page_title: Land reclamation in Singapore
section_title: Environmental consequences
hierarchical_section_title: Land reclamation in Singapore / Environmental consequences
caption_attribution_description: Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve, Singapore
context_page_description: The reclamation of land from surrounding waters is used in Singapore to expand the city-state's limited area of usable, natural land. Land reclamation is most simply done by adding material such as rocks, soil and cement to an area of water; alternatively submerged wetlands or similar biomes can be drained.
  In Singapore the former has been the most common method until recently, with sand the predominant material used. Due to a global shortage and restricted supply of the required type of sand, Singapore has switched to polders for reclamation since 2016 - a Netherlands method in which an area is surrounded by a dyke and pumped dry to reclaim the land.
  Land reclamation allows for increased development and urbanization, and in addition to Singapore has been similarly useful to Hong Kong and Macau. Each of these is a small coastal territory restrained by its geographical boundaries, and thus traditionally limited by the ocean's reach. The use of land reclamation allows these territories to expand outwards by recovering land from the sea. At just 719 km², the entire country of Singapore is smaller than New York City.
context_section_description: Singapore's industrialization (particularly in terms of coastal development) and land reclamation projects have resulted in the extensive loss of marine habitats along the city-state's shores. The majority of Singapore's southern coast has been altered through the process of land reclamation, as have large areas of the northeastern coast. Many offshore islands have been changed, often through the filling of waters between small islands in order to create cohesive landmasses.
  Such development has led to the loss of 95% of Singapore's mangroves. When Stamford Raffles arrived in Singapore in 1819, the land was largely mangrove swamp; today, mangrove cover accounts for less than 0.5% of Singapore's total land area. This loss has greatly diminished the beneficial effects of mangroves, which include protection against erosion and reduction in organic pollution, both of which serve to ameliorate coastal water quality.
  Singapore has also suffered an enormous loss in coral reefs as the result of extensive land and coastal development. Prior to the land reclamation of the last several decades, Singapore's coral reefs covered an estimated 100 km² (39 sq mi). By 2002, that number had dropped to 54 km² (21 sq mi). Estimates are that up to 60% of the habitat is no longer sustainable. Since coral reef monitoring was first instigated in the late 1980s, a clear overall decline in live coral cover has been noted, as has a decline in the depths at which corals thrive. Fortunately, though there have been limited extinctions of local species, overall coral reef diversity has not diminished: the main loss has instead been a general, relatively equal decrease in the population abundance of each species. Coral reefs are valued for their work towards carbon sequestration and shore protection (particularly in the dispersal of wave energy), as well as for their contributions to fisheries production, ecotourism, and scientific research.
  Singapore has also seen the negative effects of industrialization impact several other coastal and marine habitats, such as seagrass, seabed, and seashores, all of which have suffered loss or degradation similar to that of the mangroves and coral reefs.
  Though much harm has been done to Singapore's aquatic ecosystems as the result of land reclamation projects and expansive industrialization, there has been more of an effort in recent years to accommodate and restore damaged environments. Since the mid-1990s, more attention has been paid to environmental impact assessments (EIAs), which identify the potential ecological consequences of a given developmental venture as well as possible ways to lessen the environmental harm. In the development of the Semakau Landfill, for example, an extensive EIA was carried out after the project's commission in 1999. The assessment found that coral reefs and mangroves within the allotted 350 ha (860 acres) project would be harmed, and as a result plans were put in place to reforest the mangroves elsewhere, and sediment screens were installed to prevent silt from reaching reefs that would have otherwise been negatively affected. EIAs are not, however, required by any legislature, and thus are not mandatory for land reclamation projects. Yet the Singapore government has been increasingly open to public feedback regarding increased sustainability in future land projects.
  In terms of restoration efforts, nature activists and public authorities alike have been working more and more towards the strengthening of biotic communities. Though Singapore has seen the extinction of more than 28% of native flora and fauna, it has also witnessed the introduction of foreign flora and fauna to its ecosystems, increasing the country's biodiversity. Efforts towards the development of nature reserves have also helped to protect local wildlife, over half of which is now present only in such reserves.
caption: Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve, an important conservation area in Singapore.
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