page_title: Zatypota percontatoria
section_title: Lifecycle
hierarchical_section_title: Zatypota percontatoria / Lifecycle
caption_attribution_description: English: Theridion impressum Deutsch: Die Braune Kugelspinne (Theridion impressum)
context_page_description: Zatypota percontatoria is a species of parasitoid wasps that is part of the order Hymenoptera and the family Ichneumonidae responsible for parasitizing arachnids, specifically those of the family Theridiidae.
  The parasitoid that has been recently studied for its mechanism of parasitism. It reproduces by laying eggs within the abdomen of a spider by oviposition, slowly developing as an ectoparasitic koinobiont that will eventually kill its host. The wasp larva protects itself during the parasitism process through neuroparasitism affecting and controlling the behavior of the spider to the extent that they are unable to attack the larva. The mechanism is still fairly unknown, but it is believed that it involves hormones and/or polydnaviruses. The larva will influence the spider to the extent that it will build a web/cocoon for the pupal stage of the parasitoid wasp. Z. percontatoria wasps are distributed worldwide within several different countries, mostly within terrestrial locations that are rich with tree species preferring woodlands.
context_section_description: The lifecycle begins when a female wasp is able to successfully oviposit an egg within the abdomen of a spider within the family Theridiidae. Z. percontatoria is a unique species in that although the wasps are koinobionts, they are one of the rare cases of being ectoparasitic as well. Although the egg begins inside of the spider, eventually it will hatch into a larva. It does not use an immobilization or paralyzing agent, so the spider develops as the egg/larva develops. As time progresses, the larva bursts out of the spider and continues as an ectoparasitoid. The larva will develop using the nutrients from the spider's hemolymph. When the larva moves out of the abdomen, it remains connected to the hemolymph for nutrients as an ectoparasitoid. How large the larva gets ultimately depends on the size and nutrient availability of the spider.
  The spider may continue to forage and take part in activities that ultimately increase the fitness of the larva. However, Z. percontatoria has to be careful because it have to protect itself and the spider from their predators. The spider when it is parasitized is not able to defend itself as it could before it was parasitized. The mechanism is unknown as to how the larva is able to alter the behavior of the spider, but there are multiple hypotheses. One is that it may be controlling the central nervous system directly through the influence of neurons, although it is unlikely as Z. percontatoria connects to the hemolymph not directly associated with the nervous system.
  The more likely of the hypotheses is that Z. percontatoria is not controlling the spider directly but influencing it through hormones in the endocrine system by activating certain pathways of the spider. The spider does not exhibit any behaviors that are outside of its normal scope, however the usual timing of the behaviors is altered. This is because the larva is using the spider's behaviors to increase its fitness and chance of survival. By increasing the levels of hormones that promote certain actions, the larva alters the normal behavior of the spider to its advantage. The larva also has a mutualistic relationship with polydnaviruses that suppresses the immune system preventing it from making any counter-action. However, if the larva is ever removed the spider returns to normal control and behaviors. The longer that a larva is able to remain on a spider, the longer it will take that spider to recover if the larva is taken off. This action also supports the hypothesis that the change in behavior is most likely the result of an accumulation of hormones stimulated or released by the larva.
  Before the spider is fully able to reach adulthood, the larva enters the pupal stage. This stage is the most vulnerable state of the parasitoid wasp's lifecycle. This is the part of the lifecycle that explains why Z. percontatoria prefers the web-building spiders of the family Theridiidae. The larva will begin influencing the spider to build a web. Scientists hypothesize that the larva is somehow able to increase levels of the hormone that encourages behaviors that the spider would conduct before molting or ecdysis. This hormone is elevated levels of 20-OH-ecysone. The web is not the typical type used for capturing prey, but resembles a web similar to one that it would build before overwintering. The web can be seen to be shorter for a stronger build, thickened webs that won't break, and a reinforced frame. The web is stronger, defense-based, and depending on the spider will create a cocoon that will house the larva. This will aid the fitness of the larva when it enters the pupal stage by creating a camouflage, and protecting it from predators and the outside conditions of the environment.
  When the web is done, the larva kills the spider host and consumes its body. The larva is then ready to enter the cocoon where a metamorphosis takes place. The pupa will emerge as an adult wasp, usually female as they are able to reproduce starting the cycle again. As an adult, the wasps mainly feed on nectar. Some larva will overwinter during winter
caption: Example of web-building spider from the family Theridiidae (Theridion impressum)
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