സംവാദം:സംസ്കൃതം

message: ഈ വിഷയത്തിൽ വൈദഗ്ദ്ധ്യമുള്ള,പുതുതായി വിക്കിപീഡിയയിൽ എത്തിയ ഒരു ഉപഭോക്താവിനുവേണ്ടി തൽക്കാലം ഈ പേജ് ഈ അവസ്ഥയിൽ വെച്ചിരിക്കുന്നു. ഒരാഴ്ചക്കുള്ളിൽ ഇത് തിരുത്തി ഭേദപ്പെട്ട രീതിയിൽ ആക്കും 
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message: മറ്റു *വർണ്ണങ്ങളുടെ സഹായമില്ലാതെ, സ്വതന്ത്രമായി ഉച്ചരിക്കാവുന്ന വർണ്ണത്തെ “സ്വരം”
എന്നു പറയുന്നു. 
ഉദാഹരണം: അ, ഈ, ഉ.തുടങ്ങിയവ.
ഉച്ചാരണത്തിന്നെടുക്കുന്ന സമയത്തിന്റെ അടിസ്ഥാനത്തിൽ സ്വരങ്ങളെ മൂന്നായി തിരിച്ചിട്ടുണ്ട്.
1. ഹ്രസ്വസ്വരങ്ങൾ: ഉച്ചാരണത്തിന് ഒരുമാത്ര മതിയാവുന്ന സ്വരങ്ങൾ.  അ, ഇ, ഉ, ഋ, ഌ.
2. ദീർഘസ്വരങ്ങൾ: ഉച്ചാരണത്തിന്‌ രണ്ടുമാത്ര വേണ്ടിവരുന്ന സ്വരങ്ങൾ. ആ,ഈ, ഊ, ൠ, ഏ,ഐ,ഓ,ഔ.
3. പ്ലുതം: ഉച്ചാരണത്തിന് രണ്ടിൽക്കൂടുതൽ മാത്ര ഉപയോഗിക്കുമ്പോൾ സ്വരത്തെ പ്ലുതം എന്നു പറയുന്നു. അകലെയുള്ള ആളെ നീട്ടിവിളിയ്ക്കുമ്പോഴും മറ്റുമാണ് പ്ലുതപ്രയോഗം. 
താഴെ കൊടുത്തിട്ടുള്ള പട്ടികയിൽ സംസ്കൃതഭാഷയിലെ സ്വരങ്ങൾ ദേവനാഗരി ലിപിയിൽ രേഖപ്പെടുത്തിയിരിക്കുന്നു. തത്തുല്യമായ മലയാളം ഉച്ചാരണം, മലയാളലിപിയിൽ കാണാം. സ്വരചിഹ്നങ്ങൾ മനസ്സിലാക്കാൻ  (/p/), ‘പ്’ എന്ന വ്യഞ്ജനത്തോടൊപ്പം ഓരോ സ്വരവും ചേർത്ത് ദേവനാഗരിയിലും മലയാളത്തിലും കൊടുത്തിട്ടുണ്ട്. കൂടാതെ, ഓരോ സ്വരത്തിന്റേയും തുല്യമായ IPA,ആലേഖനവും    കമ്പൂട്ടറിനനുയോജ്യമായരീതിയിൽ വികസിപ്പിച്ചെടുത്ത ‘ലിപിപരിവർത്തന‘ (ലിപിമാറ്റസങ്കേതം/transliteration scheme)സങ്കേതങ്ങളായ IAST,ITRANS എന്നിവയിലെ തത്തുല്യമായ ലിപികളും കൊടുത്തിട്ടുണ്ട്.
സ്വരവർണ്ണം	പ് + സ്വരം “”	ഉച്ചാരണം	പ്+സ്വരം, എന്നതിന്റെ ഉച്ചാരണം /p/	IAST equiv.	ITRANS equiv.	മലയാള ഉച്ചാരണം
        	           	or     	or                          	a          	a            	അ
        	           	       	                            	ā          	A            	ആ
        	           	       	                            	i          	i            	ഇ
        	           	       	                            	ī          	I            	ഈ
        	           	       	                            	u          	u            	ഉ
        	           	       	                            	ū          	U            	ഊ
        	           	       	                            	           	R            	ഋ
        	           	       	                            	           	RR           	ൠ
        	           	       	                            	           	LR           	ഌ
        	           	       	                            	e          	e            	ഏ
        	           	       	                            	ai         	ai           	ഐ
        	           	       	                            	o          	o            	ഓ
        	           	       	                            	au         	au           	ഔ
The vowels  and  continue as allophonic variants of Proto-Indo-Iranian , , and they are phonologically (conceptually) /ai/ and /au/ still in Sanskrit, and are categorized as diphthongs by Sanskrit grammarians even though they are realized phonetically as simple long vowels. (See above).
Additional points:
* There are some additional signs traditionally listed in tables of the Devanagari script:
** The diacritic  called anusvāra, pronounced as  (IAST: ). It is used both for nasalizing the vowel in the syllable and for the sound of a vowel-like /n/ or /m/; e.g.  .
** The diacritic  called visarga, pronounced as /əh/ (IAST: ); e.g.  .
** The diacritic  called candrabindu, not traditionally included in Devanagari charts for Sanskrit, is used interchangeably with the anusvāra to indicate nasalization of the vowel, primarily in Vedic notation; e.g.  .
* If a lone consonant needs to be written without any following vowel, it is given a halanta/virāma diacritic below ().
* The vowel  in Sanskrit is realized as being more central and less back than the closest English approximation, which is . But the grammarians have classified it as a back vowel. (Tiwari, [1955] 2004).
* Note that the ancient Sanskrit grammarians have classified the vowel system as velars, retroflexes, palatals and plosives rather than as back, central and front vowels. Hence  and  are classified respectively as palato-velar (a+i) and labio-velar (a+u) vowels respectively. But the grammarians have classified them as diphthongs and in prosody, each is given two mātrās. This does not necessarily mean that they are proper diphthongs, but neither excludes the possibility that they could have been proper diphthongs at a very ancient stage (see above). These vowels are pronounced as long /eː/ and /oː/ respectively by learned Sanskrit Brahmans and priests of today. Other than the "four" diphthongs, Sanskrit usually disallows any other diphthong—vowels in succession, where they occur, are converted to semivowels according to sandhi rules.
* In the Devanagari script used for Sanskrit, whenever a consonant in a word-ending position is without any virāma (freely standing in the orthography:  as opposed to ), the neutral vowel schwa () is automatically associated with it—this is of course true for the consonant to be in any position in the word. Word-ending schwa is always short. But the IAST a appended to the end of masculine noun words rather confuses the foreigners to pronounce it as —this makes the masculine Sanskrit words sound like feminine! e.g., shiva must be pronounced as  and not as . Tiwari ([1955] 2004) argues that in Vedic Sanskrit, अ was simply short , and became centralized and raised in the era of the Prakrits.
thread_title: സ്വരങ്ങൾ

message: വ്യഞ്ജനങ്ങൾ IASTയിലും ദേവനാഗരി   ലിപിയിലും താഴെയുള്ള പട്ടികയിൽ കാണാം. അവയുടെ ഏകദേശം തുല്യമായ IPAഉച്ചാരണവും ചതുരവലയത്തിനുള്ളിൽ കൊടുത്തിട്ടുണ്ട്.
                 	                    	ഓഷ്ഠ്യംŌshtya	ഓഷ്ഠ്യംŌshtya	ദന്തോഷ്ഠ്യംDantōshtya	ദന്ത്യംDantya	ദന്ത്യംDantya	മൂർദ്ധന്യംMūrdhanya	മൂർദ്ധന്യംMūrdhanya	താലവ്യംTālavya	താലവ്യംTālavya	കണ്ഠ്യംKanthya	കണ്ഠ്യംKanthya	ജിഹ്വാമൂലീയം	ജിഹ്വാമൂലീയം
StopSparśa       	UnaspiratedAlpaprāna	           	           	                  	           	           	                	                	             	             	            	            	          	
StopSparśa       	AspiratedMahāprāna  	           	           	                  	           	           	                	                	             	             	            	            	          	
NasalAnunāsika   	NasalAnunāsika      	m          	m          	                  	           	           	                	                	             	             	            	            	          	
SemivowelAntastha	SemivowelAntastha   	           	           	v                 	           	           	                	                	y            	y            	            	            	          	
LiquidDrava      	LiquidDrava         	           	           	                  	l          	l          	r               	r               	             	             	            	            	          	
FricativeŪshman  	FricativeŪshman     	           	           	                  	           	           	                	                	             	             	            	            	          	
The table below shows the traditional listing of the Sanskrit consonants with the (nearest) equivalents in English/Spanish. Each consonant shown below is deemed to be followed by the neutral vowel schwa (), and is named in the table as such.
 Plosives – Sprshta
                  	UnaspiratedVoiceless Alpaprāna Śvāsa	AspiratedVoicelessMahāprāna Śvāsa	UnaspiratedVoiced Alpaprāna Nāda	AspiratedVoiced Mahāprāna Nāda	Nasal Anunāsika Nāda
VelarKantya       	; English: skip                     	; English: cat                   	; English: game                 	; Aspirated /g/               	; English: ring
PalatalTālavya    	; ≈English: chat                    	; Aspirated /c/                  	; ≈English: jam                 	; Aspirated                   	; Spanish: señor
RetroflexMūrdhanya	; American Eng: hurting             	; Aspirated                      	; American Eng: murder          	; Aspirated                   	; No English equivalent
Apico-DentalDantya	; Spanish: tomate                   	; Aspirated                      	; Spanish: donde                	; Aspirated                   	न ; English: name
Labial Ōshtya     	; English: spin                     	; English: pit                   	; English: bone                 	; Aspirated /b/               	; English: mine
 Non-Plosives/Sonorants
                         	PalatalTālavya 	RetroflexMūrdhanya     	DentalDantya   	Labial/Glottal Ōshtya
ApproximantAntastha      	; English: you 	; American Eng: tearing	; English: love	व (labio-dental); English: vase
Sibilant/Fricative Ūshman	; English: ship	; Retroflex form of    	; English: same	(glottal); English behind
thread_title: വ്യഞ്ജനങ്ങൾ

message: The Sanskrit vowels are as discussed in the section above. The long syllabic l () is not attested, and is only discussed by grammarians for systematic reasons. Its short counterpart  occurs in a single root only,  "to order, array". Long syllabic r () is also quite marginal, occurring in the genitive plural of r-stems (e.g.  "mother" and  "father" have gen.pl.  and ).  are vocalic allophones of consonantal . There are thus only 5 invariably vocalic phonemes,
replies: text: .
Visarga   is an allophone of  and , and anusvara , Devanagari  of any nasal, both in pausa (ie, the nasalized vowel). The exact pronunciation of the three sibilants may vary, but they are distinct phonemes. An aspirated voiced sibilant  was inherited by Indo-Aryan from Proto-Indo-Iranian but lost shortly before the time of the Rigveda (note that aspirated sibilant are exceedingly rare in any language). The retroflex consonants are somewhat marginal phonemes, often being conditioned by their phonetic environment; they do not continue a PIE series and are often ascribed by some linguists to the substratal influence of Dravidian. The nasal  is a conditioned allophone of  ( and  are distinct phonemes—one has to distinguish  "minute, atomic" (nom. sg. neutr. of an adjective) from  "after, along"; phonologically independent  occurs only marginally, e.g. in  "directed forwards/towards" (nom. sg. masc. of an adjective) and can thus be omitted). There are thus 31 consonantal or semi-vocalic phonemes, consisting of four/five kinds of stops realized both with or without aspiration and both voiced and voiceless, three nasals, four semi-vowels or liquids, and four fricatives, written in IAST transliteration as follows:

text: or a total of 36 unique Sanskrit phonemes altogether.
The phonological rules to be applied when combining morphemes to a word, and when combining words to a sentence are collectively called sandhi "composition". Texts are written phonetically, with sandhi applied (except for the so-called padapāha).
thread_title: ശിക്ഷാശാസ്ത്ര(ഉച്ചാരണനിയമങ്ങൾ)വും സന്ധിയും

message: എല്ലാകാലത്തും സംസ്കൃതത്തിന്റേതായി ഏതെങ്കിലും ഒരു പ്രത്യേക ലിപിയുണ്ടായിരുന്നില്ല. വരമൊഴിയേക്കാളും വാമൊഴിക്ക് പ്രാധാന്യം കൊടുത്തുകൊണ്ടുള്ള രീതിയായിരുന്നു വൈദികസംസ്കൃതത്തിൽ. ആദ്യകാല സംസ്കൃതസാഹിത്യകൃതികളിലും ഈ കീഴ്വഴക്കം നിലനിന്നുപോന്നു.എഴുതേണ്ടി വന്നപ്പോൾ അതിനുപയോഗിക്കുന്ന ലിപി പ്രാദേശികമായ അഭിരുചികൾക്കും പ്രചാരത്തിനുമനുസരിച്ച് വേറെ വേറെ വന്നു.. ദക്ഷിണേഷ്യൻ ഭാഷകളിലെ ഏതാണ്ട്  എല്ലാ ലിപികളും പലകാലത്തായി സംസ്കൃതം എഴുതാനായി ഉപയോഗിച്ചിട്ടുണ്ട്.
പത്തൊമ്പതാം നൂറ്റാണ്ടിന്റെ ഒടുവിലാണ് സംസ്കൃതം എഴുതാൻ പൊതുവേ അംഗീകരിക്കപ്പെട്ട ഒരു  ലിപിവ്യവസ്ഥയായി ദേവനാഗരി പ്രചാരം നേടിയത്. സംസ്കൃതം വ്യാകരണം, വില്യം ഡ്വൈറ്റ് വിറ്റ്നി, 1889 മിക്കവാറും സംസ്കൃത ഗ്രന്ഥങ്ങളെ അച്ചടിക്കുന്ന യൂറോപ്യൻ ശൈലിമൂലമായിരിക്കും ഇങ്ങനെ വന്നത്.
എഴുത്ത് (വരമൊഴി) ഇന്ത്യയിൽ താരതമ്യേന താമസിച്ചാണ് കടന്നുവന്നത്. ക്രി.മു. അഞ്ചാം നൂറ്റാണ്ടോടെയാണ് മദ്ധ്യപൂർവ്വ ദേശങ്ങളിൽ നിന്ന് കച്ചവടക്കാർ എഴുത്ത് ഇന്ത്യയിൽ കൊണ്ടുവന്നതെന്ന് ഒരു സിദ്ധാന്തം റൈസ് ഡേവിസ് രൂപീകരിച്ചു. എങ്കിലും എഴുത്ത് പ്രചാരത്തിലായിട്ടും വാമൊഴി മൂലം കൃതികൾ പകർന്നുകൊടുക്കുന്നതും ഓർത്തുവെക്കുന്നതും സംസ്കൃത സാഹിത്യത്തിന്റെ ഒരു പ്രധാന സവിശേഷതയായിരുന്നു. 
വടക്കേ ഇന്ത്യയിൽ ക്രിസ്തുവിന് മുൻപ് മൂന്നാം ശതകം മുതൽ ഉള്ള ബ്രഹ്മി ലിഖിതങ്ങൾ കണ്ടെടുത്തിട്ടുണ്ട്. ഇതിൽ ഏറ്റവും പഴയത് പ്രശസ്തമായ അശോകസ്തംഭത്തിലെ ശിലാലിഖിതങ്ങൾ ആണ്. ഏകദേശം ഇതേ കാലയളവിൽ ഖരോഷ്ടി ലിപിയും ഉപയോഗിച്ചിരുന്നു. എന്നാൽ പിന്നീട് (ക്രിസ്തുവർഷം 4 മുതൽ 8-ആം നൂറ്റാണ്ടുകൾ വരെ) ബ്രഹ്മിയിൽ നിന്ന് രൂപംകൊണ്ട ഗുപ്ത ലിപി കൂടുതൽ പ്രചാരത്തിലായി. 8-ആം നൂറ്റാണ്ടുമുതൽ ഗുപ്ത ലിപിയിൽ നിന്ന് ഉരുത്തിരിഞ്ഞ ശാരദ ലിപി പ്രചാരത്തിലായി. പിന്നീട് 12-ആം നൂറ്റാണ്ടുമുതൽ ദേവനാഗിരി ലിപി ശാരദ ലിപിയുടെ സ്ഥാ‍നം എടുത്തു. ഇതിനിടയ്ക്ക് സിദ്ധം ലിപിയും പ്രചാരത്തിലുണ്ടായിരുന്നു. കിഴക്കേ ഇന്ത്യയിൽ ബംഗാളി ലിപി, ഒറിയ ലിപി എന്നിവയും എഴുതാൻ ഉപയോഗിച്ചിരുന്നു.
ദ്രാവിഡ ഭാഷകൾ പ്രചാരത്തിലായിരുന്ന തെക്കേ ഇന്ത്യയിൽ കന്നഡ സംസാരിക്കുന്ന പ്രദേശങ്ങളിൽ കന്നഡ ലിപിയും, തെലുങ്ക് സംസാരിക്കുന്ന പ്രദേശങ്ങളിൽ തെലുഗ് ലിപിയും തമിഴ് സംസാരിക്കുന്ന പ്രദേശങ്ങളിൽ തമിഴ് ലിപിയും മലയാളം സംസാരിക്കുന്ന പ്രദേശങ്ങളിൽ മലയാളം, ഗ്രന്ത ലിപിയും ഉപയോഗിച്ചിരുന്നു. 
ആധുനിക ഇന്ത്യൻ ലിപികളിൽ സംസ്കൃതം എഴുതിയിരിക്കുന്നു. ദൈവങ്ങളുടെ ഭാഷയിൽ ആഹ്ലാദിക്കുന്നവരെ ശിവൻ അനുഗ്രഹിക്കട്ടെ. (കാളിദാസൻ)
        Tibentan ཤིཝོ རཀྵཏུ གཱིཪྺཱཎབྷཱཥཱརསཱསྭཱདཏཏྤརཱན྄</span>
====Romanization====
Since the late 18th century, Sanskrit has been transliterated using the Latin alphabet. The system most commonly used today is the IAST (International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration), which has been the academic standard since 1912. ASCII-based transliteration schemes have evolved due to difficulties representing Sanskrit characters in computer systems. These include Harvard-Kyoto and ITRANS, a lossless transliteration scheme that is used widely on the Internet, especially in Usenet and in email, for considerations of speed of entry as well as rendering issues. With the wide availability of Unicode aware web browsers, IAST has become common online.
European scholars in the 19th century generally preferred Devanagari for the transcription and reproduction of whole texts and lengthy excerpts. However, references to individual words and names in texts composed in European languages were usually represented with Roman transliteration. From the mid 20th century, textual editions edited by Western scholars have mostly been in romanized transliteration.
thread_title: ലേഖനസമ്പ്രദായം

message: Since the late 18th century, Sanskrit has been transliterated using the Latin alphabet. The system most commonly used today is the IAST (International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration), which has been the academic standard since 1912. ASCII-based transliteration schemes have evolved due to difficulties representing Sanskrit characters in computer systems. These include Harvard-Kyoto and ITRANS, a lossless transliteration scheme that is used widely on the Internet, especially in Usenet and in email, for considerations of speed of entry as well as rendering issues. With the wide availability of Unicode aware web browsers, IAST has become common online.
European scholars in the 19th century generally preferred Devanagari for the transcription and reproduction of whole texts and lengthy excerpts. However, references to individual words and names in texts composed in European languages were usually represented with Roman transliteration. From the mid 20th century, textual editions edited by Western scholars have mostly been in romanized transliteration.
thread_title: Romanization

message: ===Grammatical tradition===
Sanskrit grammatical tradition (, one of the six Vedanga disciplines) began in late Vedic India and culminated in the  of , which consists of 3990 sutras (ca. 5th century BC). After a century from  (around 400 BC) Kātyāyana composed Vārtikas on Pāninian sũtra. Patañjali, who lived three centuries after Pānini, wrote the , the "Great Commentary" on the  and Vārtikas. Because of these three ancient Sanskrit grammarians this grammar is called Trinuni Vyākarana. To understand the meaning of sutras Jayaditya and Vāmana had written a commentry Kāsikā 600 AD. Panian grammar is based on 14 Shiva sutras (aforism). Here whole Mātrika (alphabet) is abbreviated. This abbreviation is called Pratyāhara.Kashinath V. Abhyankar, A dictionary of Sanskrit Grammar, Gaekwad's Oriental Series, No. 134, Oriental Institute, Baroda, 1986
===ക്രിയാ===
====Classification of verbs====
Sanskrit has ten classes of verbs divided into in two broad groups: athematic and thematic. The thematic verbs are so called because an a, called the theme vowel, is inserted between the stem and the ending. This serves to make the thematic verbs generally more regular. Exponents used in verb conjugation include prefixes, suffixes, infixes, and reduplication. Every root has (not necessarily all distinct) zero, gua, and vddhi grades. If V is the vowel of the zero grade, the gua-grade vowel is traditionally thought of as a + V, and the vddhi-grade vowel as ā + V.
====Tense systems====
The verbs tenses (a very inexact application of the word, since more distinctions than simply tense are expressed) are organized into four 'systems' (as well as gerunds and infinitives, and such creatures as intensives/frequentatives, desideratives, causatives, and benedictives derived from more basic forms) based on the different stem forms (derived from verbal roots) used in conjugation. There are four tense systems:
*Present (Present, Imperfect, Imperative, Optative)
*Perfect
*Aorist
*Future (Future, Conditional)
=====Present system=====
The present system includes the present and imperfect tenses, the optative and imperative moods, as well as some of the remnant forms of the old subjunctive. The tense stem of the present system is formed in various ways. The numbers are the native grammarians' numbers for these classes.
For athematic verbs, the present tense stem may be formed through
*2) No modification at all, for example ad from ad 'eat'.
*3) Reduplication prefixed to the root, for example juhu from hu 'sacrifice'.
*7) Infixion of na or n before the final root consonant (with appropriate sandhi changes), for example rundh or ruadh from rudh 'obstruct'.
*5) Suffixation of nu (gua form no), for example sunu from su 'press out'.
*8) Suffixation of u (gua form o), for example tanu from tan 'stretch'. For modern linguistic purposes it is better treated as a subclass of the 5th. tanu derives from tnnu, which is zero-grade for *tannu, because in the Proto-Indo-European language [m] and [n] could be vowels, which in Sanskrit (and Greek) change to [a]. Most members of the 8th class arose this way; kar = "make", "do" was 5th class in Vedic (krnoti = "he makes"), but shifted to the 8th class in Classical Sanskrit (karoti = "he makes")
*9) Suffixation of nā (zero-grade nī or n), for example krīa or krīī from krī 'buy'.
For thematic verbs, the present tense stem may be formed through
*1) Suffixation of the thematic vowel a with gua strengthening, for example, bháva from bhū 'be'.
*6) Suffixation of the thematic vowel a with a shift of accent to this vowel, for example tudá from tud 'thrust'.
*4) Suffixation of ya, for example dī́vya from div 'play'.
The tenth class described by native grammarians refers to a process which is derivational in nature, and thus not a true tense-stem formation. It is formed by suffixation of ya with gua strengthening and lengthening of the root's last vowel, for example bhāvaya from bhū 'be'.
=====Perfect system=====
The perfect system includes only the perfect tense. The stem is formed with reduplication as with the present system.
The perfect system also produces separate "strong" and "weak" forms of the verb — the strong form is used with the singular active, and the weak form with the rest.
=====Aorist system=====
The aorist system includes aorist proper (with past indicative meaning, e.g. abhū "you were") and some of the forms of the ancient injunctive (used almost exclusively with mā in prohibitions, e.g. mā bhū "don't be"). The principal distinction of the two is presence/absence of an augment – a- prefixed to the stem.
The aorist system stem actually has three different formations: the simple aorist, the reduplicating aorist (semantically related to the causative verb), and the sibilant aorist. The simple aorist is taken directly from the root stem (e.g. bhū-: a-bhū-t "he was"). The reduplicating aorist involves reduplication as well as vowel reduction of the stem. The sibilant aorist is formed with the suffixation of s to the stem.
=====Future system=====
The future system is formed with the suffixation of sya or iya and gua.
===Verbs: Conjugation===
Each verb has a grammatical voice, whether active, passive or middle. There is also an impersonal voice, which can be described as the passive voice of intransitive verbs. Sanskrit verbs have an indicative, an optative and an imperative mood. Older forms of the language had a subjunctive, though this had fallen out of use by the time of Classical Sanskrit.
====Basic conjugational endings====
Conjugational endings in Sanskrit convey person, number, and voice. Different forms of the endings are used depending on what tense stem and mood they are attached to. Verb stems or the endings themselves may be changed or obscured by sandhi.
          	             	Active          	Active	Active   	Middle  	Middle	Middle
          	             	Singular        	Dual  	Plural   	Singular	Dual  	Plural
Primary   	First Person 	mi              	vás   	más      	é       	váhe  	máhe
Primary   	Second Person	si              	thás  	thá      	sé      	ā́the 	dhvé
Primary   	Third Person 	ti              	tás   	ánti, áti	té      	ā́te  	ánte, áte
Secondary 	First Person 	am              	vá    	má       	í, á    	váhi  	máhi
Secondary 	Second Person	s               	tám   	tá       	thā́s   	ā́thām	dhvám
Secondary 	Third Person 	t               	tā́m  	án, ús   	tá      	ā́tām 	ánta, áta, rán
Perfect   	First Person 	a               	vá    	má       	é       	váhe  	máhe
Perfect   	Second Person	tha             	áthus 	á        	sé      	ā́the 	dhvé
Perfect   	Third Person 	a               	átus  	ús       	é       	ā́te  	ré
Imperative	First Person 	āni             	āva   	āma      	āi      	āvahāi	āmahāi
Imperative	Second Person	dhí, hí, —	tám   	tá       	svá     	ā́thām	dhvám
Imperative	Third Person 	tu              	tā́m  	ántu, átu	tā́m    	ā́tām 	ántām, átām
Primary endings are used with present indicative and future forms. Secondary endings are used with the imperfect, conditional, aorist, and optative. Perfect and imperative endings are used with the perfect and imperative respectively.
====Present system conjugation====
Conjugation of the present system deals with all forms of the verb utilizing the present tense stem (explained under Tense Stems above). This includes the present tense of all moods, as well as the imperfect indicative.
=====Athematic inflection=====
The present system differentiates strong and weak forms of the verb. The strong/weak opposition manifests itself differently depending on the class:
*The root and reduplicating classes (2 & 3) are not modified in the weak forms, and receive  in the strong forms.
*The nasal class (7) is not modified in the weak form, extends the nasal to ná in the strong form.
*The nu-class (5) has nu in the weak form and nó in the strong form.
*The nā-class (9) has nī in the weak form and nā́ in the strong form. nī disappears before vocalic endings.
The present indicative takes primary endings, and the imperfect indicative takes secondary endings. Singular active forms have the accent on the stem and take strong forms, while the other forms have the accent on the endings and take weak forms.
 Indicative
         	             	Active  	Active	Active 	Middle  	Middle   	Middle
         	             	Singular	Dual  	Plural 	Singular	Dual     	Plural
Present  	First Person 	dvémi   	dvivás	dvimás 	dvié    	dviváhe  	dvimáhe
Present  	Second Person	dvéki   	dvihás	dvihá  	dviké   	dviā́the 	dvihvé
Present  	Third Person 	dvéi    	dviás 	dviánti	dvié    	dviā́te  	dviáte
Imperfect	First Person 	ádveam  	ádviva	ádvima 	ádvii   	ádvivahi 	ádvimahi
Imperfect	Second Person	ádve    	ádviam	ádvisa 	ádvihās 	ádviāthām	ádvihvam
Imperfect	Third Person 	ádve    	ádviām	ádvian 	ádvia   	ádviātām 	ádviata
The optative takes secondary endings. yā is added to the stem in the active, and ī in the passive.
 Optative
             	Active  	Active  	Active 	Middle  	Middle    	Middle
             	Singular	Dual    	Plural 	Singular	Dual      	Plural
First Person 	dviṣyā́m	dviyā́va	dviyā́ma	dviīyá  	dviīvahi  	dviīmahi
Second Person	dviyā́s 	dviyā́tam	dviyā́ta	dviīthās	dviīyāthām	dviīdhvam
Third Person 	dviyā́t 	dviyā́tām	dviyus 	dviīta  	dviīyātām 	dviīran
The imperative takes imperative endings. Accent is variable and affects vowel quality. Forms which are end-accented trigger gua strengthening, and those with stem accent do not have the vowel affected.
 Imperative
             	Active  	Active	Active 	Middle  	Middle   	Middle
             	Singular	Dual  	Plural 	Singular	Dual     	Plural
First Person 	dvéi    	dvéāva	dvéāma 	dvéāi   	dvéāvahāi	dvéāmahāi
Second Person	dvihí   	dviám 	dviá   	dvikvá  	dviāthām 	dvihvám
Third Person 	dvéu    	dviā́m	dviántu	dviā́m  	dviā́tām 	dviátām
=WorkArea End
thread_title: വ്യാകരണം

message: Sanskrit grammatical tradition (, one of the six Vedanga disciplines) began in late Vedic India and culminated in the  of , which consists of 3990 sutras (ca. 5th century BC). After a century from  (around 400 BC) Kātyāyana composed Vārtikas on Pāninian sũtra. Patañjali, who lived three centuries after Pānini, wrote the , the "Great Commentary" on the  and Vārtikas. Because of these three ancient Sanskrit grammarians this grammar is called Trinuni Vyākarana. To understand the meaning of sutras Jayaditya and Vāmana had written a commentry Kāsikā 600 AD. Panian grammar is based on 14 Shiva sutras (aforism). Here whole Mātrika (alphabet) is abbreviated. This abbreviation is called Pratyāhara.Kashinath V. Abhyankar, A dictionary of Sanskrit Grammar, Gaekwad's Oriental Series, No. 134, Oriental Institute, Baroda, 1986
thread_title: Grammatical tradition

message: ====Classification of verbs====
Sanskrit has ten classes of verbs divided into in two broad groups: athematic and thematic. The thematic verbs are so called because an a, called the theme vowel, is inserted between the stem and the ending. This serves to make the thematic verbs generally more regular. Exponents used in verb conjugation include prefixes, suffixes, infixes, and reduplication. Every root has (not necessarily all distinct) zero, gua, and vddhi grades. If V is the vowel of the zero grade, the gua-grade vowel is traditionally thought of as a + V, and the vddhi-grade vowel as ā + V.
====Tense systems====
The verbs tenses (a very inexact application of the word, since more distinctions than simply tense are expressed) are organized into four 'systems' (as well as gerunds and infinitives, and such creatures as intensives/frequentatives, desideratives, causatives, and benedictives derived from more basic forms) based on the different stem forms (derived from verbal roots) used in conjugation. There are four tense systems:
*Present (Present, Imperfect, Imperative, Optative)
*Perfect
*Aorist
*Future (Future, Conditional)
=====Present system=====
The present system includes the present and imperfect tenses, the optative and imperative moods, as well as some of the remnant forms of the old subjunctive. The tense stem of the present system is formed in various ways. The numbers are the native grammarians' numbers for these classes.
For athematic verbs, the present tense stem may be formed through
*2) No modification at all, for example ad from ad 'eat'.
*3) Reduplication prefixed to the root, for example juhu from hu 'sacrifice'.
*7) Infixion of na or n before the final root consonant (with appropriate sandhi changes), for example rundh or ruadh from rudh 'obstruct'.
*5) Suffixation of nu (gua form no), for example sunu from su 'press out'.
*8) Suffixation of u (gua form o), for example tanu from tan 'stretch'. For modern linguistic purposes it is better treated as a subclass of the 5th. tanu derives from tnnu, which is zero-grade for *tannu, because in the Proto-Indo-European language [m] and [n] could be vowels, which in Sanskrit (and Greek) change to [a]. Most members of the 8th class arose this way; kar = "make", "do" was 5th class in Vedic (krnoti = "he makes"), but shifted to the 8th class in Classical Sanskrit (karoti = "he makes")
*9) Suffixation of nā (zero-grade nī or n), for example krīa or krīī from krī 'buy'.
For thematic verbs, the present tense stem may be formed through
*1) Suffixation of the thematic vowel a with gua strengthening, for example, bháva from bhū 'be'.
*6) Suffixation of the thematic vowel a with a shift of accent to this vowel, for example tudá from tud 'thrust'.
*4) Suffixation of ya, for example dī́vya from div 'play'.
The tenth class described by native grammarians refers to a process which is derivational in nature, and thus not a true tense-stem formation. It is formed by suffixation of ya with gua strengthening and lengthening of the root's last vowel, for example bhāvaya from bhū 'be'.
=====Perfect system=====
The perfect system includes only the perfect tense. The stem is formed with reduplication as with the present system.
The perfect system also produces separate "strong" and "weak" forms of the verb — the strong form is used with the singular active, and the weak form with the rest.
=====Aorist system=====
The aorist system includes aorist proper (with past indicative meaning, e.g. abhū "you were") and some of the forms of the ancient injunctive (used almost exclusively with mā in prohibitions, e.g. mā bhū "don't be"). The principal distinction of the two is presence/absence of an augment – a- prefixed to the stem.
The aorist system stem actually has three different formations: the simple aorist, the reduplicating aorist (semantically related to the causative verb), and the sibilant aorist. The simple aorist is taken directly from the root stem (e.g. bhū-: a-bhū-t "he was"). The reduplicating aorist involves reduplication as well as vowel reduction of the stem. The sibilant aorist is formed with the suffixation of s to the stem.
=====Future system=====
The future system is formed with the suffixation of sya or iya and gua.
thread_title: ക്രിയാ

message: Sanskrit has ten classes of verbs divided into in two broad groups: athematic and thematic. The thematic verbs are so called because an a, called the theme vowel, is inserted between the stem and the ending. This serves to make the thematic verbs generally more regular. Exponents used in verb conjugation include prefixes, suffixes, infixes, and reduplication. Every root has (not necessarily all distinct) zero, gua, and vddhi grades. If V is the vowel of the zero grade, the gua-grade vowel is traditionally thought of as a + V, and the vddhi-grade vowel as ā + V.
thread_title: Classification of verbs

message: The verbs tenses (a very inexact application of the word, since more distinctions than simply tense are expressed) are organized into four 'systems' (as well as gerunds and infinitives, and such creatures as intensives/frequentatives, desideratives, causatives, and benedictives derived from more basic forms) based on the different stem forms (derived from verbal roots) used in conjugation. There are four tense systems:
*Present (Present, Imperfect, Imperative, Optative)
*Perfect
*Aorist
*Future (Future, Conditional)
=====Present system=====
The present system includes the present and imperfect tenses, the optative and imperative moods, as well as some of the remnant forms of the old subjunctive. The tense stem of the present system is formed in various ways. The numbers are the native grammarians' numbers for these classes.
For athematic verbs, the present tense stem may be formed through
*2) No modification at all, for example ad from ad 'eat'.
*3) Reduplication prefixed to the root, for example juhu from hu 'sacrifice'.
*7) Infixion of na or n before the final root consonant (with appropriate sandhi changes), for example rundh or ruadh from rudh 'obstruct'.
*5) Suffixation of nu (gua form no), for example sunu from su 'press out'.
*8) Suffixation of u (gua form o), for example tanu from tan 'stretch'. For modern linguistic purposes it is better treated as a subclass of the 5th. tanu derives from tnnu, which is zero-grade for *tannu, because in the Proto-Indo-European language [m] and [n] could be vowels, which in Sanskrit (and Greek) change to [a]. Most members of the 8th class arose this way; kar = "make", "do" was 5th class in Vedic (krnoti = "he makes"), but shifted to the 8th class in Classical Sanskrit (karoti = "he makes")
*9) Suffixation of nā (zero-grade nī or n), for example krīa or krīī from krī 'buy'.
For thematic verbs, the present tense stem may be formed through
*1) Suffixation of the thematic vowel a with gua strengthening, for example, bháva from bhū 'be'.
*6) Suffixation of the thematic vowel a with a shift of accent to this vowel, for example tudá from tud 'thrust'.
*4) Suffixation of ya, for example dī́vya from div 'play'.
The tenth class described by native grammarians refers to a process which is derivational in nature, and thus not a true tense-stem formation. It is formed by suffixation of ya with gua strengthening and lengthening of the root's last vowel, for example bhāvaya from bhū 'be'.
=====Perfect system=====
The perfect system includes only the perfect tense. The stem is formed with reduplication as with the present system.
The perfect system also produces separate "strong" and "weak" forms of the verb — the strong form is used with the singular active, and the weak form with the rest.
=====Aorist system=====
The aorist system includes aorist proper (with past indicative meaning, e.g. abhū "you were") and some of the forms of the ancient injunctive (used almost exclusively with mā in prohibitions, e.g. mā bhū "don't be"). The principal distinction of the two is presence/absence of an augment – a- prefixed to the stem.
The aorist system stem actually has three different formations: the simple aorist, the reduplicating aorist (semantically related to the causative verb), and the sibilant aorist. The simple aorist is taken directly from the root stem (e.g. bhū-: a-bhū-t "he was"). The reduplicating aorist involves reduplication as well as vowel reduction of the stem. The sibilant aorist is formed with the suffixation of s to the stem.
=====Future system=====
The future system is formed with the suffixation of sya or iya and gua.
thread_title: Tense systems

message: The present system includes the present and imperfect tenses, the optative and imperative moods, as well as some of the remnant forms of the old subjunctive. The tense stem of the present system is formed in various ways. The numbers are the native grammarians' numbers for these classes.
For athematic verbs, the present tense stem may be formed through
*2) No modification at all, for example ad from ad 'eat'.
*3) Reduplication prefixed to the root, for example juhu from hu 'sacrifice'.
*7) Infixion of na or n before the final root consonant (with appropriate sandhi changes), for example rundh or ruadh from rudh 'obstruct'.
*5) Suffixation of nu (gua form no), for example sunu from su 'press out'.
*8) Suffixation of u (gua form o), for example tanu from tan 'stretch'. For modern linguistic purposes it is better treated as a subclass of the 5th. tanu derives from tnnu, which is zero-grade for *tannu, because in the Proto-Indo-European language [m] and [n] could be vowels, which in Sanskrit (and Greek) change to [a]. Most members of the 8th class arose this way; kar = "make", "do" was 5th class in Vedic (krnoti = "he makes"), but shifted to the 8th class in Classical Sanskrit (karoti = "he makes")
*9) Suffixation of nā (zero-grade nī or n), for example krīa or krīī from krī 'buy'.
For thematic verbs, the present tense stem may be formed through
*1) Suffixation of the thematic vowel a with gua strengthening, for example, bháva from bhū 'be'.
*6) Suffixation of the thematic vowel a with a shift of accent to this vowel, for example tudá from tud 'thrust'.
*4) Suffixation of ya, for example dī́vya from div 'play'.
The tenth class described by native grammarians refers to a process which is derivational in nature, and thus not a true tense-stem formation. It is formed by suffixation of ya with gua strengthening and lengthening of the root's last vowel, for example bhāvaya from bhū 'be'.
thread_title: Present system

message: The perfect system includes only the perfect tense. The stem is formed with reduplication as with the present system.
The perfect system also produces separate "strong" and "weak" forms of the verb — the strong form is used with the singular active, and the weak form with the rest.
thread_title: Perfect system

message: The aorist system includes aorist proper (with past indicative meaning, e.g. abhū "you were") and some of the forms of the ancient injunctive (used almost exclusively with mā in prohibitions, e.g. mā bhū "don't be"). The principal distinction of the two is presence/absence of an augment – a- prefixed to the stem.
The aorist system stem actually has three different formations: the simple aorist, the reduplicating aorist (semantically related to the causative verb), and the sibilant aorist. The simple aorist is taken directly from the root stem (e.g. bhū-: a-bhū-t "he was"). The reduplicating aorist involves reduplication as well as vowel reduction of the stem. The sibilant aorist is formed with the suffixation of s to the stem.
thread_title: Aorist system

message: The future system is formed with the suffixation of sya or iya and gua.
thread_title: Future system

message: Each verb has a grammatical voice, whether active, passive or middle. There is also an impersonal voice, which can be described as the passive voice of intransitive verbs. Sanskrit verbs have an indicative, an optative and an imperative mood. Older forms of the language had a subjunctive, though this had fallen out of use by the time of Classical Sanskrit.
====Basic conjugational endings====
Conjugational endings in Sanskrit convey person, number, and voice. Different forms of the endings are used depending on what tense stem and mood they are attached to. Verb stems or the endings themselves may be changed or obscured by sandhi.
          	             	Active          	Active	Active   	Middle  	Middle	Middle
          	             	Singular        	Dual  	Plural   	Singular	Dual  	Plural
Primary   	First Person 	mi              	vás   	más      	é       	váhe  	máhe
Primary   	Second Person	si              	thás  	thá      	sé      	ā́the 	dhvé
Primary   	Third Person 	ti              	tás   	ánti, áti	té      	ā́te  	ánte, áte
Secondary 	First Person 	am              	vá    	má       	í, á    	váhi  	máhi
Secondary 	Second Person	s               	tám   	tá       	thā́s   	ā́thām	dhvám
Secondary 	Third Person 	t               	tā́m  	án, ús   	tá      	ā́tām 	ánta, áta, rán
Perfect   	First Person 	a               	vá    	má       	é       	váhe  	máhe
Perfect   	Second Person	tha             	áthus 	á        	sé      	ā́the 	dhvé
Perfect   	Third Person 	a               	átus  	ús       	é       	ā́te  	ré
Imperative	First Person 	āni             	āva   	āma      	āi      	āvahāi	āmahāi
Imperative	Second Person	dhí, hí, —	tám   	tá       	svá     	ā́thām	dhvám
Imperative	Third Person 	tu              	tā́m  	ántu, átu	tā́m    	ā́tām 	ántām, átām
Primary endings are used with present indicative and future forms. Secondary endings are used with the imperfect, conditional, aorist, and optative. Perfect and imperative endings are used with the perfect and imperative respectively.
====Present system conjugation====
Conjugation of the present system deals with all forms of the verb utilizing the present tense stem (explained under Tense Stems above). This includes the present tense of all moods, as well as the imperfect indicative.
=====Athematic inflection=====
The present system differentiates strong and weak forms of the verb. The strong/weak opposition manifests itself differently depending on the class:
*The root and reduplicating classes (2 & 3) are not modified in the weak forms, and receive  in the strong forms.
*The nasal class (7) is not modified in the weak form, extends the nasal to ná in the strong form.
*The nu-class (5) has nu in the weak form and nó in the strong form.
*The nā-class (9) has nī in the weak form and nā́ in the strong form. nī disappears before vocalic endings.
The present indicative takes primary endings, and the imperfect indicative takes secondary endings. Singular active forms have the accent on the stem and take strong forms, while the other forms have the accent on the endings and take weak forms.
 Indicative
         	             	Active  	Active	Active 	Middle  	Middle   	Middle
         	             	Singular	Dual  	Plural 	Singular	Dual     	Plural
Present  	First Person 	dvémi   	dvivás	dvimás 	dvié    	dviváhe  	dvimáhe
Present  	Second Person	dvéki   	dvihás	dvihá  	dviké   	dviā́the 	dvihvé
Present  	Third Person 	dvéi    	dviás 	dviánti	dvié    	dviā́te  	dviáte
Imperfect	First Person 	ádveam  	ádviva	ádvima 	ádvii   	ádvivahi 	ádvimahi
Imperfect	Second Person	ádve    	ádviam	ádvisa 	ádvihās 	ádviāthām	ádvihvam
Imperfect	Third Person 	ádve    	ádviām	ádvian 	ádvia   	ádviātām 	ádviata
The optative takes secondary endings. yā is added to the stem in the active, and ī in the passive.
 Optative
             	Active  	Active  	Active 	Middle  	Middle    	Middle
             	Singular	Dual    	Plural 	Singular	Dual      	Plural
First Person 	dviṣyā́m	dviyā́va	dviyā́ma	dviīyá  	dviīvahi  	dviīmahi
Second Person	dviyā́s 	dviyā́tam	dviyā́ta	dviīthās	dviīyāthām	dviīdhvam
Third Person 	dviyā́t 	dviyā́tām	dviyus 	dviīta  	dviīyātām 	dviīran
The imperative takes imperative endings. Accent is variable and affects vowel quality. Forms which are end-accented trigger gua strengthening, and those with stem accent do not have the vowel affected.
 Imperative
             	Active  	Active	Active 	Middle  	Middle   	Middle
             	Singular	Dual  	Plural 	Singular	Dual     	Plural
First Person 	dvéi    	dvéāva	dvéāma 	dvéāi   	dvéāvahāi	dvéāmahāi
Second Person	dvihí   	dviám 	dviá   	dvikvá  	dviāthām 	dvihvám
Third Person 	dvéu    	dviā́m	dviántu	dviā́m  	dviā́tām 	dviátām
=WorkArea End
thread_title: Verbs: Conjugation

message: Conjugational endings in Sanskrit convey person, number, and voice. Different forms of the endings are used depending on what tense stem and mood they are attached to. Verb stems or the endings themselves may be changed or obscured by sandhi.
          	             	Active          	Active	Active   	Middle  	Middle	Middle
          	             	Singular        	Dual  	Plural   	Singular	Dual  	Plural
Primary   	First Person 	mi              	vás   	más      	é       	váhe  	máhe
Primary   	Second Person	si              	thás  	thá      	sé      	ā́the 	dhvé
Primary   	Third Person 	ti              	tás   	ánti, áti	té      	ā́te  	ánte, áte
Secondary 	First Person 	am              	vá    	má       	í, á    	váhi  	máhi
Secondary 	Second Person	s               	tám   	tá       	thā́s   	ā́thām	dhvám
Secondary 	Third Person 	t               	tā́m  	án, ús   	tá      	ā́tām 	ánta, áta, rán
Perfect   	First Person 	a               	vá    	má       	é       	váhe  	máhe
Perfect   	Second Person	tha             	áthus 	á        	sé      	ā́the 	dhvé
Perfect   	Third Person 	a               	átus  	ús       	é       	ā́te  	ré
Imperative	First Person 	āni             	āva   	āma      	āi      	āvahāi	āmahāi
Imperative	Second Person	dhí, hí, —	tám   	tá       	svá     	ā́thām	dhvám
Imperative	Third Person 	tu              	tā́m  	ántu, átu	tā́m    	ā́tām 	ántām, átām
Primary endings are used with present indicative and future forms. Secondary endings are used with the imperfect, conditional, aorist, and optative. Perfect and imperative endings are used with the perfect and imperative respectively.
thread_title: Basic conjugational endings

message: Conjugation of the present system deals with all forms of the verb utilizing the present tense stem (explained under Tense Stems above). This includes the present tense of all moods, as well as the imperfect indicative.
=====Athematic inflection=====
The present system differentiates strong and weak forms of the verb. The strong/weak opposition manifests itself differently depending on the class:
*The root and reduplicating classes (2 & 3) are not modified in the weak forms, and receive  in the strong forms.
*The nasal class (7) is not modified in the weak form, extends the nasal to ná in the strong form.
*The nu-class (5) has nu in the weak form and nó in the strong form.
*The nā-class (9) has nī in the weak form and nā́ in the strong form. nī disappears before vocalic endings.
The present indicative takes primary endings, and the imperfect indicative takes secondary endings. Singular active forms have the accent on the stem and take strong forms, while the other forms have the accent on the endings and take weak forms.
 Indicative
         	             	Active  	Active	Active 	Middle  	Middle   	Middle
         	             	Singular	Dual  	Plural 	Singular	Dual     	Plural
Present  	First Person 	dvémi   	dvivás	dvimás 	dvié    	dviváhe  	dvimáhe
Present  	Second Person	dvéki   	dvihás	dvihá  	dviké   	dviā́the 	dvihvé
Present  	Third Person 	dvéi    	dviás 	dviánti	dvié    	dviā́te  	dviáte
Imperfect	First Person 	ádveam  	ádviva	ádvima 	ádvii   	ádvivahi 	ádvimahi
Imperfect	Second Person	ádve    	ádviam	ádvisa 	ádvihās 	ádviāthām	ádvihvam
Imperfect	Third Person 	ádve    	ádviām	ádvian 	ádvia   	ádviātām 	ádviata
The optative takes secondary endings. yā is added to the stem in the active, and ī in the passive.
 Optative
             	Active  	Active  	Active 	Middle  	Middle    	Middle
             	Singular	Dual    	Plural 	Singular	Dual      	Plural
First Person 	dviṣyā́m	dviyā́va	dviyā́ma	dviīyá  	dviīvahi  	dviīmahi
Second Person	dviyā́s 	dviyā́tam	dviyā́ta	dviīthās	dviīyāthām	dviīdhvam
Third Person 	dviyā́t 	dviyā́tām	dviyus 	dviīta  	dviīyātām 	dviīran
The imperative takes imperative endings. Accent is variable and affects vowel quality. Forms which are end-accented trigger gua strengthening, and those with stem accent do not have the vowel affected.
 Imperative
             	Active  	Active	Active 	Middle  	Middle   	Middle
             	Singular	Dual  	Plural 	Singular	Dual     	Plural
First Person 	dvéi    	dvéāva	dvéāma 	dvéāi   	dvéāvahāi	dvéāmahāi
Second Person	dvihí   	dviám 	dviá   	dvikvá  	dviāthām 	dvihvám
Third Person 	dvéu    	dviā́m	dviántu	dviā́m  	dviā́tām 	dviátām
=WorkArea End
thread_title: Present system conjugation

message: The present system differentiates strong and weak forms of the verb. The strong/weak opposition manifests itself differently depending on the class:
*The root and reduplicating classes (2 & 3) are not modified in the weak forms, and receive  in the strong forms.
*The nasal class (7) is not modified in the weak form, extends the nasal to ná in the strong form.
*The nu-class (5) has nu in the weak form and nó in the strong form.
*The nā-class (9) has nī in the weak form and nā́ in the strong form. nī disappears before vocalic endings.
The present indicative takes primary endings, and the imperfect indicative takes secondary endings. Singular active forms have the accent on the stem and take strong forms, while the other forms have the accent on the endings and take weak forms.
 Indicative
         	             	Active  	Active	Active 	Middle  	Middle   	Middle
         	             	Singular	Dual  	Plural 	Singular	Dual     	Plural
Present  	First Person 	dvémi   	dvivás	dvimás 	dvié    	dviváhe  	dvimáhe
Present  	Second Person	dvéki   	dvihás	dvihá  	dviké   	dviā́the 	dvihvé
Present  	Third Person 	dvéi    	dviás 	dviánti	dvié    	dviā́te  	dviáte
Imperfect	First Person 	ádveam  	ádviva	ádvima 	ádvii   	ádvivahi 	ádvimahi
Imperfect	Second Person	ádve    	ádviam	ádvisa 	ádvihās 	ádviāthām	ádvihvam
Imperfect	Third Person 	ádve    	ádviām	ádvian 	ádvia   	ádviātām 	ádviata
The optative takes secondary endings. yā is added to the stem in the active, and ī in the passive.
 Optative
             	Active  	Active  	Active 	Middle  	Middle    	Middle
             	Singular	Dual    	Plural 	Singular	Dual      	Plural
First Person 	dviṣyā́m	dviyā́va	dviyā́ma	dviīyá  	dviīvahi  	dviīmahi
Second Person	dviyā́s 	dviyā́tam	dviyā́ta	dviīthās	dviīyāthām	dviīdhvam
Third Person 	dviyā́t 	dviyā́tām	dviyus 	dviīta  	dviīyātām 	dviīran
The imperative takes imperative endings. Accent is variable and affects vowel quality. Forms which are end-accented trigger gua strengthening, and those with stem accent do not have the vowel affected.
 Imperative
             	Active  	Active	Active 	Middle  	Middle   	Middle
             	Singular	Dual  	Plural 	Singular	Dual     	Plural
First Person 	dvéi    	dvéāva	dvéāma 	dvéāi   	dvéāvahāi	dvéāmahāi
Second Person	dvihí   	dviám 	dviá   	dvikvá  	dviāthām 	dvihvám
Third Person 	dvéu    	dviā́m	dviántu	dviā́m  	dviā́tām 	dviátām
=WorkArea End
thread_title: Athematic inflection

message: കൈ 2409:4073:2193:4682:A87:757A:C420:241F 14:47, 11 മാർച്ച് 2024 (UTC)
thread_title:  സംസ്കൃതം