page_title: History of philosophy in Poland
section_title: Positivism
hierarchical_section_title: History of philosophy in Poland / Positivism
context_page_description: The history of philosophy in Poland parallels the evolution of philosophy in Europe in general.
context_section_description: The Positivist philosophy that took form in Poland after the January 1863 Uprising was hardly identical with the philosophy of Auguste Comte.  It was in fact a return to the line of Jan Śniadecki and Hugo Kołłątaj—a line that had remained unbroken even during the Messianist period—now enriched with the ideas of Comte.  However, it belonged only partly to philosophy.  It combined Comte's ideas with those of John Stuart Mill and Herbert Spencer, for it was interested in what was common to them all:  a sober, empirical attitude to life.
  The Polish Positivism was a reaction against philosophical speculation, but also against romanticism in poetry and idealism in politics.  It was less a scholarly movement than literary, political and social.  Few original books were published, but many were translated from the philosophical literature of the West—not Comte himself, but easier writers: Hippolyte Taine, Mill, Spencer, Alexander Bain, Thomas Henry Huxley, the Germans Wilhelm Wundt and Friedrich Albert Lange, the Danish philosopher Höffding.
  The disastrous outcome of the January 1863 Uprising had produced a distrust of romanticism, an aversion to ideals and illusions, and turned the search for redemption toward sober thought and work directed at realistic goals.  The watchword became "organic work"—a term for the campaign for economic improvement, which was regarded as a prime requisite for progress.  Poles prepared for such work by studying the natural sciences and economics:  they absorbed Charles Darwin's biological theories, Mill's economic theories, Henry Thomas Buckle's deterministic theory of civilization.  At length they became aware of the connection between their own convictions and aims and the Positivist philosophy of Auguste Comte, and borrowed its name and watchwords.
  This movement, which had begun still earlier in Austrian-ruled Galicia, became concentrated with time in the Russian-ruled Congress Poland centered about Warsaw and is therefore commonly known as the "Warsaw Positivism."  Its chief venue was the Warsaw Przegląd Tygodniowy (Weekly Review); Warsaw University (the "Main School") had been closed by the Russians in 1869.
  The pioneers of the Warsaw Positivism were natural scientists and physicians rather than philosophers, and still more so journalists and men of letters: Aleksander Świętochowski (1849–1938), Piotr Chmielowski (1848–1904), Adolf Dygasiński (1839–1902), Bolesław Prus (1847–1912).  Prus developed an original Utilitarian-inspired ethical system in his book, The Most General Life Ideals; his 1873 public lecture "On Discoveries and Inventions", subsequently printed as a pamphlet, is a remarkably prescient contribution to what would, in the following century, become the field of logology ("the science of science").
  The movement's leader was Prus' friend, Julian Ochorowicz (1850–1917), a trained philosopher with a doctorate from the University of Leipzig.  In 1872 he wrote:  "We shall call a Positivist, anyone who bases assertions on verifiable evidence; who does not express himself categorically about doubtful things, and does not speak at all about those that are inaccessible."
  The Warsaw Positivists—who included faithful Catholics such as Father Franciszek Krupiński (1836–98)—formed a common front against Messianism together with the Neo-Kantians.  The Polish Kantians were rather loosely associated with Kant and belonged to the Positivist movement.  They included Władysław Mieczysław Kozłowski (1858–1935), Piotr Chmielowski (1848–1904) and Marian Massonius (1862–1945).
  The most brilliant philosophical mind in this period was Adam Mahrburg (1855–1913).  He was a Positivist in his understanding of philosophy as a discipline and in his uncompromising ferreting out of speculation, and a Kantian in his interpretation of mind and in his centering of philosophy upon the theory of knowledge.
  In Kraków, Father Stefan Pawlicki (1839–1916), professor of philosophy at the University of Kraków, was a man of broad culture and philosophical bent, but lacked talent for writing or teaching.  Under his thirty-pl
caption: Piotr Chmielowski
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