parents' genetic material. Autosomal "atDNA" markers are also used, but differ from mtDNA or Y-DNA in that they overlap significantly. AtDNA is generally used to measure the average continent-of-ancestry genetic admixture in the entire human genome and related isolated populations.

question: What does the genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas primarily focus on?, answer: Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups | question: How is Y-DNA passed along?, answer: patrilineal line | question: What is the only way that Y-DNA and mtDNA change?, answer: chance mutation | question: Which type of DNA is passed from the mother to offspring of both genders?, answer: mtDNA | question: What is AtDNA generally only used to measure?, answer: average continent-of-ancestry
Genetic studies have found significant African female-mediated gene flow in Arab communities in the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries, with an average of 38% of maternal lineages in Yemen are of direct African descent, 16% in Oman-Qatar, and 10% in Saudi Arabia-United Arab Emirates.

question: How many people in Yemen have African lineage?, answer: average of 38% | question: How many people in Oman-Qatar have African lineage?, answer: 16% | question: How many people in Saudi Arabia-United Arab Emirates have African lineage?, answer: 10% | question: Genetic studies have found which gene in Arab communities?, answer: African female-mediated gene
Genetic studies of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) of Amerindians and some Siberian and Central Asian peoples also revealed that the gene pool of the Turkic-speaking peoples of Siberia such as Altaians, Khakas, Shors and Soyots, living between the Altai and Lake Baikal along the Sayan mountains, are genetically closest to Amerindians.[citation needed] This view is shared by other researchers who argue that "the ancestors of the American Indians were the first to separate from the great Asian population in the Middle Paleolithic. 2012 research found evidence for a recent common ancestry between Native Americans and indigenous Altaians based on mitochondrial DNA and Y-Chromosome analysis. The paternal lineages of Altaians mostly belong to the subclades of haplogroup P-M45 (xR1a 38-93%; xQ1a 4-32%).

question: Who have studies of the mtDNA of Turkic-speaking peoples shown they're closest to genetically?, answer: Amerindians | question: What group were the ancestors of the American Indians separated from?, answer: Asian population | question: When did the ancestors of the American Indians separate from their parent population?, answer: Middle Paleolithic | question: When did research find evidence for a common ancestry between Native Americans and Altaians?, answer: 2012 | question: What DNA analysis indicated the common ancestry of the Native Americans?, answer: mitochondrial DNA and Y-Chromosome
Genetic studies on Ashkenazim have been conducted to determine how much of their ancestry comes from the Levant, and how much derives from European populations. These studies—researching both their paternal and maternal lineages—point to a significant prevalence of ancient Levantine origins. But they have arrived at diverging conclusions regarding both the degree and the sources of their European ancestry. These diverging conclusions focus particularly on the extent of the European genetic origin observed in Ashkenazi maternal lineages.

question: Genetic studies on Ashkenazim have found a significant prevalence of what type of origins?, answer: ancient Levantine origins | question: Have studies on the genetics of the Ashkenazim come to similar or divergent conclusions regarding the degree and sources of their European ancestry?, answer: they have arrived at diverging conclusions | question: Have these studies on Ashkenazim genetics researched their paternal lineages, maternal lineages, or both?, answer: researching both their paternal and maternal lineages | question: Genetic studies on the Ashkenazim have tried to determine how much of their ancestry is derived from European populations and from where?, answer: the Levant
Genetic studies on Jews show that most Jews worldwide bear a common genetic heritage which originates in the Middle East, and that they bear their strongest resemblance to the peoples of the Fertile Crescent. The genetic composition of different Jewish groups shows that Jews share a common genetic pool dating back 4,000 years, as a marker of their common ancestral origin. Despite their long-term separation and beside their shared genetic origin, Jews also maintained a common culture, tradition, and language.

question: Genetic studies show that Jews bear their strongest resemblance to the peoples of where?, answer: Fertile Crescent | question: How far back does the Jews' shared common genetic pool date?, answer: 4,000 years | question: Most Jews share a common genetic heritage that originates from what place?, answer: Middle East
Genetically modified (GM) cotton was developed to reduce the heavy reliance on pesticides. The bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) naturally produces a chemical harmful only to a small fraction of insects, most notably the larvae of moths and butterflies, beetles, and flies, and harmless to other forms of life. The gene coding for Bt toxin has been inserted into cotton, causing cotton, called Bt cotton, to produce this natural insecticide in its tissues. In many regions, the main pests in commercial cotton are lepidopteran larvae, which are killed by the Bt protein in the transgenic cotton they eat. This eliminates the need to use large amounts of broad-spectrum insecticides to kill lepidopteran pests (some of which have developed pyrethroid resistance). This spares natural insect predators in the farm ecology and further contributes to noninsecticide pest management.

question: To stop reliance on what was GM cotton developed?, answer: pesticides | question: What form of cotton is GM?, answer: Genetically modified | question: What bacterium is used to produced GM cotton?, answer: Bacillus thuringiensis | question: What farming pest management technique does the use of GM grown plants promote?, answer: noninsecticide | question: What part of the life cycle of moths does Bt toxin effect?, answer: larvae
Genetics compression algorithms are the latest generation of lossless algorithms that compress data (typically sequences of nucleotides) using both conventional compression algorithms and genetic algorithms adapted to the specific datatype. In 2012, a team of scientists from Johns Hopkins University published a genetic compression algorithm that does not use a reference genome for compression. HAPZIPPER was tailored for HapMap data and achieves over 20-fold compression (95% reduction in file size), providing 2- to 4-fold better compression and in much faster time than the leading general-purpose compression utilities. For this, Chanda, Elhaik, and Bader introduced MAF based encoding (MAFE), which reduces the heterogeneity of the dataset by sorting SNPs by their minor allele frequency, thus homogenizing the dataset. Other algorithms in 2009 and 2013 (DNAZip and GenomeZip) have compression ratios of up to 1200-fold—allowing 6 billion basepair diploid human genomes to be stored in 2.5 megabytes (relative to a reference genome or averaged over many genomes).

question: What are the latest generation of lossless algorithms?, answer: Genetics | question: What encoding reduces the heterogeneity of a dataset by sorting SNPs?, answer: MAFE | question: What two algorithms have compression ratios of up to 1200-fold?, answer: DNAZip and GenomeZip
Geneva and the nearby French department of Ain co-host the world's largest laboratory, CERN, dedicated to particle physics research. Another important research center is the Paul Scherrer Institute. Notable inventions include lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), the scanning tunneling microscope (Nobel prize) and Velcro. Some technologies enabled the exploration of new worlds such as the pressurized balloon of Auguste Piccard and the Bathyscaphe which permitted Jacques Piccard to reach the deepest point of the world's oceans.

question: What is the world's largest laboratory?, answer: CERN | question: Who co-hosts CERN along with the French department of Ain?, answer: Geneva | question: What research is CERN dedicated to?, answer: particle physics | question: What notable Swiss invention won the nobel prize?, answer: scanning tunneling microscope | question: Who invented the pressurized balloon?, answer: Auguste Piccard
Genre fiction also showed it could question reality in its 20th century forms, in spite of its fixed formulas, through the enquiries of the skeptical detective and the alternative realities of science fiction. The separation of "mainstream" and "genre" forms (including journalism) continued to blur during the period up to our own times. William Burroughs, in his early works, and Hunter S. Thompson expanded documentary reporting into strong subjective statements after the second World War, and post-modern critics have disparaged the idea of objective realism in general.

question: What sub-group of literature emerged in the 20th century?, answer: Genre fiction | question: Alternative reality genre fiction is also known as what?, answer: science fiction | question: Who were two 20th century writers who blurred the lines between journalism and literature?, answer: William Burroughs, in his early works, and Hunter S. Thompson | question: By what means did these two writers create and emergent convergence of literature and journalism?, answer: strong subjective statements | question: Critics based in what movement find fault in objective realism?, answer: post-modern
Geographically, the empire was divided into several provinces, the borders of which changed numerous times during the Umayyad reign. Each province had a governor appointed by the khalifah. The governor was in charge of the religious officials, army leaders, police, and civil administrators in his province. Local expenses were paid for by taxes coming from that province, with the remainder each year being sent to the central government in Damascus. As the central power of the Umayyad rulers waned in the later years of the dynasty, some governors neglected to send the extra tax revenue to Damascus and created great personal fortunes.

question: Who appointed the governors in the Umayyad empire?, answer: khalifah | question: Where was the government of the Umayyads based?, answer: Damascus | question: Along with army leaders, police and civil administration, what did the governor control in his province?, answer: religious officials
Geologically, West Antarctica closely resembles the Andes mountain range of South America. The Antarctic Peninsula was formed by uplift and metamorphism of sea bed sediments during the late Paleozoic and the early Mesozoic eras. This sediment uplift was accompanied by igneous intrusions and volcanism. The most common rocks in West Antarctica are andesite and rhyolite volcanics formed during the Jurassic period. There is also evidence of volcanic activity, even after the ice sheet had formed, in Marie Byrd Land and Alexander Island. The only anomalous area of West Antarctica is the Ellsworth Mountains region, where the stratigraphy is more similar to East Antarctica.

question: What does West Antarctica most resemble geologically?, answer: the Andes mountain range of South America | question: How was the Antarctic Peninsula formed?, answer: by uplift and metamorphism of sea bed sediments | question: During what eras was the Antarctic Peninsula formed?, answer: late Paleozoic and the early Mesozoic | question: What are the most common rocks found in West Antarctica?, answer: andesite and rhyolite volcanics | question: Where has evidence of volcanic activity been discovered in Antarctica?, answer: Marie Byrd Land and Alexander Island | question: To what mountainous area is Antarctica geologically similar?, answer: Andes | question: An uplift of what formed Antarctica?, answer: sea bed sediments | question: Starting from the late Paleozoic era, when did Antarctica finish forming?, answer: early Mesozoic | question: What are the most often found rocks in Antarctica?, answer: andesite and rhyolite | question: What type of geologic activity occurred even after the formation of the ice sheets?, answer: volcanic