Special Education: Federal Actions Can Assist States in Improving Postsecondary Outcomes for Youth
Published: 2003-07-30T00:00:00

Fast Facts:

Highlights:
section_title: Why GAO Did This Study
paragraphs: States receive federal funds under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) to help students with disabilities reach their postsecondary goals, and various federal programs offer services that can assist these youth. However, research has documented that youth with disabilities are less likely to transition into postsecondary education and employment. Congress requested that GAO provide information on (1) the proportion of IDEA students completing high school with a diploma or alternative credentials, and their postsecondary status; (2) the transition problems being reported and state and local actions to address them; and (3) the types of transition services provided by the vocational rehabilitation, the Workforce Investment Act youth, and the Ticket to Work and Self-Sufficiency programs, and the factors affecting participation of IDEA youth.
section_title: What GAO Found
paragraphs: Of all IDEA youth who left high school during the 2000-01 school year, 57 percent received a standard diploma and an additional 11 percent received an alternative credential. High school completion patterns of IDEA youth have remained stable over recent years despite concerns that states' increasing use of exit examinations would result in higher dropout rates. Students with some types of disabilities were much less likely, however, to complete high school with a standard diploma, receiving an alternative credential or dropping out instead. IDEA youth without a diploma have some options for entering employment or postsecondary education, but national data on their post-school status are over a decade old. Twenty-one states routinely track students' post-school status, but these data have some limitations. While most states used post-school data for program improvement purposes such as monitoring service delivery, some officials indicated that guidance was needed on how to best collect and use these data. A variety of transition problems, such as lack of vocational training and poor linkages between schools and service providers, have been consistently reported by students, parents, and others. While state and local educational agencies have taken actions to address some of the problems, other problems such as lack of transportation are less likely to be addressed at the state level. While state Directors of Special Education reported being generally satisfied with assistance provided to them by the Department of Education in addressing transition issues, some expressed concerns about the timeliness of the federal feedback on their state improvement plans and inconsistency in the quality of technical assistance provided by the six federal Regional Resource Centers. The vocational rehabilitation (VR) program, the Workforce Investment Act youth program (WIA), and the Ticket to Work and Self-Sufficiency (Ticket) program all offer an array of employment and education-related services that can aid some IDEA youth. However, several factors may impede participation by the IDEA populations that are eligible for services. The lack of participation may be explained in part by the insufficient capacity of the VR and WIA programs to serve eligible populations requesting services, and potential concerns of Ticket participants about losing public assistance because of employment income. A general lack of awareness by youth and families of these programs may also limit participation.

section_title: Letter
paragraphs: In 2003, states received nearly $9 billion for assuring that over 6 million  children and youth identified as having a disability received a free  appropriate public education, as required by the Individuals with  Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). Most youth had been identified as  having learning disabilities such as dyslexia, with a smaller number having  some type of emotional, mental, or physical impairment. Research has  documented that youth with disabilities—especially those with some types  of disabilities such as emotional disturbances—are less likely to transition  into postsecondary education and employment once they leave high  school. In the 1997 Amendments to IDEA, Congress required greater state  and local accountability for improving graduation rates and postsecondary  results for youth with disabilities. The law directed state education  agencies to include youth with disabilities in statewide achievement  assessments, and to begin including a statement of the transition service  needs in students’ individualized education program (IEP) at age 14, in  addition to age 16. The Department of Education (Education) monitors  states’ compliance with these requirements, as well as provides technical  assistance to enhance state and local capacity to improve graduation rates  and the postsecondary employment and education status for youth with  disabilities. In addition, other federal agencies fund programs that can  assist youth with disabilities during their transition into the adult world.
In an effort to better ensure that all students have the necessary academic  preparation to successfully pursue postsecondary education or  employment, many states are now requiring that students pass exit  examinations to graduate from high school with a diploma. However,  concerns have been raised that states’ use of exit examinations will result  in higher dropout rates for youth with disabilities or issuing alternative  credentials in lieu of diplomas that may limit youths’ options for  postsecondary education and employment. While federally funded  transition services are available to help youth with disabilities pursue  postsecondary options, there are also concerns that many may not be  using these services. To address these concerns, you asked that we  provide information on: (1) the proportion of IDEA students completing  high school with a diploma or alternative credentials, and what is known  about their postsecondary education and employment outcomes; (2) the  types of transition problems that have been reported and actions taken by  state and local education agencies to address them; and (3) the types of  transition services provided by the vocational rehabilitation (VR) program,  the Workforce Investment Act youth program (WIA), and the Ticket to  Work and Self-Sufficiency (Ticket) program, and the factors affecting the  number of IDEA youth using them.
To provide this information, we administered and analyzed results from a  survey to 50 state Directors of Special Education, as well as conducted  phone interviews with state officials in the 21 states that reported  routinely collecting data on IDEA students’ postsecondary outcomes. We  also visited 3 states and 6 school districts where we met with state and  local officials, school administrators, teachers, parents, IDEA students,  and service providers. In addition, we synthesized the findings of  nationally available studies on IDEA students’ transition experiences,  interviewed federal officials responsible for programs that can assist  students during transition, and analyzed program data from federal  agencies administering these programs. Appendix I explains our  methodology in more detail.
We performed our work in accordance with generally accepted  government auditing standards between June 2002 and June 2003.
subsections: section_title: Background
paragraphs: States that receive IDEA funding must comply with certain requirements  for special education and related services. These requirements include the  development of an IEP that spells out the specific special education,  related services, and supplementary aids and services to be provided to  each student based on the student’s needs, including transition services  designed to help the student obtain the skills and experiences to reach  desired postsecondary goals.
During the 2000-01 school year, over 300,000 IDEA youth left high school.  Most youth had been identified as having learning disabilities such as  dyslexia, with a smaller number having some type of emotional, mental, or  physical impairment, as shown in figure 1.
In an effort to raise expectations for IDEA youth and to make school  systems accountable for their performance, IDEA Amendments of 1997  required that these students be included in state and district assessments,  to the extent possible. The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 also required  school systems to establish annual assessments in order to demonstrate  that all students, including those with disabilities, made academic  progress. Although federal law does not mandate that school systems tie  assessment results to graduation with a standard diploma, current law   does provide states with the flexibility to implement exit examination  policies that would require students to pass an exit examination in order  to graduate with a diploma.
Education’s Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP) provides a  number of resources to assist state and local education agencies in serving  children and youth with disabilities. One such resource is OSEP’s  Continuous Improvement Monitoring Process, whereby OSEP provides  feedback to state education officials on state improvement plans they  develop to address problems providing education and transition services  to IDEA youth at the state and local level. Another resource is Education’s  six Regional Resource Centers for Special Education through which OSEP  facilitates networking and information sharing among states, and helps  state and local areas improve education programs by providing technical  assistance, consultation, and training.
In addition, the federal government funds other services that may offer  assistance to IDEA youth during their transition from high school into  postsecondary education or employment through programs administered  by agencies such as Education, the Department of Labor (Labor), and the  Social Security Administration (SSA).
The Department of Education. Education’s Rehabilitation Services  Administration provides funds to state VR agencies to help persons with  disabilities prepare for and engage in gainful employment. The regulations  implementing the Rehabilitation Act require state VR programs to develop  an individualized plan for employment for students eligible for vocational  rehabilitation services before they leave school.  Furthermore, for a  student with a disability who is receiving special education services, this  plan must be coordinated with the student’s IEP in terms of goals,  objectives, and services.
The Department of Labor. Labor’s Employment and Training  Administration oversees the implementation of the Workforce Investment  Act of 1998. The Workforce Investment Act promotes partnerships among  diverse programs and community representatives, including educational  institutions.  For all youth, who are between 14 and 21 years of age, WIA  includes provisions for preparing them for the transition from high school  to employment and postsecondary education that may interrelate to the  transition requirements under IDEA.
The Social Security Administration. SSA implements the Ticket  program, established under the Ticket to Work and Work Incentives  Improvement Act of 1999. The goal of the Ticket program is to enable  Social Security Disability Insurance (SSDI) beneficiaries and disabled or  blind Supplemental Security Income (SSI) beneficiaries, who are between  18 and 64 years of age, to obtain the services necessary to find, enter, and  retain employment.
section_title: A Majority of IDEA Youth Complete High School, but Data on Transitions Are Limited
paragraphs: During the 2000-01 school year, almost 70 percent of IDEA youth  completed high school with a standard diploma or an alternative  credential. Completion rates for IDEA youth remained stable over recent  years despite concerns that states’ increasing use of high school exit  examinations would result in higher dropout rates. IDEA youth who leave  high school without a standard diploma have some options for entering  employment or postsecondary education, but national data on their  postsecondary status are over a decade old. Nearly half of the states  routinely collect such data, but states’ data collection systems are subject  to a number of limitations. Most states used these data for purposes such  as monitoring or improving programs that serve IDEA youth, but several  officials involved with state data collection efforts had concerns about  whether states were employing the best approaches to collecting and  using these data.
subsections: section_title: A Majority of IDEA Youth Complete High School with a Diploma, but Differences Exist among Disability Types
paragraphs: During the 2000-01 school year, 57 percent of IDEA youth completed high  school with a standard diploma and an additional 11 percent completed  high school with an alternative credential. Students with some types of  disabilities were much less likely to complete high school with a standard  diploma, receiving alternative credentials or dropping out instead. (See  table 1.) For example, in 2000-01, about 28 percent of high school  graduates with mental retardation received an alternative credential  instead of a diploma, compared with about 11 percent for the overall  population of IDEA youth. Dropout rates for youth with emotional  disturbances were generally more than twice as high as for youth with  other disabilities; more than half of these students dropped out during the  2000-01 school year compared with about one-fourth or less of their peers  with other disability types.
We found no data source that could be used to compare high school  completion rates for IDEA and general education students. The National  Center for Education Statistics (NCES) had data from 33 states on all  youth who completed high school during the 1999-2000 school year, as  well as data from 36 states and the District of Columbia on all youth who  dropped out during that year. These data show that among the 33 states,  high school completion rates for all youth ranged from about 63 percent to  89 percent. Among 37 states, dropout rates ranged from about 3 percent to  9 percent.
section_title: Graduation Rates Remained Stable Despite States’ Use of High School Exit Examinations
paragraphs: Completion and dropout rates for IDEA youth remained stable between  the 1997-98 and 2000-01 school years. As figure 2 illustrates, the rate of  IDEA students graduating from high school over that time period with a  standard diploma or completing high school with an alternative credential  fluctuated between 67 percent and 69 percent, while the dropout rate  remained at 29 percent in the latter 3 school years.
Completion and dropout rates among IDEA youth remained stable despite  states’ increasing use of exit examinations for students to graduate from  high school with a standard diploma. While states’ use of exit  examinations addressed concerns over whether students obtaining a  diploma are able to demonstrate evidence of academic achievement, it  also generated concerns that dropout rates will rise among youth unable  to pass such examinations, particularly among youth with disabilities. A  study of 1998-99 completion and dropout rates sponsored by Education  did not show higher dropout rates in states with exit examinations, or  among the various disability groups. We updated that analysis using  states’ completion and dropout rates from the 2000-01 school year, and  found similar results.
Despite these study results, the effect of exit examinations on IDEA  graduation rates has not been fully tested because most states have been  providing IDEA youth with different options, such as exempting them  from the examinations, modifying the examinations to various extents, or  offering alternative exit credentials that do not require students to pass the  exit examinations. For example, IDEA students in Georgia can petition  for an exemption from the state’s exit examination and still receive a  diploma. New York allows students with disabilities who are unable to  pass state’s exit examinations to take a modified and less rigorous version.  Other modifications available to IDEA youth in some states include using  different scoring criteria or allowing IDEA students to retake the  examination. In addition, more than half of the states with exit  examinations also offered alternative credentials. For example, Alabama  allows IDEA students to obtain an occupational diploma based on  completion of courses incorporating certain career and technical  education standards, such as Consumer Mathematics and Employment  English in lieu of traditional Mathematics and English. A state official from  Alabama stated that offering such alternative credentials assists the state  in raising academic standards for all students without increasing IDEA  youth’s dropout rate.
section_title: IDEA Youth Transitioning from High School without Standard Diplomas Have Some Options for Entering Employment or Postsecondary Education
paragraphs: IDEA youth completing high school with alternative credentials or  dropping out do have some opportunities to immediately enter  employment. State and local officials, as well as employer representatives  in states we visited, indicated that some employers place higher value on  the prospective applicant’s job skills, such as willingness to learn and  ability to interact with others, than on a specific graduation document. For  example, New York officials from the State Workforce Investment Board  and a local Employment and Training Center said that employers would be  willing to hire youth with disabilities without a standard diploma and  provide job related training as long as they had the necessary  communication skills and basic work ethic.
Options for pursuing postsecondary education include programs focusing  on vocational education and skills training, as well as academic programs.  In California, for example, IDEA youth can enter Regional Occupational  Programs that lead to vocational certificates in a wide range of fields.  While high school diplomas may not be necessary for such programs,  other prerequisites, such as entrance examinations, may be required.  Community colleges are another option for youth wishing to pursue a  college degree. In many states, community colleges have an open  enrollment policy, admitting students regardless of high school diploma  status. Some community colleges, however, may require youth to pass an  entrance examination to determine if they have the ability to benefit from  the college’s academic programs. Youth who do not pass the entrance  examination may enroll in remedial adult education courses to prepare for  the examination or obtain a high school equivalency degree.
section_title: State Data Showing Transition of IDEA Youth into Employment and Postsecondary Education Have Limitations
paragraphs: Data from Education’s National Longitudinal Transition Study (NLTS),  showing the proportion of IDEA youth who obtain jobs or pursue  postsecondary education after high school, are over a decade old.  Education is currently funding NLTS2, but information on the long-term  transition outcomes of students included in the study is not yet available  since they are only now beginning to complete high school. These  national studies are not representative at the state level. However,  according to our national survey of state Directors of Special Education,  nearly half of the states routinely collect data on students’ transition for  their own use. (See fig. 3.)
Costs and funding sources for the data collection efforts varied among  states. (See app. II, table 8.) To fund their data collection efforts, most  states used federal funds such as those provided under IDEA, and some  states also used state funding. For example, New York is using IDEA  discretionary funds for a $2.75 million 7-year follow-up study, while  Florida is spending approximately $400,000 for the state fiscal year   2002-03 effort, using primarily general state revenues.
Despite state efforts to collect information on the postsecondary  employment and education status of IDEA youth, state methodologies  have limitations that preclude using the data to represent the status of  IDEA youth in the state, or decrease the usefulness of the data in other  ways. (See app. II, table 9 and fig. 4 for information on state methodologies  and type of data states have available.)
Selection of students. Ten states did not design their follow-up efforts to  include a representative sample of IDEA youth. For example, Alabama and  California collected data only on students in those school districts  participating in the states’ model transition initiatives. In addition,  approximately half of the states collecting data did not include IDEA youth  who had dropped out of high school.
Adjusting for nonresponse bias. At least 8 states had a response rate of  less than 50 percent. For example, Texas had a response rate of less than  12 percent. Moreover, none of the states reported that they conducted  analyses comparing the characteristics of respondents and  nonrespondents to identify possible sources of bias in the results.
Ability to disaggregate data. Six states did not collect information on  IDEA students’ disability type. In addition, 2 states collected information  on the outcomes of all students without the ability to differentiate between  outcomes for IDEA youth and their peers.
Timing and number of student follow-ups. All but 1 state followed up  within 2 years of students leaving high school to obtain information on  their immediate transition outcomes. For example, Delaware conducted  its follow-up after 6 months, while Alabama collected information 1 year  after graduation. However, only 8 states collected data at more than one  point in time to examine students’ long-term transition outcomes.
Type of data available. Only 6 states had data on how many students  were both employed and attending postsecondary school. These data are  necessary to determine the overall proportion of IDEA youth transitioning  to these activities after high school. Only 11 states collected information  on reasons why some students failed to successfully transition into  employment or postsecondary education.
While studies from most of the states with routine data collection efforts,  by themselves, are of insufficient methodological quality to be cited alone,  together they show that the majority of IDEA youth were working or going  to school within a year of leaving high school, and that they were more  likely to be employed than to be enrolled in postsecondary education  programs. For example, in Wisconsin, a state with one of the more sound  approaches to data collection and analysis, 88 percent of IDEA youth who  left high school between December 1999 and 2000 participated in an  employment or educational activity 1 year later. Of these youth, 80 percent  reported being employed and 47 percent reported attending some type of  postsecondary education institution. These results are consistent with  the national survey findings from the early 1990s.
Most states that collected data have been using them for purposes such as  monitoring school districts or targeting schools for technical assistance.  (See app. II, table 10 for examples of state uses of data.) For example,  Idaho looked at the transition outcomes of students in order to select  school districts for focused monitoring, and New York prioritized its  technical assistance to school districts that appeared to be struggling with  transition. Nearly one-third of these states, however, did not regularly  share the results with local school systems.
Finally, while more than half of the states do not routinely collect data on  postsecondary employment and education status of IDEA youth, most  expressed interest in doing so. However, officials familiar with state data  collection efforts indicated that state and local school systems did not  always have appropriate guidance on how data could be collected,  analyzed, and used to improve programs and outcomes for youth with  disabilities. For example, officials in 2 states reported that they were not  certain whether their surveys included appropriate questions related to  students’ postsecondary status. In another state, an official reported that  local school systems did not have the necessary expertise to use data  available to them for purposes such as improving programs for IDEA  youth.
section_title: Problems Impeding Transition of IDEA Youth into Postsecondary Education and Employment Remain Partially Addressed
paragraphs: A variety of problems that impede IDEA youth transition to postsecondary  education and employment have been consistently reported by youth,  parents, teachers, and others. States and local education agencies are  addressing some of the reported problems related to education and work  experiences youth receive while in school; however, transportation  problems are less likely to be addressed at the state and local level. State  Directors of Special Education are generally satisfied with assistance  provided to them by Education in addressing transition issues at the state  and local level, but some expressed concerns about the timeliness of  federal feedback on their state improvement plans and inconsistency in  the quality of technical assistance provided by federal Regional Resource  Centers.
subsections: section_title: Poor Linkages between Schools and Youth Service Providers and Other Problems Impeding IDEA Youth Transition Have Been Partially Addressed at the State and Local Level
paragraphs: Discussions with students, parents, teachers, and others during our site  visits revealed that a variety of transition problems still remain that have  been consistently reported by these groups in past surveys and published  studies. Transition problems affecting IDEA youth include those related to  self-advocacy training and insufficient information about the transition  process. For example, youth responding to a national survey by a youth  association, reported problems identifying and learning how to ask for  specific accommodations they need to succeed in school and the  workplace. In addition, parents we interviewed said they did not have  information about the spectrum of education and employment service  providers that were available. Other problems included an absence of  linkages to adult service providers, insufficient vocational education and  work-related experiences obtained during high school, and lack of  transportation after high school to the job site or postsecondary school.   (See table 2.)
Self-advocacy training. Youth with disabilities responding to a national  survey by a youth association, reported problems obtaining knowledge  about their rights under laws like IDEA and the Americans with  Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990, and identifying and learning how to ask  for specific accommodations they need to succeed in school and the  workplace. Research shows that many youth with disabilities have  difficulties developing the necessary attitudes and skills to prepare for  their lives after graduation, but suggest that youth who obtain self- determination skills are more likely to achieve positive education and  employment outcomes. State Directors of Special Education in 24 states  reported that less than half of IDEA students received self-advocacy  training while in high school.
Many states and local education agencies have taken various actions to  provide and promote self-advocacy training. For example, 3 states passed  legislation or developed regulations mandating self-advocacy curriculum  in schools according to our survey of state Directors of Special Education,  and 44 percent of local education agencies include self-advocacy training  for IDEA youth in their curriculum according to a national survey by  Education. While a national survey of personnel serving students with  disabilities shows that less than two thirds of special education teachers  frequently teach self-determination skills, Directors of Special Education  in about half of the 50 states we surveyed reported introducing programs  to train teachers on how to teach self-advocacy skills.
Transition process. Parents interviewed during our site visits reported  problems helping their child navigate the transition process as students  prepare to leave high school for the adult world. Research shows that  when parents participate in their child’s education, their child improves  academically and has higher aspirations for school and career  development. However, parents from our site visits and family support  groups said that they did not have the necessary information to adequately  participate in their child’s transition from high school. Parents we  interviewed said they did not have information about where to go for  assistance after high school, the spectrum of education and employment  service providers that were available, and the type and level of support  that may be offered by providers. Moreover, they were unaware of the  ADA or other laws protecting their children’s rights, and family support  resources available to them in the community such as Parent Training and  Information Centers.
States have taken some actions to provide this knowledge to parents.  Eight states indicated in our survey that they have passed legislation or  regulations to include parents or advocacy groups in transition planning  while youth are in high school. In addition, at least three-fourths of the  states are funding parent centers or other family advocacy groups,  establishing task forces and workgroups, and providing technical  assistance to local school systems. Ongoing efforts also exist in over half  of the states to increase parent participation through developing culturally  diverse transition materials.
Linkages between schools and service providers. Teachers  responding to a national survey by Education reported that in the area of  IDEA youth transition, more than half rarely, if ever, coordinate referrals  to adult service providers. National data from NLTS show that more than  85 percent of IDEA youth received services that were sought after high  school, and IDEA legislation requires that a student’s IEP include a  statement of interagency responsibilities or any needed linkages, if  appropriate, to ensure that IDEA youth will receive the services needed to  achieve their postsecondary education or career goals. Twenty-one state  Directors of Special Education reported in our survey that many local  school systems do not have designated intermediaries to establish such  linkages, and 18 Directors of Special Education said that their agency also  had difficulty coordinating with other state agencies outside of the school  system. Teachers from our site visits cited lack of time and knowledge  about available service providers as part of the problem.
All states are taking some action to provide direction and resources for  improving linkages between schools and service providers. Ten states  reported in our survey that they passed legislation or regulations providing  for greater coordination between schools and service providers. In  addition, according to Education’s survey of state and local education  areas, while less than half of school districts reported having a transition  coordinator at each high school, all but 3 states reported hiring state  transition coordinators who can assist teachers in their efforts to link  students with providers after high school. All states reported providing  technical assistance or training to local education agencies on interagency  coordination, with Connecticut also developing policies and procedures  for students to access adult services, and Utah providing training to other  state agencies on IDEA transition requirements.
Vocational education and community work experience. Findings  based on parent interviews from NLTS2 show that 24 percent of youth  received vocational services and 60 percent had paid work experiences  while in high school, despite findings from the SLIIDEA study that about  90 percent of high schools reported offering prevocational training and  work experience to IDEA students. Past research has shown that IDEA  youth who received these services experienced higher rates of successful  transition. For example, NLTS researchers reported that youth with  disabilities obtaining vocational education and community work  experience had been less likely to drop out of school, and achieved greater  success in obtaining employment with higher earnings. Those conducting  more recent state and local studies reported similar results. State and local  education officials from 3 states we visited indicated that school districts  have difficulties offering an appropriate mix of vocational programs that  reflect the job market demands as well as meet the students’ career  interests.
States and local education agencies have taken various actions to provide  and promote vocational education and career preparation opportunities  for IDEA youth. Nine Directors of Special Education in our state survey  said that their state had passed legislation or regulations requiring  vocational education and career preparation for IDEA students, and most  Directors of Special Education said that they disseminated best practices  in the area of vocational education and career preparation. Other actions  taken by half of the states included funding outreach and collaboration  efforts of local education agencies to create vocational education and  work opportunities.
Transportation. Federal, state, and local officials in 3 states we visited all  said that many youth may not have access to transportation they need to  pursue employment and postsecondary education. In rural areas, public  transportation may be very limited, or may not be available during the time  needed to get to their job site or college. Availability of transportation is  not always the only issue. One parent told us that using public  transportation was not feasible because her child suffered from seizures.  While private providers may be better prepared to serve youth with  disabilities, parents and advocacy groups said that private providers were  often unreliable and their services were not coordinated with public  transportation systems. An advocacy official indicated that one reason  why these providers are unreliable is because they generally operate on a  priority system that gives medical needs a higher priority than employment  needs.
The 3 states we visited had not addressed transition issues related to the  lack of reliable transportation in their state improvement plans. State  education officials said these types of problems are outside their area of  responsibility. In New York and California, however, some local areas are  taking initiative to address this problem. In western New York, a  collaborative endeavor involving 30 agencies provides transportation, as  well as other services, to youth with disabilities to help them in career  preparation activities. In California, youth workforce development centers  work with the Sacramento Regional Transit District to provide  complementary transit tickets to youth with disabilities so they can come  to the centers for educational and employment services.
section_title: Education Provides Some Assistance to States in Addressing Transition Problems, but Concerns Remain about Timeliness and Consistency of Assistance
paragraphs: Over half of state Directors of Special Education reported that federal  assistance was very helpful in assisting states address transition problems,  but some stated that the timeliness or consistency of assistance could be  improved. One of the ways Education provides assistance to states is by  providing feedback on state improvement plans that states develop and  use to show how they plan to address areas of weakness in implementing  IDEA, including transition requirements. While 39 state Directors of  Special Education found this feedback useful, some expressed  dissatisfaction over Education’s timeliness in providing the feedback. For  example, of 21 state plans submitted to Education in 2002, only one-fourth  received feedback within 6 months, and at least another one-fifth did not  receive formal written feedback for a year or more. (See table 3.)
Education does not have a standard response period and has not set a  performance goal for providing feedback to states on their improvement  plans. While Education officials stated that they provide extensive  informal feedback to states prior to issuing a formal written response, they  also stated that they are taking action to try and expedite the agency’s  formal written responses. To preclude delays on the formal written  feedback resulting from the agency’s internal review process, Education  has developed standard language and written review procedures to be  used in preparing feedback. According to Education officials, having  standard language and review procedures will decrease the time necessary  to write and review the feedback report. They also hope these actions will  reduce the response time to states.
Another way Education provides assistance to states is by funding   6 Regional Resource Centers that states can use to obtain technical  assistance for addressing transition issues. Services provided to states by  the centers include guidance, training, information dissemination,  assistance with state development of training materials, and facilitation of  meetings states convene to address problems. Directors of Special  Education in 29 states reported in our survey that assistance obtained  from the centers was very helpful, but there are some concerns that the  quality of services was sometimes inconsistent among the centers. One  center, for example, consistently received high marks from the states in  that region, while the remaining 5 centers received mixed reviews.
State and center officials attributed the inconsistent quality of services to  variation in the expertise available at each center, an observation also  reported in a previous performance evaluation of the centers. This  evaluation recommended that Education provide training to alleviate the  disparity in staff expertise, particularly with regard to transition issues.  In  response to this issue, Education officials said that the agency offers  periodic professional development opportunities and encourages the  centers to operate as a network by sharing knowledge and expertise.  Despite these efforts, however, some states still have concerns about  service quality and are turning to private consultants to obtain help with  transition issues.
section_title: The VR, WIA, and Ticket Programs Provide Transition Services, but Several Factors May Limit the Number of IDEA Youth Who Use Them
paragraphs: The VR, WIA, and Ticket programs all offer services that can aid some  IDEA youth in their transition to postsecondary education or employment.  While the federal agencies administering these programs are not required  to track how many IDEA youth use them, several factors may impede  participation by the IDEA populations that are eligible for services. One  factor limiting services under VR and WIA is insufficient program capacity  to serve all eligible populations requesting services. Another factor  affecting participation under the Ticket program is family concerns about  whether finding employment would result in youth losing public  assistance. A factor that may affect IDEA youth participation in all  programs to various extents is a general lack of awareness by youth and  families that these federal resources are available for transition assistance.
subsections: section_title: The VR, WIA, and Ticket Programs Provide a Variety of Education and Employment Transition Services
paragraphs: The VR, WIA, and Ticket programs all offer an array of similar and  complementary education, employment, and support services for certain  population groups.
Education services. These services can support youth who are trying to  complete their high school education as well as those youth furthering  their education in postsecondary institutions, such as community colleges.  Services for youth at all education levels can include those that prepare  them for learning by providing tutoring and study skills training as well as  providing access to educational programs through tuition support.  Education services support both out of school youth, as well as those at  risk of dropping out. We observed a tutoring program in an Alabama  school district, for example, that used WIA funds to assist high school  youth who are struggling academically.
Employment services. These services can assist IDEA youth that are  trying to obtain a job or obtain job skills necessary to increase potential  wages. Services for youth in either situation can include those that prepare  them for employment by providing job coaching and training, as well as  direct placement with an employer. A service provider under the Ticket  program in New York, for example, said that in addition to employment  preparation services, they help find jobs for enrollees.
Support services. These services can assist IDEA youth pursue their  education and employment goals as well as achieve goals for independent  living. These services can include mentoring and counseling, childcare,  and transportation, as well as any other services that might be needed. In  California, for example, the VR agency has cooperative agreements with  education agencies to provide support services to youth with disabilities,  including financial assistance for assistive technology, such as wheelchairs  and adapted computers, conducting vocational assessments for students,  and providing information on options for both independent and supported  living facilities.
IDEA youth are not automatically eligible for these education,  employment, and support services, and the VR, WIA, and Ticket programs  serve populations that are both different and overlapping. Of the  approximately 2 million IDEA youth ages 14 to 21, only some of these  youth are eligible for these federally funded services.
Under the VR program, all people with a physical or mental impairment  are potentially eligible for services, but states may only serve those with  the most significant disabilities in times of funding constraint. The former  administrator of Oregon’s VR program said that in the past the state was  unable to serve some youth with psychiatric disorders due to funding  constraints.
WIA primarily limits services to low-income youth that have some type of  barrier to employment. While disabilities under IDEA may qualify as  barriers for WIA purposes, available data suggest that only about 29  percent of IDEA youth meet WIA’s low-income requirement.
To qualify for the Ticket program, individuals must be at least 18 years old,  and qualify for disability benefits from SSA. Available data suggest that  about 13 percent of the IDEA youth population meets Ticket’s age and  benefit requirements.
Education, Labor, and SSA are not required to track the number of IDEA  youth who are enrolled and obtaining transition services provided through  the VR, WIA, and Ticket programs. However, available data for all youth  show that over 550,000 were enrolled and received services during the  time frames outlined in table 4.
While federal agencies are not required to collect data on the type of  education, employment, and support services actually provided to IDEA  youth under the VR, WIA, and Ticket programs, Education and Labor do  collect information on services provided to all youth ages 14 to 21.  Education data on the approximately 94,000 youth who received services  and exited the VR program in fiscal year 2001 show that three-fourths of  youth obtained vocational, medical, and social counseling, and more youth  obtained employment services than services to further their education or  training. (See table 5.)
Labor data on the approximately 80,000 youth who received services and  exited the WIA program in fiscal year 2001 show that about 40 percent of  youth obtained employment and education services, but less than one- fourth received support services. (See table 6.)
section_title: Lack of Awareness and Other Factors May Impede IDEA Youth Participation in Federally Funded Transition Services
paragraphs: While IDEA youth vary in their need and desire to use federal transition  services, there are several factors that may impede their access to them.  Three factors that may limit IDEA youth participation include   (1) limitations in program capacity to serve the eligible population seeking  services, (2) youth and family fears that employment income may  jeopardize access to other public assistance, and (3) a lack of awareness  about the availability of the transition resources.
Program capacity. In regard to program capacity, the VR, WIA, and  Ticket programs face different issues in serving IDEA youth eligible for  their services. These problems include a lack of expertise to serve youth  with disabilities, a lack of resources to serve all those seeking services,  and unavailability of services in some states. For example:    Under the VR program, IDEA youth compete with all adults and youth  with disabilities for services. Education officials report that a number of  states have waiting lists for VR services. At the end of fiscal year 2001, for  example, VR agencies had more people seeking services than resources to  serve them, and about 30,000 people in 25 states were on waiting lists for  services. (See app. III.) Of this total, Education reported that about   20 percent, or about 6,000 individuals, were on a waiting list for VR  services in Washington state.
Under WIA, IDEA youth compete with all youth facing some type of  barrier to employment, and older youth also compete with adults for  services under the WIA adult program. WIA officials told us that WIA  providers generally do not have the expertise to serve youth with  disabilities, and in some cases facilities do not have the appropriate  physical accommodations. In light of these deficiencies, WIA officials told  us that this population is often referred to VR agencies for assessment and  services.
The Ticket program has resources to serve all eligible youth seeking  services; however, this new program has not yet been implemented in all  states. SSA plans to complete its rollout of the program to the final   17 states and the U.S. territories by 2004, which will increase access to the  program for over half of the approximately 257,000 youth receiving  assistance from SSA. (See app. IV.)
Fear of losing public assistance. A second contributing factor may be  that some youth and families that receive public assistance are afraid that  employment income will jeopardize their access to other federal and state  public assistance benefits such as health insurance and subsidized  housing. SSA reports that less than 1 percent of eligible youth had signed  up for the Ticket program to increase self-sufficiency. In the 3 states we  visited, SSA officials, school administrators, teachers, advocacy groups,  and others involved in the transition process said that fear of losing  federal and state benefits is a common reason why individuals are hesitant  to participate in federal work incentive programs such as the Ticket  program. While some of these fears may be unfounded, others are not, and  working and receiving income can affect youth’s ability to retain services  such as health insurance benefits through Medicaid. For example, while  SSA has encouraged states to offer beneficiaries the opportunity to retain  Medicaid benefits while earning wages, only about half of the states have  established such policies. (See app. V.) While some programs allow youth  to earn a certain amount of income and retain benefits, amounts allowed  under the various assistance programs can differ, and many families are  not aware of the contingencies. Although youth unable to sustain  employment can re-enroll in public assistance programs, parents we spoke  with stated that enrollment in the various programs is a lengthy and  difficult process that they do not want to repeat.
Lack of awareness of available federal services. Finally, a third factor  that may limit IDEA youth participation in federal programs is that many  youth and families are unaware that they exist. While IDEA legislation  requires schools to provide youth with transition services and information  about available transition resources, students, parents, and teachers we  spoke with in the 3 states visited were generally uninformed about the  continuum of available federal transition services and how to access them.  Most of those we talked with were familiar with the VR program and the  types of services it provides. However, many were unfamiliar with the  Ticket program, and familiarity with the services provided through the  Workforce Investment Act assistance centers varied dramatically within  and among states. In one California suburban community, a high school  we visited had a close working relationship with the local assistance  center, and school administrators, teachers, and students were aware of  the services available there. However, teachers, parents, and students we  talked to at an urban New York school were unfamiliar with the assistance  centers that provide WIA services, even though a center was located only a  few miles away.
Education, Labor, and SSA recognize that action is needed to reach out to  youth and families and tell them about federal resources such as the VR,  WIA, and Ticket programs. While these agencies have several efforts  underway to publicize or increase awareness of available resources, these  efforts may not include information on all federal transition resources, or  reach youth, families, and teachers involved in developing transition plans  for youth leaving high school. For example:    Education’s Regional Resource Center in the Southeast developed a guide  to inform students and families about available resources, but this guide  does not include information about WIA services. The guide is available on  the Web, but there is no consistent distribution process to provide the  guide to all youth and families in all states served by the center.
Labor partnered with SSA and other federal agencies to identify more than  200 federal programs among 12 federal agencies that serve persons with  disabilities. A Labor official said that once the report is finalized, it will be  available to the public, including IDEA youth and families; however, this  report is primarily targeted to policymakers and program officials.
SSA has several efforts underway to increase awareness of the Ticket  program among other federal and state agencies, service providers, and  advocacy groups. While the agency is conducting local outreach using  benefits planning, assistance, and outreach centers as well as protection  and advocacy partners, these efforts do not consistently target youth and  families through high schools.
section_title: Conclusions
paragraphs: Youth served under IDEA are not a homogeneous population, and  graduation patterns and postsecondary education and employment status  can differ significantly among those with physical, sensory, emotional, or  cognitive disabilities. IDEA requires individualized education programs  that address needed transition services that recognize the unique  challenges each youth with a disability must face. These programs can  best be developed when states and schools have the necessary information  to evaluate how well existing programs are working to assist youth during  and after graduation. State education officials increasingly show interest  in collecting data on what happens to IDEA youth after they leave high  school, and nearly half of the states voluntarily collect such data. Many  states, however, are still searching for ways to develop cost-effective and  sound data collection systems and there is no central information point to  share alternative methodologies that may be most useful for identifying  which groups of IDEA youth are behind their peers and whether  programmatic changes are needed to eliminate performance gaps. In the  absence of guidance and information on how to collect and use  postsecondary data, state and local education agencies and schools will  continue to experience difficulties in evaluating the effectiveness of  existing programs for students with disabilities, initiating program  improvements, and targeting resources to areas or groups that need them  most.
Although state and local education agencies are taking steps to minimize  transition problems for youth with disabilities, challenges such as  developing linkages between schools and community youth service  providers still remain that need to be addressed both inside and outside of  the education system. While Education provides some federal resources to  help state and local education agencies address these problems, the  usefulness of the assistance may be compromised because of delays and  inconsistent quality of some services. Some transition challenges are likely  to remain unless federal assistance is strengthened and used to help states  take a more holistic approach to dealing with transition issues.
Federal assistance provided under the VR, WIA, and Ticket programs can  help augment transition services provided by state and local education  agencies, or fund transportation or other services that are otherwise  unavailable. While these services are intended to help youth overcome  barriers to a successful transition, this assistance cannot be provided if  youth, parents, and education officials are unaware that these services  exist. In the absence of improved coordination among federal agencies to  provide these customers with information on the array of available federal  resources, youth eligible for such services will not be able to use them in  their efforts to achieve a successful education or employment outcome.
section_title: Recommendations for Executive Action
paragraphs: To expand the availability and use of data on the postsecondary  employment and education status of IDEA youth, we are recommending  that Education collect and disseminate information to states on sound  strategies for collecting these data and appropriately using these data for  program improvement.
To enhance federal assistance provided to states to help them address  existing transition problems, we are recommending that Education  develop an action plan with specific time frames to    provide states with feedback on state improvement plans to address  education and transition problems of IDEA youth and   ensure consistency in the quality of technical assistance provided to states  by its regional resource centers.
Finally, to increase awareness of available federal transition services, we  are recommending that Education take the lead in working with other  federal agencies to develop strategies for using the federally mandated  high school transition planning process to provide IDEA youth and their  families with information about the full complement of federally funded  transition services.
section_title: Agency Comments and Our Evaluation
paragraphs: We provided a draft of this report to Education, Labor, and SSA officials  for their review and comment. Agency comments are reprinted in  appendixes VI, VII, and VIII, respectively. While we made specific  recommendations to the Department of Education, all agencies agreed  with the recommendations for executive action and discussed their plans  to address them.
Education plans to take steps to implement our recommendations to  provide information to states on sound data collection strategies, improve  feedback and technical assistance to states, and work with other federal  agencies to provide IDEA youth with information about federal transition  services. Education noted that its plans and actions will depend on  legislative changes made to the IDEA and the Rehabilitation Act, and that  action to implement our recommendations will be taken after  reauthorization of these laws is completed. Education also cautioned that  because of variations in the collection and reporting of state data on  student graduation, dropouts, and exit examination policies, it is difficult  to draw valid conclusions about high school completion outcomes and the  effect of exit examinations.
Labor stated that our findings and recommendations substantiated the  issues and concerns that it has with regard to transition challenges for  youth with disabilities. Labor also described the steps it has taken to  address WIA youth program concerns related to program capacity, lack of  awareness, and eligibility.
SSA noted that it would continue to work with Education to provide IDEA  youth and their families with information about SSA programs, work  incentives, and employment supports. SSA also cited its planning efforts  that are aimed at promoting employment and economic self-sufficiency  involving youth with disabilities.
Education and SSA also provided technical comments, which we  incorporated where appropriate.
We will send copies of this report to the Secretaries of Education and  Labor, SSA, relevant congressional committees, and other interested  parties. Copies will be made available to others upon request. In addition,  the report will be available at no charge on the GAO Web site at  http://www.gao.gov.
Please contact me at (415) 904-2272 if you or your staff has any questions  about this report. Other major contributors to this report are listed in  appendix IX.
section_title: Appendix I: Scope and Methodology
paragraphs: In conducting our work, we administered a mail survey to state Directors  of Special Education in all states, conducted telephone interviews with  state officials, and visited 3 states. We also reviewed the findings of  nationally available studies on transition experiences of students covered  under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), interviewed  officials from the U.S. Department of Education (Education), U.S.  Department of Labor (Labor), and the Social Security Administration  (SSA), who are responsible for programs that can assist students during  transition, and analyzed data from these programs. In addition, we  interviewed disability advocates and national experts from organizations  such as the National Organization on Disability, Parent Advocacy Coalition  for Educational Rights, and Council for Exceptional Children, National  Center on Secondary Education and Transition, and National Association  of State Directors of Special Education. We performed our work in  accordance with generally accepted government auditing standards  between June 2002 and June 2003.
subsections: section_title: Survey
paragraphs: To document state graduation and examination policies pertaining to  IDEA youth, challenges experienced by these youth during transition,  actions taken by the states to address these challenges, states’  assessments of federal resources, as well as to obtain information on state  efforts to routinely collect data on these students’ postsecondary status,  we conducted a mail survey, sending questionnaires to state Directors of  Special Education in 50 states. All 50 states responded to our survey. In  many states, Directors of Special Education forwarded the survey to other  individuals, such as state transition coordinators or education specialists,  that they believed to be most knowledgeable about the issues covered in  the survey. We analyzed the survey data by calculating descriptive  statistics, as well as performing content analysis of the responses to open- ended survey questions.
section_title: State Telephone Interviews and Analysis of State Data
paragraphs: To obtain information on states’ efforts to collect data on postsecondary  employment and education status of IDEA students, we conducted  telephone interviews with state officials from 21 states who indicated on  our survey that their states routinely collected these data. We contacted  individuals in those states that the survey respondents identified as being  most knowledgeable about data collection efforts in their states, such as  state education officials or university researchers responsible for data  collection in the state. To obtain additional information on the data  collection methodologies used by the states, as well as to learn about  postsecondary status of IDEA students in those states, we also requested  all states participating in the telephone interviews provide their survey  instruments and any published materials or other available information  reporting students’ outcomes.
To obtain information on states’ utilization and assessment of federal  resources available to assist them in addressing transition problems  experienced by IDEA youth, we conducted telephone interviews with state  officials in 11 states. We used our survey results to select states that had  opposing views on how helpful they believed federal resources were in  providing assistance to address transition problems.
section_title: Site Visits
paragraphs: To obtain in-depth information on transition experiences of IDEA youth,  the challenges they are facing in the course of their transition, the extent  to which federal and other programs are available to serve them, and  actions taken at the state and local level to address existing transition  challenges, we made site visits to 3 states—Alabama, California, and New  York. We selected these states to obtain a mix based on differences in  geographic location, the size of the IDEA population in the state, high  school completion patterns, exit examination policies for IDEA youth in  the state, postsecondary data collection efforts, and state monitoring  processes, as well as recommendations of experts in transition. We visited  2 local school systems in each state, representing a combination of urban,  suburban, and rural areas. (See table 7.) In addition, we consulted with  state officials in helping us select local school systems with exemplary  transition practices, as well as those that appeared to be struggling in the  transition area.
On each visit, we interviewed various stakeholders in the transition  process at the state and local levels. At the state level, we typically  interviewed Special Education, vocational rehabilitation (VR), and Labor  officials, as well as members of the state Steering Committees established  as part of the federal Continuous Improvement Monitoring Process. At the  local level, we interviewed school district officials responsible for special  education services, school administrators and special education teachers,  transition-age IDEA students and parents, community service providers  and advocates, and VR, Workforce Investment Act youth program (WIA),  and SSA officials responsible for local-level implementation of the VR  program, WIA, and the Ticket to Work and Self-Sufficiency (Ticket)  program, respectively.
section_title: Review of National Studies on Transition
paragraphs: To obtain information on transition problems as well as state and local  efforts to address them, we reviewed and summarized the findings of  nationally available studies that addressed these issues, including the  Study of State and Local Implementation and Impact of the IDEA, the  Study of Personnel Needs in Special Education (SPeNSE), the National  Longitudinal Transition Study-2, and the National Youth Leadership  Network 2001-02 Youth Survey. We used a statistician to evaluate these  studies for methodological rigor, as well as to determine the extent to  which these data could be used to offer a nationwide perspective on  transition problems experienced by IDEA youth and on the actions taken  by state and local education agencies to address these problems. We  determined that the results from SPeNSE might be subject to bias since  the nonresponse evaluation for this study was not available at the time of  our request. The results of the youth survey presented the views of over  200 youth but did not reflect a nationally representative perspective  because respondents were not randomly selected. We included the youth  survey in our review because it was reported as the only data collection  effort in the country designed and implemented by youth with disabilities.
section_title: Analysis of Existing Data
paragraphs: To determine high school completion rates for IDEA students, we  obtained data collected from the states by the Office of Special Education  Programs (OSEP) and summarized in Education’s Annual Reports to  Congress. We used the 22nd and 23rd Annual Reports to obtain data for  1997-98 and 1998-99 school years. We used OSEP-administered Web site  (http://www.ideadata.org) to obtain data for 1999-2000 and 2000-01 school  years. In calculating graduation and dropout rates for IDEA youth, we  relied on the method in use by OSEP. Specifically, OSEP reports what  percentage of IDEA students leave high school with a standard diploma or  drop out during a given school year out of the total number of IDEA  students who leave high school with a standard diploma or a certificate,  drop out, age out, or die during that year. OSEP does not report the  certificate rate, but using OSEP’s data, we calculated the rate of youth  completing with a certificate in the same manner.
To determine high school completion and dropout rates for all students,  we looked at an August 2002 published report from the National Center for  Education Statistics (NCES), presenting rates of students completing  public school with a standard diploma or an alternative credential and  dropping out (among states that reported dropouts) for school year 1999- 2000. These data were collected by NCES for public school completers  and dropouts through its Common Core of Data system.
We obtained information on states’ exit examination policies from the  National Center on Secondary Education and Transition and the National  Center on Education Outcomes. We used that information to update  Education’s analysis of completion and dropout rates for IDEA students in  states with and without exit examinations. Education’s analysis did not  differentiate between states that had exit examination policies in general  and those that had fully implemented those policies by requiring all  graduating seniors to participate in the examination in order to graduate.  When we repeated Education’s analysis, we defined exit examination  states only as those that had required all graduating seniors to fully  participate in the exit examination by 2000-01. These states were:  Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Indiana, Louisiana, Maryland, Minnesota,  Mississippi, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, Ohio, South Carolina, and  Texas.
To determine how many youth participated in the VR, WIA, and Ticket  programs, we analyzed data provided by Education’s Rehabilitation  Services Administration (RSA), Labor’s Employment and Training  Administration, and SSA. Because VR participation data only reflected the  number of youth exited, we obtained from RSA and the Council for State  Administrators of Vocational Rehabilitation an estimated number of youth  enrolled for services. We also analyzed data from RSA on types of services  provided to youth.
section_title: Appendix II: State Data Collection Efforts
paragraphs: Table 8 shows various entities responsible for collecting data, costs of data  collection efforts, and funding sources used by 21 states that routinely  collected data on postsecondary employment and education status of  IDEA youth.
Table 9 presents various methods used by 21 states to routinely collect  data on postsecondary employment and education status of IDEA youth.  The table provides information on characteristics of students and school  systems that states included in their data collection efforts and the time  periods at which data were collected.
Figure 4 presents the types of data on IDEA youth’s postsecondary  employment and education status available in 21 states with routine data  collection efforts.
Table 10 identifies possible uses of data on IDEA students’ postsecondary  employment and education status, and provides examples from state  education officials on how data are being used at the state and local levels  for each data use category identified.
section_title: Appendix III: State Waiting Lists for Vocational Rehabilitation Services in Fiscal Year 2001
paragraphs: The table below lists the states that, at the end of fiscal year 2001, had  waiting lists for vocational rehabilitation services because the state did not  have sufficient funds to serve all individuals who were determined eligible  for the program.
section_title: Appendix IV: Youth Eligible to Participate in the Ticket Program as of June 2003
paragraphs: The table below shows the number of youth ages 18 to 21 eligible to  participate in the first two phases of the Ticket program’s implementation.
section_title: Appendix V: Availability of Medicaid Buy-In to Working People with Disabilities as of May 2003
paragraphs: The map below shows which states offer working people with disabilities  the opportunity to maintain Medicaid benefits while receiving income  from work.
Mont.
N.Dak.
Vt.
Minn.
N.H.
S.Dak.
Wisc.
N.Y.
Mass.
Wyo.
Mich.
R.I.
Nebr.
Pa.
Conn.
N.J.
Ill.
Ind.
Del.
Colo.
W.Va.
Kans.
Mo.
Va.
Ky.
Md.
D.C.
Tenn.
N.C.
Okla.
N.Mex.
Ark.
S.C.
Miss.
Ala.
Ga.
Tex.
La.
Fla.
section_title: Appendix VI: Comments from the Department of Education
section_title: Appendix VII: Comments from the Department of Labor
section_title: Appendix VIII: Comments from the Social Security Administration
section_title: Appendix IX: GAO Contacts and Staff Acknowledgments
subsections: section_title: GAO Contacts
section_title: Staff Acknowledgments
paragraphs: In addition to those named above, Natalya Bolshun, Julianne Hartman  Cutts, Molly Laster, and Adam Roye made key contributions to this report.  Barbara Alsip, Carl Barden, Carolyn Boyce, Stefanie Bzdusek,   Patrick DiBattista, Behn Kelly, and John Smale also provided key technical  assistance.