lmqg/qag_squad huggingface dataset:
Jefferson and James Madison's conceptions of separation have long been debated. Jefferson refused to issue Proclamations of Thanksgiving sent to him by Congress during his presidency, though he did issue a Thanksgiving and Prayer proclamation as Governor of Virginia. Madison issued four religious proclamations while President, but vetoed two bills on the grounds they violated the first amendment. On the other hand, both Jefferson and Madison attended religious services at the Capitol. Years before the ratification of the Constitution, Madison contended "Because if Religion be exempt from the authority of the Society at large, still less can it be subject to that of the Legislative Body." After retiring from the presidency, Madison wrote of "total separation of the church from the state." " "Strongly guarded as is the separation between Religion & Govt in the Constitution of the United States," Madison wrote, and he declared, "practical distinction between Religion and Civil Government is essential to the purity of both, and as guaranteed by the Constitution of the United States." In a letter to Edward Livingston Madison further expanded, "We are teaching the world the great truth that Govts. do better without Kings & Nobles than with them. The merit will be doubled by the other lesson that Religion flourishes in greater purity, without than with the aid of Govt." Madison's original draft of the Bill of Rights had included provisions binding the States, as well as the Federal Government, from an establishment of religion, but the House did not pass them.[citation needed]

question: Whose conceptions of separation have long been argued over?, answer: Jefferson and James Madison's | question: What did Jefferson refuse to issue, when it was sent to him by Congress during his presidency?, answer: Proclamations of Thanksgiving | question: Where did both Jefferson and Madison attend religious services?, answer: at the Capitol | question: How many religious proclamations did Madison issue while President?, answer: four | question: What is essential to the purity of both religion and civil government?, answer: practical distinction
Jefferson and Madison's approach was not the only one taken in the eighteenth century. Jefferson's Statute of Religious Freedom was drafted in opposition to a bill, chiefly supported by Patrick Henry, which would permit any Virginian to belong to any denomination, but which would require him to belong to some denomination and pay taxes to support it. Similarly, the Constitution of Massachusetts originally provided that "no subject shall be hurt, molested, or restrained, in his person, liberty, or estate, for worshipping God in the manner and season most agreeable to the dictates of his own conscience... provided he doth not disturb the public peace, or obstruct others in their religious worship," (Article II) but also that:

question: What approach was not the only one taken in the 18th century?, answer: Jefferson and Madison's | question: What did Jefferson draft his Statute of Religious Freedom in opposition to?, answer: a bill | question: Who was the chief supporter of the bill that got Jefferson motivated to draft his Statute?, answer: Patrick Henry | question: What did Patrick Henry want to require Virginians to pay taxes to support?, answer: some denomination | question: What did the Constitution of Massachusetts express no one would be restrained from doing?, answer: worshipping God
Jefferson's concept of "separation of church and state" first became a part of Establishment Clause jurisprudence in Reynolds v. U.S., 98 U.S. 145 (1878). In that case, the court examined the history of religious liberty in the US, determining that while the constitution guarantees religious freedom, "The word 'religion' is not defined in the Constitution. We must go elsewhere, therefore, to ascertain its meaning, and nowhere more appropriately, we think, than to the history of the times in the midst of which the provision was adopted." The court found that the leaders in advocating and formulating the constitutional guarantee of religious liberty were James Madison and Thomas Jefferson. Quoting the "separation" paragraph from Jefferson's letter to the Danbury Baptists, the court concluded that, "coming as this does from an acknowledged leader of the advocates of the measure, it may be accepted almost as an authoritative declaration of the scope and effect of the amendment thus secured."

question: What did Jefferson's concept of 'separation of church and state" became part of what jurisprudence?, answer: Establishment Clause | question: What case was Jefferson's concept apropos to?, answer: Reynolds v. U.S., 98 U.S. 145 | question: What does the constitution guarantee when it comes to religion?, answer: freedom | question: What word is not defined in the Constitution?, answer: religion | question: Who had Jefferson's letter been sent to?, answer: the Danbury Baptists
Jefferson's letter entered American jurisprudence in the 1878 Mormon polygamy case Reynolds v. U.S., in which the court cited Jefferson and Madison, seeking a legal definition for the word religion. Writing for the majority, Justice Stephen Johnson Field cited Jefferson's Letter to the Danbury Baptists to state that "Congress was deprived of all legislative power over mere opinion, but was left free to reach actions which were in violation of social duties or subversive of good order." Considering this, the court ruled that outlawing polygamy was constitutional.

question: When did Jefferson's letter enter American jurisprudence?, answer: 1878 | question: What was the case that used Jefferson's letter?, answer: Reynolds v. U.S. | question: What was the topic of Reynolds v. U.S.?, answer: Mormon polygamy | question: What was the court seeking, in using Jefferson's letter?, answer: legal definition for the word religion | question: What did the court rule outlawing polygamy was?, answer: constitutional
Jefferson's metaphor of a wall of separation has been cited repeatedly by the U.S. Supreme Court. In Reynolds v. United States (1879) the Court wrote that Jefferson's comments "may be accepted almost as an authoritative declaration of the scope and effect of the [First] Amendment." In Everson v. Board of Education (1947), Justice Hugo Black wrote: "In the words of Thomas Jefferson, the clause against establishment of religion by law was intended to erect a wall of separation between church and state."

question: Who made a metaphor about a wall of separation?, answer: Jefferson | question: What has the U.S. Supreme Court repeatedly cited?, answer: metaphor | question: When was the case of Reynolds v. United States?, answer: 1879 | question: What did the Court write about Jefferson's comments as it related to the scope and effect of the First Amendment?, answer: authoritative declaration | question: What was the clause against establishment of religion by law intended to erect?, answer: a wall of separation between church and state
Jefferson's opponents said his position was the destruction and the governmental rejection of Christianity, but this was a caricature. In setting up the University of Virginia, Jefferson encouraged all the separate sects to have preachers of their own, though there was a constitutional ban on the State supporting a Professorship of Divinity, arising from his own Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom. Some have argued that this arrangement was "fully compatible with Jefferson's views on the separation of church and state;" however, others point to Jefferson's support for a scheme in which students at the University would attend religious worship each morning as evidence that his views were not consistent with strict separation. Still other scholars, such as Mark David Hall, attempt to sidestep the whole issue by arguing that American jurisprudence focuses too narrowly on this one Jeffersonian letter while failing to account for other relevant history

question: What did Jefferson's opponents accuse him of wanting to do to Christianity?, answer: destruction | question: What did Jefferson encourage the separate sects at the University of Virginia to have of their own?, answer: preachers | question: How was the state banned from supporting a Professorship of Divinity?, answer: Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom | question: What scheme did Jefferson apparently support when it came to University students?, answer: attend religious worship each morning | question: What does Mark David Hall think people focus on way too much?, answer: one Jeffersonian letter
Jeffrey Long and Rick Kittles give a long critique of the application of FST to human populations in their 2003 paper "Human Genetic Diversity and the Nonexistence of Biological Races". They find that the figure of 85% is misleading because it implies that all human populations contain on average 85% of all genetic diversity. They claim that this does not correctly reflect human population history, because it treats all human groups as independent. A more realistic portrayal of the way human groups are related is to understand that some human groups are parental to other groups and that these groups represent paraphyletic groups to their descent groups. For example, under the recent African origin theory the human population in Africa is paraphyletic to all other human groups because it represents the ancestral group from which all non-African populations derive, but more than that, non-African groups only derive from a small non-representative sample of this African population. This means that all non-African groups are more closely related to each other and to some African groups (probably east Africans) than they are to others, and further that the migration out of Africa represented a genetic bottleneck, with much of the diversity that existed in Africa not being carried out of Africa by the emigrating groups. This view produces a version of human population movements that do not result in all human populations being independent; but rather, produces a series of dilutions of diversity the further from Africa any population lives, each founding event representing a genetic subset of its parental population. Long and Kittles find that rather than 85% of human genetic diversity existing in all human populations, about 100% of human diversity exists in a single African population, whereas only about 70% of human genetic diversity exists in a population derived from New Guinea. Long and Kittles argued that this still produces a global human population that is genetically homogeneous compared to other mammalian populations.

question: What two researchers gave a long critique regarding the application of FST to human populations in 2003?, answer: Jeffrey Long and Rick Kittles | question: What do Long and Kittles think of the implication that human populations contain on average 85% of all genetic diversity?, answer: misleading | question: Non-African groups of human population may only drive from what type of sample of the African population?, answer: non-representative | question: What type of bottleneck did the migration out of Africa represent?, answer: genetic | question: How much human genetic diversity exists in a single African population?, answer: 100%
Jeffries and Ryan (2001) argue that the modern concept of separation of church and state dates from the mid-twentieth century rulings of the Supreme Court. The central point, they argue, was a constitutional ban against aid to religious schools, followed by a later ban on religious observance in public education. Jeffries and Ryan argue that these two propositions—that public aid should not go to religious schools and that public schools should not be religious—make up the separationist position of the modern Establishment Clause.

question: When do Jeffries and Ryan that the modern concept of separation of church and state dates from?, answer: mid-twentieth century | question: What was the central point of the rulings of the Supreme Court's rulings?, answer: constitutional ban against aid to religious schools | question: What was later banned in public education?, answer: religious observance | question: How many propositions make up the separationist position on the Establishment Clause?, answer: two
Jeffries and Ryan argue that no-aid position drew support from a coalition of separationist opinion. Most important was "the pervasive secularism that came to dominate American public life," which sought to confine religion to a private sphere. Further, the ban against government aid to religious schools was supported before 1970 by most Protestants (and most Jews), who opposed aid to religious schools, which were mostly Catholic at the time. After 1980, however, anti-Catholic sentiment has diminished among mainline Protestants, and the crucial coalition of public secularists and Protestant churches has collapsed. While mainline Protestant denominations are more inclined towards strict separation of church and state, much evangelical opinion has now largely deserted that position. As a consequence, strict separationism is opposed today by members of many Protestant faiths, even perhaps eclipsing the opposition of Roman Catholics.[citation needed]

question: What position do Jeffries and Ryan argue was the reason for support from a coalition of separationists?, answer: no-aid | question: What type of secularism came to dominate American public life?, answer: pervasive | question: Who supported the ban against government aid to religious schools before 1970?, answer: most Protestants (and most Jews) | question: What diminished after 1980?, answer: anti-Catholic sentiment | question: What is opposed today by members of many Protestant faiths?, answer: strict separationism
Jehovah's Witnesses are best known for their door-to-door preaching, distributing literature such as The Watchtower and Awake!, and refusing military service and blood transfusions. They consider use of the name Jehovah vital for proper worship. They reject Trinitarianism, inherent immortality of the soul, and hellfire, which they consider to be unscriptural doctrines. They do not observe Christmas, Easter, birthdays or other holidays and customs they consider to have pagan origins incompatible with Christianity. Adherents commonly refer to their body of beliefs as "the truth" and consider themselves to be "in the truth". They consider secular society to be morally corrupt and under the influence of Satan, and most limit their social interaction with non-Witnesses. Congregational disciplinary actions include disfellowshipping, their term for formal expulsion and shunning. Baptized individuals who formally leave are considered disassociated and are also shunned. Disfellowshipped and disassociated individuals may eventually be reinstated if deemed repentant.

question: What are Jehovah witnesses best known for?, answer: their door-to-door preaching | question: What do Jehovah Witnesses refuse?, answer: military service and blood transfusions | question: What do Jehovah Witnesses consider the name Jehovah vital for?, answer: proper worship | question: Why do Jehovah Witnesses reject inherent immortality of the soul, hellfire and Trinitarianism?, answer: they consider to be unscriptural doctrines | question: Why don't Jehovah Witnesses celebrate the usual holidays and customs?, answer: they consider to have pagan origins
Jehovah's Witnesses are organized hierarchically, in what the leadership calls a "theocratic organization", reflecting their belief that it is God's "visible organization" on earth. The organization is led by the Governing Body—an all-male group that varies in size, but since early 2014 has comprised seven members,[note 1] all of whom profess to be of the "anointed" class with a hope of heavenly life—based in the Watch Tower Society's Brooklyn headquarters. There is no election for membership; new members are selected by the existing body. Until late 2012, the Governing Body described itself as the representative and "spokesman" for God's "faithful and discreet slave class" (approximately 10,000 self-professed "anointed" Jehovah's Witnesses). At the 2012 Annual Meeting of the Watch Tower Society, the "faithful and discreet slave" was defined as referring to the Governing Body only. The Governing Body directs several committees that are responsible for administrative functions, including publishing, assembly programs and evangelizing activities. It appoints all branch committee members and traveling overseers, after they have been recommended by local branches, with traveling overseers supervising circuits of congregations within their jurisdictions. Traveling overseers appoint local elders and ministerial servants, and while branch offices may appoint regional committees for matters such as Kingdom Hall construction or disaster relief.

question: How are Jehovah Witnesses organized?, answer: hierarchically | question: What does the theocratic organization of Jehovah Witnesses reflect on Earth?, answer: God's "visible organization" | question: What gender are all the members of the Governing Body?, answer: male | question: How many members does the Governing Body consist of?, answer: seven | question: Who does the Governing Body direct?, answer: several committees
Jehovah's Witnesses are perhaps best known for their efforts to spread their beliefs, most notably by visiting people from house to house, distributing literature published by the Watch Tower Society in 700 languages. The objective is to start a regular "Bible study" with any person who is not already a member, with the intention that the student be baptized as a member of the group; Witnesses are advised to consider discontinuing Bible studies with students who show no interest in becoming members. Witnesses are taught they are under a biblical command to engage in public preaching. They are instructed to devote as much time as possible to their ministry and are required to submit an individual monthly "Field Service Report". Baptized members who fail to report a month of preaching are termed "irregular" and may be counseled by elders; those who do not submit reports for six consecutive months are termed "inactive".

question: What are Jehovah Witnesses probably best known for by outsiders?, answer: their efforts to spread their beliefs | question: How many languages is the Watch Tower Society literature published in?, answer: 700 | question: What is the objective of Jehovah Witnesses' door to door ministry?, answer: start a regular "Bible study" | question: When are Jehovah Witnesses advised to discontinue Bibles studies with students?, answer: show no interest in becoming members | question: What are baptized members who fail to report a month of preaching termed as?, answer: irregular
Jehovah's Witnesses believe that God's kingdom is a literal government in heaven, ruled by Jesus Christ and 144,000 "spirit-anointed" Christians drawn from the earth, which they associate with Jesus' reference to a "new covenant". The kingdom is viewed as the means by which God will accomplish his original purpose for the earth, transforming it into a paradise without sickness or death. It is said to have been the focal point of Jesus' ministry on earth. They believe the kingdom was established in heaven in 1914, and that Jehovah's Witnesses serve as representatives of the kingdom on earth.

question: What do Jehovah Witnesses believe of God's kingdom?, answer: a literal government in heaven | question: Who rules with Jesus Christ in heaven according to Jehovah Witnesses?, answer: 144,000 "spirit-anointed" Christians | question: What do the Jehovah Witnesses believe God will use the kingdom in heaven for?, answer: accomplish his original purpose for the earth | question: What will the Earth be transformed into?, answer: a paradise without sickness or death | question: When do Jehovah Witnesses believe the kingdom of heaven was established?, answer: 1914
Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus Christ began to rule in heaven as king of God's kingdom in October 1914, and that Satan was subsequently ousted from heaven to the earth, resulting in "woe" to humanity. They believe that Jesus rules invisibly, from heaven, perceived only as a series of "signs". They base this belief on a rendering of the Greek word parousia—usually translated as "coming" when referring to Christ—as "presence". They believe Jesus' presence includes an unknown period beginning with his inauguration as king in heaven in 1914, and ending when he comes to bring a final judgment against humans on earth. They thus depart from the mainstream Christian belief that the "second coming" of Matthew 24 refers to a single moment of arrival on earth to judge humans.

question: When will Jesus' presence end?, answer: when he comes to bring a final judgment | question: What happened to Satan when Jesus started his rule?, answer: ousted from heaven | question: How do Jehovah Witnesses believe that Jesus rules?, answer: invisibly | question: How is the Greek word parousia translated when referring to Christ?, answer: "coming" | question: On what date do Jehovah Witnesses believe Jesus Christ began his rule as a king in God's kingdom?, answer: October 1914
Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus is God's only direct creation, that everything else was created by means of Christ, and that the initial unassisted act of creation uniquely identifies Jesus as God's "only-begotten Son". Jesus served as a redeemer and a ransom sacrifice to pay for the sins of humanity. They believe Jesus died on a single upright post rather than the traditional cross. They believe that references in the Bible to the Archangel Michael, Abaddon (Apollyon), and the Word all refer to Jesus. Jesus is considered to be the only intercessor and high priest between God and humanity, and appointed by God as the king and judge of his kingdom. His role as a mediator (referred to in 1 Timothy 2:5) is applied to the 'anointed' class, though the 'other sheep' are said to also benefit from the arrangement.

question: Who do Jehovah Witnesses believe is God's only direct creation?, answer: Jesus | question: What was Jesus a ransom sacrifice to pay for?, answer: the sins of humanity | question: What do Jehovah Witnesses believe Jesus died on rather than a traditional cross?, answer: a single upright post | question: Jesus is considered to be the only what between God and humanity?, answer: intercessor and high priest | question: What biblical passage outlines Jesus' role as a mediator?, answer: 1 Timothy 2:5
Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the Bible condemns the mixing of religions, on the basis that there can only be one truth from God, and therefore reject interfaith and ecumenical movements. They believe that only their religion represents true Christianity, and that other religions fail to meet all the requirements set by God and will soon be destroyed. Jehovah's Witnesses are taught that it is vital to remain "separate from the world." The Witnesses' literature defines the "world" as "the mass of mankind apart from Jehovah's approved servants" and teach that it is morally contaminated and ruled by Satan. Witnesses are taught that association with "worldly" people presents a "danger" to their faith, and are instructed to minimize social contact with non-members to better maintain their own standards of morality.

question: Why do Jehovah Witnesses believe the Bible condemns mixing of religions?, answer: can only be one truth from God | question: What are Jehovah Witnesses taught it's vital to remain?, answer: "separate from the world." | question: What do Jehovah Witnesses believe is true of their religion and their religion alone?, answer: represents true Christianity | question: What are Jehovah Witnesses taught association with worldly people presents to their faith?, answer: danger | question: What does Jehovah Witnesses define the "world" to mean?, answer: "the mass of mankind apart from Jehovah's approved servants"