ダプトマイシン

ダプトマイシン(Daptomycin, DPT)はリポペプチド系の抗菌薬のひとつ。 ほとんどの抗菌薬が効かないMRSA感染による皮膚軟部組識感染や敗血症、感染性心内膜炎などの治療薬として利用される。 ダプトマイシンは放線菌 Streptomyces roseosporus が生成する物質より発見された。 1980年代にイーライリリー社が発見した(LY146032)が、臨床試験で高用量投与時に筋炎などの副作用が発症したため、試験中止となっていた。 その後LY 146032の開発権利は1997年、Cubist Pharmaceuticalsに引き継がれ、2003年に18歳以上の患者に対しての適応がFDAで承認。アメリカ国内で販売された。その後キュビシン(Cubicin)という商品名でEUなどでも利用されている。 日本では2011年よりMSD（旧万有製薬）が販売している。 ダプトマイシンはグラム陽性菌の細胞膜にカルシウムイオン濃度依存的に結合し、細胞膜中で多量体（オリゴマー）を形成し、膜電位の脱分極を引き起こし、カリウムイオンを流出させる。その結果、蛋白質、DNA及びRNAの合成を阻害し、細胞融解を引き起こすことなく細菌を死滅させる。 耐性をもたらす伝達性因子は知られていない。また他の抗生物質・抗菌薬に対する交差耐性はみられていない。 ＜適応菌種＞ ダプトマイシンに感性のメチシリン耐性黄色ブドウ球菌（MRSA） ＜適応症＞ 敗血症、感染性心内膜炎、深在性皮膚感染症、外傷・熱傷及び手術創等の二次感染、びらん・潰瘍の二次感染 Daptomycin is bactericidal against Gram-positive bacteria only. It has proven in vitro activity against enterococci (including glycopeptide-resistant enterococci (GRE)), staphylococci (including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus), streptococci, corynebacteria and stationary-phase Borrelia burgdorferi persisters. Daptomycin resistance is still uncommon, but has been increasingly reported in GRE, starting in Korea in 2005, in Europe in 2010, in Taiwan 2011, and in the USA, where nine cases have been reported from 2007 to 2011. Daptomycin resistance emerged in five of the six cases while they were treated. The mechanism of resistance is unknown. Daptomycin is approved for use in adults in the United States for skin and skin structure infections caused by Gram-positive infections, S. aureus bacteraemia, and right-sided S. aureus endocarditis. It binds avidly to pulmonary surfactant, so cannot be used in the treatment of pneumonia. There seems to be a difference in working daptomycin on hematogenous pneumonia. Daptomycin has been shown to be non-inferior to standard therapies (nafcillin, oxacillin, flucloxacillin or vancomycin) in the treatment of bacteraemia and right-sided endocarditis caused by S. aureus. A study in Detroit, Michigan compared 53 patients treated for suspected MRSA skin or soft tissue infection with daptomycin against vancomycin, showing faster recovery (4 versus 7 days) with daptomycin. In phase III clinical trials, limited data showed daptomycin to be associated with poor outcomes in patients with left-sided endocarditis. It is inactivated by pulmonary surfactants and is not indicated for the treatment of pneumonia. Daptomycin has not been studied in patients with prosthetic valve endocarditis or meningitis. In skin and soft tissue infections, 4 mg/kg daptomycin is given intravenously once daily. For S. aureus bacteraemia or right-sided endocarditis, the approved dose is 6 mg/kg given intravenously once daily. Daptomycin is supplied as a sterile, preservative-free, pale yellow to light brown, lyophilised 500- or 350-mg cake that must be reconstituted with normal saline prior to use. Daptomycin is applicable as 30-min infusion or 2-min injection. Common adverse drug reactions associated with daptomycin therapy include: Cardiovascular: hypotension, hypertension, edema Central nervous system: insomnia Dermatological: rash Gastrointestinal: diarrhea, abdominal pain Hematological: eosinophilia Respiratory: dyspnea Other: injection site reactions, fever, hypersensitivity Also, myopathy and rhabdomyolysis have been reported in patients simultaneously taking statins, but whether this is due entirely to the statin or whether daptomycin potentiates this effect is unknown. Due to the limited data available, the manufacturer recommends that statins be temporarily discontinued while the patient is receiving daptomycin therapy. Creatine kinase levels are usually checked regularly while individuals undergo daptomycin therapy. In July 2010, the FDA issued a warning that daptomycin could cause life-threatening eosinophilic pneumonia. The FDA said it had identified seven confirmed cases of eosinophilic pneumonia between 2004 and 2010 and an additional 36 possible cases. The seven confirmed victims were all older than 60 and symptoms appeared within two weeks of initiation of therapy. Daptomycin is a cyclic lipopeptide antibiotic produced by Streptomyces roseosporus. Daptomycin consists of 13 amino acids, 10 of which are arranged in a cyclic fashion, and three on an exocyclic tail. Two nonproteinogenic amino acids exist in the lipopeptide, the unusual amino acid L-kynurenine (Kyn), only known to daptomycin, and L-3-methylglutamic acid (mGlu). The N-terminus of the exocyclic tryptophan residue is coupled to decanoic acid, a medium-chain (C10) fatty acid. Biosynthesis is initiated by the coupling of decanoic acid to the N-terminal tryptophan, followed by the coupling of the remaining amino acids by nonribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) mechanisms. Finally, a cyclization event occurs, which is catalyzed by a thioesterase enzyme, and subsequent release of the lipopeptide is granted. The NRPS responsible for the synthesis of daptomycin is encoded by three overlapping genes, dptA, dptBC and dptD. The dptE and dptF genes, immediately upstream of dptA, are likely to be involved in the initiation of daptomycin biosynthesis by coupling decanoic acid to the N-terminal Trp. These novel genes (dptE, dptF ) correspond to products that most likely work in conjunction with a unique condensation domain to acylate the first amino acid (tryptophan). These and other novel genes (dptI, dptJ) are believed to be involved in supplying the nonproteinogenic amino acids L-3-methylglutamic acid and Kyn; they are located next to the NRPS genes. The decanoic acid portion of daptomycin is synthesized by fatty acid synthase machinery (Figure 2). Post-translational modification of the apo-acyl carrier protein (ACP, thiolation, or T domain) by a phosphopantetheinyltransferase (PPTase) enzyme catalyzes the transfer of a flexible phosphopantetheine arm from coenzyme A to a conserved serine in the ACP domain through a phosphodiester linkage. The holo-ACP can provide a thiol on which the substrate and acyl chains are covalently bound during chain elongations. The two core catalytic domains are an acyltransferase (AT) and a ketosynthase (KS). The AT acts upon a malonyl-CoA substrate and transfers an acyl group to the thiol of the ACP domain. This net transthiolation is an energy-neutral step. Next, the acyl-S-ACP gets transthiolated to a conserved cysteine on the KS; the KS decarboxylates the downstream malonyl-S-ACP and forms a β-ketoacyl-S-ACP. This serves as the substrate for the next cycle of elongation. Before the next cycle begins, however, the β-keto group undergoes reduction to the corresponding alcohol catalyzed by a ketoreductase domain, followed by dehydration to the olefin catalyzed by a dehydratase domain, and finally reduction to the methylene catalyzed by an enoylreductase domain. Each KS catalytic cycle results in the net addition of two carbons. After three more iterations of elongation, a thioesterase enzyme catalyzes the hydrolysis, and thus release, of the free C-10 fatty acid. To synthesize the peptide portion of daptomycin, the mechanism of an NRPS is employed. The biosynthetic machinery of an NRPS system is composed of multimodular enzymatic assembly lines that contain one module for each amino acid monomer incorporated. Within each module are catalytic domains that carry out the elongation of the growing peptidyl chain. The growing peptide is covalently tethered to a thiolation domain; here it is termed the peptidyl carrier protein, as it carries the growing peptide from one catalytic domain to the next. Again, the apo-T domain must be primed to the holo-T domain by a PPTase, attaching a flexible phosphopantetheine arm to a conserved serine residue. An adenylation domain selects the amino acid monomer to be incorporated and activates the carboxylate with ATP to make the aminoacyl-AMP. Next, the A domain installs an aminoacyl group on the thiolate of the adjacent T domain. The condensation (C) domain catalyzes the peptide bond forming reaction, which elicits chain elongation. It joins an upstream peptidyl-S-T to the downstream aminoacyl-S-T (Figure 7). Chain elongation by one aminoacyl residue and chain translocation to the next T domain occurs in concert. The order of these domains is C-A-T. In some instances, an epimerization domain is necessary in those modules where L-amino acid monomers are to be incorporated and epimerized to D-amino acids. The domain organization in such modules is C-A-T-E. The first module has a three-domain C-A-T organization; these often occur in assembly lines that make N-acylated peptides. The first C domain catalyzes N-acylation of the initiating amino acid (tryptophan) while it is installed on T. An adenylating enzyme (Ad) catalyzes the condensation of decanoic acid and the N-terminal tryptophan, which incorporates decanoic acid into the growing peptide (Figure 3). The genes responsible for this coupling event are dptE and dptF, which are located upstream of dptA, the first gene of the Daptomycin NRPS biosynthetic gene cluster. Once the coupling of decanoic acid to the N-terminal tryptophan residue occurs, the condensation of amino acids begins, catalyzed by the NRPS. The first five modules of the NRPS are encoded by the dptA gene and catalyze the condensation of L-tryptophan, D-asparagine, L-aspartate, L-threonine, and glycine, respectively (Figure 4). Modules 6-11, which catalyze the condensation of L-ornithine, L-aspartate, D-alanine, L-aspartate, glycine, and D-serine are encoded for the dptBC gene (Figure 5). dptD catalyzes the incorporation of two nonproteinogenic amino acids, L-3-methylglutamic acid (mGlu) and Kyn, which is only known thus far to daptomycin, into the growing peptide (Figure 6). Elongation by these NRPS modules ultimately leads to macrocyclization and release in which an α-amino group, namely threonine, acts as an internal nucleophile during cyclization to yield the 10-amino-acid ring (Figure 6). The termination module in the NRPS assembly line has a C-A-T-TE organization. The thioesterase domain catalyzes chain termination and release of the mature lipopeptide. The molecular engineering of daptomycin, the only marketed acidic lipopeptide antibiotic to date (Figure 8), has seen many advances since its inception into clinical medicine in 2003. It is an attractive target for combinatorial biosynthesis for many reasons: second generation derivatives are currently in the clinic for development; Streptomyces roseosporus, the producer organism of daptomycin, is amenable to genetic manipulation; the daptomycin biosynthetic gene cluster has been cloned, sequenced, and expressed in S. lividans; the lipopeptide biosynthetic machinery has the potential to be interrupted by variations of natural precursors, as well as precursor-directed biosynthesis, gene deletion, genetic exchange, and module exchange; the molecular engineering tools have been developed to facilitate the expression of the three individual NRPS genes from three different sites in the chromosome, using ermEp* for expression of two genes from ectopic loci; other lipopeptide gene clusters, both related and unrelated to daptomycin, have been cloned and sequenced, thus providing genes and modules to allow the generation of hybrid molecules; derivatives can be afforded via chemoenzymatic synthesis; and lastly, efforts in medicinal chemistry are able to further modify these products of molecular engineering. New derivatives of daptomycin (Figure 9) were originally generated by exchanging the third NRPS subunit (dptD) with the terminal subunits from the A54145 (Factor B1) or calcium-dependent antibiotic pathways to create molecules containing Trp13, Ile13, or Val13. dptD is responsible for incorporating the penultimate amino acid, 3-methyl-glutamic acid (3mGlu12), and the last amino acid, Kyn13, into the chain. This exchange was achieved without engineering the interpeptide docking sites. These whole-subunit exchanges have been coupled with the deletion of the Glu12-methyltransferase gene, with module exchanges at intradomain linker sites at Ala8 and Ser11, and with variations of natural fatty-acid side chains to generate over 70 novel lipopeptides in significant quantities; most of these resultant lipopeptides have potent antibacterial activities. Some of these compounds have in vitro antibacterial activities analogous to daptomycin. Further, one displayed ameliorated activity against an E. coli imp mutant that was defective in its ability to assemble its inherent lipopolysaccharide. A number of these compounds were produced in yields that spanned from 100 to 250 mg/liter; this, of course, opens up the possibility for successful scale-ups by fermentation techniques. Only a small percentage of the possible combinations of amino acids within the peptide core have been investigated thus far. [脚注の使い方] ^ “Single-dose pharmacokinetics and antibacterial activity of daptomycin, a new lipopeptide antibiotic, in healthy volunteers”. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 36 (2): 318–25. (February 1992). doi:10.1128/aac.36.2.318. PMC 188435. PMID 1318678. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC188435/.  ^ Tally FP, DeBruin MF (October 2000). “Development of daptomycin for gram-positive infections”. J Antimicrob Chemother. 46 (4): 523–6. doi:10.1093/jac/46.4.523. PMID 11020247. http://jac.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=11020247.  ^ Charles PG, Grayson ML (November 2004). “The dearth of new antibiotic development: why we should be worried and what we can do about it”. Med J Aust. 181 (10): 549–53. PMID 15540967. http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/181_10_151104/cha10412_fm.html.  ^ Template:日経メディカル 2011年7月31日 ^ Pogliano J, Pogliano, N, Silverman, JA (September 2012). “Daptomycin-Mediated Reorganization of Membrane Architecture Causes Mislocalization of Essential Cell Division Proteins”. Journal of Bacteriology 194 (17): 4494–4504. doi:10.1128/JB.00011-12. PMID 22661688. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22661688.  ^ Daptomycin-Nonsusceptible Enterococcal Infections; Cleveland, Kerry O. MD; Gelfand, Michael S. MD; Infect Dis Clin Pract 2013;21: 79-84. ^ Baltz RH. (Apr 2009). “Daptomycin: mechanisms of action and resistance, and biosynthetic engineering.”. Current Opinion in Chemical Biology 13 (2): 144–151. doi:10.1016/j.cbpa.2009.02.031. PMID 19303806.  ^ Henken S, Bohling J (Feb 2010). “Efficacy Profiles of Daptomycin for Treatment of Invasive and Noninvasive Pulmonary Infections with Streptococcus pneumoniae”. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 54 (2): 707–717. doi:10.1128/AAC.00943-09. PMC 2812129. PMID 19917756. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2812129/.  ^ Fowler VG, Boucher HW, Corey GR (Aug 2006). “Daptomycin versus standard therapy for bacteremia and endocarditis caused by Staphylococcus aureus”. N Engl J Med 355 (7): 653–65. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa053783. PMID 16914701.  ^ Davis SL, McKinnon PS, Hall LM (2007). “Daptomycin versus vancomycin for complicated skin and skin structure infections: clinical and economic outcomes.”. Pharmacotherapy 27 (12): 1611–1618. doi:10.1592/phco.27.12.1611. PMID 18041881. http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/569439.  ^ Cubicin (daptomycin for injection) [homepage on the Internet]. ^ “www.accessdata.fda.gov”. 2015年9月11日閲覧。 ^ Daptomycin. ^ Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 63(6):1299-300, 2009 Jun. ^ a b c d Nguyen KT, Kau D, Gu JQ (September 2006). “A glutamic acid 3-methyltransferase encoded by an accessory gene locus important for daptomycin biosynthesis in Streptomyces roseosporus”. Mol Microbiol. 61 (5): 1294–307. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2958.2006.05305.x. PMID 16879412.  ^ Miao V, Coëffet-Legal MF, Brian P (May 2005). “Daptomycin biosynthesis in Streptomyces roseosporus: cloning and analysis of the gene cluster and revision of peptide stereochemistry”. Microbiology (Reading, Engl.) 151 (Pt 5): 1507–23. doi:10.1099/mic.0.27757-0. PMID 15870461.  ^ a b Steenbergen JN, Alder J, Thorne GM, Tally FP (March 2005). “Daptomycin: a lipopeptide antibiotic for the treatment of serious Gram-positive infections”. J Antimicrob. Chemother. 55 (3): 283–8. doi:10.1093/jac/dkh546. PMID 15705644.  ^ a b Mchenney MA, Hosted TJ, Dehoff BS, Rosteck PR, Baltz RH (1 January 1998). “Molecular cloning and physical mapping of the daptomycin gene cluster from Streptomyces roseosporus”. J Bacteriol. 180 (1): 143–51. PMC 106860. PMID 9422604. http://jb.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9422604.  ^ a b c d Fischbach MA, Walsh CT (August 2006). “Assembly-line enzymology for polyketide and nonribosomal Peptide antibiotics: logic, machinery, and mechanisms”. Chem Rev. 106 (8): 3468–96. doi:10.1021/cr0503097. PMID 16895337.  ^ Baltz RH (February 1998). “Genetic manipulation of antibiotic-producing Streptomyces”. Trends Microbiol. 6 (2): 76–83. doi:10.1016/S0966-842X(97)01161-X. PMID 9507643.  ^ a b c Baltz RH, Miao V, Wrigley SK (December 2005). “Natural products to drugs: daptomycin and related lipopeptide antibiotics”. Nat Prod Rep 22 (6): 717–41. doi:10.1039/b416648p. PMID 16311632.  ^ a b c Baltz RH, Brian P, Miao V, Wrigley SK (February 2006). “Combinatorial biosynthesis of lipopeptide antibiotics in Streptomyces roseosporus”. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol. 33 (2): 66–74. doi:10.1007/s10295-005-0030-y. PMID 16193281.  ^ Nguyen KT, Ritz D, Gu JQ (November 2006). “Combinatorial biosynthesis of novel antibiotics related to daptomycin”. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 103 (46): 17462–7. doi:10.1073/pnas.0608589103. PMC 1859951. PMID 17090667. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1859951/.  ^ Kopp F, Grünewald J, Mahlert C, Marahiel MA (September 2006). “Chemoenzymatic design of acidic lipopeptide hybrids: new insights into the structure-activity relationship of daptomycin and A54145”. Biochemistry 45 (35): 10474–81. doi:10.1021/bi0609422. PMID 16939199.  ^ a b Miao V, Coëffet-Le Gal MF, Nguyen K (March 2006). “Genetic engineering in Streptomyces roseosporus to produce hybrid lipopeptide antibiotics”. Chem Biol. 13 (3): 269–76. doi:10.1016/j.chembiol.2005.12.012. PMID 16638532.  ^ Baltz RH (December 2006). “Molecular engineering approaches to peptide, polyketide and other antibiotics”. Nat Biotechnol. 24 (12): 1533–40. doi:10.1038/nbt1265. PMID 17160059.