The Role of Knowledge Retrieval in Inference-making

Study Overview
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Brief Summary
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This project will (a) examine the relationship between knowledge retrieval and inferencing; (b) determine the effectiveness of an intervention that improves knowledge retrieval and inferencing among struggling readers; and (c) expand research opportunities for undergraduates. The research design uses 316 struggling readers in grades 4-6 of diverse backgrounds. The effects of knowledge retrieval (accuracy and speed) on inferencing will be modeled without dichotomizing the distribution. Linear mixed effect models will be fit to determine whether reader characteristics make unique contributions to inferencing across the posttest and follow-up data collection time points. First, several structural models will be considered as students may be nested in teachers, schools, and tutors. Unconditional models will estimate the intraclass correlation for each level of the study design. If significant interclass correlations emerge, multilevel models will be fit to evaluate the effectiveness of the intervention while controlling for covariates such as pre-test performance on inference-related measures and child-attributes such as English learner status. The primary analysis plan assumes an intent-to-treat model in which the efficacy of two intact conditions will be tested. Effect sizes will be estimated to report the magnitude of difference between the two conditions. Expected outcomes include (a) the identification of a method that effectively facilitates knowledge retrieval and the application of relevant knowledge to form inferences among elementary struggling readers from diverse backgrounds; (b) the validation of an intervention that teaches struggling readers how to activate, retrieve, and interweave relevant knowledge with information in the text and accurately form inferences while reading that can be broadly implemented in general education classrooms; and (c) expansion of undergraduate research opportunities, particularly among students from diverse backgrounds who have been historically underserved.

Detailed Description
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Theory and research suggest that inferencing serves as a critical aspect of comprehension and that inferencing fails when readers do not possess sufficient background knowledge or slowly retrieve and integrate knowledge from memory or text when reading. Research suggests that readers fluently retrieve and use knowledge that is well-connected to form inferences while reading. Further, inferencing among skilled comprehenders depends considerably on knowledge retrieval, thus implicating the important role knowledge plays in inferencing. Yet, very little research has examined how inferencing changes as a function of changes in knowledge. Understanding how inferencing adapts as a function of knowledge acquisition and knowledge use provides a necessary mechanism for refining how to improve this learning process, especially for older students with reading comprehension difficulties. This project fills this critical need. This project's goal is to determine if knowledge retrieval is a mechanism for improving inferencing among middle grade struggling readers attending rural schools. The central hypothesis is that knowledge is malleable, with fluent retrieval of relevant knowledge associated with improved inferencing. This hypothesis will be tested with the objective to evaluate knowledge retrieval methods and then test the effectiveness of an intervention that facilitates knowledge retrieval and inferencing among middle grade struggling readers attending rural schools. This proposal is scientifically important because it informs theory by determining whether fluent retrieval of relevant knowledge enables inferencing among struggling readers. It is practically important because it identifies the learning strategies struggling readers need to retrieve knowledge to make inferences. The rural context also becomes critically important here. Long-standing disparities in educational access exist for students of minority backgrounds, English-learners, and children at risk for learning disabilities who attend rural schools. However, fully powered randomized control trials rarely occur in rural settings and existing literature of studies in rural schools commonly contains methodological limitations. These gaps in the literature will be addressed through the following Aims. Aim 1: Evaluate the relationship between knowledge retrieval and inferencing. This Aim will examine whether retrieval practice - a powerful and proven technique for enhancing knowledge retrieval, inferencing, and transfer among skilled adult readers - also improves knowledge retrieval and inferencing among rural, middle grade, struggling readers. Past research conducted in the middle grades shows that retrieval practice is associated with improved end-of-unit performance in content area classrooms. But no study has examined how, why, when, and for whom knowledge retrieval works and under what conditions for struggling readers. The primary hypothesis is that fluent retrieval of relevant knowledge facilitates inferencing. The expected outcome is the identification of a method that effectively facilitates knowledge retrieval and the application of relevant knowledge to form inferences among rural, middle grade, struggling readers. Aim 2: Determine the effectiveness of an intervention that improves knowledge retrieval and inferencing. No intervention study has used knowledge retrieval techniques to help struggling readers retain new knowledge or retrieve and use relevant knowledge to form inferences while reading. The primary hypothesis is that changes in inferencing are associated with changes in knowledge retrieval; however, knowledge retrieval and inferencing must be explicitly taught and sufficiently practiced for inferencing to occur with the same regularity as skilled comprehenders use it. The expected outcome is the validation of an intervention that teaches rural, struggling middle grade readers how to activate, retrieve, and interweave relevant knowledge with information in the text to accurately form inferences while reading. Furthermore, very few reading intervention studies have occurred with middle grade struggling readers attending rural schools. The rural setting is important; existing practices do not consider the cumulative effects of rural poverty on general knowledge development and reading achievement or the long-term impact of limited access to academic support services. Additionally, only one inference intervention study has included English Learners. The English Learner population has increased substantially in rural communities, but past research shows that generalizing vocabulary and knowledge building interventions designed for monolinguals have not proven effective. Aim 3. To expand undergraduate research opportunities by integrating undergraduate students on the research team with the knowledge and skills to successfully implement these randomized controlled trials.

Official Title
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The Role of Knowledge Retrieval in Inference-making Among Struggling Readers

Conditions
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Reading Disability, Reading Problem

Intervention / Treatment
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* Behavioral: Role of Knowledge Retrieval
* Behavioral: Inference Intervention


Participation Criteria
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Eligibility Criteria
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Inclusion Criteria: performance below a a standard score of 93 on the Test of Silent Reading Efficiency Exclusion Criteria: clinical diagnosis of a significant cognitive impairment clinical diagnosis of a significant behavioral disability

Ages Eligible for Study
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Minimum Age: 8 Years
Maximum Age: 14 Years

Sexes Eligible for Study
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All

Accepts Healthy Volunteers
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No

Study Plan
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How is the study designed?
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Design Details

Primary Purpose: Treatment
Allocation: Randomized
Intervention Model: Parallel Assignment
Interventional Model Description: In year 1 , Participants will be randomized to a variable test condition; repeated test condition; or a placebo condition to determine if the retrieval of knowledge through testing leads to improved inference making. In year 2, participants in the variable and repeated test conditions will receive a short intervention to determine if direct instruction in inferencing leads to improved inferencing and comprehension.
Masking: None (Open Label)


Arms and Interventions

| Participant Group/Arm | Intervention/Treatment |
| --- | --- |
| Experimental: Variable Test<br>Students will be taught a knowledge base comprised of 18 facts about Egypt. After learning the knowledge base to criterion, students will practice retrieving the knowledge base across four testing sessions spaced 24 hours apart. Students will receive different questions across testing sessions. Next, students will read 6 passages about Egypt and then answer literal and inferential questions about the passages. Immediately after reading the passages, students will get re-tested on their retention of the knowledge base and use of the knowledge base to form inferences. They will also get retested one week and one month later to examine students' long-term retention of the knowledge base and use to make inferences. | Behavioral: Role of Knowledge Retrieval<br>* Students will learn a new knowledge base to perfect mastery. Following the attainment of mastery students will read passages on the topic and answer questions that prompt the literal recall of key facts and the formation of inferences.<br>Behavioral: Inference Intervention<br>* The intervention will pre-teach students a set of 20 essential facts about Egypt. Students will interact with expository and narrative texts. Students will practice using a text clue strategy to activate and integrate prior knowledge, will make in-text connections, connections across the 3 intervention texts, and connections between text and knowledge, and will make inferences about character motives and author intent. The tutor will ask students to justify connections and evaluate how these connections enhance understanding. Students will answer inference questions that require using text and background knowledge. A simple graphic organizer will support and scaffold inferencing. Throughout the intervention, students will practice retrieving the 20 essential facts about Egypt from memory using flash cards, completed in pairs with students providing each other feedback.<br>|
| Experimental: Repeated Test<br>Students will be taught a knowledge base comprised of 18 facts about Egypt. After learning the knowledge base to criterion, students will practice retrieving the knowledge base across four testing sessions spaced 24 hours apart. Students will receive the same questions repeated across testing sessions. Next, students will read 6 passages about Egypt and then answer literal and inferential questions about the passages. Immediately after reading the passages, students will get re-tested on their retention of the knowledge base and use of the knowledge base to form inferences. They will also get retested one week and one month later to examine students' long-term retention of the knowledge base and use to make inferences. | Behavioral: Role of Knowledge Retrieval<br>* Students will learn a new knowledge base to perfect mastery. Following the attainment of mastery students will read passages on the topic and answer questions that prompt the literal recall of key facts and the formation of inferences.<br>Behavioral: Inference Intervention<br>* The intervention will pre-teach students a set of 20 essential facts about Egypt. Students will interact with expository and narrative texts. Students will practice using a text clue strategy to activate and integrate prior knowledge, will make in-text connections, connections across the 3 intervention texts, and connections between text and knowledge, and will make inferences about character motives and author intent. The tutor will ask students to justify connections and evaluate how these connections enhance understanding. Students will answer inference questions that require using text and background knowledge. A simple graphic organizer will support and scaffold inferencing. Throughout the intervention, students will practice retrieving the 20 essential facts about Egypt from memory using flash cards, completed in pairs with students providing each other feedback.<br>|
| Placebo Comparator: Placebo<br>Students will be taught a knowledge base comprised of 18 facts about Egypt. After learning the knowledge base to criterion, students will re-read the passages. They will not receive any questions. Next, students will read 6 passages about Egypt and then answer literal and inferential questions about the passages. Immediately after reading the passages, students will get re-tested on their retention of the knowledge base and use of the knowledge base to form inferences. They will also get retested one week and one month later to examine students' long-term retention of the knowledge base and use to make inferences. | Behavioral: Role of Knowledge Retrieval<br>* Students will learn a new knowledge base to perfect mastery. Following the attainment of mastery students will read passages on the topic and answer questions that prompt the literal recall of key facts and the formation of inferences.<br>Behavioral: Inference Intervention<br>* The intervention will pre-teach students a set of 20 essential facts about Egypt. Students will interact with expository and narrative texts. Students will practice using a text clue strategy to activate and integrate prior knowledge, will make in-text connections, connections across the 3 intervention texts, and connections between text and knowledge, and will make inferences about character motives and author intent. The tutor will ask students to justify connections and evaluate how these connections enhance understanding. Students will answer inference questions that require using text and background knowledge. A simple graphic organizer will support and scaffold inferencing. Throughout the intervention, students will practice retrieving the 20 essential facts about Egypt from memory using flash cards, completed in pairs with students providing each other feedback.<br>|

What is the study measuring?
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Primary Outcome Measures

| Outcome Measure | Measure Description | Time Frame |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Gates-MacGinite Reading Test-4th Edition; Change is being assessed | a standardized, group-administered, multiple-choice assessment of reading comprehension. | pre-intervention | 
| Gates-MacGinite Reading Test-4th Edition; change is being assessed | a standardized, group-administered, multiple-choice assessment of reading comprehension | immediately after the intervention | 
| Test of Language Competence-Expanded; Change is being assessed | Inference Task asks students to read three sentences and form an inference | pre-intervention | 
| Test of Language Competence-Expanded; change is being assessed | Inference Task asks students to read three sentences and form an inference | immediately after the intervention | 
| Bridge-IT; change is being assessed | asks students to read a five-sentence text, form an inference, and determine if the next sentence provided continues the story. | pre-intervention | 
| Bridge-IT; change is being assessed | asks students to read a five-sentence text, form an inference, and determine if the next sentence provided continues the story. | immediately after the intervention | 
| Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals-5; change is being assessed | Metalinguistics, Making Inferences subtest, an individually administered assessment, measures students' ability to make gap-filling inferences on the basis of causal relationships or event chains depicted in short narratives that are presented both orally and in print form. | pre-intervention | 
| Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals-5; change is being assessed | Metalinguistics, Making Inferences subtest, an individually administered assessment, measures students' ability to make gap-filling inferences on the basis of causal relationships or event chains depicted in short narratives that are presented both orally and in print form. | immediately after the intervention | 

Secondary Outcome Measures

| Outcome Measure | Measure Description | Time Frame |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Knowledge Retrieval; change is being assessed | It teaches new knowledge then measures the accuracy and efficiency by which the individual can retrieve that knowledge. After learning the knowledge base, students read passages and form inferences with the accuracy and efficiency of inferencing measured. | pre-intervention | 
| Knowledge Retrieval; change is being assessed | It teaches new knowledge then measures the accuracy and efficiency by which the individual can retrieve that knowledge. After learning the knowledge base, students read passages and form inferences with the accuracy and efficiency of inferencing measured. | Immediately after the intervention | 
| Knowledge Retrieval; change is being assessed | It teaches new knowledge then measures the accuracy and efficiency by which the individual can retrieve that knowledge. After learning the knowledge base, students read passages and form inferences with the accuracy and efficiency of inferencing measured. | one-week after the intervention | 
| Knowledge Retrieval; change is being assessed | It teaches new knowledge then measures the accuracy and efficiency by which the individual can retrieve that knowledge. After learning the knowledge base, students read passages and form inferences with the accuracy and efficiency of inferencing measured. | one-month after the intervention | 
| Test of Word Reading Efficiency-2; change is being assessed | Sight Word Efficiency, a 45-second assessment of students' word reading accuracy and speed and Phonemic Decoding Efficiency, a 45-second assessment of students' non-word reading accuracy and speed. | pre-intervention | 
| Test of Word Reading Efficiency-2; change is being assessed | Sight Word Efficiency, a 45-second assessment of students' word reading accuracy and speed and Phonemic Decoding Efficiency, a 45-second assessment of students' non-word reading accuracy and speed. | immediately after the intervention | 
| Metacognition survey; change is being assessed | asks students to report study strategies used when learning from text and includes questions about repeated studying and retrieval practice. | pre-intervention | 
| Metacognition survey; change is being assessed | asks students to report study strategies used when learning from text and includes questions about repeated studying and retrieval practice. | immediately after the intervention | 
| Contextualized Reading Strategy Survey; change is being assessed | 49-item self-report survey designed to assess a collection of learning and comprehension strategies that students might use when reading for school. | pre-intervention | 
| Contextualized Reading Strategy Survey; change is being assessed | 49-item self-report survey designed to assess a collection of learning and comprehension strategies that students might use when reading for school. | immediately after the intervention | 
| Working Memory Test Battery for Children | Word List Recall that asks the student to repeat a list of monosyllabic words, Non-word List Recall that asks the student to repeat a list of non-words and Listening Recall Test that requires that the student listen to a series of short sentences, judge their accuracy, and recall the final word of each sentence. | pre-intervention | 
| Kauffman Brief Intelligence Test-2 | Verbal Knowledge subtest, a norm-referenced, individually administered assessment of expressive word and world knowledge | pre-intervention | 
| Gates-MacGinitie Vocabulary Test; change is being assessed | group administered test of receptive vocabulary | pre-intervention | 
| Gates-MacGinitie Vocabulary Test; change is being assessed | group administered test of receptive vocabulary | immediately after the intervention | 
| Egyptian Content Knowledge; change is being assessed | a researcher developed assessment of one's knowledge of Egypt | pre-intervention | 
| Egyptian Content Knowledge; change is being assessed | a researcher developed assessment of one's knowledge of Egypt | immediately after the intervention | 
| Test of Silent Reading Efficiency and Comprehension; change is being assessed | measure of silent reading fluency and understanding of text | pre-intervention | 
| Test of Silent Reading Efficiency and Comprehension; change is being assessed | measure of silent reading fluency and understanding of text | immediately after the intervention | 
| Test of Silent Contextual Reading Fluency; change is being assessed | measures of silent reading fluency and understanding of text | pre-intervention | 
| Test of Silent Contextual Reading Fluency; change is being assessed | measures of silent reading fluency and understanding of text | immediately after the intervention | 
| CBM-Maze Task; change is being assessed | measure of silent reading fluency and understanding of text | pre-intervention | 
| CBM-Maze Task; change is being assessed | measure of silent reading fluency and understanding of text | immediately after the intervention | 

 Terms related to the study
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Keywords Provided by Centre Hospitalier Valida
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Inference-making, Knowledge retrieval, Reading comprehension