lmqg/qag_squad huggingface dataset:
Hayek was one of the leading academic critics of collectivism in the 20th century. Hayek argued that all forms of collectivism (even those theoretically based on voluntary co-operation) could only be maintained by a central authority of some kind. In Hayek's view, the central role of the state should be to maintain the rule of law, with as little arbitrary intervention as possible. In his popular book, The Road to Serfdom (1944) and in subsequent academic works, Hayek argued that socialism required central economic planning and that such planning in turn leads towards totalitarianism.

question: What was the name of the ideology Hayek criticized?, answer: collectivism | question: How did Hayek believe collectivism could be maintained?, answer: a central authority | question: According to Hayek, what is necessary for the implementation of a socialist economy?, answer: central economic planning | question: Hayek believed the requirements for a socialist economy would lead to what?, answer: totalitarianism | question: What did Hayek believe was the core responsibility of the state?, answer: maintain the rule of law
Hayek wrote an essay, "Why I Am Not a Conservative" (included as an appendix to The Constitution of Liberty), in which he disparaged conservatism for its inability to adapt to changing human realities or to offer a positive political program, remarking, "Conservatism is only as good as what it conserves." Although he noted that modern day conservatism shares many opinions on economics with classical liberals, particularly a belief in the free market, he believed it's because conservatism wants to "stand still," whereas liberalism embraces the free market because it "wants to go somewhere." Hayek identified himself as a classical liberal, but noted that in the United States it had become almost impossible to use "liberal" in its original definition, and the term "libertarian" has been used instead. In this text, Hayek also opposed conservatism for "its hostility to internationalism and its proneness to a strident nationalism" and its frequent association with imperialism.

question: What ideology did Hayek not agree with in an essay appended to The Constitution of Liberty?, answer: conservatism | question: What word is used in the United States to identify Hayek's ideology?, answer: libertarian | question: Which ideology did Hayek believe conservatism discouraged?, answer: internationalism | question: What does conservatism have in common with classical liberalism?, answer: belief in the free market | question: What was Hayek's statement regarding conservatism?, answer: "Conservatism is only as good as what it conserves."
Hayek's greatest intellectual debt was to Carl Menger, who pioneered an approach to social explanation similar to that developed in Britain by Bernard Mandeville and the Scottish moral philosophers in the Scottish Enlightenment. He had a wide-reaching influence on contemporary economics, politics, philosophy, sociology, psychology and anthropology. For example, Hayek's discussion in The Road to Serfdom (1944) about truth, falsehood and the use of language influenced some later opponents of postmodernism.

question: Which of Hayek's books had an impact on those against postmodernism?, answer: The Road to Serfdom | question: To whom did Hayek owe his intellectual success?, answer: Carl Menger | question: Carl Menger's work in social explanation was not too different from those in which Scottish period??, answer: Scottish Enlightenment
Hayek's influence on the development of economics is widely acknowledged. Hayek is the second-most frequently cited economist (after Kenneth Arrow) in the Nobel lectures of the prize winners in economics, which is particularly striking since his own lecture was critical of the field of orthodox economics and neo-classical modelisation. A number of Nobel Laureates in economics, such as Vernon Smith and Herbert A. Simon, recognise Hayek as the greatest modern economist. Another Nobel winner, Paul Samuelson, believed that Hayek was worthy of his award but nevertheless claimed that "there were good historical reasons for fading memories of Hayek within the mainstream last half of the twentieth century economist fraternity. In 1931, Hayek's Prices and Production had enjoyed an ultra-short Byronic success. In retrospect hindsight tells us that its mumbo-jumbo about the period of production grossly misdiagnosed the macroeconomics of the 1927–1931 (and the 1931–2007) historical scene". Despite this comment, Samuelson spent the last 50 years of his life obsessed with the problems of capital theory identified by Hayek and Böhm-Bawerk, and Samuelson flatly judged Hayek to have been right and his own teacher, Joseph Schumpeter, to have been wrong on the central economic question of the 20th century, the feasibility of socialist economic planning in a production goods dominated economy.

question: Which economist is cited the most by winners of the Nobel prize in that field?, answer: Kenneth Arrow | question: What Nobel prize winner has spent most of his life studying Hayek's capital theory despite being critical of the man?, answer: Paul Samuelson | question: On the topic of the practicality of a socialist economy, who does Samuelson believe was wrong?, answer: Joseph Schumpeter | question: On the topic of mainstream economics, whose Nobel lecture was particularly critical?, answer: Hayek's | question: Which of Hayek's works does Samuelson cite as being incorrect regarding macroeconomics?, answer: Prices and Production
Hayek's principal investigations in economics concerned capital, money, and the business cycle. Mises had earlier applied the concept of marginal utility to the value of money in his Theory of Money and Credit (1912), in which he also proposed an explanation for "industrial fluctuations" based on the ideas of the old British Currency School and of Swedish economist Knut Wicksell. Hayek used this body of work as a starting point for his own interpretation of the business cycle, elaborating what later became known as the "Austrian Theory of the Business Cycle". Hayek spelled out the Austrian approach in more detail in his book, published in 1929, an English translation of which appeared in 1933 as Monetary Theory and the Trade Cycle. There he argued for a monetary approach to the origins of the cycle. In his Prices and Production (1931), Hayek argued that the business cycle resulted from the central bank's inflationary credit expansion and its transmission over time, leading to a capital misallocation caused by the artificially low interest rates. Hayek claimed that "the past instability of the market economy is the consequence of the exclusion of the most important regulator of the market mechanism, money, from itself being regulated by the market process".

question: What is the name of Mises' 1912 book?, answer: Theory of Money and Credit | question: Hayek focused most of his economic works on the business cycle, money and what else?, answer: capital | question: What work did Hayek produce as a result of studying Mises' book?, answer: Austrian Theory of the Business Cycle | question: What is the English name for the book Hayek published in 1929?, answer: Monetary Theory and the Trade Cycle | question: According to Hayek, what was the cause of the banks' wrongful allocation of funds?, answer: artificially low interest rates
Hayek's work on the microeconomics of the choice theoretics of investment, non-permanent goods, potential permanent resources, and economically-adapted permanent resources mark a central dividing point between his work in areas of macroeconomics and that of almost all other economists. Hayek's work on the macroeconomic subjects of central planning, trade cycle theory, the division of knowledge, and entrepreneurial adaptation especially, differ greatly from the opinions of macroeconomic "Marshallian" economists in the tradition of John Maynard Keynes and the microeconomic "Walrasian" economists in the tradition of Abba Lerner.

question: In what economic field of study does Hayek's views differ from those in macroeconomics?, answer: microeconomics | question: What is the term used to describe economists following Keynes school of thought?, answer: "Marshallian" | question: Whose works inspire the term "Walrasian" in economics?, answer: Abba Lerner
Hayek’s concept of the market as a spontaneous order has been recently applied to ecosystems to defend a broadly non-interventionist policy. Like the market, ecosystems contain complex networks of information, involve an ongoing dynamic process, contain orders within orders, and the entire system operates without being directed by a conscious mind. On this analysis, species takes the place of price as a visible element of the system formed by a complex set of largely unknowable elements. Human ignorance about the countless interactions between the organisms of an ecosystem limits our ability to manipulate nature. Since humans rely on the ecosystem to sustain themselves, we have a prima facie obligation to not disrupt such systems. This analysis of ecosystems as spontaneous orders does not rely on markets qualifying as spontaneous orders. As such, one need not endorse Hayek’s analysis of markets to endorse ecosystems as spontaneous orders.

question: What has Hayek's views on the market been used to defend?, answer: non-interventionist policy | question: What is the term used to describe the obligation for humans to avoid disrupting the ecosystem?, answer: prima facie | question: What are ecosystems views to be?, answer: spontaneous orders | question: One might still support spontaneous orders without agreeing with which of Hayek's assessments?, answer: analysis of markets | question: What is limited by the ignorance of humanity?, answer: our ability to manipulate nature
Hazards to aircraft include debris, nesting birds, and reduced friction levels due to environmental conditions such as ice, snow, or rain. Part of runway maintenance is airfield rubber removal which helps maintain friction levels. The fields must be kept clear of debris using cleaning equipment so that loose material does not become a projectile and enter an engine duct (see foreign object damage). In adverse weather conditions, ice and snow clearing equipment can be used to improve traction on the landing strip. For waiting aircraft, equipment is used to spray special deicing fluids on the wings.

question: What includes debris and nesting birds?, answer: Hazards to aircraft | question: In adverse weather conditions, what can be used to improve traction on the landing strip?, answer: ice and snow clearing equipment | question: What is one part of runway maintenance that helps maintain friction levels?, answer: airfield rubber removal
He also developed Feynman diagrams, a bookkeeping device that helps in conceptualizing and calculating interactions between particles in spacetime, including the interactions between electrons and their antimatter counterparts, positrons. This device allowed him, and later others, to approach time reversibility and other fundamental processes. Feynman's mental picture for these diagrams started with the hard sphere approximation, and the interactions could be thought of as collisions at first. It was not until decades later that physicists thought of analyzing the nodes of the Feynman diagrams more closely. Feynman painted Feynman diagrams on the exterior of his van.

question: What did Feynman produce that help in understanding calculations between particles in space and time?, answer: Feynman diagrams | question: What is the name of the antimatter counterpart of electrons?, answer: positrons | question: Where did Feynman paint his diagrams?, answer: his van | question: What did Feynman digrams allow him and others to do?, answer: approach time reversibility and other fundamental processes
He also introduced the notion of a 'Universal Machine' (now known as a Universal Turing machine), with the idea that such a machine could perform the tasks of any other machine, or in other words, it is provably capable of computing anything that is computable by executing a program stored on tape, allowing the machine to be programmable. Von Neumann acknowledged that the central concept of the modern computer was due to this paper. Turing machines are to this day a central object of study in theory of computation. Except for the limitations imposed by their finite memory stores, modern computers are said to be Turing-complete, which is to say, they have algorithm execution capability equivalent to a universal Turing machine.

question: A Universal Machine is known as what today?, answer: Universal Turing machine
He assumed duties again at Camp Meade, Maryland, commanding a battalion of tanks, where he remained until 1922. His schooling continued, focused on the nature of the next war and the role of the tank in it. His new expertise in tank warfare was strengthened by a close collaboration with George S. Patton, Sereno E. Brett, and other senior tank leaders. Their leading-edge ideas of speed-oriented offensive tank warfare were strongly discouraged by superiors, who considered the new approach too radical and preferred to continue using tanks in a strictly supportive role for the infantry. Eisenhower was even threatened with court martial for continued publication of these proposed methods of tank deployment, and he relented.

question: What was Eisenhower's Camp Meade unit equipped with?, answer: tanks | question: When did Eisenhower leave Camp Meade?, answer: 1922 | question: Along with Patton, who was a notable interwar tank leader?, answer: Sereno E. Brett | question: What was the traditional doctrine on the use of tanks?, answer: supportive role for the infantry | question: What happened when Eisenhower was threatened with a court martial for his support for offensive tank tactics?, answer: he relented
He attained a perfect score on the graduate school entrance exams to Princeton University in mathematics and physics—an unprecedented feat—but did rather poorly on the history and English portions. Attendees at Feynman's first seminar included Albert Einstein, Wolfgang Pauli, and John von Neumann. He received a PhD from Princeton in 1942; his thesis advisor was John Archibald Wheeler. Feynman's thesis applied the principle of stationary action to problems of quantum mechanics, inspired by a desire to quantize the Wheeler–Feynman absorber theory of electrodynamics, laying the groundwork for the "path integral" approach and Feynman diagrams, and was titled "The Principle of Least Action in Quantum Mechanics".

question: Which two sections of the graduate exam did Feynman excel in?, answer: mathematics and physics | question: Which two sections of the graduate exam did Feynman do poorly in?, answer: history and English | question: What score did Feyman receive on his math and physics entrance exams?, answer: perfect score | question: When did he receive his PhD?, answer: 1942 | question: What was Feynman's PhD thesis titled?, answer: The Principle of Least Action in Quantum Mechanics
He does not argue that any such conclusions are therefore true, or that this describes the actual methods of any particular scientist.[citation needed] Rather, it is recommended as an essential principle of methodology that, if enacted by a system or community, will lead to slow but steady progress of a sort (relative to how well the system or community enacts the method). It has been suggested that Popper's ideas are often mistaken for a hard logical account of truth because of the historical co-incidence of their appearing at the same time as logical positivism, the followers of which mistook his aims for their own.

question: What other contemporaneous school of thought is often confused with Popper's own contributions?, answer: logical positivism | question: Popper has stressed that his description of scientific methodology should not be mistaken to apply to whom?, answer: any particular scientist | question: At what level does Popper indicate his view of scientific methodology applies?, answer: system or community | question: What kind of progress does science make given the methodology Popper describes?, answer: slow but steady
He immersed himself in work on the project, and was present at the Trinity bomb test. Feynman claimed to be the only person to see the explosion without the very dark glasses or welder's lenses provided, reasoning that it was safe to look through a truck windshield, as it would screen out the harmful ultraviolet radiation. On witnessing the blast, Feynman ducked towards the floor of his truck because of the immense brightness of the explosion, where he saw a temporary "purple splotch" afterimage of the event.

question: Feynman used this to protect his eyes during the test detonation, answer: truck windshield | question: What atomic bomb test did Feynman see?, answer: Trinity bomb test | question: What did Feynman see after the atomic test?, answer: "purple splotch" afterimage | question: What did Feynman think that the truck windshield would shield him against?, answer: ultraviolet radiation
He invited a Roman Catholic priest, Father Anselm Strittmatter, O.S.B., to visit him for consultation. Von Neumann reportedly said in explanation that Pascal had a point, referring to Pascal's Wager. Father Strittmatter administered the last sacraments to him. Some of von Neumann's friends (such as Abraham Pais and Oskar Morgenstern) said they had always believed him to be "completely agnostic." "Of this deathbed conversion, Morgenstern told Heims, "He was of course completely agnostic all his life, and then he suddenly turned Catholic—it doesn't agree with anything whatsoever in his attitude, outlook and thinking when he was healthy." Father Strittmatter recalled that von Neumann did not receive much peace or comfort from it, as he still remained terrified of death.

question: Who administered the last sacrament to von Neumann?, answer: Father Strittmatter | question: Did the last sacrament ease von Neumann?, answer: did not receive much peace or comfort from it, as he still remained terrified of death | question: Was there conflict of faith and beliefs at the end of von NEumann's life?, answer: he suddenly turned Catholic—it doesn't agree with anything whatsoever in his attitude, outlook and thinking when he was healthy | question: What did Oskar Morgenstern feel about von Neumann's beliefs?, answer: always believed him to be "completely agnostic."
He justified the program in terms of its importance to national security, and its focus of the nation's energies on other scientific and social fields. He rallied popular support for the program in his "We choose to go to the Moon" speech, on September 12, 1962, before a large crowd at Rice University Stadium, in Houston, Texas, near the construction site of the new Manned Spacecraft Center facility. Full text

question: "We choose to go to the Moon" speech was given at what location in Texas?, answer: Rice University Stadium
He moved rapidly. First, he promoted Confucian orthodoxy and reversed what he saw as his father's laxness by cracking down on unorthodox sects and by decapitating an anti-Manchu writer his father had pardoned. In 1723 he outlawed Christianity and expelled Christian missionaries, though some were allowed to remain in the capital. Next, he moved to control the government. He expanded his father's system of Palace Memorials which brought frank and detailed reports on local conditions directly to the throne without being intercepted by the bureaucracy, and created a small Grand Council of personal advisors which eventually grew into the emperor's de facto cabinet for the rest of the dynasty. He shrewdly filled key positions with Manchu and Han Chinese officials who depended on his patronage. When he began to realize that the financial crisis was even greater than he had thought, Yongzheng rejected his father's lenient approach to local landowning elites and mounted a campaign to enforce collection of the land tax. The increased revenues were to be used for "money to nourish honesty" among local officials and for local irrigation, schools, roads, and charity. Although these reforms were effective in the north, in the south and lower Yangzi valley, where Kangxi had wooed the elites, there were long established networks of officials and landowners. Yongzheng dispatched experienced Manchu commissioners to penetrate the thickets of falsified land registers and coded account books, but they were met with tricks, passivity, and even violence. The fiscal crisis persisted.

question: Who did Yongzheng behead?, answer: anti-Manchu writer | question: What religion did Yongzheng ban?, answer: Christianity | question: What did Yongzheng crack down on?, answer: collection of the land tax | question: When did Yongzheng ban christianity?, answer: 1723
He notes that both A. P. de Candolle and Charles Lyell had stated that all organisms are exposed to severe competition. Darwin emphasizes that he used the phrase "struggle for existence" in "a large and metaphorical sense, including dependence of one being on another"; he gives examples ranging from plants struggling against drought to plants competing for birds to eat their fruit and disseminate their seeds. He describes the struggle resulting from population growth: "It is the doctrine of Malthus applied with manifold force to the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms." He discusses checks to such increase including complex ecological interdependencies, and notes that competition is most severe between closely related forms "which fill nearly the same place in the economy of nature".

question: What is the struggle that Darwin describes about population likened to?, answer: doctrine of Malthus | question: Within what frame of reference does Darwin use the phrase "Struggle for Existence?", answer: "a large and metaphorical sense | question: What was Charles Lyell's perception of what organisms are exposed to in their struggle for survival?, answer: all organisms are exposed to severe competition | question: When is competition strongest in the natural world?, answer: competition is most severe between closely related forms | question: Why is competition so fierce between related species?, answer: fill nearly the same place in the economy of nature".
He reminded the council fathers that only a few years earlier Pope Pius XII had issued the encyclical Mystici corporis about the mystical body of Christ. He asked them not to repeat or create new dogmatic definitions but to explain in simple words how the Church sees itself. He thanked the representatives of other Christian communities for their attendance and asked for their forgiveness if the Catholic Church is guilty for the separation. He also reminded the Council Fathers that many bishops from the east could not attend because the governments in the East did not permit their journeys.

question: What edict did Pope Pius XXIII issue regarding the body of Christ?, answer: Mystici corporis | question: How is the body of Christ regarded by Catholic liturgy?, answer: mystical | question: What type of language did Paul VI want to the church to relay dogma in?, answer: simple | question: From what area were bishops prevented from attending the ecumenical meeting of Paul VI?, answer: the east | question: What did Paul VI ask other Christian faiths forgiveness for?, answer: separation
He turned to medicine at 16, and not only learned medical theory, but also by gratuitous attendance of the sick had, according to his own account, discovered new methods of treatment. The teenager achieved full status as a qualified physician at age 18, and found that "Medicine is no hard and thorny science, like mathematics and metaphysics, so I soon made great progress; I became an excellent doctor and began to treat patients, using approved remedies." The youthful physician's fame spread quickly, and he treated many patients without asking for payment.

question: At what age did Avicenna turn to away from philosophy?, answer: 16 | question: What subject did Avicenna start studying at 16?, answer: medicine | question: Avicenna became a qualified physician at what age?, answer: 18 | question: Avicenna found medicine to be much easier than what subject?, answer: mathematics