lmqg/qag_squad huggingface dataset:
Chanakya, 4th Century BC Indian political philosopher. The Arthashastra provides an account of the science of politics for a wise ruler, policies for foreign affairs and wars, the system of a spy state and surveillance and economic stability of the state. Chanakya quotes several authorities including Bruhaspati, Ushanas, Prachetasa Manu, Parasara, and Ambi, and described himself as a descendant of a lineage of political philosophers, with his father Chanaka being his immediate predecessor. Another influential extant Indian treatise on political philosophy is the Sukra Neeti. An example of a code of law in ancient India is the Manusmṛti or Laws of Manu.

question: Who was the 4th Century BC Indian political philosopher?, answer: Chanakya | question: What provides an account of the science of politics for a wise ruler?, answer: The Arthashastra | question: What is an example of a code of law in ancient India?, answer: the Manusmṛti or Laws of Manu
Changes also took place among laymen, as aristocratic culture focused on great feasts held in halls rather than on literary pursuits. Clothing for the elites was richly embellished with jewels and gold. Lords and kings supported entourages of fighters who formed the backbone of the military forces.[I] Family ties within the elites were important, as were the virtues of loyalty, courage, and honour. These ties led to the prevalence of the feud in aristocratic society, examples of which included those related by Gregory of Tours that took place in Merovingian Gaul. Most feuds seem to have ended quickly with the payment of some sort of compensation. Women took part in aristocratic society mainly in their roles as wives and mothers of men, with the role of mother of a ruler being especially prominent in Merovingian Gaul. In Anglo-Saxon society the lack of many child rulers meant a lesser role for women as queen mothers, but this was compensated for by the increased role played by abbesses of monasteries. Only in Italy does it appear that women were always considered under the protection and control of a male relative.

question: What was the focus of aristocratic culture during this period?, answer: great feasts | question: Along with gold, what luxury was present on the clothes of the elite?, answer: jewels | question: Along with loyalty and honor, what virtue did the elite value?, answer: courage | question: In what society did women have status as abbesses?, answer: Anglo-Saxon | question: In what country did Gregory of Tours live?, answer: Merovingian Gaul
Changes also took place within the recruitment and composition of armies. The use of the national or feudal levy was gradually replaced by paid troops of domestic retinues or foreign mercenaries. The practice was associated with Edward III of England and the condottieri of the Italian city-states. All over Europe, Swiss soldiers were in particularly high demand. At the same time, the period also saw the emergence of the first permanent armies. It was in Valois France, under the heavy demands of the Hundred Years' War, that the armed forces gradually assumed a permanent nature.

question: Which conflict in France resulted in the establishment of permanent armies?, answer: Hundred Years' War | question: The use of paid mercenaries and domestic retinues replaced which method of raising troops?, answer: national or feudal levy | question: Which soldiers were in high demand under the mercenary system?, answer: Swiss | question: Which English king is associated with the use of mercenaries in the 14th century?, answer: Edward III
Changes in secondary sex characteristics include every change that is not directly related to sexual reproduction. In males, these changes involve appearance of pubic, facial, and body hair, deepening of the voice, roughening of the skin around the upper arms and thighs, and increased development of the sweat glands. In females, secondary sex changes involve elevation of the breasts, widening of the hips, development of pubic and underarm hair, widening of the areolae, and elevation of the nipples. The changes in secondary sex characteristics that take place during puberty are often referred to in terms of five Tanner stages, named after the British pediatrician who devised the categorization system.

question: What is a secondary sex characteristic change?, answer: every change that is not directly related to sexual reproduction | question: How many Tanner stages are there?, answer: five | question: What was the occupation of the person who devised the Tanner categorization system?, answer: pediatrician | question: Elevation of the breasts, development of pubic hair, and elevation of the nippes are examples of what type of changes?, answer: Changes in secondary sex characteristics | question: Is deepening of the voice in males a primary or secondary sex characteristic?, answer: secondary
Changes in worldwide Protestantism over the last century have been significant. Since 1900, Protestantism has spread rapidly in Africa, Asia, Oceania and Latin America. That caused Protestantism to be called a primarily non-Western religion. Much of the growth has occurred after World War II, when decolonization of Africa and abolition of various restrictions against Protestants in Latin American countries occurred. According to one source, Protestants constituted respectively 2.5%, 2%, 0.5% of Latin Americans, Africans and Asians. In 2000, percentage of Protestants on mentioned continents was 17%, more than 27% and 5.5%, respectively. According to Mark A. Noll, 79% of Anglicans lived in the United Kingdom in 1910, while most of the remainder was found in the United States and across the British Commonwealth. By 2010, 59% of Anglicans were found in Africa. In 2010, more Protestants lived in India than in the UK or Germany, while Protestants in Brazil accounted for as many people as Protestants in the UK and Germany combined. Almost as many lived in each of Nigeria and China as in all of Europe. China is home to world's largest Protestant minority.[af]

question: Where has Protestantism spread quickly since the 1900's?, answer: Africa, Asia, Oceania and Latin America | question: When did much of the spread of Protestantism occur in the 20th century?, answer: after World War II | question: In 2010, what percentage of Anglicans were said to be in Africa?, answer: 59% | question: What percentage of Anglicans were in the UK in 1910?, answer: 79% | question: In 2010, what country had more Protestants than both the UK and Germany together?, answer: Brazil
Changes to DST rules cause problems in existing computer installations. For example, the 2007 change to DST rules in North America required many computer systems to be upgraded, with the greatest impact on email and calendaring programs; the upgrades consumed a significant effort by corporate information technologists.

question: What can cause issues with installed computer systems?, answer: Changes to DST rules | question: What year did DST rules change in North America?, answer: 2007 | question: What did many existing computer systems that relied on time zones need because of the DST rule changes?, answer: upgrades | question: In addition to calendaring programs, what kind of programs were most impacted by the changes?, answer: email | question: Which professionals bore the brunt of the effort to upgrade systems affected by time changes?, answer: corporate information technologists
Changing clocks and DST rules has a direct economic cost, entailing extra work to support remote meetings, computer applications and the like. For example, a 2007 North American rule change cost an estimated $500 million to $1 billion, and Utah State University economist William F. Shughart II has estimated the lost opportunity cost at around $1.7 billion USD. Although it has been argued that clock shifts correlate with decreased economic efficiency, and that in 2000 the daylight-saving effect implied an estimated one-day loss of $31 billion on US stock exchanges, the estimated numbers depend on the methodology. The results have been disputed, and the original authors have refuted the points raised by disputers.

question: What year did a change in DST policy cost North America somewhere between $500 million and $1 billion in extra work?, answer: 2007 | question: Who is the economist who said there was about $1.7 billion in lost opportunity costs because of the 2007 changes?, answer: William F. Shughart II | question: What have some people argued correlates with time shifts from daylight savings?, answer: decreased economic efficiency | question: What do some call the effect that they say caused a one-day loss for stock exchanges of approximately $31 billion in the year 2000?, answer: the daylight-saving effect | question: What factor determines the numbers people reach for estimates when studying DST?, answer: methodology
Chapter I covers animal husbandry and plant breeding, going back to ancient Egypt. Darwin discusses contemporary opinions on the origins of different breeds under cultivation to argue that many have been produced from common ancestors by selective breeding. As an illustration of artificial selection, he describes fancy pigeon breeding, noting that "[t]he diversity of the breeds is something astonishing", yet all were descended from one species of rock pigeon. Darwin saw two distinct kinds of variation: (1) rare abrupt changes he called "sports" or "monstrosities" (example: ancon sheep with short legs), and (2) ubiquitous small differences (example: slightly shorter or longer bill of pigeons). Both types of hereditary changes can be used by breeders. However, for Darwin the small changes were most important in evolution.

question: How far back does Chapter One of On the Origin of Species go in its coverage of animal and plant species?, answer: ancient Egypt | question: What does Darwin use to illustrate the effects of artificial selection?, answer: fancy pigeon breeding | question: From what does Darwin assert all pigeons are descended?, answer: one species of rock pigeon | question: Which evolutionary changes were the most important to Darwin?, answer: the small changes
Chapter IV details natural selection under the "infinitely complex and close-fitting ... mutual relations of all organic beings to each other and to their physical conditions of life". Darwin takes as an example a country where a change in conditions led to extinction of some species, immigration of others and, where suitable variations occurred, descendants of some species became adapted to new conditions. He remarks that the artificial selection practised by animal breeders frequently produced sharp divergence in character between breeds, and suggests that natural selection might do the same, saying:

question: What did Darwin say that artificial selection by animal breeders often causes?, answer: sharp divergence in character between breeds, | question: What did Darwin say could happen somewhere if there is a change in conditions?, answer: extinction of some species | question: What can happen if species immigrate to a new location?, answer: descendants of some species became adapted to new conditions
Chapter IX deals with the fact that the geologic record appears to show forms of life suddenly arising, without the innumerable transitional fossils expected from gradual changes. Darwin borrowed Charles Lyell's argument in Principles of Geology that the record is extremely imperfect as fossilisation is a very rare occurrence, spread over vast periods of time; since few areas had been geologically explored, there could only be fragmentary knowledge of geological formations, and fossil collections were very poor. Evolved local varieties which migrated into a wider area would seem to be the sudden appearance of a new species. Darwin did not expect to be able to reconstruct evolutionary history, but continuing discoveries gave him well founded hope that new finds would occasionally reveal transitional forms. To show that there had been enough time for natural selection to work slowly, he again cited Principles of Geology and other observations based on sedimentation and erosion, including an estimate that erosion of The Weald had taken 300 million years. The initial appearance of entire groups of well developed organisms in the oldest fossil-bearing layers, now known as the Cambrian explosion, posed a problem. Darwin had no doubt that earlier seas had swarmed with living creatures, but stated that he had no satisfactory explanation for the lack of fossils. Fossil evidence of pre-Cambrian life has since been found, extending the history of life back for billions of years.

question: Whose argument did Darwin borrow that geological record is very imperfect, because fossilization is rare?, answer: Charles Lyell | question: Which book written by Charles Lyell contains the argument that fossils are too rare to be used as proof of life suddenly arising?, answer: Principles of Geology | question: What did Darwin hope to find as he continued to explore new geologic discoveries?, answer: that new finds would occasionally reveal transitional forms | question: How long did Darwin estimate the erosion of the Weald to be?, answer: 300 million years | question: What is the name of the group of well-developed organisms that were discovered within fossil-bearing layers?, answer: the Cambrian explosion
Chapter VI begins by saying the next three chapters will address possible objections to the theory, the first being that often no intermediate forms between closely related species are found, though the theory implies such forms must have existed. As Darwin noted, "Firstly, why, if species have descended from other species by insensibly fine gradations, do we not everywhere see innumerable transitional forms? Why is not all nature in confusion, instead of the species being, as we see them, well defined?" Darwin attributed this to the competition between different forms, combined with the small number of individuals of intermediate forms, often leading to extinction of such forms. This difficulty can be referred to as the absence or rarity of transitional varieties in habitat space.

question: What is one possible objection to the theory of integrated variation?, answer: often no intermediate forms between closely related species are found | question: Why did Darwin wonder why all of nature isn't chaotic and random?, answer: why, if species have descended from other species by insensibly fine gradations, do we not everywhere see innumerable transitional forms? | question: What did Darwin ultimately decide was the reason that nature is not a chaos of variation?, answer: the competition between different forms, combined with the small number of individuals of intermediate forms, often leading to extinction of such forms.
Chapter VII (of the first edition) addresses the evolution of instincts. His examples included two he had investigated experimentally: slave-making ants and the construction of hexagonal cells by honey bees. Darwin noted that some species of slave-making ants were more dependent on slaves than others, and he observed that many ant species will collect and store the pupae of other species as food. He thought it reasonable that species with an extreme dependency on slave workers had evolved in incremental steps. He suggested that bees that make hexagonal cells evolved in steps from bees that made round cells, under pressure from natural selection to economise wax. Darwin concluded:

question: How does Darwin theorize that instincts have evolved in slave-making ants?, answer: He thought it reasonable that species with an extreme dependency on slave workers had evolved in incremental steps. | question: How does Darwin theorize that instincts have evolved in bees?, answer: He suggested that bees that make hexagonal cells evolved in steps from bees that made round cells, under pressure from natural selection to economise wax | question: What did Darwin notice specifically about slave-making ants?, answer: some species of slave-making ants were more dependent on slaves than others
Chapter VIII addresses the idea that species had special characteristics that prevented hybrids from being fertile in order to preserve separately created species. Darwin said that, far from being constant, the difficulty in producing hybrids of related species, and the viability and fertility of the hybrids, varied greatly, especially among plants. Sometimes what were widely considered to be separate species produced fertile hybrid offspring freely, and in other cases what were considered to be mere varieties of the same species could only be crossed with difficulty. Darwin concluded: "Finally, then, the facts briefly given in this chapter do not seem to me opposed to, but even rather to support the view, that there is no fundamental distinction between species and varieties."

question: Why would hybrids have characteristics that keep them from being fertile?, answer: in order to preserve separately created species | question: What are Darwin's thoughts on producing hybrids of related species?, answer: the viability and fertility of the hybrids, varied greatly, especially among plants | question: What conclusion did Darwin come to after realizing that some diverse species were able to create variations easily, while other species thought to be closely related had difficulty?, answer: support the view, that there is no fundamental distinction between species and varieties
Chapter X examines whether patterns in the fossil record are better explained by common descent and branching evolution through natural selection, than by the individual creation of fixed species. Darwin expected species to change slowly, but not at the same rate – some organisms such as Lingula were unchanged since the earliest fossils. The pace of natural selection would depend on variability and change in the environment. This distanced his theory from Lamarckian laws of inevitable progress. It has been argued that this anticipated the punctuated equilibrium hypothesis, but other scholars have preferred to emphasise Darwin's commitment to gradualism. He cited Richard Owen's findings that the earliest members of a class were a few simple and generalised species with characteristics intermediate between modern forms, and were followed by increasingly diverse and specialised forms, matching the branching of common descent from an ancestor. Patterns of extinction matched his theory, with related groups of species having a continued existence until extinction, then not reappearing. Recently extinct species were more similar to living species than those from earlier eras, and as he had seen in South America, and William Clift had shown in Australia, fossils from recent geological periods resembled species still living in the same area.

question: How did Darwin expect species to change and evolve?, answer: slowly, but not at the same rate | question: What did Darwin believe were the key things needed for variation of species to form?, answer: variability and change in the environment | question: Which scientist theorized that the earliest members of a class in a species were simple and generalized?, answer: Richard Owen | question: What did Darwin discover about more recently extinct species?, answer: Recently extinct species were more similar to living species than those from earlier eras
Chapter XI deals with evidence from biogeography, starting with the observation that differences in flora and fauna from separate regions cannot be explained by environmental differences alone; South America, Africa, and Australia all have regions with similar climates at similar latitudes, but those regions have very different plants and animals. The species found in one area of a continent are more closely allied with species found in other regions of that same continent than to species found on other continents. Darwin noted that barriers to migration played an important role in the differences between the species of different regions. The coastal sea life of the Atlantic and Pacific sides of Central America had almost no species in common even though the Isthmus of Panama was only a few miles wide. His explanation was a combination of migration and descent with modification. He went on to say: "On this principle of inheritance with modification, we can understand how it is that sections of genera, whole genera, and even families are confined to the same areas, as is so commonly and notoriously the case." Darwin explained how a volcanic island formed a few hundred miles from a continent might be colonised by a few species from that continent. These species would become modified over time, but would still be related to species found on the continent, and Darwin observed that this was a common pattern. Darwin discussed ways that species could be dispersed across oceans to colonise islands, many of which he had investigated experimentally.

question: Why couldn't differences in flora and fauna be explained by differences in regions alone?, answer: South America, Africa, and Australia all have regions with similar climates at similar latitudes, but those regions have very different plants and animals | question: What did Darwin consider that could explain why different regions could have such different species when they are close together?, answer: barriers to migration played an important role in the differences between the species of different regions. | question: What was the combination of effects that Darwin considered the most important in determining the differences in species that evolved separately in similar environments?, answer: His explanation was a combination of migration and descent with modification.
Chapultepec Park houses the Chapultepec Castle, now a museum on a hill that overlooks the park and its numerous museums, monuments and the national zoo and the National Museum of Anthropology (which houses the Aztec Calendar Stone). Another piece of architecture is the Fine Arts Palace, a white marble theatre/museum whose weight is such that it has gradually been sinking into the soft ground below. Its construction began during the presidency of Porfirio Díaz and ended in 1934, after being interrupted by the Mexican Revolution in the 1920s. The Plaza of the Three Cultures in the Tlatelolco neighbourhood, and the shrine and Basilicas of Our Lady of Guadalupe are also important sites. There is a double-decker bus, known as the "Turibus", that circles most of these sites, and has timed audio describing the sites in multiple languages as they are passed.

question: Chapultepec Castle is located where?, answer: Chapultepec Park | question: Where is the National Museum of Anthropology located?, answer: Chapultepec Park | question: When did construction of the Fine Arts Palace end?, answer: 1934 | question: What is the name of the tour bus that shows off the monuments of Mexico City?, answer: Turibus | question: Why did the construction of the Fine Arts Palace take so long?, answer: interrupted by the Mexican Revolution
Characteristic birds of the forest are wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris), ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus), mourning dove (Zenaida macroura), common raven (Corvus corax), wood duck (Aix sponsa), great horned owl (Bubo virginianus), barred owl (Strix varia), screech owl (Megascops asio), red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis), red-shouldered hawk (Buteo lineatus), and northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis), as well as a great variety of "songbirds" (Passeriformes), like the warblers in particular.

question: What is one typical bird found in the range?, answer: wild turkey
Characteristics of the "I" signals on E2 and E5B are generally similar to the civilian codes of GPS (L1-CA and L2C), but Compass signals have somewhat greater power. The notation of Compass signals used in this page follows the naming of the frequency bands and agrees with the notation used in the American literature on the subject, but the notation used by the Chinese seems to be different and is quoted in the first row of the table.

question: What is the difference between the "I" signals on E2 and E5B and the civilian codes of GPS (L1-CA and L2C)?, answer: Compass signals have somewhat greater power