lmqg/qag_squad huggingface dataset:
In the 11th century, the Seljuk Turks took over much of the Middle East, occupying Persia during the 1040s, Armenia in the 1060s, and Jerusalem in 1070. In 1071, the Turkish army defeated the Byzantine army at the Battle of Manzikert and captured the Byzantine Emperor Romanus IV (r. 1068–71). The Turks were then free to invade Asia Minor, which dealt a dangerous blow to the Byzantine Empire by seizing a large part of its population and its economic heartland. Although the Byzantines regrouped and recovered somewhat, they never fully regained Asia Minor and were often on the defensive. The Turks also had difficulties, losing control of Jerusalem to the Fatimids of Egypt and suffering from a series of internal civil wars. The Byzantines also faced a revived Bulgaria, which in the late 12th and 13th centuries spread throughout the Balkans.

question: During what decade did the Seljuk Turks occupy Armenia?, answer: 1060s | question: In what yer was the Battle of Manzikert fought?, answer: 1071 | question: Who was taken prisoner at the Battle of Manzikert?, answer: Byzantine Emperor Romanus IV | question: Who conquered Jerusalem from the Turks?, answer: the Fatimids of Egypt | question: During what century did the Seljuk Turks occupy Persia?, answer: 11th
In the 12th and 13th centuries, Europe produced economic growth and innovations in methods of production. Major technological advances included the invention of the windmill, the first mechanical clocks, the manufacture of distilled spirits, and the use of the astrolabe. Concave spectacles were invented around 1286 by an unknown Italian artisan, probably working in or near Pisa.

question: Along with the astrolabe, windmill and distilled spirits, what was a notable technological advancement of the 12th and 13th centuries?, answer: mechanical clocks | question: What was invented in approximately 1286?, answer: Concave spectacles | question: Near what city were concave spectacles invented?, answer: Pisa
In the 12th century CE the Andalusian Muslim philosopher and novelist Abu Bakr Ibn Tufail (known as "Abubacer" or "Ebn Tophail" in the West) included the theory of tabula rasa as a thought experiment in his Arabic philosophical novel, Hayy ibn Yaqdhan in which he depicted the development of the mind of a feral child "from a tabula rasa to that of an adult, in complete isolation from society" on a desert island, through experience alone. The Latin translation of his philosophical novel, entitled Philosophus Autodidactus, published by Edward Pococke the Younger in 1671, had an influence on John Locke's formulation of tabula rasa in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding.

question: What was 'Abubacer' normally called?, answer: Abu Bakr Ibn Tufail | question: What was 'Ebn Topnail' normally called?, answer: Abu Bakr Ibn Tufail | question: What was Ibn Tufail's religion?, answer: Muslim | question: What was Ibn Tufail's ethnicity?, answer: Andalusian | question: When did Ibn Tufail live?, answer: 12th century CE
In the 13th century mendicant orders—the Franciscans and the Dominicans—who swore vows of poverty and earned their living by begging, were approved by the papacy. Religious groups such as the Waldensians and the Humiliati also attempted to return to the life of early Christianity in the middle 12th and early 13th centuries, but they were condemned as heretical by the papacy. Others joined the Cathars, another heretical movement condemned by the papacy. In 1209, a crusade was preached against the Cathars, the Albigensian Crusade, which in combination with the medieval Inquisition, eliminated them.

question: Along with the Dominicans, what mendicant order was founded in the 13th century?, answer: Franciscans | question: What notable vow was sworn by the mendicant orders?, answer: poverty | question: How did the mendicant orders make a living?, answer: begging | question: What was the crusade against the Cathars called?, answer: the Albigensian Crusade | question: Along with the Cathars and Humiliati, what group was notably condemned as heretics in this period?, answer: the Waldensians
In the 13th century, Hōjō Shigetoki (1198–1261 AD) wrote: "When one is serving officially or in the master's court, he should not think of a hundred or a thousand people, but should consider only the importance of the master." Carl Steenstrup noted that 13th and 14th century warrior writings (gunki) "portrayed the bushi in their natural element, war, eulogizing such virtues as reckless bravery, fierce family pride, and selfless, at times senseless devotion of master and man". Feudal lords such as Shiba Yoshimasa (1350–1410 AD) stated that a warrior looked forward to a glorious death in the service of a military leader or the Emperor: "It is a matter of regret to let the moment when one should die pass by....First, a man whose profession is the use of arms should think and then act upon not only his own fame, but also that of his descendants. He should not scandalize his name forever by holding his one and only life too dear....One's main purpose in throwing away his life is to do so either for the sake of the Emperor or in some great undertaking of a military general. It is that exactly that will be the great fame of one's descendants."

question: When was Hojo Shigetoki born?, answer: 1198 | question: When did Hojo Shigetoki die?, answer: 1261 | question: What were gunki?, answer: 13th and 14th century warrior writings | question: When was Shiba Yoshimasa born?, answer: 1350 | question: When did Shiba Yoshimasa die?, answer: 1410
In the 14th century, much of the Greek peninsula was lost by the Byzantine Empire at first to the Serbs and then to the Ottomans. By the beginning of the 15th century, the Ottoman advance meant that Byzantine territory in Greece was limited mainly to its then-largest city, Thessaloniki, and the Peloponnese (Despotate of the Morea). After the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453, the Morea was the last remnant of the Byzantine Empire to hold out against the Ottomans. However, this, too, fell to the Ottomans in 1460, completing the Ottoman conquest of mainland Greece. With the Turkish conquest, many Byzantine Greek scholars, who up until then were largely responsible for preserving Classical Greek knowledge, fled to the West, taking with them a large body of literature and thereby significantly contributing to the Renaissance.

question: A lot of Greece was lost by whom in the 14th century?, answer: Byzantine Empire | question: At the start of 15th century, the biggest Byzantine city was what?, answer: Thessaloniki | question: Constantinople was overcome by who in 1453?, answer: the Ottomans | question: The Ottomans controlled mainland Greece in what year?, answer: 1460 | question: Who had a large impact on the Renaissance?, answer: Byzantine Greek scholars
In the 1500s a new type of armor started to become popular due to the advent of firearms, new fighting tactics and the need for additional protection. The kozane dou made from individual scales was replaced by plate armor. This new armor, which used iron plated dou (dō), was referred to as Tosei-gusoku, or modern armor. Various other components of armor protected the samurai's body. The helmet kabuto was an important part of the samurai's armor. Samurai armor changed and developed as the methods of samurai warfare changed over the centuries. The known last use of samurai armor occurring in 1877 during the satsuma rebellion. As the last samurai rebellion was crushed, Japan modernized its defenses and turned to a national conscription army that used uniforms.

question: Why were there armor changes in the 1500s?, answer: the advent of firearms, new fighting tactics and the need for additional protection | question: What type of armor was replaced?, answer: kozane dou | question: What new type of armor replaced the old?, answer: plate armor | question: What was the new armor called?, answer: Tosei-gusoku | question: When was samurai armor last used?, answer: 1877
In the 1500s, Paracelsus was probably the first to criticize Galen publicly. Also in the 16th century, scientist and artist Leonardo da Vinci compared metabolism to a burning candle. Leonardo did not publish his works on this subject, but he was not afraid of thinking for himself and he definitely disagreed with Galen. Ultimately, 16th century works of Andreas Vesalius, sometimes called the father of modern medicine, overturned Galen's ideas. He was followed by piercing thought amalgamated with the era's mysticism and religion sometimes fueled by the mechanics of Newton and Galileo. Jan Baptist van Helmont, who discovered several gases such as carbon dioxide, performed the first quantitative experiment. Robert Boyle advanced chemistry. Sanctorius measured body weight. Physician Herman Boerhaave modeled the digestive process. Physiologist Albrecht von Haller worked out the difference between nerves and muscles.

question: Who criticized Galen in the 1500s?, answer: Paracelsus | question: Which famous artist did not agree with Galen's theories?, answer: Leonardo da Vinci | question: What was a burning candle comparable to?, answer: metabolism | question: Which well known gas did Jan Baptist van Helmont discover?, answer: carbon dioxide | question: Which scientist was able to create a model for the digestive process?, answer: Herman Boerhaave
In the 1520s during the Protestant Reformation, the city, under the political guidance of Jacob Sturm von Sturmeck and the spiritual guidance of Martin Bucer embraced the religious teachings of Martin Luther. Their adherents established a Gymnasium, headed by Johannes Sturm, made into a University in the following century. The city first followed the Tetrapolitan Confession, and then the Augsburg Confession. Protestant iconoclasm caused much destruction to churches and cloisters, notwithstanding that Luther himself opposed such a practice. Strasbourg was a centre of humanist scholarship and early book-printing in the Holy Roman Empire, and its intellectual and political influence contributed much to the establishment of Protestantism as an accepted denomination in the southwest of Germany. (John Calvin spent several years as a political refugee in the city). The Strasbourg Councillor Sturm and guildmaster Matthias represented the city at the Imperial Diet of Speyer (1529), where their protest led to the schism of the Catholic Church and the evolution of Protestantism. Together with four other free cities, Strasbourg presented the confessio tetrapolitana as its Protestant book of faith at the Imperial Diet of Augsburg in 1530, where the slightly different Augsburg Confession was also handed over to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor.

question: Who was the political guide during the Protestant Reformation?, answer: Jacob Sturm von Sturmeck | question: Who was the spiritual guide during the Protestant Reformation?, answer: Martin Bucer | question: Who spent several years as a political refugee in the city?, answer: John Calvin | question: How many other cities joined Strasbourg at the Imperial Diet of Augsburg in 1530?, answer: four
In the 15th century the dome was added and the naves extended back of the choir, uniting the building to the tower and forming a main entrance. Archbishop Luis Alfonso de los Cameros began the building of the main chapel in 1674; the walls were decorated with marbles and bronzes in the Baroque style of that period. At the beginning of the 18th century the German Conrad Rudolphus built the façade of the main entrance. The other two doors lead into the transept; one, that of the Apostles in pure pointed Gothic, dates from the 14th century, the other is that of the Paláu. The additions made to the back of the cathedral detract from its height. The 18th-century restoration rounded the pointed arches, covered the Gothic columns with Corinthian pillars, and redecorated the walls. The dome has no lantern, its plain ceiling being pierced by two large side windows. There are four chapels on either side, besides that at the end and those that open into the choir, the transept, and the sanctuary. It contains many paintings by eminent artists. A silver reredos, which was behind the altar, was carried away in the war of 1808, and converted into coin to meet the expenses of the campaign. There are two paintings by Francisco Goya in the San Francesco chapel. Behind the Chapel of the Blessed Sacrament is a small Renaissance chapel built by Calixtus III. Beside the cathedral is the chapel dedicated to the Our Lady of the Forsaken (Virgen de los desamparados or Mare de Déu dels Desamparats).

question: When was the dome built?, answer: 15th century | question: Who started the construction of the main chapel?, answer: Archbishop Luis Alfonso de los Cameros | question: When was the main entrance constructed?, answer: beginning of the 18th century | question: In what style is the door of the Apostles?, answer: Gothic | question: Who painted the pictures that are in the San Francesco chapel?, answer: Francisco Goya
In the 16th century political and religious changes altered the attitude of historians towards John. Tudor historians were generally favourably inclined towards the king, focusing on John's opposition to the Papacy and his promotion of the special rights and prerogatives of a king. Revisionist histories written by John Foxe, William Tyndale and Robert Barnes portrayed John as an early Protestant hero, and John Foxe included the king in his Book of Martyrs. John Speed's Historie of Great Britaine in 1632 praised John's "great renown" as a king; he blamed the bias of medieval chroniclers for the king's poor reputation.

question: Which historians were favourably inclined towards the king?, answer: Tudor historians | question: What praised John's "great renown" as a king?, answer: John Speed's Historie of Great Britaine | question: When did political and religious changes alter the attitude of historians towards John?, answer: 16th century
In the 16th century the northern fringe of the Sahara, such as coastal regencies in present-day Algeria and Tunisia, as well as some parts of present-day Libya, together with the semi-autonomous kingdom of Egypt, were occupied by the Ottoman Empire. From 1517 Egypt was a valued part of the Ottoman Empire, ownership of which provided the Ottomans with control over the Nile Valley, the east Mediterranean and North Africa. The benefit of the Ottoman Empire was the freedom of movement for citizens and goods. Trade exploited the Ottoman land routes to handle the spices, gold and silk from the East, manufactures from Europe, and the slave and gold traffic from Africa. Arabic continued as the local language and Islamic culture was much reinforced. The Sahel and southern Sahara regions were home to several independent states or to roaming Tuareg clans.

question: During the 1500 who was a valued part of the Ottoman Empire?, answer: Egypt | question: What did the Ottoman Empire provide to its people?, answer: freedom of movement for citizens and goods | question: What was the local language during this time in Egypt?, answer: Arabic
In the 16th century, Count Hieronymus Schlick of Bohemia began minting coins known as Joachimstalers (from German thal, or nowadays usually Tal, "valley", cognate with "dale" in English), named for Joachimstal, the valley where the silver was mined (St. Joachim's Valley, now Jáchymov; then part of the Kingdom of Bohemia, now part of the Czech Republic). Joachimstaler was later shortened to the German Taler, a word that eventually found its way into Danish and Swedish as daler, Norwegian as dalar and daler, Dutch as daler or daalder, Ethiopian as ታላሪ (talari), Hungarian as tallér, Italian as tallero, and English as dollar. Alternatively, thaler is said to come from the German coin Guldengroschen ("great guilder", being of silver but equal in value to a gold guilder), minted from the silver from Joachimsthal.

question: Who began minting the coins known as Joachimstalers?, answer: Count Hieronymus Schlick of Bohemia | question: What is the modern name for St. Joachim's Valley?, answer: Jáchymov | question: What were the Joachimstalers composed of?, answer: silver | question: How did the word "taler" translate into Italian?, answer: tallero | question: Other than "taler", what is the other name of the German coin?, answer: Guldengroschen
In the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire and Safavid Empire divided Armenia. From the early 16th century, both Western Armenia and Eastern Armenia fell under Iranian Safavid rule. Owing to the century long Turco-Iranian geo-political rivalry that would last in Western Asia, significant parts of the region were frequently fought over between the two rivalling empires. From the mid 16th century with the Peace of Amasya, and decisively from the first half of the 17th century with the Treaty of Zuhab until the first half of the 19th century, Eastern Armenia was ruled by the successive Iranian Safavid, Afsharid and Qajar empires, while Western Armenia remained under Ottoman rule.

question: Which empires seperated Armenia?, answer: Ottoman Empire and Safavid Empire | question: Who controlled Western Armenia between the 16 and 19th Century?, answer: Ottoman | question: Who controlled Eastern Armenia between the 16 and 19th Century?, answer: Iranian Safavid, Afsharid and Qajar empires | question: How long did the Turco-Iranian rivalry last?, answer: century
In the 1770s Pierre Jaquet-Droz, a Swiss watchmaker, built a mechanical doll (automata) that could write holding a quill pen. By switching the number and order of its internal wheels different letters, and hence different messages, could be produced. In effect, it could be mechanically "programmed" to read instructions. Along with two other complex machines, the doll is at the Musée d'Art et d'Histoire of Neuchâtel, Switzerland, and still operates.

question: What was the profession of Pierre Jaquet-Droz?, answer: a Swiss watchmaker | question: When did Pierre Jaquet-Droz build a mechanical doll that could hold a pen?, answer: In the 1770s | question: Where is the doll Pierre Jaquet-Droz built today?, answer: Musée d'Art et d'Histoire | question: Where is the Musee d-Art et d'Histoire located?, answer: Neuchâtel, Switzerland
In the 1772 First Partition of Poland, the Prussian king Frederick the Great annexed neighboring Royal Prussia, i.e. the Polish voivodeships of Pomerania (Gdańsk Pomerania or Pomerelia), Malbork, Chełmno and the Prince-Bishopric of Warmia, thereby bridging the "Polish Corridor" between his Prussian and Farther Pomeranian lands and cutting remaining Poland off the Baltic Coast. The territory of Warmia was incorporated into the lands of former Ducal Prussia, which, by administrative deed of 31 January 1773 were named East Prussia. The former Polish Pomerelian lands beyond the Vistula River together with Malbork and Chełmno Land formed the Province of West Prussia with its capital at Marienwerder (Kwidzyn). The Polish Partition Sejm ratified the cession on 30 September 1773, whereafter Frederick officially went on to call himself a King "of" Prussia.

question: In what year was Royal Prussia annexed?, answer: 1772 | question: In what year was the territory of Warmia incorporated?, answer: 31 January 1773 | question: What was ratified in 1773 in Prussia?, answer: The Polish Partition Sejm
In the 17th century, the Somers Isles Company suppressed shipbuilding, as it needed Bermudians to farm to generate income from the land. Agricultural production met with limited success, however. The Bermuda cedar boxes used to ship tobacco to England were reportedly worth more than their contents.[citation needed] The colony of Virginia far surpassed Bermuda in both quality and quantity of tobacco produced. Bermudians began to turn to maritime trades relatively early in the 17th century, but the Somers Isles Company used all its authority to suppress turning away from agriculture. This interference led to the islanders demanding, and receiving, the revocation of the Company's charter in 1684, and the Company was dissolved.

question: Why did the Somers Isles Company decide to surpress shipbuilding?, answer: needed Bermudians to farm to generate income from the land | question: Why wasn't agriculture successful?, answer: colony of Virginia far surpassed Bermuda in both quality and quantity of tobacco produced | question: What did Bermudians do when agriculture failed?, answer: turn to maritime trades | question: Why was the Somers Isles Company's charter revoked?, answer: islanders demanding
In the 1820s, Boston's population grew rapidly, and the city's ethnic composition changed dramatically with the first wave of European immigrants. Irish immigrants dominated the first wave of newcomers during this period, especially following the Irish Potato Famine; by 1850, about 35,000 Irish lived in Boston. In the latter half of the 19th century, the city saw increasing numbers of Irish, Germans, Lebanese, Syrians, French Canadians, and Russian and Polish Jews settled in the city. By the end of the 19th century, Boston's core neighborhoods had become enclaves of ethnically distinct immigrants—Italians inhabited the North End, Irish dominated South Boston and Charlestown, and Russian Jews lived in the West End. Irish and Italian immigrants brought with them Roman Catholicism. Currently, Catholics make up Boston's largest religious community, and since the early 20th century, the Irish have played a major role in Boston politics—prominent figures include the Kennedys, Tip O'Neill, and John F. Fitzgerald.

question: How did Boston's population change in the 1820's?, answer: Boston's population grew rapidly | question: The first Europen immigrants arrival changed what in Boston?, answer: the city's ethnic composition | question: What was the estimated population of Irish people living in Boston in 1850?, answer: about 35,000 | question: What religion did Irish and Italian immigrants bring with them to Boston?, answer: Roman Catholicism | question: What is Bostons largest religious group today?, answer: Catholics
In the 1840s Nicholas I reduced 64,000 szlachta to commoner status. Despite this, 62.8% of Russia's nobles were szlachta in 1858 and still 46.1% in 1897. Serfdom was abolished in Russian Poland on February 19, 1864. It was deliberately enacted in a way that would ruin the szlachta. It was the only area where peasants paid the market price in redemption for the land (the average for the empire was 34% above the market price). All land taken from Polish peasants since 1846 was to be returned without redemption payments. The ex serfs could only sell land to other peasants, not szlachta. 90% of the ex serfs in the empire who actually gained land after 1861 were in the 8 western provinces. Along with Romania, Polish landless or domestic serfs were the only ones to be given land after serfdom was abolished. All this was to punish the szlachta's role in the uprisings of 1830 and 1863. By 1864 80% of szlachta were déclassé, 1/4 petty nobles were worse off than the average serf, 48.9% of land in Russian Poland was in peasant hands, nobles still held 46%. In Second Polish Republic the privileges of the nobility were lawfully abolished by the March Constitution in 1921 and as such not granted by any future Polish law.

question: Who redused 64,000 szlachta to commoner status?, answer: Nicholas I | question: IN 1858 who was szlachta out of all the russian nobles?, answer: 62.8% | question: When and who abolished the serfdom?, answer: Russian Poland on February 19, 1864 | question: Who could the ex serfs sell their land to?, answer: only sell land to other peasants, not szlachta | question: How much land was held by the peasants?, answer: 48.9%