page_title: Xian (Taoism)
section_title: Textual references
hierarchical_section_title: Xian (Taoism) / Textual references
caption_attribution_description: English: A cropped version of for use in Li Sao-related media.
context_page_description: Xian refers to a person or similar entity having a long or immortal lifespan. The concept of xian has different implications dependent upon the specific context: philosophical, religious, mythological, or other symbolic or cultural occurrence. The Chinese word xian is translatable into English as:
  spiritually immortal; transcendent; super-human; celestial being
  physically immortal; immortal person; immortalist; saint
  alchemist; one who seeks the elixir of life; one who practices longevity techniques
  alchemical, dietary, or qigong methods for attaining immortality
  wizard; magician; shaman
  genie; elf, fairy; nymph; 仙境
  sage living high in the mountains; mountain-man; hermit; recluse
  immortal [talent]; accomplished person; celestial [beauty]; marvelous; extraordinary
  Xian semantically developed from meaning spiritual "immortality; enlightenment", to physical "immortality; longevity" involving methods such as alchemy, breath meditation, and tai chi chuan, and eventually to legendary and figurative "immortality".
  Victor H. Mair describes the xian archetype as:
  They are immune to heat and cold, untouched by the elements, and can fly, mounting upward with a fluttering motion.
context_section_description: This section chronologically reviews how Chinese texts describe xian "immortals; transcendents". While the early Zhuangzi, Chuci, and Liezi texts allegorically used xian immortals and magic islands to describe spiritual immortality, later ones like the Shenxian zhuan and Baopuzi took immortality literally and described esoteric Chinese alchemical techniques for physical longevity. On one the hand, neidan (內丹 "internal alchemy") techniques included taixi (胎息 "embryo respiration") breath control, meditation, visualization, sexual training, and Tao Yin exercises (which later evolved into qigong and tai chi chuan). On the other hand, waidan (外丹 "external alchemy") techniques for immortality included alchemical recipes, magic plants, rare minerals, herbal medicines, drugs, and dietetic techniques like inedia.
  The word yuren 羽人 "feathered person" later meant "Daoist").
  Besides the following major Chinese texts, many others use both graphic variants of xian. Xian (仙) occurs in the Chunqiu Fanlu, Fengsu Tongyi, Qian fu lun, Fayan, and Shenjian; xian (僊) occurs in the Caizhong langji, Fengsu Tongyi, Guanzi, and Shenjian.
caption: Two pages from "Li sao" from a 1645 illustrated copy of the Chuci
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