lmqg/qag_squad huggingface dataset:
Another work from Ancient Greece that made an early impact on botany is De Materia Medica, a five-volume encyclopedia about herbal medicine written in the middle of the first century by Greek physician and pharmacologist Pedanius Dioscorides. De Materia Medica was widely read for more than 1,500 years. Important contributions from the medieval Muslim world include Ibn Wahshiyya's Nabatean Agriculture, Abū Ḥanīfa Dīnawarī's (828–896) the Book of Plants, and Ibn Bassal's The Classification of Soils. In the early 13th century, Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati, and Ibn al-Baitar (d. 1248) wrote on botany in a systematic and scientific manner.

question: What is the name of an ancient Greek work impacting botany?, answer: De Materia Medica | question: What was the De Materia Medica written about?, answer: herbal medicine | question: What was the profession of the man who wrote De Materia Medica?, answer: physician and pharmacologist | question: Besides the Greeks, what other culture contributed to the study of botany?, answer: medieval Muslim world | question: How long a book is the De Materia Medica?, answer: five-volume
Antarctica (US English i/æntˈɑːrktɪkə/, UK English /ænˈtɑːktɪkə/ or /ænˈtɑːtɪkə/ or /ænˈɑːtɪkə/)[Note 1] is Earth's southernmost continent, containing the geographic South Pole. It is situated in the Antarctic region of the Southern Hemisphere, almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle, and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean. At 14,000,000 square kilometres (5,400,000 square miles), it is the fifth-largest continent in area after Asia, Africa, North America, and South America. For comparison, Antarctica is nearly twice the size of Australia. About 98% of Antarctica is covered by ice that averages 1.9 km (1.2 mi; 6,200 ft) in thickness, which extends to all but the northernmost reaches of the Antarctic Peninsula.

question: What is the Earth's most southern continent?, answer: Antarctica | question: Which pole is located in Antarctica?, answer: South Pole | question: What ocean surrounds Antarctica?, answer: Southern Ocean | question: What is the size of Antarctica?, answer: 14,000,000 square kilometres | question: How much of Antarctica is ice covered?, answer: 98%
Antarctica continued to become more isolated and finally developed a permanent ice cap. Mountain building in western North America continued, and the Alps started to rise in Europe as the African plate continued to push north into the Eurasian plate, isolating the remnants of Tethys Sea. A brief marine incursion marks the early Oligocene in Europe. There appears to have been a land bridge in the early Oligocene between North America and Europe since the faunas of the two regions are very similar. During the Oligocene, South America was finally detached from Antarctica and drifted north toward North America. It also allowed the Antarctic Circumpolar Current to flow, rapidly cooling the continent.

question: What permanent structure formed on Antarctica?, answer: ice cap | question: The lift of which mountain range in Europe was the result of the African plate moving north into the Eurasian?, answer: the Alps | question: During what period was there a land bridge joining Europe and North America?, answer: Oligocene | question: In the Oligocene period South America broke free from what other continent?, answer: Antarctica | question: Which current resulted in the cooling of Antarctica?, answer: the Antarctic Circumpolar Current
Antarctica has no indigenous population and there is no evidence that it was seen by humans until the 19th century. However, belief in the existence of a Terra Australis—a vast continent in the far south of the globe to "balance" the northern lands of Europe, Asia and North Africa—had existed since the times of Ptolemy (1st century AD), who suggested the idea to preserve the symmetry of all known landmasses in the world. Even in the late 17th century, after explorers had found that South America and Australia were not part of the fabled "Antarctica", geographers believed that the continent was much larger than its actual size.

question: When was the first time humans visited Antarctica?, answer: 19th century | question: What was Antarctica presumed to be by the ancient thinkers?, answer: balance | question: What did Ptolemy suggest that a southern land mass would do to preserve?, answer: symmetry | question: Of what did early explores think Australia and South America were part?, answer: Antarctica | question: Early geographers thought that Antarctica was what in size?, answer: larger
Antarctica is colder than the Arctic for three reasons. First, much of the continent is more than 3,000 m (9,800 ft) above sea level, and temperature decreases with elevation in the troposphere. Second, the Arctic Ocean covers the north polar zone: the ocean's relative warmth is transferred through the icepack and prevents temperatures in the Arctic regions from reaching the extremes typical of the land surface of Antarctica. Third, the Earth is at aphelion in July (i.e., the Earth is farthest from the Sun in the Antarctic winter), and the Earth is at perihelion in January (i.e., the Earth is closest to the Sun in the Antarctic summer). The orbital distance contributes to a colder Antarctic winter (and a warmer Antarctic summer) but the first two effects have more impact.

question: Which of the the poles is colder?, answer: Antarctica | question: How high is the continent of Antarctica above sea level?, answer: 3,000 m | question: How does the Arctic Ocean warm the Arctic?, answer: warmth is transferred | question: What contributes to the Antarctic cold?, answer: orbital distance | question: What does temperature do with elevation?, answer: decreases
Antarctica is the coldest of Earth's continents. The coldest natural temperature ever recorded on Earth was −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F) at the Soviet (now Russian) Vostok Station in Antarctica on 21 July 1983. For comparison, this is 10.7 °C (20 °F) colder than subliming dry ice at one atmosphere of partial pressure, but since CO2 only makes up 0.039% of air, temperatures of less than −150 °C (−238 °F) would be needed to produce dry ice snow in Antarctica. Antarctica is a frozen desert with little precipitation; the South Pole itself receives less than 10 cm (4 in) per year, on average. Temperatures reach a minimum of between −80 °C (−112 °F) and −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F) in the interior in winter and reach a maximum of between 5 °C (41 °F) and 15 °C (59 °F) near the coast in summer. Sunburn is often a health issue as the snow surface reflects almost all of the ultraviolet light falling on it. Given the latitude, long periods of constant darkness or constant sunlight create climates unfamiliar to human beings in much of the rest of the world.

question: Where was the coldest temperature recorded on Earth?, answer: Antarctica | question: What was the coldest temperature ever recorded?, answer: −89.2 °C | question: On what date was the Earth's coldest temperature recorded?, answer: 21 July 1983 | question: What is Antarctica topographically ?, answer: frozen desert | question: What light caused condition is a serious problem for humans in Antarctica?, answer: Sunburn
Antarctica, on average, is the coldest, driest, and windiest continent, and has the highest average elevation of all the continents. Antarctica is considered a desert, with annual precipitation of only 200 mm (8 in) along the coast and far less inland. The temperature in Antarctica has reached −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F), though the average for the third quarter (the coldest part of the year) is −63 °C (−81 °F). There are no permanent human residents, but anywhere from 1,000 to 5,000 people reside throughout the year at the research stations scattered across the continent. Organisms native to Antarctica include many types of algae, bacteria, fungi, plants, protista, and certain animals, such as mites, nematodes, penguins, seals and tardigrades. Vegetation, where it occurs, is tundra.

question: What type of land is Antarctica considered to be?, answer: desert | question: What is Antarctica's annual precipitation along the coast?, answer: 200 mm (8 in) | question: What is Antarctica's average temperature during the coldest part of the year?, answer: −63 °C (−81 °F) | question: Approximately how many people live throughout the year at research stations across Antarctica?, answer: anywhere from 1,000 to 5,000 | question: What are some animals native to Antarctica?, answer: mites, nematodes, penguins, seals and tardigrades | question: Which continent is the highest in elevation?, answer: Antarctica | question: What is the annual precipitation rate of coastal Antarctica?, answer: 200 mm | question: What is the average coldest temperature?, answer: −63 °C | question: What is the coldest recorded temperature?, answer: −89.2 °C | question: Ehat is the vegetation type on Antarctica?, answer: tundra
Antenna tuning generally refers to cancellation of any reactance seen at the antenna terminals, leaving only a resistive impedance which might or might not be exactly the desired impedance (that of the transmission line). Although an antenna may be designed to have a purely resistive feedpoint impedance (such as a dipole 97% of a half wavelength long) this might not be exactly true at the frequency that it is eventually used at. In some cases the physical length of the antenna can be "trimmed" to obtain a pure resistance. On the other hand, the addition of a series inductance or parallel capacitance can be used to cancel a residual capacitative or inductive reactance, respectively.

question: What is left after antenna tuning?, answer: resistive impedance | question: Where does cancellation of any reactance seen?, answer: antenna terminals | question: What can be used to cancel a inductibe reactance or residual capacitative?, answer: parallel capacitance | question: What is an antenna designed to have?, answer: purely resistive feedpoint
Antennas are characterized by a number of performance measures which a user would be concerned with in selecting or designing an antenna for a particular application. Chief among these relate to the directional characteristics (as depicted in the antenna's radiation pattern) and the resulting gain. Even in omnidirectional (or weakly directional) antennas, the gain can often be increased by concentrating more of its power in the horizontal directions, sacrificing power radiated toward the sky and ground. The antenna's power gain (or simply "gain") also takes into account the antenna's efficiency, and is often the primary figure of merit.

question: How could one deide what type of antenna is nedded for a project?, answer: performance measures | question: What would most likely be the main concern in making this decision?, answer: directional characteristics | question: How would you distribute power to allow for a greater gain?, answer: horizontal directions | question: What is often the most imprtant crediting factor of antennas?, answer: efficiency
Antennas are required by any radio receiver or transmitter to couple its electrical connection to the electromagnetic field. Radio waves are electromagnetic waves which carry signals through the air (or through space) at the speed of light with almost no transmission loss. Radio transmitters and receivers are used to convey signals (information) in systems including broadcast (audio) radio, television, mobile telephones, Wi-Fi (WLAN) data networks, trunk lines and point-to-point communications links (telephone, data networks), satellite links, many remote controlled devices such as garage door openers, and wireless remote sensors, among many others. Radio waves are also used directly for measurements in technologies including radar, GPS, and radio astronomy. In each and every case, the transmitters and receivers involved require antennas, although these are sometimes hidden (such as the antenna inside an AM radio or inside a laptop computer equipped with Wi-Fi).

question: What is essential for the mating of the elements that create radio waves?, answer: Antennas | question: How fast are signals produced by antenna transmitted?, answer: speed of light | question: What is one system that uses electromagnetic waves?, answer: mobile telephones | question: What mobile locator and direction finder technology takes advantage of radio waves?, answer: GPS | question: What often inconspicuous part of a laptop computer allows for internet usage?, answer: antennas
Antennas more complex than the dipole or vertical designs are usually intended to increase the directivity and consequently the gain of the antenna. This can be accomplished in many different ways leading to a plethora of antenna designs. The vast majority of designs are fed with a balanced line (unlike a monopole antenna) and are based on the dipole antenna with additional components (or elements) which increase its directionality. Antenna "gain" in this instance describes the concentration of radiated power into a particular solid angle of space, as opposed to the spherically uniform radiation of the ideal radiator. The increased power in the desired direction is at the expense of that in the undesired directions. Power is conserved, and there is no net power increase over that delivered from the power source (the transmitter.)

question: What are different designs aimed at increasing?, answer: gain of the antenna | question: What is different from a monopole antenna with most other antenna types?, answer: balanced line | question: Gain when referring to an antenna refers to what about radiated power?, answer: concentration | question: Where is the power that is distributed originating from?, answer: the transmitter
Anthocyanins tend to be the main polyphenolics in purple grapes whereas flavan-3-ols (i.e. catechins) are the more abundant phenolic in white varieties. Total phenolic content, a laboratory index of antioxidant strength, is higher in purple varieties due almost entirely to anthocyanin density in purple grape skin compared to absence of anthocyanins in white grape skin. It is these anthocyanins that are attracting the efforts of scientists to define their properties for human health. Phenolic content of grape skin varies with cultivar, soil composition, climate, geographic origin, and cultivation practices or exposure to diseases, such as fungal infections.

question: What are the most abundant polyphenolics in purple grapes?, answer: Anthocyanins | question: What is the laboratory index of antioxidant strength in grapes known as?, answer: Total phenolic content | question: What content of a grapes skin can be affected by soil composition, climate, and cultivation practices?, answer: Phenolic content | question: Why causes antioxidant strength to be higher in purple grapes?, answer: anthocyanins | question: What is the main phenolic in white grapes?, answer: flavan-3-ols
Anthropologists have contributed to the debate by shifting the focus of research: One of the first challenges for the researcher wishing to carry out empirical research in this area is to identify an appropriate analytical tool. The concept of boundaries is useful here for demonstrating how identity works. In the same way as Barth, in his approach to ethnicity, advocated the critical focus for investigation as being "the ethnic boundary that defines the group rather than the cultural stuff that it encloses" (1969:15), social anthropologists such as Cohen and Bray have shifted the focus of analytical study from identity to the boundaries that are used for purposes of identification. If identity is a kind of virtual site in which the dynamic processes and markers used for identification are made apparent, boundaries provide the framework on which this virtual site is built. They concentrated on how the idea of community belonging is differently constructed by individual members and how individuals within the group conceive ethnic boundaries.

question: What group has shifted the focus of research in identity?, answer: Anthropologists | question: What does a researcher have to identify to carry out empirical research?, answer: an appropriate analytical tool | question: What researcher advocated for focus on the boundaries of ethnic groups rather than the cultural aspects of ethnic groups?, answer: Barth | question: If identity is a virtual site, what do boundaries supply to the virtual site?, answer: the framework | question: Boundaries are frequently used by researchers to help define what?, answer: identity
Anthropologists have most frequently employed the term 'identity' to refer to this idea of selfhood in a loosely Eriksonian way (Erikson 1972) properties based on the uniqueness and individuality which makes a person distinct from others. Identity became of more interest to anthropologists with the emergence of modern concerns with ethnicity and social movements in the 1970s. This was reinforced by an appreciation, following the trend in sociological thought, of the manner in which the individual is affected by and contributes to the overall social context. At the same time, the Eriksonian approach to identity remained in force, with the result that identity has continued until recently to be used in a largely socio-historical way to refer to qualities of sameness in relation to a person's connection to others and to a particular group of people.

question: What term have Anthropologists employed to refer to the Eriksonian idea of selfhood?, answer: identity | question: Modern concerns with ethnicity and social movements in the 1970's led what group to be more interested in identity?, answer: anthropologists | question: Until recently, what approach was used to refer to qualities of sameness in relation to a person's connection to others?, answer: the Eriksonian approach
Anthropologists maintain that hunter/gatherers don't have permanent leaders; instead, the person taking the initiative at any one time depends on the task being performed. In addition to social and economic equality in hunter-gatherer societies, there is often, though not always, sexual parity as well. Hunter-gatherers are often grouped together based on kinship and band (or tribe) membership. Postmarital residence among hunter-gatherers tends to be matrilocal, at least initially. Young mothers can enjoy childcare support from their own mothers, who continue living nearby in the same camp. The systems of kinship and descent among human hunter-gatherers were relatively flexible, although there is evidence that early human kinship in general tended to be matrilineal.

question: What permanent group representative do hunter-gatherers not have?, answer: permanent leaders | question: Initiative within the group depends upon what factor?, answer: task being performed | question: What group arrangement is usual in family authority?, answer: matrilocal | question: What is the kinship and decent system among hunter-gatherers?, answer: matrilineal
Anthropologists such as C. Loring Brace, the philosophers Jonathan Kaplan and Rasmus Winther, and the geneticist Joseph Graves,[page needed] have argued that while there it is certainly possible to find biological and genetic variation that corresponds roughly to the groupings normally defined as "continental races", this is true for almost all geographically distinct populations. The cluster structure of the genetic data is therefore dependent on the initial hypotheses of the researcher and the populations sampled. When one samples continental groups, the clusters become continental; if one had chosen other sampling patterns, the clustering would be different. Weiss and Fullerton have noted that if one sampled only Icelanders, Mayans and Maoris, three distinct clusters would form and all other populations could be described as being clinally composed of admixtures of Maori, Icelandic and Mayan genetic materials. Kaplan and Winther therefore argue that, seen in this way, both Lewontin and Edwards are right in their arguments. They conclude that while racial groups are characterized by different allele frequencies, this does not mean that racial classification is a natural taxonomy of the human species, because multiple other genetic patterns can be found in human populations that crosscut racial distinctions. Moreover, the genomic data underdetermines whether one wishes to see subdivisions (i.e., splitters) or a continuum (i.e., lumpers). Under Kaplan and Winther's view, racial groupings are objective social constructions (see Mills 1998 ) that have conventional biological reality only insofar as the categories are chosen and constructed for pragmatic scientific reasons. In earlier work, Winther had identified "diversity partitioning" and "clustering analysis" as two separate methodologies, with distinct questions, assumptions, and protocols. Each is also associated with opposing ontological consequences vis-a-vis the metaphysics of race.

question: Cluster structure of genetic data is dependent on what initial thing?, answer: hypotheses | question: If one samples a continental group, what do the clusters become?, answer: continental | question: What is not a natural taxonomy of the human species?, answer: racial classification | question: What are objective social constructions?, answer: racial groupings | question: What are diversity partition and clustering analysis are examples of?, answer: methodologies
Anti-aircraft warfare or counter-air defence is defined by NATO as "all measures designed to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of hostile air action." They include ground-and air-based weapon systems, associated sensor systems, command and control arrangements and passive measures (e.g. barrage balloons). It may be used to protect naval, ground, and air forces in any location. However, for most countries the main effort has tended to be 'homeland defence'. NATO refers to airborne air defence as counter-air and naval air defence as anti-aircraft warfare. Missile defence is an extension of air defence as are initiatives to adapt air defence to the task of intercepting any projectile in flight.

question: What is another term for anti-aircraft warfare?, answer: counter-air defence | question: NATO defines anti-aircraft warfare as measures to reduce what?, answer: the effectiveness of hostile air action | question: Barrage balloons are an example of what type of weapons system?, answer: passive measures | question: What is the primary effort been for most countries when it comes to anti-aircraft warfare?, answer: homeland defence | question: What does NATO ascribe naval air defence as?, answer: anti-aircraft warfare
Anti-government protests in 1991 led to a coup, a transitional government, and a new constitution. Opposition to the corrupt and dictatorial regime of General Moussa Traoré grew during the 1980s. During this time strict programs, imposed to satisfy demands of the International Monetary Fund, brought increased hardship upon the country's population, while elites close to the government supposedly lived in growing wealth. Peaceful student protests in January 1991 were brutally suppressed, with mass arrests and torture of leaders and participants. Scattered acts of rioting and vandalism of public buildings followed, but most actions by the dissidents remained nonviolent.

question: In what year did Mali get a new constitution?, answer: 1991 | question: In January of 1991 what type of protests were violently curbed?, answer: student protests | question: What type of administration did general Mousa Traoré have?, answer: dictatorial regime | question: Strict rules were put in place to appease what monetary fund?, answer: International Monetary Fund | question: It was rumored that people close to the government lived in what type of condition?, answer: growing wealth