Combining HIIT and n-3 PUFA to Reduce Inflammation and Improve Metabolic Health

Study Overview
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Brief Summary
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The goal of this project is to understand the combined effects of fish oil and exercise in obesity-associated inflammation. The investigators hypothesize that fish oil will improve gut bacteria profiles, which will in turn potentiate the benefits of an exercise program and improve energy utilization and reduce inflammation and metabolic risk.

Detailed Description
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Incidence of obesity continues to increase in the United States and worldwide, making its prevention or reduction a public health priority. Nutrition research that can lead to effective prevention strategies is greatly needed. Inflammation is a major underlying cause for obesity, and it is imperative to understand how anti-inflammatory food sources, such as fish oil, could aid in reducing obesity. Moreover, exercise is effective at reducing systemic inflammation and improving insulin resistance. Both exercise and diet can influence health through changes in the gut microbiome; however, no studies have investigated how together these affect gut microbiome and overall metabolic health. The goal is to understand the combined effects of fish oil and exercise in obesity-associated inflammation. The investigators hypothesize that fish oil will improve gut bacteria profiles, which will in turn potentiate the benefits of an exercise program and improve energy utilization and reduce inflammation and metabolic risk. These studies will provide the foundation for development of novel strategies for obesity, inflammation, dyslipidemia and dysglycemia. The first aim of this study will focus on determining the combined effects of n-3 PUFA and HIIT on improving metabolic risks such as obesity-related markers of inflammation, dyslipidemia, and insulin resistance. The investigators will test the hypothesis that n-3 PUFA, in addition to HIIT, will have beneficial effects on energy utilization, as well as obesity-related markers of inflammation, dyslipidemia and insulin resistance. Aim 2.1: Investigate the influence of n-3 PUFA and HIIT on body weight and composition Aim 2.2: Investigate the influence of n-3 PUFA and HIIT on serum markers associated with obesity Aim 2.3: Investigate influence of n-3 PUFA and HIIT on energy utilization/ markers of insulin resistance The second aim is to determine the combined effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA) and high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on improving gut dysbiosis. The investigators will test the hypothesis that n-3 PUFA supplementation will improve gut microbiota composition and related metabolites, which will result in reduced inflammation and ameliorate the metabolic response to a HIIT exercise intervention in an overweight population. Aim 1.1: Investigate the influence of n-3 PUFA and exercise on gut microbiota composition Aim 1.2: Investigate the influence of n-3 PUFA and exercise on microbiota produced metabolites Participants will be randomly allocated to 1 of 4 treatment groups (n = 120), each balanced for sex, BMI, lipid profile, and dietary intake. The goal is to conduct the study in smaller cohorts, such as 10-15 participants/group (n = 40-60). Participants will first be allocated to two groups: One group will take 4 grams n-3 PUFA (AlaskOmega®) per day (3000 mg EPA and 1000 mg DHA) and one group will take placebo (safflower oil, AlaskOmega®, from Organic Technologies Inc.) for 8 weeks of initial supplementation. Following this, one group from the treatment and one from the placebo group (creating 4 groups: (1) placebo + exercise control; (2) n-3 PUFA + exercise control; (3) placebo + HIIT; (4) n-3 PUFA + HIIT) will also participate in a home-based 4 x 4 HIIT exercise (4 intervals for 4 min at 85-95% HRmax with 3min active recovery at 50-70% HRmax) program 3 days/week conducted at a local gym under virtual investigator supervision and utilizing cycle ergometers. If not asked to exercise, participants will be instructed to maintain their normal level of physical activity but will participate in a home-based, time-matched control consisting of flexibility training led virtually by investigators. All participants will wear a heart rate monitor (Polar H10) provided by TTU throughout the training (HIIT and control) to monitor exertion level. Capsules will be administered in a double-blind fashion and will be identical in appearance. Participants will visit the clinic to pick up capsules. To ensure compliance, subjects will be reminded via phone (text message or phone call based on participant preference) to take their capsules and counts will be conducted when they come in for study visits. As with any acute metabolic or physiological improvements, beneficial effects of exercise on bacterial taxa and resultant metabolite production are quickly reversed with detraining. Thus, it is of interest to determine if fish consumption can ameliorate the negative metabolic and gut effects of detraining. At the end of the 6-week intervention (week 14), participants in the respective groups will cease engaging in HIIT for a 2-week detraining period and those allocated to the fish oil group will receive recommendations for fish consumption according to guidelines (8 oz per week or consuming fish twice weekly, including one serving of oily fish). Dietary records for the last 2 weeks of the study will assess dietary fish intake compliance.

Official Title
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Combining Fish Oil and Exercise to Improve Obesity-associated Inflammation

Conditions
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Obesity, Inflammation, Human Microbiome, Insulin Resistance, Dyslipidemias

Intervention / Treatment
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* Dietary Supplement: Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid
* Behavioral: High-Intensity Interval Training
* Dietary Supplement: Safflower oil
* Behavioral: Flexibility training


Participation Criteria
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Eligibility Criteria
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Inclusion Criteria: 18-65 years old Overweight/ Obese (BMI ≥ 25 to ≤ 40 kg/m2) Elevated Triglycerides (>150 mg/dL) Prediabetes (fasting blood glucose 100 to 125 mg/dl) Exclusion Criteria: Diagnosed with Diabetes or liver disease. Taking BP or diabetes medications. Received antibiotics medications in the last 6 months. Pregnant/ lactating/ Irregular menstrual cycle/ menopausal. Currently following a formal/ structured weight loss program. Currently taking fish oil. Do not have access to smart phone/ computer with internet access. Exercise ≥ 1 time/week or a moderate-high score on the International Physical Activity Questionnaire. Feeling uncomfortable riding bike for 30 minutes. Claustrophobic or unable to stay under the hood for metabolic testing.

Ages Eligible for Study
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Minimum Age: 18 Years
Maximum Age: 65 Years

Sexes Eligible for Study
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All

Accepts Healthy Volunteers
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No

Study Plan
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How is the study designed?
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Design Details

Primary Purpose: Treatment
Allocation: Randomized
Intervention Model: Sequential Assignment
Masking: Double


Arms and Interventions

| Participant Group/Arm | Intervention/Treatment |
| --- | --- |
| Placebo Comparator: Placebo & Flexibility Training (Control)<br>Subjects will take placebo (safflower oil, AlaskOmega®) for an initial supplementation period of 8 weeks. Participants will continue supplementation and will also engage in low-intensity flexibility training (control group) for 30 minutes 3 times/week for 6 weeks, a time-matched session of stretching and mobility exercises. All exercise sessions will be performed on an exercise mat and conducted under investigator supervision. Participants will cease supplementation and flexibility training for a 2 week follow-up period. | Dietary Supplement: Safflower oil<br>* 4 grams safflower oil (AlaskOmega®) per day<br>* Other names: Placebo;Behavioral: Flexibility training<br>* 30 min of stretching 3 days/week for 6 weeks<br>|
| Active Comparator: Placebo & High-Intensity Interval Training<br>Subjects will take placebo (safflower oil, AlaskOmega®) for an initial supplementation period of 8 weeks. Participants will continue supplementation and will also engage in a 4 x 4 high-intensity interval training (HIIT) exercise program 3 days/week for 6 weeks. This will include a 3 min warm up at 15% watt max followed by 4 intervals for 4 min at 65% watt max with 3 min active recovery at 15% watt max . All exercise sessions will be performed on a stationary bike and conducted under investigator supervision. Participants will cease supplementation and HIIT training for a 2 week follow-up period. | Behavioral: High-Intensity Interval Training<br>* A 4 x 4 high-intensity interval training (HIIT) exercise program 3 days/week for 6 weeks. This will include a 3 min warm up at 15% watt max followed by 4 intervals for 4 min at 65% watt max with 3 min active recovery at 15% watt max.<br>* Other names: HIIT;Dietary Supplement: Safflower oil<br>* 4 grams safflower oil (AlaskOmega®) per day<br>* Other names: Placebo;|
| Active Comparator: n-3 PUFA & Flexibility Training (Control)<br>Subjects will take 4 grams n-3 PUFA (AlaskOmega®) per day (3000 mg EPA and 1000 mg DHA) for an initial supplementation period of 8 weeks. Participants will continue supplementation and will also engage in low-intensity flexibility training (control group) for 30 minutes 3 times/week for 6 weeks, a time-matched session of stretching and mobility exercises. All exercise sessions will be performed on an exercise mat and conducted under investigator supervision. Participants will cease supplementation and flexibility training for a 2 week follow-up period. During this time, participants will consume 8 oz per week or consuming fish twice weekly, including one serving of oily fish. | Dietary Supplement: Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid<br>* 4 grams n-3 PUFA (AlaskOmega®) per day (3000 mg EPA and 1000 mg DHA)<br>* Other names: AlaskOmega;Behavioral: Flexibility training<br>* 30 min of stretching 3 days/week for 6 weeks<br>|
| Experimental: n-3 PUFA & High-Intensity Interval Training<br>Subjects will take 4 grams n-3 PUFA (AlaskOmega®) per day (3000 mg EPA and 1000 mg DHA) for an initial supplementation period of 8 weeks. Participants will continue supplementation and will also engage in a 4 x 4 high-intensity interval training (HIIT) exercise program 3 days/week for 6 weeks. This will include a 3 min warm up at 15% watt max followed by 4 intervals for 4 min at 65% watt max with 3 min active recovery at 15% watt max . All exercise sessions will be performed on a stationary bike and conducted under investigator supervision. Participants will cease supplementation and HIIT training for a 2 week follow-up period. During this time, participants will consume 8 oz per week or consuming fish twice weekly, including one serving of oily fish. | Dietary Supplement: Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid<br>* 4 grams n-3 PUFA (AlaskOmega®) per day (3000 mg EPA and 1000 mg DHA)<br>* Other names: AlaskOmega;Behavioral: High-Intensity Interval Training<br>* A 4 x 4 high-intensity interval training (HIIT) exercise program 3 days/week for 6 weeks. This will include a 3 min warm up at 15% watt max followed by 4 intervals for 4 min at 65% watt max with 3 min active recovery at 15% watt max.<br>* Other names: HIIT;|

What is the study measuring?
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Primary Outcome Measures

| Outcome Measure | Measure Description | Time Frame |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Mean Change from Baseline in Serum high-sensitivity C-reactive protein at 8 weeks | Serum high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP; mg/L) | Post-Supplementation at week 8 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Interleukin (IL)-6 at 8 weeks | Interleukin (IL)-6 (pg/mL) | Post-Supplementation at week 8 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Interleukin (IL)-10 at 8 weeks | Interleukin (IL)-10 (pg/mL) | Post-Supplementation at week 8 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 at 8 weeks | Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1; pg/mL) | Post-Supplementation at week 8 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Tumor necrosis factor at 8 weeks | Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha (pg/mL) | Post-Supplementation at week 8 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Total Cholesterol at 8 weeks | Total cholesterol (mg/dL) | Post-Supplementation at week 8 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in High-density lipoprotein (HDL)at 8 weeks | High-density lipoprotein (HDL) (mg/dL) | Post-Supplementation at week 8 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Non-high-density lipoprotein (Non-HDL) at 8 weeks | Non-high-density lipoprotein (Non-HDL) (mg/dL) | Post-Supplementation at week 8 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) at 8 weeks | Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) (mg/dL) | Post-Supplementation at week 8 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) at 8 weeks | Very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) (mg/dL) | Post-Supplementation at week 8 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Triglycerides at 8 weeks | Triglycerides (mg/dL). | Post-Supplementation at week 8 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Total/HDL cholesterol at 8 weeks | Total/HDL cholesterol (mg/dL) | Post-Supplementation at week 8 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Fasting blood glucose at 8 weeks | Fasting blood glucose (mg/dL) | Post-supplementation at week 8 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) at 8 weeks | Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) (mg/dL). Following ingestion of 75 g oral glucose, blood samples will be drawn every 5-10 minutes for the first 30 minutes then every 30 minutes for the next 90 minutes. | Post-supplementation at week 8 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Insulin at 8 weeks | Insulin (μU/mL) | Post-supplementation at week 8 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Total Body Fat Percentage at 8 weeks | Total Body Fat Percentage (%BF): The percent of the body that is composed of fat. This will change based on the amount of fat there is as well as the amount of lean mass there is. | Post-Supplementation at week 8 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Body weigh at 8 weeks | Body weight (kilograms) | Post-Supplementation at week 8 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Skeletal Muscle Mass Percentage at 8 weeks | Skeletal Muscle Mass Percentage (%SMM): The percent of the body that is composed of skeletal muscle. Like %BF, this number is relative to total mass. | Post-Supplementation at week 8 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Serum high-sensitivity C-reactive protein at 14 weeks | Serum high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP; mg/L) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 at 14 weeks | Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1; pg/mL) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Interleukin (IL)-6 at 14 weeks | Interleukin (IL)-6 (pg/mL) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Interleukin (IL)-10 at 14 weeks | Interleukin (IL)-10 (pg/mL) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) at 14 weeks | Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha (pg/mL) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Total Cholesterol at 14 weeks | Total Cholesterol (mg/dL) | Post-intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in High-density lipoprotein (HDL) at 14 weeks | High-density lipoprotein (HDL) (mg/dL) | Post-intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Non-high-density lipoprotein (Non-HDL) at 14 weeks | Non-high-density lipoprotein (Non-HDL) (mg/dL) | Post-intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) at 14 weeks | Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) (mg/dL) | Post-intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) at 14 weeks | Very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) (mg/dL) | Post-intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Triglycerides at 14 weeks | Triglycerides (mg/dL). | Post-intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in total/HDL cholesterol at 14 weeks | Total/HDL cholesterol (mg/dL) | Post-intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Fasting blood glucose at 14 weeks | Fasting blood glucose (mg/dL) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) at 14 weeks | Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). Following ingestion of 75 g oral glucose, blood samples will be drawn every 5-10 minutes for the first 30 minutes then every 30 minutes for the next 90 minutes. | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Insulin at 14 weeks | Insulin (μU/mL) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Body weight at 14 weeks | Body weight (kilograms) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Total Body Fat Percentage at 14 weeks | Total Body Fat Percentage (%BF): The percent of the body that is composed of fat. This will change based on the amount of fat there is as well as the amount of lean mass there is. | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Skeletal Muscle Mass Percentage at 14 weeks | Skeletal Muscle Mass Percentage (%SMM): The percent of the body that is composed of skeletal muscle. Like %BF, this number is relative to total mass. | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Serum high-sensitivity C-reactive protein at 16 weeks | Serum high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP; mg/L) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Interleukin (IL)-6 at 16 weeks | Interleukin (IL)-6 (pg/mL) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Interleukin (IL)-10 at 16 weeks | Interleukin (IL)-10 (pg/mL) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) at 16 weeks | Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha (pg/mL) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 at 16 weeks | Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1; pg/mL) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Total Cholesterol at 16 weeks | Total Cholesterol (mg/dL) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in High-density lipoprotein (HDL) at 16 weeks | High-density lipoprotein (HDL) (mg/dL) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Non-high-density lipoprotein (Non-HDL) at 16 weeks | Non-high-density lipoprotein (Non-HDL) (mg/dL) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) at 16 weeks | Low-density lipoprotein (LDL)(mg/dL) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) at 16 weeks | Very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) (mg/dL) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Total/HDL cholesterol at 16 weeks | Total/HDL cholesterol (mg/dL) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Triglycerides at 16 weeks | Triglycerides (mg/dL) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Insulin at 16 weeks | Insulin (μU/mL) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Fasting blood glucose at 16 weeks | Fasting blood glucose (mg/dL) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) at 16 weeks | Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). Following ingestion of 75 g oral glucose, blood samples will be drawn every 5-10 minutes for the first 30 minutes then every 30 minutes for the next 90 minutes. | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Skeletal Muscle Mass Percentage at 16 weeks | Skeletal Muscle Mass Percentage (%SMM): The percent of the body that is composed of skeletal muscle. Like %BF, this number is relative to total mass. | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Body weight at 16 weeks | Body weight (kilograms) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Total Body Fat Percentage at 16 weeks | Total Body Fat Percentage (%BF): The percent of the body that is composed of fat. This will change based on the amount of fat there is as well as the amount of lean mass there is. | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Supplementation in Serum high-sensitivity C-reactive protein at 14 weeks | Serum high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP; mg/L) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Supplementation in Interleukin (IL)-6 at 14 weeks | Interleukin (IL)-6 (pg/mL) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Supplementation in Interleukin (IL)-10 at 14 weeks | Interleukin (IL)-10 (pg/mL) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Supplementation in Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 at 14 weeks | Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1; pg/mL) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Supplementation in Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) at 14 weeks | Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha (pg/mL) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Supplementation in Total Cholesterol at 14 weeks | Total Cholesterol (mg/dL) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Supplementation in Total/HDL cholesterol at 14 weeks | Total/HDL cholesterol (mg/dL) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Supplementation in High-density lipoprotein (HDL) at 14 weeks | High-density lipoprotein (HDL) (mg/dL) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Supplementation in Non-high-density lipoprotein (Non-HDL) at 14 weeks | Non-high-density lipoprotein (Non-HDL) (mg/dL) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Supplementation in Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) at 14 weeks | Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) (mg/dL) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Supplementation in Very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) at 14 weeks | Very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) (mg/dL) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Supplementation in Triglycerides at 14 weeks | Triglycerides (mg/dL) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Supplementation in Insulin at 14 weeks | Insulin (μU/mL) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Supplementation in Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) at 14 weeks | Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) Following ingestion of 75 g oral glucose, blood samples will be drawn every 5-10 minutes for the first 30 minutes then every 30 minutes for the next 90 minutes. | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Supplementation in Fasting blood glucose at 14 weeks | Fasting blood glucose (mg/dL) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Supplementation in Body weight at 14 weeks | Body weight (kilograms) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Supplementation in Total Body Fat Percentage at 14 weeks | Total Body Fat Percentage (%BF): The percent of the body that is composed of fat. This will change based on the amount of fat there is as well as the amount of lean mass there is. | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Supplementation in Skeletal Muscle Mass Percentage at 14 weeks | Skeletal Muscle Mass Percentage (%SMM): The percent of the body that is composed of skeletal muscle. Like %BF, this number is relative to total mass. | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Intervention in Serum high-sensitivity C-reactive protein at 16 weeks | Serum high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP; mg/L) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Intervention in Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF) at 16 weeks | Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha (pg/mL) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Intervention in Interleukin (IL)-6 at 16 weeks | Interleukin (IL)-6 (pg/mL) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Intervention in Interleukin (IL)-10 at 16 weeks | Interleukin (IL)-10 (pg/mL) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Intervention in Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein-1 at 16 weeks | Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1; pg/mL) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Intervention in Total Cholesterol at 16 weeks | Total Cholesterol (mg/dL) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Intervention in High-density lipoprotein (HDL) at 16 weeks | High-density lipoprotein (HDL) (mg/dL) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Intervention in Non-high-density lipoprotein (Non-HDL) at 16 weeks | Non-high-density lipoprotein (Non-HDL) (mg/dL) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Intervention in Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) at 16 weeks | Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) (mg/dL) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Intervention in Very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) at 16 weeks | Very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) (mg/dL) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Intervention in Total/HDL cholesterol at 16 weeks | Total/HDL cholesterol (mg/dL) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Intervention in Triglycerides at 16 weeks | Triglycerides (mg/dL) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Intervention in Insulin at 16 weeks | Insulin (μU/mL) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Intervention in Fasting blood glucose at 16 weeks | Fasting blood glucose (mg/dL) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Intervention in Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) at 16 weeks | Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). Following ingestion of 75 g oral glucose, blood samples will be drawn every 5-10 minutes for the first 30 minutes then every 30 minutes for the next 90 minutes. | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Intervention in Body weight at 16 weeks | Body weight (kilograms) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Intervention in Total Body Fat Percentage at 16 weeks | Total Body Fat Percentage (%BF): The percent of the body that is composed of fat. This will change based on the amount of fat there is as well as the amount of lean mass there is. | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Intervention in Skeletal Muscle Mass Percentage at 16 weeks | Skeletal Muscle Mass Percentage (%SMM): The percent of the body that is composed of skeletal muscle. Like %BF, this number is relative to total mass. | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 

Secondary Outcome Measures

| Outcome Measure | Measure Description | Time Frame |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Mean Change from Baseline in Bacterial Profile at 8 weeks | Fecal Microbial DNA (16s Sequencing) | Post-Supplementation at week 8 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Serum Acetate Profile at 8 weeks | Serum Acetate (SCFA: gas chromatography analysis) | Post-Supplementation at week 8 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Fecal acetate Profile at 8 weeks | Fecal acetate (SCFA: in fecal samples by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)) | Post-Supplementation at week 8 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Propionate Profile at 8 weeks | Propionate (liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)) | Post-Supplementation at week 8 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Butyrate Profile at 8 weeks | Butyrate (liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)) | Post-Supplementation at week 8 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Markers of Serum lipopolysaccharides at 8 weeks | Serum lipopolysaccharides (LPS, ng/ml) | Post-Supplementation at week 8 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Markers of Serum lipopolysaccharides-binding protein at 8 weeks | Serum lipopolysaccharides-binding protein (LBP, pg/ml) | Post-Supplementation at week 8 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Bacterial Profile at 14 weeks | Fecal Microbial DNA (16s Sequencing) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Serum Acetate Profile at 14 weeks | Serum Acetate (SCFA: gas chromatography analysis) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Fecal acetate Profile at 14 weeks | Fecal acetate (SCFA: in fecal samples by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Propionate Profile at 14 weeks | Propionate (liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Butyrate Profile at 14 weeks | Butyrate (liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Markers of Serum lipopolysaccharides at 14 weeks | Serum lipopolysaccharides (LPS, ng/ml) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Markers of Serum lipopolysaccharides-binding protein at 14 weeks | Serum lipopolysaccharides-binding protein (LBP, pg/ml) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Serum Acetate Profile at 16 weeks | Serum Acetate (SCFA: gas chromatography analysis) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Fecal acetate Profile at 16 weeks | Fecal acetate (SCFA: in fecal samples by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Bacterial Profile at 16 weeks | Fecal Microbial DNA (16s Sequencing) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Propionate Profile at 16 weeks | Propionate (liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Butyrate Profile at 16 weeks | Butyrate (liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Markers of Serum lipopolysaccharides at 16 weeks | Serum lipopolysaccharides (LPS, ng/ml) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Baseline in Markers of Serum lipopolysaccharides-binding protein at 16 weeks | Serum lipopolysaccharides-binding protein (LBP, pg/ml) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Supplementation in Bacterial Profile at 14 weeks | Fecal Microbial DNA (16s Sequencing) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Supplementation in Serum Acetate Profile at 14 weeks | Serum Acetate (SCFA: gas chromatography analysis) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Supplementation in Fecal acetate Profile at 14 weeks | Fecal acetate (SCFA: in fecal samples by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Supplementation in Propionate Profile at 14 weeks | Propionate (liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Supplementation in Butyrate Profile at 14 weeks | Butyrate (liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Supplementation in Markers of Serum lipopolysaccharides at 14 weeks | Serum lipopolysaccharides (LPS, ng/ml) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Supplementation in Markers of Serum lipopolysaccharides-binding protein at 14 weeks | Serum lipopolysaccharides-binding protein (LBP, pg/ml) | Post-Intervention at week 14 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Intervention in Bacterial Profile at 16 weeks | Fecal Microbial DNA (16s Sequencing) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Intervention in Serum Acetate Profile at 16 weeks | Serum Acetate (SCFA: gas chromatography analysis) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Intervention in Fecal acetate Profile at 16 weeks | Fecal acetate (SCFA: in fecal samples by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Intervention in Propionate Profile at 16 weeks | Propionate (liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Intervention in Butyrate Profile at 16 weeks | Butyrate (liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Intervention in Markers of Serum lipopolysaccharides at 16 weeks | Serum lipopolysaccharides (LPS, ng/ml) | Post-Feeding at week 16 | 
| Mean Change from Post-Intervention in Markers of Serum lipopolysaccharides-binding protein at 16 weeks | Serum lipopolysaccharides-binding protein (LBP, pg/ml) | Post-Feeding at week 16 |