page_title: European witchcraft
section_title: Christianization and Early Middle Ages
hierarchical_section_title: European witchcraft / History / Christianization and Early Middle Ages
caption_attribution_description: The beginning of the text of book 10 of the Decretum Burchardi (ca. 1012), in Dombibliothek Codex 119 (Dom Hs. 119) at Cologne (foll. 91v-92r), dated c. 1020. The passage shown here is the so-called Canon Episcopi, an older (9th to 10th century) text condemning belief in shapeshifting. This text was later taken as an early description of the "witches' sabbath" topos, and its condemnation of the belief in such events used by opponents of the witch-trials of the 16th century. The passage as edited by Migne (PL 140) reads: Ut episcopi eorumque ministri omnibus viribus elaborare studeant, ut perniciosam et a diabolo inventam sortilegam et maleficam artem penitus ex parochiis suis eradicent: et si aliquem virum aut feminam hujuscemodi sceleris sectatorem invenerint, turpiter dehonestatum de parochiis suis ejiciant. Ait enim Apostolus: Haereticum post unam et secundam admonitionem devita, sciens quia subversus est, qui ejusmodi est. Subversi sunt, et a diabolo capti tenentur, qui, derelicto creatore suo, a diabolo suffragia quaerunt, et ideo a tali peste mundari debet sancta Ecclesia. Illud etiam non omittendum, quod quaedam sceleratae mulieres retro post Satanam conversae, daemonum illusionibus, et phantasmatibus seductae, credunt se et profitentur nocturnis horis, cum Diana paganorum dea, vel cum Herodiade et innumera multitudine mulierum equitare super quasdam bestias, et multa terrarum spatia intempestae noctis silentio pertransire ejusque jussionibus velut dominae obedire et certis noctibus ad ejus servitium evocari. Sed utinam hae solae in perfidia sua perissent, et non multos secum in infidelitatis interitum pertraxissent. Nam innumera multitudo hac falsa opinione decepta haec vera esse credit, et credendo a recta fide deviat, et in errore paganorum revolvitur, cum aliquid divinitatis, aut numinis extra unum Deum esse arbitratur. Quapropter sacerdotes per Ecclesias sibi commissas populo omni instantia praedicare debent, ut noverint haec omnimodis falsa esse, et non a divino, sed a maligno spiritu talia phantasmata mentibus infidelium irrogari. Siquidem ipse Satanas, qui transfigurat se in angelum lucis, cum mentem cujuscunque mulierculae ceperit, et hanc sibi per infidelitatem et incredulitatem subjugaverit, illico transformat se in diversarum personarum species atque similitudines, et mentem quam captivam tenet in somnis deludens, modo laeta, modo tristia, modo cognitas, modo incognitas personas, ostendens, per devia quaeque deducit. Et cum solus spiritus hoc patitur, infidelis mens haec non in animo, sed in corpore evenire opinatur. Quis enim non in somnis et nocturnis visionibus extra seipsum educitur, et multa videt dormiendo, quae nunquam viderat vigilando? Quis vero tam stultus et hebes sit, qui haec omnia quae in solo spiritu fiunt, etiam in corpore accidere arbitretur? Cum Ezechiel propheta visiones Domini in spiritu non in corpore vidit. Et Joannes apostolus Apocalypsis sacramenta in spiritu non in corpore vidit, et audivit sicut ipse dicit: Statim, inquit, fui in spiritu. Et Paulus non audet se dicere raptum in corpore. Omnibus itaque publice annuntiandum est, quod qui talia et his similia credit, fidem perdit, et qui fidem rectam in Deo non habet, hic non est ejus, sed illius in quem credit, id est diaboli. Nam de Domino nostro scriptum est: Omnia per ipsum facta sunt. Quisquis ergo aliquid credit posse fieri, aut aliquam creaturam in melius aut in deterius immutari, aut transformari in aliam speciem, vel similitudinem, nisi ab ipso Creatore qui omnia fecit et per quem omnia facta sunt, procul dubio infidelis est et pagano deterior. The quote "Hæreticum post unam et secundam admonitionem devita, sciens quia subversus est, qui ejusmodi est" is from Titus 3:10-11. Note that this departs somewhat from the standard Vulgate text, which has Hæreticum hominem post unam et secundam correptionem devita.
context_page_description: Belief in and practice of witchcraft in Europe can be traced to classical antiquity and has continuous history during the Middle Ages, culminating in the Early Modern witch hunts and giving rise to the fairy tale and popular culture "witch" stock character of modern times, as well as to the concept of the "modern witch" in Wicca and related movements of contemporary witchcraft.
  The topic is a complex amalgamation of the practices of folk healers, folk magic, ancient belief in sorcery in pagan Europe, Christian views on heresy, medieval and early modern practice of ceremonial magic and simple fiction in folklore and literature.
context_section_description: The Pactus Legis Alamannorum, an early 7th-century code of laws of the Alemanni confederation of Germanic tribes, lists witchcraft as a punishable crime on equal terms with poisoning. If a free man accuses a free woman of witchcraft or poisoning, the accused may be disculpated either by twelve people swearing an oath on her innocence or by one of her relatives defending her in a trial by combat. In this case, the accuser is required to pay a fine (Pactus Legis Alamannorum 13).
  With Christianization, belief in witchcraft came to be seen as superstition. The Council of Leptinnes in 744 drew up a "List of Superstitions", which prohibited sacrifice to saints and created a baptismal formula that required one to renounce works of demons, specifically naming Thor and Odin. Persecution of witchcraft nevertheless persisted throughout most of the Early Middle Ages, into the 10th century.
  When Charlemagne imposed Christianity upon the people of Saxony in 789, he proclaimed:
  If anyone, deceived by the Devil, shall believe, as is customary among pagans, that any man or woman is a night-witch, and eats men, and on that account burn that person to death... he shall be executed.
  Similarly, the Lombard code of 643 states:
  Let nobody presume to kill a foreign serving maid or female slave as a witch, for it is not possible, nor ought to be believed by Christian minds.
  This conforms to the thoughts of Saint Augustine of Hippo, who taught that witchcraft did not exist and that the belief in it was heretical.
  In 814, Louis the Pious upon his accession to the throne began to take very active measures against all sorcerers and necromancers, and it was owing to his influence and authority that the Council of Paris in 829 appealed to the secular courts to carry out any such sentences as the Bishops might pronounce. The consequence was that from this time forward the penalty of witchcraft was death, and there is evidence that if the constituted authority, either ecclesiastical or civil, seemed to slacken in their efforts the populace took the law into their own hands with far more fearful results.
  In England, the early Penitentials are greatly concerned with the repression of pagan ceremonies, which under the cover of Christian festivities were very largely practised at Christmas and on New Year's Day. These rites were closely connected with witchcraft, and especially do S. Theodore, S. Aldhelm, Ecgberht of York, and other prelates prohibit the masquerade as a horned animal, a stag, or a bull, which S. Caesarius of Arles had denounced as a "foul tradition", an "evil custom", a "most heinous abomination". The laws of King Æthelstan (924–40), corresponsive with the early French laws, punished any person casting a spell which resulted in death by extracting the extreme penalty.
  Among the laws attributed to the Pictish King Cináed mac Ailpin (ruled 843 to 858), is an important statute which enacts that all sorcerers and witches, and such as invoke spirits, "and use to seek upon them for helpe, let them be burned to death". Even then this was obviously no new penalty, but the statutory confirmation of a long-established punishment. So the witches of Forres who attempted the life of King Duffus in the year 968 by the old bane of slowly melting a wax image, when discovered, were according to the law burned at the stake.
  The Canon Episcopi, which was written circa 900 AD (though alleged to date from 314 AD), once more following the teachings of Saint Augustine, declared that witches did not exist and that anyone who believed in them was a heretic. The crucial passage from the Canon Episcopi reads as follows:
  It is also not to be omitted that some unconstrained women, perverted by Satan, seduced by illusions and phantasms of demons, believe and openly profess that, in the dead of night, they ride upon certain beasts with the pagan goddess Diana, with a countless horde of women, and in the silence of the dead of the night to fly over vast tracts of country, and to obey her commands as their mistress, and to be summoned to her service on other nights. But it
caption: The text of the canon Episcopi in Hs. 119 (Cologne), a manuscript of Decretum Burchardi dated to ca. 1020.
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