page_title: Ideal (ethics)
section_title: Ideals from antiquity to the Age of Reason
hierarchical_section_title: Ideal (ethics) / Background and history / Historical development and recent analysis / Ideals from antiquity to the Age of Reason
context_page_description: An ideal is a principle or value that an entity actively pursues as a goal and holds above other, more petty concerns perceived as being less meaningful. Terms relating to the general belief in ideals include ethical idealism, moral idealism, and principled idealism. A person with a particular insistence on holding to ideals, often even at considerable cost as a consequence of holding such a belief, is usually called an ethical idealist, moral idealist, principled idealist, or simply an idealist for short. The latter term is not to be confused with metaphysical idealism, a viewpoint about existence and rationality unrelated to the ethical concept. The term ideal is applied not only to individuals but also to organizations large and small from independent churches to social activist groups to political parties to nation states and more. An entity's ideals usually function as a way to set firm guidelines for decision making, with the possibility of having to sacrifice and undergo loss being in the background.
context_section_description: In the wider context of ethics, the very terms "ethical" and "ideal" have been inherently tied. Philosopher Rushworth Kidder has stated that "standard definitions of ethics have typically included such phrases as 'the science of the ideal human character'". Thus, ideals have been the topic of discussion and debate since the beginnings of organized human civilization. The types of ideals dealt with during the history of philosophy have varied widely over the many centuries, many conceptions existing of what moral idealism actually is and how it gets applied in actual life experiences.
  From the far distant history to today, multiple philosophers have remarked that human beings appear to, by instinct, behave in a matter with few if any ideals and even general morals of whatever kind. The works of British thinker David Hume, for instance, explicitly declared people to be inherent "slaves" to their passions. When articulating a particularly nuanced theory of morality, Hume's writings labeled it folly to emphasize what people hopefully wish to achieve and additionally argued that enforcing ideals without proper grounding in practical, already existing mores undermines society itself.
  Cynics of the ancient world frequently referred to humanity in general as not only not perfectible but fundamentally depraved. The historical Greek figure of Diogenes, while arguing that some individuals could through great effort achieve some kind of a moral dignity, was a prominent example in his dismissal of the values common in his day. He sought his own path based on a particular set of ideals that involved begging on the streets, living in a barrel, and wearing rags.
  In both Jewish ethics and later Christian ethics, however, advocacy for a stridently idealistic view of the world, in which principles get held over personal convenience and even otherwise perfectly logical expectations, has attracted praise. Golden rule based moral standards have involved restrictions such as holding back the quest for vengeance by the wronged such that punishment only gets applied in a limited, specific fashion, this example being later evaluated as the tit-for-tat strategy in game theory. In terms of Christianity, the teachings of the Gospels have constituted an extension of the golden rule; individuals, under Jesus' example, have gotten called to hold to the ideal of treating other people even better than they rationally expect to be treated back.
  In the context of the various religious movements of the 1st and 2nd century in the Roman Empire, the ideals of Christian thinking constituted a radical break with the ethical doctrines that had been advocated by those in power. Rejecting views of the upper classes, both during the empire's time and previously in Greco-Roman civilization, the rising Christian community set forth clear-cut principles based on narratives such as the Sermon on the Mount, which was included in the Gospel of Matthew. Specifically, Jesus' exhortations for his followers to "turn the other cheek" as well to "love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you" and practice other idealistic behaviors established a general view emphasizing spiritual standards over material concerns.
  Despite the degree that Christian viewpoints contradicted Roman traditions, early Christianity spread throughout the Empire and became a particularly robust force in the empire's society by the 4th century. Reasons for the appeal included not only the idealistic messages but also the similarity between the belief system and previously popular mystery cults. Finally, emperor Theodosius the Great made Christianity the official religion of the entire realm.
  While Western nations widely retained the influences of Jewish and Christian morality over multiple centuries, in practical terms a great many powerful rulers and prominent thinkers both before and after the fall of the Roman Empire pushed back on higher notions of idealistic ethics. Many did so based on little other than expediency. However, whether explicitly in words or implicitly through deeds, more cynica
caption: Philosopher John Locke, a prominent figure of the Enlightenment era, articulated a vision of the individual and collective pursuit of ideals arising from the logical study and analysis of the state of nature.[11]
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