page_title: Early Modern Romania
section_title: Principality of Transylvania (1606–1688)
hierarchical_section_title: Early Modern Romania / The three principalities under Ottoman rule / Principality of Transylvania (1606–1688)
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context_page_description: The Early Modern Times in Romania started after the death of Michael the Brave, who ruled in a personal union, Wallachia, Transylvania, and Moldavia – three principalities in the lands that now form Romania – for three months, in 1600. The three principalities were subjected to the Ottoman Empire, and paid a yearly tribute to the Ottoman Sultans, but they preserved their internal autonomy. In contrast, Dobruja and the Banat were fully incorporated into the Ottoman Empire.
  The Orthodox princes of Wallachia and Moldavia ruled their realms with absolute power, but the boyars took control of state administration in the 1660s and 1670s. The growing influence of Greeks caused bitter conflicts in both principalities. Due to extensive taxation, the peasants often rebelled against their lords. The long reign of Matthew Basarab in Wallachia and of Vasile Lupu in Moldavia contributed to the development of local economy. Most princes of Wallachia and Moldavia also paid tribute to the princes of Transylvania.
context_section_description: Long winters and rainy summers with frequent floodings featured the "Little Ice Age" in 17th-century Transylvania. Because of the short autumns, arable lands on the plateaus were transformed into grazing lands. The Fifteen Years' War had caused a demographic catastrophe. For instance, the population decreased with about 80% in the lowland villages and with about 45% in the mountains in Solnocul de Mijloc and Dăbâca Counties during the wars; the two most important Saxon centers, Sibiu and Brașov, lost more than 75% of their burghers. The Diets often passed decrees that prescribed the return of runaway serfs to their lords or granted a six-year tax holiday for new settlers, but such decrees became rare from the 1620s, suggesting that a demographic regeneration had occurred in the meantime. Nevertheless, epidemics – measles and bubonic plague – which returned in each decade killed many peoples during the century.
  Bocskay designated a wealthy baron from Upper Hungary, Valentin Drugeth, as his successor. The Ottomans supported Drugeth, but a member of the royal Báthory family, Gabriel Báthory, also claimed the throne. Taking advantage of the two claimants' rivalry, the Diet elected Sigismund Rákóczi prince in early 1607. A year later, Gabriel Báthory made an alliance with the Hajduks, forced Rákóczi to renounce and seized the throne. Upon the Hajduk's demand, he promised that he would never secede from the Holy Crown of Hungary. Radu Șerban of Wallachia and Constantin Movilă of Moldavia swore loyalty to Báthory. Báthory's erratic behavior alienated both his subjects and the neighboring powers: he captured Sibiu and Brașov, and invaded Wallachia without the Sultan's approval. The Sublime Porte decided to dethrone him and dispatched Gabriel Bethlen to accomplish this task. Bethlen invaded Transylvania accompanied by Ottoman, Wallachian and Crimean Tatar troops. The Three Nations proclaimed him prince on 23 September 1613 and the Hajduks murdered his opponent.
  Transylvania prospered during Bethlen's reign. He did not restrict the liberties of the Three Nations, but exercised royal prerogatives to limit their influence on state administration. From 1615 at least two thirds of those who attended the Diet were delegates appointed by him. He introduced a mercantilist economic policy, encouraging the immigration of Jews and Baptist craftsmen from the Holy Roman Empire, creating state monopolies and promoting export. The Diet controlled only about 10% of state revenues – around 70,000 florins from the annual income of about 700,000 florins – from the 1620s. Bethlen set up a permanent army of mercenaries. He forbade Székely communers from choosing serfdom to avoid military service in 1619 and increased the tax payable by Székely serfs in 1623. He often granted nobility to serfs, but the Diet of 1619 requested him to stop this practise. The Diet also prohibited the Romanians from bearing arms in 1620 and 1623. Bethlen set up the first academy in Transylvania, promoted the building of schools and his subjects' studies abroad (especially in England), and punished those landowners who denied an education to children of serfs. Laws prohibiting religious innovations were repeated in 1618 and the Diet obliged the Sabbatarians – a community who adopted Jewish customs – to join one of the four official denominations. He planned to convert the Romanians to Calvinism and tried to convince Cyril Lucaris, Patriarch of Constantinople, to assist him, but the latter refused, emphasizing the "blood ties" between the Romanians of Transylvania, Wallachia and Moldavia. During the Thirty Years' War, Bethlen made an alliance with the Protestant Union and invaded Royal Hungary three times between 1619 and 1626. He was elected king of Hungary in August 1620, but a year later he renounced this title. In exchange, he received seven counties in Upper Hungary to rule during his lifetime.
  Bethlen died on 15 November 1629. Conflicts between his widow and brother – Catherine of Brandenburg and Stephen Bethlen – enabled George Rákóczi, Sigismund Rákóczi's son, to cla
caption: The Principality of Transylvania in 1570: Transylvania proper and the Partium
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