lmqg/qag_squad huggingface dataset:
Neptune is not visible to the unaided eye and is the only planet in the Solar System found by mathematical prediction rather than by empirical observation. Unexpected changes in the orbit of Uranus led Alexis Bouvard to deduce that its orbit was subject to gravitational perturbation by an unknown planet. Neptune was subsequently observed with a telescope on 23 September 1846 by Johann Galle within a degree of the position predicted by Urbain Le Verrier. Its largest moon, Triton, was discovered shortly thereafter, though none of the planet's remaining known 14 moons were located telescopically until the 20th century. The planet's distance from Earth gives it a very small apparent size, making it challenging to study with Earth-based telescopes. Neptune was visited by Voyager 2, when it flew by the planet on 25 August 1989. The advent of Hubble Space Telescope and large ground-based telescopes with adaptive optics has recently allowed for additional detailed observations from afar.

question: How was Neptune found?, answer: mathematical prediction | question: When was Neptune first observed?, answer: 23 September 1846 | question: Who discovered Neptune?, answer: Alexis Bouvard | question: What is Neptune's largest moon?, answer: Triton | question: What flew by Neptune in 1989?, answer: Voyager 2
Neptune is similar in composition to Uranus, and both have compositions that differ from those of the larger gas giants, Jupiter and Saturn. Like Jupiter and Saturn, Neptune's atmosphere is composed primarily of hydrogen and helium, along with traces of hydrocarbons and possibly nitrogen, but contains a higher proportion of "ices" such as water, ammonia, and methane. However, its interior, like that of Uranus, is primarily composed of ices and rock, and hence Uranus and Neptune are normally considered "ice giants" to emphasise this distinction. Traces of methane in the outermost regions in part account for the planet's blue appearance.

question: Which planet is compositionally similar to Neptune?, answer: Uranus | question: What is Neptune's atmosphere primarily composed of?, answer: hydrogen and helium | question: What is the interior of Neptune composed of?, answer: ices and rock | question: What makes Neptune blue?, answer: methane | question: What "ices" makes up Neptune?, answer: water, ammonia, and methane
Neptune is the eighth and farthest known planet from the Sun in the Solar System. It is the fourth-largest planet by diameter and the third-largest by mass. Among the giant planets in the Solar System, Neptune is the most dense. Neptune is 17 times the mass of Earth and is slightly more massive than its near-twin Uranus, which is 15 times the mass of Earth and slightly larger than Neptune.[c] Neptune orbits the Sun once every 164.8 years at an average distance of 30.1 astronomical units (4.50×109 km). Named after the Roman god of the sea, its astronomical symbol is ♆, a stylised version of the god Neptune's trident.

question: What planet is Neptune's near-twin?, answer: Uranus | question: What is Neptune named after?, answer: Roman god of the sea | question: How much more dense is Neptune compared to Earth?, answer: 17 times | question: What does the astronomical sign of Neptune represent?, answer: god Neptune's trident | question: How many Earth years does Neptune orbit the sun?, answer: 164.8 years
Neptune's dark spots are thought to occur in the troposphere at lower altitudes than the brighter cloud features, so they appear as holes in the upper cloud decks. As they are stable features that can persist for several months, they are thought to be vortex structures. Often associated with dark spots are brighter, persistent methane clouds that form around the tropopause layer. The persistence of companion clouds shows that some former dark spots may continue to exist as cyclones even though they are no longer visible as a dark feature. Dark spots may dissipate when they migrate too close to the equator or possibly through some other unknown mechanism.

question: Where are Neptune's dark spots thought to occur?, answer: in the troposphere | question: What do Neptune's dark spots appear as in the cloud decks?, answer: holes | question: Since Neptune's dark spots persist for several months, what are they thought to be?, answer: vortex structures | question: What on Neptune are associated with dark spots that are brighter?, answer: methane clouds | question: When Neptune's dark spots migrate too close to the equator, what do they do?, answer: dissipate
Neptune's mass of 1.0243×1026 kg, is intermediate between Earth and the larger gas giants: it is 17 times that of Earth but just 1/19th that of Jupiter.[d] Its gravity at 1 bar is 11.15 m/s2, 1.14 times the surface gravity of Earth, and surpassed only by Jupiter. Neptune's equatorial radius of 24,764 km is nearly four times that of Earth. Neptune, like Uranus, is an ice giant, a subclass of giant planet, due to their smaller size and higher concentrations of volatiles relative to Jupiter and Saturn. In the search for extrasolar planets, Neptune has been used as a metonym: discovered bodies of similar mass are often referred to as "Neptunes", just as scientists refer to various extrasolar bodies as "Jupiters".

question: What is Neptune's mass?, answer: 1.0243×1026 kg | question: How much more mass does Neptune have compared to Earth?, answer: 17 times | question: What is Neptune's gravity at 1 bar?, answer: 11.15 m/s2 | question: What is Neptune's equatorial radius?, answer: 24,764 km | question: What is Neptune referred to due to it's size and concentration of volatiles?, answer: ice giant
Neptune's more varied weather when compared to Uranus is due in part to its higher internal heating. Although Neptune lies over 50% further from the Sun than Uranus, and receives only 40% its amount of sunlight, the two planets' surface temperatures are roughly equal. The upper regions of Neptune's troposphere reach a low temperature of 51.8 K (−221.3 °C). At a depth where the atmospheric pressure equals 1 bar (100 kPa), the temperature is 72.00 K (−201.15 °C). Deeper inside the layers of gas, the temperature rises steadily. As with Uranus, the source of this heating is unknown, but the discrepancy is larger: Uranus only radiates 1.1 times as much energy as it receives from the Sun; whereas Neptune radiates about 2.61 times as much energy as it receives from the Sun. Neptune is the farthest planet from the Sun, yet its internal energy is sufficient to drive the fastest planetary winds seen in the Solar System. Depending on the thermal properties of its interior, the heat left over from Neptune's formation may be sufficient to explain its current heat flow, though it is more difficult to simultaneously explain Uranus's lack of internal heat while preserving the apparent similarity between the two planets.

question: Why might Neptune have more varied weather than Uranus?, answer: higher internal heating | question: How much farther is Neptune from the Sun than Uranus?, answer: 50% | question: How much percentage of the sun does Neptune get compared to Uranus?, answer: 40% | question: How much more energy does Neptune radiate than it receives?, answer: 2.61 | question: The current heat flow on Neptune might be explained by what?, answer: heat left over from Neptune's formation
Neptune's orbit has a profound impact on the region directly beyond it, known as the Kuiper belt. The Kuiper belt is a ring of small icy worlds, similar to the asteroid belt but far larger, extending from Neptune's orbit at 30 AU out to about 55 AU from the Sun. Much in the same way that Jupiter's gravity dominates the asteroid belt, shaping its structure, so Neptune's gravity dominates the Kuiper belt. Over the age of the Solar System, certain regions of the Kuiper belt became destabilised by Neptune's gravity, creating gaps in the Kuiper belt's structure. The region between 40 and 42 AU is an example.

question: What is the region behind Neptune called?, answer: Kuiper belt | question: What does the Kuiper belt consist of?, answer: small icy worlds | question: Where is the Kuiper belt relative to Neptune?, answer: 30 AU out to about 55 AU from the Sun | question: What dominates the Kuiper belt?, answer: Neptune's gravity | question: What did Neptune's gravity do to Kuiper belt?, answer: gaps in the Kuiper belt's structure
Neptune's weather is characterised by extremely dynamic storm systems, with winds reaching speeds of almost 600 m/s (2,200 km/h; 1,300 mph)—nearly reaching supersonic flow. More typically, by tracking the motion of persistent clouds, wind speeds have been shown to vary from 20 m/s in the easterly direction to 325 m/s westward. At the cloud tops, the prevailing winds range in speed from 400 m/s along the equator to 250 m/s at the poles. Most of the winds on Neptune move in a direction opposite the planet's rotation. The general pattern of winds showed prograde rotation at high latitudes vs. retrograde rotation at lower latitudes. The difference in flow direction is thought to be a "skin effect" and not due to any deeper atmospheric processes. At 70° S latitude, a high-speed jet travels at a speed of 300 m/s.

question: What dynamic weather does Neptune have?, answer: storm | question: What does Neptune's wind speeds reach?, answer: 600 m/s (2,200 km/h; 1,300 mph) | question: What is the high wind speed on Neptune's cloud tops?, answer: 400 m/s | question: Which direction does Neptune's winds move relevant to the plant's rotation?, answer: opposite | question: What is the effect called that describes the flow direction on Neptune?, answer: skin effect
Network effects are a large factor with electrification. When converting lines to electric, the connections with other lines must be considered. Some electrifications have subsequently been removed because of the through traffic to non-electrified lines. If through traffic is to have any benefit, time consuming engine switches must occur to make such connections or expensive dual mode engines must be used. This is mostly an issue for long distance trips, but many lines come to be dominated by through traffic from long-haul freight trains (usually running coal, ore, or containers to or from ports). In theory, these trains could enjoy dramatic savings through electrification, but it can be too costly to extend electrification to isolated areas, and unless an entire network is electrified, companies often find that they need to continue use of diesel trains even if sections are electrified. The increasing demand for container traffic which is more efficient when utilizing the double-stack car also has network effect issues with existing electrifications due to insufficient clearance of overhead electrical lines for these trains, but electrification can be built or modified to have sufficient clearance, at additional cost.

question: What is a major factor whn it comes to electrification?, answer: Network effects | question: What was the reason some electrifications were removed after a while?, answer: through traffic to non-electrified lines | question: What can be a drawback of electrification of long distance freight trains?, answer: electrification to isolated areas | question: Where can the issue of through traffic benefits occur?, answer: long distance trips | question: What does the increasing demand for container traffic make companies use more often?, answer: diesel trains
Network hardware, software and specifications, as well as the expertise of network management personnel are important in ensuring that data follows the most efficient route, and upstream connections work reliably. A tradeoff between cost and efficiency is possible.[citation needed]

question: Is a tradeoff between efficiency and cost possible?, answer: A tradeoff between cost and efficiency is possible | question: What sort of route does data follow?, answer: the most efficient route
Neuroanatomists usually divide the vertebrate brain into six main regions: the telencephalon (cerebral hemispheres), diencephalon (thalamus and hypothalamus), mesencephalon (midbrain), cerebellum, pons, and medulla oblongata. Each of these areas has a complex internal structure. Some parts, such as the cerebral cortex and the cerebellar cortex, consist of layers that are folded or convoluted to fit within the available space. Other parts, such as the thalamus and hypothalamus, consist of clusters of many small nuclei. Thousands of distinguishable areas can be identified within the vertebrate brain based on fine distinctions of neural structure, chemistry, and connectivity.

question: People who study the anatomy of the central nervous system are known as what?, answer: Neuroanatomists | question: The cerebral hemispheres of the brain are called what?, answer: telencephalon | question: The thalamus and hypothalamus comprise what region of the brain?, answer: diencephalon | question: The midbrain region of the brain is known as what?, answer: mesencephalon | question: Clusters of small nuclei comprise what parts of the brain?, answer: thalamus and hypothalamus
Neurophysiologists study the chemical, pharmacological, and electrical properties of the brain: their primary tools are drugs and recording devices. Thousands of experimentally developed drugs affect the nervous system, some in highly specific ways. Recordings of brain activity can be made using electrodes, either glued to the scalp as in EEG studies, or implanted inside the brains of animals for extracellular recordings, which can detect action potentials generated by individual neurons. Because the brain does not contain pain receptors, it is possible using these techniques to record brain activity from animals that are awake and behaving without causing distress. The same techniques have occasionally been used to study brain activity in human patients suffering from intractable epilepsy, in cases where there was a medical necessity to implant electrodes to localize the brain area responsible for epileptic seizures. Functional imaging techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging are also used to study brain activity; these techniques have mainly been used with human subjects, because they require a conscious subject to remain motionless for long periods of time, but they have the great advantage of being noninvasive.

question: What do neurophysiologists study?, answer: the chemical, pharmacological, and electrical properties of the brain | question: The most common tools that neurophysiologists use are what?, answer: drugs and recording devices | question: What type of receptors does the brain lack?, answer: pain receptors | question: Electrodes are often glued to what like in EEG studies?, answer: the scalp
Neurotransmitters are chemicals that are released at synapses when an action potential activates them—neurotransmitters attach themselves to receptor molecules on the membrane of the synapse's target cell, and thereby alter the electrical or chemical properties of the receptor molecules. With few exceptions, each neuron in the brain releases the same chemical neurotransmitter, or combination of neurotransmitters, at all the synaptic connections it makes with other neurons; this rule is known as Dale's principle. Thus, a neuron can be characterized by the neurotransmitters that it releases. The great majority of psychoactive drugs exert their effects by altering specific neurotransmitter systems. This applies to drugs such as cannabinoids, nicotine, heroin, cocaine, alcohol, fluoxetine, chlorpromazine, and many others.

question: Chemicals called neurotransmitters are released at what part of the brain?, answer: synapses | question: What do neurotransmitters attach to?, answer: receptor molecules on the membrane of the synapse's target cell | question: Neurons that release the same chemicals are following what rule?, answer: Dale's principle
Nevertheless, Makdisi has asserted that the European university borrowed many of its features from the Islamic madrasa, including the concepts of a degree and doctorate. Makdisi and Hugh Goddard have also highlighted other terms and concepts now used in modern universities which most likely have Islamic origins, including "the fact that we still talk of professors holding the 'Chair' of their subject" being based on the "traditional Islamic pattern of teaching where the professor sits on a chair and the students sit around him", the term 'academic circles' being derived from the way in which Islamic students "sat in a circle around their professor", and terms such as "having 'fellows', 'reading' a subject, and obtaining 'degrees', can all be traced back" to the Islamic concepts of aṣḥāb ('companions, as of Muhammad'), qirāʼah ('reading aloud the Qur'an') and ijāzah ('licence [to teach]') respectively. Makdisi has listed eighteen such parallels in terminology which can be traced back to their roots in Islamic education. Some of the practices now common in modern universities which Makdisi and Goddard trace back to an Islamic root include "practices such as delivering inaugural lectures, wearing academic robes, obtaining doctorates by defending a thesis, and even the idea of academic freedom are also modelled on Islamic custom." The Islamic scholarly system of fatwá and ijmāʻ, meaning opinion and consensus respectively, formed the basis of the "scholarly system the West has practised in university scholarship from the Middle Ages down to the present day." According to Makdisi and Goddard, "the idea of academic freedom" in universities was also "modelled on Islamic custom" as practised in the medieval Madrasa system from the 9th century. Islamic influence was "certainly discernible in the foundation of the first deliberately planned university" in Europe, the University of Naples Federico II founded by Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor in 1224.

question: What institutions have been considered to take some its ideas from madaris?, answer: European university | question: How many corollaries dd Makdisi make between Islamic language and European educational practices?, answer: eighteen | question: What Eurpoean university practices are considered to be adapted from madaris?, answer: degree and doctorate | question: What freedom specifically did Makdisi believe European schools learned from Islamic traditions?, answer: academic | question: What clothing practice did Makdisi believe European schools learned from madaris?, answer: wearing academic robes
Nevertheless, although a distinction between lawful and unlawful hunting is undoubtedly permissible, it is certain that a bishop can absolutely prohibit all hunting to the clerics of his diocese, as was done by synods at Milan, Avignon, Liège, Cologne, and elsewhere. Benedict XIV (De synodo diœces., l. II, c. x) declared that such synodal decrees are not too severe, as an absolute prohibition of hunting is more conformable to the ecclesiastical law. In practice, therefore, the synodal statutes of various localities must be consulted to discover whether they allow quiet hunting or prohibit it altogether.

question: What distinction is undoubtedly permissible?, answer: between lawful and unlawful hunting | question: What can a bishop absolutely prohibit?, answer: all hunting | question: Where did synods prohibit all hunting at?, answer: Milan, Avignon, Liège, Cologne, and elsewhere | question: What did Benedict XIV declare about decrees prohibiting hunting?, answer: not too severe | question: Who can prohibit hunting to the clerics?, answer: bishop | question: Declaration that decrees are not severe was done by who?, answer: Benedict XIV | question: What did Synods at Milan, Avignon, Liege, Cologne, and elsewhere do?, answer: prohibit all hunting to the clerics
Nevertheless, it was radar that proved to be critical weapon in the night battles over Britain from this point onward. Dowding had introduced the concept of airborne radar and encouraged its usage. Eventually it would become a success. On the night of 22/23 July 1940, Flying Officer Cyril Ashfield (pilot), Pilot Officer Geoffrey Morris (Observer) and Flight Sergeant Reginald Leyland (Air Intercept radar operator) of the Fighter Interception Unit became the first pilot and crew to intercept and destroy an enemy aircraft using onboard radar to guide them to a visual interception, when their AI night fighter brought down a Do 17 off Sussex. On 19 November 1940 the famous RAF night fighter ace John Cunningham shot down a Ju 88 bomber using airborne radar, just as Dowding had predicted.

question: What was critical in the night battles over Britain?, answer: radar | question: What concept eventually became successful?, answer: airborne radar | question: On what day did airborne radar help intercept and destroy enemy aircraft for the first time?, answer: the night of 22/23 July 1940 | question: Who was the RAF night fighter ace that used airborne radar to destroy a Ju 88 bomber?, answer: John Cunningham
Nevertheless, the Fujiwara were not demoted by Daigo but actually became stronger during his reign. Central control of Japan had continued to decline, and the Fujiwara, along with other great families and religious foundations, acquired ever larger shōen and greater wealth during the early tenth century. By the early Heian period, the shōen had obtained legal status, and the large religious establishments sought clear titles in perpetuity, waiver of taxes, and immunity from government inspection of the shōen they held. Those people who worked the land found it advantageous to transfer title to shōen holders in return for a share of the harvest. People and lands were increasingly beyond central control and taxation, a de facto return to conditions before the Taika Reform.

question: What type of property obtained legal status during the early Heian period?, answer: shōen | question: Farm laborers traded titles to shoen holders in exchange for what?, answer: a share of the harvest | question: The Fujiwara and other noble families became richer during which century?, answer: early tenth century
Nevertheless, the government was able to make wide-ranging economic reforms that paid off in dramatically lower inflation and steady growth. The 1994 cease-fire in the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict has also helped the economy. Armenia has had strong economic growth since 1995, building on the turnaround that began the previous year, and inflation has been negligible for the past several years. New sectors, such as precious-stone processing and jewellery making, information and communication technology, and even tourism are beginning to supplement more traditional sectors of the economy, such as agriculture.

question: What did Armenia declare a cease-fire to in 1994?, answer: Nagorno-Karabakh conflict | question: Since when has Armenia experienced a positive growth in their economy?, answer: 1995 | question: What helped Armenia decrease inflation and create study growth in the economy?, answer: economic reforms | question: What is one of the newer sectors Armenia has in addition to agriculture?, answer: precious-stone processing
Nevertheless, whether and to what degree any of these types of intermediaries have secondary liability is the subject of ongoing litigation. The decentralised structure of peer-to-peer networks, in particular, does not sit easily with existing laws on online intermediaries' liability. The BitTorrent protocol established an entirely decentralised network architecture in order to distribute large files effectively. Recent developments in peer-to-peer technology towards more complex network configurations are said to have been driven by a desire to avoid liability as intermediaries under existing laws.

question: What is the legal status of secondary liability?, answer: subject of ongoing litigation | question: What makes peer-to-peer networks different than other online providers?, answer: decentralised structure | question: What was the initial purpose of the BitTorrent protocol?, answer: distribute large files effectively | question: What are the reasons for more complex network configurations in peer-to-peer software development?, answer: to avoid liability as intermediaries