page_title: Timeline of the development of tectonophysics (after 1952)
section_title: Geodynamics
hierarchical_section_title: Timeline of the development of tectonophysics (after 1952) / Geodynamics
caption_attribution_description: A distribution map of Gnetophyta; Green – Welwitschia Blue – Gnetum Red – Ephedra Purple – Gnetum and Ephedra range overlap
context_page_description: The evolution of tectonophysics is closely linked to the history of the continental drift and plate tectonics hypotheses. The continental drift/ Airy-Heiskanen isostasy hypothesis had many flaws and scarce data. The fixist/ Pratt-Hayford isostasy, the contracting Earth and the expanding Earth concepts had many flaws as well.
  The idea of continents with a permanent location, the geosyncline theory, the Pratt-Hayford isostasy, the extrapolation of the age of the Earth by Lord Kelvin as a black body cooling down, the contracting Earth, the Earth as a solid and crystalline body, is one school of thought. A lithosphere creeping over the asthenosphere is a logical consequence of an Earth with internal heat by radioactivity decay, the Airy-Heiskanen isostasy, thrust faults and Niskanen's mantle viscosity determinations.
context_section_description: John F. Dewey applies Plate tectonics (Dewey 1970).
  Plate tectonics:
  Mantle plume controversy (Cowen 1975, Jordan 2007): The relationship between subducted seafloor, flood basalts and continental rifting is uncovered. (Morgan 1971), (Morgan 1972), (Rampino & Stothers 1988), (Silver, Carlson & Olson 1988), (White 1989), (Segev 2002)
  Plume tectonics: (Dziewonski & Woodhouse 1987), (Fukao et al. 1992), (Maruyama 1994)
  Slab pull force, Slab suction force (Back-arc basin) and Ridge push force:
  Back-arc basin (Molnar & Awater 1978), (Barker & Hill 1980), (Martinez et al. 1995)
  Similar to a landslide, seafloor sinks and subducts (Forsyth & Uyeda 1975), (Hager & O'Connell 1981), (Kerr 1995), (Anderson 2001), (Conrad & Lithgow-Bertelloni 2002)
  Wilson cycle: slab pull/ subduction opens a space on western South America and the sliding seafloor away from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge on eastern South America occupies the new available space.
  Overview: viscous resistance, slab thickness, slab bending, trench migration and seismic coupling, slab width, slab edges and mantle return flow:
  Clinton P. Conrad; Susan Bilek; Carolina Lithgow-Bertelloni (2004). "Great earthquakes and slab pull: interaction between seismic coupling and plate-slab coupling" (PDF). Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 218 (1): 109–122. Bibcode:2004E&PSL.218..109C. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.506.2266. doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(03)00643-5.
  Lallemand, S., A. Heuret, and D. Boutelier (2005). "On the relationships between slab dip, back-arc stress, upper plate absolute motion, and crustal nature in subduction zones" (PDF). Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems. 6 (9): Q09006. Bibcode:2005GGG.....609006L. doi:10.1029/2005GC000917. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-21. Retrieved 2012-08-14.
  W. P. Schellart; D. R. Stegman; R. J. Farrington; J. Freeman & L. Moresi (16 July 2010). "Cenozoic Tectonics of Western North America Controlled by Evolving Width of Farallon Slab". Science. 329 (5989): 316–319. Bibcode:2010Sci...329..316S. doi:10.1126/science.1190366. PMID 20647465. S2CID 12044269.
  Current plate motions. (Demets et al. 1990), (Argus et al. 2010), (Demets, Gordon & Argus 2010)
  Pacific Plate, lower mantle has a greater viscosity (Monastersky 1996a)
  Tibetan Plateau, collision generates heat (Nelson 1996), (Monastersky 1996b)
  Paleogeography (Irving (2005) and Krill (2011)):
  Order Cycadales, genus Bowenia
  Family Araucariaceae found in Norfolk Island, Australia, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, New Guinea, Argentina, Chile, and southern Brazil. Coal fossils found on the British Isles.
  Magnolia, subgenus Magnolia:
  Section Magnolia, found in the Neotropical realm
  Section Gwillimia, found in Asia including Borneo
  Section Blumiana, found in Asia, including Sumatra and Borneo
  Section Talauma, found in the Neotropical realm
  Section Manglietia, found in Asia
  Section Kmeria, found in Asia
  Section Rhytidospermum, found in Asia and Magnolia tripetala (L.) L. in Southeast USA
  Section Auriculata, Magnolia fraseri Walt. found in Southeast USA
  Section Macrophylla, Magnolia macrophylla Michx. found in Southeast USA
  Magnolia, subgenus Yulania:
  Section Yulania, found in Asia and Magnolia acuminata (L.) L. found in East USA
  Section Michelia, found in Asia including the Indomalayan realm
  Note: a bee fossil of the genus Melittosphex, is considered "an extinct lineage of pollen-collecting Apoidea sister to the modern bees", and dates from the early Cretaceous (c. 100 Ma). Insect-pollinated flowering plants need bees (unranked taxon Anthophila, of the superfamily Apoidea). Beetles may have originated during the Lower Permian, up to 299 Ma. Flies evolved c. 250 Ma, moths and wasps evolved c. 150 Ma.
  Lockwood, John P.; Hazlett, Richard W. (2010). Volcanoes: Global Perspectives. p. 552. ISBN 978-1-4051-6250-0.
  Total estimated radiogenic heat release (from neutrino research): 19 Terawatts
  Total directly observed heat release through Earth's surface: 31 Terawatts
  Seismic anisotropy (Becker 2008), (Kreemer 2009), (Conrad & Behn 2010)
  Plate reconstruction: Torsvik, Tron
caption: A distribution map of Gnetophyta colour-coded by genus: 
  Green – Welwitschia
  Blue – Gnetum
  Red – Ephedra
  Purple – Gnetum and Ephedra range overlap
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