lmqg/qag_squad huggingface dataset:
Characters with diacritical marks can generally be represented either as a single precomposed character or as a decomposed sequence of a base letter plus one or more non-spacing marks. For example, ḗ (precomposed e with macron and acute above) and ḗ (e followed by the combining macron above and combining acute above) should be rendered identically, both appearing as an e with a macron and acute accent, but in practice, their appearance may vary depending upon what rendering engine and fonts are being used to display the characters. Similarly, underdots, as needed in the romanization of Indic, will often be placed incorrectly[citation needed]. Unicode characters that map to precomposed glyphs can be used in many cases, thus avoiding the problem, but where no precomposed character has been encoded the problem can often be solved by using a specialist Unicode font such as Charis SIL that uses Graphite, OpenType, or AAT technologies for advanced rendering features.

question: How are characters with diacritical marks represented?, answer: either as a single precomposed character or as a decomposed sequence of a base letter plus one or more non-spacing marks | question: What encoding does Charis SIL use?, answer: Graphite, OpenType, or AAT technologies | question: What is the issue with underdots and their placement?, answer: often be placed incorrectly | question: Characters with what marks can be displayed as a single character or a decomposed sequence?, answer: diacritical marks | question: How should the characters with the macron and acute be displayed?, answer: identically
Charlemagne planned to continue the Frankish tradition of dividing his kingdom between all his heirs, but was unable to do so as only one son, Louis the Pious (r. 814–840), was still alive by 813. Just before Charlemagne died in 814, he crowned Louis as his successor. Louis's reign of 26 years was marked by numerous divisions of the empire among his sons and, after 829, civil wars between various alliances of father and sons over the control of various parts of the empire. Eventually, Louis recognised his eldest son Lothair I (d. 855) as emperor and gave him Italy. Louis divided the rest of the empire between Lothair and Charles the Bald (d. 877), his youngest son. Lothair took East Francia, comprising both banks of the Rhine and eastwards, leaving Charles West Francia with the empire to the west of the Rhineland and the Alps. Louis the German (d. 876), the middle child, who had been rebellious to the last, was allowed to keep Bavaria under the suzerainty of his elder brother. The division was disputed. Pepin II of Aquitaine (d. after 864), the emperor's grandson, rebelled in a contest for Aquitaine, while Louis the German tried to annex all of East Francia. Louis the Pious died in 840, with the empire still in chaos.

question: Who was Charlemagne's only living son in 813?, answer: Louis the Pious | question: How long did Louis the Pious reign?, answer: 26 years | question: When did the reign of Louis the Pious end?, answer: 840 | question: Who ruled Italy after Louis the Pious?, answer: Lothair I | question: Who was the middle son of Louis the Pious?, answer: Louis the German
Charlemagne's court in Aachen was the centre of the cultural revival sometimes referred to as the "Carolingian Renaissance". Literacy increased, as did development in the arts, architecture and jurisprudence, as well as liturgical and scriptural studies. The English monk Alcuin (d. 804) was invited to Aachen and brought the education available in the monasteries of Northumbria. Charlemagne's chancery—or writing office—made use of a new script today known as Carolingian minuscule,[M] allowing a common writing style that advanced communication across much of Europe. Charlemagne sponsored changes in church liturgy, imposing the Roman form of church service on his domains, as well as the Gregorian chant in liturgical music for the churches. An important activity for scholars during this period was the copying, correcting, and dissemination of basic works on religious and secular topics, with the aim of encouraging learning. New works on religious topics and schoolbooks were also produced. Grammarians of the period modified the Latin language, changing it from the Classical Latin of the Roman Empire into a more flexible form to fit the needs of the church and government. By the reign of Charlemagne, the language had so diverged from the classical that it was later called Medieval Latin.

question: Where was Charlemagne's court based?, answer: Aachen | question: What is the name of the cultural revival associated with Charlemagne?, answer: Carolingian Renaissance | question: Of what ethnicity was Alcuin?, answer: English | question: In what year did Alcuin die?, answer: 804 | question: What was the Latin of Charlemagne's era later known as?, answer: Medieval Latin
Charlemagne's expansion of the Frankish empire around 800, including northern Italy and Rome, brought on a brief period of stability and unity in Francia. This created opportunities for Jewish merchants to settle again north of the Alps. Charlemagne granted the Jews freedoms similar to those once enjoyed under the Roman Empire. In addition, Jews from southern Italy, fleeing religious persecution, began to move into central Europe.[citation needed] Returning to Frankish lands, many Jewish merchants took up occupations in finance and commerce, including money lending, or usury. (Church legislation banned Christians from lending money in exchange for interest.) From Charlemagne's time to the present, Jewish life in northern Europe is well documented. By the 11th century, when Rashi of Troyes wrote his commentaries, Jews in what came to be known as "Ashkenaz" were known for their halakhic learning, and Talmudic studies. They were criticized by Sephardim and other Jewish scholars in Islamic lands for their lack of expertise in Jewish jurisprudence (dinim) and general ignorance of Hebrew linguistics and literature. Yiddish emerged as a result of language contact with various High German vernaculars in the medieval period. It was written with Hebrew letters, and heavily influenced by Hebrew and Aramaic.

question: Did Charlemagne's expansion of the Frankish empire bring about a brief period of upheaval or stability in Francia?, answer: a brief period of stability | question: Charlemagne's expansion of the Frankish empire created opportunities for Jewish merchants to settle where?, answer: north of the Alps | question: Charlemagne granted the Jews freedoms similar to those enjoyed under which previous empire?, answer: Roman Empire | question: When Jews began to return to Frankish lands many took up occupations in which two fields?, answer: finance and commerce | question: Which language emerged as a result of language contact with various High German vernaculars during the medieval period?, answer: Yiddish
Charles Babbage, an English mechanical engineer and polymath, originated the concept of a programmable computer. Considered the "father of the computer", he conceptualized and invented the first mechanical computer in the early 19th century. After working on his revolutionary difference engine, designed to aid in navigational calculations, in 1833 he realized that a much more general design, an Analytical Engine, was possible. The input of programs and data was to be provided to the machine via punched cards, a method being used at the time to direct mechanical looms such as the Jacquard loom. For output, the machine would have a printer, a curve plotter and a bell. The machine would also be able to punch numbers onto cards to be read in later. The Engine incorporated an arithmetic logic unit, control flow in the form of conditional branching and loops, and integrated memory, making it the first design for a general-purpose computer that could be described in modern terms as Turing-complete.

question: Who invented the concept of a programmable computer?, answer: Charles Babbage | question: Who is considered the "father of the computer"?, answer: Charles Babbage | question: During what century was the first mechanical computer invented by Charles Babbage?, answer: early 19th century | question: What year did Charles Babbage find out that An Analytical Engine was possible?, answer: 1833
Charles Darwin's book The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms (1881) presented the first scientific analysis of earthworms' contributions to soil fertility. Some burrow while others live entirely on the surface, generally in moist leaf litter. The burrowers loosen the soil so that oxygen and water can penetrate it, and both surface and burrowing worms help to produce soil by mixing organic and mineral matter, by accelerating the decomposition of organic matter and thus making it more quickly available to other organisms, and by concentrating minerals and converting them to forms that plants can use more easily. Earthworms are also important prey for birds ranging in size from robins to storks, and for mammals ranging from shrews to badgers, and in some cases conserving earthworms may be essential for conserving endangered birds.

question: Who published a book about worms in 1881?, answer: Charles Darwin | question: What was the first scientific study of how earthworms help soil?, answer: The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms | question: Where do earthworms prefer to live on the surface?, answer: generally in moist leaf litter | question: How does burrowers' loosening help the soil?, answer: oxygen and water can penetrate it | question: What is the largest bird that eats earthworms?, answer: storks
Charles Darwin's grandfather Erasmus Darwin outlined a hypothesis of transmutation of species in the 1790s, and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck published a more developed theory in 1809. Both envisaged that spontaneous generation produced simple forms of life that progressively developed greater complexity, adapting to the environment by inheriting changes in adults caused by use or disuse. This process was later called Lamarckism. Lamarck thought there was an inherent progressive tendency driving organisms continuously towards greater complexity, in parallel but separate lineages with no extinction. Geoffroy contended that embryonic development recapitulated transformations of organisms in past eras when the environment acted on embryos, and that animal structures were determined by a constant plan as demonstrated by homologies. Georges Cuvier strongly disputed such ideas, holding that unrelated, fixed species showed similarities that reflected a design for functional needs. His palæontological work in the 1790s had established the reality of extinction, which he explained by local catastrophes, followed by repopulation of the affected areas by other species.

question: What was the name of Charles Darwin's grandfather?, answer: Erasmus Darwin | question: What theory did Erasmus Darwin outline in the 1790s?, answer: hypothesis of transmutation of species | question: What was the name of the scientist who developed and published a more complex version of Erasmus Darwin's theory in 1809?, answer: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck | question: What is the process of adapting to the environment and inheriting changes through use or disuse called?, answer: Lamarckism | question: Whose paleontology work in the 1790s established the reality of extinction?, answer: Georges Cuvier
Charles Hedley, a naturalist at the Australian Museum, accompanied the 1896 expedition and during his stay on Funafuti collected invertebrate and ethnological objects. The descriptions of these were published in Memoir III of the Australian Museum Sydney between 1896 and 1900. Hedley also wrote the General Account of the Atoll of Funafuti, The Ethnology of Funafuti, and The Mollusca of Funafuti. Edgar Waite was also part of the 1896 expedition and published an account of The mammals, reptiles, and fishes of Funafuti. William Rainbow described the spiders and insects collected at Funafuti in The insect fauna of Funafuti.

question: What naturalist was on the 1896 expedition to Funafuti?, answer: Charles Hedley | question: What type of objects did Hedley collect on Funafuti, answer: invertebrate and ethnological
Charles Peirce (1839–1914) was highly influential in laying the groundwork for today's empirical scientific method.[citation needed] Although Peirce severely criticized many elements of Descartes' peculiar brand of rationalism, he did not reject rationalism outright. Indeed, he concurred with the main ideas of rationalism, most importantly the idea that rational concepts can be meaningful and the idea that rational concepts necessarily go beyond the data given by empirical observation. In later years he even emphasized the concept-driven side of the then ongoing debate between strict empiricism and strict rationalism, in part to counterbalance the excesses to which some of his cohorts had taken pragmatism under the "data-driven" strict-empiricist view.

question: When was Peirce born?, answer: 1839 | question: When did Peirce die?, answer: 1914 | question: What view did Peirce think had been driven to excess?, answer: the "data-driven" strict-empiricist view | question: Who formed the basis for modern scientific method?, answer: Charles Peirce | question: Whose rationalism did Peirce criticize?, answer: Descartes
Charles Pollak (born Karol Pollak), the inventor of the first electrolytic capacitors, found out that the oxide layer on an aluminum anode remained stable in a neutral or alkaline electrolyte, even when the power was switched off. In 1896 he filed a patent for an "Electric liquid capacitor with aluminum electrodes." Solid electrolyte tantalum capacitors were invented by Bell Laboratories in the early 1950s as a miniaturized and more reliable low-voltage support capacitor to complement their newly invented transistor.

question: Who invented the first electrolytic capacitor?, answer: Charles Pollak | question: In what sort of electrolyte does the oxide layer on an aluminum anode remain stable?, answer: a neutral or alkaline electrolyte | question: In what year was the patent filed for an electric liquid capacitor?, answer: In 1896 | question: What sort of capacitors were created by Bell Labs in the 1950's?, answer: Solid electrolyte tantalum capacitors | question: Why did Bell labs create their new type of capacitor?, answer: to complement their newly invented transistor
Charles Town was a hub of the deerskin trade, the basis of its early economy. Trade alliances with the Cherokee and Creek nations insured a steady supply of deer hides. Between 1699 and 1715, colonists exported an average of 54,000 deer skins annually to Europe through Charles Town. Between 1739 and 1761, the height of the deerskin trade era, an estimated 500,000 to 1,250,000 deer were slaughtered. During the same period, Charles Town records show an export of 5,239,350 pounds of deer skins. Deer skins were used in the production of men's fashionable and practical buckskin pantaloons, gloves, and book bindings.

question: What other Native American nation supplied Charles Town with deer hides other than the Cherokee nation?, answer: Creek nations | question: What is the estimation of deer slaughtered in Charles Town from 1739 to 1761?, answer: 500,000 to 1,250,000 | question: Records indicate how many pounds of deer skins were exported from Charles Town during the height of its deerskin trade?, answer: 5,239,350 | question: What trade was the basis of Charles Town's original economy?, answer: the deerskin trade | question: What was the average amount of deer skins that Charles Town exported to Europe between 1699 to 1715?, answer: 54,000
Charles VII of France ordered his chamberlain to climb Mont Aiguille in 1356. The knight reached the summit of Rocciamelone where he left a bronze triptych of three crosses, a feat which he conducted with the use of ladders to traverse the ice. In 1492 Antoine de Ville climbed Mont Aiguille, without reaching the summit, an experience he described as "horrifying and terrifying." Leonardo da Vinci was fascinated by variations of light in the higher altitudes, and climbed a mountain—scholars are uncertain which one; some believe it may have been Monte Rosa. From his description of a "blue like that of a gentian" sky it is thought that he reached a significantly high altitude. In the 18th century four Chamonix man almost made the summit of Mont Blanc but were overcome by altitude sickness and snowblindness.

question: Where was Charles VII from?, answer: France | question: What was Charles VII chamberlain ordered to do?, answer: climb Mont Aiguille | question: What did the knight leave at the summit of Rocciamelone?, answer: a bronze triptych of three crosses | question: When did Antioine de Ville climb Mont Aiguille?, answer: 1492 | question: When did four Chamonix men almost reach the summit of Mont Blanc?, answer: 18th century
Charleston annually hosts Spoleto Festival USA founded by Gian Carlo Menotti, a 17-day art festival featuring over 100 performances by individual artists in a variety of disciplines. The Spoleto Festival is internationally recognized as America's premier performing arts festival. The annual Piccolo Spoleto festival takes place at the same time and features local performers and artists, with hundreds of performances throughout the city. Other festivals and events include Historic Charleston Foundation's Festival of Houses and Gardens and Charleston Antiques Show, the Taste of Charleston, The Lowcountry Oyster Festival, the Cooper River Bridge Run, The Charleston Marathon, Southeastern Wildlife Exposition (SEWE), Charleston Food and Wine Festival, Charleston Fashion Week, the MOJA Arts Festival, and the Holiday Festival of Lights (at James Island County Park), and the Charleston International Film Festival.

question: How many days does the Spoleto Festival USA run each year?, answer: 17 | question: What kind of festival is Spoleto Festival USA?, answer: art festival | question: The Holiday Festival of Lights are held where?, answer: James Island County Park | question: About how many performances are there in the Spoleto Festival USA?, answer: over 100 performances | question: Who founded the Spoleto Festival USA?, answer: Gian Carlo Menotti
Charleston has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa), with mild winters, hot, humid summers, and significant rainfall all year long. Summer is the wettest season; almost half of the annual rainfall occurs from June to September in the form of thundershowers. Fall remains relatively warm through November. Winter is short and mild, and is characterized by occasional rain. Measurable snow (≥0.1 in or 0.25 cm) only occurs several times per decade at the most, with the last such event occurring December 26, 2010. However, 6.0 in (15 cm) fell at the airport on December 23, 1989, the largest single-day fall on record, contributing to a single-storm and seasonal record of 8.0 in (20 cm) snowfall.

question: What season is the wettest in Charleston?, answer: Summer | question: In what form does half of Charleston's annual rainfall occur?, answer: thundershowers | question: What season is characterized as short in Charleston?, answer: Winter | question: What is Charleston's seasonal record of snowfall?, answer: 8.0 in (20 cm) | question: What season is considered short in Charleston?, answer: Winter | question: What is the wettest season in Charleston?, answer: Summer | question: Half of Charleston's annual rainfall occurs in what form?, answer: thundershowers | question: How much snow did Charleston's Airport recieve on December, 23 1989?, answer: 6.0 in (15 cm
Charleston has one official sister city, Spoleto, Umbria, Italy. The relationship between the two cities began when Pulitzer Prize-winning Italian composer Gian Carlo Menotti selected Charleston as the city to host the American version of Spoleto's annual Festival of Two Worlds. "Looking for a city that would provide the charm of Spoleto, as well as its wealth of theaters, churches, and other performance spaces, they selected Charleston, South Carolina, as the ideal location. The historic city provided a perfect fit: intimate enough that the Festival would captivate the entire city, yet cosmopolitan enough to provide an enthusiastic audience and robust infrastructure."

question: What is the name of Charleston's sister city?, answer: Spoleto | question: In what country is Spoleto located?, answer: Italy | question: Who selected Charleston to host an American version of a festival?, answer: Gian Carlo Menotti | question: What is the name of festival held in Spoleto?, answer: Festival of Two Worlds | question: What is the profession of Gian Carlo Menotti?, answer: composer
Charleston is known for its unique culture, which blends traditional Southern U.S., English, French, and West African elements. The downtown peninsula has gained a reputation for its art, music, local cuisine, and fashion. Spoleto Festival USA, held annually in late spring, has become one of the world's major performing arts festivals. It was founded in 1977 by Pulitzer Prize-winning composer Gian Carlo Menotti, who sought to establish a counterpart to the Festival dei Due Mondi (the Festival of Two Worlds) in Spoleto, Italy.

question: What season is Spoleto Festival USA held?, answer: spring | question: Spoleto Festival USA is a counterpart to what Italian festival?, answer: Festival dei Due Mondi | question: What year was Spoleto Festival USA founded?, answer: 1977 | question: What the profession of Gian Carlo Menotti?, answer: composer | question: What major award did Gian Carlo Menotti win?, answer: Pulitzer Prize
Charleston is the oldest and second-largest city in the U.S. state of South Carolina, the county seat of Charleston County, and the principal city in the Charleston–North Charleston–Summerville Metropolitan Statistical Area. The city lies just south of the geographical midpoint of South Carolina's coastline and is located on Charleston Harbor, an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean formed by the confluence of the Ashley and Cooper Rivers, or, as is locally expressed, "where the Cooper and Ashley Rivers come together to form the Atlantic Ocean."

question: What is the oldest city in South Carolina?, answer: Charleston | question: What county is Charleston, South Carolina located in?, answer: Charleston County | question: Charleston is located on what harbor?, answer: Charleston Harbor | question: Charleston Harbor is an inlet of what ocean?, answer: Atlantic Ocean | question: What river mergers with the Cooper River to form Charleston Harbor?, answer: Ashley Rivers | question: What county is Charleston located in?, answer: Charleston County | question: Charleston Harbor is formed on what ocean?, answer: Atlantic Ocean | question: What river merges with the Ashley River to from the Charleston Harbor?, answer: Cooper Rivers