page_title: Intergranular corrosion
section_title: Sensitization effect
hierarchical_section_title: Intergranular corrosion / Sensitization effect
caption_attribution_description: English: A heavily sensitized microstructure of type 304 stainless steel
context_page_description: Intergranular corrosion, also known as intergranular attack, is a form of corrosion where the boundaries of crystallites of the material are more susceptible to corrosion than their insides.
context_section_description: Sensitization refers to the precipitation of carbides at grain boundaries in a stainless steel or alloy, causing the steel or alloy to be susceptible to intergranular corrosion or intergranular stress corrosion cracking.
  Certain alloys when exposed to a temperature characterized as a sensitizing temperature become particularly susceptible to intergranular corrosion. In a corrosive atmosphere, the grain interfaces of these sensitized alloys become very reactive and intergranular corrosion results. This is characterized by a localized attack at and adjacent to grain boundaries with relatively little corrosion of the grains themselves. The alloy disintegrates (grains fall out) and/or loses its strength.
  The photos show the typical microstructure of a normalized (unsensitized) type 304 stainless steel and a heavily sensitized steel. The samples have been polished and etched before taking the photos, and the sensitized areas show as wide, dark lines where the etching fluid has caused corrosion. The dark lines consist of carbides and corrosion products.
  Intergranular corrosion is generally considered to be caused by the segregation of impurities at the grain boundaries or by enrichment or depletion of one of the alloying elements in the grain boundary areas. Thus in certain aluminium alloys, small amounts of iron have been shown to segregate in the grain boundaries and cause intergranular corrosion. Also, it has been shown that the zinc content of a brass is higher at the grain boundaries and subject to such corrosion. High-strength aluminium alloys such as the Duralumin-type alloys (Al-Cu) which depend upon precipitated phases for strengthening are susceptible to intergranular corrosion following sensitization at temperatures of about 120 °C. Nickel-rich alloys such as Inconel 600 and Incoloy 800 show similar susceptibility. Die-cast zinc alloys containing aluminum exhibit intergranular corrosion by steam in a marine atmosphere. Cr-Mn and Cr-Mn-Ni steels are also susceptible to intergranular corrosion following sensitization in the temperature range of 420 °C–850 °C. In the case of the austenitic stainless steels, when these steels are sensitized by being heated in the temperature range of about 520 °C to 800 °C, depletion of chromium in the grain boundary region occurs, resulting in susceptibility to intergranular corrosion. Such sensitization of austenitic stainless steels can readily occur because of temperature service requirements, as in steam generators, or as a result of subsequent welding of the formed structure.
  Several methods have been used to control or minimize the intergranular corrosion of susceptible alloys, particularly of the austenitic stainless steels. For example, a high-temperature solution heat treatment, commonly termed solution-annealing, quench-annealing or solution-quenching, has been used. The alloy is heated to a temperature of about 1,060 °C to 1,120 °C and then water quenched. This method is generally unsuitable for treating large assemblies, and also ineffective where welding is subsequently used for making repairs or for attaching other structures.
  Another control technique for preventing intergranular corrosion involves incorporating strong carbide formers or stabilizing elements such as niobium or titanium in the stainless steels. Such elements have a much greater affinity for carbon than does chromium; carbide formation with these elements reduces the carbon available in the alloy for formation of chromium carbides. Such a stabilized titanium-bearing austenitic chromium-nickel-copper stainless steel is shown in U.S. Pat. No. 3,562,781. Or the stainless steel may initially be reduced in carbon content below 0.03 percent so that insufficient carbon is provided for carbide formation. These techniques are expensive and only partially effective since sensitization may occur with time. The low-carbon steels also frequently exhibit lower strengths at high temperatures.
caption: Heavily sensitized microstructure
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