lmqg/qag_squad huggingface dataset:
In the example above, the identity and the rotations constitute a subgroup R = {id, r1, r2, r3}, highlighted in red in the group table above: any two rotations composed are still a rotation, and a rotation can be undone by (i.e. is inverse to) the complementary rotations 270° for 90°, 180° for 180°, and 90° for 270° (note that rotation in the opposite direction is not defined). The subgroup test is a necessary and sufficient condition for a subset H of a group G to be a subgroup: it is sufficient to check that g−1h ∈ H for all elements g, h ∈ H. Knowing the subgroups is important in understanding the group as a whole.d[›]

question: What is composed of two rotations?, answer: a rotation | question: What rotation can a rotation be reversed by?, answer: inverse | question: What essential condition must be met for a subset of a group to be a subgroup?, answer: The subgroup test
In the extreme empiricism of the neopositivists—at least before the 1930s—any genuinely synthetic assertion must be reducible to an ultimate assertion (or set of ultimate assertions) that expresses direct observations or perceptions. In later years, Carnap and Neurath abandoned this sort of phenomenalism in favor of a rational reconstruction of knowledge into the language of an objective spatio-temporal physics. That is, instead of translating sentences about physical objects into sense-data, such sentences were to be translated into so-called protocol sentences, for example, "X at location Y and at time T observes such and such." The central theses of logical positivism (verificationism, the analytic-synthetic distinction, reductionism, etc.) came under sharp attack after World War II by thinkers such as Nelson Goodman, W.V. Quine, Hilary Putnam, Karl Popper, and Richard Rorty. By the late 1960s, it had become evident to most philosophers that the movement had pretty much run its course, though its influence is still significant among contemporary analytic philosophers such as Michael Dummett and other anti-realists.

question: Who were extreme empiricists?, answer: neopositivists | question: Who attacked logical positivism?, answer: Nelson Goodman, W.V. Quine, Hilary Putnam, Karl Popper, and Richard Rorty | question: What position does Dummett take?, answer: anti-realists | question: Who abandoned phenomenalism?, answer: Carnap and Neurath
In the face of the country being re-occupied by the Red Army, tens of thousands of Estonians (including a majority of the education, culture, science, political and social specialists) chose to either retreat with the Germans or flee to Finland or Sweden where they sought refuge in other western countries, often by refugee ships such as the SS Walnut. On 12 January 1949, the Soviet Council of Ministers issued a decree "on the expulsion and deportation" from Baltic states of "all kulaks and their families, the families of bandits and nationalists", and others.

question: How many Estonians chose to retreat or flee when in anticipation of another Soviet invasion?, answer: tens of thousands | question: Which countries did most Estonians desire to flee to?, answer: Finland or Sweden | question: What was the name of the refugee ship that Estonians boarded?, answer: the SS Walnut | question: What date did the Soviet Council of Ministers issue a declaration to remove native Estonians?, answer: 12 January 1949
In the fall of 1958, Nasser formed a tripartite committee consisting of Zakaria Mohieddin, al-Hawrani, and Salah Bitar to oversee developments in Syria. By moving the latter two, who were Ba'athists, to Cairo, he neutralized important political figures who had their own ideas about how Syria should be run. He put Syria under Sarraj, who effectively reduced the province to a police state by imprisoning and exiling landholders who objected to the introduction of Egyptian agricultural reform in Syria, as well as communists. Following the Lebanese election of Fuad Chehab in September 1958, relations between Lebanon and the UAR improved considerably. On 25 March 1959, Chehab and Nasser met at the Lebanese–Syrian border and compromised on an end to the Lebanese crisis.

question: Who did Nasser appoint to run Syria?, answer: Sarraj | question: What was Syria like under Sarraj?, answer: police state | question: Who did Lebanon elect in 1958?, answer: Fuad Chehab | question: How did relations between Lebanon and the UAR change with Chehab's election?, answer: improved considerably | question: In what year did Nasser and Chehab agree to end the Lebanon crisis?, answer: 1959
In the fall of 1985, Gorbachev continued to bring younger and more energetic men into government. On September 27, Nikolai Ryzhkov replaced 79-year-old Nikolai Tikhonov as Chairman of the Council of Ministers, effectively the Soviet prime minister, and on October 14, Nikolai Talyzin replaced Nikolai Baibakov as chairman of the State Planning Committee (GOSPLAN). At the next Central Committee meeting on October 15, Tikhonov retired from the Politburo and Talyzin became a candidate. Finally, on December 23, 1985, Gorbachev appointed Yeltsin First Secretary of the Moscow Communist Party replacing Viktor Grishin.

question: Who became Chairman of the Council of Ministers in 1985?, answer: Nikolai Ryzhkov | question: Who was Chairman of the Council of Ministers prior to Ryzhkov?, answer: Nikolai Tikhonov | question: How old was Tikhonov when he stopped being Chairman?, answer: 79-year-old | question: Who was the new chairman of the State Planning Committee in 1985?, answer: Nikolai Talyzin | question: What is an analogous office to Chairman of the Council of Ministers?, answer: chairman of the State Planning Committee
In the fall of 2014, among the six undergraduate schools, 40.6% of undergraduate students are enrolled in the Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences, 21.3% in the McCormick School of Engineering and Applied Science, 14.3% in the School of Communication, 11.7% in the Medill School of Journalism, 5.7% in the Bienen School of Music, and 6.4% in the School of Education and Social Policy. The five most commonly awarded undergraduate degrees are in economics, journalism, communication studies, psychology, and political science. While professional students are affiliated with their respective schools, the School of Professional Studies offers master's and bachelor's degree, and certificate programs tailored to the professional studies. With 2,446 students enrolled in science, engineering, and health fields, the largest graduate programs by enrollment include chemistry, integrated biology, material sciences, electrical and computer engineering, neuroscience, and economics. The Kellogg School of Management's MBA, the School of Law's JD, and the Feinberg School of Medicine's MD are the three largest professional degree programs by enrollment.

question: In the fall of 2014, which school did 40.6% of undergraduates enroll in?, answer: Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences | question: In the fall of 2014, which school did 21.3% of undergraduates enroll in?, answer: McCormick School of Engineering and Applied Science | question: In the fall of 2014, which school did 14.3% of undergraduates enroll in?, answer: School of Communication | question: In the fall of 2014, which school did 11.7% of undergraduates enroll in?, answer: Medill School of Journalism | question: In the fall of 2014, which school did 5.7% of undergraduates enroll in?, answer: Bienen School of Music
In the far eastern part of the state the Chihuahuan Desert dominates due to low precipitation and extremely high temperatures; some areas of the eastern part of the state are so dry no vegetation is found like the Sand Dunes of Samalayuca. There are two distinctive climate zones found in the eastern part of the state: Hot Desert (BWh) and Cool Desert (BWk) which are differentiated by average annual temperature due to differences in elevation. There is a transition zone in the middle of the state between the two extremely different climates from the east and west; this zone is the Steppe characterized by a compromise between juxtaposed climate zones.

question: Which city is known for its sand dunes?, answer: Samalayuca | question: The transition zone between east and west is called what?, answer: the Steppe | question: Both types of climate zones in the eastern part of the state are what?, answer: Desert | question: What type of land dominates in the eastern part of the state?, answer: Desert
In the far north, there is a division between Berber-descendent Tuareg nomad populations and the darker-skinned Bella or Tamasheq people, due the historical spread of slavery in the region. An estimated 800,000 people in Mali are descended from slaves. Slavery in Mali has persisted for centuries. The Arabic population kept slaves well into the 20th century, until slavery was suppressed by French authorities around the mid-20th century. There still persist certain hereditary servitude relationships, and according to some estimates, even today approximately 200,000 Malians are still enslaved.

question: Roughly how many Malians are descendants of slaves?, answer: 800,000 | question: What is the estimate of current Mali enslavement?, answer: 200,000 | question: What group of people were known to keep Malian salves into the 20th century?, answer: Arabic population | question: The darker skinned Bella people are also refereed to as what name?, answer: Tamasheq | question: What region of the country is historical slavery well known?, answer: far north
In the field of music, Germany claims some of the most renowned classical composers of the world including Bach, Mozart and Beethoven, who marked the transition between the Classical and Romantic eras in Western classical music. Other composers of the Austro-German tradition who achieved international fame include Brahms, Wagner, Haydn, Schubert, Händel, Schumann, Liszt, Mendelssohn Bartholdy, Johann Strauss II, Bruckner, Mahler, Telemann, Richard Strauss, Schoenberg, Orff, and most recently, Henze, Lachenmann, and Stockhausen.

question: From which country is Bach, Mozart and Beethoven from?, answer: Germany | question: In what tradition of music did Brahms Wagner and Hadyn achieve fame?, answer: Austro-German | question: Who marked the switch from classical to romantic eras in classical music?, answer: Beethoven
In the fifth century Strasbourg was occupied successively by Alemanni, Huns, and Franks. In the ninth century it was commonly known as Strazburg in the local language, as documented in 842 by the Oaths of Strasbourg. This trilingual text contains, alongside texts in Latin and Old High German (teudisca lingua), the oldest written variety of Gallo-Romance (lingua romana) clearly distinct from Latin, the ancestor of Old French. The town was also called Stratisburgum or Strateburgus in Latin, from which later came Strossburi in Alsatian and Straßburg in Standard German, and then Strasbourg in French. The Oaths of Strasbourg is considered as marking the birth of the two countries of France and Germany with the division of the Carolingian Empire.

question: What Empire split to create France and Germany?, answer: Carolingian Empire | question: What language called Strasbourg Strossburi?, answer: Alsatian | question: What is the German spelling for Strasbourg?, answer: Straßburg | question: What was Strasbourg known as in the local language in the ninth century?, answer: Strazburg | question: In what century was Strasbourg occupied successively by Alemanni, Huns, and Franks?, answer: fifth century
In the final days of World War II in Yugoslavia, units of the Partisans were responsible for atrocities after the repatriations of Bleiburg, and accusations of culpability were later raised at the Yugoslav leadership under Tito. At the time, Josip Broz Tito repeatedly issued calls for surrender to the retreating column, offering amnesty and attempting to avoid a disorderly surrender. On 14 May he dispatched a telegram to the supreme headquarters Slovene Partisan Army prohibiting "in the sternest language" the execution of prisoners of war and commanding the transfer of the possible suspects to a military court.

question: Who offered amnesty to the retreatig column?, answer: Tito | question: Who dispatched a telegram to the supreme headquarters prohibiting the execution of prisoners of war?, answer: Tito | question: In the final days of WWII in Yugoslavia, who were responsible for atrocities?, answer: Partisans | question: What did Tito offer to the retreating column?, answer: amnesty | question: Where were possible suspects transferred to?, answer: military court.
In the final decades of this era many plebeians grew poorer. The long military campaigns had forced citizens to leave their farms to fight, while their farms fell into disrepair. The landed aristocracy began buying bankrupted farms at discounted prices. As commodity prices fell, many farmers could no longer operate their farms at a profit. The result was the ultimate bankruptcy of countless farmers. Masses of unemployed plebeians soon began to flood into Rome, and thus into the ranks of the legislative assemblies. Their poverty usually led them to vote for the candidate who offered them the most. A new culture of dependency was emerging, in which citizens would look to any populist leader for relief.

question: What had caused citizens to vacate their farms?, answer: long military campaigns | question: How could a candidate assure the vote of a poverty stricken plebeian?, answer: offered them the most | question: What type of culture was a side effect of the rampant poverty of the average plebeian?, answer: culture of dependency | question: What caused the bankruptcy of many farmers during this era?, answer: commodity prices fell | question: Who had bought the now bankrupt farms?, answer: landed aristocracy
In the financial year ended 31 July 2013, Imperial had a total net income of £822.0 million (2011/12 – £765.2 million) and total expenditure of £754.9 million (2011/12 – £702.0 million). Key sources of income included £329.5 million from research grants and contracts (2011/12 – £313.9 million), £186.3 million from academic fees and support grants (2011/12 – £163.1 million), £168.9 million from Funding Council grants (2011/12 – £172.4 million) and £12.5 million from endowment and investment income (2011/12 – £8.1 million). During the 2012/13 financial year Imperial had a capital expenditure of £124 million (2011/12 – £152 million).

question: What was Imperial's net income for the financial year that ended on 31 July 2013?, answer: £822.0 million | question: What was Imperial's total expenditure for the financial year that ended on the 31 July 2013?, answer: £754.9 million | question: How much income was generated from research grants and contracts for 2013?, answer: £329.5 million | question: Who granted Imperial close to 170 million pounds in grants?, answer: Funding Council | question: What was Imperial's capital expenditure for the 2012/2013 financial year?, answer: £124 million
In the first 200 years that black people were in the United States, they primarily identified themselves by their specific ethnic group (closely allied to language) and not by skin color. Individuals identified themselves, for example, as Ashanti, Igbo, Bakongo, or Wolof. However, when the first captives were brought to the Americas, they were often combined with other groups from West Africa, and individual ethnic affiliations were not generally acknowledged by English colonists. In areas of the Upper South, different ethnic groups were brought together. This is significant as the captives came from a vast geographic region: the West African coastline stretching from Senegal to Angola and in some cases from the south-east coast such as Mozambique. A new African-American identity and culture was born that incorporated elements of the various ethnic groups and of European cultural heritage, resulting in fusions such as the Black church and Black English. This new identity was based on provenance and slave status rather than membership in any one ethnic group.[citation needed] By contrast, slave records from Louisiana show that the French and Spanish colonists recorded more complete identities of the West Africans, including ethnicities and given tribal names.

question: How did black people identify in early America?, answer: by their specific ethnic group | question: What was not acknowledged by English colonists?, answer: individual ethnic affiliations | question: How vast was the backgrounds of the captives?, answer: West African coastline stretching from Senegal to Angola and in some cases from the south-east coast | question: How was the new African American identity defined?, answer: This new identity was based on provenance and slave status | question: Which colonists recorded more complete identities of the West Africans?, answer: French and Spanish colonists
In the first centuries AD, political and administrative subdivisions began to emerge in Estonia. Two larger subdivisions appeared: the province (Estonian: kihelkond) and the land (Estonian: maakond). Several elderships or villages made up a province. Nearly all provinces had at least one fortress. The king or other highest administrative official elder directed the defense of the local area. By the thirteenth century Estonia consisted of the following provinces: Revala, Harjumaa, Saaremaa, Hiiumaa, Läänemaa, Alempois, Sakala, Ugandi, Jogentagana, Soopoolitse, Vaiga, Mõhu, Nurmekund, Järvamaa and Virumaa.

question: When did political subgroups begin to appear in Estonia?, answer: first centuries AD | question: What subdivision was associated with the province?, answer: kihelkond | question: What subdivision was associated with the land?, answer: maakond | question: What type of structure did most provinces have?, answer: fortress | question: Who commanded the defense of an area?, answer: The king or other highest administrative official elder
In the first decades of the 19th century, Federal architecture and Greek Revival architecture were dominated by Philadelphia architects such as Benjamin Latrobe, William Strickland, John Haviland, John Notman, Thomas U. Walter, and Samuel Sloan. Frank Furness is considered Philadelphia's greatest architect of the second half of the 19th century, but his contemporaries included John McArthur, Jr., Addison Hutton, Wilson Eyre, the Wilson Brothers, and Horace Trumbauer. In 1871, construction began on the Second Empire-style Philadelphia City Hall. The Philadelphia Historical Commission was created in 1955 to preserve the cultural and architectural history of the city. The commission maintains the Philadelphia Register of Historic Places, adding historic buildings, structures, sites, objects and districts as it sees fit.

question: Name 6 important Philadelphia architects?, answer: Benjamin Latrobe, William Strickland, John Haviland, John Notman, Thomas U. Walter, and Samuel Sloan | question: Who is Philadelphia's greatest architect of the later 19th century?, answer: Frank Furness | question: When did building begin on the Philadelphia CIty Hall?, answer: 1871 | question: What commission was created in 1955?, answer: Philadelphia Historical Commission | question: What does this commission control?, answer: Philadelphia Register of Historic Places
In the first half of the 11th century, Hai Gaon refers to questions that had been addressed to him from Ashkenaz, by which he undoubtedly means Germany. Rashi in the latter half of the 11th century refers to both the language of Ashkenaz and the country of Ashkenaz. During the 12th century, the word appears quite frequently. In the Mahzor Vitry, the kingdom of Ashkenaz is referred to chiefly in regard to the ritual of the synagogue there, but occasionally also with regard to certain other observances.

question: When did Hai Gaon refer to questions that had been addressed to him from Ashkenaz?, answer: the first half of the 11th century | question: Who is Hai Gaon thought to be referring to when he says Ashkenaz?, answer: Germany | question: In the latter half of the 11th century, Rashi refers to what two things?, answer: both the language of Ashkenaz and the country of Ashkenaz
In the first half of the 20th century the Olympic Winter Games were held three times in Alpine venues: the 1924 Winter Olympics in Chamonix, France; the 1928 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz, Switzerland; and the 1936 Winter Olympics in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany. During World War II the winter games were canceled but after that time the Winter Games have been held in St. Moritz (1948), Cortina d'Ampezzo (1956), Innsbruck, Austria (1964 and 1976), Grenoble, France, (1968), Albertville, France, (1992), and Torino (2006). In 1930 the Lauberhorn Rennen (Lauberhorn Race), was run for the first time on the Lauberhorn above Wengen; the equally demanding Hahnenkamm was first run in the same year in Kitzbühl, Austria. Both races continue to be held each January on successive weekends. The Lauberhorn is the more strenuous downhill race at 4.5 km (2.8 mi) and poses danger to racers who reach 130 km/h (81 mph) within seconds of leaving the start gate.

question: Where were the Winter Olympics held in 1924?, answer: Chamonix, France | question: Where were the Winter Olympics held in 1928?, answer: St. Moritz, Switzerland | question: Where were the Winter Olympics held in 1936?, answer: Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany | question: When was the Lauberhorn Rennen ran for the first time on the Lauberhorn above Wengen?, answer: 1930 | question: When were the Winter Olympics held in Albertville, France?, answer: (1992)
In the first half of the 20th century, advances in electronics enabled investigation of the electrical properties of nerve cells, culminating in work by Alan Hodgkin, Andrew Huxley, and others on the biophysics of the action potential, and the work of Bernard Katz and others on the electrochemistry of the synapse. These studies complemented the anatomical picture with a conception of the brain as a dynamic entity. Reflecting the new understanding, in 1942 Charles Sherrington visualized the workings of the brain waking from sleep:

question: Work in the first half the 20th century in electrical properties of nerve cells were by what two main scientists?, answer: Alan Hodgkin, Andrew Huxley
In the first half of the twentieth century, almost all elevators had no automatic positioning of the floor on which the cab would stop. Some of the older freight elevators were controlled by switches operated by pulling on adjacent ropes. In general, most elevators before WWII were manually controlled by elevator operators using a rheostat connected to the motor. This rheostat (see picture) was enclosed within a cylindrical container about the size and shape of a cake. This was mounted upright or sideways on the cab wall and operated via a projecting handle, which was able to slide around the top half of the cylinder.

question: Until the mid 1900s most elevators lacked what?, answer: automatic positioning of the floor on which the cab would stop | question: How were most elevators built before 1939 powered?, answer: by elevator operators using a rheostat connected to the motor | question: Many earlier built freight elevators were controlled by what?, answer: switches operated by pulling on adjacent ropes | question: A rheostat is the size and shape of what?, answer: a cake | question: Where was the rheostat mounted?, answer: upright or sideways on the cab wall