lmqg/qag_squad huggingface dataset:
The phrase "[A] hedge or wall of separation between the garden of the church and the wilderness of the world" was first used by Baptist theologian Roger Williams, the founder of the colony of Rhode Island, in his 1644 book The Bloody Tenent of Persecution. The phrase was later used by Thomas Jefferson as a description of the First Amendment and its restriction on the legislative branch of the federal government, in an 1802 letter to the Danbury Baptists (a religious minority concerned about the dominant position of the Congregationalist church in Connecticut):

question: Who was Roger Williams?, answer: Baptist theologian | question: What phrase did Roger Williams first use?, answer: "[A] hedge or wall of separation between the garden of the church and the wilderness of the world" | question: What colony was Roger Williams the founder of?, answer: Rhode Island | question: When was the book The Bloody Tenent of Persecution published?, answer: 1644 | question: Who used William's phrase as a description of the First Amendment and its restriction on the legislative branch?, answer: Thomas Jefferson
The phrase is usually used in local political debates, in polemic writing or in private conversations. It is rarely used by politicians themselves in a public context, although at certain times in Canadian history political parties have used other similarly loaded imagery. In the 1988 federal election, the Liberals asserted that the proposed Free Trade Agreement amounted to an American takeover of Canada—notably, the party ran an ad in which Progressive Conservative (PC) strategists, upon the adoption of the agreement, slowly erased the Canada-U.S. border from a desktop map of North America. Within days, however, the PCs responded with an ad which featured the border being drawn back on with a permanent marker, as an announcer intoned "Here's where we draw the line."

question: Who suggested that the Free Trade Agreement amounted to an American takeover of Canada?, answer: Liberals | question: When was this campaign ran?, answer: In the 1988 federal election | question: Who erased the border in the ad?, answer: Progressive Conservative (PC) strategists | question: What was the slogan of this ad?, answer: "Here's where we draw the line."
The physical relief of the island is dominated by two mountain ranges, the Troodos Mountains and the smaller Kyrenia Range, and the central plain they encompass, the Mesaoria. The Mesaoria plain is drained by the Pedieos River, the longest on the island. The Troodos Mountains cover most of the southern and western portions of the island and account for roughly half its area. The highest point on Cyprus is Mount Olympus at 1,952 m (6,404 ft), located in the centre of the Troodos range. The narrow Kyrenia Range, extending along the northern coastline, occupies substantially less area, and elevations are lower, reaching a maximum of 1,024 m (3,360 ft). The island lies within the Anatolian Plate.

question: What two mountains ranges are located on the island of Cyprus?, answer: Troodos Mountains and the smaller Kyrenia Range | question: What plain is located in between the Troodos Mountains and the Kyrenia Range?, answer: the Mesaoria | question: Which river drains the Mesaoria plain?, answer: Pedieos River | question: What is the highest point on the island of Cyprus?, answer: Mount Olympus | question: How tall is Mount Olympus?, answer: 1,952 m (6,404 ft)
The physicist Abdus Salam, in his Nobel Prize banquet address, quoted a well known verse from the Quran (67:3-4) and then stated: "This in effect is the faith of all physicists: the deeper we seek, the more is our wonder excited, the more is the dazzlement of our gaze". One of Salam's core beliefs was that there is no contradiction between Islam and the discoveries that science allows humanity to make about nature and the universe. Salam also held the opinion that the Quran and the Islamic spirit of study and rational reflection was the source of extraordinary civilizational development. Salam highlights, in particular, the work of Ibn al-Haytham and Al-Biruni as the pioneers of empiricism who introduced the experimental approach, breaking way from Aristotle's influence, and thus giving birth to modern science. Salam was also careful to differentiate between metaphysics and physics, and advised against empirically probing certain matters on which "physics is silent and will remain so," such as the doctrine of "creation from nothing" which in Salam's view is outside the limits of science and thus "gives way" to religious considerations.

question: Which physicist quoted the Quran in his address after receiving the Nobel Prize?, answer: Abdus Salam | question: Which verse from the Quran did Abdus Salam quote at his Nobel banquet?, answer: 67:3-4 | question: Which two Muslim scientists did Salam celebrate as inventors of empirical methods?, answer: Ibn al-Haytham and Al-Biruni | question: Salam suggests physics and science be kept separate from which topics which are more suited to religion?, answer: metaphysics
The physics of quantum mechanics was thereby reduced to the mathematics of Hilbert spaces and linear operators acting on them. For example, the uncertainty principle, according to which the determination of the position of a particle prevents the determination of its momentum and vice versa, is translated into the non-commutativity of the two corresponding operators. This new mathematical formulation included as special cases the formulations of both Heisenberg and Schrödinger. When Heisenberg was informed von Neumann had clarified the difference between an unbounded operator that was a Self-adjoint operator and one that was merely symmetric, Heisenberg replied "Eh? What is the difference?"

question: What are the physics of quantum mechanics?, answer: mathematics of Hilbert spaces and linear operators acting on them | question: What is the uncertainty principle?, answer: determination of the position of a particle prevents the determination of its momentum and vice versa | question: The physics of quantum mechanics included special cases for what work?, answer: formulations of both Heisenberg and Schrödinger
The pilgrims in Geoffrey Chaucer's late 14th-century Canterbury Tales set out for Canterbury from London – specifically, from the Tabard inn, Southwark. William Shakespeare spent a large part of his life living and working in London; his contemporary Ben Jonson was also based there, and some of his work—most notably his play The Alchemist—was set in the city. A Journal of the Plague Year (1722) by Daniel Defoe is a fictionalisation of the events of the 1665 Great Plague. Later important depictions of London from the 19th and early 20th centuries are Dickens' novels, and Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes stories. Modern writers pervasively influenced by the city include Peter Ackroyd, author of a "biography" of London, and Iain Sinclair, who writes in the genre of psychogeography.

question: What famous Elizabethan playwright spent much of his life in London?, answer: William Shakespeare | question: What contemporary of Williams Shakespeare wrote a play entitled The Alchemist?, answer: Ben Jonson | question: What author of Robinson Crusoe also wrote a fictionalized account of the Great Plague of 1665?, answer: Daniel Defoe | question: The people in Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales begin their pilgrimage from what London establishment?, answer: the Tabard inn | question: Arthur Conan Doyle brought to life what famous detective in a series of novels?, answer: Sherlock Holmes
The pitch of complex tones can be ambiguous, meaning that two or more different pitches can be perceived, depending upon the observer. When the actual fundamental frequency can be precisely determined through physical measurement, it may differ from the perceived pitch because of overtones, also known as upper partials, harmonic or otherwise. A complex tone composed of two sine waves of 1000 and 1200 Hz may sometimes be heard as up to three pitches: two spectral pitches at 1000 and 1200 Hz, derived from the physical frequencies of the pure tones, and the combination tone at 200 Hz, corresponding to the repetition rate of the waveform. In a situation like this, the percept at 200 Hz is commonly referred to as the missing fundamental, which is often the greatest common divisor of the frequencies present.

question: The pitch of complex tones can be?, answer: ambiguous | question: A complex tone is composed of how many waves?, answer: two | question: The percept at 200 Hz is commonly referred to as?, answer: the missing fundamental | question: the percept at 200 Hz is commonly referred to as the missing fundamental, which is often?, answer: divisor of the frequencies present
The pits and lands themselves do not directly represent the zeros and ones of binary data. Instead, non-return-to-zero, inverted encoding is used: a change from pit to land or land to pit indicates a one, while no change indicates a series of zeros. There must be at least two and no more than ten zeros between each one, which is defined by the length of the pit. This in turn is decoded by reversing the eight-to-fourteen modulation used in mastering the disc, and then reversing the cross-interleaved Reed–Solomon coding, finally revealing the raw data stored on the disc. These encoding techniques (defined in the Red Book) were originally designed for CD Digital Audio, but they later became a standard for almost all CD formats (such as CD-ROM).

question: What type of result from a CD will return a one?, answer: change from pit to land or land to pit | question: Where can one find the encoding techniques for CDs?, answer: Red Book | question: What type of encoding do CDs implement?, answer: non-return-to-zero | question: What type of modulation is implemented when a disc is mastered?, answer: eight-to-fourteen
The placing of the nails in the hands, or the wrists is also uncertain. Some theories suggest that the Greek word cheir (χειρ) for hand includes the wrist and that the Romans were generally trained to place nails through Destot's space (between the capitate and lunate bones) without fracturing any bones. Another theory suggests that the Greek word for hand also includes the forearm and that the nails were placed near the radius and ulna of the forearm. Ropes may have also been used to fasten the hands in addition to the use of nails.

question: Where were the nails placed?, answer: the hands, or the wrists | question: Who claims the hands were pierced?, answer: the Greek | question: The Romans tried to affix by avoiding what?, answer: without fracturing any bones | question: What other location is offered by the Greek?, answer: forearm | question: What other way to affix to the cross is there?, answer: Ropes
The plains at the foot of the Sierra Madre Occidental is an elongated mesa known as Altiplanicie Mexicana that exhibits a steppe climate and serves as a transition zone from the mountain climate in the western part of the state to the desert climate in the eastern side of the state. The steppe zone accounts for a third of the state's area, and it experiences pronounced dry and wet seasons. The pronounced rainy season in the steppe is usually observed in the months of July, August, and September. The steppe also encounters extreme temperatures that often reach over 100 °F in the summer and drop below 32 °F in the winter. The steppe zone is an important agriculture zone due to an extensive development of canals exploiting several rivers that flow down from the mountains. The steppe zone is the most populated area of the state.

question: Which months make up the pronounced rainy season in the steppe?, answer: July, August, and September | question: The steppe reaches temperatures above what in the winter?, answer: 100 °F | question: The steppe is important agriculturally because of what feature?, answer: canals | question: The mountain climate is found in which part of the state?, answer: western
The plan stated that the following numbers of species of different groups had been recorded from Egypt: algae (1483 species), animals (about 15,000 species of which more than 10,000 were insects), fungi (more than 627 species), monera (319 species), plants (2426 species), protozoans (371 species). For some major groups, for example lichen-forming fungi and nematode worms, the number was not known. Apart from small and well-studied groups like amphibians, birds, fish, mammals and reptiles, the many of those numbers are likely to increase as further species are recorded from Egypt. For the fungi, including lichen-forming species, for example, subsequent work has shown that over 2200 species have been recorded from Egypt, and the final figure of all fungi actually occurring in the country is expected to be much higher.

question: How many species of plants were recorded in Egypt?, answer: 2426 | question: How many species of fungi were recorded in Egypt?, answer: 627 | question: How many species of algae were recorded in Egypt?, answer: 1483 | question: How many species of animals were recorded in Egypt?, answer: 15,000 | question: How many species of protazoa were recorded in Egypt?, answer: 371
The playing time of a phonograph record depended on the turntable speed and the groove spacing. At the beginning of the 20th century, the early discs played for two minutes, the same as early cylinder records. The 12-inch disc, introduced by Victor in 1903, increased the playing time to three and a half minutes. Because a 10-inch 78 rpm record could hold about three minutes of sound per side and the 10-inch size was the standard size for popular music, almost all popular recordings were limited to around three minutes in length. For example, when King Oliver's Creole Jazz Band, including Louis Armstrong on his first recordings, recorded 13 sides at Gennett Records in Richmond, Indiana, in 1923, one side was 2:09 and four sides were 2:52–2:59.

question: What factors would effect playing time of a phonograph?, answer: turntable speed and the groove spacing | question: What was the playing time common in the early 20th century?, answer: two minutes | question: How many recordings did Kind Oliver's Creole Jazz band require?, answer: 13 | question: What was the normal size disc for popular music?, answer: 10-inch | question: What was the recording time available on a 12 inch disc?, answer: three and a half minutes
The plebeians had finally achieved political equality with the patricians. However, the plight of the average plebeian had not changed. A small number of plebeian families achieved the same standing that the old aristocratic patrician families had always had, but the new plebeian aristocrats became as uninterested in the plight of the average plebeian as the old patrician aristocrats had always been. The plebeians rebelled by leaving Rome and refusing to return until they had more rights. The patricians then noticed how much they needed the plebeians and accepted their terms. The plebeians then returned to Rome and continued their work.

question: Which group of people were now considered to be politically equal with the plebeians?, answer: patricians | question: Which group of people rebelled by vacating Rome?, answer: The plebeians | question: How many plebeian families had an identical standing as the old aristocratic patrician families?, answer: A small number | question: What did the rebelling plebeians want before they returned to Rome?, answer: more rights
The poets generally associated with Cubism are Guillaume Apollinaire, Blaise Cendrars, Jean Cocteau, Max Jacob, André Salmon and Pierre Reverdy. As American poet Kenneth Rexroth explains, Cubism in poetry "is the conscious, deliberate dissociation and recombination of elements into a new artistic entity made self-sufficient by its rigorous architecture. This is quite different from the free association of the Surrealists and the combination of unconscious utterance and political nihilism of Dada." Nonetheless, the Cubist poets' influence on both Cubism and the later movements of Dada and Surrealism was profound; Louis Aragon, founding member of Surrealism, said that for Breton, Soupault, Éluard and himself, Reverdy was "our immediate elder, the exemplary poet." Though not as well remembered as the Cubist painters, these poets continue to influence and inspire; American poets John Ashbery and Ron Padgett have recently produced new translations of Reverdy's work. Wallace Stevens' "Thirteen Ways of Looking at a Blackbird" is also said to demonstrate how cubism's multiple perspectives can be translated into poetry.

question: Which poets are closely alligned with Cubism?, answer: Guillaume Apollinaire, Blaise Cendrars, Jean Cocteau, Max Jacob, André Salmon and Pierre Reverdy | question: What is the name of the american Poet who is associated with talking about the rigiorous architecture of Cubism?, answer: Kenneth Rexroth | question: Which two American poets have recently created new traslations of Reverdy's work?, answer: John Ashbery and Ron Padgett | question: What is the name of Wallace Steven's work that explains how cubism can be translated into poetry?, answer: Thirteen Ways of Looking at a Blackbird
The point at which chicks fledge varies dramatically. The chicks of the Synthliboramphus murrelets, like the ancient murrelet, leave the nest the night after they hatch, following their parents out to sea, where they are raised away from terrestrial predators. Some other species, such as ducks, move their chicks away from the nest at an early age. In most species, chicks leave the nest just before, or soon after, they are able to fly. The amount of parental care after fledging varies; albatross chicks leave the nest on their own and receive no further help, while other species continue some supplementary feeding after fledging. Chicks may also follow their parents during their first migration.

question: Which chicks leave the nest the night after they hatch?, answer: chicks of the Synthliboramphus murrelets | question: Name a species which move their chicks away from the nest at an early age., answer: ducks | question: When do most species of chicks leave the nest?, answer: just before, or soon after, they are able to fly
The pointed arch, one of the defining attributes of Gothic, was earlier incorporated into Islamic architecture following the Islamic conquests of Roman Syria and the Sassanid Empire in the Seventh Century. The pointed arch and its precursors had been employed in Late Roman and Sassanian architecture; within the Roman context, evidenced in early church building in Syria and occasional secular structures, like the Roman Karamagara Bridge; in Sassanid architecture, in the parabolic and pointed arches employed in palace and sacred construction.

question: What is one defining characteristic of the Gothic architectural style?, answer: The pointed arch | question: Which type of architecture first used the pointed arch during the seventh century?, answer: Islamic architecture | question: What other type of architecture also made use of the pointed arch?, answer: Sassanian architecture | question: The Roman Karamagara Bridge is an example of what type of structure?, answer: secular structures | question: Parabolic and pointed arches were used in what type of constrcution?, answer: palace and sacred construction
The polarization of an antenna refers to the orientation of the electric field (E-plane) of the radio wave with respect to the Earth's surface and is determined by the physical structure of the antenna and by its orientation; note that this designation is totally distinct from the antenna's directionality. Thus, a simple straight wire antenna will have one polarization when mounted vertically, and a different polarization when mounted horizontally. As a transverse wave, the magnetic field of a radio wave is at right angles to that of the electric field, but by convention, talk of an antenna's "polarization" is understood to refer to the direction of the electric field.

question: How many polarizations will a antenna have when mounted vertically?, answer: one | question: What is another name for electric-field?, answer: E-plane | question: When is a magnetic fields right angles to a electrical field?, answer: transverse wave | question: Whats understood in reference of direction of an E-plane?, answer: polarization
The political reforms of Peter the Great (Пётр Вели́кий, Pyótr Velíkiy) were accompanied by a reform of the alphabet, and achieved their goal of secularization and Westernization. Blocks of specialized vocabulary were adopted from the languages of Western Europe. By 1800, a significant portion of the gentry spoke French daily, and German sometimes. Many Russian novels of the 19th century, e.g. Leo Tolstoy's (Лев Толсто́й) War and Peace, contain entire paragraphs and even pages in French with no translation given, with an assumption that educated readers would not need one.

question: Where did Russian get specialized vocabulary from?, answer: the languages of Western Europe | question: What second language was common among Russian nobles by 1800?, answer: French | question: What third language was common among Russian nobles by 1800?, answer: German | question: Who wrote 'War and Peace'?, answer: Leo Tolstoy | question: What language often appeared in Russian novels without translation?, answer: French
The political separation of the Church of England from Rome under Henry VIII brought England alongside this broad Reformation movement. Reformers in the Church of England alternated between sympathies for ancient Catholic tradition and more Reformed principles, gradually developing into a tradition considered a middle way (via media) between the Roman Catholic and Protestant traditions. The English Reformation followed a particular course. The different character of the English Reformation came primarily from the fact that it was driven initially by the political necessities of Henry VIII. King Henry decided to remove the Church of England from the authority of Rome. In 1534, the Act of Supremacy recognized Henry as the only Supreme Head on earth of the Church of England. Between 1535 and 1540, under Thomas Cromwell, the policy known as the Dissolution of the Monasteries was put into effect. Following a brief Roman Catholic restoration during the reign of Mary I, a loose consensus developed during the reign of Elizabeth I. The Elizabethan Religious Settlement largely formed Anglicanism into a distinctive church tradition. The compromise was uneasy and was capable of veering between extreme Calvinism on the one hand and Roman Catholicism on the other. It was relatively successful until the Puritan Revolution or English Civil War in the 17th century.

question: Under whose reign did the Church of England part from Rome?, answer: Henry VIII | question: When was the Act of Supremacy passed?, answer: 1534 | question: What made Anglicanism into a more distinct tradition?, answer: The Elizabethan Religious Settlement | question: In what years were the Dissolution of the Monasteries carried out?, answer: Between 1535 and 1540 | question: Who was made the Supreme Head of the Church of England in 1534?, answer: King Henry