Border Security: Challenges in Implementing Border Technology
Published: 2003-03-12T00:00:00

Fast Facts:

Highlights:
section_title: Why GAO Did This Study
paragraphs: One of the primary missions of the new Department of Homeland Security (DHS) focuses on border control--preventing the illegal entry of people and goods into the United States. Part of this mission is controlling the passage of travelers through official ports of entry into the United States. Facilitating the flow of people while preventing the illegal entry of travelers requires an effective and efficient process that authenticates a traveler's identity. Generally, identifying travelers at the ports of entry is performed by inspecting their travel documents, such as passports and visas, and asking them questions. Technologies called biometrics can automate the identification of individual travelers by one or more of their distinct physiological characteristics. Biometrics have been suggested as a way of improving the nation's ability to determine whether travelers are admissible to the United States.
section_title: What GAO Found
paragraphs: GAO found that biometric technologies are available today that can be used for border control. However, questions remain regarding the technical and operational effectiveness of biometric technologies in applications as large as border control. Before implementing any biometric border control system, a number of other issues would have to be considered, including the system's effect on existing border control procedures and people, the costs and benefits of the system, and the system's effect on privacy, convenience, and the economy. Furthermore, technology is only part of the solution. Effective security requires technology and people to work together to implement policies, processes, and procedures. At land border ports of entry, DHS faces several challenges including ensuring that the inspections process has sufficient integrity to enable inspectors to intercept those who should not enter our country, while still facilitating the entry of lawful travelers; ensuring that inspectors have the necessary technology, equipment, and training to do their job efficiently and effectively; and providing inspectors the access to necessary intelligence information.

section_title: Letter
paragraphs: I appreciate the opportunity to participate in today’s hearing on border  technology. The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) faces enormous  challenges to protect the nation from terrorism. One of the primary  missions of the new department focuses on border control – preventing  the illegal entry of people and goods into the United States. Part of this  mission is controlling the passage of travelers through official ports of  entry into the United States. Facilitating the flow of people while  preventing the illegal entry of travelers requires an effective and efficient  process that authenticates a traveler’s identity. Generally, identifying  travelers at the ports of entry is performed by inspecting their travel  documents, such as passports and visas, and asking them questions.  Technologies called biometrics can automate the identification of  individual travelers by one or more of their distinct physiological  characteristics. Biometrics have been suggested as a way of improving the  nation’s ability to determine whether travelers are admissible to the United  States. Today, I will discuss the issues and challenges associated with  using biometrics in border control systems and the significant  management challenges we identified during our ongoing work at land  ports of entry.
My testimony today is based on a body of work we completed last year  examining the use of biometrics for border control and on preliminary  observations related to our ongoing work examining the inspection of  travelers at land border ports of entry. In our report on the use of  biometrics, we discussed the current maturity of several biometric  technologies, the possible implementation of these technologies in current  border control processes, and the policy implications and key  considerations for using these technologies. We are also in the process of  reviewing immigration inspections at land border ports of entry, where our  work has included examining the integrity of the inspections process,  programs to segregate low-risk travelers, the technology and equipment  used to conduct inspections, immigration intelligence information, and  inspector training issues.
In brief, biometric technologies are available today that can be used for  border control. However, questions remain regarding the technical and  operational effectiveness of biometric technologies in applications as large  as border control. Before implementing any biometric border control  system, a number of other issues would have to be considered, including  the system’s effect on existing border control procedures and people, the  costs and benefits of the system, and the system’s effect on privacy,  convenience, and the economy. Furthermore, technology is only part of  the solution. Effective security requires technology and people to work  together to implement policies, processes, and procedures. At land border  ports of entry, DHS faces several challenges including ensuring that the  inspections process has sufficient integrity to enable inspectors to  intercept those who should not enter our country, while still facilitating  the entry of lawful travelers; ensuring that inspectors have the necessary  technology, equipment, and training to do their job efficiently and  effectively; and providing inspectors the access to necessary intelligence  information.
subsections: section_title: Background
paragraphs: The United States essentially relies on a two-step process to prevent  inadmissible people from entering the country. The Bureau of Consular  Affairs in the State Department is responsible for issuing international  travel documents, such as passports to United States citizens and visas to  citizens of other countries. On March 1, 2003, the Bureau of Customs and  Border Protection in the Department of Homeland Security assumed  responsibility for inspecting travelers at and between ports of entry.  Inspectors from the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS), the U.S.  Customs Service, and the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service  (APHIS) were brought together in this new bureau.
In fiscal year 2002, there were about 440 million border crossings into the  United States at over 300 designated ports of entry (see table 1). Of the  more than 358 million border crossers who entered through land ports of  entry, almost 50 million entered as pedestrians. The rest entered in more  than 131 million vehicles, including cars, trucks, buses, and trains. Further,  the State Department processed about 8.4 million nonimmigrant visa  applications and issued about 7 million passports.
The term biometrics covers a wide range of technologies that can be used  to verify a person’s identity by measuring and analyzing his or her  physiological characteristics, based on data derived from measuring a part  of the body directly. For example, technologies have been developed to  measure a person’s finger, hand, face, retina, and iris. Biometric systems  are essentially pattern recognition systems. They use electronic or optical  sensors such as cameras and scanning devices to capture images,  recordings, or measurements of a person’s characteristics and computer  hardware and software to extract, encode, store, and compare these  characteristics.
Using biometrics as identifiers for border security purposes appears to be  appealing because they can help tightly bind a traveler to his or her  identity by using physiological characteristics. Unlike other identification  methods, such as identification cards or passwords, biometrics are less  easily lost, stolen, or guessed. The binding is dependent on the quality of  the identification document presented by the traveler to enroll in the  biometric system. If the identification document does not specify the  traveler’s true identity, the biometric data will be linked to a false identity.
section_title: Applying Biometrics to Border Control
paragraphs: In our work last year, we examined several different biometric  technologies and found four to be suitable for border control systems:  fingerprint recognition, facial recognition, iris recognition, and hand  geometry. Other biometric technologies were determined to be impractical  in a border control application because of accuracy or user acceptance  issues. For example, speaker recognition systems do not perform well in  noisy environments and do not appear to be sufficiently distinctive to  permit identification of an individual within a large database of identities.
We defined four different scenarios in which biometric technologies could  be used to support border control operations. Two scenarios use a  biometric watch list to identify travelers who are inadmissible to the  United States (1) before issuing travel documents and (2) before travelers  enter the country. The other two scenarios help bind the claimed identity  of travelers to their travel documents by incorporating biometrics into (1)  U.S. visas or (2) U.S. passports. Linking an individual’s identity to a U.S.  travel document could help reduce the use of counterfeit documents and  imposters’ fraudulent use of legitimate documents.
Biometrics have been used in border control environments for several  years. For example, the INS Passenger Accelerated Service System  (INSPASS), a hand geometry system first installed in 1993, has been used  in seven U.S. and two Canadian airports to reduce inspection time for  trusted travelers. Since April 1998, border crossing cards, also called laser  visas, have been issued to Mexican citizens that include their photograph  and prints of the two index fingers. The Automated Biometric Fingerprint  Identification System (IDENT) is used by DHS to identify aliens who are  repeatedly apprehended trying to enter the United States illegally. IDENT  is also being used as a part of the National Security Entry-Exit Registration  System (NSEERS) that was implemented last year.
Laws passed in the last 2 years require a more extensive use of biometrics  for border control. The Attorney General and the Secretary of State  jointly, through the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)  are to develop a technology standard, including biometric identifier  standards. When developed, this standard is to be used to verify the  identity of persons applying for a U.S. visa for the purpose of conducting a  background check, confirming identity, and ensuring that a person has not  received a visa under a different name. By October 26, 2004, the  Departments of State and Justice are to issue to aliens only machine- readable, tamper-resistant visas and other travel and entry documents that  use biometric identifiers. At the same time, Justice is to install at all ports  of entry equipment and software that allow the biometric comparison and  authentication of all U.S. visas and other travel and entry documents  issued to aliens and machine-readable passports.
section_title: Challenges and Implications to Applying Biometrics at the Border
paragraphs: While biometric technology is currently available and used in a variety of  applications, questions remain regarding the technical and operational  effectiveness of biometric technologies in applications as large as border  control. In addition, before implementing any biometric border control  system, a number of other issues would have to be considered including:    The system’s effect on existing border control procedures and people.
Technology is only part of an overall security solution and only as  effective as the procedures within which it operates.
The costs and benefits of the system, including secondary costs  resulting from changes in processes or personnel to accommodate the  biometrics.
The system’s effect on privacy, convenience, and the economy.
subsections: section_title: Introducing Technology Affects People and Procedures
paragraphs: The successful implementation of any technology depends not only on the  performance of the technology but also on the operational processes that  employ the technology and the people who execute them. The  implementation of biometrics in border security is no exception. Further,  the use of technology alone is not a panacea for the border security  problem. Instead, biometric technology is just a piece of the overall  decision support system that helps determine whether to allow a person  into the United States. The first decision is whether to issue travelers a  U.S. travel document. The second decision, made at the ports of entry, is  whether to admit travelers into the country. Biometrics can play a role in  both decisions. Sorting the admissible travelers from the inadmissible ones  is currently conducted by using information systems for checking names  against watch lists and by using manual human recognition capabilities to  see if the photograph on a travel document matches the person who seeks  entry to the United States. When enabled with biometrics, automated  systems can verify the identity of the traveler and assist inspectors in their  decision making.
However, a key factor that must be considered is the performance of the  biometric technology. For example, if the biometric technology that is  used to perform watch list checks before visas are issued has a high rate of  false matches, the visa processing workload could increase at the  embassies and consulates. If the same biometric solution were used at the  ports of entry, it could lead to increased delays in the inspection process  and an increase in the number of secondary inspections.
Exception processing will also have to be carefully considered.  Exceptions would include people who fail to enroll in the biometric visa  system or are not correctly matched by it. Exception processing that is not  as good as biometric-based primary processing could be exploited as a  security hole. Failure of equipment must also be considered and planned  for. Further, to issue visas with biometrics, an appropriate transition  strategy must be devised to simultaneously handle both visas with  biometrics and the current visa that could remain valid without biometrics  for up to the next 10 years.
section_title: Weighing Costs and Benefits
paragraphs: Before any significant project investment is made, the benefit and cost  information of the project alternatives should be analyzed and assessed in  detail. A clear statement of the high-level system goals should drive the  overall concept of a U.S. border control system. System goals address the  system’s expected outcomes and are usually based on business or public  policy needs, which for a border control system could include items such  as binding a biometric feature to a person’s identity on a travel document,  identifying undesirable persons on a watch list, checking for duplicate  enrollments in the system, verifying identities at the borders, ensuring the  security of the biometric data, and ensuring the adequacy of privacy  protections. The benefits gained from a biometric border control system  should be based on how well the system achieves the high-level goals.
A concept of operations should be developed that embodies the people,  process, and technologies required to achieve the goals. To put together  the concept of operations, a number of inputs have to be considered,  including legal requirements, existing processes and infrastructure used,  and known technology limitations. Performance requirements should also  be included in the concept of operations, such as processing times.  Business process reengineering, such as new processes to conduct  inspections of passengers in vehicles or to maintain a database of  biometric data, would also be addressed in the concept of operations.
As we have noted, the desired benefit is the prevention of the entry of  travelers who are inadmissible to the United States. More specifically, the  use of a biometric watch list can provide an additional check to name- based checks and can help detect travelers who have successfully  established separate names and identities and are trying to evade  detection. The use of visas with biometrics can help positively identify  travelers as they enter the United States and can limit the use of fraudulent  documents, including counterfeit and modified documents, and impostors’  use of legitimate documents.
However, the benefits gained by using biometric have several limitations.  First, the benefit achieved is directly related to the performance of the  biometric technology. The performance of facial, fingerprint, and iris  recognition is unknown for systems as large as a biometric visa system  that would require storage and comparison against 100 million to 240  million records. The largest facial, fingerprint, and iris recognition systems  contain 60 million, 40 million, and 30,000 records, respectively.
The population of the biometric watch list is critical to its effectiveness.  Policies and procedures would need to be developed for adding and  maintaining records in the watch list database. Key questions that have to  be answered include who is added to the watch list, how someone is  removed from the watch list, and how errors could be corrected.  Successfully identifying people on the biometric watch list is also  dependent on the effectiveness of the law enforcement and intelligence  communities in identifying individuals who should be placed on the watch  list.
Issuing visas with biometrics will only assist in identifying those currently  required to obtain visas to enter this country. For example, Canadians,  Mexicans with border crossing cards, and foreign nationals participating  in the visa waiver program do not have to have a visa to enter the United  States. The issuance of visas with biometrics is also dependent on  establishing the correct identity during enrollment. This process typically  depends on the presentation of identification documents. If the documents  do not specify the applicant’s true identity, then the travel document will  be linked to a false identity.
Further, biometric technology is not a solution to all border security  problems. Biometric technology can address only problems associated  with identifying travelers at official locations such as embassies and ports  of entry. While the technology can help reduce the number of illegal  immigrants who cross with fraudulent documents, it cannot help with  illegal immigrants who cross between the ports of entry. INS has  previously estimated that up to 60 percent of the 275,000 new illegal  immigrants a year do not present themselves at a port of entry to enter the  United States. In addition, biometrics cannot help to identify foreign  nationals who enter through ports of entry and are properly admitted by  an inspector but may overstay their visit.
The costs of any proposed system must be considered. Both initial costs  and recurring costs need to be estimated. Initial costs need to account for  the engineering efforts to design, develop, test, and implement the system;  training of personnel; hardware and software costs; network  infrastructure improvements; and additional facilities required to enroll  people into the biometric system. Recurring cost elements include  program management costs, hardware and software maintenance,  hardware replacement costs, training of personnel, additional personnel to  enroll or verify the identities of travelers in the biometric system, and  possibly the issuance of token cards for the storage of biometrics  collected for issuing visas. While specific cost estimates depend on the  detailed assumptions made for the concept of operations, the costs are  significant.
section_title: Effect on Privacy, the Economy, and International Relations
paragraphs: The Privacy Act of 1974 limits federal agencies’ collection, use, and  disclosure of personal information, such as fingerprints and photographs.  Accordingly, the Privacy Act generally covers federal agency use of  personal biometric information. However, as a practical matter, the act is  likely to have a more limited application for border security. First, the act  applies only to U.S. citizens and lawfully admitted permanent residents.  Second, the act includes exemptions for law enforcement and national  security purposes. Representatives of civil liberties groups and privacy  experts have expressed concerns regarding (1) the adequacy of  protections for security, data sharing, identity theft, and other identified  uses of biometric data and (2) secondary uses and “function creep.” These  concerns relate to the adequacy of protections under current law for the  large-scale data handling in a biometric system. Besides information  security, concern was voiced about an absence of clear criteria for  governing data sharing. The broad exemptions of the Privacy Act, for  example, provide no guidance on the extent of the appropriate uses law  enforcement may make of biometric information. Because there is no  general agreement on the appropriate balance of security and privacy to  build into a system using biometrics, further policy decisions are required.  The range of unresolved policy issues suggests that questions surrounding  the use of biometric technology center as much on management policies  as on technical issues.
The use of biometric technologies could potentially impact the length of  the inspection process. Any lengthening in the process of obtaining travel  documents or entering the United States could affect travelers  significantly. At some consular posts, visas are issued the day applications  are received. Even without biometrics, the busiest ports of entry regularly  have delays of 2 to 3 hours. Increases in inspection times could compound  these delays. Delays inconvenience travelers and could result in fewer  visits to the United States or lost business to the nation. Further studies  will be necessary to measure what the potential effect could be on the  American economy and, in particular, on the border communities. These  communities depend on trade with Canada and Mexico, which totaled  $653 billion in 2000.
The use of biometrics in a border control system in the United States  could affect the number of international visitors and how other countries  treat visitors from the United States. Much visa issuance policy is based on  reciprocity—that is, the process for allowing a country’s citizens to enter  the United States would be similar to the process followed by that country  when U.S. citizens travel there. If the United States requires biometric  identifiers when citizens of other countries apply for a visa, those  countries may require U.S. citizens to submit a biometric when applying  for a visa to visit their countries. Similarly, if the United States requires  other countries to collect biometrics from their citizens and store the data  with their passport for verification when they travel here, they may require  the United States to place a biometric in its passports as well.
As more countries require the use of biometrics to cross their borders,  there is a potential for different biometrics to be required for entering  different countries or for the growth of multiple databases of biometrics.  Unless all countries agree on standard biometrics and standard document  formats, a host of biometric scanners might be required at U.S. and other  ports of entry. The International Civil Aviation Organization plans to  standardize biometric technology for machine-readable travel documents,  but biometric data-sharing arrangements between the United States and  other countries would also be required.
section_title: Issues Raised in Joint Report from Justice, State, and NIST
paragraphs: In January 2003, as required by the USA PATRIOT Act and the Enhanced  Border Security and Visa Entry Reform Act, the Attorney General, the  Secretary of State, and NIST jointly submitted a report that focuses on  specific legislative requirements related to interoperable databases,  biometric identifiers, and travel document authentication for entry only.  The report discusses the current border control process, the need for a  new approach, and identifies several issues that need to be addressed to  make a more extensive use of biometrics in automated border control  systems.
As a part of this report, NIST developed technical standards for biometric  identifiers and tamper-resistance for travel documents. NIST reported that  facial recognition and fingerprint recognition are the only biometric  technologies with sufficiently large operational databases for testing at  this time. NIST concluded that while iris recognition is a promising  candidate, it requires collection of a large test database to test the  uniqueness of iris data for large samples. NIST recommends that 10  fingerprints be used for background identification, and a dual biometric  system using 2 fingerprint images and a face image may be needed to meet  projected system requirements for verification. For tamper-resistance,  NIST recommended the use of a public key infrastructure to authenticate  the source of travel documents. According to the report, the Attorney  General and the Secretary of State have agreed to use a live-capture digital  photograph and fingerprints for identity enrollment, background checks,  and identity verification. However, the exact number of fingerprints  required at enrollment has not been finalized.
The report identifies several issues and considerations that need to be  further evaluated and resolved. The resolution of these issues will have  significant operational, technical, and cost implications. According to the  report, if the various stakeholders of this cross-agency effort do not work  out these details before major investments are made, the estimated cost  and expected results of the investment will be at risk. Further, the report  states that due to the size and complexity of the effort, the deployment  schedule will need to be delayed at least 1 year from the October 26, 2004,  target date established in the legislation.
Many of the issues identified in the report are consistent with the  challenges we identified in our work last year. For example, the report  discusses the need to change the end-to-end business process to  incorporate the enrollment and verification of biometric information from  travelers. Further, the report cites the need to improve border security  without a major adverse effect on tourism, commerce, and border traffic  flow. Privacy issues and the effect on international relations are also  addressed. Exception processing is discussed. According to the report,  approximately 2 percent of the population cannot provide good fingerprint  images. As a result, an alternate enrollment and identification procedure  will be required for these people. To develop the biometric border control  system, the report estimates it would cost about $3.8 billion including  initial and recurring costs over a six-year period.
The report cites a number of steps that need to be taken by a cross-agency  project team to clarify the scope, costs, benefits, and schedule required to  implement the legislative requirement. For example, the report cites the  need to develop a cross-agency concept of operations for the entire end-to- end process that would guide the scoping, requirements definition, and  trade-off analyses required to develop and deploy the system. The concept  of operations would also help determine how the proposed solution can  balance identity verification and efficient traffic flow objectives at land  borders. The report also discusses the need to update the overall costs and  benefits of the solution to confirm that the effort will achieve the benefits  desired at an acceptable cost. Steps will also need to be taken to align U.S.  biometric standards with those of other countries, particularly visa-waiver  countries, in a manner consistent with the concept of operations. Finally,  the report cites the need to define and establish a cross-agency program  management and governance structure to drive the business change and  deployment associated with this effort.
section_title: Current Inspection Challenges at Land Ports of Entry
paragraphs: As the Department of Homeland Security and other agencies consider a  biometrics-based border security concept of operations, they may need to  address current challenges that we have observed during our ongoing  work at land ports of entry. At a minimum, these challenges represent  potential implementation issues that could affect the security benefits  intended by the new border security system. These challenges include:    Integrity of the Inspections Process. The need to balance the dual  objectives of identifying those who should not be permitted entry into  the country and keeping traffic and trade flowing through the ports  creates potential weaknesses in the process that biometrics can help  resolve but not entirely. For example, we recently reported on our  ability to enter the country at ports of entry with erroneous answers to  inspector questions and counterfeit identification.  Also, at land ports  of entry, computer checks are made on the vehicle that travelers arrive  in but not on the driver and passengers unless inspectors suspect  wrongdoing. Moreover, we observed that new security procedures  aimed at increasing process integrity were not consistently followed.  With respect to alternative inspection programs, various trusted  traveler programs, intended to process large numbers of pre-screened  travelers quickly so that inspectors can devote more time to travelers  whose risk is unknown, can be strengthened through wider use of  biometrics. Some current programs are not attractive to many travelers  because the cost of participation does not ensure time savings when  crossing the border.
Providing Technology and Equipment to Inspectors. Some current  border operations are time-consuming because inspectors must  separately log on and off of several lookout databases that need to be  checked when more intensive, or secondary, inspections are required.  This could increase the risk that an inspector might overlook valuable  information. Further, inspectors still perform many routine  administrative processes by hand, although some ports of entry have  successfully automated some of these manual processes. Once the  concept of operations for a new border security system is adopted,  extensive introduction of new equipment and automated processes will  require extensive training and reinforcement.
Access to Intelligence Information. The amount of intelligence  information border inspectors currently receive in a single day can be  overwhelming, and inspectors report that they do not have enough time  to read it. Further, because of the need to staff inspection lanes, some  ports of entry reported not having time to conduct daily intelligence  and safety briefings, as required. Ensuring that intelligence information  is relevant, and that inspectors have sufficient time to review and  absorb it, will present a significant challenge for a new border security  system.
Adequate and Consistent Inspector Training. Merging INS and  Customs inspectors into a single shared inspection force will be a  significant challenge because INS and Customs train their inspectors at  two separate academies using two different curricula with little time  devoted to learning each other’s laws and regulations. In addition,  training, particularly of new inspectors, is a continuing need after  deployment of inspectors, but the pressures of inspection itself has  taken precedence over both on-the-job training and formal training at  some ports.
In conclusion, biometric technologies are available today that can be used  for border security. However, it is important to bear in mind that effective  security cannot be achieved by relying on technology alone. Technology  and people must work together as part of an overall security process. As  we have pointed out, weaknesses in any of these areas, such as those we  identified at land ports of entry, diminishes the effectiveness of the  security process. We have found that three key considerations need to be  addressed before a decision is made to design, develop, and implement  biometrics into a border control system:  1.  Decisions must be made on how the technology will be used.  2.  A detailed cost-benefit analysis must be conducted to determine that  the benefits gained from a system outweigh the costs.  3.  A trade-off analysis must be conducted between the increased  security, which the use of biometrics would provide, and the effect on  areas such as privacy and the economy.
A report recently issued jointly by the Attorney General, Secretary of  State, and NIST agrees with these considerations. As DHS and other  agencies consider the development of a border security system with  biometrics, they need to define what the high-level goals of this system  will be and develop the concept of operations that will embody the people,  process, and technologies required to achieve these goals. With these  answers, the proper role of biometric technologies in border security can  be determined. If these details are not resolved, the estimated cost and  performance of the resulting system will be at risk.
Mr. Chairmen, this concludes my statement. I would be pleased to answer  any questions that you or members of the subcommittees may have.
section_title: Contacts and Acknowledgments
paragraphs: For further information, please contact Nancy Kingsbury, Managing  Director, Applied Research and Methods, at (202) 512-2700, or Richard  Stana, Director, Homeland Security and Justice, at (202) 512-8777.  Individuals making key contributions to this testimony include Yvette  Banks, Naba Barkakati, Michael Dino, Barbara Guffy, Richard Hung, Rosa  Lin, and Lori Weiss.
section_title: Related GAO Products
paragraphs: Combating Terrorism: Observations on National Strategies Related to  Terrorism. GAO-03-519T. Washington, D.C.: March 3, 2003.
Homeland Security: Challenges Facing the Coast Guard as it  Transitions to the New Department. GAO-03-467T. Washington, D.C.:  February 12, 2003.
Weaknesses In Screening Entrants Into The United States. GAO-03-438T.  Washington, D.C.: January 30, 2003.
Major Management Challenges and Program Risks: Department of  Homeland Security. GAO-03-102. Washington, D.C.: January 2003.
Homeland Security: Management Challenges Facing Federal Leadership.  GAO-03-260. Washington, D.C.: December 20, 2002.
Homeland Security: Information Technology Funding and Associated  Management Issues. GAO-03-250. Washington, D.C.: December 13, 2002.
Border Security: Implications of Eliminating the Visa Waiver Program.  GAO-03-38. Washington, D.C.: November 22, 2002.
Homeland Security: INS Cannot Locate Many Aliens Because It Lacks  Reliable Address Information. GAO-03-188. Washington, D.C.: November  21, 2002.
Container Security: Current Efforts to Detect Nuclear Materials, New  Initiatives, and Challenges. GAO-03-297T. New York, NY: November 18,  2002.
Technology Assessment: Using Biometrics for Border Security. GAO-03- 174. Washington, D.C.: November 15, 2002.
Coast Guard: Strategy Needed for Setting and Monitoring Levels of  Effort for All Missions. GAO-03-155. Washington, D.C.: November 12,  2002.
Border Security: Visa Process Should Be Strengthened as an  Antiterrorism Tool. GAO-03-132NI. Washington, D.C.: October 21, 2002.
Customs Service: Acquisition and Deployment of Radiation Detection  Equipment. GAO-03-235T. Washington, D.C.: October 17, 2002.