Emergency Management: Status of School Districts' Planning and Preparedness
Published: 2007-05-17T00:00:00

Fast Facts:

Highlights:
section_title: Why GAO Did This Study
paragraphs: Events such as the recent shootings by armed intruders in schools across the nation, natural disasters, the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, and potential pandemics have heightened awareness for the need for school districts to be prepared to address a range of emergencies within and outside of schools buildings. Congress has raised concerns over school preparedness, with a particular interest in how federal agencies provide assistance to school districts. This testimony discusses preliminary findings related to GAO's review of emergency management in school districts, including (1) the roles of federal and state governments in establishing requirements and providing resources to school districts for emergency management planning, (2) what school districts have done to plan and prepare for emergencies, and (3) the challenges school districts have experienced in planning for emergencies, and communicating and coordinating with first responders, parents, and students. To obtain this information, GAO interviewed federal officials, surveyed a stratified random sample of all public school districts, surveyed state agencies that administer federal grants that can be used for school emergency management planning, conducted site visits to school districts, and reviewed relevant documents.
section_title: What GAO Found
paragraphs: Federal and state governments have a role in supporting emergency management in school districts. While no federal laws require school districts to have emergency management plans, 32 states reported having laws or policies requiring school districts to have such plans. The Departments of Education and Homeland Security (DHS) provide funding for emergency management planning in schools. However, some DHS program guidance, for specific grants, does not clearly identify school districts as entities to which state and local governments may disburse grant funds. Thus, states receiving this funding may be uncertain as to whether such funding can be allocated to school districts or schools and therefore may not have the opportunity to benefit from this funding. States also provide funding and other resources to school districts to assist them in planning for emergencies. School districts have taken steps to plan for a range of emergencies, as most have developed multi-hazard emergency management plans; however some plans and activities do not address federally recommended practices. For example, based on GAO's survey of a sample of public school districts, an estimated 56 percent of all school districts have not employed any procedures in their plans for continuing student education in the event of an extended school closure, such as might occur during a pandemic, and many do not include procedures for special needs students. Fewer than half of districts with emergency plans involve community partners when developing and updating these plans. Finally, school districts are generally not training with first responders or community partners on how to implement their school district emergency plans. Many school district officials said that they experience challenges in planning for emergencies and some school districts face difficulties in communicating and coordinating with first responders and parents, but most said that they do not experience challenges in communicating with students. For example, in an estimated 62 percent of districts, officials identified challenges stemming from a lack of equipment, training for staff, and personnel with expertise in the area of emergency planning as obstacles to implementing recommended practices.

section_title: Letter
paragraphs: I am pleased to be here today to discuss emergency management in public  school districts. The nation’s more than 17,000 school districts are  responsible for maintaining the safety and security of approximately   49 million public school students. Events such as the recent shootings by  armed intruders in schools across the nation, natural disasters such as  Hurricanes Katrina and Rita in 2005, the terrorist attacks of September 11,  2001, and potential pandemics have heightened awareness of the need for  school districts to be prepared to address a range of emergencies within  and outside of school buildings.
My testimony today is drawn from ongoing work we have conducted for  this Committee and other congressional requesters on emergency  management in school districts. We anticipate completing the report in  June 2007. “Emergency management” refers to the range of efforts  involved in building the capacity to prevent, protect against, respond to,  and recover from an incident. Planning for such incidents varies by the  type and scale of the incident. The federal government’s role in emergency  management is principally to support state and local activities and develop  the federal capabilities to respond effectively when state and local  governments require federal assistance. Some federal support comes in  the form of guidance and recommendations. Because the federal  government serves as a partner to all states, it is uniquely positioned to  observe and evaluate the range of emergency management activities  across states and local governments, including school districts, and  disseminate information on recommended practices and successful  strategies.
My testimony today will focus on (1) the role of the federal and state  governments in establishing requirements and providing resources to  school districts for emergency management planning, (2) what school  districts have done to plan and prepare for emergencies, and, briefly,   (3) the challenges school districts have experienced in planning for  emergencies and communicating and coordinating with first responders,  parents, and students. When discussing the federal government, I am  primarily referring to the three agencies included in our report—the  Departments of Homeland Security (DHS), Education (Education), and  Health and Human Services (HHS).
To determine the role of the federal and state governments, planning  requirements for school districts and schools, and the types of resources  provided to districts, we conducted interviews with officials representing  DHS, Education, and HHS and reviewed relevant federal laws. We also  administered two surveys, one to state education agencies and one to state  administering agencies (the state agencies to which DHS disburses  emergency management funding) in all 50 states and the District of  Columbia. To better understand how school districts plan and prepare for  emergencies, we administered a mail survey to a stratified random sample  of school districts in the 50 states and the District of Columbia. Using a   95 percent confidence interval, all percentage estimates included in this  statement have a margin of error of plus or minus 10 percent or less,  unless otherwise noted. To further understand the experiences districts  have had in planning for emergencies and communicating and  coordinating with first responders, parents, and students, we visited  selected districts in the states of Florida, Iowa, Massachusetts, North  Carolina, Ohio, and Washington. In total, we conducted semi-structured  interviews, either in person or by telephone, with officials in 27 school  districts. We are conducting the review in accordance with generally  accepted government auditing standards.
In summary, federal and state governments support emergency  management in school districts with a range of resources and most school  districts have developed emergency management plans despite facing  challenges; however not all of these plans incorporate recommended  practices. Federal and state governments provide funding, guidance,  training, and equipment; and many states require school districts to  develop emergency management plans or engage in other planning  activities. However, funding guidance for some federal grant programs  does not clearly identify school districts as entities to which state and  local governments may disburse these grant funds. Therefore, some states  receiving this funding may be uncertain as to whether such funding can be  allocated to school districts or schools; and as a result, school districts  may not have the opportunity to benefit from this funding. At the local  level, school districts have taken a number of important steps to plan for a  range of emergencies, most notably developing emergency management  plans; however, in many districts these plans, or their implementation, do  not align with federally recommended practices. For example, many  school districts do not include procedures for special needs students in  their plans and many districts have not employed any procedures in their  plans for continuing student education in the event of an extended school  closure, such as might occur during a pandemic. Additionally, school  districts are generally not training with their first responders (i.e., law  enforcement, fire, and Emergency Medical Services ) and  community partners (such as the local head of government and local  public health agency), which are both federally recommended practices.  Finally, many school district officials said that they experience challenges  in planning for emergencies due to a lack of equipment, training for staff,  and expertise and some school districts face difficulties in communicating  and coordinating with first responders and parents, but most said that they  do not experience challenges in communicating emergency procedures to  students. We are currently considering recommendations that federal  agencies clarify and improve guidance to states and school districts to  better enable  school districts to incorporate recommended practices for  emergency management.
subsections: section_title: Background
paragraphs: The Homeland Security Act of 2002 created DHS and consolidated most of  the federal programs and agencies with responsibilities for emergency  management into that agency. DHS serves as a federal partner to state and  local governments in emergency management. DHS provides technical  assistance and homeland security grant funding to states and local  governments to enhance their emergency management efforts. States and  local governments have the responsibility for spending DHS grant funds in  accordance with DHS guidelines to meet local emergency management  needs. In fiscal year 2006, DHS awarded $1.7 billion to states, urban areas,  and territories to prepare for and respond to terrorist attacks and other  disasters. States and local governments may then provide a portion of this  funding to a range of entities, as specified in DHS’s program guidance.
As we have noted in prior reports, emergency management requires  coordinated planning and implementation by a variety of participants.  Effective emergency management requires identifying the hazards for  which it is necessary to be prepared (risk assessments); establishing clear  roles and responsibilities that are effectively communicated and well  understood; and developing, maintaining, and mobilizing needed  capabilities, such as people, skills, and equipment. The plans and  capabilities should be tested and assessed through realistic exercises that  identify strengths and areas that need improvement, with any needed  changes made to both plans and capabilities.
The hazards that school districts may face will vary across the country  depending upon the natural hazards to which their particular areas are  prone and an assessment of other risks for which they need to be  prepared, such as pandemic influenza or the discharge of hazardous  substances from nearby chemical or nuclear plants. Similarly, who should  be involved in emergency planning and response for schools, and the roles  of the various participants will vary by type and size of the emergency  incident. For large-scale emergencies, effective response is likely to  involve all levels of government—federal, state, and local— nongovernment entities, such as the Red Cross, and the private sector.
section_title: Federal and State Governments Provide Resources to School Districts for Emergency Management Planning, While Only States Have Laws that Require School Emergency Management Planning
paragraphs: Although no federal laws exist requiring school districts to have  emergency management plans, most states reported having requirements  for school emergency management planning; however, the federal  government, along with states, provides financial and other resources for  such planning. Education, DHS, and state governments provide funding for  emergency management planning in schools. However, DHS program  guidance does not clearly identify school districts as entities to which  states and local governments may disburse grant funds. Not all states  receiving DHS funding are aware that such funding could be disbursed to  school districts. In addition to providing funding, the federal government  assists school districts and schools in emergency management planning by  providing other resources such as guidance, training, and equipment.
subsections: section_title: Although No Federal Laws Exist Requiring School District Emergency Management Planning, the Majority of States Have Requirements
paragraphs: Although there are no federal laws requiring school districts to have  emergency management plans, many states reported having laws or other  policies that do so. Congress has not enacted any broadly applicable laws  requiring all school districts to have emergency management plans. While  the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 provides that local education  agencies (LEAs or school districts) applying for subgrants under the Safe  and Drug Free Schools and Communities Program include in their grant  applications an assurance that either they or their schools have “a plan for  keeping schools safe and drug-free that includes...a crisis management  plan for responding to violent or traumatic incidents on school grounds”,  Education has not issued any regulations imposing such a requirement on  all school districts. However, 32 of the states responding to our survey of  state administering agencies and state education agencies reported having  laws or other policies requiring school districts or schools to have a  written emergency management plan (see fig. 1). Several state laws  identify a broad range of specific emergencies that schools or districts are  required to address in their plans, while many other states do not identify  particular kinds of crises or use more general language to refer to the  kinds of emergencies that plans must incorporate.
section_title: Federal Agencies and States Provide Funding for School Districts’ Emergency Management Planning
paragraphs: Education and DHS provided some funding to school districts for  emergency management. Education provides funding to some school  districts specifically for emergency management planning through its  Emergency Response and Crisis Management (ERCM) Grant Program.  Since fiscal year 2003, Education dispersed $130 million in such grants to  over 400 of the over 17,000 school districts in the United States. These  grant awards ranged from $68,875 to $1,365,087.
DHS provides funding to states and local jurisdictions for emergency  management planning, some of which can be provided to school districts  or schools for emergency management planning. DHS officials told us that  such funds are available through the State Homeland Security Program,  Urban Areas Security Initiative, and Citizen Corps grants. Five states— Florida, Hawaii, Michigan, Mississippi, and Wyoming—reported that they  provided approximately $14 million in DHS funding directly to school  districts in these states during fiscal years 2003–2006. In addition, eight  states and the District of Columbia reported that they provided DHS  funding to local jurisdictions that then provided a portion of these funds to  school districts or schools for emergency management planning.
Although DHS officials told us that these three grant programs allow for  the use of funds at the district or school level, the department’s program  guidance does not clearly specify that school districts are among the  entities to which state and local governments may disburse funds. As a  result, some states may not be aware of their availability.
State governments also provide state funds to school districts. Eleven of  the 49 states responding to surveys we sent to state education and state  administering agencies reported providing state funding to school districts  for emergency management planning.
section_title: Federal Agencies and States Provide Guidance, Training, and Equipment for Emergency Management in School Districts
paragraphs: The federal government also provides guidance, training, and equipment to  school districts to assist in emergency management planning (see table 1).
Education, DHS, and HHS have collaborated and developed recommended  practices to assist in preparing for emergencies that can be applied to  school districts. Some of these practices are shown in table 2.
The type of guidance available from the federal government on topics  related to these recommended practices varies significantly; in some  instances, federal agencies provide detailed instructions on how to  implement recommended practices while, in other instances, guidance is  less detailed.
We have also recognized the importance of certain of these practices in  our prior reports on emergency management. We have noted the  importance of realistic training exercises followed by a careful assessment  of those exercises. Those with whom the school districts should  coordinate and train will vary by the type and size of the emergency. For  example, for a potential pandemic flu or other major infectious outbreak,  planning and working with local health authorities is critical.
In addition to the federal government, states provide guidance and training  to school districts. Based on our survey of state administrative agencies  and state education agencies, 47 states reported providing guidance and   37 states reported providing training. Some states also reported providing  online resources that include guidance and training.
section_title: Most Districts Have Taken Steps to Prepare for Emergencies, but Some Plans and Activities Do Not Address Recommended Practices
paragraphs: Almost all school districts have taken steps to prepare for emergencies,  including developing written plans, but some plans do not address  federally recommended practices such as establishing procedures for  special needs students and procedures for continued student education in  the event of an extended closure. Additionally, many school districts do  not have procedures for training regularly with first responders and  community partners.
subsections: section_title: Most School Districts Have Undertaken Some Emergency Management Activities
paragraphs: Many school districts, those with and without emergency management  plans, have undertaken activities to prepare for emergencies. Based on our  survey of school districts, we estimate that 93 percent of all school  districts conduct inspections of their school buildings and grounds to  identify possible vulnerabilities in accordance with recommended  practices. Of those school districts, 87 percent made security  enhancements to their school facilities and grounds as a result of these  inspections. Security enhancements included adding or enhancing  equipment to communicate with school employees, strengthening the  perimeter security of the school, and enhancing access controls.
In addition to conducting vulnerability assessments, many school districts  carry out a number of other activities to prepare for emergencies such as  conducting some type of school drill or exercise and maintaining a storage  location for and replenishing emergency supplies such as food, water, and  first-aid supplies, as recommended. Additionally, school districts took  responsibility for a number of activities to prepare for emergencies at the  district level such as negotiating the use of school buildings as community  shelters and identifying security needs in schools. These activities can vary  by locality depending on community needs and include oversight,  coordination with other entities, and training.
section_title: Most Districts Have Emergency Management Plans That Address Multiple Hazards, but the Content of Plans Varies Significantly
paragraphs: Most school districts have developed written emergency management  plans that address multiple hazards. Based on our survey of school  districts, we estimate that 95 percent of all school districts have written  emergency management plans with no statistical difference between urban  and rural districts. Of those school districts that have written emergency  plans, nearly all (99.6 percent) address multiple hazards in accordance  with recommended practices to prepare for emergencies. However, the  specific hazards addressed by plans vary. (See fig. 2.) In some instances,  the hazards included in emergency plans are specific to local conditions,  which is to be expected.
The extent to which school districts’ emergency management plans and  planning activities are consistent with other recommended practices  varies:  Develop Roles and Responsibilities for School Community  Members. Based on our survey of school districts, most districts have  written roles and responsibilities in their plans for staff such as  superintendents, building engineers or custodians, principals, teachers,  and nurses.
Develop Roles and Responsibilities for First Responders and  Community Partners. Based on our survey, we estimate that 43 percent  of school districts use the Incident Command System (ICS)—established  by DHS as part of the National Incident Management System (NIMS)—  to establish the roles and responsibilities of school district officials, local  first responders, and community partners during an emergency, in  accordance with recommended practices.
Develop Procedures for Communicating with Key Stakeholders.  Central to district emergency plans is the inclusion of procedures for  communicating with key stakeholders such as staff, parents, and students,  including those who are Limited-English Proficient. Our survey finds that  roughly three-quarters of all school districts have not included written  procedures in their plans for communicating with Limited-English  Proficient parents and students, in accordance with federally  recommended practices.
Develop Procedures for Special Needs Students. Although the  number of special needs students in the schools is growing, our survey  finds that an estimated 28 percent of school districts with emergency  management plans do not have specific provisions for them in their  emergency management plans. Education officials told us that because  there is no agreement among disability groups on what the best practices  are for special needs students in an emergency, districts usually devise  their own procedures. According to these officials, some of these  procedures such as keeping special needs students in their classrooms  during some emergencies may not ensure the students’ safety in an  emergency.
Develop Procedures for Recovering from an Incident. Over half of all  school districts with written emergency plans include procedures in their  plans to assist with recovering from an incident, in accordance with  recommended practices. School districts’ plans include such procedures  as providing on-site trauma teams, restoring district administrative  functions, and conducting assessments of damage to school buildings and  grounds.
Develop Procedures for the Continuation of Student Education.  Few school districts’ emergency plans contain procedures for continuing  student education in the event of an extended school closure, such as a  pandemic outbreak, although it is a federally recommended practice.  Based on our survey, we estimate that 56 percent of school districts do not  include any of the following procedures (see table 3) in their plans for the  continuation of student education during an extended school closure.  Without such procedures school districts may not be able to educate  students during a school closure that could last from several days to a year  or longer.
Determine Lessons Learned. Based on our survey of school districts,  we estimate that 38 percent of districts have emergency management  plans that contain procedures for reviewing lessons learned to analyze  how well the plans worked in responding to a drill or emergency. Of the  remaining school districts, 53 percent indicated they have procedures but  those procedures are not included in their plans and 7 percent have no  such procedures.
Develop Multi-Purpose Manuals. Some school districts have multi- purpose manuals that contain various types of information such as roles  and responsibilities for staff, descriptions of how to respond to different  types of emergencies, as well as site specific information for individual  schools to complete in order to tailor their plan. In contrast, other districts  provide less information. For example, one district’s plan consisted of a  flipchart with contact information on whom to call during an emergency.
Involve Local Government and Public Heath Agencies in  Developing and Updating Plans. School districts differed in the extent  to which they involve community partners in the development and  updating of their plans. Fewer than half of school districts with  emergency management plans involve community partners such as the  local head of government (43 percent) or the local public health agency  (42 percent) when developing and updating their emergency management  plans, as recommended by HHS. According to written guidance provided  by Education, those school districts that do not include community  partners in the development and updating of their plans may limit their  opportunity to exchange information with local officials, take advantage of  local resources, and identify gaps in their plan. More than half (52 percent)  of all school districts with emergency management plans report regularly  (i.e., at least once a year) updating their emergency management plans in  accordance with recommended practices. However, 10 percent of all  school districts had never updated their plans.
Train with First Responders. Based on our survey, we estimate that   27 percent of all school districts with emergency management plans have  never trained with any first responders on how to implement the plans, in  accordance with federally recommended practices. The reasons why  school districts are not training with first responders are not readily  apparent. As we have previously reported, involving first responder groups  in training and exercise programs can better familiarize first responders  with and prepare first responders for their roles in an emergency as well  as assess the effectiveness of a school or district emergency plan.
Train with Community Partners. School districts report training with  community partners—such as local government and local public health  entities—on activities to prepare for an emergency with similar frequency.  Specifically, we estimate that 29 percent of all school districts train with  community partners. As with first responders, the reasons for the lack of  training with community partners are not readily apparent. In our work on  Hurricane Katrina, we reported that involving local community partners in  exercise programs and training could help prepare community partners  and enhance their understanding of their roles in an emergency as well as  help assess the effectiveness of a school district’s emergency plan.  Without such training, school districts and their community partners may  not fully understand their roles and responsibilities and could be at risk of  not responding effectively during a school emergency.
section_title: School Districts Report Challenges in Planning for Emergencies and Difficulties in Communicating with First Responders and Parents
paragraphs: In planning for emergencies, many school districts face challenges  resulting from competing priorities, a lack of equipment, and limited  expertise; some school districts experience difficulties in communicating  and coordinating with first responders and parents, but most do not have  such challenges with students.
subsections: section_title: Competing Priorities, Lack of Equipment, and Limited Expertise Are Obstacles to Incorporating Recommended Practices in Emergency Management Planning
paragraphs: School district officials who responded to our survey reported difficulty in  following the recommended practice of allocating time to emergency  management planning, given the higher priority and competing demand on  their time for educating students and carrying out other administrative  responsibilities. Based on our survey of school districts, we estimate that  in 70 percent of all districts, officials consider competing priorities to be a  challenge to planning for emergencies.
In an estimated 62 percent of districts, officials cited a lack of equipment  and expertise as impediments to emergency planning. For example,  officials in one Massachusetts school district we visited reported that they  do not have adequate locks on some of the doors to school buildings to  implement a lockdown procedure. In a North Carolina district we visited,  officials said a lack of two-way radios for staff in the elementary schools  hinders their ability to communicate with one another and with first  responders during an emergency. As demonstrated in these school  districts, the lack of equipment would prevent districts from implementing  the procedures in their plans and hinder communication among district  staff and with first responders during emergencies. In addition to not  having sufficient equipment, school district officials we spoke with  described a shortage of expertise in both planning for and managing  emergencies. These officials said their districts lacked specialized  personnel and training with which to develop needed expertise. For  example, district officials in 5 of the 27 districts we interviewed noted that  they do not have sufficient funding to hire full-time emergency  management staff to provide such training or take responsibility for  updating their district plans. These officials noted that the lack of  expertise makes it difficult to adequately plan for responding to  emergencies.
section_title: Some School Districts Reported Difficulty in Communicating and Coordinating with First Responders
paragraphs: Based on our survey of school districts, an estimated 39 percent of  districts with emergency plans experience challenges in communicating  and coordinating with local first responders. Specifically, these school  districts experience a lack of partnerships with all or specific first  responders, limited time or funding to collaborate with first responders on  plans for emergencies, or a lack of interoperability between the equipment  used by the school district and equipment used by first responders. For  example, the superintendent of a Washington school district we visited  said that law enforcement has not been responsive to the district’s  requests to participate in emergency drills, and, in addition to never having  had a districtwide drill with first responders, competition among city,  county, and private first responders has made it difficult for the school  district to know with which first responder entity it should coordinate.  According to guidance provided by Education, the lack of partnerships, as  demonstrated in these school districts, can lead to an absence of training  that prevents schools and first responders from understanding their roles  and responsibilities during emergencies. Additionally, in 8 of the 27  districts we interviewed, officials said that the two-way radios or other  equipment used in their school districts lacked interoperability with the  radios used by first responders.
section_title: School Districts Have Methods to Communicate With Parents, but Face Challenges in Ensuring Parents Receive Consistent Information during Incidents
paragraphs: In keeping with recommended practices that call for school districts to  have a way to contact parents of students enrolled in the district, all of the  27 school districts we interviewed had ways of communicating emergency  procedures to parents prior to (e.g., newsletters), during (e.g., media,  telephone), and after an incident (e.g., letters). Eleven of these districts  have a system that can send instant electronic and telephone messages to  parents of students in the district. Despite having these methods, 16 of the  27 districts we interviewed experience difficulties in implementing the  recommended practice that school districts communicate clear,  consistent, and appropriate information to parents regarding an  emergency. For example, officials in a Florida school district said that  with students’ increased access to cellular telephones, parents often arrive  on school grounds during an incident to pick up their children before the  district has an opportunity to provide parents with information. Thus,  according to these officials, the district experiences challenges in  simultaneously maintaining control of both the emergency situation and  access to school grounds by parents and others. Representatives of three  education associations also noted that school districts have much to do  to ensure that their emergency management efforts diffuse confusion  during emergencies and provide parents with consistent information.
Based on our survey of school districts, an estimated 39 percent of all  school districts provide translators to communicate with Limited-English  Proficient parents during emergencies, but fewer—an estimated   23 percent of all districts—provide translations of emergency management  materials. Officials in eight of the 27 districts we interviewed discussed  challenges in retaining bilingual staff to conduct translations of the  districts’ messages or in reaching parents who do not speak the languages  or dialects the district translates. Our findings, are consistent with the  observations of some national education groups that have indicated that  districts, in part due to limited funding, struggle to effectively  communicate emergency-related information to this population of parents.
Officials in all but one of the districts in which we conducted interviews  said that the district did not have problems communicating emergency  procedures to students. While some of these officials did not provide  reasons; as we previously discussed, most districts regularly practice their  emergency management plans with their students and staff.
section_title: Concluding Observations
paragraphs: The federal government plays a critical role in assisting school districts to  prepare for emergencies by providing funding, giving states flexibility to  target federal funding for emergency management to areas of greatest  need, disseminating information on best practices and other guidance, and  providing training and equipment. School districts have taken a number of  important steps to plan for a range of emergencies, most notably  developing emergency management plans; however, in many districts  these plans or their implementation do not align with federally  recommended practices. Given the challenges many school districts face  due to a lack of necessary equipment and expertise, they do not have the  tools to support the plans they have in place and, therefore, school  districts are left with gaps in their ability to fully prepare for emergencies.  Additional clarity regarding access to federal resources and improved  guidance may enhance the ability of school districts to plan and prepare  for emergencies. We are currently considering recommendations to  address these issues.
section_title: GAO Contacts
paragraphs: For further information regarding this testimony, please contact me on  (202) 512-8403 or William O. Jenkins, Jr. on (202) 512-8757. Individuals  making contributions to this testimony include Kathryn Larin, Debra  Sebastian, Tahra Nichols, and Kris Trueblood.
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