page_title: Zoroastrianism
section_title: Practices
hierarchical_section_title: Zoroastrianism / Overview / Practices
caption_attribution_description: Italiano: Dinastia tang, shanxi, straniero dal volto velato, 600-750 ca English: From a Wall Street Journal article by Lee Lawrence (published 3 September 2011): “Made in China during the latter part of the eighth century, this unusual Tang dynasty burial figure today sits on a shelf in the Museo di Arte Orientale (MAO) of Turin, Italy, exuding as much mystery as he does energy. To date, nobody can say exactly who or what he is—his clothes, his pose, his expression don't add up. Even his manufacture is atypical: While almost all other known burial statuettes are hollow and cast in molds, this one is solid clay and appears to have been sculpted by hand. For the moment, MAO has him down as "a Persian riding a camel or a horse," says Marco Guglielminotti Trivel, MAO's curator of East Asian art. And this is plausible enough. Formerly owned by the Agnelli Foundation, the figure's eyes are rounded, his nose aquiline, and though most figurines show a male rider straddling his mount, sidesaddle is not unheard of. The raised fists, Mr. Guglielminotti notes, might have held reins, while the face cover—as well as a flap of cloth over the back of his neck—would have protected against wind, sun and sand. "Keep in mind that at the height of the Tang period, the population of the imperial capital was about one million and, of these, at least a fourth were probably foreigners," Mr. Guglielminotti says. And many of them were Sogdians, a Persian people who dominated trade along the Silk Road. So it stands to reason that, when creating a microcosm of everyday reality to accompany the deceased in the afterlife, wealthy Chinese often included foreigners. It also showed just how cosmopolitan they were. But the camel-rider interpretation is not entirely satisfying. Just ask Marcello Pacini, who headed the Agnelli Foundation for 25 years and acquired the statue at auction some 20 years ago for its collection. "I have never seen a rider with such intensity in his eyes," he says. "His is the expression of a priest honoring a god, not that of a camel rider facing some banal complication." He speculates that our riveting mystery man is a Zoroastrian priest feeding the sacred fire. He points to the fact that Zoroastrian Sogdians had a visible presence in Tang China and that Zoroastrian priests wore a face cover during rituals to avoid polluting the fire with breath or saliva. Still, the case is not airtight. Zoroastrian priests, for example, wore belts with tassels, yet the belt here is plain; priests usually appear standing, while our man sits; and their face cover—or padam—is square, while this one falls in a triangle like a folded kerchief. Not a deal breaker, according to Mr. Pacini. He speculates that communities of Sogdian traders might have adapted rituals and costumes to caravan life. Could outside experts resolve the issue? Although intrigued by the Zoroastrian theory, Prof. Suzanne Cahill of the University of California, San Diego, nevertheless warns against reading too much into the disconnect between the eyes and hands. She specializes in Tang material culture and notes that in foreign figures the gaze is often intense "whether or not their bodies are tense. The artists fixate on the big round eyes and often caricature them." But the face veil mystifies her; "it might be part of a dancer's costume," she muses. In a similar vein, Tonia Eckfeld, who wrote "Imperial Tombs in Tang China, 618-907" (2005), thinks the figure in Turin might be a musician. "His loose sleeves would be consistent with a drummer, and the positions of his arms and hands suggest he could have been holding drumsticks," she emails after examining images of the statuette. But Mr. Guglielminotti, who has the advantage of examining the actual object, says the pose is not quite right for that—one sleeve falls too far over the lap to allow enough room for an instrument. Mr. Guglielminotti then reluctantly admits to harboring a secret theory of his own. The only other tomb figures he knows that also appear to be sculpted portray four actors—they, too, are in the MAO collection. "Similar dynamism and originality, but," he adds, "there is more: The actors sport 'exotic' clothes that are practically identical to that of the veiled man." Not only do tests indicate that the works probably come from the same atelier, but Mr. Guglielminotti thinks it's possible they depict the same subject. Just a theory, he is quick to add, hoping that future research will investigate this possibility too. In the meantime, only two things are certain: As unusual as our man is among burial figures, he is authentic according to thermoluminescence tests; and whatever he represented to eighth-century Chinese, to 21st-century scholars he is a riveting work of art.” Русский: Из статьи Wall Street Journal, написанная Ли Лоуренсом (опубликованная 3 сентября 2011): “«Сделанная в Китае во второй половине восьмого века, эта необычная династия Танской династии сегодня сидит на полке в итальянском музее Италии (Италия), источая столько же тайны, сколько и энергии. На сегодняшний день никто не может точно сказать, кто он или что он - его одежда, его поза, его выражение не складывается. Даже его изготовление является нетипичным: хотя почти все другие известные статуэтки захоронения являются полыми и отлиты в формы, этот является сплошной глиной и, по-видимому, был вылеплен вручную. На данный момент МАО спустил его как «персидский верблюд или лошадь», - говорит Марко Гуглиелмотити Тривель, куратор МАО восточноазиатского искусства. И это достаточно правдоподобно. Раньше принадлежащая Фонду Агнелли, глаза фигуры округлые, нос орлиный, и хотя большинство фигурок показывают, что всадник-мужчина, оседлавший свою гору, не имеет ничего общего. Возможно, поднятые кулаки, по словам г-на Гуглиелмитти, держали поводья, а обложка для лица, а также лоскут ткани на затылке - защищали бы от ветра, солнца и песка. «Имейте в виду, что в разгар Танского периода население императорской столицы составляло около одного миллиона человек, и, по крайней мере, четвертый, вероятно, был иностранцем», - говорит г-н Гуглиелмитти. И многие из них были согдийцами, персидскими людьми, которые доминировали в торговле по Шелковому пути. Поэтому разумно предположить, что при создании микромира повседневной реальности, чтобы сопровождать умершего в загробной жизни, богатые китайцы часто включали иностранцев. Он также показал, насколько они космополитичны. Но интерпретация верблюдов всадника не совсем удовлетворяет. Просто спросите Марчелло Пачини, который возглавлял Фонд Агнелли в течение 25 лет и приобрел статую на аукционе около 20 лет назад для своей коллекции. «Я никогда не видел всадника с такой напряжённостью в его глазах», - говорит он. «Его выражение священника почитает бога, а не верблюжьего всадника, сталкивающегося с каким-то банальным осложнением». Он размышляет, что наш клепающий человек-загадка - зороастрийский священник, кормящий священный огонь. Он указывает на то, что зороастрийские согдийцы имели видимое присутствие в Тан Китае и что зороастрийские священники носили обложку лица во время ритуалов, чтобы не загрязнять огонь дыханием или слюной. Тем не менее, дело не является воздухонепроницаемым. Зороастрийские священники, например, носили ремни с кисточками, но пояс здесь прост; священники обычно кажутся стоящими, а наш человек сидит; и их обложка для лица - или падам - ​​квадратная, а эта - в треугольник, как свернутый платок. По словам г-на Пачини, это не перехватчик сделок. Он предполагает, что общины согдийских торговцев могли бы адаптировать ритуалы и костюмы к жизни караванов. Могут ли внешние эксперты решить проблему? Профессор Сюзанна Кэхилл из Калифорнийского университета в Сан-Диего, хотя и заинтригована теорией зороастрийцев, тем не менее предупреждает против слишком большого чтения в отключении между глазами и руками. Она специализируется на материальной культуре Тан и отмечает, что у иностранных фигур часто наблюдается интенсивность «независимо от того, напряжены ли их тела. Художники фиксируются на больших круглых глазах и часто карикатурируют их». Но завеса завладевает ею; «это может быть частью костюма танцора», - размышляет она. Аналогичным образом, Тония Экфельд, написавшая «Имперские гробницы в Китае» (618-907) (2005), считает, что фигура в Турине может быть музыкантом. «Его свободные рукава будут соответствовать барабанщику, а позиции его рук и рук предполагают, что он мог бы держать барабанные палочки», - пишет она после изучения изображений статуэтки. Но г-н Гульельминотти, у которого есть преимущество в изучении фактического объекта, говорит, что поза не совсем подходит для этого - один рукав слишком сильно опускается на колени, чтобы дать достаточно места для инструмента. Г-н Гульельминотти затем неохотно признает, что скрывает свою собственную секретную теорию. Единственные другие фигуры гробниц, которые он знает, которые, как представляется, тоже изображены, изображают четырех актеров - они тоже находятся в коллекции МАО. «Подобный динамизм и оригинальность, но, - добавляет он, - есть еще: актерская спортивная«&#160;экзотическая »одежда, которая практически идентична одежде завуалированного человека». Мало того, что тесты показывают, что работы, вероятно, происходят из одного и того же ателье, но г-н Гульельминотти считает, что они могут изображать один и тот же предмет. Просто теория, которую он быстро добавляет, надеясь, что будущие исследования также исследуют эту возможность. Между тем, только две вещи несомненны: столь же необычно, как наш человек среди погребальных фигур, он аутентичен в соответствии с испытаниями на термолюминесценцию; и что бы он ни представлял китайцам восьмого века, ученым XXI века он является захватывающим произведением искусства».”
context_page_description: Zoroastrianism or Mazdayasna is one of the world's oldest continuously practiced religions. It is a multi-faceted faith centered on a dualistic cosmology of good and evil and an eschatology predicting the ultimate conquest of evil with theological elements of henotheism, monotheism/monism, and polytheism. Ascribed to the teachings of the Iranian-speaking spiritual leader Zoroaster, it exalts an uncreated and benevolent deity of wisdom, Ahura Mazda, as its supreme being. Historical features of Zoroastrianism, such as messianism, judgment after death, heaven and hell, and free will may have influenced other religious and philosophical systems, including Second Temple Judaism, Gnosticism, Greek philosophy, Christianity, Islam, the Bahá'í Faith, and Buddhism.
  With possible roots dating back to the second millennium BCE, Zoroastrianism enters recorded history in the 5th century BCE. It served as the state religion of the ancient Iranian empires for more than a millennium, from around 600 BCE to 650 CE, but declined from the 7th century onwards following the Muslim conquest of Persia of 633–654.
context_section_description: The religion states that active and ethical participation in life through good deeds formed from good thoughts and good words is necessary to ensure happiness and to keep chaos at bay. This active participation is a central element in Zoroaster's concept of free will and Zoroastrianism as such rejects extreme forms of asceticism and monasticism but historically has allowed for moderate expressions of these concepts.
  In Zoroastrian tradition, life is a temporary state in which a mortal is expected to actively participate in the continuing battle between Asha and Druj. Prior to being born, the urvan (soul) of an individual is still united with its fravashi (personal/higher spirit), which has existed since Ahura Mazda created the universe. The fravashi before the urvan's split act as aids in the maintenance of creation with Ahura Mazda. During life, the fravashi act as aspirational concepts, spiritual protectors, and the fravashi of bloodline, cultural, and spiritual ancestors and heroes are venerated and can be called upon for aid. On the fourth day after death, the urvan is reunited with its fravashi, in which the experiences of life in the material world are collected for the continuing battle in the spiritual world. For the most part, Zoroastrianism does not have a notion of reincarnation, at least not until the Frashokereti. Followers of Ilm-e-Kshnoom in India believe in reincarnation and practice vegetarianism, among other currently non-traditional opinions, although there have been various theological statements supporting vegetarianism in Zoroastrianism's history and claims that Zoroaster was vegetarian.
  In Zoroastrianism, water (aban) and fire (atar) are agents of ritual purity, and the associated purification ceremonies are considered the basis of ritual life. In Zoroastrian cosmogony, water and fire are respectively the second and last primordial elements to have been created, and scripture considers fire to have its origin in the waters. Both water and fire are considered life-sustaining, and both water and fire are represented within the precinct of a fire temple. Zoroastrians usually pray in the presence of some form of fire (which can be considered evident in any source of light), and the culminating rite of the principal act of worship constitutes a "strengthening of the waters". Fire is considered a medium through which spiritual insight and wisdom are gained, and water is considered the source of that wisdom. Both fire and water are also hypostasized as the Yazatas Atar and Anahita, which worship hymns and litanies dedicated to them.
  A corpse is considered a host for decay, i.e., of druj. Consequently, scripture enjoins the safe disposal of the dead in a manner such that a corpse does not pollute the good creation. These injunctions are the doctrinal basis of the fast-fading traditional practice of ritual exposure, most commonly identified with the so-called Towers of Silence for which there is no standard technical term in either scripture or tradition. Ritual exposure is currently mainly practiced by Zoroastrian communities of the Indian subcontinent, in locations where it is not illegal and diclofenac poisoning has not led to the virtual extinction of scavenger birds. Other Zoroastrian communities either cremate their dead, or bury them in graves that are cased with lime mortar, though Zoroastrians are keen to dispose of their dead in the most environmental way possible.
  While the Parsees in India have traditionally since the 19th century been opposed to proselytizing, and even considered it a crime for which the culprit may face expulsion, Iranian Zoroastrians have never been opposed to conversion, and the practice has been endorsed by the Council of Mobeds of Tehran. While the Iranian authorities do not permit proselytizing within Iran, Iranian Zoroastrians in exile have actively encouraged missionary activities, with the Zarathushtrian Assembly in Los Angeles and the International Zoroastrian Centre in Paris as two prominent organizations and the Federation of Zoroastrian Associations of North Americ
caption: An 8th century Tang dynasty Chinese clay figurine of a Sogdian man wearing a distinctive cap and face veil, possibly a camel rider or even a Zoroastrian priest engaging in a ritual at a fire temple, since face veils were used to avoid contaminating the holy fire with breath or saliva; Museum of Oriental Art (Turin), Italy.[43]
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