Human Trafficking: Agencies Have Taken Steps to Assess Prevalence, Address Victim Issues, and Avoid Grant Duplication
Published: 2016-06-28T00:00:00

Fast Facts:

Highlights:
section_title: Why GAO Did This Study
paragraphs: Human trafficking—the exploitation of a person typically through force, fraud, or coercion for such purposes as forced labor, involuntary servitude or commercial sex—is occurring in the United States. Congress has passed multiple laws to help ensure punishment of traffickers and protection of victims. DOJ and the Department of Homeland Security lead federal investigations and prosecutions of trafficking crimes. The Departments of Defense, Labor, and State, and the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission investigate trafficking related offenses under certain circumstances, and take further action, as appropriate. DOJ and HHS award grants to fund victim service programs.
The Justice for Victims of Trafficking Act of 2015 includes a provision for GAO to review law enforcement efforts and grant programs to combat human trafficking and assist victims in the United States. This report discusses (1) federal efforts to assess prevalence of human trafficking (2) challenges agencies face in investigating and prosecuting human trafficking cases, and 3) federal grants and steps taken to prevent duplication. GAO reviewed trafficking data and agency documents, and conducted 32 interviews with federal, state and local law enforcement officials and prosecutors in four jurisdictions. We selected these jurisdictions based on the number of human trafficking tips they received, receipt of human trafficking task force funding and geographic variation. These officials' perspectives cannot be generalized to all jurisdictions but they provide insights into anti-trafficking efforts.
section_title: What GAO Found
paragraphs: Federal agencies have begun efforts to assess the prevalence of human trafficking in the United States and develop data standards and definitions to help facilitate prevalence studies. For example, the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) is sponsoring the Human Trafficking Data Collection Project, which seeks to inform the development of an integrated data collection platform regarding human trafficking victimization, establish baseline knowledge of human trafficking and victim needs, and support effective prevention and intervention responses. HHS, in consultation with key stakeholders, has developed draft data fields and definitions for human trafficking and expects to begin piloting the data collection effort in fall 2016. Further, the National Institute of Justice, within the Department of Justice (DOJ), has awarded grants for the development and testing of methodologies that could be used to estimate the prevalence of human trafficking.
Federal, state and local law enforcement officials and prosecutors GAO interviewed reported that investigating and prosecuting human trafficking cases is challenging for multiple reasons, including a lack of victim cooperation, limited availability of services for victims, and difficulty identifying human trafficking. Officials told us that obtaining the victim's cooperation is important because the victim is generally the primary witness and source of evidence; however, obtaining and securing victims' cooperation is difficult, as victims may be unable or unwilling to testify due to distrust of law enforcement or fear of retaliation by the trafficker. According to these officials, victim service programs, such as those that provide mental health and substance abuse services, have helped improve victim cooperation; however, the availability of services is limited. Further, officials reported that identifying and distinguishing human trafficking from other crimes such as prostitution can be challenging. Federal, state, and local agencies have taken or are taking actions to address these challenges, such as increasing the availability of victim services through grants and implementing training and public awareness initiatives.
GAO identified 42 grant programs with awards made in 2014 and 2015 that may be used to combat human trafficking or to assist victims of human trafficking, 15 of which are intended solely for these purposes. Although some overlap exists among these human trafficking grant programs, federal agencies have established processes to help prevent unnecessary duplication. For instance, in response to recommendations in a prior GAO report, DOJ requires grant applicants to identify any federal grants they are currently operating under as well as federal grants for which they have applied. In addition, agencies that participate in the Grantmaking Committee of the Senior Policy Operating Group are encouraged to share grant solicitations and information on proposed grant awards, allowing other agencies to comment on proposed grant awards and determine whether they plan to award funding to the same organization.

section_title: Letter
paragraphs: Sometimes perceived to be a foreign issue, human trafficking— the  exploitation of a person typically through force, fraud, or coercion for such  purposes as forced labor, involuntary servitude or  commercial sex—is  occurring in the United States.  Human trafficking victims include women,  men and transgender individuals, adults and children, and foreign  nationals and U.S. citizens or nationals who are diverse with respect to  race, ethnicity, and sexuality, among other factors. Human trafficking can  take place in rural, suburban, and urban settings throughout the country,  and often involves victims who are already vulnerable—such as missing  and runaway youth or persons dealing with substance abuse addictions.  Traffickers may lure victims into work or commercial sex with false  promises—such as offering to help a teenage girl become a model—and  ultimately force victims to remain in the employment situation through  various means, such as physical and sexual abuse; threatening to harm  the victim’s family; or for foreign nationals, withholding their identification  and immigration documents.  Traffickers may be family members,  intimate partners, acquaintances, or strangers, and they may run the  human trafficking operation on their own or be a member of a large or  small organized criminal network. For example, in January 2015, a  federal jury convicted four gang members in El Paso, Texas—one of  whom was a former juvenile probation officer—for child sex trafficking and  related crimes. In June 2015, a military official from Qatar and his wife  were charged with engaging in forced labor by obtaining the labor and  services of two persons by means of force, threats of force, physical  restraint, and threats of physical restraint in San Antonio, Texas.
Federal agencies, including the Departments of Health and Human  Services (HHS), Homeland Security (DHS), Justice (DOJ), Labor, and  State, as well as state and local law enforcement and non-governmental  organizations, have taken a collaborative approach to combating human  trafficking in the United States, both in conducting investigations and  prosecutions and ensuring that victims have access to needed services.  For instance, HHS and DOJ have several grant programs in place to train  and support law enforcement and organizations that assist victims in their  efforts to combat human trafficking, as well as to provide services to  victims, each of which also support collaboration among stakeholders. In  2014, HHS, DHS, and DOJ, in partnership with other federal agencies,  issued the first Federal Strategic Action Plan on Services for Victims of  Human Trafficking in the United States, which identified actions that each  agency will take to help rebuild the lives of trafficking victims through  coordination, collaboration, and capacity building.
The Justice for Victims of Trafficking Act (JVTA) of 2015 includes a  provision for GAO to report on federal and selected state efforts to  combat human trafficking in the United States, as well as identify federal  grant programs that can be used to assist victims of trafficking. In this  report, we address the following questions:  1.  What federal efforts have been made to determine the prevalence of  human trafficking in the United States?  2.  What challenges, if any, do federal and selected state law  enforcement and prosecutorial agencies face when combating human  trafficking in the United States, and what actions have they or others  taken to address identified challenges?  3.  What federal grant programs are intended to combat human  trafficking and assist victims within the United States, and what steps  have federal agencies taken, if any, to reduce the potential for  duplication among grant programs?
For purposes of this report, we focused on human trafficking within the  United States, which includes U.S. citizens or nationals, or those with or  without lawful immigration status, who are trafficked within the United  States, as well as foreign persons who are brought to the United States  from abroad for the purpose of trafficking.
To address the first objective, we reviewed the JVTA and other federal  laws related to human trafficking, and interviewed DOJ, DHS, and HHS  officials to learn whether any federal agencies had efforts underway to  collect data that could be used to determine the prevalence of human  trafficking in the United States.  We also reviewed documentation issued  by the President’s Interagency Task Force to Monitor and Combat  Trafficking to learn about additional federal efforts to determine  prevalence.  We analyzed data from federal investigative and  prosecutorial agencies and two federally-funded entities, the National  Human Trafficking Resource Center (NHTRC) and the National Center for  Missing and Exploited Children (NCMEC), which, while not specifically  intended to do so, could give an indication of where human trafficking is  occurring in the United States for fiscal years 2013 through 2015.  We  assessed the reliability of the data the agencies and other entities  provided by questioning knowledgeable officials and reviewing the data  for obvious errors and anomalies. We determined that the data were  sufficiently reliable for our purposes.
To address the second objective, we interviewed headquarters officials  from the Department of Defense, DOJ, DHS, Labor, State, and the Equal  Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) who are responsible for  identifying, investigating, and prosecuting human trafficking-related  crimes. For DOJ’s Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and U.S.  Attorney’s Offices (USAO); DHS’s U.S. Immigration and Customs  Enforcement (ICE) Homeland Security Investigations (HSI); Labor’s  Wage and Hour Division; State’s Bureau of Diplomatic Security; and  EEOC, we interviewed investigators and prosecutors located in field  offices that cover four jurisdictions—Washington, DC/Northern Virginia;  Houston, Texas; Los Angeles, California; and Bismarck, North Dakota.  We selected these jurisdictions because they are located in states that  are among the top 10 in terms of human trafficking tips, per capita, that  were sent to NHTRC or NCMEC. We also selected these jurisdictions  because they reflect a variation in geography and receipt of human  trafficking task force funding, and are priority areas identified by DHS’s  department-wide anti-human trafficking effort. In addition to federal  agencies, we interviewed state and local law enforcement and  prosecutorial agencies that were part of the identified task forces in each  of these jurisdictions. During the interviews, we asked officials whether  they experienced any challenges in carrying out their duties related to  combating human trafficking and to identify any efforts that have been or  could be taken to address challenges. While these officials’ perspectives  cannot be generalized to all jurisdictions, they provided insights into  federal, state, and local efforts to combat human trafficking. We also  interviewed representatives from six non-governmental organizations that  provide services to human trafficking victims and were part of the  identified task forces in each of the selected jurisdictions. In addition, we  interviewed officials from the Federal Judicial Center to further  understand challenges faced when combating human trafficking.
To address the third objective, we worked with agencies to develop a list  of federal grant programs that provide funding for activities related to  combating human trafficking and assisting victims. We reviewed grant  documentation and interviewed federal officials responsible for  administering human trafficking-related grant programs and grantees.  Using the GAO established framework for addressing overlap and  duplication, we used the following definitions for purposes of assessing  human trafficking grant programs:
Overlap occurs when multiple granting agencies or grant programs  have similar goals, engage in similar activities or strategies to achieve  these goals, or target the same or similar beneficiaries.
Duplication occurs on multiple levels. It occurs when a single grantee  uses grant funds from different federal sources to pay for the exact  same expenditure. Duplication also occurs when two or more granting  agencies or grant programs engage in the same or similar activities or  provide funding to support the same or similar services to the same  beneficiaries.
To assess what efforts have been made to prevent any unnecessary  duplication among human trafficking grants, we reviewed DOJ and HHS  guidance and interviewed federal officials to better understand processes  put in place to prevent potential duplication. For more information on our  scope and methodology, see appendix I.
We conducted our work from July 2015 to June 2016 in accordance with  generally accepted government auditing standards. Those standards  require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain sufficient, appropriate  evidence to provide a reasonable basis for our findings and conclusions  based on our audit objectives. We believe that the evidence obtained  provides a reasonable basis for our findings and conclusions based on  our audit objectives.
subsections: section_title: Background
paragraphs: Federal law generally recognizes two forms of human trafficking—sex  trafficking and labor trafficking. The Trafficking Victims Protection Act of  2000 (TVPA), as amended, defines human trafficking under the term  “severe forms of trafficking in persons.” Pursuant to the TVPA, as  amended, sex trafficking is the recruitment, harboring, transportation,  provision, obtaining, patronizing, or soliciting of a person for the purpose  of a commercial sex act.  Sex trafficking is a “severe” form of trafficking  where it involves force, fraud or coercion, or where the victim has not  attained 18 years of age, in which case force, fraud or coercion are not  necessary elements. In the case of sex trafficking, a perpetrator—which  could be a pimp, intimate partner or relative of the victim—generally  forces the victim to engage in commercial sexual activity. For instance,  victims may be forced to act as hostesses in a “cantina,” which is a bar at  which payment for drinks includes the company of women. Additional  payment can be made for sexual contact, and officials told us that many  cantinas may contain rooms for the purpose of sexual acts, while others  pay for the transaction at the bar and then engage in the sexual act in a  nearby hotel. The TVPA defines labor related trafficking generally as the  recruitment, harboring, transportation, provision, or obtaining of a person  for labor or services, through the use of force, fraud, or coercion for the  purpose of subjection to involuntary servitude, peonage, debt bondage, or  slavery. Labor trafficking can take various forms, such as debt bondage,  domestic servitude, and forced labor.  For example, in one case,  workers from Thailand were brought to the United States with the  understanding that they would have highly-paid work as welders.   However, once they arrived in the country, they were forced to work in  restaurants without pay, had their passports confiscated, and were  confined to cramped apartments without any electricity, water, or gas.
subsections: section_title: Federal and State Laws to Combat Human Trafficking
paragraphs: Federal efforts to combat and prevent human trafficking in the United  States have evolved over time, including various laws that have  established federal agencies’ roles in these efforts. During the 1990s, the  United States began to take steps to address human trafficking at home  and abroad. DOJ prosecuted trafficking cases under several federal  criminal statutes, including the involuntary servitude statutes, the Mann  Act, and labor laws on workplace conditions and compensation.   However, involuntary servitude was restricted to cases of physical abuse  including force, or threats of force, or threats of legal coercion, and did not  include psychological coercion, which is often used by today’s  traffickers. These statutes spread enforcement authority across the  federal government and resulted in different case outcomes, depending  on the charges brought or which agency learned of the allegations of  abuse.
Over the past few decades, Congress has taken numerous legislative  actions to help combat human trafficking and ensure that victims have  access to needed services. In October 2000, the TVPA was enacted to  combat trafficking in persons, ensure just and effective punishment of  traffickers and protect trafficking victims.  Among other things, the  TVPA, as amended, makes it illegal to knowingly or recklessly use force,  fraud, or coercion to recruit, entice, harbor, transport, provide, obtain,  advertise, maintain, patronize, or solicit any person to engage in a  commercial sex act. The TVPA also makes it illegal to take the above  actions, and thus cause a person under 18 years of age to engage in a  commercial sex act, with or without the use of force, fraud, or coercion.  In addition, the TVPA criminalizes the use of certain means, including  force, threats of force, physical restraint, or serious harm or threats of  such harm to knowingly provide or obtain persons for any labor or  services, such as working in farms, factories, and households. The act  also updated and supplemented existing involuntary servitude statutes  used to prosecute trafficking crimes, enhanced the penalties for trafficking  crimes, and provided a range of new protections and assistance for  victims of trafficking.  The TVPA provided for the creation of the  Interagency Task Force to Monitor and Combat Trafficking, now known  as the President’s Interagency Task Force to Monitor and Combat  Trafficking in Persons, as a cabinet-level entity that convenes routinely to  advance and coordinate both federal policies and the implementation of  the TVPA.
As amended by the Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of  2003, the TVPA also established the Senior Policy Operating Group  (SPOG), consisting of senior officials from 14 federal agencies and the  White House National Security Council and the Domestic Policy Council,  to coordinate activities of federal departments and agencies regarding  policies (including grants and grant policies) involving international human  trafficking and the implementation of the TVPA. This multidisciplinary  approach includes the enforcement of criminal and labor law,  development of victim-centered identification and protection measures,  support for innovations in data gathering and research, education and  public awareness, enhanced partnerships and research opportunities,  and strategically linked foreign assistance and diplomatic engagement.  Congress also reauthorized the TVPA in 2005 and 2008; and, in 2013,  further amended provisions of the act, its reauthorizations, and other  related laws.
In 2015, the President signed into law the JVTA, which, among other  things, required the Attorney General to ensure that law enforcement  officers and federal prosecutors receive anti-trafficking training; required  the Federal Judicial Center, the research and education agency of the  federal judicial system,  to provide training for judges on ordering  restitution for victims of certain trafficking-related offenses under chapter  77 of title 18, U.S. Code; mandated that the Secretary of Homeland  Security implement a human trafficking training program for department  personnel; and required the Attorney General to implement and maintain  a national strategy for combating human trafficking.
In addition to the federal statutes, the 50 states and the District of  Columbia have laws that address human trafficking to some degree,  whether explicitly under a “human trafficking” statute or pursuant to other  relevant laws. State laws differ and may include various features that  criminalize sex or labor trafficking or other related conduct; require  training for law enforcement; lower the burden of proof for sex trafficking  of minors by not requiring force, fraud or coercion as elements of the  offense; and provide victim assistance, among other things.
section_title: Federal Agency Roles and Responsibilities to Combat Human Trafficking in the United States and Assist Victims
paragraphs: Several components within DOJ, DHS, Defense, Labor, and State have  responsibility for investigating and prosecuting human trafficking crimes,  as shown in figure 1.
In addition to federal investigative and prosecutorial agencies, other  agencies play a role in helping to identify human trafficking, such as the  Transportation Security Administration (TSA), U.S. Citizenship and  Immigration Services (USCIS), U.S. Customs and Border Protection,  Federal Emergency Management Agency, and Coast Guard. These  agencies may also encounter human trafficking victims in their daily  operations, including at airports, land borders, and seaports. EEOC and  Labor’s Wage and Hour Division may encounter human trafficking when  conducting investigations related to their statutory authority. For example,  EEOC investigates alleged violations of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of  1964 prohibiting employment discrimination based on, race, color,  religion, sex, and national origin, which in certain circumstances involve  human trafficking victims.
In addition to investigating and prosecuting human trafficking crimes,  federal agencies, primarily DOJ and HHS, support state and local efforts  to combat human trafficking and assist victims. Several components  within DOJ’s Office of Justice Programs, including the Office of Juvenile  Justice and Delinquency Prevention, Office for Victims of Crime (OVC),  Bureau of Justice Assistance (BJA), and National Institute of Justice  (NIJ), administer grants to help support state and local law enforcement in  combating human trafficking and to support nongovernmental  organizations and others in assisting trafficking victims or conducting  research on human trafficking in the United States. HHS also provides  grant funding to entities to provide services and support for trafficking  victims, primarily through components of the Administration for Children  and Families (ACF), including the Children’s Bureau, Family and Youth  Services Bureau, Administration for Native Americans. Further, ACF  established the Office on Trafficking in Persons in 2015 to coordinate  anti-trafficking responses across multiple systems of care. Specifically,  HHS supports health care providers, child welfare, social service  providers and other first responders likely to interact with potential victims  of trafficking through a variety of grant programs. These efforts include  integrated and tailored services for victims of trafficking, training and  technical assistance to communities serving high-risk populations, and  capacity-building to strengthen coordinated regional and local responses  to human trafficking.  HHS also established the HHS Task Force to  Prevent and End Human Trafficking in 2015 to strengthen the health and  well-being of victims of trafficking through strategic initiatives and policies.
section_title: Examples of Federal Collaboration Efforts to Combat Human Trafficking in the United States
paragraphs: The federal government has a number of efforts underway to combat  human trafficking and assist victims in the United States, including task  forces, working groups, as well as training and public awareness  campaigns. In 2011, partly in response to a 2007 GAO report that  recommended a federal coordinating body to combat human trafficking,  DOJ, in collaboration with DHS and Labor, established Anti-trafficking  Coordination Teams (ACTeams). The teams are located in six U.S.  cities and are comprised of federal investigators and prosecutors from the  USAO, FBI, ICE HSI, and Labor’s Inspector General and Wage and Hour  Division.  The Federal Enforcement Working Group, which oversees the  ACTeams, selected these cities based on the agencies’ commitment to  combat human trafficking and to reflect a diversity of city size, federal  agency staffing levels, nature of human trafficking threats, and federal  agency experience with human trafficking investigations and  prosecutions.  The purpose of the ACTeams is to coordinate federal  criminal human trafficking investigations and prosecutions to protect the  rights of human trafficking victims, bring traffickers to justice, and  dismantle human trafficking networks.
Pursuing trafficking investigations and prosecutions also involves the  support of state and local law enforcement, which may be in the best  position to find trafficking victims because of their familiarity with their  respective jurisdictions; and nongovernmental organizations, where  victims may more readily seek assistance. Moreover, victim service  organizations assist human trafficking victims by providing assistance to  address their short-term and long-term needs—such as legal and  immigration services, housing, employment, education, food, clothing, job  training, medical care, and child care. Since 2004, OVC and BJA have  partnered to support multidisciplinary task forces that bring together law  enforcement and victim service providers.  This partnership supports a  state, local, or tribal law enforcement agency and a victim service  provider. OVC awards support the provision of a comprehensive array of  culturally and linguistically appropriate direct services to trafficking  victims, while BJA awards support the coordinated efforts of local, state,  federal, and tribal law enforcement to investigate and prosecute  traffickers. In fiscal year 2014, OVC and BJA undertook an analysis of the  enhanced collaborative model and examined how well the funded task  forces were operating. Based on both qualitative and quantitative  analyses, program improvements were made, and a new solicitation  incorporating these improvements was issued in fiscal year 2015. During  fiscal year 2015, OVC and BJA provided nearly $22.7 million to 16 task  forces in 14 states.
Another key federal effort to combat human trafficking in the United  States is DHS’s Blue Campaign, which the department describes as the  unified voice for DHS’s efforts to combat human trafficking. The Blue  Campaign raises public awareness about human trafficking, leveraging  partnerships to educate the public to recognize human trafficking and  report suspected instances. The Blue Campaign also offers training to law  enforcement and others to increase detection and investigation of human  trafficking, and to protect victims and bring suspected traffickers to justice.
section_title: Federal Agencies Have Initiated Efforts to Determine Prevalence of Human Trafficking; Existing Trafficking Data Rely on Information Reported to Authorities
subsections: section_title: Federal Agencies Have Made Efforts to Determine Prevalence of Human Trafficking in the United States and Are Taking Steps to Improve Data Collection
paragraphs: Federal agencies have begun efforts to assess the prevalence of human  trafficking in the United States and develop data standards and definitions  to help facilitate prevalence studies. The Human Smuggling and  Trafficking Center (HSTC) is an interagency federal effort designed to be  an all source clearinghouse and information center for human trafficking,  smuggling, and terrorism information. The HSTC disseminates  information, conducts strategic assessments, and identifies issues  needing facilitation among multiple agencies. In July 2014, HSTC  completed a Human Trafficking National Assessment, which focused on  identifying federal data sources useful for human trafficking analysis and  provided some initial assessment of the data for the purposes of  identifying trends and patterns. HSTC officials noted, however, that they  faced challenges understanding the landscape of the data collected,  assessing the quality of the data, and identifying the gaps in data  collection. As a result, the officials were unable to infer high levels of  human trafficking in areas with high numbers of victims or cases or  prosecution. Thus, several member agencies expressed concern over the  methodology, data collected, and data analysis used in the assessment,  and because HSTC products require the approval of all of the member  agencies, the report was not released.  HSTC has released other  assessments of human trafficking, including regional assessments and  industry assessments for particular industries where human trafficking  may occur, including fishing, agriculture, garment, and sex tourism.
In addition, HHS’s Office on Trafficking in Persons, which is part of the  Administration for Children and Families, and the Office on Women’s  Health are sponsoring the Human Trafficking Data Collection Project. The  purpose of the project is to inform the development of an integrated data  collection platform regarding human trafficking victimization; establish  baseline knowledge of human trafficking and victim needs; and support  effective prevention and intervention responses. According to HHS  officials, the project takes a public health approach to human trafficking in  order to (1) better collect data from federal and state data systems and  national surveys  to support analysis that will uncover specific risk factors  for human trafficking among high-risk populations; (2) improve  coordination of data collection on human trafficking across multiple health  and human service systems such as refugee resettlement, child welfare,  runaway and homeless youth, community health, and domestic violence  programs; and (3) explore new data collection strategies, through public  health methodologies, for compiling prevalence estimates. HHS, in  consultation with key stakeholders, has developed draft data fields and  definitions for human trafficking and expects to begin piloting the data  collection effort in fall 2016.
Further, NIJ has focused its resources on improving the science that lies  behind prevalence estimates of human trafficking in the United States,  among other topics. NIJ has awarded grants for the development and  testing of methodologies that could be used to calculate human trafficking  prevalence. In fiscal year 2015, NIJ awarded two grants for nationwide  research on the prevalence of human trafficking.  Abt Associates was  awarded $996,870 to conduct a study on “Advancing Human Trafficking  Prevalence Estimation,” and Northeastern University was awarded  $462,973 for a study on “Capturing Human Trafficking Victimization  through Crime Reporting”. According to Abt Associates, the study being  performed by Abt Associates will not give numbers on the prevalence of  human trafficking; rather, it will provide a methodology to calculate  prevalence.
section_title: Federal Agencies and Other Entities Maintain Data on Human Trafficking Activity Reported to Law Enforcement and Others; Data Vary in Scope and Comprehensiveness
paragraphs: In addition to federal efforts designed to determine the prevalence of  human trafficking in the United States, federal agencies and federally- funded entities maintain data that, although not specifically intended to do  so, could give an indication of human trafficking and where it is occurring  across the country. However, considering that human trafficking is likely  underreported, as with most clandestine crimes, and most of these data  are based on information reported to law enforcement authorities or  hotlines, these data cannot be used to assess prevalence.
In 2008, Office of Justice Programs’ Bureau of Justice Statistics, in  partnership with BJA, established the Human Trafficking Reporting  System, which is a database used to collect data on human trafficking  cases from OVC- and BJA-funded anti-trafficking task forces. However,  these task forces represent a small percentage of law enforcement  agencies. Further, these task forces are unlikely to be a representative  sample of human trafficking in the United States since areas with high  trafficking are more likely to have a task force.
Since 2012, OVC also requires victim service providers that receive OVC  grant funding under the trafficking victims services grants to biannually  report the number of human trafficking victims that received services as a  result of that funding. OVC maintains this data in the Trafficking  Information Management System. According to OVC, in 2015, 54  grantees across 3 grant programs were required to report information.  OVC grantees reported providing services to 3,889 human trafficking  victims from July 2014 to June 2015. However, OVC grantees likely  represent a small subset of service providers working with human  trafficking victims.
ACF also requires victim service providers that receive ACF funding  under the trafficking victim service grants to report the number of human  trafficking victims and eligible family members who received services as a  result of that funding. According to ACF, in 2015, grantees reported  providing services to 1,726 individual clients through the Trafficking Victim  Assistance Program.
In January 2013, the FBI, through its Uniform Crime Reporting Program,  began collecting data on human trafficking in the United States, and in  2014, the FBI reported 443 offenses that involved human trafficking.  However, because the Uniform Crime Reporting Program primarily  collects data on crime-related incidents that have been reported to state,  local, and tribal police that have the ability to report the data to the  Uniform Crime Reporting Program, the FBI’s human trafficking report  does not include unreported incidents.
The Executive Office for U.S. Attorneys maintains data on the number of  human trafficking matters received by each of the 94 USAOs, as well as  matters that are ultimately prosecuted. In fiscal year 2015, the 94  USAOs reported prosecuting a total of 252 human trafficking cases. Other  DOJ prosecuting units, including the Civil Rights Division, also maintain  data on human trafficking prosecutions. In addition, federal investigative  agencies, including FBI and ICE HSI, keep data on investigations and  arrests. See appendix II for federal human trafficking prosecution and  investigation data from fiscal years 2013 to 2015.
Other federally-funded entities also collect human trafficking data based  on victim reports that may not be referred to law enforcement, which may  also provide an indication of human trafficking. For example, funded  through an HHS grant, the NHTRC is a national anti-trafficking hotline  and resource center serving victims and survivors of human trafficking  and the anti-trafficking community in the United States. The NHTRC  collects human trafficking data through its website and is based on  aggregated information learned through signals—phone calls, emails, and  online tip reports—received by the hotline. In 2015, NHTRC identified  5,544 potential trafficking cases. The NHTRC determined that 4,136 were  related to sex trafficking, 721 were related to labor trafficking, and 178  were related to both sex and labor trafficking. The type of trafficking was  not specified for 509 of the tips.  Further, NHTRC was able to determine  that 4,683 of the reports involved a female victim, 574 involved a male  victim, 3,559 involved an adult victim and 1,621 involved a minor. Further,  1,660 involved U.S. citizen victims and 1,041 involved foreign national  victims. However, the data do not define the totality of human trafficking  or of a trafficking network in any given area.
NCMEC is a private, nonprofit corporation supported by federal grant  funding, as well as corporate in-kind and private donations, whose  mission is to help find missing children, reduce child sexual exploitation  and prevent future victimization. To advance its mission, NCMEC  operates the CyberTipline in which the public and electronic service  providers can report suspected child sexual exploitation, including child  sex trafficking. NCMEC makes the CyberTipline reports available to  international and domestic law enforcement agencies, including the FBI  Child Exploitation Task Forces and the Internet Crimes Against Children  Task Forces. From July 1, 2014 through March 31, 2016, NCMEC  received 13,529 reports related to child sex trafficking.
Based on the data collected by federal agencies and federally-funded  entities, there was some consistency with respect to states that have had  the most reported human trafficking activity. For example, 9 states— Arizona, California, Florida, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Texas,  Virginia, and Washington—were in the top one-third with respect to  investigations referred by law enforcement agencies to the USAOs for  federal prosecution and calls and tips related to human trafficking. We  found that federal law enforcement efforts and grant funding have been  targeted in these locations, as discussed later in this report.
section_title: Selected Law Enforcement Officials and Prosecutors Reported Lack of Victim Cooperation, Limited Services, and Difficulty Detecting Victims as Challenges, and Have Taken Steps to Mitigate Them
paragraphs: According to federal, state, and local law enforcement officials and  prosecutors we interviewed, investigating and prosecuting human  trafficking crimes is challenging for multiple reasons, including a lack of  victim cooperation, limited availability of victim services, difficulty  identifying human trafficking, and others. Federal, state and local  agencies have taken or are taking some actions to address these  challenges, such as increasing the availability of services, primarily by  providing funding through grants.
subsections: section_title: Limited Victim Cooperation and Victim Services Hinder Investigations and Prosecutions of Human Trafficking
subsections: section_title: Limited Victim Cooperation
paragraphs: Officials in 25 of the 32 interviews we conducted with law enforcement  and prosecutorial agencies reported that they faced challenges with  victim cooperation. In general, officials stated that obtaining the victim’s  cooperation is important for human trafficking investigations and  prosecutions because the victim is generally the primary witness and  source of evidence. The officials told us that human trafficking victims  may be unable or unwilling to cooperate with the investigation or  prosecution because they distrust law enforcement, may be traumatized  by abuse or addicted to drugs, have a sentimental attachment to the  trafficker, do not see themselves as victims, or fear retaliation from the  trafficker. For example, some victims may not cooperate because the  trafficker is holding or threatening the victim’s family abroad. Officials also  stated that juvenile victims can present challenges because they may  come from troubled homes or foster care and may feel that they are  better cared for by the trafficker than at home and do not want to receive  any help.
Law enforcement are to use a victim centered approach when combating  human trafficking that may help improve the victim’s ability and  willingness to cooperate. This approach seeks to minimize  retraumatization associated with the criminal justice process by providing  the support of victim advocates and service providers, empowering  survivors as engaged participants in the process, and providing survivors  an opportunity to play a role in seeing their traffickers brought to justice.  Such an approach places value on the identification and stabilization of  victims and providing immigration relief, as well as the investigation and  prosecution of traffickers. Identifying, not criminalizing, victims is the first  step in adopting a victim-centered strategy and to achieve this goal,  officers must be committed to helping victims feel safe, secure, and  stable. Officials in 12 of the 32 interviews we conducted with law  enforcement and prosecutors told us there are strategies that may help  improve the victim’s ability and willingness to cooperate, such as  facilitating access to immigration relief and protecting the victim’s family  abroad for foreign victims, or providing services to both foreign and  domestic victims.
Immigration relief: T visa, U visa, or Continued Presence. According to  USCIS, immigration relief options encourage victims to report crimes and  work with law enforcement. Trafficking victims may seek immigration  relief in the form of T nonimmigrant status (T visa) for victims of a severe  form of trafficking who meet certain criteria and U nonimmigrant status (U  visa) for victims of qualifying criminal activity, including human trafficking  and fraud in foreign labor contracting, who satisfy U visa-specific  criteria. The T visa and U visa allow the victims to remain in the country,  for up to 4 years, which may be extended under certain circumstances, so  they can assist with the investigation or prosecution of human trafficking  or qualifying crimes, respectively. Individuals with T or U visas are  authorized for employment incident to their nonimmigrant status, and U  visa applicants may receive work authorization while their application is  still pending.  U visa holders may be eligible for lawful permanent  residence if, among other things, they have been physically present in the  United States continuously for at least 3 years since admission as a U  nonimmigrant.  For T visa holders, the physical presence requirement  may be satisfied by demonstrating continuous physical presence either  for 3 years since the date of admission as a T nonimmigrant, or during the  investigation or prosecution of trafficking, whichever period of time is less.  Further, ICE can grant Continued Presence, which is a temporary form of  protection available to foreign national victims of human trafficking without  lawful immigration status if they are potential witnesses to that trafficking,  and upon the application by federal law enforcement officials to DHS.   Continued Presence allows victims to remain and work in the country  temporarily, for 1 year, and may be renewed in 1 year increments, during  the ongoing investigation into the human trafficking-related crimes  committed against them. See appendix II for information on T and U  visa applications and petitions, and Continued Presence approvals and  denials for fiscal years 2013 through 2015. Further, working through ICE  and FBI personnel stationed at U.S. embassies, U.S. investigative and  prosecutorial agencies have protected U.S. trafficking victims’ family  members in a foreign country.
Victim services. Federal agencies have victim service coordinators who  help navigate the victim through the criminal justice process and connect  the victim with appropriate services. Additionally, OVC and ACF provide  grants for comprehensive and specialized victim service programs to non- governmental organizations and others. These organizations utilize  grant funding to provide services such as shelters, medical services,  substance abuse treatment, legal services, food and clothing, mental  health, literacy education, job training, interpreter and translation services,  support groups, and mentoring programs for human trafficking victims.  Officials in 9 of the 32 of interviews we conducted with law enforcement  and prosecutors reported that providing these services helps stabilize  victims and encourages them to cooperate. For example, the officials  reported that mental health and substance abuse services are vital to  stabilize the victim so that they can provide an accurate recount of the  trafficking situation and may help them to testify.
section_title: Limited Victim Services
paragraphs: While victim services may help victims recover and possibly cooperate  more fully, the availability of services is limited. Officials in 15 of the 32  interviews we conducted with law enforcement officials and prosecutors  reported limited availability of services in their area of responsibility.
Below are examples of the types of limitations in services for human  trafficking victims.
Short-term assistance. Of the 15 officials who reported limited  availability of services in their area of responsibility, 8 told us that  short-term assistance, particularly shelters were needed. According to  officials, many victim assistance service providers that typically serve  other populations may not be prepared or willing to deal with human  trafficking victims as very few shelters specialize in services for  human trafficking victims. For example, in some cases these shelters  are designed to address the needs of survivors of domestic violence,  such as resources to become financially stable and access to  government services and childcare, whereas, trafficking victims need  medical and psychological assistance tailored to meet their unique  needs. Further, officials told us that shelters may not accept human  trafficking victims because they fear that the victim will recruit women  from the shelter for the trafficker.
Long-term assistance. Of the 15 officials who reported limited  availability of services in their area of responsibility, 7 told us that  there is insufficient long-term assistance, including housing, mental  health services, and drug rehabilitation, available for trafficking  victims. For example, law enforcement officials in one of our site visits  told us that their areas of responsibility are ill-equipped to provide  long-term services to human trafficking victims. As a result, victims  are sent to other states to receive services. In addition, a service  provider told us that finding long-term housing presents a challenge  when the victim has a criminal background or bad credit history.  Further, other officials told us that in some circumstances services are  more limited for U.S. citizens than for foreign victims. The officials  explained that, historically, the federal government’s efforts to combat  human trafficking in the United States and assist victims have been  focused primarily on foreign nationals. While the TVPA of 2000  included certain provisions for services for victims of human trafficking  in the United States, its reauthorization in the William Wilberforce  Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2008 established  a program specifically to assist U.S. citizen and lawful permanent  resident victims of trafficking.
In recent years, DOJ, HHS, and some states, including those within the  scope of our review, have taken steps to increase the availability of  services, primarily by providing funding through grants. Two of the six  service providers we spoke with told us that in some instances no one  service provider can provide all the services a human trafficking victim  needs and organizations must work together to help victims. Further, 5 of  the 6 service providers we spoke with reported that victim services are  limited for human trafficking victims; in particular, they reported difficulty  finding shelter or housing options for victims.  When asked about actions  the federal government could take to address this challenge, 2 of 6  service providers noted that it would be helpful if the federal government  increased funding. In 2015, DOJ increased funding to support services  specifically for human trafficking victims by $13.5 million, compared to the  previous year. Specifically, in fiscal year 2014, DOJ awarded $13.1  million through two grant programs and, in fiscal year 2015, $26.6 million  through four grant programs. HHS officials reported that in fiscal year  2015, the agency increased funding by $1.54 million to support services  specifically for human trafficking victims. Specifically, officials reported  that this included a $1.44 million increase for domestic victims of  trafficking and $0.1 million for foreign victims of trafficking compared to  fiscal year 2014. Further, multiple states, including those within the scope  of our review, as well as the District of Columbia, have enacted laws to  facilitate the provision of services to victims of trafficking. Laws in these  selected jurisdictions are designed to, for example, develop plans to  identify and assist trafficking victims, establish a program to address the  rehabilitation and treatment needs of juvenile victims of sex trafficking, or  create funding mechanisms for victim services.
section_title: Law Enforcement and the Public Face Challenges in Identifying and Distinguishing Human Trafficking from Other Crimes, and Have Taken Steps to Enhance Training and Public Awareness
paragraphs: Officials in 9 of the 32 interviews we conducted with law enforcement and  prosecutors reported challenges with identifying and distinguishing  human trafficking from other crimes, or even from legal activities. Further,  officials from 3 of the 6 service providers we met with reported  distinguishing human trafficking from prostitution as a challenge. On the  surface, human trafficking may appear to be voluntary prostitution or an  undocumented laborer working under his or her own volition. Therefore,  in these instances, individuals who are actually victims may instead be  treated as criminals—prostitutes or undocumented workers. For example,  officials and service providers in one of our selected areas told us that  human trafficking is common in the area, but that it is difficult for local law  enforcement to distinguish this illicit activity from voluntary prostitution.  Further, of the 9 officials who reported challenges identifying human  trafficking, 7 told us that it is more difficult to identify and detect labor  trafficking compared to sex trafficking. According to these officials, sex  trafficking takes place out in the open and is often advertised online,  making it easier for law enforcement to identify the crime. However, labor  trafficking often occurs behind closed doors—including sweatshops,  massage parlors, agriculture, restaurants, hotels and households— making it harder to identify. For example, officials told us about one 2015  labor trafficking case that involved a nanny from Nigeria. According to  officials, the victim had a contract with her trafficker which stipulated $100  per month to take care of five children. However, she had not been paid  since she moved to the United States and was being physically and  psychologically abused. The victim fled and sought shelter with a  neighbor.
Federal agencies, and state and local agencies in the locations we  visited, have several training and public awareness initiatives underway  that are intended to help identify, investigate and prosecute human  trafficking, including the following: Federal Agency Initiatives. Each of the federal law enforcement and  prosecutorial agencies with whom we met provide training to their  employees and other law enforcement officials on how to identify human  trafficking, among other things. For example,  ICE HSI provides a human trafficking training course that uses video  scenarios and group discussions to teach its agents how to identify  human trafficking, how to distinguish human trafficking from  smuggling, and how to conduct victim-centered investigations, among  other things.
The FBI provides annual specialized training in the commercial sexual  exploitation of children and dealing with victims of child sex trafficking.  This course teaches law enforcement personnel investigative  strategies to address the child sex trafficking threat, and methods in  understanding the various types of victims in these cases, how to  interact with them, and victim services available to them.  The FBI  also published a law enforcement sensitive investigative guide on sex  trafficking of juveniles.
The Attorney General has provided guidance to USAOs for  developing strategic anti-trafficking plans, including recommended  practices for identifying, investigating, prosecuting, and tracking  human trafficking offenses. The Executive Office for U.S. Attorneys  also provided USAOs with guidance for establishing and coordinating  human trafficking task forces.
The Federal Law Enforcement Training Center, in coordination with  the Blue Campaign, offers a web-based human trafficking training  course that teaches law enforcement officers at the federal, state,  local, and tribal levels how to recognize human trafficking  encountered during routine duties, how to protect victims, and how to  initiate human trafficking investigations. In addition, the Federal Law  Enforcement Training Center provides human trafficking training to  federal officers and agents as part of its basic training program. In  fiscal year 2015, 128 law enforcement officers took the training.  Further, since July 2015, the Federal Law Enforcement Training  Center has provided human trafficking awareness training by text or  video to 3,007 students in basic training programs.
In addition, federal agencies provide training to state and local agencies,  as well as the public, regarding human trafficking, including the following:
FBI field offices conducted approximately 672 human trafficking  training sessions in fiscal year 2014 to various groups, including, but  not limited to, state and local law enforcement, social workers,  healthcare providers, hotel workers, faith based groups, non- governmental organizations, students and educators.
HHS piloted the Stop. Observe. Ask. Respond (SOAR) to Health and  Wellness program, a human trafficking training program to help health  care providers identify potential victims and appropriately refer them  for services, in fiscal year 2014. According to HHS officials, the  department will expand the training to social workers, substance  abuse and mental health providers, and public health professionals in  fiscal year 2016.  In addition, the officials said that in fiscal year 2015,  15,265 professionals and first responders likely to interact with victims  of trafficking were trained through a network of several HHS-funded  anti-trafficking grantees.
The Blue Campaign, in collaboration with the ICE HSI Victim  Assistance Program and other DHS components, provided human  trafficking awareness training to government, nongovernment, and  private industries, including those in hospitality, health care, and  education.
Other federal agencies, whose employees may come across human  trafficking victims in their day-to-day operations—including U.S. Customs  and Border Protection, TSA, USCIS, and the U.S. Coast Guard—also  provide human trafficking training to their employees. Further, Labor’s  Wage and Hour Division and the EEOC also look for human trafficking  indicators when conducting their own investigative and enforcement work.  According to officials, these agencies are to refer potential human  trafficking cases to the appropriate law enforcement agencies for further  investigation. For example, TSA officials we met with told us that from  March 2015 to February 2016, they referred six reports of suspected  human trafficking to ICE HSI. Figure 2 shows an example of a resource  available to agencies and the public to help them identify human  trafficking.
Further, some federal agencies also have efforts related to public  awareness of human trafficking. For example, in January 2016, OVC  released resources to raise awareness and serve victims, including a  video series called “The Faces of Human Trafficking” and posters to be  used for outreach and education efforts of service providers, law  enforcement, prosecutors, and others in the community. The series  includes information about sex and labor trafficking, multidisciplinary  approaches to serving victims of human trafficking, effective victim  services, victims' legal needs, and voices of survivors. Since 2010, DHS,  through the Blue Campaign, reported it has worked to raise public  awareness about human trafficking, leveraging partnerships with select  government and nongovernmental entities to educate the public to  recognize human trafficking and report suspected instances. According to  DHS officials, Blue Campaign posters are displayed in public locations  including airports and bus stops. Figures 3 and 4 show examples of  resources used as part of these initiatives, which are available online, or  by request, for public distribution.
In addition, HHS established the “Look Beneath the Surface” public  awareness campaign through its Rescue and Restore Victims of Human  Trafficking program.  According to HHS officials, in fiscal year 2015, the  department distributed over 883,000 pieces of material publicizing the  NHTRC. These materials, which included posters, brochures, fact sheets,  and cards with tips on identifying victims, were available in eight  languages.  According to HHS officials, in fiscal year 2016, the  department is updating its public awareness campaign materials to be  complementary to other federal resources. Figure 5 shows an example of  resources used as part of this initiative.
Federal Judicial Center Initiatives. In accordance with the JVTA, the  Federal Judicial Center provided training to federal judges and judicial  branch attorneys, including judicial law clerks, on human trafficking  through a webinar in August 2015. The training walked participants  through the provisions of the JVTA and addressed how child exploitation  manifests in human trafficking cases, among other things. According to  Federal Judicial Center officials we spoke with, 1,300 registered viewers  participated in the webinar, which is now available for on-demand viewing  on the Federal Judicial Center website.  They also told us that, in April  2016, 198 district judges attended a workshop in which, among other  topics, a human trafficking sentencing scenario was discussed. According  to Federal Judicial Center officials, adjudicating human trafficking cases  can be challenging for judges because they have to determine the role  the victim played in the trafficking situation and it may be difficult to  determine what kept the victims from escaping, and led them to instead  obey the trafficker.
State and Local Initiatives.  The states and jurisdictions included in our  review also provide for training of law enforcement personnel on human  trafficking-related issues. Some of the states also have laws related to  ensuring public awareness of human trafficking. For example:
Virginia’s Department of Social Services is required to develop a plan  providing for, among other things, preparation and dissemination of  educational and training programs and materials to increase  awareness of human trafficking and services available to victims  among local departments of social services, public and private  agencies and service providers, and the public; and
North Dakota’s Department of Transportation is required to display in  every transportation station, rest area, and welcome center, a public- awareness sign that contains state or local human trafficking resource  information as well as the NHTRC Hotline number.
section_title: Law Enforcement Officials and Prosecutors Reported Other Challenges in Combating Human Trafficking
paragraphs: Additional challenges reported by law enforcement officials and  prosecutors we spoke with include the amount of time it may take for a  USAO to decide whether federal charges will be pursued in certain  human trafficking cases. USAOs would be expected to take the time that  is needed to exercise prosecutorial discretion in a reasoned manner,  considering the relevant laws and facts. However, one of the four state  prosecutors we interviewed said that the length of time it takes the USAO  to decide whether to accept or decline the case, which has taken over a  year in certain instances, can make it difficult for them to obtain evidence  once the case is referred to them.  Human trafficking-related prosecutions  can occur at both the federal and state level. Law enforcement officials  told us that, in most instances, they refer cases to the state prosecutor  when the USAO declines to prosecute the case. Based on our review of  data provided by the Executive Office for U.S. Attorneys, the most  common reasons that USAOs reported declining human trafficking cases  were “insufficient evidence” and “matters being referred to another  jurisdiction.”(See appendix II for additional information on declinations.)  Two of the four state prosecutors we interviewed reported working with  the USAO to make a joint decision on whether to prosecute the case at  the federal or state level, which may help address this challenge.
Additionally, officials from FBI, ICE HSI and Bureau of Diplomatic Security  whose area of responsibility includes North Dakota identified challenges  such as having to drive long distances, sometimes under hazardous  driving conditions, to do their investigative work and meet with victims.  These officials told us that there has been an increase in human  trafficking and other criminal activity in the Bakken area—a relatively  remote area—due to the oil boom. According to FBI and ICE HSI officials,  the agencies are taking steps to address this challenge. FBI officials told  us that the agency opened a field office in spring 2016 in western North  Dakota, which is closer to the area where crime, in general, has  increased. FBI and ICE HSI officials also told us that the agencies are  working together to station some ICE HSI agents in the FBI’s new facility.
section_title: DOJ and HHS Administer Human Trafficking Grants to Promote Stakeholder Collaboration and Provide Victim Services, and They Have Processes to Minimize Grant Duplication
subsections: section_title: At Least 42 Federal Grant Programs Are Available to Combat Human Trafficking in the United States and Assist Victims
paragraphs: We identified 42 grant programs for which the federal government  awarded funding in 2014 and 2015 that may be used to combat human  trafficking or to assist victims of human trafficking (see appendix IV for a  list of the grant programs and their objectives).  Fifteen grant programs  administered by DOJ and HHS are intended solely to combat human  trafficking or assist victims.  In fiscal years 2014 and 2015, 123  organizations were awarded funds under these grant programs. These  initiatives include programs that provide training and technical assistance  to service providers and law enforcement agencies; support multi- disciplinary task forces to ensure victim-centered responses to human  trafficking; and provide services directly to victims of human trafficking.  Further, each grant program may be used for more than one of these  purposes.  More specifically, the 15 grant programs can be used for:  Collaboration and partnerships. 12 of the grant programs allow funds to  be used for collaboration between or within law enforcement and service  providers through mechanisms such as task forces, coalitions, and  partnerships.  For example, the Enhanced Collaborative Model grant  program, administered by OVC and BJA, supports the development and  enhancement of multidisciplinary human trafficking task forces. These  task forces implement collaborative approaches to involve both law  enforcement and service providers in implementing a victim-centered  approach to human trafficking investigations, prosecutions, and  assistance.
Data, research, and evaluation: 3 of the grant programs include an  element of data collection on human trafficking cases, research on human  trafficking, or evaluation of best practices. For instance, the Research and  Evaluation on Trafficking in Persons grant program, administered by NIJ,  has supported nine research projects evaluating, among other things, the  prevalence of human trafficking in the United States, and victim  experiences with law enforcement and service providers.
Victim services: 9 of the grant programs can be used to provide services  directly to victims of human trafficking, including provision of housing,  health care, mental health and substance abuse services, and legal  services. For example, HHS administers the Trafficking Victims  Assistance grant program, which provides comprehensive services for  foreign victims of human trafficking in the United States.
Public awareness: 8 of the grants may be used to raise public awareness  of trafficking, which is intended to help the public recognize human  trafficking and report suspected cases.
Training and technical assistance: 13 of the grant programs may be used  to provide training and technical assistance to service providers or law  enforcement stakeholders on elements of identifying and serving victims  of human trafficking.  For example, one grantee funded under HHS’s  Rescue and Restore grant program provides peer-to-peer training in  order to further develop coordinated, effective multidisciplinary coalitions  to address human trafficking throughout its state.
An additional twenty-seven grant programs are not specifically for human  trafficking, but may be used to combat trafficking or assist victims.  For  instance, DOJ’s Vision 21 Innovation Grants support training, technical  assistance, capacity building, assessment, or strategic planning for eight  issue areas, one of which was related to human trafficking in the fiscal  year 2015 solicitation.  Similarly, HHS’s Refugee and Entrant Assistance  grant programs are intended primarily for refugees in the United States,  but individuals who have been certified as victims of human trafficking by  HHS’s Office of Refugee Resettlement or the Office on Trafficking in  Persons are also eligible for services through these programs.
section_title: Overlap Exists Across Grant Programs Intended Solely to Combat Human Trafficking, but Processes Exist to Help Avoid Duplication, Both Within and Between Agencies
paragraphs: As shown in table 1 above, each of the 15 grant programs that are  intended solely for human trafficking contains at least some potential  overlap with other human trafficking grant programs in authorized uses.   For instance, with the exception of the Research and Evaluation on  Trafficking in Persons grant program, funding under each of the  remaining 14 grant programs can be used for either collaboration or  training purposes. Similarly, 9 of the 15 grant programs provide support  for direct services to victims of human trafficking.  As described earlier,  according to our prior work addressing overlap and duplication, overlap  among programs occurs when multiple programs engage in similar  activities or strategies, as many of the human trafficking grants do.
Of the 123 organizations that were awarded grants specific to human  trafficking in fiscal years 2014 or 2015, 13 received multiple human  trafficking grants for either victim services or for collaboration, training,  and technical assistance from DOJ and HHS. HHS officials stated that  additional overlap may exist among sub-grantees, although we did not  include subgrantees in our duplication analysis. Of the 13, 7 had multiple  grants that could be used for victim services, and 3 had multiple grants  that could be used for collaboration, training, and technical assistance.  For instance, two organizations received a grant for Services to Victims of  Human Trafficking in 2014 and a grant for the Enhanced Collaborative  Model in 2015, both from DOJ.  Both grants can be used to provide direct  services to victims of human trafficking. Another organization received  similar grants for victim services from DOJ and HHS in 2014, and a third  grant to establish a task force and provide services in 2015.  HHS officials  noted that they were comfortable with awarding multiple services grants  to this organization because different populations were served under  each grant application.  DOJ officials noted that the same organization  received the task force grant because they had submitted a strong  application and they believed a task force would benefit the area in which  the organization worked.
DOJ officials noted that geographical distribution is an important factor  when making award decisions, and that they would not generally award  two grants in a location that may be duplicative, such as two Enhanced  Collaborative Model awards in the same city.  However, they noted that  they may award funds under the same grant program to multiple service  providers in cities that may have a high need for services or have a high  number of identified trafficking victims.  HHS officials told us that they do  attempt to achieve geographic dispersion when awarding grants under  the Rescue and Restore program, Trafficking Victim Assistance Program,  and Demonstration Grants for Domestic Victims of Human Trafficking.   Officials from both agencies said that they do not consider the locations of  grants awarded by other agencies when awarding grants. Five cities have  multiple organizations located in their cities that have been awarded the  same DOJ grants as one another, but in those cases, each organization  serves a different population or provides different services, according to  DOJ officials. Based on our analysis of DOJ and HHS grant data, over  half of all grants were awarded in the 9 states that are in the top one-third  with respect to matters referred for federal prosecution and calls and tips  related to human trafficking. Figure 6 shows the number of human  trafficking grants awarded within the United States by city.
Move mouse over city, county, or state names for grant information. For noninteractive version see appendix V.
Grant awards are categorized by the main city in the area in which they are being implemented. The  map does not include grants that provide services throughout the United States or that provide services  in multiple states.
DOJ and HHS each have intra-agency processes in place to prevent  unnecessary duplication.  According to DOJ and HHS officials, each  agency operates an internal working group to allow the components  administering human trafficking grants to communicate on a regular  basis. HHS officials indicated that offices that administer human  trafficking grant programs meet monthly to exchange information, which  may include grant-related announcements and coordination of anti- trafficking activities.  Similarly, DOJ officials told us that all DOJ  components that address human trafficking meet on a quarterly basis with  the goal of ensuring coordination in policy and grant-making. Further,  DOJ has taken action to implement recommendations from a prior GAO  report to identify overlapping grant programs and mitigate the risk of  unnecessary grant award duplication in its programs.  In response to  these recommendations, DOJ also requires grant applicants to identify in  their applications any federal grants they are currently operating under as  well as federal grants for which they have applied. Finally, in response to  recommendations in the same GAO report, DOJ has conducted two  studies of overlap and duplication among fiscal year 2012 grant programs  administered by the Office of Justice Programs, the Office on Violence  against Women, and the Office of Community Oriented Policing  Services.
DOJ and HHS officials also reported that they routinely share grant  announcements with one another in an informal manner.  For instance,  officials from both agencies said they coordinate on grant-related  activities through the implementation of the Federal Strategic Action Plan  on Services for Victims of Human Trafficking in the United States, a  government-wide plan which lays out a 5-year path for further  strengthening coordination, collaboration, and capacity across  governmental and nongovernmental entities.  DOJ and HHS officials  told us that they conduct regular meetings to monitor progress in  advancing the goals laid out in the strategic plan, one of which is to  coordinate victim services effectively through collaboration across  multiple service sectors to, among other things, reduce duplication of  efforts. In addition, HHS officials noted that DOJ and HHS meet bi-weekly  during co-chair meetings for the SPOG Victim Services Committee and  both agencies participate in the SPOG Grantmaking Committee  meetings, which provide additional opportunities to share information for  the purposes of coordination and collaboration.  According to HHS  officials, this coordination prevents duplication because they are aware of  the actions of all of the agencies involved in administering grants targeted  at human trafficking.  Officials from DOJ and HHS also told us that the  agencies are working together to develop guidance for grantees that have  been awarded human trafficking grants from both agencies so that  grantees can avoid using grant funds for duplicative activities. HHS  officials noted that the first set of guidance, for serving foreign victims of  human trafficking, would be released in summer 2016. Finally, the  officials noted that the community of individuals who administer human  trafficking grants is small, and that there is frequent formal communication  through respective agency grantee calls and informal communication over  e-mail regarding the grants between the two agencies.
In addition to HHS’s and DOJ’s internal and intra-agency processes for  addressing potential duplication, since November 2006, the SPOG has  provided a formal mechanism for all agencies administering human  trafficking grants to communicate with one another. SPOG guidance was  updated in March 2016, and according to officials who administer the  SPOG Grantmaking Committee, the updated guidance encourages  enhanced information sharing among participating agencies. Specifically,  the updated guidance directs participating agencies to share information  with members of the Grantmaking Committee prior to final decisions in at  least one of the following ways: (1) share plans for programs containing  anti-trafficking components during the grant program development  process; (2) notify the SPOG of grant solicitations within a reasonable  time after they are issued; or (3) notify SPOG partner agencies of  proposed funding recipients prior to announcing the award.  In each case,  SPOG agencies are allotted 5 days for comment on the information.  Further, agencies are also to share information with members of the  Grantmaking Committee after final decisions are made.
section_title: Agency Comments and Our Evaluation
paragraphs: We provided a draft of this report for review and comment to the  Departments of Defense, Health and Human Services, Homeland  Security, Justice, Labor, and State; the Equal Employment Opportunity  Commission; and the Administrative Office of the United States Courts.  We received technical comments from the Departments of Defense,  Health and Human Services, Homeland Security, Justice, and State; and  the Administrative Office of the United States Courts, which we  incorporated as appropriate. The Department of Labor and the Equal  Employment Opportunity Commission did not provide comments.
We are sending copies of this report to the appropriate congressional  committees, the Attorney General; the Secretaries of Defense, Health and  Human Services, Homeland Security, Labor and State; the Chair of the  Equal Employment Opportunity Commission; and the Director of the  Administrative Office of the United States Courts. In addition, the report is  available at no charge on the GAO website at http://www.gao.gov If you or your staff have any questions about this report, please contact  me at (202) 512-8777 or goodwing@gao.gov . Contact points for our  Offices of Congressional Relations and Public Affairs may be found on  the last page of this report. GAO staff who made key contributions to this  report are listed in appendix VI.
section_title: Appendix I: Objectives, Scope and Methodology
paragraphs: The Justice for Victims of Trafficking Act (JVTA) of 2015 includes a  provision for GAO to report on federal and selected state efforts to  combat human trafficking in the United States, as well as identify federal  grant programs that can be used to assist victims of trafficking. This  report addresses the following questions:  1. What federal efforts have been made to determine the prevalence of human trafficking in the United States? 2. What challenges, if any, do federal and selected state law enforcement and prosecutorial agencies face when combating human trafficking in the United States, and what actions have they and others taken to address identified challenges? 3. What federal grant programs are intended to combat human trafficking and assist victims within the United States, and what steps have federal agencies taken, if any, to reduce the potential for duplication among grant programs?
For purposes of this report, we focused on human trafficking within the  United States, which includes U.S. citizens or nationals, or those with or  without lawful immigration status who are trafficked within the United  States, as well as foreign persons who are brought to the United States  from abroad for the purpose of trafficking.
To address the first objective, we reviewed prior GAO human trafficking  reports, the Justice for Victims of Trafficking Act of 2015 and other federal  laws related to human trafficking, and we interviewed Department of  Justice (DOJ), the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), and the  Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) officials, to learn  whether their component agencies had efforts underway to collect human  tracking data that could be used to determine the prevalence of human  trafficking in the United States.  We also reviewed documentation issued  by the President’s Interagency Task Force to Monitor and Combat  Trafficking to learn about additional federal efforts to collect information  on the prevalence of human trafficking.  We obtained and analyzed data  from federal investigative and prosecutorial agencies and federally- funded entities that, while not specifically intended to do so, could give an  indication of where human trafficking is occurring in the United States.   We assessed the reliability of the data the agencies and other entities  provided by questioning knowledgeable officials and reviewing the data  for obvious errors and anomalies. We determined that the data were  sufficiently reliable for the purposes of our reporting objectives. We  identified potential sources of human trafficking information, including  National Human Trafficking Resource Center (NHTRC) and the National  Center for Missing and Exploited Children (NCMEC).  We received data  related to calls, tips, and reports received by NHTRC and NCMEC and  interviewed officials to determine how the information was collected and  what criteria were used to determine whether a call or report was  categorized as related to human trafficking. We also obtained prosecution  and investigations data from DOJ, DHS, Department of Labor (Labor),  and Department of State (State). Further, we reviewed DOJ’s grants to  identify studies funded to assess human trafficking in the United States.  We also interviewed DOJ grantees to understand their ongoing research  to quantify human trafficking.
To identify challenges federal and selected state law enforcement and  prosecutorial agencies face when combating human trafficking and efforts  undertaken to address these challenges, we identified relevant federal  law enforcement and prosecutorial agencies based on our previous work  and review of legislation related to human trafficking. We then interviewed  headquarters officials from the Department of Defense, DOJ, DHS, Labor,  State, and the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) who  are responsible for identifying or investigating human trafficking and other  unlawful activities, or prosecuting or litigating cases involving human  trafficking-related violations. At DOJ, we interviewed officials from the  Office of the Deputy Attorney General, Federal Bureau of Investigation  (FBI), Civil Rights Division/Criminal Section, Criminal Division/Child  Exploitation and Obscenity Section, and the Executive Office for U.S.  Attorneys. At DHS, we interviewed officials from the Office of the Deputy  Secretary, U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) Homeland  Security Investigations (HSI), Transportation Security Administration, U.S.  Customs and Border Protection, and U.S. Coast Guard. At Labor, we  interviewed officials from the Wage and Hour Division and Office of the  Inspector General, and at State we interviewed officials from the Bureau  of Diplomatic Security. For the FBI, U.S. Attorney’s Office (USAO), ICE  HSI, Bureau of Diplomatic Security, and EEOC, we interviewed  investigators and prosecutors (or litigators) located in field offices that  cover four jurisdictions—Washington, DC/ Northern Virginia; Houston,  Texas; Los Angeles, California; and Bismarck, North Dakota.
We selected these four jurisdictions because they are located in states  that are among the top 10 in terms of human trafficking tips, per capita,  that were sent to the NHTRC or to NCMEC. We also selected these  jurisdictions because they reflect a variation in geography and receipt of  federal funding to establish or continue a human trafficking task force  through the Enhanced Collaborative Model to Combat Human Trafficking  during fiscal year 2015. In addition, all of the jurisdictions we selected are  within geographic priority areas identified by DHS through the Blue  Campaign. The purpose of the Blue Campaign is to provide training and  raise public awareness about human trafficking, among other things. The  campaign has identified priority geographic areas and populations to  focus its outreach efforts during fiscal year 2016.
We conducted 32 interviews with federal, state and local law enforcement  and prosecutorial agencies who were part of the identified task forces in  these jurisdictions.  During the interviews, we asked officials whether they  experienced any challenges in carrying out their duties related to  combating human trafficking and to identify any efforts that have been or  could be taken to address challenges. Officials identified challenges when  we explicitly asked them to identify them or during the course of our  discussion. When we report the number of agencies that identified a  particular challenge, this does not necessarily mean that the remaining  agencies did not also experience the challenge. It means that those  stakeholders did not raise the challenge during the course of our  interviews. While these officials’ perspectives cannot be generalized to all  jurisdictions, they provided insights into federal, state, and local efforts to  combat human trafficking. We also interviewed representatives from six  non-governmental organizations that provide services to human  trafficking victims in the selected jurisdictions. In addition, we interviewed  officials from the Federal Judicial Center and the federal judge who  conducted the required training for federal judges as mandated by the  Justice for Victims of Trafficking Act, and the National Association of  Attorneys General to further understand challenges faced when  combating human trafficking.
To address our third objective, we asked the DHS, DOJ, HHS, Labor and  State, which had been identified in a prior study as agencies  administering grant programs related to human trafficking, to each  provide us a list of grant programs that could be used to combat human  trafficking in the United States or assist victims. We corroborated  agencies’ lists with online resources, such as grants.gov, and also  followed up with interviews at which we requested additional information  and ensured that we were aware of all grant programs that could be used  to address human trafficking. We identified a total of 42 grant programs  that could be used to address human trafficking, although because  services for human trafficking victims may be one of many allowable uses  for some grant programs, it is possible that there are some programs that  were not identified by granting agencies or by our analysis of public  records.  However, we limited our duplication analysis to the 15 that were  intended solely for human trafficking purposes, because we determined  that there would most likely be duplication across these grant programs  as they were created to address the same issue. Using the established  GAO framework for addressing overlap and duplication, we use the  following definitions for purposes of assessing human trafficking grant  programs:
Overlap occurs when multiple granting agencies or grant programs  have similar goals, engage in similar activities or strategies to achieve  these goals, or target the same or similar beneficiaries. Overlap may  result from statutory or other limitations beyond an agency’s control.
Duplication occurs on multiple levels. It occurs when a single grantee  uses grant funds from different federal sources to pay for the exact  same expenditure. Duplication also occurs when two or more granting  agencies or grant programs engage in the same or similar activities or  provide funding to support the same or similar services to the same  beneficiaries. Duplication thus stems from overlap. When granting  agencies do not identify overlap, assess its impact, or coordinate their  activities in acknowledgment of the overlap, there is a heightened risk  of unnecessary duplication because one granting agency may not be  knowledgeable of the ways in which its funding decision duplicates  another’s. At times, federal funding is leveraged by design to achieve  a single purpose through multiple federal funding streams. These  funding arrangements are not characterized as unnecessary  duplication for purposes of this review so long as federal agencies are  aware of them or have deliberately planned for grant programs to be  complementary.
To assess the possibility for overlap among the 15 grant programs  intended solely to address human trafficking, we reviewed grant  solicitations from fiscal years 2014 and 2015, the most recent two years  in which grants had been awarded, to identify similarities and differences  between the allowable activities and target beneficiaries. We divided  allowable activities into five categories to determine how many of the  grant programs could be used for the same purpose.  We then examined  the grant awards for each program to assess whether any organizations  that had been awarded human trafficking grants were or could be using  the grants to provide the same services to the same or similar groups of  beneficiaries.  We identified 14 organizations that were awarded multiple  human trafficking grants in 2014 or 2015.  To determine whether  duplication was actually occurring, we interviewed officials responsible for  administering grant programs at the Bureau of Justice Assistance, the  National Institute of Justice, the Office of Juvenile Justice and  Delinquency Prevention, and the Office for Victims of Crime in DOJ and  the Administration for Children and Families in HHS about the specific  organizations that had received multiple grants.  We also spoke with three  of the organizations regarding how they ensure that funds from each  grant are being used for the approved purposes.  We selected the  organizations based on the number and similarity of grants they were  awarded and whether the grants were from both federal agencies.
To evaluate what efforts, if any, have been made to prevent unnecessary  duplication among human trafficking grants, we reviewed documentation  on collaboration efforts, including the Attorney General’s Annual Report to  Congress and Assessment of U.S. Government Activities to Combat  Trafficking in Persons and guidance from the Senior Policy Operating  Group’s (SPOG) Grantmaking Committee. We also interviewed federal  agency officials, including members of the SPOG and officials responsible  for administering grant programs from  the Bureau of Justice Assistance,  the National Institute of Justice, the Office of Juvenile Justice and  Delinquency Prevention, and the Office for Victims of Crime in DOJ and  the Administration for Children and Families in HHS regarding formal and  informal mechanisms for coordinating with one another to prevent overlap  among grants and duplication among grant awards.
We conducted this performance audit from July 2015 to June 2016 in  accordance with generally accepted government auditing standards.  Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain  sufficient, appropriate evidence to provide a reasonable basis for our  findings and conclusions based on our audit objectives. We believe that  the evidence obtained provides a reasonable basis for our findings and  conclusions based on our audit objectives.
section_title: Appendix II: Federal Human Trafficking Investigation and Prosecution Data
paragraphs: Responsibility for addressing human trafficking crimes falls to multiple  federal agencies. These agencies reported data on the investigations,  prosecutions, indictments, and arrests related to trafficking crimes for  fiscal years 2013 to 2015. These data are a general indicator of the level  of agency effort on trafficking in persons, although they are limited by a  number of factors. Because trafficking in persons is a hidden crime and  victims are hesitant to come forward, it is difficult to estimate the extent of  trafficking in persons crimes. Moreover, because prosecutors may charge  traffickers with other crimes (e.g., kidnapping, the Mann Act, immigration  violations, or money laundering) for strategic or tactical reasons, data on  the number of trafficking in persons investigations and prosecutions do  not provide a complete picture of the number of traffickers who have been  thwarted. The data systems agencies use are primarily case  management systems, which may not be able to extract trafficking data if  trafficking was not listed as a charge. Additionally, if an investigation on  smuggling later reveals a trafficking violation, some data systems will  continue to store investigative data under the smuggling classification.
The complexity of the investigations and the limitations of data systems  make providing data on human trafficking a labor-intensive effort for  agencies. Therefore, these data are not comparable across the agencies  and it is not possible to associate arrest and indictment data with a  particular case because of differences in agency data systems. Moreover,  agency officials noted that investigations do not always lead to  prosecutions, because situations that appear to be trafficking may prove  to be alien smuggling or prostitution accompanied by abuse and,  therefore, do not meet the criteria to be prosecuted as trafficking cases.  This appendix provides data on federal agencies’ investigations and  prosecutions of human trafficking during fiscal years 2013 to 2015.
subsections: section_title: Human Trafficking Investigations
paragraphs: Within the Department of Justice, the Federal Bureau of Investigation  (FBI) has jurisdiction to investigate a broad range of violations of federal  law including human trafficking.  Within the Department of Homeland  Security, U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) Homeland  Security Investigations (HSI) investigates human trafficking as well as a  range of cross-border and immigration-related criminal activity. Other  agencies, also conduct human trafficking investigations as they relate to  their statutory authority. Department of State’s Bureau of Diplomatic  Security examines trafficking cases involving visa and passport fraud.  Department of Labor’s Inspector General investigates human trafficking  offenses that are discovered during investigations involving the  Department of Labor’s Foreign Labor Certification programs. Department  of Defense’s Defense Criminal Investigative Service, Army Criminal  Investigation Command, Naval Criminal Investigative Service, and Air  Force Office of Special Investigations investigate allegations of sex and  labor trafficking involving service members, departmental contractors and  civilians.
The data for fiscal years 2013 through 2015 related to investigations,  indictments, arrests, and convictions of human trafficking offenses  provided by the ICE HSI and the FBI are shown in tables 2, 3, and 4. The  arrests, indictments, and convictions associated with ICE HSI and the FBI  investigations could have occurred at either the federal, state, or local  level.
The data related to investigations of human trafficking conducted by the  Bureau of Diplomatic Security, the Department of Labor Inspector  General, and the Department of Defense during fiscal years 2013-2015  are shown in tables 5, 6, and 7.
section_title: Human Trafficking Prosecutions
paragraphs: Within the Department of Justice, the U.S. Attorney’s Offices, along with  the Criminal Division and Civil Rights Division, prosecute human  trafficking crimes. The Human Trafficking Prosecution Unit (HTPU) in the  Civil Rights Division prosecutes labor trafficking and sex trafficking of  adults. Within the Criminal Division, the Child Exploitation and Obscenity  Section, prosecutes child sex trafficking cases.
The data for fiscal years 2013 through 2015 related to matters initiated,  cases prosecuted, defendants charged, and defendants convicted of  human trafficking offenses provided by the Criminal Division, Civil Rights  Division and U.S Attorney’s Offices are shown in tables 8, 9, and 10.
Prosecutorial agencies may decline a matter for prosecution for many  reasons. For fiscal years 2014 and 2015 the main reason for the U.S.  Attorney’s Offices to decline to prosecute a case was insufficient  evidence. Table 11 presents the declination statistics and reasons for the  U.S. Attorney’s Office for years 2014 and 2015.
section_title: Appendix III: Extent to which Human Trafficking Victims Were Granted T-visas, U- visas, and Continued Presence
paragraphs: U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) within the Department  of Homeland Security (DHS) provides immigration relief to foreign victims  of human trafficking and other crimes by adjudicating applications for T  nonimmigrant status (T visa) for victims of a severe form of trafficking who  meet certain criteria and petitions for U nonimmigrant status (U visa) for  victims of qualifying criminal activity, including human trafficking and fraud  in foreign labor contracting, who satisfy U visa-specific criteria. The T  visa and U visa allow the victims to remain in the country, for up to a 4  year period, which may be extended under certain circumstances, so they  can assist with the investigation or prosecution of human trafficking or  qualifying crimes, respectively. Further, Immigration and Customs  Enforcement (ICE) can grant Continued Presence, which is a temporary  form of protection available to foreign national victims of human trafficking  without lawful immigration status if they are potential witnesses to that  trafficking, and upon the application by federal law enforcement officials  to DHS. Continued Presence allows victims to remain and work in the  country temporarily, for 1 year and may be renewed in 1 year increments,  during the ongoing investigation into the human trafficking-related crimes  committed against them.
T nonimmigrant status may be available for victims of severe forms of  trafficking who meet the following criteria: physical presence in the United  States on account of such trafficking; compliance with any reasonable  request for assistance by law enforcement in the investigation or  prosecution of the trafficking (unless the victim is unable to cooperate due  to physical or psychological trauma, or is under 18 years of age); and  would suffer extreme hardship involving unusual and severe harm if  removed from the United States.The number of T visas that may be  granted each fiscal year is limited by statute to 5,000 for victims.  To  obtain a T visa a victim must submit an application, which may include  law enforcement certification that the applicant has been a victim of  trafficking, to USCIS for review. Victims may also request a derivative T  visas for family members, such as the spouse, children or other eligible  family members. Derivative family members do not count towards the  5,000 statutory cap.   Tables 12 and 13 present the number of T visa  applications filed with USCIS for victims and their families for fiscal years  2013-2015.
U nonimmigrant status may be available for victims of qualifying criminal  activity who have suffered substantial physical or mental abuse as a  result of being a victim of the qualifying crime, possess information about  the qualifying crime, and have been, are being, or are likely to be helpful  to law enforcement or government officials in the investigation or  prosecution of the qualifying criminal activity, including trafficking and  fraud in foreign labor contracting. The number of U visas that may be  granted to principal petitioners each fiscal year is limited by law to  10,000.  However, derivative family members do not count towards the  10,000 statutory cap. To obtain a U visa a victim must submit a petition,  including a law enforcement certification that the petitioner has been a  victim of a qualifying crime, to USCIS for review. See table 14 for the  number of U visa petitions filed with USCIS for victims in human  trafficking related cases.
Continued Presence allows victims of human trafficking to remain in the  United States temporarily during the ongoing investigation into the human  trafficking-related crimes committed against them. For a victim to obtain  Continued Presence federal law enforcement officials or prosecutors  must submit an application to ICE for review. Continued Presence is  initially granted for 1 year and may be renewed in 1-year increments.  Table 15 present the number of Continued Presence applications filed  with ICE for fiscal years 2013-2015.
section_title: Appendix IV: Grant Programs for Human Trafficking
paragraphs: We identified 42 federal grant programs that can be used for the purpose  of combating human trafficking or assisting victims of human trafficking in  the United States.  Fifteen are intended solely for these purposes. Each  of the grant programs is administered by a component of the  Departments of Health and Human Services, Homeland Security, or  Justice.
section_title: Appendix V: Data from Interactive Map
paragraphs: This appendix contains the data used in figure 5 of this report, Human  Trafficking Grants Awarded within the United States, Fiscal Years 2014- 2015.  As in the map, each grant program may have multiple purposes,  but their main purpose is identified in the table.  In addition, grant awards  are categorized by the main city or area in which they are being  implemented.  The table does not include grants that provide services  throughout the United States or that provide services in multiple states, or  information on sub-recipients of Department of Justice (DOJ) and  Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) grantees.
section_title: Appendix VI: GAO Contact and Staff Acknowledgments
subsections: section_title: GAO Contact
section_title: Staff Acknowledgements
paragraphs: In addition to the contact named above, Kristy Love, Assistant Director;  Kisha Clark, Analyst-in Charge; Marycella Mierez; Miriam Hill; Jon Najmi  and Michele Fejfar made significant contributions to the work.