page_title: Nigersaurus
section_title: Head posture
hierarchical_section_title: Nigersaurus / Palaeobiology / Head posture
caption_attribution_description: Skull of Nigersaurus taqueti and head posture in sauropodomorphs. (Originally uploaded by User:Filip em under a file name that is inappropriate in English language.) (A)-Lateral view of skull (MNN GAD512). (B)-Anterodorsal view of cranium. (C)-Anterior view of lower jaws. (D)-Premaxillary and dentary tooth series (blue) reconstructed from µCT scans. (E)-Skull reconstruction in anterolateral and dorsal view cut at mid length between muzzle and occipital units (cross-section in red) with the adductor mandibulae muscle shown between the quadrate and surangular. (F)-Endocast in dorsal view showing the cerebrum and olfactory bulbs. (G)-Endocast (above) and transparent skulls with endocasts in place (below) based on µCT scans of the basal sauropodomorph Massospondylus carinatus (BP 1/4779), the basal neosauropod Camarasaurus lentus (CM 11338), the diplodocid Diplodocus longus (CM 11161), and the prototype skull of the rebbachisaurid Nigersaurus taqueti. Endocasts and skulls are oriented with the lateral semicircular canal held horizontal; the angle measurement indicates degrees from the horizontal for a line from the jaw joint to the tip of the upper teeth. Endocasts show brain space and dural sinuses (blue), nerve openings (yellow), inner ear (pink), and internal carotid artery (red). Phylogenetic diagram at bottom shows the relationships of these four sauropodomorphs, with increasing ventral deflection of the snout toward the condition seen in Nigersaurus. Scale bar equals 2 cm in F. Abbreviations: 1–5, fenestrae 1–5; a, angular; amm, adductor mandibulae muscle; antfe, antorbital fenestra; ar, articular; ce, cerebrum; cp, coronoid process; d, dentary; d1, 34, dentary tooth 1, 34; ds, dural sinus; emf, external mandibular fenestra; en, external nares; f, frontal; fo, foramen; j, jugal; m, maxilla; nf, narial fossa; olb, olfactory bulb; olt, olfactory tract; pm, premaxilla; po, postorbital; popr, paroccipital process; q, quadrate; qj, quadratojugal; sa, surangular, saf, surangular foramen; sq, squamosal; vc, vascular canal. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0001230.g001
context_page_description: Nigersaurus is a genus of rebbachisaurid sauropod dinosaur that lived during the middle Cretaceous period, about 115 to 105 million years ago. It was discovered in the Elrhaz Formation in an area called Gadoufaoua, in the Republic of Niger. Fossils of this dinosaur were first described in 1976, but it was only named Nigersaurus taqueti in 1999, after further and more complete remains were found and described. The genus name means "Niger reptile", and the specific name honours the palaeontologist Philippe Taquet, who discovered the first remains.
  Small for a sauropod, Nigersaurus was about 9 m long, and had a short neck. It weighed around 4 t, comparable to a modern elephant. Its skeleton was highly pneumatised, but the limbs were robustly built. Its skull was very specialised for feeding, with large fenestrae and thin bones. It had a wide muzzle filled with more than 500 teeth, which were replaced at a rapid rate: around every 14 days. The jaws may have borne a keratinous sheath. Unlike other tetrapods, the tooth-bearing bones of its jaws were rotated transversely relative to the rest of the skull, so that all of its teeth were located far to the front.
context_section_description: On the basis of microtomography scans of skull elements of the holotype specimen, Sereno and colleagues created a "prototype" Nigersaurus skull they could examine. They also made an endocast of the brain and scanned the semicircular canals of its inner ear, which they found to be oriented horizontally. In their 2007 study, they stated that the structure of the occiput and cervical vertebrae would have limited the upward and downward movement of the neck and the rotation of the skull. Based on this biomechanical analysis, the team concluded that the head and muzzle were habitually oriented 67° downwards and close to ground level, as an adaptation for ground-level browsing. This is unlike the way other sauropods have been restored, with their heads held more horizontally.
  A 2009 study by the British palaeontologist Mike P. Taylor and colleagues agreed that Nigersaurus was able to feed with the downturned head and neck posture proposed by the 2007 study, but contested that this was the habitual posture of the animal. The study noted that the "neutral" head and neck posture of modern animals does not necessarily correspond to their habitual head posture. It further argued that the orientation of the semicircular canals varies significantly within modern species, and is therefore not reliable for determining head posture. This was supported by the Spanish palaeontologist Jesús Marugán-Lobón and colleagues in a 2013 study that suggested the methods used by Sereno's team were imprecise, and that Nigersaurus habitually held its head like other sauropods.
caption: Diagrams of the skull and jaw, and 3D reconstructions of the dental battery, skull, and brain, as well as sauropodomorph head postures proposed by Sereno and colleagues
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