Baby's First Years

Study Overview
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Brief Summary
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Recent advances in developmental neuroscience suggest that experiences early in life have profound and enduring influences on the developing brain. Family economic resources shape the nature of many of these experiences, yet the extent to which they affect children's development is unknown. Our team of neuroscientists, economists and developmental psychologists proposes to fill important gaps in scientific knowledge about the role of economic resources in early development by evaluating the first randomized controlled trial to determine whether unconditional cash gift payments have a causal effect on the cognitive, socio-emotional and brain development of infants and toddlers in low-income U.S. families. Specifically, 1,000 mothers of infants with incomes below the federal poverty line from four diverse U.S. communities will receive monthly cash gift payments by debit card for the first 76 months of the child's life. Parents in the experimental group will receive $333 per month ($4,000 per year), whereas parents in the active comparator group will receive a nominal monthly payment of $20. In order to understand the impacts of the added income on children's cognitive and behavioral development, the investigators will assess experimental/active comparator group differences at age 4 (this lab assessment was postponed from age 3 to age 4 due to Covid-19) and, for a subset of measures, age 2 and age 3 via maternal survey, on measures of cognitive, language, self-regulation and socio-emotional development. Brain circuitry may be sensitive to the effects of early experience even before early behavioral differences can be detected. In order to understand the impacts of added income on children's brain functioning at age 4, the investigators will assess, during a lab visit, experimental/active comparator group differences in measures of brain activity (electroencephalography [EEG]). To understand how family economic behavior, parenting, and parent stress and well-being change in response to income enhancement, the investigators will assess experimental/active comparator differences in family expenditures, food insecurity, housing and neighborhood quality; family routines and time use; parent stress, mental health and cognition; parenting practices; and child care arrangements at child age 2 and age 3, for a subset of these measures, child age 1. This study will thus provide the first definitive understanding of the extent to which income plays a causal role in determining early child cognitive, socio-emotional and brain development among low-income families.

Detailed Description
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In the Baby's First Years (BFY) study, one thousand infants born to mothers with incomes falling below the federal poverty threshold in four metropolitan areas in the United States were assigned at random within each of the metropolitan areas to one of two cash gift conditions. The sites are: New York City, the greater New Orleans metropolitan area, the greater Omaha metropolitan area, and the Twin Cities. IRB and recruiting issues led to a distribution of the 1,000 mothers across sites of 121 in one site (the Twin Cities), 295 in two of the other sites (New Orleans and Omaha) and 289 in New York. (We have also randomly sampled 80 of the participating families in the Twin Cities and New Orleans to participate in an in-depth qualitative study, but do not elaborate on those plans in this document.) Mothers were recruited in postpartum wards of the 12 participating hospitals shortly after giving birth and, after consenting, were administered a 30-minute baseline interview. They then were asked to consent to the cash gifts. The high-cash gift treatment group mothers (40% of all mothers) are receiving unconditioned cash payments of $333 per month ($4,000 per year) via debit card for 76 months. Mothers in the low-cash gift comparator group (60% of all mothers) are receiving a nominal payment - $20 per month, delivered in the same way and also for 76 months. The 40/60 randomization assignment is stratified by site, but not by hospitals, within each of the four sites. BFY was originally formulated to study the effects of monthly unconditional cash transfers on child development for the first three years of life, with the cash gifts set to be distributed for 40 months (3 years, 4 months). In response to the COVID-19 pandemic and the need to postpone in-person research activities, the cash transfers were extended for an additional year, through 52 months (4 years, 4 months), enabling us to postpone in-person direct child assessments to age 4. In planning future data collection waves and fundraising for another cash transfer extension for the study families, we were able to inform the study participants in August 2022 about an additional 2-year extension of cash transfers lasting to 76 months (6 years, 4 months). Interviews conducted at child ages 1, 2 and 3 are providing information about family functioning as well as several maternal reports of developmentally-appropriate measures of children's cognitive and behavioral development. The current analysis plan includes lab-based assessments at child age 4. Conditional on participants' consent and our success in securing agreements with state and county agencies, we are also collecting state and local administrative data regarding parental employment, utilization of public benefits such as Medicaid and Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Programs (SNAP), and any involvement in child protective services. (We have worked with state and local officials to ensure to the extent feasible that our cash gifts are not considered countable income for the purposes of determining benefit levels from social assistance programs.) The compensation difference between families in the high and low cash gift groups will boost family incomes by $3,760 per year, an amount shown in the economics and developmental psychology literatures to be associated with socially significant and policy relevant improvements in children's school achievement. After accounting for likely attrition, our total sample size of 800 at age 4 years, divided 40/60 between high and low payment groups, provides sufficient statistical power to detect meaningful differences in cognitive, emotional and brain functioning, and key dimensions of family context (see below). At the age 4 lab visit we will administer validated, reliable and developmentally sensitive measures of language, executive functioning and socioemotional skills. We will also collect direct EEG- and ERP-based measures of young children's brain development at age 4. Measures and preregistered hypotheses about them as well as family-based measures are shown in the two tables at the end of this document. Child-focused preregistered hypotheses are presented in Appendix Table 7 and maternal and family focused preregistered hypotheses are presented in Appendix Table 8. The family process measures that we will gather are based on two theories of change surrounding the income supplements: that increased investment and reduced stress will facilitate children's healthy development. We are obtaining measures of both of these pathways annually. Investment pathway: Additional resources enable parents to buy goods and services for their families and children that support cognitive development. These include higher quality housing, nutrition and non-parental child care; more cognitively stimulating home environments and learning opportunities outside of the home; and, by reducing or restructuring work hours, more parental time spent with children. Stress pathway: A second pathway is that additional economic resources may reduce parents' own stress and improve their mental health. This may allow parents to devote more positive attention to their children, thus providing a more predictable family life, less conflicted relationships, and warmer and more responsive interactions.

Official Title
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Household Income and Child Development in the First Three Years of Life

Conditions
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Child Development, Brain Development, Household and Family Processes

Intervention / Treatment
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* Behavioral: Monthly cash gift payments of $333
* Behavioral: Monthly cash gift payments of $20


Participation Criteria
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Eligibility Criteria
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Inclusion Criteria: mother 18 years or older; household income below the federal poverty threshold in the calendar year prior to the interview, counting the newborn; infant admitted to the newborn nursery and not requiring admittance to the intensive care unit; residence in the state of recruitment; mother not highly likely to move to a different state or country in the next 12 months; infant to be discharged in the custody of the mother; English or Spanish speaking (necessary for administration of instruments used to measure some of the child outcomes) Exclusion Criteria: Mothers will not be eligible unless all of the above seven criteria are met.

Ages Eligible for Study
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Minimum Age: 18 Years

Sexes Eligible for Study
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Female

Accepts Healthy Volunteers
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No

Study Plan
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How is the study designed?
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Design Details

Primary Purpose: Basic Science
Allocation: Randomized
Intervention Model: Parallel Assignment
Interventional Model Description: Parallel assignment
Masking: Single


Arms and Interventions

| Participant Group/Arm | Intervention/Treatment |
| --- | --- |
| Experimental: Monthly cash gift payments of $333<br>These subjects receive $333 each month for 76 months via debit card. | Behavioral: Monthly cash gift payments of $333<br>* These subjects receive $333 each month for 76 months via debit card.<br>|
| Active Comparator: Monthly cash gift payments of $20<br>These subjects receive $20 each month for 76 months via debit card. | Behavioral: Monthly cash gift payments of $20<br>* These subjects receive $20 each month for 76 months via debit card.<br>|

What is the study measuring?
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Primary Outcome Measures

| Outcome Measure | Measure Description | Time Frame |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Child Language Development: Vocabulary | Measured by Receptive One Word Picture Vocabulary Test (ROWPVT). Minimum raw value: 0; Maximum raw value: 111. Higher score indicates a better outcome. References: Martin, N. A., & Brownell, R. (2011). ROWPVT-4: Receptive One-Word Picture Vocabulary Test. | Age 48 months | 
| Child Language Development: Maternal Concern for Language Delay | Measured by the sum of the two questions listed below included in the Parents' Evaluation of Developmental Status (PEDS): Do you have any concerns about how your child talks and makes speech sounds? (0: No; 1: Yes or a little) Do you have any concerns about how your child understands what you say? (0: No; 1: Yes or a little). Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 2. Higher score indicates worse outcome. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child Language Development outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Glascoe FP. Parents' Evaluations of Developmental Status: A Method for Detecting and Addressing Developmental and Behavioral Problems in Children. Nashville, TN: Ellsworth & Vandermeer Press, 1997. | Age 36 months | 
| Child Executive Function & Behavioral Regulation: Executive Function | Executive Function measured by Minnesota Executive Function Scale. Minimum score: 60; Maximum score: 140. Higher score indicates a better outcome. Reference: Carlson, S.M. (2017). Minnesota Executive Function Scale: Technical report. Carlson, S. M., & Zelazo, P. D. (2014). Minnesota Executive Function Scale: Test Manual. St. Paul, MN: Reflection Sciences, Inc. | Age 48 months | 
| Child Socio-Emotional Processing: Behavior/Problems | Behavior/Problems measured by Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 82. Higher score indicates a better outcome. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child Socio-Emotional Processing outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Achenbach, T. M., & Ruffle, T. M. (2000). The Child Behavior Checklist and related forms for assessing behavioral/emotional problems and competencies. Pediatrics in review, 21(8), 265-271. | Age 36 months | 
| Child Socio-Emotional Processing: Behavior/Problems | Behavior/Problems measured by Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 82. Higher score indicates a better outcome. Reference: Achenbach, T. M., & Ruffle, T. M. (2000). The Child Behavior Checklist and related forms for assessing behavioral/emotional problems and competencies. Pediatrics in review, 21(8), 265-271. | Age 48 months | 
| Child Socio-Emotional Processing: Maternal Concern for Behavioral and Social-Emotional Problems | Measured by the sum of the two questions listed below, which are part of the Parents' Evaluation of Developmental Status (PEDS): Do you have any concerns about how your child behaves? (0: No; 1: Yes or a little) Do you have any concerns about how your child gets along with others? (0: No; 1: Yes or a little). Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 2. Higher score indicates worse outcome. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child Socio-Emotional Processing outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Glascoe FP. Parents' Evaluations of Developmental Status: A Method for Detecting and Addressing Developmental and Behavioral Problems in Children. Nashville, TN: Ellsworth & Vandermeer Press, 1997. | Age 36 months | 
| Child Brain Function: Resting Brain Function | Measured by high-density in-lab electroencephalography (see attached analysis plan for more details). Because of limitations in power expected with multiple testing adjustments, we are preregistering a single composite of mid-to-high-frequency whole-brain power summing across alpha, beta, and gamma bands, from 7 to 45 Hz. References: Tomalski, P., et al. (2013); Otero, G. A., et. al (2003); Marshall, P. J., et.al. (2004) Troller-Renfree, S. V., et. al. (2022). The impact of a poverty reduction intervention on infant brain activity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 119(5). | Age 48 months | 
| Child Health, Sleep | Measured by an adapted Short Form of Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS™). Minimum score: 3; Maximum score: 15. Higher score indicates a better outcome. Reference: Yu, L., Buysse, D. J., Germain, A., Moul, D. E., Stover, A., Dodds, N. E., ... & Pilkonis, P. A. (2012). Development of short forms from the PROMIS™ sleep disturbance and sleep-related impairment item banks. Behavioral sleep medicine, 10(1), 6-24. | Age 36 months | 
| Child Health, Overall Health, Medical Care, Diagnosis of Condition or Disability | Measured by an index of six items (see Appendix Table 7 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). Minimum score: 3; Maximum score: 14. Higher score indicates a worse outcome. Reference: Halim, M. L., Yoshikawa, H., & Amodio, D. M. (2013). Cross-generational effects of discrimination among immigrant mothers: Perceived discrimination predicts child's healthcare visits for illness. Health Psychology, 32(2), 203. | Age 36 months | 
| School Achievement and Behavior: School Test Scores for Target Child | Measured by administrative data of target child's test scores. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the School Achievement and Behavior outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). | Starting at child age 6 years | 

Secondary Outcome Measures

| Outcome Measure | Measure Description | Time Frame |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Child Language Development: Language Milestones | Language Milestones measured by Ages and Stages Questionnaire (ASQ)- Communication Subscale. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child Language Development outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Squires, J., Bricker, D. D., & Twombly, E. (2009). Ages & stages questionnaires. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. | Age 12 months | 
| Child Language Development: Vocabulary | Communicative Development measured by Short Form Versions of MacArthur Communicative Development Inventories. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child Language Development outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Fenson, L. (2000). Short-form versions of the MacArthur Communicative Development Inventories. Applied Psycholinguistics, 21, 95 - 116. | Age 24 months | 
| Child Executive Function: Executive Function | Measured by the pencil tap test. This item was dropped on September 13, 2022, due to evidence of floor effects, and consistent reports from research staff that children were not understanding the instructions. Minimum value: 0; Maximum value: 16. Higher score indicates a better outcome. References: Diamond, A., & Taylor, C. (1996). Development of an aspect of executive control: development of the abilities to remember what I said and to do as I say, not as I do. Developmental psychobiology, 29(4), 315-334. | Age 48 months | 
| Child Socio-Emotional Processing: Behavior | Behavior measured by NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development Mother-Child Interaction Task (positive/negative mood, activity level, sustained attention, positive engagement). (Due to funding limitations, this was not feasible to code, and we have no immediate plans to do so). Reference: Griffin, J. A., et al. (2007). NICHD Study of Early Childcare and Youth Development. National Institute of Health. Adapted script from mother-child-interaction at 15 months. | Age 12 months | 
| Child Socio-Emotional Processing: Problems | Problems measured by Brief Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment (BITSEA)- Problem Scale. Reference: Briggs-Gowan, M. J., Carter, A. S., Irwin, J. R., Wachtel, K., & Cicchetti, D. V. (2004). The Brief Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment: screening for social-emotional problems and delays in competence. Journal of pediatric psychology, 29(2), 143-155. | Age 12 months | 
| Child Socio-Emotional Processing: Problems | Problems measured by Brief Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment (BITSEA). We will estimate the statistical significance of the family of related measures in the Child Socio-Emotional Processing outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Briggs-Gowan, et al. (2004). The Brief Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment: screening for social-emotional problems and delays in competence. Journal of pediatric psychology, 29(2), 143-155. | Age 24 months | 
| Child Pre-Literacy | Pre-Literacy measured by The Reading House. Minimum value: 0; Maximum value: 14. Higher score indicates a better outcome. Reference: Hutton, et al. (2019). The Reading House: A Children's Book for Emergent Literacy Screening During Well-Child Visits. Pediatrics, 143 (6): e20183843. 10.1542/peds.2018-3843 Hutton et al. (2021). Validation of The Reading House and Association With Cortical Thickness. Pediatrics, 147(3), e20201641. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2020-1641 | Age 48 months | 
| Child Intelligence Quotient | Measured by the Wechsler Nonverbal Scale of Ability. Modified on September 30, 2022 to no longer measure child IQ, as described below. Minimum score: 10; Maximum score: 90. Higher score indicates a better outcome. Note: The IQ score is calculated using two subtests -- Matrices and Recognition -- and we began our fieldwork on July 9, 2022 with both. On the basis of preliminary analysis of the first 71 cases, we discovered that 21% of participants scored at the floor of the Recognition assessment. We therefore dropped the Recognition subtest from our data collection instrument on September 30 2022, precluding us from calculating IQ in subsequent participants. Scores on the Matrices subtest, which measures visual processing and abstract spatial perception (not IQ per se), are now registered as an age-4 secondary outcome. Reference: Wechsler, D., Naglieri, J. A. (2006). Wechsler Nonverbal Scale of Ability. San Antonio, TX: Pearson. | Age 48 months | 
| Child Resting Brain Function | Measured by EEG We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child Brain Function outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). References: Tomalski, P., Moore, D. G., Ribeiro, H., Axelsson, E. L., Murphy, E., Karmiloff-Smith, A., ... & Kushnerenko, E. (2013). Socioeconomic status and functional brain development-associations in early infancy. Developmental Science, 16(5), 676-687. Otero, G. A., Pliego-Rivero, F. B., Fernández, T., & Ricardo, J. E. E. G. (2003). EEG development in children with sociocultural disadvantages: a follow-up study. Clinical neurophysiology, 114(10), 1918-1925. Marshall, P. J., Fox, N. A., & Group, B. C. (2004). A comparison of the electroencephalogram between institutionalized and community children in Romania. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 16(8), 1327-1338. | Age 12 months | 
| Child Resting Brain Function | Measured by EEG. We hypothesize greater frontal gamma power in the high-cash gift group, and plan to analyze a full model of regions nested within bands, with the plan to report all exploratory outcomes. See analysis plan. References: Tomalski, P., et al. (2013); Otero, G. A., et. al (2003); Marshall, P. J., et.al. (2004) Troller-Renfree, S. V., et. al. (2022). The impact of a poverty reduction intervention on infant brain activity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 119(5). | Age 48 months | 
| Child Task-Related Brain Function | Auditory Discrimination Brain Function measured by mismatch negativity (MMN) ERP with larger differences between standard and deviant stimulus in high-cash gift group compared to the low-cash gift group. References: Cheour, M., Leppänen, P. H., & Kraus, N. (2000). Mismatch negativity (MMN) as a tool for investigating auditory discrimination and sensory memory in infants and children. Clinical neurophysiology, 111(1), 4-16. Garcia-Sierra, A., et al.. (2011). Bilingual language learning: An ERP study relating early brain responses to speech, language input, and later word production. Journal of Phonetics, 39(4), 546-557. Kuhl, P. K., et al.. (2005). Links between social and linguistic processing of speech in preschool children with autism: behavioral and electrophysiological measures. Developmental science, 8(1), F1-F12. | Age 48 months | 
| Child Health: Body Mass Index (BMI) | Measured by CDC BMI percentage scales. Reference: Kuczmarski, R. J. (2000). CDC growth charts; United States. | Age 48 months | 
| Child Health, Physiological Stress | Measured by hair cortisol concentration. Note: Our original plan was to measure physiological stress using hair cortisol concentration. The first several months of data collection revealed large racial and ethnic differences in willingness to provide a hair sample, due to both cultural and practical reasons. Because of the large amounts of non-random missing data, which would both compromise our statistical power and limit the generalizability of any findings, we dropped hair cortisol from our data collection procedures on October 25, 2022. Reference: Ursache, A., Merz, E. C., Melvin, S., Meyer, J., & Noble, K. G. (2017). Socioeconomic status, hair cortisol and internalizing symptoms in parents and children. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 78, 142-150. | Age 48 months | 
| Child Health, Sleep | Measured by an adapted Short Form of Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS™) Minimum score: 4; Maximum score: 20. Higher score indicates a better outcome. Reference: Yu, L., Buysse, D. J., Germain, A., Moul, D. E., Stover, A., Dodds, N. E., ... & Pilkonis, P. A. (2012). Development of short forms from the PROMIS™ sleep disturbance and sleep-related impairment item banks. Behavioral sleep medicine, 10(1), 6-24. | Age 12 Months | 
| Child Health, Sleep | Measured by an adapted Short Form of Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS™) Minimum score: 4; Maximum score: 20. Higher score indicates a better outcome. Reference: Yu, L., Buysse, D. J., Germain, A., Moul, D. E., Stover, A., Dodds, N. E., ... & Pilkonis, P. A. (2012). Development of short forms from the PROMIS™ sleep disturbance and sleep-related impairment item banks. Behavioral sleep medicine, 10(1), 6-24. | Age 24 months | 
| Child Health, Overall Health, Medical Care, Diagnosis of Condition or Disability | Measured by an index of six items (see Appendix Table 7 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items) Reference: Halim, M. L., Yoshikawa, H., & Amodio, D. M. (2013). Cross-generational effects of discrimination among immigrant mothers: Perceived discrimination predicts child's healthcare visits for illness. Health Psychology, 32(2), 203. | Age 12 months | 
| Child Health, Overall Health, Medical Care, Diagnosis of Condition or Disability | Measured by an index of six items (see Appendix Table 7 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items) Reference: Halim, M. L., Yoshikawa, H., & Amodio, D. M. (2013). Cross-generational effects of discrimination among immigrant mothers: Perceived discrimination predicts child's healthcare visits for illness. Health Psychology, 32(2), 203. | Age 24 months | 
| Child Health, Overall Health, Diagnosis of Condition or Disability | Measured by an index of survey items (see Appendix Table 7 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). Reference: Idler, E. L., & Benyamini, Y. (1997). Self-rated health and mortality: a review of twenty-seven community studies. Journal of health and social behavior, 21-37 | Age 48 months | 
| Child Epigenetic Pace of Aging | Measured using method reported in Appendix Table 7 in Analysis Plan and Measures document. Reference: Belsky, W. D. et al. (2020). Quantification of the pace of biological aging in humans through blood test, the DunedinPoAm DNA methylation algorithm. eLife 9:e54870. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.54870 Belsky, W. D. et al. (2022). DunedinPACE, a DNA methylation biomarker of the pace of aging. eLife 11:e73420. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.73420 | Age 48 months | 
| Child DNA Methylation | Measured using method reported in Appendix Table 7 in Analysis Plan and Measures document. Reference: McCartney, D.L., Hillary, R.F., Conole, E.L.S. et al. Blood-based epigenome-wide analyses of cognitive abilities. Genome Biol 23, 26 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13059-021-02596-5 | Age 48 months | 
| Child Nutrition: Consumption of Healthy Foods | Measured by an index of survey items (see Appendix Table 7 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). Reference: Los Angeles County WIC Survey. (2017). Retrievable from: http://lawicdata.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/WIC-Parents-Quex-English-FINAL.pdf | Age 24 months | 
| Child Nutrition: Consumption of Unhealthy Foods | Measured by an index of survey items (see Appendix Table 7 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). Reference: Los Angeles County WIC Survey. (2017). Retrievable from: http://lawicdata.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/WIC-Parents-Quex-English-FINAL.pdf | Age 24 months | 
| Any Maternal Concern for Developmental Delay: Total Predictive Concerns in the Parents' Evaluation of Developmental Status (PEDS) | Measured by the total number of maternal-reported concerns that are predictive of developmental delay in the Parents' Evaluation of Developmental Status (PEDS). Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 5. Higher score indicates worse outcome. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Any Maternal Concern for Developmental Delay outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Glascoe FP. Parents' Evaluations of Developmental Status: A Method for Detecting and Addressing Developmental and Behavioral Problems in Children. Nashville, TN: Ellsworth & Vandermeer Press, 1997. | Age 36 months | 
| Any Maternal Concern for Developmental Delay: Parents' Evaluation of Developmental Status (PEDS) | Measured by the total score across categories of components of the Parents' Evaluation of Developmental Status (PEDS), which includes 10 survey items. Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 10. Higher score indicates worse outcome. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Any Maternal Concern for Developmental Delay outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Glascoe FP. Parents' Evaluations of Developmental Status: A Method for Detecting and Addressing Developmental and Behavioral Problems in Children. Nashville, TN: Ellsworth & Vandermeer Press, 1997. | Age 36 months | 
| Diagnosis of Developmental Condition | Measured by one dichotomous survey item (see Appendix Table 7 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 1. Higher score indicates a worse outcome. Reference: Study PIs | Age 48 months | 
| School Achievement and Behavior: School Test Scores for Target Child's Siblings | Measured by administrative data. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child School Achievement and Behavior outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). | Starting at child age 6 years | 
| School Achievement and Behavior: Student Behavioral Data for Target Child | Measured by administrative data. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child School Achievement and Behavior outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). | Starting at child age 6 years | 
| School Achievement and Behavior: Student Behavioral Data for Target Child's Siblings | Measured by administrative data. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child School Achievement and Behavior outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). | Starting at child age 6 years | 
| Household Economic Hardship: Household Poverty Rate | Household Poverty Rate measured using the Census Bureau's Poverty thresholds by Size of Family and Number of Children. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Household Economic Hardship outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: US Census Bureau | Age 12 months | 
| Household Economic Hardship: Index of Economic Stress | Index of Economic Stress measured by an additive index of nine items (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Household Economic Hardship outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119. | Age 12 months | 
| Household Economic Hardship: Index of Food Insecurity | Index of Food Insecurity measured by the U.S. Household Food Security Survey Module: Six-Item Short Form. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Household Economic Hardship outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: The the U.S. Household Food Security Survey Module: Six-Item Short Form retrieved from: https://www.ers.usda.gov/media/8282/short2012.pdf | Age 12 months | 
| Household Economic Hardship: Index of Economic Stress | Index of Economic Stress measured by an additive index of nine items (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Household Economic Hardship outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119. | Age 24 months | 
| Household Economic Hardship: Household Poverty Rate | Household Poverty Rate measured using the Census Bureau's Poverty thresholds by Size of Family and Number of Children. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Household Economic Hardship outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: US Census Bureau | Age 24 months | 
| Household Economic Hardship: Index of Food Insecurity | Index of Food Insecurity measured by the U.S. Household Food Security Survey Module: Six-Item Short Form. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Household Economic Hardship outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: The the U.S. Household Food Security Survey Module: Six-Item Short Form retrieved from: https://www.ers.usda.gov/media/8282/short2012.pdf | Age 24 months | 
| Household Economic Hardship: Index of Economic Stress | Index of Economic Stress measured by an additive index of nine items (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 9. Higher score indicates worse outcome. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Household Economic Hardship outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119. | Age 36 months | 
| Household Economic Hardship: Household Poverty Rate | Household Poverty Rate measured using the Census Bureau's Poverty thresholds by Size of Family and Number of Children. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Household Economic Hardship outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: US Census Bureau | Age 36 months | 
| Household Economic Hardship: Index of Food Insecurity | Index of Food Insecurity measured by the U.S. Household Food Security Survey Module: Six-Item Short Form. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Household Economic Hardship outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: The the U.S. Household Food Security Survey Module: Six-Item Short Form retrieved from: https://www.ers.usda.gov/media/8282/short2012.pdf | Age 36 months | 
| Household Economic Hardship: Household Poverty Rate | Household Poverty Rate measured using the Census Bureau's Poverty thresholds by Size of Family and Number of Children. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Household Economic Hardship outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: US Census Bureau | Age 48 months | 
| Household Economic Hardship: Index of Economic Stress | Index of Economic Stress measured by an additive index of nine items (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 9. Higher score indicates worse outcome. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Household Economic Hardship outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119. | Age 48 months | 
| Household Economic Hardship: Index of Food Insecurity | Index of Food Insecurity measured by the U.S. Household Food Security Survey Module: Six-Item Short Form. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Household Economic Hardship outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: The the U.S. Household Food Security Survey Module: Six-Item Short Form retrieved from: https://www.ers.usda.gov/media/8282/short2012.pdf | Age 48 months | 
| Social Services Receipt; Number of Benefits Received by Mother | Measured by an additive index of 9 items (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). Reference: study PIs | Age 12 months | 
| Social Services Receipt; Number of Benefits Received by Mother | Measured by an additive index of 9 items (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). Reference: study PIs | Age 24 months | 
| Social Services Receipt; Number of Benefits Received by Mother | Measured by an additive index of 9 items (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 5. Reference: study PIs | Age 36 months | 
| Mother's Labor Market and Education Participation: Time to Labor Market Re-entry From Birth | Time to Labor Market Re-entry from Birth measured by the number of months from child's birth until mother's reentry into the labor market (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Mother's Labor Market and Education Participation outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: study PIs | Age 12 months | 
| Mother's Labor Market and Education Participation: Time to Full-Time Labor Market Reentry From Birth | Time to Full-Time Labor Market Reentry from Birth measured by the number of months from child's birth until mother's full-time reentry into the labor market (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Mother's Labor Market and Education Participation outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: study PIs | Age 12 months | 
| Mother's Labor Market and Education Participation: Mother's Education and Training Attainment | Mother's Education and Training Attainment measured by a survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Mother's Labor Market and Education Participation outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: study PIs | Age 12 months | 
| Mother's Labor Market and Education Participation: Mother's Education and Training Attainment | Mother's Education and Training Attainment measured by a survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Mother's Labor Market and Education Participation outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: study PIs | Age 24 months | 
| Mother's Labor Market and Education Participation: Mother's Education and Training Attainment | Mother's Education and Training Attainment measured by a survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 1. Higher score indicates better outcome. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Mother's Labor Market and Education Participation outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: study PIs | Age 36 months | 
| Mother's Labor Market and Education Participation: Mother's Labor Market Participation | Mother's Education and Training Attainment measured by a survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 1. Higher score indicates better outcome. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Mother's Labor Market and Education Participation outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: study PIs | Age 48 months | 
| Maternal Earnings | Mother's Earnings in the previous calendar year We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Mother's Labor Market and Education Participation outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) | Age 48 months | 
| Child-Focused Expenditures: Index of Expenditures Since Birth | Index of Child-Focused Expenditures since birth measured by an additive index of survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child-Focused Expenditures outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Lugo-Gil, J., Yoshikawa, H. (2006). Assessing expenditures on children in low-income, ethnically diverse, and immigrant families. National Poverty Center Working Paper Series, 06-36. National Study of Early Care and Education | Age 12 months | 
| Child-Focused Expenditures: Index of Expenditures in Past 30 Days | Index of Expenditures in past 30 days measured by a dollar amount sum of responses to survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child-Focused Expenditures outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Lugo-Gil, J., Yoshikawa, H. (2006). Assessing expenditures on children in low-income, ethnically diverse, and immigrant families. National Poverty Center Working Paper Series, 06-36. National Study of Early Care and Education | Age 12 months | 
| Child-Focused Expenditures: Index of Expenditures in Past 30 Days | Index of Expenditures in past 30 days measured by a dollar amount sum of responses to survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child-Focused Expenditures outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Lugo-Gil, J., Yoshikawa, H. (2006). Assessing expenditures on children in low-income, ethnically diverse, and immigrant families. National Poverty Center Working Paper Series, 06-36. National Study of Early Care and Education | Age 24 months | 
| Child-Focused Expenditures: Index of Expenditures in Past 30 Days | Index of Expenditures in past 30 days measured by a dollar amount sum of responses to survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). Higher score indicates better outcome. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child-Focused Expenditures outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Lugo-Gil, J., Yoshikawa, H. (2006). Assessing expenditures on children in low-income, ethnically diverse, and immigrant families. National Poverty Center Working Paper Series, 06-36. National Study of Early Care and Education | Age 36 months | 
| Child-Focused Expenditures: Index of Expenditures in Past 30 Days | Index of Expenditures in past 30 days measured by a dollar amount sum of responses to survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child-Focused Expenditures outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Lugo-Gil, J., Yoshikawa, H. (2006). Assessing expenditures on children in low-income, ethnically diverse, and immigrant families. National Poverty Center Working Paper Series, 06-36. National Study of Early Care and Education | Age 48 months | 
| Child-Focused Expenditures: Cost of Paid Child Care | Cost of Paid Child Care measured by survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child-Focused Expenditures outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Lugo-Gil, J., Yoshikawa, H. (2006). Assessing expenditures on children in low-income, ethnically diverse, and immigrant families. National Poverty Center Working Paper Series, 06-36. National Study of Early Care and Education | Age 12 months | 
| Child-Focused Expenditures: Cost of Paid Child Care | Cost of Paid Child Care measured by survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child-Focused Expenditures outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Lugo-Gil, J., Yoshikawa, H. (2006). Assessing expenditures on children in low-income, ethnically diverse, and immigrant families. National Poverty Center Working Paper Series, 06-36. National Study of Early Care and Education | Age 24 months | 
| Child-Focused Expenditures: Cost of Paid Child Care | Cost of Paid Child Care measured by survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). Higher score indicates better outcome. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child-Focused Expenditures outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Lugo-Gil, J., Yoshikawa, H. (2006). Assessing expenditures on children in low-income, ethnically diverse, and immigrant families. National Poverty Center Working Paper Series, 06-36. National Study of Early Care and Education | Age 36 months | 
| Child-Focused Expenditures: Cost of Paid Child Care | Cost of Paid Child Care measured by survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). Higher score indicates better outcome. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child-Focused Expenditures outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Lugo-Gil, J., Yoshikawa, H. (2006). Assessing expenditures on children in low-income, ethnically diverse, and immigrant families. National Poverty Center Working Paper Series, 06-36. National Study of Early Care and Education | Age 48 months | 
| Child-Focused Expenditures: Use of Center-Based Care | Use of Center-Based Care measured by survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child-Focused Expenditures outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Lugo-Gil, J., Yoshikawa, H. (2006). Assessing expenditures on children in low-income, ethnically diverse, and immigrant families. National Poverty Center Working Paper Series, 06-36. National Study of Early Care and Education | Age 12 months | 
| Child-Focused Expenditures: Use of Center-Based Care | Use of Center-Based Care measured by survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child-Focused Expenditures outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Lugo-Gil, J., Yoshikawa, H. (2006). Assessing expenditures on children in low-income, ethnically diverse, and immigrant families. National Poverty Center Working Paper Series, 06-36. National Study of Early Care and Education | Age 24 months | 
| Child-Focused Expenditures: Use of Center-Based Care | Use of Center-Based Care measured by survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 1. Higher score indicates better outcome. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child-Focused Expenditures outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Lugo-Gil, J., Yoshikawa, H. (2006). Assessing expenditures on children in low-income, ethnically diverse, and immigrant families. National Poverty Center Working Paper Series, 06-36. National Study of Early Care and Education | Age 36 months | 
| Child-Focused Expenditures: Use of Center-Based Care | Use of Center-Based Care measured by survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 1. Higher score indicates better outcome. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child-Focused Expenditures outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Lugo-Gil, J., Yoshikawa, H. (2006). Assessing expenditures on children in low-income, ethnically diverse, and immigrant families. National Poverty Center Working Paper Series, 06-36. National Study of Early Care and Education | Age 48 months | 
| Housing and Neighborhoods: Index of Perceptions of Neighborhood Safety | Index of Perceptions of Neighborhood Safety measured by an additive index of survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Housing and Neighborhoods outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119. | Age 12 months | 
| Housing and Neighborhoods: Index of Perceptions of Neighborhood Safety | Index of Perceptions of Neighborhood Safety measured by an additive index of survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Housing and Neighborhoods outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119. | Age 24 months | 
| Housing and Neighborhoods: Index of Perceptions of Neighborhood Safety | Index of Perceptions of Neighborhood Safety measured by an additive index of survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 6. Higher score indicates a better outcome. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Housing and Neighborhoods outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119. | Age 36 months | 
| Housing and Neighborhoods: Index of Housing Quality | Index of Housing Quality measured by an additive index of survey items(see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Housing and Neighborhoods outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119. | Age 12 months | 
| Housing and Neighborhoods: Index of Housing Quality | Index of Housing Quality measured by an additive index of survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Housing and Neighborhoods outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119. | Age 24 months | 
| Housing and Neighborhoods: Excessive Residential Mobility | Excessive Residential Mobility measured by survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Housing and Neighborhoods outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119. | Age 12 months | 
| Housing and Neighborhoods: Excessive Residential Mobility | Excessive Residential Mobility measured by survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Housing and Neighborhoods outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119. | Age 24 months | 
| Housing and Neighborhoods: Excessive Residential Mobility | Excessive Residential Mobility measured by survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 1. Higher score indicates worse outcome. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Housing and Neighborhoods outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119. | Age 36 months | 
| Housing and Neighborhoods: Homelessness | Homelessness measured by survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Housing and Neighborhoods outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119. | Age 12 months | 
| Housing and Neighborhoods: Homelessness | Homelessness measured by survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Housing and Neighborhoods outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119. | Age 24 months | 
| Housing and Neighborhoods: Homelessness | Homelessness measured by survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 1. Higher score indicates worse outcome. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Housing and Neighborhoods outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119. | Age 36 months | 
| Housing and Neighborhoods: Homelessness | Homelessness measured by survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 1. Higher score indicates worse outcome. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Housing and Neighborhoods outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119. | Age 48 months | 
| Housing and Neighborhoods: Neighborhood Poverty | Neighborhood Poverty measured by the proportion of residents in the respondent's census tract that are below the poverty line, using census data. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Housing and Neighborhoods outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119. | Age 12 months | 
| Housing and Neighborhoods: Neighborhood Poverty | Neighborhood Poverty measured by the proportion of residents in the respondent's census tract that are below the poverty line, using census data. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Housing and Neighborhoods outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119. | Age 24 months | 
| Housing and Neighborhoods: Neighborhood Poverty | Neighborhood Poverty measured by the proportion of residents in the respondent's census tract that are below the poverty line, using census data. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Housing and Neighborhoods outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119. | Age 36 months | 
| Housing and Neighborhoods: Neighborhood Poverty | Neighborhood Poverty measured by the proportion of residents in the respondent's census tract that are below the poverty line, using census data. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Housing and Neighborhoods outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119. | Age 48 months | 
| Family and Maternal Perceived Stress: Perceived Stress | Perceived Stress measured by the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS). We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Family and Maternal Perceived Stress outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1994). Perceived stress scale. Measuring stress: A guide for health and social scientists. | Age 12 months | 
| Family and Maternal Perceived Stress: Parenting Stress | Parenting Stress measured by the Aggravation in Parenting Scale. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Family and Maternal Perceived Stress outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: The Child Development Supplement to the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, retrieved from https://psidonline.isr.umich.edu/cds/cdsi_usergd.pdf | Age 12 months | 
| Family and Maternal Perceived Stress: Perceived Stress | Perceived Stress measured by the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS). We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Family and Maternal Perceived Stress outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1994). Perceived stress scale. Measuring stress: A guide for health and social scientists. | Age 24 months | 
| Family and Maternal Perceived Stress: Parenting Stress | Parenting Stress measured by the Aggravation in Parenting Scale. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Family and Maternal Perceived Stress outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: The Child Development Supplement to the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, retrieved from https://psidonline.isr.umich.edu/cds/cdsi_usergd.pdf | Age 24 months | 
| Family and Maternal Perceived Stress: Perceived Stress | Perceived Stress measured by the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS). Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 32. Higher score indicates worse outcome. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Family and Maternal Perceived Stress outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1994). Perceived stress scale. Measuring stress: A guide for health and social scientists. | Age 36 months | 
| Family and Maternal Perceived Stress: Parenting Stress | Parenting Stress measured by the Aggravation in Parenting Scale. Note: Index dropped from age 4 survey owing to time constraints Reference: The Child Development Supplement to the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, retrieved from https://psidonline.isr.umich.edu/cds/cdsi_usergd.pdf | Age 48 months | 
| Maternal Happiness and Optimism: Global Happiness | Global Happiness measured by survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Happiness and Optimism outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: The General Social Survey from NORC at the University of Chicago, retrieved from: http://gss.norc.org/Get-Documentation/questionnaires | Age 12 months | 
| Maternal Happiness and Optimism: Global Happiness | Global Happiness measured by survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Happiness and Optimism outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: The General Social Survey from NORC at the University of Chicago, retrieved from: http://gss.norc.org/Get-Documentation/questionnaires | Age 24 months | 
| Maternal Happiness and Optimism: Global Happiness | Global Happiness measured by survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). Minimum score: 1; Maximum score: 3. Higher score indicates better outcome. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Happiness and Optimism outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: The General Social Survey from NORC at the University of Chicago, retrieved from: http://gss.norc.org/Get-Documentation/questionnaires | Age 36 months | 
| Maternal Happiness and Optimism: Optimism | Optimism measured by the HOPE Scale. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Happiness and Optimism outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Snyder, C.R., Harris, C., Anderson, J.R., Holleran, S.A., Irving, L.M., Sigmon, S.T., Yoshinobu, L., Gibb, J., Langelle, C., Harney, P. (1991). The will and the ways: development and validation of an individual-differences measure of hope. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(4), 570-585. | Age 12 months | 
| Maternal Happiness and Optimism: Optimism | Optimism measured by the HOPE Scale. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Happiness and Optimism outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Snyder, C.R., Harris, C., Anderson, J.R., Holleran, S.A., Irving, L.M., Sigmon, S.T., Yoshinobu, L., Gibb, J., Langelle, C., Harney, P. (1991). The will and the ways: development and validation of an individual-differences measure of hope. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(4), 570-585. | Age 24 months | 
| Maternal Happiness and Optimism: Optimism | Optimism measured by the HOPE Scale. Minimum score: 10; Maximum score: 30. Higher score indicates better outcome. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Happiness and Optimism outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Snyder, C.R., Harris, C., Anderson, J.R., Holleran, S.A., Irving, L.M., Sigmon, S.T., Yoshinobu, L., Gibb, J., Langelle, C., Harney, P. (1991). The will and the ways: development and validation of an individual-differences measure of hope. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(4), 570-585. | Age 36 months | 
| Maternal Physiological Stress: Maternal Hair Cortisol | Measured by maternal hair cortisol. Reference: Ursache, A., Merz, E.C., Melvin, S., Meyer, J., Noble, K.G. (2017). Socioeconomic status, hair cortisol and internalizing symptoms in parents and children. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 78, 142-150. | Age 12 months | 
| Maternal Physiological Stress: Maternal Hair Cortisol | Measured by maternal hair cortisol. Note: Our original plan was to measure physiological stress using hair cortisol concentration. The first several months of data collection revealed large racial and ethnic differences in willingness to provide a hair sample, due to both cultural and practical reasons. Because of the large amounts of non-random missing data, which would both compromise our statistical power and limit the generalizability of any findings, we dropped hair cortisol from our data collection procedures on October 25, 2022. Reference: Ursache, A., Merz, E.C., Melvin, S., Meyer, J., Noble, K.G. (2017). Socioeconomic status, hair cortisol and internalizing symptoms in parents and children. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 78, 142-150. | Age 48 months | 
| Maternal Mental Resources: Maternal Cognitive Resources | Measured by the Minnesota Executive Function Scale. Minimum score: 60; Maximum score: 140. Higher score indicates a better outcome. Reference: Carlson, S. M., & Zelazo, P. D. (2014). Minnesota Executive Function Scale: Test Manual. St. Paul, MN: Reflection Sciences, Inc. Carlson, S. M. (2017). Minnesota Executive Function Scale: Technical Report, v. 2. St. Paul, MN: Reflection Sciences, Inc. | Age 48 months | 
| Maternal Mental Health: Index of Maternal Depression | Index of Maternal Depression measured by the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-8). Min value: 0; Max value: 24 Higher score indicates worse outcome. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Mental Health outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Kroenke, K. & Spitzer, R.L. (2002). The PHQ-9: a new depression diagnostic and severity measure. Psychiatric annals, 32(9), 509-515. | Age 12 months | 
| Maternal Mental Health: Index of Maternal Depression | Index of Maternal Depression measured by the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-8). Min value: 0; Max value: 24 Higher score indicates worse outcome. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Mental Health outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Kroenke, K. & Spitzer, R.L. (2002). The PHQ-9: a new depression diagnostic and severity measure. Psychiatric annals, 32(9), 509-515. | Age 24 months | 
| Maternal Mental Health: Index of Maternal Depression | Index of Maternal Depression measured by the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-8). Min value: 0; Max value: 24. Higher score indicates worse outcome. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Mental Health outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Kroenke, K. & Spitzer, R.L. (2002). The PHQ-9: a new depression diagnostic and severity measure. Psychiatric annals, 32(9), 509-515. | Age 36 months | 
| Maternal Mental Health: Index of Maternal Depression | Index of Maternal Depression measured by the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-8). Min value: 0; Max value: 24. Higher score indicates worse outcome. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Mental Health outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Kroenke, K. & Spitzer, R.L. (2002). The PHQ-9: a new depression diagnostic and severity measure. Psychiatric annals, 32(9), 509-515. | Age 48 months | 
| Maternal Mental Health: Index of Maternal Anxiety | Index of Maternal Anxiety measured by the Beck Anxiety Inventory. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Mental Health outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Steer, R.A. & Beck, A.T., (1997). Beck Anxiety Inventory. In C.P. Zalaquett & R.J. Wood (Eds), Evaluating stress: A book of resources (pp. 23-40). Lanham, MD, US: Scarecrow Education | Age 12 months | 
| Maternal Mental Health: Index of Maternal Anxiety | Index of Maternal Anxiety measured by the GAD-7. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Mental Health outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Spitzer RL, Kroenke K, Williams JBW, Löwe B. A Brief Measure for Assessing Generalized Anxiety Disorder: The GAD-7. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166(10):1092-1097. doi:10.1001/archinte.166.10.1092 | Age 24 months | 
| Maternal Mental Health: Index 1 of Maternal Anxiety | Index of Maternal Anxiety measured by the GAD-7. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Mental Health outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Spitzer RL, Kroenke K, Williams JBW, Löwe B. A Brief Measure for Assessing Generalized Anxiety Disorder: The GAD-7. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166(10):1092-1097. doi:10.1001/archinte.166.10.1092 | Age 36 months | 
| Maternal Mental Health: Index 2 of Maternal Anxiety | Index of Maternal Anxiety measured by the Beck Anxiety Inventory. Min value: 0; Max value: 44. Higher score indicates worse outcome. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Mental Health outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Steer, R.A. & Beck, A.T., (1997). Beck Anxiety Inventory. In C.P. Zalaquett & R.J. Wood (Eds), Evaluating stress: A book of resources (pp. 23-40). Lanham, MD, US: Scarecrow Education | Age 36 months | 
| Maternal Mental Health: Index of Maternal Anxiety | Index of Maternal Anxiety measured by the GAD-7. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Mental Health outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Spitzer RL, Kroenke K, Williams JBW, Löwe B. A Brief Measure for Assessing Generalized Anxiety Disorder: The GAD-7. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166(10):1092-1097. doi:10.1001/archinte.166.10.1092 | Age 48 months | 
| Maternal Substance Abuse: Alcohol and Cigarette Use | Alcohol and Cigarette Use measured by an additive index of survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Substance Abuse outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119. | Age 12 months | 
| Maternal Substance Abuse: Alcohol and Cigarette Use | Alcohol and Cigarette Use measured by an additive index of survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 8. Higher score indicates worse outcome. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Substance Abuse outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119. | Age 36 months | 
| Maternal Substance Abuse: Opioid Use | Opioid Use measured by a survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for item). We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Substance Abuse outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119. | Age 12 months | 
| Maternal Substance Abuse: Opioid Use | Opioid Use measured by a survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for item). Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 4. Higher score indicates worse outcome. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Substance Abuse outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119. | Age 36 months | 
| Chaos in the Home: Index of Chaos in the Home | Measured by the Home Environment Chaos Scale. Reference: Evans, G.W., Gonnella, C., Marcynyszyn, L.A., Gentile, L, & Salpekar, N. (2005). The role of chaos in poverty and children's socioemotional adjustment. Psychological Science, 16(7), 560-565. | Age 12 months | 
| Chaos in the Home: Index of Chaos in the Home | Measured by the Home Environment Chaos Scale. Reference: Evans, G.W., Gonnella, C., Marcynyszyn, L.A., Gentile, L, & Salpekar, N. (2005). The role of chaos in poverty and children's socioemotional adjustment. Psychological Science, 16(7), 560-565. | Age 24 months | 
| Maternal Relationships: Physical Abuse | Measured by a survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for item). We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Relationships outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: User's Guide for the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study Public Data, Year 3. (2018). Retrieved from: https://fragilefamilies.princeton.edu/sites/fragilefamilies/files/year_3_guide.pdf | Age 12 months | 
| Maternal Relationships: Physical Abuse | Measured by a survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for item). We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Relationships outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: User's Guide for the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study Public Data, Year 3. (2018). Retrieved from: https://fragilefamilies.princeton.edu/sites/fragilefamilies/files/year_3_guide.pdf | Age 24 months | 
| Maternal Relationships: Frequency of Arguing | Measured by a survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for item). We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Relationships outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: User's Guide for the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study Public Data, Year 3. (2018). Retrieved from: https://fragilefamilies.princeton.edu/sites/fragilefamilies/files/year_3_guide.pdf | Age 12 months | 
| Maternal Relationships: Frequency of Arguing | Measured by a survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for item). We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Relationships outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: User's Guide for the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study Public Data, Year 3. (2018). Retrieved from: https://fragilefamilies.princeton.edu/sites/fragilefamilies/files/year_3_guide.pdf | Age 24 months | 
| Maternal Relationships: Relationship Quality | Measured by an additive index of survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Relationships outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: User's Guide for the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study Public Data, Year 3. (2018). Retrieved from: https://fragilefamilies.princeton.edu/sites/fragilefamilies/files/year_3_guide.pdf | Age 12 months | 
| Maternal Relationships: Relationship Quality | Measured by a dichotomous indicator generated from an additive index of survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items and cutoff point for high or low quality). We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Relationships outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: User's Guide for the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study Public Data, Year 3. (2018). Retrieved from: https://fragilefamilies.princeton.edu/sites/fragilefamilies/files/year_3_guide.pdf | Age 24 months | 
| Maternal Relationships: Relationship Quality | Measured by a dichotomous indicator generated from an additive index of survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items and cutoff point for high or low quality). Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 1. Higher score indicates worse outcome. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Relationships outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: User's Guide for the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study Public Data, Year 3. (2018). Retrieved from: https://fragilefamilies.princeton.edu/sites/fragilefamilies/files/year_3_guide.pdf | Age 36 months | 
| Maternal Physical Health: Global Health | Global Health measured by one survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Physical Health outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Idler, E. L., & Benyamini, Y. (1997). Self-rated health and mortality: a review of twenty-seven community studies. Journal of health and social behavior, 21-37. | Age 12 months | 
| Maternal Physical Health: Global Health | Global Health measured by one survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Physical Health outcome measured during the same wave cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Idler, E. L., & Benyamini, Y. (1997). Self-rated health and mortality: a review of twenty-seven community studies. Journal of health and social behavior, 21-37. | Age 24 months | 
| Maternal Physical Health: Sleep | Sleep measured by an additive index of survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). Minimum score: 4; Maximum score: 20. Higher score indicates a better outcome. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Physical Health outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119. | Age 12 months | 
| Maternal Physical Health: Sleep | Sleep measured by an additive index of survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). Minimum score: 3; Maximum score: 15. Higher score indicates a better outcome. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Physical Health outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119. | Age 36 months | 
| Maternal Physical Health: Body Mass Index | Body Mass Index measured by Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) growth charts. Reference: Kuczmarski, R. J. (2000). CDC growth charts; United States. | Age 48 months | 
| Parent-Child Interaction Quality: Adult Word Count | Adult Word Count measured by LENA Processing Software. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Parent-Child Interaction Quality outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Xu, D., Yapanel, U., & Gray, S. (2009). Reliability of the LENA Language Environment Analysis System in young children's natural home environment. LENA Foundation. | Age 12 months | 
| Parent-Child Interaction Quality: Conversational Turns | Conversational Turns measured by LENA Processing Software. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Parent-Child Interaction Quality outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Xu, D., Yapanel, U., & Gray, S. (2009). Reliability of the LENA Language Environment Analysis System in young children's natural home environment. LENA Foundation. | Age 12 months | 
| Parent-Child Interaction Quality: Index of Mother's Positive Parenting Behaviors | Measured using PICCOLO coding of parenting behaviors from the total of four sub-scales (affection, responsiveness, encouragement and teaching) with responses ranging from 0: absent, 1: barely, 2: clearly. Parent child interaction task and script adapted from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Parent-Child Interaction Quality outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Roggman, et al. (2013). Observations Linked to Outcomes (PICCOLO) Of Diverse Ethnic Groups. Infant Mental Health Journal, 34(4), 290-306. Griffin, J. A., & Friedman, S. L. (2007). NICHD Study of Early Childcare and Youth Development. National Institute of Health Belsky, J., et al. (2007). Are there long-term effects of early child care?. Child development, 78(2), 681-701. | Age 12 months | 
| Parent-Child Interaction Quality: Index of Mother's Positive Parenting Behaviors | Measured using PICCOLO coding of parenting behaviors from the total of four sub-scales (affection, responsiveness, encouragement and teaching) with responses ranging from 0: absent, 1: barely, 2: clearly. Parent child interaction task and script adapted from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development. Reference: Roggman, et al. (2013). Observations Linked to Outcomes (PICCOLO) Of Diverse Ethnic Groups. Infant Mental Health Journal, 34(4), 290-306. Griffin, J. A., & Friedman, S. L. (2007). NICHD Study of Early Childcare and Youth Development. National Institute of Health Belsky, J., et al. (2007). Are there long-term effects of early child care?. Child development, 78(2), 681-701. | Age 48 months | 
| Maternal Epigenetic Pace of Aging | Measured using method reported in Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document. Reference: Belsky, W. D. et al. (2020). Quantification of the pace of biological aging in humans through blood test, the DunedinPoAm DNA methylation algorithm. eLife 9:e54870. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.54870 Belsky, W. D. et al. (2022). DunedinPACE, a DNA methylation biomarker of the pace of aging. eLife 11:e73420. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.73420 | Age 48 months | 
| Maternal DNA Methylation | Measured using method reported in Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document. Reference: McCartney, D.L., Hillary, R.F., Conole, E.L.S. et al. Blood-based epigenome-wide analyses of cognitive abilities. Genome Biol 23, 26 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13059-021-02596-5 | Age 48 months | 
| Frequency of Parent-Child Activity: Self-Report of Parent-Child Activities | Frequency of Parent-Child Activity measured by an additive index of survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). Reference: Rodriguez, E. T., & Tamis-LeMonda, C. S. (2011). Trajectories of the home learning environment across the first 5 years: Associations with children's vocabulary and literacy skills at prekindergarten. Child development, 82(4), 1058-1075. | Age 12 months | 
| Frequency of Parent-Child Activity: Self-Report of Parent-Child Activities | Frequency of Parent-Child Activity measured by an additive index of survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). Reference: Rodriguez, E. T., & Tamis-LeMonda, C. S. (2011). Trajectories of the home learning environment across the first 5 years: Associations with children's vocabulary and literacy skills at prekindergarten. Child development, 82(4), 1058-1075. | Age 24 months | 
| Frequency of Parent-Child Activity: Self-Report of Parent-Child Activities | Frequency of Parent-Child Activity measured by an additive index of survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). Minimum score: 4; Maximum score: 20. Higher score indicates better outcome. Reference: Rodriguez, E. T., & Tamis-LeMonda, C. S. (2011). Trajectories of the home learning environment across the first 5 years: Associations with children's vocabulary and literacy skills at prekindergarten. Child development, 82(4), 1058-1075. | Age 36 months | 
| Frequency of Parent-Child Activity: Time on Mother-Focal Child Activities | Frequency of Parent-Child Activity measured by an additive index of survey items where number of days spent doing activity is multiplied by the number of minutes reported doing activity per day (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). Higher score indicates better outcome. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Frequency of Parent-Child Activity outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Rodriguez, E. T., & Tamis-LeMonda, C. S. (2011). Trajectories of the home learning environment across the first 5 years: Associations with children's vocabulary and literacy skills at prekindergarten. Child development, 82(4), 1058-1075. | Age 48 months | 
| Frequency of Parent-Child Activity: Child Meal and Sleep Routine Index | Frequency of Parent-Child Activity measured by an additive index of survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). Minimum score: 0 Maximum score: 2. Higher score indicates better outcome. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Frequency of Parent-Child Activity outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Study PIs | Age 48 months | 
| Maternal Discipline: Spanking Discipline Strategy | Measured by a survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). Reference: Reichman, N.E., Teitler, J.O., Garfinkel, I., MclAnahan, S.S. (2001). Fragile Families: Sample and design. Children and Youth Services Review, 23(4-5), 303-326. | Age 12 months | 
| Maternal Discipline; Spanking Discipline Strategy | Measured by a survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). Reference: Reichman, N.E., Teitler, J.O., Garfinkel, I., MclAnahan, S.S. (2001). Fragile Families: Sample and design. Children and Youth Services Review, 23(4-5), 303-326. | Age 24 months | 
| Maternal Discipline; Spanking Discipline Strategy | Measured by a survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in Analysis Plan and Measures document for items). Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 1. Higher score indicates worse outcome. Reference: Reichman, N.E., Teitler, J.O., Garfinkel, I., MclAnahan, S.S. (2001). Fragile Families: Sample and design. Children and Youth Services Review, 23(4-5), 303-326. | Age 36 months | 

 Terms related to the study
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Keywords Provided by Centre Hospitalier Valida
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Poverty, Income, Child Development, Brain Development