Access to Arts Education: Inclusion of Additional Questions in Education's Planned Research Would Help Explain Why Instruction Time Has Decreased for Some Students
Published: 2009-02-27T00:00:00

Fast Facts:

Highlights:
section_title: Why GAO Did This Study
paragraphs: Under the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLBA), districts and schools must demonstrate adequate yearly progress (AYP) for all students. Because schools may spend more time improving students' academic skills to meet NCLBA's requirements, some are concerned that arts education might be cut back. To determine how, if at all, student access to arts education has changed since NCLBA, the Congress asked: (1) has the amount of instruction time for arts education changed and, if so, have certain groups been more affected than others, (2) to what extent have state education agencies' requirements and funding for arts education changed since NCLBA, (3) what are school officials in selected districts doing to provide arts education since NCLBA and what challenges do they face in doing so, and (4) what is known about the effect of arts education in improving student outcomes? GAO analyzed data from the U.S. Department of Education (Education), surveyed 50 state arts officials, interviewed officials in 8 school districts and 19 schools, and reviewed existing research.
section_title: What GAO Found
paragraphs: According to data from Education's national survey, most elementary school teachers--about 90 percent--reported that instruction time for arts education stayed the same between school years 2004-2005 and 2006-2007. The percentage of teachers that reported that instruction time had stayed the same was similarly high across a range of school characteristics, irrespective of the schools' percentage of low-income or minority students or of students with limited English proficiency, or the schools' improvement under NCLBA. Moreover, about 4 percent of teachers reported an increase. However, about 7 percent reported a decrease, and GAO identified statistically significant differences across school characteristics in the percentage of teachers reporting that the time spent on arts education had decreased. Teachers at schools identified as needing improvement and those with higher percentages of minority students were more likely to report a reduction in time spent on the arts. Because Education's survey did not include questions about why instruction time changed, GAO was not able to determine the reasons for the disparities its analysis identified. A new study of NCLBA implementation that Education plans to undertake may collect information on the uses of instruction time, among other topics. However, Education has not yet determined if it will collect information on the reasons instruction time changed for certain groups. While basic state requirements for arts education in schools have remained unchanged in most states, state funding levels for arts education increased in some states and decreased in others, according to GAO's survey of state arts officials. Arts education officials attributed the funding changes to state budget changes to a greater extent than they did to NCLBA or other factors. School principals have used several strategies to provide arts education; however, some struggled with decreased budgets and competing demands on instruction time, according to those GAO interviewed. Strategies for maintaining arts education include seeking funding and collaborative arrangements in the arts community. Competing demands on instruction time were due to state education agency or school district actions taken to meet NCLBA proficiency standards. Overall, research on the effect of arts education on student outcomes is inconclusive. Some studies that examined the effect of arts education on students' reading and math achievement found a small positive effect, but others found none.

section_title: Letter
paragraphs: The federal government has invested billions of dollars in federal grants to  The federal government has invested billions of dollars in federal grants to  states and school districts to improve educational opportunities for low- states and school districts to improve educational opportunities for low- income students because their academic performance is substantially  income students because their academic performance is substantially  lower than that of other students. The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001  lower than that of other students. The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001  (NCLBA) sought to address this issue by building on the proficiency  (NCLBA) sought to address this issue by building on the proficiency  targets required by the Improving America’s Schools Act of 1994 (IASA)  targets required by the Improving America’s Schools Act of 1994 (IASA)  and by establishing a deadline of 2014 for all students to reach proficiency  and by establishing a deadline of 2014 for all students to reach proficiency  in reading, math, and science. Under NCLBA, districts and schools must  in reading, math, and science. Under NCLBA, districts and schools must  demonstrate adequate yearly progress (AYP) toward meeting state  demonstrate adequate yearly progress (AYP) toward meeting state  standards for all students and every key student subgroup, including low- standards for all students and every key student subgroup, including low- income and minority students, students with disabilities, and students with  income and minority students, students with disabilities, and students with  limited English proficiency, toward annual state-established proficiency  limited English proficiency, toward annual state-established proficiency  targets. When students in schools receiving funds under Title I of NCLBA  targets. When students in schools receiving funds under Title I of NCLBA  do not make sufficient progress toward meeting state proficiency targets,  do not make sufficient progress toward meeting state proficiency targets,  their schools are identified as needing improvement, and both districts and  their schools are identified as needing improvement, and both districts and  schools are required to take certain actions.  schools are required to take certain actions.
Schools’ efforts to improve students’ academic performance and the  Schools’ efforts to improve students’ academic performance and the  school’s NCLBA status can lead to changes in the amount of instruction  school’s NCLBA status can lead to changes in the amount of instruction  time devoted to reading, math, and other subjects, including arts  time devoted to reading, math, and other subjects, including arts  education. With NCLBA’s 2014 deadline approaching, increased attention  education. With NCLBA’s 2014 deadline approaching, increased attention  has been focused on the amount of time teachers are able to devote to  has been focused on the amount of time teachers are able to devote to  other subjects, including the arts, which for this study includes four art  other subjects, including the arts, which for this study includes four art  forms: visual arts, music, theater, and dance. To the extent that schools  forms: visual arts, music, theater, and dance. To the extent that schools  spend more time improving students’ reading, math, and science skills to  spend more time improving students’ reading, math, and science skills to  meet NCLBA’s accountability requirements, some are concerned that arts  meet NCLBA’s accountability requirements, some are concerned that arts  education might be reduced or eliminated.  education might be reduced or eliminated.
To determine whether there have been any changes in student access to  To determine whether there have been any changes in student access to  arts education since NCLBA, the Congress asked us to examine the  arts education since NCLBA, the Congress asked us to examine the  following questions: (1) has the amount of instruction time for arts  following questions: (1) has the amount of instruction time for arts  education changed and, if so, have certain groups been more affected than  others, (2) to what extent have state education agencies’ requirements and  funding for arts education changed since NCLBA, (3) what are school  officials in selected districts doing to provide arts education since NCLBA  and what challenges do they face in doing so, and (4) what is known about  the effect of arts education in improving student outcomes?
To identify changes in students’ access to arts education, if any, we analyzed  data on changes in instruction time between school years 2004-2005 and 2006- 2007 for all subjects, including the arts, from the Department of Education’s  (Education) National Longitudinal Study of No Child Left Behind (NLS- NCLB). Because this study collected data on changes in instruction time only  from elementary school teachers, the nationally representative findings on  students’ access to arts education apply only to elementary schools. Although  NLS-NCLB data did not allow us to answer the study question for middle and  secondary schools, they were the only existing data on changes in instruction  time available that met GAO’s data quality standards. Our findings also apply  only to the time between school years 2004-2005 and 2006-2007 and not to the  full period of time since NCLBA’s passage. As a further step in identifying  changes in students’ access to arts education by identifying any changes in  state arts education requirements and funding, we surveyed arts officials in 49  states and the District of Columbia. For the survey, an arts official was an  official in a state department of education or other designated state agency  who was knowledgeable about the states’ role in shaping the provision of arts  education in public schools. Forty-five state arts officials completed the  survey. The survey collected data on state arts education requirements and  funding in school years 2001-2002, the year NCLBA was passed, and 2006- 2007, changes made to state arts education requirements and funding  between those school years, and factors contributing to any changes. To  determine what district officials and school principals are doing to provide  arts education since NCLBA and the challenges they face, we visited and  interviewed officials in Illinois, Massachusetts, Florida, and New York. We  selected states with large numbers of schools not meeting AYP and school  districts and schools based on criteria that provide variation in the income  level of the school district, schools’ performance status under NCLBA, and  schools’ urban and rural location. Within each state, we visited 2 school  districts and 4 to 6 schools in each district for a total of 8 school districts and  19 schools. In each state, we also interviewed officials representing at least  one local arts organization that supported arts education in public schools. To  determine what is known about the effect of arts instruction, we reviewed  existing studies that examined the effect of arts instruction on student  outcomes, such as academic achievement and graduation rates. Appendix I  provides a detailed description of our methodology and its limitations, as well  as our scope. We conducted this performance audit from September 2007 to  February 2009, in accordance with generally accepted government auditing  standards. Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to  obtain sufficient, appropriate evidence to provide a reasonable basis for our  findings and conclusions based on the audit objectives. We believe that the  evidence obtained provides a reasonable basis for our findings and  conclusions based on our audit objectives.
subsections: section_title: Background
paragraphs: Since passage of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965  (ESEA), more than 40 years ago, the Congress has sought to improve  student learning through several initiatives. Current legislation, NCLBA,  builds upon previous legislation—the IASA—by adding provisions meant  to strengthen accountability requirements for school districts and schools.  For example, both IASA and NCLBA required states to measure the  performance of students in reading and math. NCLBA built upon this  requirement by requiring annual testing in these subjects in each of grades  3 to 8 and added requirements that children’s performance in science also  be assessed.
Under NCLBA’s accountability provisions, states are required to develop  plans that include academic standards and establish performance goals for  schools’ meeting AYP that would lead to 100 percent of their students  being proficient in reading, mathematics, and science by 2014. To measure  their progress, states were required to establish academic proficiency  goals for making AYP and to administer an annual assessment to students  in most grade levels. In addition, each school’s assessment data must be  disaggregated in order to compare the achievement levels of students  within certain designated groups, including low-income and minority  students, students with disabilities, and those with limited English  proficiency, with the state’s proficiency targets. Each of these groups must  make AYP in order for the school to make AYP. In addition to proficiency  targets on state assessments, states must use another academic indicator  to determine AYP. For high schools, the indicator must be graduation  rates. States may choose what the other academic indicator will be for  elementary and middle schools.
Title I of the ESEA, as amended and reauthorized by NCLBA, authorizes  federal funds to help elementary and secondary schools establish and  maintain programs that will improve the educational opportunities of  economically disadvantaged children For schools receiving Title I funds  that do not achieve proficiency, a time line is required for implementing  specific interventions based on the number of years the school missed  AYP. If a school fails to meet AYP in reading, mathematics, or science for 2  consecutive years, districts must offer students in these schools the  opportunity to transfer to a higher performing school in the district, and  after the third year they must offer both school choice and supplemental  education services (SES), such as tutoring. Prior legislation—IASA— required districts to take corrective action as a final intervention for  schools that repeatedly missed AYP. While IASA allowed states to  determine the appropriate corrective action for their districts and schools,  NCLBA is more prescriptive in defining the corrective actions districts and  schools must implement. In addition, a new intervention to change the  governance of schools—school restructuring—was introduced for schools  that miss AYP for 5 or more years. (See table 1.) Districts are responsible  for selecting and implementing the corrective actions and restructuring  options for these schools contained in the law. Schools exit improvement  status if they make AYP for 2 consecutive years.
In prior work on implementation of NCLBA, GAO reported that the Title I  schools in corrective action and restructuring status during school year  2005-2006 were more frequently located in urban school districts and a few  states and served higher percentages of low-income, minority, and middle  school students than other Title I schools.
subsections: section_title: NCLBA Provisions and Funding Related to Arts Education in Public Schools
paragraphs: In its last two reauthorizations of the ESEA, the Congress has recognized  the importance of arts education in public schools. Although the NCLBA  does not include proficiency requirements for the arts, it does authorize  Education to make grants for arts education. The purpose of these  programs as set out in NCLBA includes helping students meet state  academic achievement standards in the arts and supporting “the national  effort to enable all students to demonstrate competence in the arts.” In  addition, arts education is identified by NCLBA as a core academic  subject. Similarly, the Congress stated in IASA that the arts express “forms  of understanding and ways of knowing that are fundamentally important  to education.” This finding incorporates the two prevailing perspectives on  the role that arts education can play in public schools. One perspective  sees arts education as having intrinsic value because of the insights into  self and others that experiencing the arts can yield. A second perspective  focuses on the association between arts education and development of  cognitive, affective, and creative skills, including improved achievement in  academic subjects such as reading and math. While NCLBA does not  attempt to address these perspectives, it does affirm that arts education  has a role in public schools.
Education administers a number of specific programs related to arts  education, but two arts education grant programs authorized by NCLBA— the Model Development and Dissemination grants program and the  Professional Development for Arts Educators program—are competitive  grant programs that provide funding for arts education research projects  that integrate arts disciplines into public school curricula, strengthen arts  instruction, and improve students’ academic performance and funding for  art teachers’ professional development, respectively. Total funding for  these two programs in the last few years was $21.1 million in fiscal year  2006, $21 million in fiscal year 2007 and $20.7 million in fiscal year 2008.
section_title: Research on Arts Education in Public Schools
paragraphs: Prior to passage of NCLBA, the National Endowment for the Arts twice  collaborated with Education to determine the extent to which public  schools offer arts education in the four major art forms: visual arts, music,  theater, and dance. Through surveys of school principals and teachers that  Education conducted in school years 1993-1994 and 1999-2000, Education  found that visual arts and music were offered by 80 to 90 percent of public  elementary and secondary schools, while theater and dance were offered  by a smaller fraction—fewer than half. Education plans to conduct  another such survey in school year 2009-2010. Education sponsored the  National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) arts assessment of  students in the eighth grade during school year 1996-1997, which reported  the frequency of arts offerings by art form, and how well public school  students could respond to, create, and perform works of visual art, music,  and theatre. Known as the NAEP 1997 Arts Report Card, the study report  was issued in November 1998. The assessment found that a high  percentage of eighth grade students were offered music and visual arts in  the schools they attended, but that instruction in theater and dance was  more limited. Students’ performance ranged from 78 percent who sang the  song “America” rhythmically to 1 percent who created expressive collages.  Two other studies focused primarily on NCLBA implementation but also  included analyses of changes in instruction time for all subjects, including  arts education. One study, reported in Choices, Changes, and Challenges:  Curriculum and Instruction in the NCLB Era, sponsored by the Center  on Education Policy (CEP) and issued in July 2007, asked school district  officials in school year 2006-2007 whether instruction time for individual  subjects, including arts education, had changed since school year   2001-2002 when NCLB was enacted. The CEP study reported that 30  percent of school districts reported that instruction time for arts education  in elementary schools had decreased since NCLBA was enacted. NLS- NCLB, also sponsored by Education, collected data in school years 2004- 2005 and 2006-2007 to describe major patterns in state, district, and school  implementation of NCLBA’s central accountability provisions, including  changes in instruction time. To address study question 1 in our report  concerning changes in students’ access to arts education, if any, we  analyzed the data on changes in instruction time and other school  characteristics collected from elementary school teachers and principals  during school year 2006-2007 by the NLS-NCLB.
Education plans to undertake a new study, which is expected to build on  previous research, including the NLS-NCLB study, to continue to examine  NCLBA implementation issues. Among a broad range of topics the planned  study likely will explore are the uses of instruction time for all academic  subjects. Education expects to award a contract for the study in  September 2009 and begin data collection in the 2011-2012 school year.
section_title: Overall Time Spent on Arts Education Changed Little between the 2004- 2005 and 2006-2007 School Years, but Decreases Were More Likely at Some Schools and the Reasons for the Differences Are Uncertain
paragraphs: Most elementary school teachers—90 percent—reported that instruction  time for arts education stayed the same between the 2004-2005 and 2006- 2007 school years. The percentage of teachers that reported that  instruction time had stayed the same was similarly high across a range of  school characteristics, irrespective of the schools’ percentage of low- income or minority students or of students with limited English  proficiency, or the schools’ improvement under NCLBA. However,   7 percent of the teachers reported a reduction in the time spent on arts  education. Moreover, when we looked at teacher responses across a range  of school characteristics, we found some significant differences in the  percentages of teachers reporting that the time spent on arts education  had decreased and in the average amount of time that instruction had been  reduced. In contrast, among teachers reporting increases in instruction  time for the arts, we found no differences across different types of  schools. Because Education’s survey did not include questions for  teachers to indicate why instruction time decreased at their school, in our  analysis of Education’s data, we were unable to identify factors that might  help explain some of the apparent disparities in instruction time suggested  by our findings.
subsections: section_title: Teachers at Schools Identified as Needing Improvement and Those with a Higher Percentage of Minority Students Were More Likely to Report a Decrease in the Amount of Time Spent on Arts Education
paragraphs: According to Education’s data, the vast majority of elementary school  teachers surveyed reported that the amount of weekly instruction time  spent across all subjects, including arts education, stayed the same in the  2006-2007 school year compared with the 2004-2005 school year. Table 2  shows that about 89.8 percent of elementary school teachers reported that  instruction time spent on arts education did not change between these  school years, while about 3.7 percent reported the time had increased  compared with about 6.6 percent that reported it had decreased. The  percentage of teachers that reported increases in instruction time was  higher for reading/language arts and mathematics than for other subjects,  which is understandable since these were the two subjects for which the  NCLBA held schools accountable for demonstrating student proficiency at  that time. In contrast, the percentage of teachers that reported decreases  in instruction time was higher for social studies and science than for other  subjects, including arts education, even though the NCLBA required  schools to begin testing student proficiency in science in the 2007-2008  school year.
When we looked at teacher responses across a range of school  characteristics—including percentage of low-income and minority  students and students with limited English proficiency, as well as  improvement status, as indicated in table 3—we found no differences  across characteristics in the percentages of teachers reporting that the  time spent on arts education had increased. However, there were some  significant differences across characteristics in the percentages of  teachers reporting that the time spent on arts education had decreased, as  shown in table 3. Elementary school teachers at schools identified as  needing improvement, those at schools with higher percentages of  minority students, and those at schools with higher percentages of  students with limited English speaking skills, were significantly more  likely to report a decrease in the amount of time spent on arts education  compared with teachers at other schools. We might also point out that the  vast majority of teachers reported that instruction time stayed the same,  irrespective of their schools’ percentage of low-income or minority  students or students with limited English proficiency, or the schools’  improvement status under NCLBA.
section_title: Teachers at Schools with Higher Percentages of Low-Income or Minority Students Reported Significantly Larger Average Decreases Compared with Other Teachers
paragraphs: When we looked at the average amount of change in instruction time among  teachers that reported either an increase or decrease, we found significant  differences among teachers that reported a decrease. Among teachers that  reported a decrease, teachers at schools with higher percentages of low- income or minority students reported significantly larger average decreases in  time spent on arts education compared with teachers at other schools. (See  table 4.) For example, among teachers reporting a decrease, teachers at  schools with a higher percentage of low-income students reported an average  decrease of 49 minutes per week in the time spent on arts education  compared with an average decrease of 31 minutes reported by teachers at  schools with a low percentage of these students. While this data might  suggest that students at these types of schools are receiving less instruction  time in arts education during the school day compared with students at other  schools, we could not determine how this might affect their overall access to  arts education without information on other opportunities, such as after- school programs in arts education.
Interestingly, while teachers at elementary schools identified for  improvement and those with high percentages of limited English- proficient students were more likely to report a decrease in arts education  as shown in table 3, when looking at the amount of change, as shown in  table 4, the data shows that, on average, they reported about the same  amount of change in instruction time as teachers from nonidentified  schools and those with lower percentages of limited English-proficient  students, respectively—that is, the differences were not statistically  significant. It was difficult to determine which school characteristic had a  stronger effect on the changes in arts education instruction time without a  more advanced analysis.
section_title: Education’s NLS-NCLB Survey Does Not Currently Ask Questions That Might Explain the Disparities in Changes in Instruction Time across Different Types of Schools
paragraphs: Education’s NLS-NCLB survey did not include questions for respondents  to identify the reasons instruction time may have changed, which might  help explain some of the apparent disparities in instruction time suggested  by our analysis of Education’s data. Although Education’s survey asked  questions regarding whether schools have implemented any of a variety of  NCLBA-defined interventions, such as extending the school day or  adopting a new curriculum program, it did not specifically ask  respondents to identify the reasons for any change in the amount of  instruction time they reported for the respective subjects.
section_title: While Basic State Requirements for Arts Education in Schools Have Remained Constant in Most States, State Funding Levels for Arts Education Changed
paragraphs: According to our survey of state arts officials, since passage of NCLBA,  basic state requirements for arts education in schools, such as the number  of hours a week that the arts must be taught, have remained virtually  unchanged and more states have established funding for some type of arts  education, such as providing grants to schools to promote arts education.  However, while some states have increased funding, other states have  reduced funding since NCLBA’s passage. Arts officials attributed changes  in funding to state budget changes to a greater extent than to NCLBA or  other factors.
subsections: section_title: The Basic Requirement for Arts Education Stayed about the Same in Most States and Additional States Have Established Funding for Some Type of Arts Education
paragraphs: By school year 2001-2002, the year NCLBA was enacted, most states had  taken steps to establish arts education in their public school systems by  developing basic arts education requirements, such as the number of hours  a week that the arts must be taught or the number of courses that must be  taken. As shown in table 5, of the 45 states that responded to our survey, 34  states had established the basic requirement that arts education be taught,  and 28 states had included arts education as a high school graduation  requirement by that school year. By school year 2006-2007, as shown in the  third column of table 5, most of these states had retained these  requirements. In addition, 3 more states had established basic arts  education requirements, and 5 more states had included arts education as a  high school graduation requirement by that school year. As table 5 also  shows, a number of states did not have any requirements for arts education  in place by the time NCLBA was passed. Specifically, 7 states had no basic  requirement that arts education be taught, and 11 states had not included  arts education as a high school graduation requirement by school year 2001- 2002. State by state breakouts are provided in appendix III.
Many states had also provided funding to promote arts education in public  schools and, as shown in the third column of table 6, most of the funding  still was in place 5 years later, in school year 2006-2007. In addition, the  number of states with arts education grants, training funding, and state  established schools for the arts increased in school year 2006-2007.
State arts officials identified multiple sources of funding for arts  education, including the state education agency, the state cultural agency,  private foundations, the federal government, and other organizations, as  shown in table 7. Of the 45 arts officials who responded to the survey,  more identified the state cultural agency as a funding source than any  other organization, including the state education agency.
section_title: Levels of State Financial Support for Arts Education Varied Among the States, and States Reported That State Budget Changes rather than NCLBA Were the Major Factor Prompting the Funding Changes
paragraphs: While the number of states that had basic requirements for arts education  remained nearly unchanged and most states maintained their arts  education funding, levels of funding changed, with some states reporting  decreases, and others reporting increases. For example, of the 32 states  that awarded arts education grants in both years, funding decreased in 12  states, increased in 5 states, and stayed the about same in 8 states, as  shown in table 8.
According to our survey, state arts officials attributed changes in funding  for state arts education to state budget changes to a greater extent than to  NCLBA or other factors. For example, of the states that provided arts  education grants in both school years 2001-2002 and 2006-2007, 11 arts  officials attributed changes in funding to state budget changes, and 18  reported that shifting funds to meet NCLBA needs had little or nothing to  do with the funding changes. Table 9 shows the extent to which the arts  officials attributed changes in funding to state budget changes, state policy  changes, shifting funds to meet NCLBA needs, and other factors for each  of the four types of state arts education funding.
section_title: Since NCLBA, District Officials and School Principals Have Used Several Strategies to Provide Arts Education; However, Some Struggled with Decreased Budgets and Competing Demands on Instruction Time
paragraphs: District officials and school principals have used several strategies to  provide arts education, including varying when the arts are offered,  seeking funding and collaborative arrangements in the arts community,  and integrating the arts into other subjects; however, some struggled with  decreased budgets and competing demands on instruction time, according  to officials we interviewed. Faced with decreased funding or increased  demands on instruction time, some principals told us that they had to  make trade-offs.
subsections: section_title: District Officials and School Principals Have Used Several Different Strategies to Provide Arts Instruction
paragraphs: School principals we met with had found several ways to maintain arts  education, including varying when the arts are offered. More than half of  the 19 schools we visited offered some form of arts education outside of  the regular school day. In a few schools, after school classes were the only  arts education opportunity available to students. At one middle school in  Boston that had not met AYP in school year 2006-2007, the principal had  eliminated arts education classes during the school day and purchased an  after-school arts program in drama and music production from an outside  organization. The program is open to all students, but participation in the  program is offered on a first-come-first-served basis. In contrast, one New  York City middle school, which was not meeting AYP in English and  language arts in school year 2007-2008, changed when other classes were  offered, rather than changing when arts education was offered. This  school extended the school day for students who required additional help  by adding a period to the school schedule four times a week. The principal  told us that this allowed all students to attend art class held during the  regular school day. While many schools experienced changes to their arts  programs, several of the schools we visited reported no changes in their  arts education offerings. For example, the principal of the high school we  visited in the Waltham school district, near Boston, which met AYP, said  that the school had experienced a stable budget for the past 10 years and  had made no changes to its arts education policies. The principal of a large  high school in Chicago, which has not met AYP for 4 years, also said that  the school had not changed its arts education policies. He explained that  because the school’s budget is determined by the enrollment level, his  school had the resources to offer students arts education opportunities  that smaller Chicago schools could not.
Several of the schools we visited also reported receiving grants and private  funding and establishing collaborative relationships with organizations in  the arts community that supplemented the arts education classes funded  by general revenues. For example, one elementary school in Boston has  developed partnerships with several companies, including a bank, that  fund the school’s instrumental music program. This elementary school  also has obtained a grant from a television station to pay for instruments  and participates in a city-funded program that sends seven selected  students to the Boston Ballet once a week for lessons. A Chicago high  school received a private grant that supported a student art project to do a  mosaic on the walls outside the music rooms at the school. The principal  of this high school also said that he has informal arrangements with local  artists to bring special projects to the school, such as the group that visited  the school to teach a belly dancing class. A high school in Miami set up  internships for its students at local music stores and solicited a donation  of used equipment from the local news station when it moved to a new  facility. The drama teacher also solicits donations of costumes for school  dramatic productions. In Broward County, Florida, the school district  provides funds each year to pay for the cost of transporting the school  district’s students to performances at the Broward Center for the  Performing Arts (Center). A New York City junior high school receives  support for students to attend plays from a private program and sends the  school’s theater group to perform at Lincoln Center every year. A senior  high school in the city has arranged music programs with Carnegie Hall, a  local orchestra, and the Juilliard School of Music. The Museum of Modern  Art and the Metropolitan Museum of Art also cover the students’ cost of  admission for exhibits and performances.
Arts organization officials in Chicago, Miami, and Broward County,  Florida, described the arts integration model of arts education as a  strategy for maintaining the arts in school curricula and provided  examples of arts integration programs in schools we did not visit. In  Chicago, the Chicago Arts Partnerships in Education, a nonprofit arts  education advocacy organization, is participating as a partner in a project  that supports arts integration in the 55 fine and performing arts schools  operated under Chicago Public Schools’ (CPS) magnet school cluster  program. The project, funded by Education’s Model Development and  Dissemination grant program, funds teaching artists who work with art  teachers and regular classroom teachers to incorporate the arts into  teaching academic subjects. In Miami, Arts for Learning, a nonprofit that  promotes arts integration through in-school and after-school programs,  operates “GET smART,” a yearlong professional development program  that provides interdisciplinary training to teachers on how to effectively  create and implement arts integration projects in the core academic  subjects. About 18 Miami-Dade schools participated in this program in  school year 2007-2008. Arts for Learning also offers “Early GET smART” a  program that works with preschoolers aged 2 to 6 to provide an arts-based  learning approach to literacy and school readiness. The Broward County  Cultural Division, a publicly funded agency established by the Board of  County Commissioners, promotes arts integration in the local schools.  One initiative provides a block grant to the school board to implement  artist-in-residencies and arts integration workshops in individual schools.  Officials representing the division said that schools are increasing use of  the arts to teach lessons in academic subject areas. For example, as his  class learned about a particular country, a social studies teacher would  play music from that country to expose the students to different musical  styles from around the world. The teacher was also working with an artist  to develop a visual presentation that could be incorporated into the lesson.  In addition, the Ft. Lauderdale Children’s Theater goes into schools and  performs dramatic readings of plays with the children acting out the roles  as part of their classroom reading lessons.
section_title: Officials Report That the Main Challenges to Providing Arts Instruction Have Been Decreased State or Local Funding and Competing Demands on Instruction Time
paragraphs: Officials we met with told us that the main challenges to providing arts  education have been decreased state or local funding and competing  demands on instruction time due to requirements established by the state  education agency or school district to meet NCLBA proficiency standards,  such as doubling the amount of time low-performing students spend on  reading and math.
District officials and school principals in the Boston, Chicago, Miami- Dade, and New York City school districts all reported that state or local  budget cuts created a challenge for arts education in the schools. The  Boston school district expects an $11 million budget shortfall for the  upcoming school year, a result of a declining population base. School  district officials expect this shortfall to lead to a loss of 10 arts teachers  across the school district. District officials and school principals in  Chicago attributed funding shortages for arts education to the school  district’s arts personnel funding policy. The Chicago school district funds  personnel positions on the basis of student enrollment and supports one  half-time position for an arts teacher in primary schools with fewer than  750 students. To employ a full-time arts teacher on the staff, a school  principal must supplement the arts teacher’s salary from discretionary  funds. Officials in both Florida school districts we visited reported budget  pressures due to a state budget shortfall, but the consequences for arts  education differed. Miami-Dade school district officials reported cuts in  the district’s arts education budget of as much as 70 percent, resulting in  staff cuts. In Broward County, while acknowledging budget pressures,  school district officials reported that the arts have not been cut. They said  that the district had taken steps several years ago to prepare for this  possible economic downturn. However, if cuts in content area programs  are necessary, the district makes an across-the-board percentage cut in the  budget allocated to each school rather than targeting individual subjects  for reduction. New York City school district officials reported that a line  item in the school district budget that provided schools a per capita  allotment solely to support arts education was eliminated in 2007, and  funds were incorporated into the school’s general fund. This change  allowed school principals to allocate the funds to the arts or other  subjects.
In addition to state and local budget cuts, district officials and school  principals in the Boston, Chicago, Miami-Dade, and New York City school  districts also agreed that competing demands on instruction time were a  major challenge for providing arts education in their schools. These  officials also identified NCLBA’s proficiency standards—as well as  requirements established by the state and school district to meet NCLBA  proficiency standards—as a key source of the time pressure. Boston  school district officials said that it is difficult to convince principals of the  importance of continuing to provide arts education when it is not a tested  subject. They said that the arts curriculum takes a back seat because  school success is based on student performance on their state tests as  required under NCLBA. Although they tried to avoid pulling students out  of arts education classes for remedial work, one elementary and one high  school principal interviewed in Boston, whose schools were not meeting  AYP, agreed that NCLBA’s testing requirements had increased the  demands on instruction time for tested subjects and reduced time  available for the arts, at least for students not meeting proficiency  requirements. A Waltham school district official said that to meet the state  and federal proficiency standards, the district added workshops in math,  reading, and science, which led to cuts in arts staff and even eliminating  arts field trips because they reduce the amount of available class time. She  added that, 2 years ago, the district added a two-block period twice a week  to keep up with state proficiency standards. This resulted in the loss of  one full-time equivalent (FTE) arts teacher. A Chicago school district  official affirmed that the priorities principals set for meeting AYP in  reading and math affect the time available for the arts. In Florida, where  the state requires that students who perform at the lowest two of five  levels on the state NCLBA proficiency tests be placed in intensive classes  for language arts and math, district officials agreed that time for arts  education might be affected. In Broward County, officials said that the  district follows the state policy that requires mandatory pull-out sessions  for students performing at reading levels 1 and 2 on the state performance  assessments. In some cases, the district will require some students to be  pulled out for additional intensive instruction in math. These “pull-out”  students receive double periods of reading or other intensive instruction  that reduces the number of periods they have available to take elective  classes, such as art or music. A New York City school district official  acknowledged that schools not meeting AYP faced challenges in providing  arts education but said that the responsibility for meeting instructional  requirements was the school principal’s. Principals in the elementary and  middle schools we visited in New York, two of which were not meeting  AYP, said they had taken steps to meet the time demands of NCLBA’s  testing requirements. The high school principal said that students not  meeting proficiency requirements could attend their remedial classes and  still meet the arts course requirement for graduation, but that they may not  have an opportunity to take courses above the minimum credit  requirement. This high school was not meeting AYP in school year 2007- 2008.
section_title: Officials Report That When Trade-Offs Involving Funding or Instruction Time for Arts Education Had to Be Made, the School Principal Made the Decision
paragraphs: District officials and school principals told us that when they faced  decreased budgets or increased demands on instruction time, trade-offs  had to be made, and school principals made the decision. Principals’  decisions differed, however. Some principals chose not to spend their  limited discretionary funds on arts education, while other principals, even  when their school had been identified as needing improvement several  times, maintained their arts offerings. For example, one school principal in  a Chicago elementary school chose to spend discretionary budget funds  on special reading and math programs needed to improve students’  performance rather than supplement half the salary of a full-time arts  teacher. On the other hand, one Miami-Dade high school principal had  allocated Title I funds to help retain and rebuild the school’s arts  education program as part of its NCLBA restructuring plan. New York City  officials said that a new accountability system the school district had  developed in part because of NCLBA, but also to evaluate progress toward  meeting city instructional requirements, increased the discretionary  authority vested in school principals. The district also developed an  accountability initiative called ArtsCount. For this initiative, district arts  officials developed measures to be incorporated in the district’s evaluation  of school performance and the quality of arts offerings. This information  will be used to influence the scores that are incorporated into each school  principal’s report card. For middle and high schools, the results are  incorporated into the measure of graduation requirements. Under the  accountability system and this initiative, school principals are given  greater authority to make trade-offs, such as the discretion to allocate  funds formerly restricted to expenditures for the arts to other subjects, but  the school district monitors the results of their decisions.
section_title: Overall Research on the Association between Arts Education and Student Outcomes Is Inconclusive
paragraphs: While some studies that have examined the association between arts  education and students’ academic achievement have found a small  positive association with student outcomes, others have found none. One  meta-analysis that combined the results of several studies found small  positive relationships. This study included two separate analyses: one  that looked at the association between music instruction and math scores,  and another that looked at the association between listening to music and  math scores. The first analysis of six studies found that learning to play  music had a small positive relationship with both standardized and  researcher-designed achievement test scores in mathematics, regardless of  whether or not the child learned to read music. Music instruction in these  studies included both instrumental and vocal performance for durations of  at least 4 months and up to 2 years, and included children at the preschool  through elementary level. The second analysis, which included 15  studies, determined that there was a small positive relationship with math  test scores when children listened to certain types of music while  attempting to solve math problems. In contrast, another meta-analysis  found no association with students’ achievement. This analysis, which  looked at 24 studies examining reading outcomes and 15 studies  examining math outcomes, found no association between arts education  and standardized reading or math test scores, regardless of the child’s  background or academic history. The students included in the studies had  a wide range of academic abilities and came from a wide range of  backgrounds. For example, some of the studies included academically at- risk students and students from lower-income families, while some of the  studies included “academically gifted” students and students from higher- income families. The studies also included children of a variety of ages and  several different types of arts instruction, including music, visual arts,  drama, and dance. Moreover, some research has focused on special  populations, such as students from low-income families; however, most of  these studies did not meet GAO’s criteria for methodological quality, and  their findings are questionable.
Similarly, studies that examined the association between arts education  and abilities associated with academic performance also were mixed. For  example, two of the three analyses from one meta-analysis looking at the  association between music education and certain spatial abilities found a  positive relationship. One analysis, which was made up of 15 studies, and  another that analyzed 8 studies, found that music education was  associated with student performance on a wide range of spatial tasks.  However, the third analysis, which included 5 studies, found no  association between music education and one measure of spatial  performance. In these studies, enhanced spatial performance referred to  the ability to mentally recognize and manipulate patterns that fall into a  certain logical order and are usually used in subjects such as music,  geometry, and engineering. An example of spatial ability in a music course  would be the ability to produce a piece of music based on memory alone,  anticipating mentally the changes needed to play a certain piece of music.  A complete list of the studies assessed is included in appendix IV.
section_title: Conclusions
paragraphs: Amid concerns about possible elimination of arts education, the national  picture indicates that the vast majority of schools have found a way to  preserve their arts education programs. However, a somewhat different  story emerges for some schools identified as needing improvement under  NCLBA, which include higher percentages of low-income and minority  students. Among teachers reporting a decrease in instruction time for arts  education, our study identified a more likely reduction in time spent on  arts education at schools identified as needing improvement and those  with higher percentages of minority students. While school officials in our  site visit states told us that requirements established by the state and  school district to meet NCLBA proficiency standards placed competing  demands on instruction time for arts education, the reasons for the  differences in instruction time our statistical analysis identified are  difficult to establish nationally, given current limitations in Education’s  NLS-NCLB longitudinal data. Having national-level information about the  reasons for these differences could add to the current body of research on  arts education and help guide school decisions with respect to arts  education.
section_title: Recommendation for Executive Action
paragraphs: To help identify factors that may contribute to changes in access to arts  education for certain student subgroups, we recommend that the  Secretary of Education require that the department’s planned study of  NCLBA implementation include questions in its surveys asking survey  respondents to describe the reasons for any changes in instruction time  they report. Once the information has been collected and analyzed,  Education could disseminate it to school districts and schools to help  them identify and develop strategies to address any disparities in access.
section_title: Agency Comments and Our Evaluation
paragraphs: We provided a draft of the report to the Department of Education for  review and comment. Education generally agreed with our findings and  stated that, our finding that among the small percentage of teachers  reporting a decrease in arts education instruction time, teachers in schools  identified for improvement and those with high percentages of minority  students were more likely to report reductions in time for arts education is  cause for concern. Regarding our recommendation, Education agreed that  further study would be useful to help explain why arts education  instruction time decreased for some students. Education said that it will  carefully consider our recommendation that the department’s planned  study of NCLBA implementation include questions in its surveys asking  respondents to describe the reasons for any changes in instruction time  they report. Education also provided technical comments, which have  been incorporated in the report as appropriate. Education’s comments  appear in appendix V.
We are sending copies of this report to the Secretary of Education,  relevant congressional committees, and other interested parties. The  report also is available at no charge on the GAO Web site at  http://www.gao.gov.
If you or your staff have any questions about this report, please contact me  at (202) 512-7215 or ashbyc@gao.gov. Contact points for our Office of  Congressional Relations and Public Affairs may be found on the last page  of this report. GAO staff who made major contributions to this report are  listed in appendix VI.
section_title: Appendix I: Scope and Methodology
paragraphs: This appendix discusses in more detail our methodology for examining  any changes in students’ access to arts education in public elementary and  secondary schools that may have taken place since passage of the No  Child Left Behind Act (NCLBA) and what is known about the effect of arts  education on student academic performance. The study was framed  around four questions: (1) has the amount of instruction time for arts  education changed and, if so, have certain groups been more affected than  others, (2) to what extent have state education agencies’ requirements and  funding for arts education changed since NCLBA, (3) what are school  officials in selected districts doing to provide arts education since NCLBA  and what challenges do they face in doing so, and (4) what is known about  the effect of arts education in improving student outcomes?
subsections: section_title: Scope
paragraphs: As the Department of Education (Education), working in collaboration  with the National Endowment for the Arts, determined first in school year  1993-1994 and again in school year 1999-2000, arts education in some form  is provided in the vast majority of public schools nationwide. Questions  about changes in access thus need to be considered for the national  population of public schools. However, because we recognized that states’  and school districts’ roles in school governance, funding, and  implementation of NCLBA introduce variation in time devoted to  individual subjects, including arts education, we determined that an in- depth look at state, district, and school policies and practices also was  needed to help understand any systematic changes in instruction time for  arts education that a national-level analysis might identify. Therefore, to  examine any changes in students’ access to arts education in public  elementary and secondary schools that may have taken place since  passage of NCLBA, we focused on time devoted to instruction in arts  education and other subjects and any changes that occurred in a nationally  representative sample of elementary schools. We also reviewed state arts  education requirements and funding related to students’ access to arts  education and steps that school districts and schools in selected states had  taken to provide arts education in the post-NCLBA environment. To  determine what is known about the effect of arts education on student  academic achievement and other outcomes, we reviewed and  methodologically assessed existing research on arts education.
section_title: Methodology
paragraphs: We used separate sources of data for each study question, including  nationally representative survey data collected by the Department of  Education’s (Education) National Longitudinal Study of No Child Left  Behind (NLS-NCLB), which collected data on changes in instruction time  by subject; a GAO survey of state arts education officials; on-site  interviews with school district, school, and arts organization officials in  selected states; and existing studies of the effect of arts education on  student outcomes that met GAO’s methodological criteria. Before deciding  to use the NLS-NCLB data, we conducted a data reliability assessment. We  discuss our assessment procedures and steps we took to mitigate any data  limitations below, as part of the methodology for analyzing changes in  instruction time. We provided specifications to Education for descriptive  analyses of the NLS-NCLB data, and we conducted a descriptive analysis  of our state survey data, a synthesis of our site visit data, and a  methodological assessment of existing research on arts education.
subsections: section_title: Procedures for Analyzing Changes in Instruction Time
paragraphs: Because we were not able to obtain raw data files from Education to do a  comprehensive analysis of the data ourselves, we asked Education to  provide us with summary information from the Survey of Teachers  component of the school year 2006-2007 NLS-NCLB. These data are from a  nationally representative survey of teachers, as well as of schools and  school districts. We requested tables that showed (1) the average (mean)  amount of time that teachers reported devoting to arts education each  week in 2006-2007; (2) the percentage of teachers that reported that the  amount of time spent on arts education had increased, decreased, and  remained the same over the past 2 years; and (3) for those teachers who  reported a change, the average increase or decrease (in minutes per week)  that was devoted to arts education. We obtained these estimates from  Education for teachers in all schools, and separately for teachers in  different categories of schools, defined by the percentages of students in  the schools that were (1) minorities, (2) African-Americans, (3) Hispanics,  (4) eligible for free/reduced lunches, and (5) in individualized education  programs. We also compared the reports from teachers in schools that  were (6) urban with those from rural teachers, and (7) that were and were  not identified as being in need of improvement. We obtained from  Education the standard errors associated with the estimates from the  different types of schools and thus were able to test the statistical  significance of the differences between what teachers from different types  of schools reported.
Before deciding to use the data, we reviewed guidance on the variable  definitions and measures provided, documentation of the survey and  sampling methodology used, and the data collection and analysis efforts  conducted. We also interviewed Education officials about the measures  they and their contractors took to ensure data reliability. We assessed the  reliability of the NLS-NCLB data by (1) reviewing existing information and  documentation about the data and the system that produced them and (2)  interviewing agency officials knowledgeable about the data. On the basis  of our efforts to determine the reliability of the estimates for which  supporting information was provided, which included verifying  calculations, we believe that they are sufficiently reliable for the purposes  of this report.
section_title: State Survey Data Collection and Analysis Procedures
paragraphs: We designed and implemented a Web-based survey to gather information  on states’ role in shaping the provision of arts education in public schools  and changes that may have occurred since NCLBA. Our survey population  consisted of state arts officials in 49 states and the District of Columbia.  We identified these arts officials through searches of the Arts Education  Partnership Web site, and verified the contact information provided  through e-mails and phone contacts.
To develop survey questions, we reviewed existing studies on arts  education and the state arts education policy data bases on the Web sites  of the Education Commission of the States and the Arts Education  Partnership. We also conducted interviews with representatives of these  organizations. In addition, we interviewed the Arts Education Director and  Research Director of the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) to  develop an understanding of federal and state roles in arts education in  public schools and of the alternative funding sources for arts education  that are available to schools. Finally, we conducted pretests of various  drafts of our questionnaire with arts education officials in seven states to  ensure that the questions were clear, the terms used were precise, the  questions were unbiased, and that the questionnaire could be completed in  a reasonable amount of time. We modified the questionnaire to  incorporate findings from the pretests.
The survey was conducted using self-administered electronic  questionnaires posted on the World Wide Web. In the questionnaire, we  asked the state arts official to be the lead survey respondent and, if  necessary, to confer with other representatives of state departments of  education, state arts commissions, and state cultural agencies to answer  questions requiring more detailed knowledge. We sent e-mail notifications  to these officials beginning on April 22, 2008. To encourage them to  respond, we sent two follow-up e-mails over a period of about 3 weeks.  For those who still did not respond, GAO staff made phone calls to  encourage the state officials to complete our questionnaire. We closed the  survey on July 2, 2008. Forty-five state officials completed the survey.
Because this was not a sample survey, there are no sampling errors;  however, the practical difficulties of conducting any survey may introduce  errors. For example, difficulties in how a particular question is interpreted,  in the sources of information that are available to respondents, or in how  the data are entered into the database or were analyzed, can introduce  unwanted variability into the survey results. We took steps in the  development of this questionnaire, in the data collection, and in the data  analysis to minimize such error. For example, a social science survey  specialist designed the questionnaires in collaboration with GAO staff with  subject matter expertise. Then, as noted earlier, the draft questionnaire  was pretested in seven states to ensure that questions were relevant,  clearly stated, and easy to comprehend. The questionnaire was also  reviewed by an additional GAO survey specialist. Data analysis was  conducted by a GAO data analyst working directly with the GAO staff with  subject matter expertise. When the data were analyzed, a second  independent data analyst checked all computer programs for accuracy.  Since this was a Web-based survey, respondents entered their answers  directly into the electronic questionnaires. This eliminated the need to  have the data keyed into databases thus removing an additional source of  error.
section_title: Site Visit Selection, Data Collection, and Analysis
paragraphs: To obtain information about what school officials are doing to provide arts  education since NCLBA and the challenges, if any, they face in doing so,  we visited school districts and schools in four states—Illinois,  Massachusetts, Florida, and New York. Having learned from other studies  of NCLBA implementation that schools not meeting AYP were difficult to  recruit for site visits, to ensure that a sufficient number of schools would  be selected, we identified states for our visits with large numbers of  schools that were not meeting AYP in school year 2006-2007. Within each  state, we selected school districts and schools that represented variation  in income level of the school district, schools’ performance under NCLBA,  and schools’ location as indicated in table 10.
Within each state, we visited two school districts and 4 to 6 schools in  each district for a total of eight school districts and 19 schools. We  interviewed officials responsible for the arts education curriculum in each  school district and school principals and, at the principal’s discretion, art  teachers in elementary, middle, and high schools. We also visited and  interviewed officials representing local arts organizations that had  undertaken arts education initiatives in the public schools.
Recruiting low-income school districts and schools for this study was  especially challenging. For example, one district we initially selected to  include in our study was in California, the state with the largest number of  schools identified as needing improvement in school year 2006-2007.  Officials representing that school district said that the district had placed a  moratorium on all research in the district’s schools. In other California  school districts, we experienced long delays in receiving a response from  both district and school officials to requests for initial or follow-up  interviews. We ultimately decided to recruit school districts and schools in  other states.
For the site visits, we developed structured interviews with a standard set  of questions for school district and school officials including the following  topics:    art forms included in the schools’ arts education classes;    daily or weekly schedule for all subjects, including arts education;    changes in instruction time for all subjects, including arts education,  occurring in the past school year and recent years;    changes in students’ access to arts education in the schools;    challenges faced in providing arts education in the schools; and  funding sources for arts education and how budget cuts are implemented  when resource reductions occur.
Our questions for arts organization officials asked them to describe their  arts education initiatives in the local schools, what resources they  contributed, if any, to arts education in the schools, and their perception  of public school students’ access to arts education and the challenges  school districts and schools face in providing arts education.
To analyze the site visit data, we created matrices to summarize key  findings from interviews with school district, school, and arts organization  officials on changes in instruction time, changes in students’ access to arts  education, challenges faced, and experience with changes in funding.
section_title: Review of Existing Studies on the Effect of Arts Education on Student Outcomes
paragraphs: To determine what existing research says about the effects of arts  education on student outcomes, we used several search strategies. To  identify existing studies, we conducted searches of several automated  databases, including the Education Resources Information Center (ERIC),  Proquest, and Nexis. We also interviewed individuals familiar with  available research, including the Research Director of the NEA and the  former Director of the Arts Education Partnership (AEP). From these  sources, we identified over 1,000 studies that were screened for relevance  for our study. Using information about these studies that was readily  available, we screened them using the following criteria:    published during or after 1998,  research based on subjects within the United States,    published in a peer reviewed journal, and    employed an experimental or quasi-experimental design.
We selected the studies for our review based on their methodological  strength and not on the generalizability of the results. Although the  findings of the studies we identified are not representative of the findings  of all studies of arts education programs, the studies consist of those  published studies we could identify that used the strongest designs— experimental or quasi-experimental—to assess the effects of arts  education. At the end of this screening process, 32 studies on the effects of  arts education on student outcomes remained. We performed our searches  for research and research evaluations between August 2007 and April  2008.
To assess the methodological quality of the 32 selected studies, we  developed a data collection instrument to obtain information  systematically about each study being evaluated and about the features of  the evaluation methodology. We based our data collection and  assessments on generally accepted social science standards. We examined  such factors as whether evaluation data were collected before and after  arts education implementation; how arts education effects were isolated,  including the use of nonarts participant comparison groups or statistical  controls; and the appropriateness of sampling, outcome measures,  statistical analyses, and any reported results. A senior social scientist with  training and experience in evaluation research and methodology read and  coded the documentation for each evaluation. A second senior social  scientist reviewed each completed data collection instrument and the  relevant documentation for the outcome evaluation to verify the accuracy  of every coded item. This review identified 7 of the 32 selected studies that  met GAO’s criteria for methodological quality.
section_title: Appendix II: Average Amount of Instruction Time Elementary School Teachers Reported Spending
paragraphs: Appendix II: Average Amount of Instruction  Time Elementary School Teachers Reported  Spending per week (in hours)
section_title: Appendix III: Arts Education Requirements and Funding, by State, School Years 2001- 2002 and 2006-2007
subsections: section_title: Yes
paragraphs: Blank cell = either “don’t know” or “no response”
section_title: Appendix IV: Studies Meeting GAO’s Criteria for Methodological Quality
subsections: section_title: Erik Moga, Kristin Burger, Lois Hetland, and Ellen Winner
paragraphs: Two meta-analyses: analysis 1 found no support  for a causal relationship between arts study and  verbal creativity.
The second analysis found some equivocal  support for a causal relationship between arts  study and figural creativity.
Results varied and showed an extremely small  positive overall association between the study of  music and reading/verbal scores.
Three meta-analyses: two of the analyses showed  a positive relationship between music instruction  and spatial-temporal tasks.
The third analysis showed no relationship between  music and a non spatial task.
Two meta-analyses: analysis 1 found a significant  and robust relationship between listening to music  and performance on all types of spatial tasks.
Analysis 2 also found a significant, robust effect of  music listening on spatial-temporal tasks.
Quasi-experimental studies showed that  background music has a very minimal effect on  math scores.
Experimental instruction showed a small  association between music instruction and math  skills.
Analysis 1 did not demonstrate a reliable  relationship between arts instruction and reading  improvement.
Analysis 2 found a positive, moderately-sized  relationship between reading improvement and an  integrated arts-reading form of instruction.
Showed no evidence for any educationally  significant impact of arts on achievement (both  verbal and math outcomes).
section_title: Appendix V: Comments from the Department of Education
section_title: Appendix VI: GAO Contact and Staff Acknowledgments
subsections: section_title: Staff Acknowledgments
paragraphs: Sherri Doughty, Assistant Director;  Sara Edmondson, Analyst-in-charge  Michael Meleady; Michael Morris; Douglas Sloane; Luann Moy; Stuart  Kaufman; Justin Fisher; Rebecca Rose; Michele Fejfar; Amanda Miller;  Susannah Compton; and James Rebbe made significant contributions to  this report.