Homeland Security: Efforts to Improve Information Sharing Need to Be Strengthened
Published: 2003-08-27T00:00:00

Fast Facts:

Highlights:
section_title: Why GAO Did This Study
paragraphs: The sharing of information by federal authorities to state and city governments is critical to effectively execute and unify homeland security efforts. This report examines (1) what initiatives have been undertaken to improve information sharing and (2) whether federal, state, and city officials believe that the current information-sharing process is effective.
section_title: What GAO Found
paragraphs: Since September 11, 2001, federal, state, and city governments have established initiatives to improve the sharing of information to prevent terrorism. Many of these initiatives were implemented by states and cities and not necessarily coordinated with other sharing initiatives, including those by federal agencies. At the same time, the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) has initiatives under way to enhance information sharing, including the development of a homeland security blueprint, known as an "enterprise architecture," to integrate sharing between federal, state, and city authorities. GAO surveyed federal, state, and city government officials on their perceptions of the effectiveness of the current information-sharing process. Numerous studies, testimonies, reports, and congressional commissions substantiate our survey results. Overall, no level of government perceived the process as effective, particularly when sharing information with federal agencies. Information on threats, methods, and techniques of terrorists is not routinely shared; and the information that is shared is not perceived as timely, accurate, or relevant. Moreover, federal officials have not yet established comprehensive processes and procedures to promote sharing. Federal respondents cited the inability of state and city officials to secure and protect classified information, the lack of federal security clearances, and a lack of integrated databases as restricting their ability to share information. DHS needs to strengthen efforts to improve the information sharing process so that the nation's ability to detect or prepare for attacks is strengthened.

section_title: Letter
paragraphs: Information—its timely collection, thorough analysis, and appropriate  dissemination—is critical to unifying the efforts of federal, state, and local  government agencies in preventing terrorist attacks. For this report, our  objectives were to determine (1) what initiatives have been undertaken  to improve information sharing and (2) whether federal, state, and city  officials believe that the current information-sharing process is effective.  To meet these objectives, we gathered information on national  planning efforts and obtained the perceptions of federal, state, and  city governments on how the current information-sharing process  was working.
Specifically, we met with officials who were knowledgeable about  information sharing from federal, state, and city agencies and officials  from associations representing cities, police organizations, and research  groups. Our scope focused on the information-sharing process between  federal, state, and city governments. We did not include county  governments or the private sector (which owns more than 80 percent of  the nation’s critical infrastructure), although we recognize that both have  important roles in homeland security. We also did not include the federal  government’s critical infrastructure protection efforts, for which GAO  has made numerous recommendations over the last several years.  Additionally, most of our fieldwork was performed before the Department  of Homeland Security (DHS) began operations in January 2003. Thus,  some of the federal agencies we worked with were still part of other  cabinet departments at the time of our research. Additionally, the  department’s efforts to establish a homeland security blueprint—referred  to as its “enterprise architecture”—are in the early stages of development.  We also reviewed relevant reports, testimonies, and position papers.
Additionally, to supplement this analysis, we conducted a survey of  officials representing the federal intelligence community and law  enforcement agencies; state homeland security offices; all cities with a  population of 100,000 or more; and a sample of cities with a population  between 50,000 and 100,000, to obtain their perceptions about the current  information-sharing process. We did not independently validate that the  perceptions reported in our survey, such as the types of information that  respondents said they needed, accurately represent the condition of the  information-sharing process. However, our survey results typically  corroborated the condition of the current information-sharing process that  was described in our interviews with knowledgeable officials and in our  review of documents. Eighty percent, or 40 of the 50 state homeland  security advisors, completed the survey. Our overall response rate for the  survey was 50 percent and represents 284 government entities. Table 1  summarizes the number of surveys distributed and the response rates for  the federal, state, and city respondents.
We conducted our review from June 2002 through May 2003 in accordance  with generally accepted government auditing standards. A complete  discussion of our scope and methodology is contained in appendix I.
subsections: section_title: Background
paragraphs: A constitutional role of the federal government is to provide for the  common defense, which includes preventing terrorist attacks. The  government must prevent and deter attacks on our homeland as well  as detect impending danger before attacks occur. Although it may be  impossible to detect, prevent, or deter every attack, steps can be taken to  reduce the risk posed by the threats to homeland security. Traditionally,  protecting the homeland against these threats was generally considered a  federal responsibility. To meet this responsibility, the federal government  gathers intelligence, which is often classified as national security  information. This information is protected and safeguarded to prevent  unauthorized access by requiring appropriate security clearances and a  “need to know.” Generally, the federal government did not share national  level intelligence with states and cities, since they were not viewed as  having a significant role in preventing terrorism. Therefore, the federal  government did not generally grant state and city officials access to  classified information. However, as we reported in June 2002, the view  that states and cities do not have a significant role in homeland security  has changed since September 11, 2001, and the need to coordinate the  efforts of federal, state, and local governments for homeland security is  now well understood.
subsections: section_title: Preventing Terrorism Has Traditionally Been Viewed As a Federal Responsibility
paragraphs: Protecting the United States from terrorism has traditionally been a  responsibility of the federal government and, typically, the views of  states and cities in formulating national policy have not been considered.  In the Homeland Security Act of 2002, Congress found that the federal  government relies on state and local personnel to protect against terrorist  attacks and that homeland security information is needed by state and  local personnel to prevent and prepare for such attacks. Congress also  found that federal, state, and local governments; and intelligence, law  enforcement, and other emergency and response personnel must act in  partnership to maximize the benefits of information gathering and analysis  to prevent and respond to terrorist attacks. As a result, the act expressed  the sense of Congress that federal, state, and local entities should share  homeland security information to the maximum extent practicable.  Federal, state, and local governments and the private sector were not fully  integrated participants before the September 11, 2001, attacks, but the  need to integrate them became more widely recognized afterward.
In order to develop national policies and strategies to address terrorism  issues, senior policymakers obtain information from the intelligence  community. The intelligence community uses a cyclic process for  intelligence production. Simplified, the intelligence community  (1) receives information requirements from policymakers, (2) collects  and analyzes the information from its sources, (3) creates intelligence  products from the information, (4) disseminates the products to  consumers of intelligence, and (5) receives feedback about the usefulness  of the information from consumers. This process can lead to additional  information requirements and is ongoing.
Since the late 1940s, the federal government generally separated law  enforcement and intelligence functions, although both have a role in  combating terrorism. From this separation, law enforcement and  intelligence were created and handled differently, depending on which  community obtained the information and how it was to be used. The  law enforcement community investigates criminal activity and supports  prosecutions by providing information related to events that have  occurred. In contrast, the intelligence community tries to provide  policymakers and military leaders with information so that decisions can  be made to protect and advance national interests. Often, the intelligence  community collects information from sensitive sources or using special  methods and keeps the information classified to protect their sources and  methods and ensure a continual flow in the future.
Executive Order no. 12958, Classified National Security Information, as  amended, prescribes a uniform system for classifying, safeguarding, and  declassifying national security information, including information related  to defense against transnational terrorism. Executive Order no. 12968,  Access to Classified Information, states that access to classified national  security information is generally limited to persons who have been granted  a security clearance, been briefed as to their responsibilities for protecting  classified national security information, have signed a nondisclosure  agreement acknowledging those responsibilities, and have agreed to abide  by all appropriate security requirements. In addition, these persons must  have a demonstrated “need to know” the information in connection with  the performance of their official functions. If these criteria are not met,  then the information is not to be shared.
The federal intelligence community has traditionally not always  considered states or cities to need access to intelligence that could be  used to fight terrorism. As a result, few officials at the state and local  levels have the clearances required for access to intelligence products.
Furthermore, the collection and use of intelligence information on  individuals for domestic law enforcement purposes is constrained by the  application of constitutional protections, statutory controls, and rules of  evidence. For example, the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978  had, in effect, been interpreted as requiring some separation that limited  coordination between domestic law enforcement and foreign intelligence  investigations, particularly with regard to the use of information collected  for foreign intelligence purposes in criminal prosecutions.
section_title: September 11, 2001, Attacks Redefined Terrorism Responsibilities
paragraphs: Although previous terrorist attacks—such as the 1993 World Trade Center  bombing—proved that the United States was not immune to attacks on  its homeland, the enormity of the loss of life and impact of the terrorist  attacks on September 11, 2001, highlighted the increasing risk of terrorist  attacks on U.S. soil. Consequently, federal, state, and city governments  recognized an urgent need to effectively unify their efforts to enhance  homeland security by employing the unique contribution that each level of  government can make on the basis of its capabilities and knowledge of its  own environment. After the September 11, 2001, attacks, policymakers  questioned the separation between law enforcement and intelligence,  noting that the distinctions may limit access to some information needed  to effectively execute homeland security duties. In October 2001, Congress  passed the USA PATRIOT Act, to improve the sharing of information  between the intelligence and law enforcement communities, such as by  providing federal investigators with more flexibility in sharing information  obtained under the authority of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act.  In October 2002, the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence: Joint  Investigation inquiry into the attacks found problems in maximizing the  flow of relevant information both within the Intelligence Community as  well as to and from those outside the community. The review found that  the reasons for these information disconnects can be, depending on the  case, cultural, organizational, human, or technological. The committee  recommended that comprehensive solutions, while perhaps difficult and  costly, must be developed and implemented if we are to maximize our  potential for success in the war against terrorism.
At the same time, recognizing a need to balance the protection of  information with the emerging homeland security requirements of those  that had a newly recognized need-to-know, Congress passed the Homeland  Security Act of 2002 to, among other purposes, specifically facilitate  information sharing. In creating the Department of Homeland Security,  the act gives the Secretary the responsibility to coordinate with other  executive agencies, state and local governments, and the private sector  in order to prevent future attacks. Among other responsibilities, the  Secretary is to coordinate the distribution of information between federal  agencies and state and local governments. Furthermore, the act requires  the new department’s Under Secretary for Information Analysis and  Infrastructure Protection to disseminate, as appropriate, information  analyzed by the department to other federal, state, and local government  agencies with homeland security roles; to consult with state and local  governments to ensure appropriate exchanges of information (including  law-enforcement-related information) relating to threats of terrorism; and  to coordinate with elements of the intelligence community and with  federal, state, and local law enforcement agencies, and the private sector,  as appropriate. Additionally, a subtitle of the Homeland Security Act, titled  the Homeland Security Information Sharing Act, requires the President of  the United States to prescribe and implement governmentwide procedures  for determining the extent of sharing, and for the actual sharing, of  homeland security information between federal agencies and state and  local personnel, and for the sharing of classified (and sensitive but  unclassified) information with state and local personnel. To date, these  procedures have not been promulgated, although the President has  recently assigned this function to the Secretary of Homeland Security.
Furthermore, several national strategies that have been developed include  information sharing as major initiatives. Both the National Strategy for  Homeland Security and the National Strategy for the Physical Protection  of Critical Infrastructures and Key Assets include, as objectives,  improving information sharing between intelligence and law enforcement  agencies at all levels of government. In addition, FBI increased the number  of its Joint Terrorism Task Forces, from 35, as of September 11, 2001, to  66, as of March 2003. Federal, state, and local law enforcement officials  can interact to prevent terrorist attacks and share information in  investigations of terrorist events through the task forces. State and city  governments have also implemented several initiatives to improve the  information-sharing process, both within their jurisdiction as well as with  participants from other levels of government.
section_title: Information-Sharing Initiatives Are Not Well Coordinated
paragraphs: Congress passed legislation and the President issued strategic plans to  improve the sharing of information to fight terrorism. The Department  of Homeland Security was given the responsibility to coordinate the  distribution of information between federal agencies, and state and local  governments, and private industry. However, the department is in the  early phases of determining how to execute this responsibility. In the  meantime, some federal agencies and state and city governments  undertook initiatives on their own to improve sharing. However, these  actions are not well coordinated and consequently risk duplicating efforts.  In addition, without coordination, these actions may not be mutually  reinforcing and may create information-sharing partnerships that do not  necessarily include all agencies needing access to the information.
subsections: section_title: Legislation and Strategies to Improve Information Sharing
paragraphs: After the September 11, 2001, attacks, Congress took legislative action  to improve information sharing. Several national strategies, such as the  National Strategy for Homeland Security contain actions to improve  sharing as well.
The Homeland Security Act directs the President to prescribe and  implement procedures for sharing homeland security information  between federal agencies and with appropriate state and local government  personnel (a function since assigned by the President to the Secretary of  Homeland Security). The act also created the Department of Homeland  Security, which consolidated 22 federal agencies with homeland security  missions into a single department. Within the department, the Office of  State and Local Government Coordination and the Office of Private Sector  Liaison were created to provide state and local governments and  appropriate private-sector representatives with regular information,  research, and technical support to assist local efforts at securing the  homeland. According to the department, these offices will give these  participants one primary federal contact instead of many to meet their  homeland security needs.
Since September 11, 2001, the administration has developed several  strategies containing actions to improve information sharing and charge  DHS, FBI, and other government components with responsibility to  perform these actions. For example, the National Strategy for Homeland  Security (July 2002), the National Strategy for the Physical Protection of  Critical Infrastructures and Key Assets (Feb. 2003), and the National  Strategy to Secure Cyberspace (Feb. 2003) have, as one of their priorities,  actions to promote information sharing between federal agencies and with  state and city governments, law enforcement and intelligence agencies,  and the private sector.
The National Strategy for Homeland Security specifies that the federal  government will “build a national environment that enables the sharing of  essential homeland security information horizontally across each agency  of the federal government and vertically among federal, state, and local  governments, private industry, and citizens” by integrating all participants  and streamlining the sharing process. The strategy contains initiatives to  declassify documents to facilitate sharing, integrate databases at all levels  of government, and provide for a secure method of sharing information.  Similarly, the National Strategy for the Physical Protection of Critical  Infrastructures and Key Assets has initiatives to facilitate information  sharing by improving processes for domestic threat data collection,  analysis, and dissemination to state and local governments as well as with  private industry. This strategy calls on DHS to lead the effort to (1) define  sharing requirements, (2) establish processes for providing and receiving  information, and (3) develop technical systems to share sensitive  information with public-private stakeholders. The National Strategy to  Secure Cyberspace has initiatives to improve and enhance public-private  information sharing involving cyber attacks by establishing, among other  things, protocols for ensuring that information voluntarily provided by the  private sector is securely stored and maintained.
The Department of Homeland Security has several initiatives to improve  the sharing of information that could be used to protect the homeland.  In particular, it is developing a homeland security enterprise architecture  that, among other actions, will integrate sharing between federal agencies  and between the federal government, state and city governments, and the  private sector. According to DHS, its enterprise architecture is a business- based framework for cross-agency improvement and will provide DHS  with a new way of describing, analyzing, and integrating the data from the  agencies, thus enabling DHS to “connect the dots” to better prevent  terrorist attacks and protect people and infrastructure from terrorism.  Architecture working groups were established to collect, organize, and  publish the baseline information-sharing structure for the major  components that were transitioned to DHS. According to DHS officials,  this effort will be completed by June 2003. The working groups will also be  used to integrate the state and city governments, and the private sector. By  September of 2003, the department anticipates it will have a plan that  provides a phased approach to achieving information sharing between the  federal government, states, cities, and the private sector. The department  anticipates beginning to implement the plan in November 2003.
section_title: Initiatives Risk Duplicating Efforts and May Limit Access for Some Entities
paragraphs: Other federal agencies, and state and city homeland security participants  have implemented several initiatives to promote information sharing,  yet these initiatives are not well coordinated and may inadvertently limit  access to information to those entities that are not part of the initiatives.  Nonetheless, the initiatives seek to fulfill a perceived information  requirement not yet fully addressed by the federal intelligence community,  and include both technological solutions as well as management and  communication solutions. However, these initiatives may be duplicating  DHS and other federal efforts already under way, and, in some cases,  may create information-sharing partnerships that actually limit access  to information to only those agencies that are party to the initiatives.
Sensing an urgency to improve their abilities to effectively perform  their homeland security duties, other federal agencies, and state and city  participants have implemented several initiatives to promote sharing with  others from different levels of government. However, it is unclear how  these initiatives, while enhancing individual organization sharing, will  contribute to national information-sharing efforts. The Departments of  Defense and Justice have established initiatives using technology to  better gather, analyze, and share information with other homeland security  participants. These initiatives include expanding existing mechanisms  for sharing; participating in information-sharing centers like FBI’s Joint  Terrorism Task Forces; establishing new information-sharing centers; and  working with federal, state, and city agencies to integrate databases. Also,  the new Terrorist Threat Integration Center, which began operations  May 1, 2003, was created to fuse, analyze, and share terrorist-related  information collected domestically and abroad. It is an interagency joint  venture that reports directly to the Director of Central Intelligence in his  capacity as statutory head of the intelligence community. The center will  be comprised of elements of DHS, FBI’s Counterterrorism Division, the  Director of Central Intelligence Counterterrorist Center, the Department  of Defense, and other participating agencies. According to the President,  the center is to “close the seam” between the analysis of foreign and  domestic intelligence and will have access to all sources of information.
In responding to our survey, 85 percent (or 34 of 40) of the responding  states and 70 percent (or 160 of 228) of the responding cities said they  were currently participating in information-sharing centers, including  FBI’s Joint Terrorism Task Forces. Nonetheless, according to the survey  results, many participants expressed a need for still more interaction  with other homeland security participants to coordinate planning, develop  contacts, and share information and best practices.
In addition to the federal government, several states and cities have  implemented their own initiatives to improve sharing. For example, the  state of California has established a clearinghouse for all terrorist-related  activities and investigations. The clearinghouse collects, analyzes, and  disseminates information to its law enforcement officers, other law  enforcement agencies, and FBI. The City of New York established a  counterterrorism committee comprising FBI, the New York State Office  of Public Security, and the New York City Police Department to share  information and promote joint training exercises. Officials from the  Central Intelligence Agency acknowledged that states’ and cities’ efforts  to create their own centers are resulting in duplication and that some  cities may be reaching out to foreign intelligence sources independently  from the federal government. These officials emphasized that state  and local authorities should work through the Joint Terrorism Task  Forces to receive the information they require. Appendix II contains  examples of other initiatives that various information-sharing participants  have expanded and/or implemented to protect the homeland since  September 11, 2001.
In written comments to our survey, some respondents indicated that  avoiding duplication and redundancy were some of the reasons they were  not joining or establishing new information-sharing centers. For example,  rather than establishing local or regional databases—as some states and  cities have done—some respondents recommended creating a national  terrorism intelligence and information network and computer database.  However, in order to build a comprehensive national plan that integrates  multiple sharing initiatives (including those that integrate databases), the  federal government must first be aware of these efforts. In a speech to the  National Emergency Managers Association in February 2003, the Secretary  of Homeland Security asked states to inform his department of newly  created initiatives when they learn of them. However, it is not clear if  states and cities have provided DHS with this information and whether  DHS has taken actions on the basis of the information. As a result,  federal efforts to integrate initiatives may overlook some state or city  initiatives that could help to improve information sharing and enhance  homeland security.
Another way that information-sharing initiatives may limit access to  information for some entities is through partnerships that promote  information sharing between the partners but exclude those not  participating. Some federal agencies may try to meet their information  needs by forming partnerships with other agencies outside the purview of  DHS and its ongoing national strategy efforts. Thus, these organizations  may concentrate on local threat information and unknowingly have vital  information that, when combined with national or regional information,  could indicate an impending attack or help prepare for an attack.
section_title: Current Information- Sharing Process Not Perceived As Effective
paragraphs: In spite of legislation, strategies, and initiatives to improve information  sharing, federal agencies and state and city governments generally do not  consider the current information- and intelligence-sharing process to be  effective. The documents that we reviewed, and officials from federal  agencies, states, and cities we interviewed, indicated that they did not  perceive the sharing process as working effectively. And, in our survey,  fewer than 60 percent of federal, state, and city respondents rated the  current sharing process as “effective” or “very effective.” Respondents  identified three systemic problems. First, they believe that needed  information is not routinely provided. Second, the information that they  do receive is not always timely, accurate, or relevant. Third, they feel that  the federal government still perceives the fight against terrorism to be  generally a federal responsibility and consequently does not integrate  state and city governments into the information-sharing process. An  information-sharing process characterized by such systemic problems or  shortcomings could contribute to a failure to detect a pending attack or  prepare for an attack.
subsections: section_title: Further Improvement Is Needed in the Information-Sharing Process
paragraphs: According to recent reports and testimony, further improvement is needed  in the information-sharing process to better protect the homeland. Federal  officials have stated that information-sharing problems still exist. We have  also expressed concerns about information sharing in previous reports  and testimonies, as shown in the following examples:  Inquiries into the events of September 11, 2001, have highlighted ongoing  problems with the existing sharing process and the need for improvement.  Both the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence and the House  Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence have, in a joint inquiry in  2002, stated that much information exists in the files and databases of  many federal, state, and local agencies. However, that information is not  always shared or made available in timely and effective ways to decision  makers as well as analysts to better accomplish their individual missions.  In October 2002, the Staff Director of the Joint Inquiry Staff that  investigated the September 11, 2001, intelligence issues testified that  information sharing was inconsistent and haphazard.
On December 15, 2002, the Gilmore Commission concluded that  information sharing had only marginally improved since the September 11,  2001, attacks, and that despite organizational reforms, more attention, and  better oversight, the ability to gather, analyze, and disseminate critical  information effectively remained problematic. Additionally, the  commission reported that current information-sharing practices neither  transfer to local authorities the information they need, nor adequately  assesses the information collected by local authorities.
We have also expressed concerns about homeland security in previous  reports and testimonies that documented the lack of standard protocols  for sharing information and intelligence; the lack of partnerships between  the federal, state, and local governments; and the lack of a unified national  effort to improve the sharing process. In those reports, we concluded that  more effort is needed to integrate the state and local governments into the  national sharing process.  In our report on the integration of watch list  databases that contain information on known terrorists, we found that  sharing is more likely to occur between federal agencies than between  federal agencies and state or local government agencies because of  overlapping sets of data and different policies and procedures.
section_title: Participants Do Not Perceive Current Information-Sharing Process as “Effective” or “Very Effective”
paragraphs: Our work involving the interviewing of cognizant officials, reviewing  information-sharing documents, and analyzing the results of our survey  indicated that information-sharing participants do not perceive the current  process as “effective” or “very effective.” Without an effective sharing  process, it is not clear how important information obtained by federal,  state, or city agencies could be connected to relevant information held by  other agencies and potentially pointing to an imminent attack.
In a position paper, the Major Cities Chiefs Association stated that the  federal government needed to better integrate the thousands of local  police officers into the sharing process and by not doing so, the federal  government is not taking advantage of their capabilities. In March 2002,  the National Governors Association stated that law enforcement and  public safety officers do not have access to complete, accurate, and timely  information. As a result, critical information is not always shared at key  decision points, sometimes with tragic consequences. The International  Association of Chiefs of Police testified in June 2002 that the current  sharing process is not effective because state and city governments are not  fully integrated into a national sharing process.
We conducted our survey nearly a year later and found little change.  Our survey results indicate that participants do not perceive the  current sharing of information to fight terrorism to be “effective” or  “very effective,” regardless of the level of government with whom they  shared information. In our survey we asked all respondents to indicate  the extent of effectiveness when they shared information with the other  government levels. For example, we asked the federal respondents to rate  their responses from “not effective” to “very effective” when they shared  information with other state and city governments. Table 2 shows the  different perceived levels of effectiveness within the three levels  of government.
As shown in table 2, generally fewer that 60 percent of the respondents felt  that the information-sharing process was “effective” or “very effective.”
In particular, only 13 percent of the federal agencies that completed our  survey reported that when sharing information with the states and cities,  the current process was “effective” or “very effective.” One reason for  this low percentage may be due to the historic reluctance of the federal  government to share terrorism information with states and cities. On the  other hand, 51 percent of large-city respondents reported that their sharing  relationships with states was “effective” or “very effective,” reflecting a  closer historic relationship that cites have with their states.
section_title: Systemic Problems Account for Perception That Process Is Ineffective
paragraphs: Federal, state, and city authorities do not perceive the current sharing  process as “effective” or “very effective” because they believe (1) that  they are not routinely receiving the information they believe they need to  protect the homeland; (2) that when information is received, it is not very  useful, timely, accurate, or relevant; and (3) that the federal government  still perceives the fight against terrorism to be generally a federal  responsibility. Consequently, comprehensive policies and procedures  to effectively integrate state and city governments into the process of  determining requirements, analyzing and disseminating information,  and providing feedback have not been established. As a result,  opportunities may be routinely missed to engage state and city officials  in obtaining information from the federal government and providing the  federal government with information that could be important in the war  against terrorism.
section_title: Participants Are Not Routinely Receiving Needed Information
paragraphs: The federal, state, and city officials that completed our survey indicated  that certain information was perceived to be extremely important to  execute their homeland security duties, but they reported that they  were not routinely receiving it. In the survey, we listed different types  of homeland-security-related information and asked all respondents to  indicate the extent to which they needed and received the information.  With few exceptions, the federal, state, and city agencies that completed  our survey indicated that they are typically receiving less than 50 percent  of the categories of information they seek. While our survey results found  that state and local agencies were generally dissatisfied with the results  of information sharing with the federal government, federal agencies  were just as dissatisfied with the flow of information from state and  city agencies.
As shown in table 3, the majority of the states and cities reported that  they needed many of the types of information listed in our survey  question. For example, 90 to 98 percent of the states and large and  small cities that completed our survey reported that they needed specific  and actionable threat information; yet only 21 to 33 percent of them  reported that they received this information. However, more than  50 percent of all respondents reported that they were receiving needed  broad threat information.
One reason that states and cities may not receive needed threat  information is that the information may not be available. For example,  actionable threat information is rarely available according to federal  intelligence officials we interviewed; however, if available, these officials  told us that they would not hesitate to provide those who needed it with  the information. Nonetheless, if the information is classified, Executive  Order no. 12968 specifies that the information is not to be shared  unless the would-be recipients have the proper security clearances and a  need-to-know. Thus, the issue arises of how actionable threat information  can be shared with state and local personnel without unauthorized  disclosure of classified information by federal officials. Longstanding  agency practices may also account for poor information sharing and may  include the institutional reluctance of federal officials to routinely share  information with local law enforcement officials.
Without the information that they feel they need, states and cities, as well  as the federal government, may not be adequately prepared to deter future  attacks. Consequently, the nation’s ability to effectively manage the risk of  future attacks may be undermined. For example, the National Governors  Association, the National League of Cities, and the National Emergency  Management Association have all stated that they need timely, critical, and  relevant classified and nonclassified information about terrorist threats so  that they can adequately prepare for terrorist attacks. And the Major  Cities Chiefs Association stated that law enforcement officers need  background information on terrorism, the methods and techniques of  terrorists, and the likelihood of an imminent attack. With this information,  the association believes that law enforcement would have the background  from which it could take seemingly random or unconnected events—such  as minor traffic violations—and place them into a larger context, thereby  being able to perceive a bigger picture of potential attack or recognize  the need to pass the information to an appropriate homeland security  partner agency.
subsections: section_title: Information Received Not Very Timely, Accurate, or Relevant
paragraphs: Our survey results confirm the perception that the information that  respondents do receive is not often seen as timely, accurate, or relevant.  And, of the three aspects, respondents reported that timeliness was  more of a problem than accuracy or relevancy. This supports a common  complaint we heard from police chiefs—that they wanted timely  information but would often receive information from national news  sources at the same time that the public received it. This lack of timeliness  was often attributed to the federal government’s historic reluctance to  share this type of information with local law enforcement officials. In the  survey, we asked all respondents to indicate the extent to which the  information they received from each other was timely, accurate,  and relevant. Generally no level of government, including the federal  government, was satisfied with the information received from the  federal government, as shown in table 4.
In particular, table 4 highlights these problems for large cities. Only  23 percent of the large cities reported that the information they received  from the federal government was timely, and only 39 percent reported that  it was accurate. Only 40 percent reported that the information received  was relevant.
When state agencies were the source of information, federal and city  agencies were also dissatisfied, as shown in table 5.
Table 5 shows that in general, large and small cities view the information  they receive from their state as more timely, accurate, and relevant than  when compared with the view of federal agencies when they receive  information from the states. Few of the federal agencies that responded  view state information received as timely, accurate, or relevant.
Similarly, few federal or state agencies that responded to our survey  viewed information received from the cities as timely, accurate, or  relevant, as shown in table 6.
Table 6 also shows that states view the information they receive  from cities more favorably than the federal agencies that responded to  our survey.
section_title: Fighting Terrorism Still Seen as Generally a Federal Responsibility
paragraphs: The nation’s fight against terrorism is still generally perceived to be a  federal responsibility, at least in terms of preventing (in contrast to  responding to) a terrorist attack. Even though states and cities develop  important information on potential terrorist threats to the homeland,  the federal government still has not established comprehensive policies  or procedures to effectively integrate state and city governments into  the process of determining requirements; gathering, analyzing, and  disseminating information; and providing feedback. Nor has the federal  government routinely recognized states and cities as customers in the  information-sharing process.
Our survey results support the view that preventing terrorism is still  perceived generally as a federal responsibility. We asked respondents  to indicate the extent to which the elements of a sharing framework  for receiving information from the federal government—such as clear  guidance and access to needed databases—were in place at the various  governmental levels. The existence of these elements would indicate to  some extent the level that state and city governments were integrated  into the sharing process. Specifically, we found that more elements of a  sharing framework, such as clear guidance for providing and receiving  information, are in place at the federal level than at the state or city  level, indicating that terrorism-related information is managed more at  the federal level. Moreover, the lack of such elements at the state and city  level nearly 2 years after the September 11, 2001, attacks may perpetuate  the perception that the fight against terrorism remains generally a federal  responsibility. State and city governments that completed our survey also  indicated that they do not participate in national policy making regarding  information sharing, which also helps maintain the perception. For  example, 77 percent of the responding states, 92 percent of large cities,  and 93 percent of small cities reported that they did not participate in  this policy-making process. By involving states and cities, this process  would help ensure a more unified and consolidated effort to protect the  homeland, and provide opportunities to improve information sharing at  the state and city levels.
The view that preventing terrorism is generally a federal responsibility is  also reflected in the perception of the existence of barriers to providing  information upwards or downwards. For example, according to the  December 2002 report of the Gilmore Commission, the prevailing view  continues to be that the federal government likes to receive information  but is reluctant to share information with other homeland security  partners. Furthermore, the commission stated that the federal government  must do a better job of designating “trusted agents” at the state and local  levels and in the private sector, and move forward with clearing those  trusted agents. In our survey, we listed a number of barriers and asked all  respondents to indicate the extent to which these barriers hindered  sharing with each other. Table 7 identifies the barriers that federal, state,  and city agencies that responded to our survey believe exist in the current  information-sharing process.
As shown in table 7, federal officials cited several barriers that they  perceive prevent them from sharing information, including concerns  over state and local officials’ ability to secure, maintain, and destroy  classified information; their lack of security clearances; and the absence of  integrated databases. However, these perceived barriers were seen to exist  by only a few respondents and could be overcome. For example, state and  local police routinely handle and protect law-enforcement-sensitive  information to support ongoing criminal investigations, which suggests  that—with proper training and equipment—officials of these governments  could handle other types of sensitive information as well.
As mentioned earlier, the Homeland Security Act requires the President,  in establishing information-sharing procedures, to address the sharing  of classified and sensitive information with state and local personnel.  Congress suggested in the Homeland Security Act that the procedures  could include the means for granting security clearances to certain  state and local personnel, entering into nondisclosure agreements  (for sensitive but unclassified information), and the increased use of  information-sharing partnerships that include state and local personnel.  For example, Congress found that granting security clearances to certain  state and local personnel is one way to facilitate the sharing of information  regarding specific terrorist threats between federal, state, and local levels  of government. We found that the federal government has issued  security clearances to state or local officials in limited circumstances  and is increasing the number of such clearances. The Federal Emergency  Management Agency has provided certain state emergency management  personnel with security clearances for emergency response purposes, but  other federal agencies, including FBI, have not recognized the validity of  these security clearances. For FBI, this lack of recognition could prevent it  from providing state emergency management personnel with information.  At the same time, FBI has undertaken some initiatives to provide certain  state officials with clearances and could clearly expand this program at  the state and city levels, if officials believe that doing so will address a  perceived impediment to information sharing. And DHS is also developing  a new homeland security level classification for information to improve  sharing.
For their part, states and cities reported few barriers in their ability to  provide the federal government with information, while federal agencies  cited a number of barriers to sharing. As shown in table 7, state and city  agencies perceived that the federal government faces few barriers in  sharing information. Appendix V details the barriers that states and cities  perceive to providing federal authorities with information.
All categories of survey respondents identified the lack of integrated  information systems as the single most common barrier to information  sharing across all levels of government. The Markle Foundation stated in  its report that federal agencies have seen the information and homeland  security problem as one of acquiring new technology. For example, for  fiscal year 2003, FBI budgeted $300 million for new technology, the  Transportation Security Administration has budgeted $1 billion over  several years, and the former Immigration and Naturalization Service  (whose function is now within DHS) has a 5-year plan for $550 million.  However, the foundation reports that almost none of this money is being  spent to solve the problem of how to share this information between  federal agencies and with the states and cities. The foundations’ report  states that when it comes to homeland security and using integrated  information systems, adequate efforts and investments are not yet in sight.  And in recent testimony, we stated that DHS must integrate the many  existing systems and processes within government entities and between  them and the private sector required to support its mission.
section_title: Conclusions
paragraphs: With the current decentralized information-sharing process in which  actions to improve sharing are not organized, and participants at all  levels of government and the private sector are not well integrated into  the scheme, the nation may be hampered in its ability to detect potential  terrorist attacks and effectively secure the homeland. Additionally, the  lack of coordination of the various information-sharing initiatives  continues to hamper the overall national effort to effectively share  information that could be used to prevent an attack.
DHS has initiated an enterprise architecture to provide a road map to  address information-sharing issues with all levels of government and  the private sector. It is important that this be done in such a way as to  effectively integrate all levels of government and the private sector into an  information-sharing process. Until then, it is not clear how the department  will coordinate the various information-sharing initiatives to eliminate  possible confusion and duplication of effort. Participants risk duplicating  each other’s efforts and creating partnerships that limit access to  information by other participants, thus increasing the risk that decision  makers do not receive useful information; developing initiatives that are  not mutually reinforcing; and potentially unnecessarily increasing the cost  of providing homeland security.
The failure to fully integrate state and city governments into  the information-sharing policy-making process deprives the federal  government of the opportunity to (1) obtain a complete picture of  the threat environment and (2) exploit state and city governments’  information expertise for their own areas, with which they are uniquely  familiar.
Finally, the effectiveness of the information-sharing process to provide  timely, accurate, and relevant information is also in question, creating a  risk that urgent information will not get to the recipient best positioned  to act on it in a timely manner. Until the perceived barriers to federal  information sharing are addressed, the federal government may  unnecessarily, and perhaps inadvertently, be hampering the state and  city governments from carrying out their own homeland security  responsibilities.
States, cities, and the private sector look to the federal government—in  particular the Department of Homeland Security—for guidance and  support regarding information-sharing issues. If DHS does not effectively  strengthen efforts to improve the information-sharing process, the nation’s  ability to detect or prepare for attacks may be undermined.
section_title: Recommendations for Executive Action
paragraphs: We recommend that, in developing its enterprise architecture, the  Secretary of Homeland Security work with the Attorney General of the  United States; the Secretary of Defense; the Director, Office of   Management and Budget; the Director, Central Intelligence; and other  appropriate federal, state, and city authorities and the private sector to  ensure that the enterprise architecture efforts  incorporate the existing information-sharing guidance that is contained in  the various national strategies and the information-sharing procedures  required by the Homeland Security Act to be established by the President;    establish a clearinghouse to coordinate the various information-sharing  initiatives to eliminate possible confusion and duplication of effort;  fully integrate states and cities in the national policy-making process for  information sharing and take steps to provide greater assurance that  actions at all levels of government are mutually reinforcing;  identify and address the perceived barriers to federal information sharing;  and  include the use of survey methods or related data collection approaches to  determine, over time, the needs of private and public organizations for  information related to homeland security and to measure progress in  improving information sharing at all levels of government.
As you know, 31 U.S.C. 720 requires the head of a federal agency to  submit a written statement of the actions taken on our recommendations  to the Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs and the House  Committee on Government Reform not later than 60 days after the date of  this report. A written statement must also be sent to the House and Senate  Committees on Appropriations with the agency’s first request for  appropriations made more than 60 days after the date of this report.
section_title: Agency Comments and Our Evaluation
paragraphs: We presented a draft of this report to the Departments of Homeland  Security, Defense, and Justice; and to the Director of Central Intelligence.  The Departments of Homeland Security, Defense, and Justice provided  written comments.  The Central Intelligence Agency provided technical  comments. All the departments, except the Department of Justice,  concurred with our report.
The Department of Homeland Security concurred with our report and  recommendations. The department added that it has made significant  strides to improve information sharing.  For example, the department  pointed out that it is in the process of providing secure telephones to the  governors and security clearances to the Homeland Security Advisors in  every state so that relevant classified information can be shared.  The  department also pointed out that further progress will require a thoughtful,  prudent, and deliberate approach. However, it cautioned that issuing the  first draft of the national homeland security enterprise architecture could  go beyond the September 2003 target because of the time it may take to  obtain appropriate interagency coordination. The department’s comments  are reprinted in their entirety in appendix VI.
DOD concurred with our recommendations. DOD’s comments are  reprinted in their entirety in appendix VII.
The Central Intelligence Agency provided technical comments that we  incorporated into our draft as appropriate.
On the other hand, the Department of Justice did not concur with our  report and raised several concerns.  The department stated that our draft  report reaches sweeping and extraordinarily negative conclusions about  the adequacy of the governmental sharing of information to  prevent terrorism and that (1) our conclusions are fundamentally incorrect  and unsupportable by reliable evidence; (2) our review was beyond our  purview; and (3) an evaluation of information sharing requires a review of  intelligence sharing which by long standing practice the executive branch  provides to Congress but not us, thus we may not be able to provide useful  information to Congress. We disagree.
First, we used reliable evidence from a variety of sources, including the  Central Intelligence Agency; the Anser Institute of Homeland Security; the  Joint Inquiry into the Terrorist Attacks of September 11, 2001; reports of  the RAND Institute and the Markle Task Force on National Security in the  Information Age; testimony before congressional committees by federal,  state, and local officials; interviews that we conducted with federal, state,  and local agency officials and associations representing the International  Association of Chiefs of Police, the U.S. Conference of Mayors, the  National League of Cities, and the National Sheriffs Association; and our  survey results. Moreover, over 100 cities with populations in excess of  100,000, over 120 cities with populations of under 100,000, and 40 states  responded to our survey, representing a substantial number of  governmental entities providing us with evidence of information-sharing  shortcomings. These organizations are involved in information collection  and analysis, have conducted well respected studies on information- sharing issues, or have significant experience in providing for homeland  security through law enforcement or emergency management at the state  and the local level, and are recognized as authorities in their fields of  endeavor. Our conclusions are based on this body of evidence.  Our  complete scope and methodology is shown in appendix I.
Second, the Department of Justice stated that “our review of intelligence  activities is an arena that is beyond GAO’s purview” and that providing  GAO with information on intelligence sharing “would represent a  departure from the long-standing practice of Congress and the executive  branch regarding the oversight of intelligence activities.” The Department  of Justice’s impression that our review was a review of intelligence  activities is incorrect. As our report clearly indicates, the oversight of  intelligence activities was not an objective or focus of our review, which  did not require our access to intelligence information or involve our  evaluation of the conduct of actual intelligence activities. Rather, our  review considered the use of intelligence information in general in the  context of the broader information-sharing roles and responsibilities of  various homeland security stakeholders (including the intelligence  community). However, even if our review could be construed as involving  intelligence activities, we disagree that such a review is outside GAO’s  purview. We have broad statutory authority to evaluate agency programs  and activities and to investigate matters related to the receipt,  disbursement, and use of public money. To carry out our audit  responsibilities, we have a statutory right of access to agency records  applicable to all federal agencies. Although our reviews in the intelligence  area are subject to certain limited restrictions, we regard such reviews as  fundamentally within the scope of our authority.
Third, as to the department’s assertion that providing GAO with  information on intelligence sharing practices would represent “a departure  from long-standing practice,” we believe our review in this area furthers  congressional oversight but does not require reviewing intelligence  sharing practices. For example, we are not aware that the views of state  and local government officials on information sharing contained in our  report have previously been provided to Congress in a comprehensive  manner, their views are not dependent on whether we do or do not have  access to intelligence sharing practices, and the department did not  indicate that this is the case in asserting that Congress is already receiving  sufficient information from the executive branch. Moreover, we did not  review the extent to which the executive branch provides useful  information to Congress so we cannot comment on the department’s  assertion.  Nonetheless, as our report clearly discusses, numerous state  and local government officials believe that they had not received the  information that they need from federal agencies. It would have also been  useful, had the department shared with us its views on information sharing  for homeland security. We believe Congress should have available such  information in making informed decisions in this area. The department’s  comments are reprinted in appendix VIII.
We are sending copies of this report to appropriate congressional  committees. In addition, we are sending copies of the report to the  Secretaries of Homeland Security, Defense, Commerce, Agriculture,  Transportation, and the Treasury; the Attorney General; the Director of  Central Intelligence; and the Director, Office of Management and Budget.  We will make copies available to others upon request. In addition, the  report will be available at no charge on the GAO Web site at  http://www.gao.gov.
If you or your staff have any questions about matters discussed in  this report, please contact me at (202) 512-6020 or by E-mail at  deckerrj@gao.gov. GAO contacts and staff acknowledgements are  listed in appendix IX.
section_title: Appendix I: Scope and Methodology
paragraphs: Our objectives were to determine (1) what initiatives have been  undertaken to improve the sharing of information that could be used to  protect the homeland and (2) whether federal, state, and city officials  believe that the current information-sharing process is effective.
To achieve the first objective, we reviewed documents to determine  legislative initiatives and other initiatives detailed in national strategies  to include the National Strategy for Homeland Security, the National  Strategy for Combating Terrorism, the National Military Strategic Plan  of the United States of America, the National Strategy for the Physical  Protection of Critical Infrastructures and Key Assets, the National  Strategy to Secure Cyberspace, and the National Security Strategy of the  United States of America. We also reviewed federal, state, and city  initiatives to share information. We interviewed officials from the  Department of Justice, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), and the  Defense Intelligence Agency on their initiatives to share information with  state and city entities, and discussed information or intelligence-sharing  policies and procedures with officials from the Central Intelligence  Agency; the Department of Defense (DOD), Departments of Commerce,  Agriculture, the Treasury, and Transportation; the U.S. Coast Guard; and  DOD’s new U.S. Northern Command. We also surveyed a select group of  federal, state, and city organizations to obtain information on whether  they were involved in information-sharing initiatives.
To determine whether the current information-sharing process is  perceived as effective by federal, state, and city governments, we  interviewed officials from DOD’s Office of the Inspector General and the  Defense Intelligence Agency; FBI and the Office of Intelligence Policy and  Review within the Department of Justice; the U.S. Coast Guard; the  Treasury Department and the U.S. Customs Service; the Department of  Commerce; and the U.S. Department of Agriculture. We also interviewed  representatives from the California Department of Justice, city and county  of Los Angeles law enforcement authorities; the Director of Emergency  Management for the District of Columbia; and the chiefs of police of  Baltimore, Maryland; and Dallas, Fort Worth, and Arlington, Texas. We  also interviewed representatives of professional organizations and  research organizations, including the International Association of Chiefs  of Police, the National Sheriffs Association, Police Executive Research  Forum, the U.S. Conference of Mayors, the National League of Cities, the  RAND Institute, the Center for Strategic and International Studies, and  ANSER Institute for Homeland Security. To supplement our interviews, we  reviewed studies and testimonies before Congress. Among the documents  we reviewed are the testimonies of the President of the International  Chiefs of Police before the Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs,  June 26, 2002; the former Central Intelligence Agency General Counsel  before the aforementioned committee, February 14, 2003; and the  Chairman of the Advisory Panel to Assess the Capabilities for Domestic  Response to Terrorism Involving Weapons of Mass Destruction before the  aforementioned committee, February 14, 2003, and also the U.S. Select  Committee on Intelligence and the House Permanent Select Committee on  Intelligence, October 1, 2002. We also reviewed the position papers of the  RAND Institute, International Association of Chiefs of Police, Markle Task  Force on National Security in the Information Age, and others.
subsections: section_title: Use of a Survey to Supplement Interviews and Review of Documents
paragraphs: To achieve both objectives, we conducted a survey to augment our  interviews and review of testimonies, documents, and position papers.  We surveyed all 29 federal intelligence and law enforcement agencies;  50 state homeland security offices; and 485 cities, including all cities with a  population of 100,000 or greater, and 242 representing a random sample of  cities with a population of between 50,000 and 100,000. The city surveys  were directed to the mayors; however, the mayors frequently delegated the  task of completing the survey to career employees such as chiefs of police,  city managers, directors of emergency management offices, assistants to  the mayors, and others. The survey was not sent to the private sector,  although we recognize that it has a sizeable role in homeland security by  virtue of owning about 80 percent of the critical infrastructure in  the United States. The survey collected information on the types of  information needed by participants, the extent that this information was  received and provided, the sources and usefulness of the information,  and the barriers that prevent participants from sharing. However, the  survey did not attempt to validate the information needs of any level of  government. To ensure the validity of the questions on the survey, we  pretested it with officials from the Office of the Secretary of Defense, the  Defense Intelligence Agency; the homeland security directors for the  states of North Dakota and Florida; the police chiefs from the cities of  Dallas, Fort Worth, and Arlington, Texas; and the Director of Emergency  Management for the District of Columbia. We subsequently followed up  the surveys with several phone calls and E-mail messages to all federal and  state agencies surveyed, and a large number of cities to increase our  response rate.
Of the 485 surveys sent to the cities, 228, or 47 percent, responded. The  257 cities that did not respond might have answered the survey differently  from those that did; however, we could not determine this. Therefore, we  present the results of those cities that did complete the surveys knowing  that the nonresponders could have answered differently. Where applicable  in the report, we present the results of large and small cities separately,  unless noted otherwise. Also, when presenting survey results, we  judgmentally benchmarked the response level we believed would be  acceptable for an information-sharing process that is so vital to homeland  security. For example, for a process of this importance, we believe that  respondents should perceive that the overall sharing process is “effective”  or “very effective” and not “moderately effective” or lower.
The scope of this review did not include the federal government’s critical  infrastructure protection efforts, for which we have made numerous  recommendations over the last several years. We also did not include the  private sector, although we recognize the importance of this sector in  that it owns about 80 percent of the nation’s infrastructure. Critical  infrastructure protection efforts are focused on improving the sharing of  information on incidents, threats, and vulnerabilities, and the providing of  warnings related to critical infrastructures both within the federal  government and between the federal government and state and local  governments, and the private sector.
We conducted our review from June 2002 through May 2003 in accordance  with generally accepted government auditing standards.
section_title: Appendix II: Selected Initiatives to Promote Information Sharing
paragraphs: In order to judge the extent of initiatives, judge efforts to share more  information, and identify possible duplication of efforts, we gathered  documents that outlined these efforts. Also, in our survey, respondents  identified initiatives and efforts they were involved with. The following  table is not exhaustive, since all respondents did not complete this survey  question; however, it illustrates potential duplication of efforts between  the federal, state, and city governments.
section_title: Appendix III: Survey Responses Showing Categories of Homeland Security Information Deemed Needed by the Respondents
paragraphs: In order to establish a baseline for the information requirements of federal  agencies, and state and city government officials, we provided survey  respondents with a list of potential types of homeland security information  and asked them to indicate what they thought they needed to meet their  homeland security objectives. We then asked the respondents to tell us  how frequently they received the information they perceived they needed.  Table 9 is a summary of the types of information the respondents reported  they needed or critically needed and the percentage that they frequently or  regularly received the information. For example, 98 percent of state  officials reported that they needed or critically needed specific and  actionable threat information, while they also reported regularly receiving  this type of information only 33 percent of the time.
section_title: Appendix IV: Survey Responses to Our Questions on the Elements of an Information- Sharing Process That Are Already in Place
paragraphs: GAO provided a list of criteria that it believes represents elements of  a sharing framework and asked respondents to identify which best  characterizes their current information-sharing framework. Table 10  shows that at all three levels of government, the sharing framework is  incomplete, with cities—and small cities in particular—-having few  elements of a sharing framework operational.
section_title: Appendix V: Survey Responses to Perceived Barriers Faced by States/Cities in Providing the Federal Government with Information
paragraphs: We asked state, large-city and small-city respondents to identify what  they perceive to be factors that hinder their organizations from providing  federal authorities with homeland security information or intelligence.  In contrast to the several barriers identified by federal respondents to  providing state and local officials with information and intelligence,  table 11 shows that states and city respondents identified the lack of  integrated databases as the only significant barrier.
section_title: Appendix VI: Comments from the Department of Homeland Security
section_title: Appendix VII: Comments from the Department of Defense
section_title: Appendix VIII: Comments from the Department of Justice
section_title: Appendix IX: GAO Contacts and Staff Acknowledgments
subsections: section_title: GAO Contacts
section_title: Acknowledgments
paragraphs: In addition to those named above, Lorelei St. James, Patricia Sari-Spear,  Tinh Nguyen, Rebecca Shea, Adam Vodraska, and R.K. Wild made key  contributions to this report.
section_title: Related GAO Products
paragraphs: Information Technology: Terrorist Watch Lists Should Be  Consolidated to Promote Better Integration and Sharing. GAO-03-322.  Washington, D.C.: April 15, 2003.
Combating Terrorism: Observations on National Strategies Related to  Terrorism. GAO-03-519T. Washington, D.C.: March 3, 2003.
Homeland Security: Effective Intergovernmental Coordination Is Key  to Success. GAO-02-1013T. Washington, D.C.: August 23, 2002.
Homeland Security: Key Elements to Unify Efforts Are Underway but  Uncertainty Remains. GAO-02-610. Washington, D.C.: June 7, 2002.
Information Sharing: Practices That Can Benefit Critical Infrastructure  Protection. GAO-02-24. Washington, D.C.: October 15, 2001.
Combating Terrorism: Selected Challenges and Related  Recommendations. GAO-01-822. Washington, D.C.: September 20, 2001.
FBI Intelligence Investigations: Coordination within Justice on  Counterintelligence Criminal Matters Is Limited. GAO-01-780.  Washington, D.C.: July 16, 2001.