page_title: Mineral evolution
section_title: Crust and mantle reworking
hierarchical_section_title: Mineral evolution / Chronology / Crust and mantle reworking
caption_attribution_description: English: Cremation pegmatite exhibit at Trail of Time near Yavapai Point, Grand Canyon, Arizona, USA
context_page_description: Mineral evolution is a recent hypothesis that provides historical context to mineralogy. It postulates that mineralogy on planets and moons becomes increasingly complex as a result of changes in the physical, chemical and biological environment. In the Solar System, the number of mineral species has grown from about a dozen to over 5400 as a result of three processes: separation and concentration of elements; greater ranges of temperature and pressure coupled with the action of volatiles; and new chemical pathways provided by living organisms.
  On Earth, there were three eras of mineral evolution. The birth of the Sun and formation of asteroids and planets increased the number of minerals to about 250. Repeated reworking of the crust and mantle through processes such as partial melting and plate tectonics increased the total to about 1500. The remaining minerals, more than two-thirds of the total, were the result of chemical changes mediated by living organisms, with the largest increase occurring after the Great Oxygenation Event.
context_section_description: The second era in the history of mineral evolution began with the massive impact that formed the Moon. This melted most of the crust and mantle. Early mineralogy was determined by crystallization of igneous rocks and further bombardments. This phase was then replaced by extensive recycling of crust and mantle, so that at the end of this era there were about 1500 mineral species. However, few of the rocks survived from this period so the timing of many events remains uncertain.
caption: Pegmatite sample from the Grand Canyon
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