遠い未来のタイムライン

遠い未来のタイムライン（とおいみらいのタイムライン）では、現在から遠く離れた未来の出来事を時系列順に列挙する。 遠い未来に起こることを完全に予想することは出来ないが、様々な分野において、現在の知識に基づいて、大まかながら予測することは可能である。分野としては、惑星や星の形成・死を明らかにする天文学、最小スケールでの物質の挙動を記述する素粒子物理学、生命の進化を予想する進化生物学、数千年単位での大陸の動きを予想するプレートテクトニクスが挙げられる。 地球の将来、太陽系の将来、宇宙の将来は熱力学第二法則によって説明される。熱力学第二法則によれば、時間とともにエントロピーは増大し、仕事に変換可能である自由エネルギーは喪失していく。また、恒星は最終的には燃料である水素を使い果たしてしまい、天体間が接近すれば、そこで働く重力により惑星がその恒星系からはじき出されたり、恒星系が銀河からはじき出されたりといったことが起きる。 最終的に物質は放射性崩壊による影響を受け、最も安定した物質でさえ、亜原子粒子に分解されてしまう。現在のデータが示唆するところによれば、宇宙の形は平坦であり（もしくは非常に平坦に近く）、そのため有限の時間でビッグクランチが発生することはなく、無限の時間の中でボルツマン脳の形成のような到底起こり得ない事象が起きる可能性がある。 以下の年表では、11千年紀以降（西暦10001年以降）から、予測できる限りの未来までに生じる出来事について述べる。人類が絶滅するかどうか、陽子の崩壊が起きるかどうか、太陽が赤色巨星になった時の地球の運命などの未解決問題があるため、年表に挙げられた事象の中には互いに相反するものもある。 5つの探査機（ボイジャー1号・2号、パイオニア10号・11号、ニュー・ホライズンズ）は太陽系を離れ、局所恒星間雲に突入する。様々な物質の衝突による損傷や原子力電池の寿命を迎えるため、これらの探査機が以降も機能や形状を持続できるかどうかは不明である。 11千年紀以降（西暦10,001年）以降の天文学上極めて稀な出来事は以下の通りである。 宇宙の年表 宇宙における地球の位置 地球の未来 膨張する宇宙の未来 熱的死 人類の年表 生命の年表 宇宙の年表 10千年紀 1 E12 s 宇宙移民 [脚注の使い方] ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m この年数はこの出来事が最も起こりそうな時を記載している。この出来事は現代からランダムのタイミングで生じうる。 ^ この時までにおおよそ10万分の1の確率で、恒星の接近により地球が宇宙空間にはじき出され、300万分の1の確率で別の星系に属する事になる。もしこのようなことが起き、星間の旅を生き残る事が出来たなら、生命はより長く生き残れる可能性がある。 ^ これはかなり長い間奇問として扱われた。詳細は2001年のRybicki, K. R.とDenis, C.による論文を参照。しかし最新の計算によればかなり高い可能性で生じると予想されている。 ^ a b 264回の半減期を経て崩壊する。 ^ 10 10 26 {\displaystyle 10^{10^{26}}} は 1026 個0が付く。 ^ 手作業で計算された暦では1582年で10日ほどずれており、さらに400年毎に3日ずつさらにずれていく。ユリウス暦の西暦48900年3月1日とグレゴリオ暦の西暦48900年3月1日とはどちらも火曜日になる。 ^ Rescher, Nicholas (1998). Predicting the future: An introduction to the theory of forecasting. State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-3553-9  ^ Nave, C.R.. “Second Law of Thermodynamics”. Georgia State University. 3 December 2011閲覧。 ^ a b c d e Adams, Fred; Laughlin, Greg (1999). The Five Ages of the Universe. New York: The Free Press. ISBN 978-0-684-85422-9  ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Adams, Fred C.; Laughlin, Gregory (April 1997). “A dying universe: the long-term fate and evolution of astrophysical objects”. Reviews of Modern Physics 69 (2): 337–372. arXiv:astro-ph/9701131. Bibcode: 1997RvMP...69..337A. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.69.337.  ^ Komatsu, E.; Smith, K. M.; Dunkley, J. et al. (2011). “Seven-Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Cosmological Interpretation”. The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 192 (2): 18. arXiv:1001.4731. Bibcode: 2011ApJS..192...19W. doi:10.1088/0067-0049/192/2/18.  ^ a b c Linde, Andrei. (2007). “Sinks in the Landscape, Boltzmann Brains and the Cosmological Constant Problem”. Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics 2007 (1): 022. arXiv:hep-th/0611043. Bibcode: 2007JCAP...01..022L. doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2007/01/022.  ^ Mengel, M.; A. Levermann (4 May 2014). “Ice plug prevents irreversible discharge from East Antarctica”. Nature Climate Change 4 (6): 451–455. Bibcode: 2014NatCC...4..451M. doi:10.1038/nclimate2226. http://www.nature.com/nclimate/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nclimate2226.html.  ^ Hockey, T.; Trimble, V. (2010). “Public reaction to a V = -12.5 supernova”. The Observatory 130: 167. Bibcode: 2010Obs...130..167H.  ^ Schorghofer, Norbert (23 September 2008). “Temperature response of Mars to Milankovitch cycles”. Geophysical Research Letters 35 (18): L18201. Bibcode: 2008GeoRL..3518201S. doi:10.1029/2008GL034954. オリジナルの2009-09-19時点におけるアーカイブ。. https://web.archive.org/web/20090919133851/http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/~norb1/Papers/2008-milank.pdf.  ^ Beech, Martin (2009). Terraforming: The Creating of Habitable Worlds. Springer. pp. 138–142  ^ a b Matthews, R. A. J. (Spring 1994). “The Close Approach of Stars in the Solar Neighborhood”. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 35 (1): 1. Bibcode: 1994QJRAS..35....1M.  ^ Berger, A; Loutre, MF (2002). “Climate: an exceptionally long interglacial ahead?”. Science 297 (5585): 1287–8. doi:10.1126/science.1076120. PMID 12193773.  ^ “Niagara Falls Geology Facts & Figures”. Niagara Parks. 19 July 2011時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。29 April 2011閲覧。 ^ Bastedo, Jamie (1994). Shield Country: The Life and Times of the Oldest Piece of the Planet. Arctic Institute of North America of the University of Calgary. p. 202  ^ Finkleman, David; Allen, Steve; Seago, John; Seaman, Rob; Seidelmann, P. Kenneth (June 2011). "The Future of Time: UTC and the Leap Second". arXiv:1106.3141。 ^ Tapping, Ken (2005年). “The Unfixed Stars”. National Research Council Canada. 8 July 2011時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。29 December 2010閲覧。 ^ Monnier, J. D.; Tuthill, P.; Lopez, GB et al. (1999). “The Last Gasps of VY Canis Majoris: Aperture Synthesis and Adaptive Optics Imagery”. The Astrophysical Journal 512 (1): 351–361. arXiv:astro-ph/9810024. Bibcode: 1999ApJ...512..351M. doi:10.1086/306761.  ^ a b “Super-eruptions: Global effects and future threats”. The Geological Society. 25 May 2012閲覧。 ^ Schaetzl, Randall J.; Anderson, Sharon (2005). Soils: Genesis and Geomorphology. Cambridge University Press. p. 105  ^ David Archer (2009). The Long Thaw: How Humans Are Changing the Next 100,000 Years of Earth's Climate. Princeton University Press. p. 123. ISBN 978-0-691-13654-7  ^ “Frequently Asked Questions”. Hawai'i Volcanoes National Park (2011年). 22 October 2011閲覧。 ^ Tuthill, Peter; Monnier, John; Lawrance, Nicholas; Danchi, William; Owocki, Stan; Gayley, Kenneth (2008). “The Prototype Colliding-Wind Pinwheel WR 104”. The Astrophysical Journal 675 (1): 698–710. arXiv:0712.2111. Bibcode: 2008ApJ...675..698T. doi:10.1086/527286.  ^ Bostrom, Nick (March 2002). “Existential Risks: Analyzing Human Extinction Scenarios and Related Hazards”. Journal of Evolution and Technology 9 (1). http://www.nickbostrom.com/existential/risks.html 10 September 2012閲覧。.  ^ "Badlands National Park - Nature & Science - Geologic Formations". ^ Landstreet, John D. (2003). Physical Processes in the Solar System: An introduction to the physics of asteroids, comets, moons and planets. Keenan & Darlington. pp. 121  ^ “Sharpest Views of Betelgeuse Reveal How Supergiant Stars Lose Mass”. Press Releases. European Southern Observatory (29 July 2009). 6 September 2010閲覧。 ^ Sessions, Larry (29 July 2009). “Betelgeuse will explode someday”. EarthSky Communications, Inc. 16 November 2010閲覧。 ^ a b “Uranus's colliding moons”. astronomy.com (2017年). 2017年9月23日閲覧。 ^ Filip Berski and Piotr A. Dybczyński (25 October 2016). “Gliese 710 will pass the Sun even closer”. Astronomy and Astrophysics 595 (L10). Bibcode: 2016A&A...595L..10B. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201629835.  ^ Goldstein, Natalie (2009). Global Warming. Infobase Publishing. p. 53. "The last time acidification on this scale occurred (about 65 mya) it took more than 2 million years for corals and other marine organisms to recover; some scientists today believe, optimistically, that it could take tens of thousands of years for the ocean to regain the chemistry it had in preindustrial times."  ^ "Grand Canyon - Geology - A dynamic place". Views of the National Parks. National Park Service. ^ Horner, J.; Evans, N.W.; Bailey, M. E. (2004). “Simulations of the Population of Centaurs I: The Bulk Statistics”. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 354 (3): 798–810. arXiv:astro-ph/0407400. Bibcode: 2004MNRAS.354..798H. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.08240.x.  ^ Haddok, Eitan (29 September 2008). “Birth of an Ocean: The Evolution of Ethiopia's Afar Depression”. Scientific American. 27 December 2010閲覧。 ^ Kirchner, James W.; Weil, Anne (9 March 2000). “Delayed biological recovery from extinctions throughout the fossil record”. Nature 404 (6774): 177–180. Bibcode: 2000Natur.404..177K. doi:10.1038/35004564. PMID 10724168. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v404/n6774/abs/404177a0.html.  ^ Wilson, Edward O. (1999). The Diversity of Life. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 216  ^ Bills, Bruce G.; Gregory A. Neumann; David E. Smith; Maria T. Zuber (2005). “Improved estimate of tidal dissipation within Mars from MOLA observations of the shadow of Phobos”. Journal of Geophysical Research 110 (E07004). Bibcode: 2005JGRE..110.7004B. doi:10.1029/2004je002376. http://www-geodyn.mit.edu/bills_phobos05.pdf.  ^ Garrison, Tom (2009). Essentials of Oceanography (5 ed.). Brooks/Cole. p. 62  ^ “Continents in Collision: Pangea Ultima”. NASA (2000年). 29 December 2010閲覧。 ^ "Geology". Encyclopedia of Appalachia. University of Tennessee Press. 2011. ^ Hancock, Gregory; Kirwan, Matthew (January 2007). “Summit erosion rates deduced from 10Be: Implications for relief production in the central Appalachians”. Geology 35 (1): 89. Bibcode: 2007Geo....35...89H. doi:10.1130/g23147a.1. http://pages.geo.wvu.edu/~kite/HancockKirwan2007SummitErosion.pdf.  ^ Yorath, C. J. (1995). Of rocks, mountains and Jasper: a visitor's guide to the geology of Jasper National Park. Dundurn Press. p. 30  ^ Dethier, David P.; Ouimet, W.; Bierman, P. R.; Rood, D. H. et al. (2014). “Basins and bedrock: Spatial variation in 10Be erosion rates and increasing relief in the southern Rocky Mountains, USA”. Geology 42 (2): 167–170. Bibcode: 2014Geo....42..167D. doi:10.1130/G34922.1. http://noblegas.berkeley.edu/~balcs/pubs/Dethier_2014_Geology.pdf.  ^ Patzek, Tad W. (2008). “Can the Earth Deliver the Biomass-for-Fuel we Demand?”. In Pimentel, David. Biofuels, Solar and Wind as Renewable Energy Systems: Benefits and Risks. Springer  ^ Perlman, David (14 October 2006). “Kiss that Hawaiian timeshare goodbye / Islands will sink in 80 million years”. San Francisco Chronicle. http://www.sfgate.com/news/article/Kiss-that-Hawaiian-timeshare-goodbye-Islands-2468202.php  ^ Nelson, Stephen A.. “Meteorites, Impacts, and Mass Extinction”. Tulane University. 13 January 2011閲覧。 ^ Lang, Kenneth R. (2003). The Cambridge Guide to the Solar System. Cambridge University Press. pp. 328–329  ^ Jillian Scudder. “How Long Until The Moon Slows The Earth To A 25 Hour Day?”. Forbes. 30 May 2017閲覧。 ^ Hayes, Wayne B. (2007). “Is the Outer Solar System Chaotic?”. Nature Physics 3 (10): 689–691. arXiv:astro-ph/0702179. Bibcode: 2007NatPh...3..689H. doi:10.1038/nphys728.  ^ Leong, Stacy (2002年). “Period of the Sun's Orbit Around the Galaxy (Cosmic Year)”. The Physics Factbook. 2 April 2007閲覧。 ^ Scotese, Christopher R.. “Pangea Ultima will form 250 million years in the Future”. Paleomap Project. 13 March 2006閲覧。 ^ a b Williams, Caroline; Nield, Ted (20 October 2007). “Pangaea, the comeback”. New Scientist. オリジナルの13 April 2008時点におけるアーカイブ。. https://web.archive.org/web/20080413162401/http://www.science.org.au/nova/newscientist/104ns_011.htm 2 January 2014閲覧。  ^ Minard, Anne (2009年). “Gamma-Ray Burst Caused Mass Extinction?”. National Geographic News. 2012年8月27日閲覧。 ^ “Questions Frequently Asked by the Public About Eclipses”. NASA. 12 March 2010時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。7 March 2010閲覧。 ^ a b O'Malley-James, Jack T.; Greaves, Jane S.; Raven, John A.; Cockell, Charles S. (2012). “Swansong Biospheres: Refuges for life and novel microbial biospheres on terrestrial planets near the end of their habitable lifetimes”. International Journal of Astrobiology 12 (2): 99–112. arXiv:1210.5721. Bibcode: 2013IJAsB..12...99O. doi:10.1017/S147355041200047X.  ^ a b Heath, Martin J.; Doyle, Laurance R. (2009). "Circumstellar Habitable Zones to Ecodynamic Domains: A Preliminary Review and Suggested Future Directions". arXiv:0912.2482。 ^ a b c Franck, S.; Bounama, C.; Von Bloh, W. (November 2005). “Causes and timing of future biosphere extinction”. Biogeosciences Discussions 2 (6): 1665–1679. Bibcode: 2005BGD.....2.1665F. doi:10.5194/bgd-2-1665-2005. http://biogeosciences-discuss.net/2/1665/2005/bgd-2-1665-2005.pdf 19 October 2011閲覧。.  ^ Schröder, K.-P.; Connon Smith, Robert (1 May 2008). “Distant future of the Sun and Earth revisited”. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 386 (1): 155–163. arXiv:0801.4031. Bibcode: 2008MNRAS.386..155S. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13022.x.  ^ Brownlee, Donald E. (2010). “Planetary habitability on astronomical time scales”. In Schrijver, Carolus J.; Siscoe, George L.. Heliophysics: Evolving Solar Activity and the Climates of Space and Earth. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-11294-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=M8NwTYEl0ngC&pg=PA79  ^ Li King-Fai; Pahlevan, Kaveh; Kirschvink, Joseph L.; Yung, Luk L. (2009). “Atmospheric pressure as a natural climate regulator for a terrestrial planet with a biosphere”. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 106 (24): 9576–9. Bibcode: 2009PNAS..106.9576L. doi:10.1073/pnas.0809436106. PMC 2701016. PMID 19487662. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2701016/.  ^ a b Kargel, Jeffrey Stuart (2004). Mars: A Warmer, Wetter Planet. Springer. p. 509. ISBN 978-1-85233-568-7. https://books.google.com/?id=0QY0U6qJKFUC&pg=PA509&lpg=PA509&dq=mars+future+%22billion+years%22+sun 29 October 2007閲覧。  ^ Waszek, Lauren; Irving, Jessica; Deuss, Arwen (20 February 2011). “Reconciling the Hemispherical Structure of Earth's Inner Core With its Super-Rotation”. Nature Geoscience 4 (4): 264–267. Bibcode: 2011NatGe...4..264W. doi:10.1038/ngeo1083.  ^ McDonough, W. F. (2004). “Compositional Model for the Earth's Core”. Treatise on Geochemistry 2: 547–568. Bibcode: 2003TrGeo...2..547M. doi:10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/02015-6. ISBN 978-0-08-043751-4.  ^ Luhmann, J. G.; Johnson, R. E.; Zhang, M. H. G. (1992). “Evolutionary impact of sputtering of the Martian atmosphere by O+ pickup ions”. Geophysical Research Letters 19 (21): 2151–2154. Bibcode: 1992GeoRL..19.2151L. doi:10.1029/92GL02485.  ^ Quirin Shlermeler (3 March 2005). “Solar wind hammers the ozone layer”. News@nature. doi:10.1038/news050228-12.  ^ Adams, Fred C. (2008). “Long-term astrophysicial processes”. In Bostrom, Nick; Cirkovic, Milan M.. Global Catastrophic Risks. Oxford University Press. pp. 33–47  ^ Neron de Surgey, O.; Laskar, J. (1996). “On the Long Term Evolution of the Spin of the Earth”. Astronomy and Astrophysics 318: 975. Bibcode: 1997A&A...318..975N.  ^ “Study: Earth May Collide With Another Planet”. Fox News. (11 June 2009). http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,525706,00.html 8 September 2011閲覧。  ^ Guinan, E. F.; Ribas, I. (2002), “Our Changing Sun: The Role of Solar Nuclear Evolution and Magnetic Activity on Earth's Atmosphere and Climate”, in Montesinos, Benjamin; Gimenez, Alvaro; Guinan, Edward F., ASP Conference Proceedings, The Evolving Sun and its Influence on Planetary Environments, Astronomical Society of the Pacific, pp. 85–106, Bibcode: 2002ASPC..269...85G  ^ Li, King-Fai; Pahlevan, Kaveh; Kirschvink, Joseph L.; Yung, Yuk L. (June 16, 2009), “Atmospheric pressure as a natural climate regulator for a terrestrial planet with a biosphere”, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 106 (24): 9576–9579, Bibcode: 2009PNAS..106.9576L, doi:10.1073/pnas.0809436106, PMC 2701016, PMID 19487662, http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2701016  ^ Brownlee 2010, p. 95. ^ Kasting, J. F. (June 1988), “Runaway and moist greenhouse atmospheres and the evolution of earth and Venus”, Icarus 74 (3): 472–494, Bibcode: 1988Icar...74..472K, doi:10.1016/0019-1035(88)90116-9, PMID 11538226  ^ Hecht, Jeff (2 April 1994). “Science: Fiery Future for Planet Earth”. New Scientist (1919): p. 14. https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg14219191.900-science-fiery-future-for-planet-earth-.html 29 October 2007閲覧。  ^ Chyba, C. F.; Jankowski, D. G.; Nicholson, P. D. (1989). “Tidal Evolution in the Neptune-Triton System”. Astronomy and Astrophysics 219: 23. Bibcode: 1989A&A...219L..23C.  ^ Cox, J. T.; Loeb, Abraham (2007). “The Collision Between The Milky Way And Andromeda”. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 386 (1): 461–474. arXiv:0705.1170. Bibcode: 2008MNRAS.tmp..333C. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13048.x.  ^ NASA (2012年5月31日). “NASA's Hubble Shows Milky Way is Destined for Head-On Collision”. NASA. 2012年10月13日閲覧。 ^ Dowd, Maureen (29 May 2012). “Andromeda Is Coming!”. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/30/opinion/dowd-andromeda-is-coming.html 9 January 2014閲覧. "[NASA's David Morrison] explained that the Andromeda-Milky Way collision would just be two great big fuzzy balls of stars and mostly empty space passing through each other harmlessly over the course of millions of years."  ^ Braine, J.; Lisenfeld, U.; Duc, P. A. et al. (2004). “Colliding molecular clouds in head-on galaxy collisions”. Astronomy and Astrophysics 418 (2): 419-428. arXiv:astro-ph/0402148. Bibcode: 2004A&A...418..419B. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20035732. https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361:20035732 2 April 2008閲覧。.  ^ a b c Schroder, K. P.; Connon Smith, Robert (2008). “Distant Future of the Sun and Earth Revisited”. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 386 (1): 155–163. arXiv:0801.4031. Bibcode: 2008MNRAS.386..155S. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13022.x.  ^ Powell, David (January 22, 2007), “Earth's Moon Destined to Disintegrate”, Space.com (Tech Media Network), http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/070122_temporary_moon.html 2010年6月1日閲覧。.  ^ Balick, Bruce. “Planetary Nebulae and the Future of the Solar System”. University of Washington. 23 June 2006閲覧。 ^ Kalirai, Jasonjot S. et al. (March 2008). “The Initial-Final Mass Relation: Direct Constraints at the Low-Mass End”. The Astrophysical Journal 676 (1): 594–609. arXiv:0706.3894. Bibcode: 2008ApJ...676..594K. doi:10.1086/527028.  ^ “Universe May End in a Big Rip”. CERN Courier (1 May 2003). 22 July 2011閲覧。 ^ Vikhlinin, A.; Kravtsov, A.V.; Burenin, R.A. et al. (2009). “Chandra Cluster Cosmology Project III: Cosmological Parameter Constraints”. The Astrophysical Journal (Astrophysical Journal) 692 (2): 1060–1074. arXiv:0812.2720. Bibcode: 2009ApJ...692.1060V. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/692/2/1060.  ^ Murray, C.D.; Dermott, S.F. (1999). Solar System Dynamics. Cambridge University Press. p. 184. ISBN 978-0-521-57295-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=aU6vcy5L8GAC&pg=PA184#v=onepage&q&f=false  ^ Dickinson, Terence (1993). From the Big Bang to Planet X. Camden East, Ontario: Camden House. pp. 79–81. ISBN 978-0-921820-71-0  ^ Canup, Robin M.; Righter, Kevin (2000). Origin of the Earth and Moon. The University of Arizona space science series. 30. University of Arizona Press. pp. 176–177. ISBN 978-0-8165-2073-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=8i44zjcKm4EC&pg=PA176  ^ a b Loeb, Abraham (2011). “Cosmology with Hypervelocity Stars”. Harvard University 2011: 023. arXiv:1102.0007. Bibcode: 2011JCAP...04..023L. doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2011/04/023.  ^ Chown, Marcus (1996). Afterglow of Creation. University Science Books. p. 210  ^ “The Local Group of Galaxies”. University of Arizona. Students for the Exploration and Development of Space. 2 October 2009閲覧。 ^ Adams, F. C.; Graves, G. J. M.; Laughlin, G. (December 2004). García-Segura, G.; Tenorio-Tagle, G.; Franco, J. et al.. eds. “Gravitational Collapse: From Massive Stars to Planets. / First Astrophysics meeting of the Observatorio Astronomico Nacional. / A meeting to celebrate Peter Bodenheimer for his outstanding contributions to Astrophysics: Red Dwarfs and the End of the Main Sequence”. Revista Mexicana de Astronomía y Astrofísica (Serie de Conferencias) 22: 46–49. Bibcode: 2004RMxAC..22...46A.  See Fig. 3. ^ Fred C. Adams; Gregory Laughlin; Genevieve J. M. Graves (2004). “RED Dwarfs and the End of The Main Sequence”. RevMexAA (Serie de Conferencias) 22: 46–49. http://www.astroscu.unam.mx/rmaa/RMxAC..22/PDF/RMxAC..22_adams.pdf.  ^ “Why the Smallest Stars Stay Small”. Sky & Telescope (22). (November 1997).  ^ Adams, F. C.; P. Bodenheimer; G. Laughlin (2005). “M dwarfs: planet formation and long term evolution”. Astronomische Nachrichten 326 (10): 913–919. Bibcode: 2005AN....326..913A. doi:10.1002/asna.200510440.  ^ Tayler, Roger John (1993). Galaxies, Structure and Evolution (2 ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 92. ISBN 978-0-521-36710-3  ^ Barrow, John D.; Tipler, Frank J. (19 May 1988). The Anthropic Cosmological Principle. foreword by John A. Wheeler. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-282147-8. LC 87-28148. https://books.google.com/books?id=uSykSbXklWEC&printsec=frontcover 31 December 2009閲覧。  ^ Adams, Fred; Laughlin, Greg (1999). The Five Ages of the Universe. New York: The Free Press. pp. 85–87. ISBN 978-0-684-85422-9  ^ a b c d e f Dyson, Freeman J. (1979). “Time Without End: Physics and Biology in an Open Universe”. Reviews of Modern Physics 51 (3): 447–460. Bibcode: 1979RvMP...51..447D. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.51.447. http://www.aleph.se/Trans/Global/Omega/dyson.txt 5 July 2008閲覧。.  ^ a b Tyson, Neil de Grasse; Tsun-Chu Liu, Charles; Irion, Robert (2000). One Universe: At Home in the Cosmos. Joseph Henry Press. ISBN 978-0-309-06488-0. http://www.nap.edu/jhp/oneuniverse/frontiers_solution_17.html  ^ a b c Page, Don N. (1976). “Particle Emission Rates from a Black Hole: Massless Particles from an Uncharged, Nonrotating Hole”. Physical Review D 13 (2): 198–206. Bibcode: 1976PhRvD..13..198P. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.13.198.  See in particular equation (27). ^ Carroll, Sean M.; Chen, Jennifer (27 October 2004). "Spontaneous Inflation and the Origin of the Arrow of Time". arXiv:hep-th/0410270。 ^ M. Douglas, "The statistics of string / M theory vacua", JHEP 0305, 46 (21 March 2003). arXiv:hep-th/0303194; S. Ashok and M. Douglas, "Counting flux vacua", JHEP 0401, 060 (2004). ^ Tegmark, M (7 February 2003). “Parallel universes. Not just a staple of science fiction, other universes are a direct implication of cosmological observations”. Sci. Am. 288 (5): 40–51. arXiv:astro-ph/0302131. Bibcode: 2003SciAm.288e..40T. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0503-40. PMID 12701329.  ^ Max Tegmark (7 February 2003). “Parallel Universes”. In "Science and Ultimate Reality: from Quantum to Cosmos", honoring John Wheeler's 90th birthday. J. D. Barrow, P.C.W. Davies, & C.L. Harper eds. (Cambridge University Press) 288: 40–51. arXiv:astro-ph/0302131. Bibcode: 2003SciAm.288e..40T. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0503-40. PMID 12701329.  ^ Smith, Cameron; Davies, Evan T. (2012). Emigrating Beyond Earth: Human Adaptation and Space Colonization. Springer. p. 258  ^ Klein, Jan; Takahata, Naoyuki (2002). Where Do We Come From?: The Molecular Evidence for Human Descent. Springer. p. 395  ^ Carter, Brandon; McCrea, W. H. (1983). “The anthropic principle and its implications for biological evolution”. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London A310 (1512): 347–363. Bibcode: 1983RSPTA.310..347C. doi:10.1098/rsta.1983.0096.  ^ Greenberg, Joseph (1987). Language in the Americas. Stanford University Press. pp. 341–342  ^ McKay, Christopher P.; Toon, Owen B.; Kasting, James F. (8 August 1991). “Making Mars habitable”. Nature 352 (6335): 489–496. Bibcode: 1991Natur.352..489M. doi:10.1038/352489a0.  ^ Kaku, Michio (2010年). “The Physics of Interstellar Travel: To one day, reach the stars”. mkaku.org. 29 August 2010閲覧。 ^ Avise, John; D. Walker; G. C. Johns (1998-09-22). “Speciation durations and Pleistocene effects on vertebrate phylogeography”. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 265 (1407): 1707–1712. doi:10.1098/rspb.1998.0492. PMC 1689361. PMID 9787467. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1689361/bin/9787467s1.pdf.  ^ Valentine, James W. (1985). “The Origins of Evolutionary Novelty And Galactic Colonization”. In Finney, Ben R.; Jones, Eric M.. Interstellar Migration and the Human Experience. University of California Press. p. 274  ^ J. Richard Gott, III (1993). “Implications of the Copernican principle for our future prospects”. Nature 363 (6427): 315–319. Bibcode: 1993Natur.363..315G. doi:10.1038/363315a0.  ^ Crawford, I. A. (July 2000). “Where are They? Maybe we are alone in the galaxy after all”. Scientific American. 20 July 2012閲覧。 ^ Bignami, Giovanni F.; Sommariva, Andrea (2013). A Scenario for Interstellar Exploration and Its Financing. Springer. p. 23  ^ Korycansky, D. G.; Laughlin, Gregory; Adams, Fred C. (2001). “Astronomical engineering: a strategy for modifying planetary orbits”. Astrophysics and Space Science 275: 349–366. doi:10.1023/A:1002790227314. Astrophys.Space Sci.275:349-366,2001.  ^ Korycansky, D. G. (2004). “Astroengineering, or how to save the Earth in only one billion years”. Revista Mexicana de Astronomía y Astrofísica 22: 117–120. http://www.astroscu.unam.mx/rmaa/RMxAC..22/PDF/RMxAC..22_korycansky.pdf.  ^ “Hurtling Through the Void”. Time. (20 June 1983). http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,926062,00.html 5 September 2011閲覧。  ^ Glancey, Jonathan (2015-10-01). Concorde: The Rise and Fall of the Supersonic Airliner. Atlantic Books, Limited. ISBN 9781782391081. https://books.google.com/books?id=xJnlCQAAQBAJ&pg=PT211&lpg=PT211&dq=pioneer+10+barnard%27s+star&source=bl&ots=BA_LsJasQw&sig=3hJPNAfkb7TRMNPZ0DzYr3s6_rE&hl=pt-BR&sa=X&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAmoVChMI7Y7j4fOVyAIVSoGQCh0roQK9#v=onepage&q=pioneer%2010%20barnard's%20star&f=false  ^ “Cornell News: "It's the 25th Anniversary of Earth's First (and only) Attempt to Phone E.T."”. Cornell University (12 November 1999). 2 August 2008時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。29 March 2008閲覧。 ^ Dave Deamer. “In regard to the email from”. Science 2.0. 2014年11月14日閲覧。 ^ “Pioneer 10 Spacecraft Nears 25TH Anniversary, End of Mission”. nasa.gov. 2013年12月22日閲覧。 ^ “SPACE FLIGHT 2003 – United States Space Activities”. nasa.gov. 2013年12月22日閲覧。 ^ a b “Voyager: The Interstellar Mission”. NASA. 5 September 2011閲覧。 ^ “KEO FAQ”. keo.org. 14 October 2011閲覧。 ^ Lasher, Lawrence. "Pioneer Mission Status". NASA. Archived from the original on 8 April 2000. [Pioneer's speed is] about 12 km/s... [the plate etching] should survive recognizable at least to a distance ~ 10 parsecs, and most probably to 100 parsecs. ^ a b “The Pioneer Missions”. NASA. 5 September 2011閲覧。 ^ “LAGEOS 1, 2”. NASA. 21 July 2012閲覧。 ^ Jad Abumrad and Robert Krulwich (12 February 2010). Carl Sagan And Ann Druyan's Ultimate Mix Tape (Radio). National Public Radio. ^ “The Long Now Foundation”. The Long Now Foundation (2011年). 21 September 2011閲覧。 ^ “A Visit To The Doomsday Vault”. CBS News. (20 March 2008). https://www.cbsnews.com/news/a-visit-to-the-doomsday-vault/  ^ a b "Memory of Mankind". Archived from the original on 23 January 2015. ^ Begtrup, G. E.; Gannett, W.; Yuzvinsky, T. D.; Crespi, V. H. et al. (13 May 2009). “Nanoscale Reversible Mass Transport for Archival Memory”. Nano Letters 9 (5): 1835–1838. Bibcode: 2009NanoL...9.1835B. doi:10.1021/nl803800c. PMID 19400579. オリジナルの22 June 2010時点におけるアーカイブ。. https://web.archive.org/web/20100622232231/http://www.physics.berkeley.edu/research/zettl/pdf/363.NanoLet.9-Begtrup.pdf.  ^ Zhang, J.; Gecevičius, M.; Beresna, M.; Kazansky, P. G. (2014). “Seemingly unlimited lifetime data storage in nanostructured glass”. Phys. Rev. Lett. 112: 033901. Bibcode: 2014PhRvL.112c3901Z. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.112.033901. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jingyu_Zhang9/publication/260004721_Seemingly_Unlimited_Lifetime_Data_Storage_in_Nanostructured_Glass/links/00b4952fe470008630000000.pdf.  ^ Zhang, J.; Gecevičius, M.; Beresna, M.; Kazansky, P. G. (June 2013). “5D Data Storage by Ultrafast Laser Nanostructuring in Glass”. CLEO: Science and Innovations (Optical Society of America): CTh5D-9. オリジナルの6 September 2014時点におけるアーカイブ。. https://web.archive.org/web/20140906152109/http://www.orc.soton.ac.uk/fileadmin/downloads/5D_Data_Storage_by_Ultrafast_Laser_Nanostructuring_in_Glass.pdf.  ^ “Tetrafluoromethane”. Toxicology Data Network (TOXNET). United States National Library of Medicine. 4 September 2014閲覧。 ^ "Time it takes for garbage to decompose in the environment" (PDF). New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services. ^ Lyle, Paul (2010). Between Rocks And Hard Places: Discovering Ireland's Northern Landscapes. Geological Survey of Northern Ireland  ^ Weisman, Alan (2007-07-10), The World Without Us, New York: Thomas Dunne Books/St. Martin's Press, pp. 171–172, ISBN 0-312-34729-4, OCLC 122261590  ^ "Apollo 11 -- First Footprint on the Moon". Student Features. NASA. ^ Meadows, A. J. (2007). The Future of the Universe. Springer. pp. 81–83  ^ Weisman, Alan (2007-07-10), The World Without Us, New York: Thomas Dunne Books/St. Martin's Press, p. 182, ISBN 0-312-34729-4, OCLC 122261590  ^ Zalasiewicz, Jan (2008-09-25), The Earth After Us: What legacy will humans leave in the rocks?, Oxford University Press , Review in Stanford Archaeolog ^ a b c d e f g h i Meeus, J.; Vitagliano, A. (2004). “Simultaneous Transits”. Journal of the British Astronomical Association 114 (3). http://www.solexorb.it/SolexOld/Simtrans.pdf 2 August 2016閲覧。.  ^ “Why is Polaris the North Star?”. NASA. 25 July 2011時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。10 April 2011閲覧。 ^ a b Plait, Phil (2002). Bad Astronomy: Misconceptions and Misuses Revealed, from Astrology to the Moon Landing "Hoax". John Wiley and Sons. pp. 55–56  ^ Falkner, David E. (2011). The Mythology of the Night Sky. Springer. p. 116  ^ Calculation by the Stellarium application version 0.10.2, http://www.stellarium.org 2009年7月28日閲覧。  ^ Kieron Taylor (1 March 1994). “Precession”. Sheffield Astronomical Society. 2013年8月6日閲覧。 ^ Falkner, David E. (2011). The Mythology of the Night Sky. Springer. p. 102  ^ Komzsik, Louis (2010). Wheels in the Sky: Keep on Turning. Trafford Publishing. p. 140  ^ Laskar, J. et al. (1993). “Orbital, Precessional, and Insolation Quantities for the Earth From ?20 Myr to +10 Myr”. Astronomy and Astrophysics 270: 522–533. Bibcode: 1993A&A...270..522L.  ^ Laskar. “Astronomical Solutions for Earth Paleoclimates”. Institut de mécanique céleste et de calcul des éphémérides. 20 July 2012閲覧。 ^ Aldo Vitagliano (2011年). “The Solex page”. University degli Studi di Napoli Federico II. 29 April 2009時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。20 July 2012閲覧。 ^ James, N.D (1998). “Comet C/1996 B2 (Hyakutake): The Great Comet of 1996”. Journal of the British Astronomical Association 108: 157. Bibcode: 1998JBAA..108..157J.  ^ Horizons output. “Barycentric Osculating Orbital Elements for Comet C/1999 F1 (Catalina)”. 2011年3月7日閲覧。 ^ Borkowski, K.M. (1991). “The Tropical Calendar and Solar Year”. J. Royal Astronomical Soc. of Canada 85 (3): 121–130. Bibcode: 1991JRASC..85..121B.  ^ Bromberg, Irv. "The Rectified Hebrew Calendar". ^ Strous, Louis (2010年). “Astronomy Answers: Modern Calendars”. University of Utrecht. 14 September 2011閲覧。 ^ Richards, Edward Graham (1998). Mapping time: the calendar and its history. Oxford University Press. p. 93  ^ “Julian Date Converter”. US Naval Observatory. 20 July 2012閲覧。 ^ "Permanent Markers Implementation Plan"(PDF). United States Department of Energy. August 30, 2004. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 September 2006. ^ Time: Disasters that Shook the World. New York City: Time Home Entertainment. (2012). ISBN 1-60320-247-1  ^ a b Fetter, Steve (March 2009). “How long will the world's uranium supplies last?”. http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-long-will-global-uranium-deposits-last/  ^ Biello, David (January 28, 2009). "Spent Nuclear Fuel: A Trash Heap Deadly for 250,000 Years or a Renewable Energy Source?". Scientific American. ^ a b Ongena, J; G. Van Oost. “Energy for future centuries - Will fusion be an inexhaustible, safe and clean energy source?”. Fusion Science and Technology. 2004 45 (2T): 3–14. http://www.euro-fusionscipub.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/EFDR00001.pdf.  ^ Cohen, Bernard L. (January 1983). “Breeder Reactors: A Renewable Energy Source”. American Journal of Physics 51 (1): 75. Bibcode: 2005BGD.....2.1665F. doi:10.1119/1.13440. http://large.stanford.edu/publications/coal/references/docs/pad11983cohen.pdf.  Adams, Fred C. (2008), “Long term astrophysical processes”, in Bostrom, Nick; Ćirković, Milan M., Global catastrophic risks, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-857050-3, https://books.google.com/books?id=-Jxc88RuJhgC&pg=PA33.  Brownlee, Donald E. (2010), “Planetary habitability on astronomical time scales”, in Schrijver, Carolus J.; Siscoe, George L., Heliophysics: Evolving Solar Activity and the Climates of Space and Earth, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-11294-X, https://books.google.com/books?id=M8NwTYEl0ngC&pg=PA79.