商業乗員輸送計画

商業乗員輸送計画（しょうぎょうじょういんゆそうけいかく、Commercial Crew Program, CCP）は、国際宇宙ステーションへの長期滞在の間でクルーの入れ替えを行うために、商業的に運用される国際宇宙ステーション（ISS）と地上との間の乗員輸送サービス。アメリカの航空宇宙メーカー（英語版）であるスペースXがクルードラゴン宇宙船を用いて2020年にサービスの提供を開始し、NASAは2025年以降にボーイング スターライナー宇宙船が運用状態になればボーイングも加わることを計画している。NASAはボーイングと6件、スペースXと14件の運用ミッションを契約しており、2030年までISSへの十分なサポートを確保している 。 宇宙機は供給業者が所有及び運用を行い、乗員の輸送は商業サービスとしてNASAに提供される。各ミッションではISSに4名の宇宙飛行士を送り届ける。運用飛行は約6か月ごとに終了するミッションに合わせて約6か月に1回実行される。宇宙機はミッションの間はISSにドッキングし続けるとともに、通常はミッション間に数日の重複期間がある。2011年のスペースシャトルの退役から、2020年の最初のCPPミッションまでの間、NASAはISSへの宇宙飛行士の輸送をソユーズに頼っていた。 クルードラゴン宇宙船はファルコン9ブロック5に搭載されて打ち上げられ、カプセルの帰還時はフロリダ近くの洋上に着水する。この計画の最初の実運用ミッションであるスペースX Crew-1は2020年に11月16日に打ち上げられた。スターライナー宇宙船は最終試験飛行後に、アトラスV N22ロケットに搭載されて使用される予定である。スターライナーは着水するのではなく、アメリカ合衆国西部の8か所の指定された着陸地にエアバッグを用いて着陸することになっている。 商業乗員輸送開発は、NASAがISSの乗員のローテーションのための有人宇宙船を内部での開発から民間企業によるISSへの輸送の開発に切り替えたことから2011年に開始された。その後2年間にわたる一連の公開コンペでは、ISSの乗組員輸送宇宙船の提案を開発するために、ボーイング、ブルーオリジン、シエラ・ネヴァダ、およびスペースXが入札に成功した。2014年、NASAはボーイング社とスペースX社との間で、それぞれのシステムの開発とISSへの宇宙飛行士の輸送に関して別々に固定価格契約を交わした。それぞれの契約では、システムの有人評価（英語版）を達成するために、発射台での中止、無人の軌道試験、打ち上げ中止および有人軌道試験の4つの成功した実証が必要とされた。運用ミッションは、当初は2017年に2社が交互にミッションを実施する形で2017年に始まることを予定していた。遅延のために、NASAは2020年にクルードラゴンのミッションがスタートするまでは、ソユーズMS-17までのソユーズ宇宙船のシートを追加で購入する必要が生じた。クルードラゴンは、2025年以降にスターライナーが運用を始めるまではすべてのミッションを担当し続ける。 2004年、アルドリッジ委員会（コロンビア号空中分解事故を受けてジョージ・W・ブッシュ大統領が設置）は、最終報告書で乗員探査船による月への有人飛行を求めた。2005年のNASA認可法（英語版）を受けて、月探査という目標に加えて国際宇宙ステーション（ISS）への乗員交替飛行を行うオリオンと名付けられた改良型乗員探査船を想定したコンステレーション計画が立案された。オリオンがISSの乗員交替に特化して設計された軌道スペースプレーンにとってかわった。2009年、バラク・オバマ大統領が任命したオーガスティン委員会（英語版）は、計画の資金とリソースがスケジュールの大幅な遅延と30億ドルの追加資金なしには目標達成には不十分だと判断し、NASAは代替の計画を検討し始めた。コンステレーション計画は2010年に正式に中止となり、NASAはオリオンを地球外探査に転用し、2011年のスペースシャトル計画の廃止後、ISSの乗組員交代や地球低軌道でのその他の有人活動のために商業パートナーと協力した。この取り決めによって、NASAは宇宙飛行士をISSに輸送するためにロスコスモスのソユーズ計画に依存する必要がなくなる。 2010年のNASA認可法（英語版）は、既存の商業乗員輸送開発（CCDev）プログラムを3年間で13億米ドル拡大することを承認した。このプログラムの最初の競争ラウンドはアメリカ復興・再投資法の一環として民間部門のさまざまな有人宇宙飛行技術の開発に資金を提供して2010年に行われたが、第二ラウンドであるCCDev 2は宇宙飛行士をISSに送迎する能力を持つ宇宙船の提案に焦点を当てていた。CCDev 2の資金獲得競争は2011年4月に終了し、ブルーオリジンがその円錐形が2段重なった形状のノーズコーンを備えたカプセルのコンセプトを開発するために2200万米ドルを受け取り、スペースXがドラゴン宇宙船の有人版と有人飛行対応のファルコン9打ち上げ機を開発するために7500万米ドルを受け取り、シエラ・ネヴァダ・コーポレーションがドリームチェイサーを開発するために8000万米ドルを受け取り、ボーイングはCST-100 スターライナーを開発するために9230万米ドルを受け取った。スペースXはすでにNASAの商業補給サービスの一環として、ドラゴン宇宙船を使用したISS補給飛行の運用契約をNASAと結んでいた。プログラムの第三ラウンドである商業乗員統合能力（Commercial Crew integrated Capability、CCiCap）は、有人ミッションをISSに送る準備として、2014年5月までの21ヶ月間にわたって選ばれた提案の開発を財政的に支援することを目的としていた。CCDev 1およびCCDev 2での資金獲得にもかかわらず、ブルーオリジンはCCiCapに参加せず、代わりに所有者であるジェフ・ベゾスからの民間投資に頼って有人宇宙飛行の開発を続けることを選択した。CCiCap資金の競争は2012年8月に終了し、シエラ・ネヴァダのドリームチェイサーに2億1250万米ドル、スペースXのクルードラゴンに4億4000万米ドル、ボーイングのスターライナーに4億6000万米ドルが割り当てられた。アライアント・テックシステムズの統合型リバティ（英語版）ロケットと宇宙船は最終選考に残ったが、提案の詳細不足の懸念から却下さた。2012年12月、CCiCapの3つの合格社は、それぞれ追加で1000万ドルの資金を提供されたが、これは、「認証プロダクト契約」（Certification Products Contracts、CPC）の2つのシリーズの最初のもので、NASAの有人宇宙飛行の安全要件を満たすためのさらなるテスト、技術基準、および設計分析を可能にするためのものだった。2番目のCPCシリーズは、CCDevプログラムの最終段階である商業乗員輸送能力（Commercial Crew Transportation Capability、CCtCap）として実現、NASAは公開コンペを通じて有人飛行をISSに運行する運用者を認定する予定だった。提案の提出期間は2014年1月22日に終了した。シエラ・ネヴァダはその1週間後、シエラ・ネヴァダが購入を予定しているアトラスVロケットを使用して、2016年11月1日にドリームチェイサー宇宙船の民間資金による軌道テスト飛行が計画されていると発表した。2014年9月16日、CCtCapはスペースXのクルードラゴンとボーイングのスターライナーだけが勝者となり、スペースXは26億ドルの契約を、ボーイングは42億ドルの契約を獲得して終了した。シエラ・ネヴァダは、選定プロセスにおける「重大な疑問と矛盾」を理由に米国会計検査院（英語版）（GAO）に抗議を申し立てた。連邦請求裁判所（英語版）は、商業乗員輸送計画が遅延した場合にISSの有人運用に対する懸念を理由に、抗議中にクルードラゴンとスターライナーの開発を継続することを認める決定を支持した。GAOは2015年1月にシエラ・ネヴァダの抗議を却下し、GAOによって収集された証拠はNASAに対するシエラ・ネヴァダの主張を立証しないと述べ、シエラ・ネヴァダはその決定を受け入れました。同社はCCtCapの結果を受けてドリームチェイサーに取り組む90人のスタッフを解雇し、宇宙船を商業宇宙飛行のためのリース用宇宙船に転用した。その後、ドリームチェイサーの貨物型が開発され、NASAによりCRS-2契約の下でISSへの無人補給ミッションを行うために選ばれた。 商業乗員輸送計画の最初の飛行は当初2017年末までに開始される予定だったが、ボーイングは2016年5月にスターライナーのアトラスV N22ロケットとの統合に問題があったため、最初の有人飛行は2018年に延期されると発表した。2016年12月、スペースXも最初の有人飛行を2018年に延期すると発表したが、これはクルードラゴンの打ち上げロケットであるファルコン9の発射台の爆発事故でAMOS-6が失われたことを受けてだった。ソユーズ計画では2018年以降アメリカ人宇宙飛行士の飛行は予定されていないため、、GAOは懸念を表明し、2017年2月にNASAがさらなる遅延に備えて乗組員のローテーション計画を策定するよう勧告した。ロシアの宇宙メーカーであるエネルギアとのシーローンチをめぐる訴訟の和解後、ボーイングはソユーズ宇宙船の最大5席のオプションを獲得し、NASAはこれをボーイングから購入した。NASAは2018年8月にクルードラゴンとスターライナーのパイロットに選ばれた宇宙飛行士を発表し、2か月後には2019年中のクルードラゴンとスターライナーの実証ミッションの打ち上げを計画した。無人のスペースX Demo-1ミッションは2019年3月2日に打ち上げられ、The uncrewed SpaceX Demo-1 mission was launched on 2 March 2019,クルードラゴンはISSにドッキングし、打ち上げから6日後に地球に帰還した。しかしながら、このミッションで使用されたカプセルは、2019年4月にスーパー・ドラコエンジンの静的燃焼テスト中に誤って破壊され、将来のクルードラゴンの飛行の打ち上げがさらに遅れる原因となった。スターライナーの緊急脱出システムのテスト失敗により延期されていたボーイング軌道飛行試験とボーイング乗員飛行試験は、2019年初頭から中旬の予定から2019年後半に説明もなくさらに延期された。 ボーイングは、2019年11月にボーイング緊急脱出試験（英語版）を実施した。NASAは、3基のパラシュートのうちの1基が展開されなかったが、システムは2基のパラシュートだけでも着陸できるように設計されていることからこの試験の結果を成功として受け入れた。ボーイングは2019年12月に軌道飛行試験を実施したが、スターライナーのソフトウェアに重大な不具合が見つかり、過剰に燃料を消費したためにISSにドッキングすることができなくなったため、ミッションの打ち切りを余儀なくされた。この軌道飛行試験は、NASAによる独立した調査の結果「注目度の高い危機一髪」と宣言され、2回目の軌道飛行試験（ボーイングOFT-2）が2021年7月に予定され、ボーイングがCCDevの追加資金の代わりに飛行費用を負担することになった。商業乗員輸送計画の進捗状況がさらに不透明になる中、NASAは計画の運用ミッションがさらに遅延した場合でも第64次長期滞在への参加を確実にするためにソユーズ MS-17の座席を購入したが、MS-17以降もさらにソユーズの座席を購入する可能性も示唆された。スペースX飛行中脱出試験（英語版）は2020年1月に成功裡に実施され、最終段階であるクルードラゴンの有人試験飛行となるスペースX Demo-2がダグラス・ハーリーとロバート・ベンケン（英語版）を乗せて2020年5月にISSに向けて打ち上げられた。スペースXは初めての運用飛行となるスペースX Crew-1を2020年11月16日に打ち上げた。Crew-1は計画通りに2021年5月までISSにドッキングしていた。スペースX Crew-2は2021年4月23日に打ち上げられ、スペースX Crew-3打ち上げの2日前の2021年11月9日に帰還した。2021年8月3日にボーイングOFT-2が発射台での打ち上げ準備中に、カプセルの推進システムの13個のバルブに問題が発生した。打ち上げは中止され、カプセルは最終的に工場に戻された。2021年9月時点でも問題の分析は進行中であり、打ち上げは無期限に延期された。この無人テストであるボーイング軌道飛行試験2は2022年5月19日に打ち上げられ、5月25日に無事着陸した。 2022年2月28日、NASAはスペースXに追加で3回の乗員輸送ミッションを発注したことを発表し、これによってスペースXの乗員輸送ミッションは合計9回、契約総額は34億9,087万2,904ドルとなった。2022年9月、NASAはさらに5回のミッションを追加したことを発表し、これによって合計14回、契約総額は49億3,000万ドルとなった。 商業乗員輸送計画ではスペースX クルードラゴンをISSへの宇宙飛行士の往復に使用している。ボーイング CST-100 スターライナーは有人飛行認定を得たのちにこの役割に加わる。どちらの宇宙船も自動化されているが、非常時には地上からの遠隔操作や、乗組員によるタッチパネル操作での手動制御を行うことができる。どちらの宇宙船の乗員用のキャビンは11立方メートル (390立方フィート)の与圧空間であり、どちらも最大7名の乗組員を乗せられるように構成できるが、NASAはプログラムの各ミッションに最大4名の乗組員しか送らず、NASAは5人目の座席を占有できるように拡張できる。どちらの宇宙船もISSにドッキングして最長210日を宇宙空間で過ごすことができる。さらに、宇宙船はNASAの安全基準に則って破局的な故障（英語版）の発生確率を270分の1に抑えるように設計されており、これはスペースシャトルの90分の1の発生確率よりも低リスクとなっている。 宇宙船とISSのドッキング機構としては国際標準ドッキング機構（IDSS）が採用されている。NASAドッキング機構はスターライナーとISSで使用されており、クルードラゴンではスペースXが開発したIDSS互換のドッキング機構が使われている。IDSSは、以前の第1世代のドラゴンなどの商業軌道輸送サービス宇宙船で使用されていた共通結合機構に代わって使用されている。 スペースXのクルードラゴンは、同社の第1世代のドラゴン宇宙船の改良型であるドラゴン2型宇宙船の派生系である。直径3.7メートル (12フィート)で、全高はトランクなしで4.4メートル (14フィート)、トランクつきで7.2メートル (24フィート)である。トランクは再突入前に投棄されるが、乗員キャビンは再利用されるように設計されている。初期の計画ではスペースXはNASAの有人飛行のたびに新しいカプセル使用することにしていたが、両者はNASAの飛行でクルードラゴンのカプセルの再利用に同意した。2022年、スペースXはカプセルを15回再利用できると述べた。クルードラゴン宇宙船は、ISSにドッキングすることなく、最大1週間自由飛行することができる。それぞれのクルードラゴンカプセルにはそれぞれ71,000ニュートン (7,200重量キログラム)の推力を発生するスペースXのスーパードラコエンジン8基を備えた打ち上げ脱出システムが装備される。このエンジンは、当初は宇宙船が地球に帰還する際に動力着陸を行うことを意図しており、最初の試験機（英語版）にはこの機能が備えらていたが、この計画はフロリダ近海の大西洋ないしメキシコ湾への伝統的な着水が採用されたので最終的に放棄された。SpaceXのCCtCap契約では、最初の6回のミッションにおけるクルードラゴン飛行の各座席の価格は6,000万～6,700万ドルとされているが、NASAの監察総監室（英語版）（OIG）は各座席の額面価格を約5,500万ドルと見積もっている。最初の契約延長（ミッション7、8、9）のミッションあたりのコストは2億5,870万ドル（1座席あたり6,460万ドル）、2回目の契約延長（ミッション10から14）のミッションあたりのコストは2億8,800万ドル（1座席あたり7,200万ドル）である。 ボーイング CST-100 スターライナー（CSTは Crew Space Transportation の頭字語）は直径4.6メートル (15フィート)、全高5.1メートル (17フィート)の寸法になっている。スターライナーの乗員モジュールは10回の飛行までの再利用が可能だが、サービスモジュールは各飛行ごとに廃棄される。エアロジェット・ロケットダインが製造した軌道マヌーバ、姿勢制御および打ち上げ中脱出用のさまざまなエンジンがスターライナーで使用されている。宇宙船の乗員モジュールの8基の姿勢制御エンジンと、サービスモジュールの28基の姿勢制御エンジは、それぞれ380ニュートン (39重量キログラム)と445ニュートン (45.4重量キログラム)の推力を発生する。また、サービスモジュールに装備された20基の特注の「軌道マヌーバおよび姿勢制御」（OMAC）エンジンは、1基あたり6,700ニュートン (680重量キログラム)の推力を発生し、4基のRS-88エンジンは、打ち上げ中止シナリオでそれぞれ178,000ニュートン (18,200重量キログラム)の推力を発生する。打ち上げ中止を伴わない通常の飛行の場合、スターライナーは打ち上げ時にセントール上段ロケットから分離後に使用しなかったRS-88エンジンの燃料を、軌道投入燃焼時にOMACエンジンの能力を補助するために使用することができる。宇宙空間に到達すると、スターライナー宇宙船は最大で60時間の自由飛行を続けることができる。クルードラゴンとは異なり、スターライナーはエアバッグを使用して船体の地面へ衝撃をやわらげて、洋上ではなくて陸上に着陸して地球に帰還するように設計されている。アメリカ合衆国本土西部のユタ州のダグウェイ実験場、カリフォルニア州のエドワーズ空軍基地、ニューメキシコ州のホワイトサンズ・ミサイル実験場およびアリゾナ州のウィルコックス・プラヤ（英語版）の4ヶ所がスターライナー宇宙船の帰還時の着陸地点として用意されているが、非常時には着水することもできる。ボーイング社のCCtCap契約では、CST-100便の各座席の価格は9100万～9900万米ドルとされているが、NASAのOIGでは各座席の額面価格は約9000万米ドルと見積もられている。 NASAのISSへのミッションは、平均すると6カ月ごとに打ち上げられる。当初の契約ではボーイングおよびスペースXはそれぞれ最大6回の運用飛行を契約していた。NASAはその後、スターライナーのさらなる遅延に備え、また2030年までISSへのサービスを保証するために、スペースXと最大8回の追加飛行を行う契約を結んだ。 この計画における最初の運用飛行であるスペースXのCrew-1は、2020年11月にマイケル・S・ホプキンス（英語版）、ビクター・J・グローバー（英語版）、野口聡一、シャノン・ウォーカーをレジリエンスに乗せてISSへと運んだ。レジリエンスは、当初の計画ではCrew-2で使われる予定だったが、C204が試験中に突発的に破壊された結果を受けてのスケジュール変更によってCrew-1に割り当て変更された。NASAの宇宙飛行士はクルードラゴンとスターライナーの飛行にそれぞれ割り当てられていたが、JAXAの宇宙飛行士である野口は最初の運用ミッションを開始するどちらの宇宙船にも割り当てられる可能性があった。クリストファー・キャシディ（英語版）がソユーズ MS-16で帰還したため、アメリカ軌道セグメント（英語版）には人員が配置されていなかったが、レジリエンスに搭乗した宇宙飛行士が到着したことで、スペースシャトル退役後初めて定員の4名のクルーが配置される形となった。Crew-2は、初めて飛行履歴のあるファルコン9の第1段ブースターとリファービッシュされたクルードラゴンを使用して2021年4月に打ち上げられた。このミッションではR・シェーン・キンブロー（英語版）、K・メーガン・マッカーサー、星出彰彦およびトマ・ペスケが エンデバーに搭乗した。Crew-3は2021年11月に打ち上げられ、ラジャ・チャリ（英語版）、トーマス・マーシュバーン（英語版）、マティアス・マウラー（英語版）およびケイラ・バロン（英語版）をISSへと運び、Crew-4は2022年4月にチェル・リンドグレン（英語版）、ロバート・ハインズ（英語版）、サマンサ・クリストフォレッティ、ジェシカ・ワトキンス（英語版）を乗せて打ち上げられた。NASAの宇宙飛行士のジョシュ・カサダ（英語版）とニコール・アウナプ・マン（英語版）およびJAXAの宇宙飛行士の若田光一は、当初スターライナーの有人飛行に割り当てられていたが、スターライナーの遅延を受けてスペースX Crew-5に割り当て変更された。Crew-5の4人目の宇宙飛行士はロシアのアンナ・キキナ（英語版）が割り当てられたが、これは乗員交代ミッションごとに少なくともNASAの宇宙飛行士1人とロスコスモスの宇宙飛行士1人が搭乗することになる「ソユーズ-ドラゴン乗員交換システム」の一環だった。これにより、ソユーズまたは商業乗員宇宙船のいずれかが長期間地上に留まった場合でも、両国が宇宙ステーションに常駐し、それぞれのシステムを維持できるようになる。 2021年12月3日、NASAは、宇宙ステーションへの米国の有人アクセス能力を中断なく維持するため、SpaceXから最大3回の追加飛行を確保することを明らかにした。この背景には、スペースXがボーイングの初飛行よりも先に2023年初頭に6回目の飛行を行う可能性があり、NASAがスペースXだけが必要な能力を持っていると結論付けたことがある。 NASAとロスコスモスはそれぞれ3回の飛行について年間の座席交換協定に合意した。2022年および2023年、2024年には、ロシアの宇宙飛行士がクルードラゴンで年1回飛行し、アメリカの宇宙飛行士もソユーズで年1回飛行する。この協定により、どちらか一方の宇宙船が地上に留まった場合でも、ISSには少なくともお互いに1名のクルーがいて、重要なサービスを運営可能となる。 2022年8月31日、NASAはスペースXにさらに5回の飛行を委託し、契約されたクルードラゴンの飛行回数は合計14回となった。追加飛行は2030年まで行われる予定となっている。 2023年10月時点で、スターライナーの最初の運用飛行は2025年前半以降の予定となっている。これは有人飛行試験の成功如何にかかっている。 NASAは、スターライナーの飛行回数が十分になった後、ロスコスモスとの座席交換協定をスターライナーの飛行にも拡大したいと考えている。 ^ 括弧内にシリアル番号が表示される。再利用されたブースターにはリサイクルシンボルが表示される ♺。 ^ 再利用カプセルを使用した打ち上げには、リサイクル記号♺が表示される。 ^ a b スターライナー-1の準備が整わなかった場合、Crew-10が2025年前半に飛行する CCP宇宙船のミッションは、通常2機が同時にISSにドッキングする期間が発生し短い間隔で重複する。Crew-2はCrew-3とは重複しなかったが、これはCrew-3の打ち上げが想定外に遅延したためだった。 ポータル 宇宙開発 アルテミス計画 ファルコン9の打ち上げ履歴 国際宇宙ステーションへの有人宇宙飛行の一覧 en:List of Atlas launches (2020–2029) 出典 Reichhardt, Tony (August 2018). “Astronauts, Your Ride's Here!”. Air & Space/Smithsonian. 21 August 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 August 2019閲覧。 “How Boeing's Commercial CST-100 Starliner Spacecraft Works”. Space.com (8 August 2018). 26 May 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。26 May 2020閲覧。 Wall, Mike (3 August 2018). “Crew Dragon and Starliner: A Look at the Upcoming Astronaut Taxis”. Space.com. 21 August 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 August 2019閲覧。 引用 ^ a b c d e f Scott, Heather (12 October 2023). “NASA Updates Commercial Crew Planning Manifest”. NASA. 12 October 2023閲覧。 ^ a b c d Foust, Jeff (September 1, 2022). “"NASA and SpaceX finalize extension of commercial crew contract"”. spacenews.com. https://spacenews.com/nasa-and-spacex-finalize-extension-of-commercial-crew-contract/ October 1, 2022閲覧。  ^ “Bush unveils vision for moon and beyond”. CNN (15 January 2004). 8 March 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 March 2019閲覧。 “The initial spurt of new funding will be used to begin work on what a "crew exploration vehicle," which O'Keefe said will "look totally different" from the space shuttle. [...] Lunar missions will begin between 2015 and 2020.” ^ Dinkin, Sam (25 October 2004). “Implementing the vision”. The Space Review. 8 March 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 March 2019閲覧。 “Eleven companies have been selected "to conduct preliminary concept studies for human lunar exploration and the development of the crew exploration vehicle."” ^ a b “Constellation program Lessons Learned; Volume I: Executive Summary”. NASA History Office. pp. 2–3 (20 May 2011). 8 March 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 March 2019閲覧。 “NASA formed the Constellation Program in 2005 [...] The Initial Capability (IC) comprised elements necessary to service the ISS by 2015 with crew rotations: including the Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle, the Ares I Crew Launch Vehicle, and the supporting ground and mission infrastructure to enable these missions.” ^ “Nasa names new spacecraft 'Orion'”. BBC News (23 August 2006). 8 March 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 March 2019閲覧。 “The vehicle will be capable of transporting cargo and up to six crew members to and from the International Space Station. It can carry four astronauts for lunar missions.” ^ Malik, Tariq (19 September 2005). “NASA's New Moon Plans: 'Apollo on Steroids'”. Space.com. 8 March 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 March 2019閲覧。 “The spacecraft, NASA's Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV), could even carry six-astronaut crews to the International Space Station (ISS) or fly automated resupply shipments as needed, NASA chief Michael Griffin said.” ^ “NASA's New Launch Systems May Include the Return of the Space Tug”. SpaceRef (2005年8月7日). 2013年2月2日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2024年7月23日閲覧。 “Following the Columbia accident in February 2003, planning for the OSP was placed on hold. Eventually, the OSP would be superseded-or morphed into-the requirements for what eventually became the CEV.” ^ Dinerman, Taylor (31 January 2005). “What do we do with the ISS?”. The Space Review. 8 March 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 March 2019閲覧。 “The big question for the next NASA administrator will be whether he going to reverse the decision to delete the ISS service role from the Crew Exploration Vehicle's mission. [...] The CEV was sold at least partly on the basis that it would replace the planned Orbital Space Plane (OSP), which was supposed to be a true multipurpose manned spacecraft.” ^ Marshall Space Flight Center (1 May 2003). “Fact sheet number: FS-2003-05-64-MSFC”. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 4 August 2012時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 March 2019閲覧。 “Based largely on existing technologies, the Orbital Space Plane would provide safe, affordable access to the International Space Station. The Orbital Space Plane will be able to support a Space Station crew rotation of four to six months.” ^ Sunseri, Gina (22 October 2009). “Augustine Commission: NASA's Plans 'Unsustainable'”. ABC News. 26 October 2009時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 March 2019閲覧。 “To get to the moon and then eventually go on to Mars will take much more money and technology than the U.S. space program has now, according to a report released today by an independent panel convened, at White House request [...] Keep Ares and Orion going -- but recognize they probably won't be ready for regular use until 2017. [...] To do all this, the panel said NASA would need substantially more funding -- an additional $3 billion annually starting next year.” ^ Atkinson, Nancy (21 October 2009). “NASA Administrator Orders Study of Heavy Lift Alternatives”. Universe Today. 8 March 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 March 2019閲覧。 “Looking at alternatives to the Constellation program is an apparent reaction to the final Augustine Commission report, which will be made public on Thursday.” ^ a b c “US politicians cement a new philosophy for Nasa”. BBC News (30 September 2010). 8 March 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 March 2019閲覧。 “It authorises $1.3bn over the next three years for commercial companies to begin taxiing crew to the International Space Station (ISS). [...] It brings to an end the Bush-era Constellation programme which had set the agency the task of going back to the Moon.” ^ Malik, Tariq (6 April 2010). “NASA's New Asteroid Mission Could Save the Planet”. Space.com. 8 March 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 March 2019閲覧。 “He pledged to revive the Orion spacecraft, initially cancelled along the rest of NASA's Constellation program building new rockets and spacecraft. Now [it will play a role] in deep space missions, Obama said.” ^ Matson, John (1 February 2010). “Phased Out: Obama's NASA Budget Would Cancel Constellation Moon Program, Privatize Manned Launches”. Scientific American. 8 March 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 March 2019閲覧。 “Obama's blueprint for NASA would cancel the Constellation program, the family of rockets and hardware now in development to replace the aging space shuttle, and would call instead on commercial vendors to fly astronauts to orbit.” ^ Malik, Tariq (1 February 2010). “Obama Budget Scraps NASA Moon Plan for '21st Century Space Program'”. Space.com. 8 March 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 March 2019閲覧。 “...and offers $6 billion over five years to support commercially built spaceships to launch NASA astronauts into space.” ^ a b “NASA Awards Contracts In Next Step Toward Safely Launching American Astronauts From U.S. Soil”. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (10 December 2012). 8 March 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 March 2019閲覧。 “...the certification products contracts (CPC) [will ensure] crew transportation systems will meet agency safety requirements and standards to launch American astronauts to the International Space Station from the United States, ending the agency's reliance on Russia for these transportation services. [...] This includes data that will result in developing engineering standards, tests and analyses of the crew transportation systems design.” ^ Reichhardt 2018, "A pair of privately owned spaceships, Boeing's Starliner and SpaceX's Crew Dragon, are set to make their debut within the next few months [...] ending NASA's post-space-shuttle reliance on the Soyuz to ferry astronauts to and from the International Space Station." ^ “NASA Selects Commercial Firms to Begin Development of Crew Transportation Concepts and Technology Demonstrations for Human Spaceflight Using Recovery Act Funds”. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (1 February 2010). 12 May 2013時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 March 2019閲覧。 “Through an open competition for funds from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, NASA has awarded Space Act Agreements...” ^ Foust, Jeff (4 February 2011). “CCDev awardees one year later: where are they now?”. NewSpace Journal. 5 June 2013時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 March 2019閲覧。 “NASA announced a set of Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) awards, using $50 million they agency got as part of a larger grant of stimulus funding.” ^ Rhian, Jason (20 December 2010). “Numerous Companies Propose Possible 'Space Taxis'”. Universe Today. 8 March 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 March 2019閲覧。 “With NASA's Commercial Crew Development program, or CCDev 2, and the encouragement of commercial space firms to produce their own vehicles, the number of potential 'space-taxis' has swelled, with virtually every established and up-and-coming space company either producing – or proposing one.” ^ a b Moskowitz, Clara (28 April 2011). “Four Companies at Forefront of Commercial Space Race”. Space.com. 8 March 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 March 2019閲覧。 “Four private companies are the leaders in the effort to build commercial spaceships to carry astronauts to low-Earth orbit and the International Space Station after the space shuttles retire. NASA recently handed out the second wave of contracts in its Commercial Crew Development program...” ^ Bergin, Chris (18 April 2011). “Four companies win big money via NASA's CCDEV-2 awards”. NASASpaceFlight.com. 8 March 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 March 2019閲覧。 “Blue Origin's $22m award is for their their 〔ママ〕 biconic-shape capsule, of which very little is currently in the public domain.” ^ Sauser, Brittany (22 April 2011). “Private Spacecrafts to Carry Humans Get NASA Funding”. MIT Technology Review. 19 December 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 March 2019閲覧。 “Space Exploration Technologies (SpaceX), which currently has a contract to carry cargo to the International Space Station, will receive $75 million to make its Falcon 9 rocket and Dragon space capsule ready for humans...” ^ a b Clark, Stephen (25 April 2011). “Four firms plan to get the most out of NASA investment”. Spaceflight Now. 8 March 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 March 2019閲覧。 “Boeing received the largest Commercial Crew Development award, an agreement valued at $92.3 million, to finish the preliminary design of the CST-100 capsule [...] Sierra Nevada received $20 million in the first CCDev competition in February 2010, using that funding to develop manufacturing tooling, fire a Dream Chaser maneuvering engine and deliver parts of a structural mock-up of the spacecraft.” ^ “Orbital's Antares closing in on debut launch following pad arrival”. NASASpaceFlight.com (1 October 2012). 8 March 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 March 2019閲覧。 “Orbital and SpaceX won a combined 3.5 billion dollars Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) contract back in 2008...” ^ Tann, Nick (8 October 2012). “SpaceX successfully launches first International Space Station re-supply mission”. The Baltimore Sun. 8 March 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 March 2019閲覧。 “Last night, SpaceX launched more than 1,000 pounds of supplies bound for the International Space Station on the first of 12 missions in its 1.6 billion USD contract with NASA.” ^ a b Atkinson, Nancy (3 August 2012). “NASA Announces Winners in Commercial Crew Funding; Which Company Will Get to Space First?”. Universe Today. 8 March 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 March 2019閲覧。 “NASA announced today the winners of the third round of commercial crew development funding, called the Commercial Crew Integrated Capability (CCiCap). [...] NASA said these awards will enable a launch of astronauts from U.S. soil in the next five years. [...] each company negotiated how much work they could get done in the 21-month period that this award covers.” ^ Boyle, Alan (3 August 2012). “NASA announces $1.1 billion in support for a trio of spaceships”. NBC News. 8 March 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 March 2019閲覧。 “NASA has committed $1.1 billion over the next 21 months to support spaceship development efforts by the Boeing Co., SpaceX and Sierra Nevada Corp., with the aim of having American astronauts flying once more on American spacecraft within five years.” ^ a b Hardwood, William (3 August 2012). “NASA awards manned-spacecraft contracts”. CNET. 8 March 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 March 2019閲覧。 “SpaceX was awarded a $440 million contract [...] Boeing won a contract valued at $460 million [...] Nevada was awarded $212.5 million [...] The CCiCap contracts will run between now and May 31, 2014” ^ Malik, Tariq (3 August 2012). “NASA awards $1.1 billion to develop three commercial space taxis”. collectSPACE. 8 March 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 March 2019閲覧。 “Also not included in this latest round of funding was Blue Origin of Kent., Wash., a company owned by billionaire Amazon.com founder Jeff Bezos that is developing private spacecraft for suborbital and orbital flights. The company did receive a NASA funding award in 2011 for its orbital crew vehicle, but wasn't among the seven vying for a spot in the CCiCap round, NASA officials said.” ^ Foust, Jeff (18 December 2016). “Bezos Investment in Blue Origin Exceeds $500 Million”. Space News. 18 December 2016時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 March 2019閲覧。 “"We got $25 million from the NASA commercial crew program, and that represents less than 5 percent of what our founder has put into the company," Alexander said. That would mean Bezos' investment in Blue Origin is at least $500 million.” ^ Bergin, Chris (3 August 2012). “NASA CCiCAP funding for SpaceX, Boeing and SNC's crew vehicles”. NASASpaceFlight.com. 8 March 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 March 2019閲覧。 “In the end, Associate Administrator for Human Exploration and Operations Directorate William Gerstenmaier opted to award Boeing with $460m, SpaceX with $440 and SNC with $212.5m.” ^ Malik, Tariq (3 August 2012). “NASA Awards $1.1 Billion in Support for 3 Private Space Taxis”. Space.com. 8 March 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 March 2019閲覧。 “As part of the new agreements, Sierra Nevada will receive $212.5 million, SpaceX will receive $440 million, and Boeing will receive $460 million.” ^ Gerstenmaier, William H. (10 September 2012). “Selection Statement For Commercial Crew Integrated Capability”. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 10 September 2012時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 March 2019閲覧。 “Four proposals passed the Acceptability Screening and were evaluated by the full PEP [...] ATK Aerospace Systems (ATK)” ^ a b c Boyle, Alan (19 November 2013). “NASA outlines the final steps in plan for next manned spaceships”. NBC News. 8 March 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 March 2019閲覧。 “NASA expects the final phase of the competition — known as the Commercial Crew Transport Capability program, or CCtCAP — to result in a fleet of commercial spacecraft that are certified to transport crew by 2017. [...] Those same three companies have already been granted about $10 million each for Phase 1 of the CCtCAP certification process, which focuses on flight safety and performance requirements. [...] NASA said applications for Phase 2 funding should be submitted by Jan. 22.” ^ a b Grondin, Yves-A. (5 August 2013). “NASA Outlines its Plans for Commercial Crew Certification”. NASASpaceFlight.com. 8 March 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 March 2019閲覧。 “...NASA outlined the next phase of its strategy to enable the certification of commercial crew transportation systems to and from the International Space Station (ISS). [...] Phase 1 of the certification strategy, the Certification Products Contract (CPC) phase, was awarded last December to SpaceX, SNC and Boeing for amounts that did not exceed $10 million per company.” ^ Rutkin, Aviva (27 January 2014). “Mini space shuttle gears up to chase astronaut dreams”. New Scientist. 8 March 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 March 2019閲覧。 “Engineers at Sierra Nevada Corporation have announced that the Dream Chaser will make its first orbital flight on 1 November 2016. The Dream Chaser will launch attached to an Atlas V rocket...” ^ Atkinson, Nancy (23 January 2014). “Sierra Nevada Dreamchaser Will Launch on First Orbital Flight Test in November 2016”. Universe Today. 8 March 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 March 2019閲覧。 “"Today we're very proud to announce that we have now formally negotiated our orbital spaceflight," said Mark Sirangelo, the head of Sierra Nevada Space Systems. "We have acquired an Atlas V rocket and established a launch date of November 1, 2016...” ^ a b Associated Press (17 September 2014). “SpaceX, Boeing land NASA contracts to carry astronauts to space”. The Japan Times. 21 May 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 May 2019閲覧。 “On Tuesday, the space agency picked Boeing and SpaceX to transport astronauts to the International Space Station [...] NASA will pay Boeing $4.2 billion and SpaceX $2.6 billion to certify, test and fly their crew capsules.” ^ a b Wall, Mike (17 September 2014). “NASA Picks SpaceX and Boeing to Fly U.S. Astronauts on Private Spaceships”. Scientific American. 21 May 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 May 2019閲覧。 “SpaceX and Boeing are splitting NASA's $6.8 billion Commercial Crew Transportation Capability award, or CCtCap [...] SpaceX will get $2.6 billion and Boeing will receive $4.2 billion, officials said.” ^ Dean, James (26 September 2014). “Sierra Nevada files protest over NASA crew contract”. Florida Today. 21 May 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 May 2019閲覧。 “Sierra Nevada Corp. has protested NASA's award of contracts worth up to $6.8 billion to Boeing and SpaceX to fly astronauts to the International Space Station. The U.S. Government Accountability Office must rule on the legal challenge by Jan. 5. [...] Sierra Nevada cited "serious questions and inconsistencies in the source selection process."” ^ Keeney, Laura (3 October 2014). “So Sierra Nevada protested NASA space-taxi contract, but what's next?”. The Denver Post. 21 May 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 May 2019閲覧。 “Space Systems filed the formal protest with the U.S. Government Accountability Office on Sept. 26 over rejection of its bid for NASA's commercial crew contract to shuttle astronauts to the space station.” ^ a b Dean, James (22 October 2014). “Judge: NASA can move forward with Boeing, SpaceX”. USA Today. 21 May 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 May 2019閲覧。 “A judge Tuesday allowed NASA to move forward with new contracts to develop private space taxis despite a legal challenge to the deals worth up to $6.8 billion. [...] NASA claimed it "best serves the United States" to enable the commercial crew systems as soon as possible, and that delays to flights planned by 2017 would put the International Space Station at risk.” ^ Norris, Guy (11 October 2014). “Why NASA Rejected Sierra Nevada's Commercial Crew Vehicle”. Aviation Week & Space Technology. 27 October 2014時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 May 2019閲覧。 “NASA issued a stop-work order to Boeing and SpaceX on Oct 2, only to rescind it a week later on the grounds that a delay to development of the transportation service, "poses risks to the ISS crew, jeopardizes continued operation of the ISS, would delay meeting critical crew size requirements, and may result in the U.S. failing to perform the commitments it made in its international agreements."” ^ Rhian, Jason (23 October 2014). “Judge allows NASA to move forward on production of Commercial Crew spacecraft”. Spaceflight Insider. 21 May 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 May 2019閲覧。 “Judge Marian Blank Horn of the United States Court of Federal Claims has cleared the way for NASA to proceed with its plans to have Boeing and SpaceX develop their spacecraft under the Commercial Crew transportation Capability (CCtCap).” ^ Foust, Jeff (5 January 2015). “GAO Denies Sierra Nevada Protest of Commercial Crew Contract”. SpaceNews. 28 May 2024時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 May 2019閲覧。 “"Based on our review of the issues, we concluded that these arguments were not supported by the evaluation record or by the terms of the solicitation," Smith said in the GAO statement. Sierra Nevada, in a statement issued Jan. 5, accepted the decision by the GAO...” ^ Dean, James (5 January 2015). “Sierra Nevada loses Commercial Crew contract protest”. Florida Today. 21 May 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 May 2019閲覧。 “GAO disagreed with Sierra Nevada's arguments about NASA's evaluation [...] Sierra Nevada also claimed NASA did not adequately review the realism of SpaceX's low bid and its financial resources, among several other issues the GAO concluded "were not supported by the evaluation record or by the terms of the solicitation."” ^ Rhian, Jason (26 September 2014). “SNC lays off staff, files protest over NASA CCP selections, mulls Dream Chaser's future – Update”. Spaceflight Insider. 21 May 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 May 2019閲覧。 “Sierra Nevada Corporation (SNC) has laid off employees who were working on the company's offering under NASA's Commercial Crew Program (CCP), the Dream Chaser space plane. SNC has also stated that it will continue to develop the spacecraft for possible use with other nations' human-rated space programs...” ^ SpaceRef staff (25 September 2014). “Sierra Nevada Dream Chaser Program to Continue”. SpaceRef Business. 21 May 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 May 2019閲覧。 “Sierra Nevada's Mark Sirangelo told the Denver Post the companies plans to go forward with development of the spacecraft and bid on future contracts. The news companies on the heals 〔ママ〕 of Sierra Nevada laying off 90 people from the Dream Chaser program.” ^ Foust, Jeff (25 September 2014). “Sierra Nevada Lays Off Dream Chaser Staff”. オリジナルの21 May 2019時点におけるアーカイブ。. https://www.webcitation.org/78WoCqG0N?url=https://spacenews.com/41984sierra-nevada-lays-off-dream-chaser-staff/ 21 May 2019閲覧. "After losing a NASA commercial crew competition earlier this month, Sierra Nevada Corp. (SNC) has laid off about 100 employees who had been working on its Dream Chaser vehicle, the company confirmed Sept. 24."  ^ Davenport, Christian; Fung, Brian (14 January 2016). “Sierra Nevada Corp. joins SpaceX and Orbital ATK in winning NASA resupply contracts”. The Washington Post. オリジナルの21 May 2019時点におけるアーカイブ。. https://web.archive.org/web/20190521064032/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2016/01/14/nasa-expected-to-soon-announce-contracts-to-resupply-the-international-space-station/ 21 May 2019閲覧. "The nation's space agency selected three commercial companies for the next round of missions to resupply the International Space Station, giving a vote of confidence to incumbents SpaceX and Orbital ATK and choosing a new player, Sierra Nevada Corp."  ^ Calandrelli, Emily (14 January 2016). “NASA Adds Sierra Nevada's Dream Chaser To ISS Supply Vehicles”. TechCrunch. 1 February 2016時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 May 2019閲覧。 “The winners, Orbital ATK, SpaceX, and the newcomer Sierra Nevada Corporation, will be responsible for providing new cargo, disposing of unneeded cargo, and safely bringing back research samples from the International Space Station (ISS).” ^ Foust, Jeff (21 January 2015). “NASA Details Why Boeing, SpaceX Won Commercial Crew”. SpaceNews. 28 May 2024時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 May 2019閲覧。 “SpaceX, though, planned to complete certification earlier than either Boeing or Sierra Nevada, giving it more margin to achieve NASA's goal of certification by the end of 2017.” ^ Vincent, James (12 May 2016). “Astronauts won't be flying to space in Boeing's Starliner until 2018”. The Verge. 21 May 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 May 2019閲覧。 “Boeing's executive vice president Leanne Caret made the announcement, reports GeekWire, telling investors at a briefing: "We're working toward our first unmanned flight in 2017, followed by a manned astronaut flight in 2018."” ^ Boyle, Alan (11 May 2016). “Boeing's Starliner schedule for sending astronauts into orbit slips to 2018”. GeekWire. 21 May 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 May 2019閲覧。 “...it's been working through challenges related to the mass of the spacecraft and aeroacoustic issues related to integration with its United Launch Alliance Atlas 5 launch vehicle. In a follow-up to Caret's comments, Boeing spokeswoman Rebecca Regan told GeekWire that those factors contributed to the schedule slip.” ^ Boyle, Alan (12 December 2016). “NASA confirms delay in commercial crew flights to 2018, pushing the envelope”. GeekWire. 21 May 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 May 2019閲覧。 “NASA has confirmed that the commercial space taxis being developed by SpaceX and the Boeing Co. will start carrying astronauts to the International Space Station no earlier than 2018...” ^ a b Grush, Loren (12 December 2016). “SpaceX officially delays first crewed flight of its Dragon capsule for NASA”. The Verge. 21 May 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 May 2019閲覧。 “In the wake of its September 1st rocket explosion, SpaceX has officially delayed the first crewed flight of its Crew Dragon vehicle [...] the first flight of the Crew Dragon with people on board is now slated to take place in May of 2018...” ^ Malik, Tariq (1 September 2016). “Launchpad Explosion Destroys SpaceX Falcon 9 Rocket, Satellite in Florida”. Space.com. 21 May 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 May 2019閲覧。 “A SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket and its commercial satellite payload were destroyed by an explosion at their launchpad in Florida early Thursday (Sept. 1) during a typically routine test.” ^ Berger, Eric (28 January 2017). “Technical troubles likely to delay commercial crew flights until 2019”. Ars Technica. 21 May 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 May 2019閲覧。 “NASA currently has contracts with Russia through 2018 to get its astronauts to the station. However, a delay of test flights into 2019 would necessarily push the first "operational" commercial crew flights into spring or summer of 2019 at a minimum.” ^ Grush, Loren (16 February 2017). “SpaceX and Boeing probably won't be flying astronauts to the station until 2019, report suggests”. The Verge. 21 May 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 May 2019閲覧。 “Because of the likelihood for delays, the GAO report recommends that NASA come up with a backup plan for getting its astronauts to the ISS beyond 2018.” ^ Berger, Eric (18 January 2017). “As leadership departs, NASA quietly moves to buy more Soyuz seats”. Ars Technica. 21 May 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 May 2019閲覧。 “a new solicitation filed by NASA on Tuesday reveals that the agency is indeed seeking to purchase Soyuz seats for 2019 (NASA will negotiate with Boeing for these additional seats, which Boeing received from Russia's Energia as compensation for the settlement of a lawsuit involving the Sea Launch joint venture).” ^ Foust, Jeff (28 February 2017). “NASA signs agreement with Boeing for Soyuz seats”. SpaceNews. 22 September 2018時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 May 2019閲覧。 “NASA has quietly signed a contract with Boeing for up to five additional Soyuz seats to provide for both additional U.S. crewmembers on the International Space Station and margin for commercial crew delays.” ^ Zraick, Karen (3 August 2018). “NASA Names Astronauts for Boeing and SpaceX Flights to International Space Station”. The New York Times. 4 August 2018時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 May 2019閲覧。 “NASA has named the astronauts chosen to fly on commercial spacecraft made by Boeing and SpaceX to and from the International Space Station, the research laboratory that orbits around Earth.” ^ Sheetz, Michael (4 August 2018). “These are the astronauts NASA assigned for SpaceX and Boeing to launch the first crews from the US since 2011”. CNBC. 21 May 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 May 2019閲覧。 “NASA named five astronauts to the first two Boeing flights and four to the first two SpaceX flights.” ^ Dean, James (3 August 2018). “NASA names first astronauts to fly SpaceX, Boeing ships from Florida”. USA Today. 21 May 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 May 2019閲覧。 “NASA on Friday named the astronaut test pilots who will be the first to fly SpaceX and Boeing capsules launched from Florida to the International Space Station, within a year or less, according to updated schedules.” ^ “NASA revises launch targets for Boeing, SpaceX crew ships”. CBS News (4 October 2018). 21 May 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 May 2019閲覧。 “The first unpiloted test flight of a SpaceX commercial Dragon capsule intended to eventually ferry astronauts to and from the International Space Station is moving to January, NASA announced Thursday. The first unpiloted test flight of a Boeing Starliner commercial crew ship is now targeted for the March timeframe.” ^ Agence France-Presse (5 October 2018). “First SpaceX mission with astronauts set for June 2019: NASA”. Phys.org. 21 May 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 May 2019閲覧。 “NASA has announced the first crewed flight by a SpaceX rocket to the International Space Station (ISS) is expected to take place in June 2019. [...] A flight on Boeing spacecraft is set to follow in August 2019.” ^ Davis, Jason (2 March 2019). “Crew Dragon Safely on the Way to International Space Station”. The Planetary Society. 21 May 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 May 2019閲覧。 “SpaceX's Crew Dragon has successfully launched on its maiden voyage! The spacecraft lifted off as scheduled on 2 March at 02:49 EST (07:49 UTC).” ^ Malik, Tariq (8 March 2019). “SpaceX's Crew Dragon Looks Just Like a Toasted Marshmallow After Fiery Re-Entry”. Space.com. 21 May 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 May 2019閲覧。 “When SpaceX launched its first Crew Dragon spacecraft to the International Space Station last week, the gleaming white vehicle soared into space on its maiden voyage. Now, Crew Dragon is back, and it doesn't look so new. SpaceX's Crew Dragon returned to Earth today (March 8) with a smooth splashdown in the Atlantic Ocean...” ^ Wattles, Jackie (8 March 2019). “SpaceX Crew Dragon, built to carry humans, returns home from ISS”. CNN. 21 May 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 May 2019閲覧。 “NASA officials confirmed around 2:30 am ET that the capsule successfully detached from the space station. [...] and it splash down in the Atlantic Ocean around 8:45 am ET.” ^ O'Callaghan, Jonathan (22 April 2019). “SpaceX's Crew Dragon Suffers 'Anomaly' And May Have Exploded During A Test”. Forbes. 21 May 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 May 2019閲覧。 “SpaceX's historic Crew Dragon spacecraft that launched for the first time last month appears to have exploded, according to reports, potentially delaying the return to flight of humans from American soil. On Saturday, April 20, an explosion was reported at a test stand at SpaceX's Landing Zone 1 in Cape Canaveral, Florida.” ^ Wall, Mike (21 April 2019). “SpaceX Crew Dragon Accident Another Bump in the Road for Commercial Crew”. Space.com. 21 May 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 May 2019閲覧。 “Nobody was injured, but the capsule — which flew a successful uncrewed demonstration mission to the International Space Station (ISS) just last month — may have incurred serious damage.” ^ a b Berger, Eric (3 May 2019). “Dragon was destroyed just before the firing of its SuperDraco thrusters”. Ars Technica. 21 May 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 May 2019閲覧。 “Koenigsmann said the "anomaly" occurred during a series of tests with the spacecraft, approximately one-half second before the firing of the SuperDraco thrusters. At that point, he said, "There was an anomaly and the vehicle was destroyed." [...] Before this accident, SpaceX and NASA had been targeting early October for the first crewed Dragon mission to the station. Now, that will almost certainly be delayed by at least several months into 2020.” ^ Foust, Jeff (20 August 2019). “Commercial crew providers prepare for fall test flights”. SpaceNews. 21 August 2019閲覧。 “However, both an in-flight abort test and the Demo-2 crewed flight test were delayed after the Demo-1 spacecraft, being prepared for the in-flight abort test, was destroyed during preparations for a static-fire test in April at Cape Canaveral.” ^ Foust, Jeff (2 August 2018). “Boeing delays Starliner uncrewed test flight after abort engine test problem”. SpaceNews. 25 May 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。25 May 2020閲覧。 “Boeing now plans to carry out an uncrewed test flight of its CST-100 Starliner commercial crew vehicle late this year or early next year as it addresses a problem found during a recent test of the spacecraft's abort engines. That revised schedule will push back a crewed test flight of the vehicle to the middle of 2019, said John Mulholland, vice president and program manager of Boeing's commercial crew program...” ^ Mosher, Dave (3 August 2018). “Leaky valves on Boeing's new spacecraft are increasing the risk that NASA astronauts could lose access to the space station”. Business Insider. 25 May 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。25 May 2020閲覧。 “But the agency is staring down a real possibility that it might not be able to send people into space after next year. That risk likely increased after Boeing discovered a problem in a new spacecraft system the company designed for NASA. The issue – a fuel leak – appeared on June 2, as Ars Technica first reported, when Boeing test-fired four thrusters designed to propel the Starliner away from a potential launchpad emergency.” ^ Johnson, Eric M. (21 March 2019). “Boeing delays by months test flights for U.S. human space program: sources”. Reuters. 21 May 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 May 2019閲覧。 “Boeing's first test flight was slated for April but it has been pushed to August, according to two people with direct knowledge of the matter. The new schedule means that Boeing's crewed mission, initially scheduled for August, will be delayed until November.” ^ Haynes, Korey (21 March 2019). “Boeing's Starliner test flight delayed by months”. Astronomy. 21 May 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 May 2019閲覧。 “...the company will no longer launch an uncrewed test flight to the International Space Station in April, Reuters has reported. The flight is being pushed back to August. [...] This Starliner schedule slip will also delay Boeing's first crewed test flight, according to the same reporting, from August to November.” ^ Joy, Rachel (2 August 2019). “Boeing readies 'astronaut' for likely October test launch”. Florida Today. 21 August 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 August 2019閲覧。 “...which will fly on the inaugural flight of the Starliner spacecraft now slated to launch late September or early October from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station.” ^ Bartels, Meghan (4 November 2019). “Boeing Tests Starliner Spacecraft's Launch Abort System for Rocket Emergencies”. Space.com. 25 May 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。25 May 2020閲覧。 “Boeing's CST-100 Starliner crewed vehicle aced a crucial safety test this morning (Nov. 4) in the New Mexico desert.” ^ Etherington, Darrell (5 November 2019). “Boeing's Starliner crew spacecraft launch pad abort test is a success”. TechCrunch. 25 May 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。25 May 2020閲覧。 “NASA's commercial crew partner Boeing has achieved a key milestone on the way to actually flying astronauts aboard its CST-100 Starliner: Demonstrating that its launch pad abort system works as designed, which is a key safety system that NASA requires to be in place before the aerospace company can put astronauts inside the Starliner.” ^ Foust, Jeff (7 November 2019). “Missing pin blamed for Boeing pad abort parachute anomaly”. オリジナルの25 May 2020時点におけるアーカイブ。. https://archive.today/20200525024720/https://spacenews.com/missing-pin-blamed-for-boeing-pad-abort-parachute-anomaly/ 25 May 2020閲覧. "Boeing said Nov. 7 that a misplaced pin prevented a parachute from deploying during a pad abort test of its CST-100 Starliner vehicle three days earlier, the only flaw in a key test of that commercial crew vehicle."  ^ Clark, Stephen (7 November 2019). “Boeing identifies cause of chute malfunction, preps for Starliner launch”. Spaceflight Now. 25 May 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。25 May 2020閲覧。 “Only two of the three main parachutes deployed, an issue Boeing has attributed to the lack of a secure connection between the pilot chute and one of the main chutes.” ^ Chang, Kenneth (20 December 2019). “Boeing Starliner Ends Up in Wrong Orbit After Clock Problem”. The New York Times. 25 May 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。25 May 2020閲覧。 “As an Atlas 5 rocket arced upward into the pre-dawn sky from Cape Canaveral in Florida on Friday morning [...] On top of the rocket was Starliner, a capsule built by Boeing, part of a NASA strategy to delegate to private companies to handle the astronaut transportation. [...] The mission will now be cut short, without docking at the International Space Station and likely delaying plans that are already a couple of years behind schedule. [...] the spacecraft's clock was set to the wrong time, and a flawed thruster burn pushed the capsule into the wrong orbit.” ^ Weitering, Hanneke (8 February 2020). “Boeing's 2nd Starliner software glitch could have led to an in-space collision”. Space.com. 25 May 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。25 May 2020閲覧。 “NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine said that an independent review team has identified several issues during the Orbital Flight Test (OFT) mission, particularly when it comes to the spacecraft's software. Along with the previously disclosed error with Starliner's onboard timer, a second software issue could have potentially led to a slight but problematic collision of two of the spacecraft's components, investigators determined.” ^ Clark, Stephen (28 February 2020). “Boeing says thorough testing would have caught Starliner software problems”. Spaceflight Now. 25 May 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。25 May 2020閲覧。 “Boeing missed a pair of software errors during the Starliner's Orbital Flight Test. One prevented the spacecraft from docking with the International Space Station, and the other could have resulted in catastrophic damage to the capsule during its return to Earth.” ^ NASA Office of Safety and Mission Assurance (24 October 2011). “NASA Procedural Requirements for Mishap and Close Call Reporting, Investigating, and Recordkeeping w/Change 6”. The Campbell Institute. p. 49. 25 May 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。25 May 2020閲覧。 “High Visibility (Mishaps or Close Calls). Those particular mishaps or close calls, regardless of theamount of property damage or personnel injury, that the Administrator, Chief/OSMA, CD,ED/OHO, or the Center SMA director judges to possess a high degree of programmatic impact or public, media, or political interest including, but not limited to, mishaps and close calls that impact flight hardware, flight software, or completion of critical mission milestones.” ^ a b Berger, Eric (6 March 2020). “NASA declares Starliner mishap a "high visibility close call"”. Ars Technica. 25 May 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。25 May 2020閲覧。 “NASA chief of human spaceflight Doug Loverro said Friday that he decided to escalate the incident. So he designated Starliner's uncrewed mission, during which the spacecraft flew a shortened profile and did not attempt to dock with the International Space Station, as a "high visibility close call." This relatively rare designation for NASA's human spaceflight program falls short of "loss of mission" but is nonetheless fairly rare.” ^ Vergano, Dan (26 February 2014). “Spacewalk Mishap Tied to Clogged Helmet Filter”. National Geographic. 25 May 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。25 May 2020閲覧。 “An International Space Station mishap that nearly killed an astronaut last year happened because of a clogged spacesuit filter, a NASA investigation board said on Wednesday. [...] "This was a high-visibility close call," said NASA's human exploration chief William Gerstenmaier.” ^ Kramer, Miriam (26 February 2014). “Spacesuit Leak That Nearly Drowned Astronaut Could Have Been Avoided”. Space.com. 25 May 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。25 May 2020閲覧。 “After the spacesuit incident — which NASA calls a "high visibility close call" — space agency officials halted all non-emergency spacewalks until they could learn more about what caused the malfunction.” ^ Carrazana, Chabeli (6 March 2020). “Boeing had 49 gaps in testing for its astronaut capsule before failed flight, independent review finds”. Orlando Sentinel. 25 May 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。25 May 2020閲覧。 “An independent review of the decisions that led to a failed test of Boeing's Starliner astronaut capsule found systematic and widespread missteps in the legacy company's testing procedures and software development [...] NASA has declared Boeing's mission a "high visibility close call" mishap...” ^ "NASA Invites Media to Prelaunch, Launch Activities for Boeing's Orbital Flight Test-2". NASA (Press release). 3 February 2021. 2021年2月4日閲覧。 ^ Davenport, Christian (7 April 2020). “After botched test flight, Boeing will refly its Starliner spacecraft for NASA”. The Washington Post. オリジナルの25 May 2020時点におけるアーカイブ。. https://web.archive.org/web/20200525042657/https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2020/04/06/boeing-starliner-test-repeat/ 25 May 2020閲覧. "The repeat flight likely will occur sometime in October or November, meaning the company probably won't fly a mission with astronauts on board this year [...] Repeating the mission and investigating other problems with Starliner is an expensive proposition: Earlier this year, Boeing said it was taking a $410 million charge to offset the cost."  ^ Clark, Stephen (6 April 2020). “After problem-plagued test flight, Boeing will refly crew capsule without astronauts”. Spaceflight Now. 25 May 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。25 May 2020閲覧。 “Boeing told investors earlier this year it was taking a $410 million charge against its earnings to cover the expected costs of a second unpiloted test flight. [...] "We have chosen to refly our Orbital Flight Test to demonstrate the quality of the Starliner system," Boeing said in a statement [Monday]. "Flying another uncrewed flight will allow us to complete all flight test objectives and evaluate the performance of the second Starliner vehicle at no cost to the [taxpayer"]” ^ a b TASS staff (13 May 2020). “Роскосмос подтвердил подписание контракта на доставку астронавта NASA на корабле "Союз"” (ロシア語). TASS. 25 May 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。25 May 2020閲覧。 “Roscosmos and NASA signed a contract for the delivery of one American astronaut on a crewed Soyuz MS spacecraft in Autumn 2020. [...] The head of NASA, Jim Bridenstein [...] also admitted the possibility of buying a second place.” ^ a b Clark, Stephen (12 May 2020). “NASA inks deal with Roscosmos to ensure continuous U.S. presence on space station”. Spaceflight Now. 25 May 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。25 May 2020閲覧。 “"To ensure the agency keeps its commitment for safe operations via a continuous U.S. presence aboard the International Space Station until commercial crew capabilities are routinely available, NASA has completed negotiations with the State Space Corporation Roscosmos to purchase one additional Soyuz seat for a launch this fall," NASA said in a statement Tuesday. [...] NASA has not ruled out paying Russia's space agency for an additional Soyuz seat on a launch next April.” ^ Atkinson, Ian (17 January 2020). “SpaceX conducts successful Crew Dragon In-Flight Abort Test”. NASASpaceFlight.com. 25 May 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。25 May 2020閲覧。 “SpaceX successfully launched a unique Falcon 9 rocket at LC-39A for the in-flight abort test of their Crew Dragon spacecraft. The uncrewed test flight saw the spacecraft demonstrate its ability to escape a failing rocket mid-flight. Sunday's launch occurred at 10:30 AM Eastern, with a successful test resulting in the safe splashdown of the Dragon vehicle.” ^ “Fiery SpaceX test of Crew Dragon capsule was 'picture perfect,' Elon Musk says”. CNBC (19 January 2020). 25 May 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。25 May 2020閲覧。 “SpaceX completed its last major test before flying astronauts to space on Sunday, in a critical high-speed mission that lasted mere minutes. [...] It's a crucial milestone for Musk's space company, as it will be key in determining whether NASA certifies the company's capsule to begin flying the agency's astronauts.” ^ a b Grush, Loren (19 January 2020). “SpaceX successfully tests escape system on new spacecraft — while destroying a rocket”. The Verge. 25 May 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。25 May 2020閲覧。 “On Sunday morning, SpaceX successfully launched one of its last big flight tests for NASA, a launch that could pave the way for the company to carry passengers into space later this year. [...] With this test now complete, the next big flight of the Crew Dragon will have people on board: NASA astronauts Bob Behnken and Doug Hurley.” ^ Davenport, Christian (September 24, 2021). “Nearly two months after discovering a problem with its Starliner spacecraft, Boeing is still searching for answers”. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2021/09/24/boeingnasastarlinerdelay 27 September 2021閲覧。  ^ “Touchdown! Boeing's Starliner returns to Earth from space station” (英語). Space.com (2022年5月25日). 2022年5月26日閲覧。 ^ Herridge, Linda (2022年2月28日). “NASA Awards SpaceX Additional Crew Flights to Space Station”. NASA. 2022年3月3日閲覧。 ^ a b Malik, Tariq (26 June 2019). “This Is SpaceX's 1st Crewed Dragon Spaceship Destined for Space”. Space.com. 21 August 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 August 2019閲覧。 “SpaceX's Crew Dragon, a crewed version of the company's robotic Dragon cargo ship, is one of two commercial space taxis that NASA will use to ferry astronauts to and from the International Space Station. Boeing's CST-100 Starliner is the other. Both spacecraft are designed to carry up to seven astronauts.” ^ Reichhardt 2018, "Although the ships seem like a nod to the past—Apollo-style "capsules" instead of the spaceplanes astronauts rode to orbit for 30 years [...] Both the Starliner and Crew Dragon will travel to the station and dock automatically, with no astronaut input. (The crew can take manual control if something goes wrong.)" ^ a b c Wall 2018, "("CST," by the way, stands for "crew space transportation.") Starliner also features sleek touch-screen displays and has about the same amount of internal volume as the SpaceX capsule." ^ a b Howell 2018, "The Starliner has a diameter of 15 feet (4.5 meters); a length of 16.5 feet (5 m), which includes the service module; and a volume of about 390 cubic feet (11 cubic md)." ^ a b Wall 2018, "The gumdrop-shaped cargo Dragon is 14.4 feet tall and 12 feet wide at the base (4.4 by 3.7 meters), with 390 cubic feet (11 cubic meters) of internal volume." ^ Reichhardt 2018, "Seating Capacity: Up to 7 NASA required that each vehicle be able to transport four people to and from the station. A fifth seat is available on both vehicles. Each company advertises a seating capacity of seven." ^ Howell 2018, "Once the Starliner is attached to the space station, it's designed to stay there for 210 days — ample time to allow for the usual crew stays of six months, or 180 days." ^ Etherington, Darrell (18 April 2020). “NASA and SpaceX set historic first astronaut launch for May 27”. TechCrunch. 26 May 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。26 May 2020閲覧。 “That Crew Dragon, which is the fully operational version, is designed for stays of at least 210 days, and the crew complement of four astronauts, including three from NASA and one from Japan's space agency, is already determined.” ^ a b “Design Considerations for a Commercial Crew Transportation System”. The Boeing Company. p. 3 (1 May 2013). 1 May 2013時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。26 May 2020閲覧。 “The CST 100 can operate autonomously for up to 60 hours of free-flight [...] The vehicle can stay docked to a host complex for up to 210 days...” ^ Reichhardt 2018, "Designers are working to a challenging safety standard: a 1-in-270 chance of a fatal accident, as compared to the 1-in-90 chance calculated for the space shuttle by the time it retired in 2011." ^ a b “Sealed with Care – A Q&A”. NASA (August 3, 2020). October 3, 2022閲覧。 ^ a b Szondy, David (4 April 2019). “First manned flight test of Boeing's Starliner to the ISS extended, but launch delayed”. New Atlas. 21 August 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 August 2019閲覧。 “The Starliner is designed to be flown up to 10 times before it needs replacement [...] the new NASA Docking System (NDS) that will be used to dock with the ISS...” ^ Speed, Richard (4 March 2019). “SpaceX Crew Dragon: Launched and docked. Now, about that splashdown...”. The Register. 21 August 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 August 2019閲覧。 “Another very important difference is the nose cone, which hinges to reveal the NASA Docking System (NDS). The cargo-only Dragon uses the larger Common Berthing Mechanism (CBM) for docking...” ^ Wall 2018, "Crew Dragon is a modified version of its cargo counterpart, and will also launch atop the Falcon 9." ^ Gray, Tyler (9 March 2020). “CRS-20 – Final Dragon 1 arrives at the ISS”. NASASpaceFlight.com. 25 May 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。25 May 2020閲覧。 “The first iteration of SpaceX's Dragon has successfully flown twenty missions to the ISS to date [...] CRS-20 is the last flight of the first-generation Dragon spacecraft, with the cargo version of the upgraded Dragon 2 spacecraft expected to take over services next year as part of Phase 2 of the CRS program, also known as CRS2.” ^ Reichhardt 2018, "Diameter: 12.1 ft. Height: 23.6 ft. Dimensions include Dragon's cargo "trunk."" ^ a b Wall 2018, "Reusable?: Yes, Dragons are reusable, although test flights will fly new vehicles. Cargo trunk is discarded after each flight." ^ Sheetz, Michael (10 March 2020). “SpaceX on track to launch first NASA astronauts in May, president says”. CNBC. 25 May 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。25 May 2020閲覧。 “Shotwell also noted that SpaceX is planning to reuse its Crew Dragon capsules. That was in doubt previously, as the leader of NASA's Commercial Crew program said in 2018 that SpaceX would use a new capsule each time the company flew the agency's astronauts. "We can fly crew more than once on a Crew Dragon," Shotwell said. "I'm pretty sure NASA is going to be okay with reuse."” ^ Sheetz, Michael (10 March 2020). “SpaceX on track to launch first NASA astronauts in May, president says”. CNBC. 25 May 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。10 March 2020閲覧。 ^ “NASA agrees to fly astronauts on reused Crew Dragon spacecraft”. Spaceflight Now. (23 June 2020). オリジナルの16 July 2020時点におけるアーカイブ。. https://web.archive.org/web/20200716210200/https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/06/23/nasa-agrees-to-fly-astronauts-on-reused-crew-dragon-spacecraft/ 23 July 2020閲覧。  ^ @jeff_foust (2020年7月23日). "McErlean: NASA's plans call for reusing the Falcon 9 booster from the Crew-1 mission on the Crew-2 mission, and to reuse the Demo-2 capsule for Crew-2 as well". X（旧Twitter）より2024年7月26日閲覧。 ^ “SpaceX to launch last new cargo Dragon spacecraft”. SpaceNews (19 November 2022). 18 February 2023閲覧。 “Walker revealed at the briefing SpaceX plans to build a fifth and likely final Crew Dragon.” ^ Ralph, Eric (6 March 2019). “DeepSpace: SpaceX takes huge step towards Mars with flawless Crew Dragon performance”. Teslarati. 26 May 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。26 May 2020閲覧。 “...Crew Dragon does not need a significant number of systems critical for longer stays in space, as it is only designed to support humans for approximately one week in free-flight.” ^ Wall 2018, "Crew Dragon is also outfitted with an emergency escape system, which consists of eight SuperDraco engines built into the capsule's walls. If something goes wrong at any point during a Crew Dragon flight, these engines can fire up and carry the spacecraft and its passengers to safety." ^ Seedhouse, Erik (2015). Cressy, Christine. ed (英語). SpaceX's Dragon: America's Next Generation Spacecraft. デイトナビーチ: Springer. p. 132. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-21515-0. ISBN 978-3-319-21515-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=crnfCgAAQBAJ 25 May 2020閲覧. "The first test of the SuperDraco [...] was an impressive demonstration of what the engine could do, not only sustaining its 71,000 newtons (16,000 pounds) of thrust..."  ^ a b “The Emergency Launch Abort Systems of SpaceX and Boeing Explained”. Space.com (24 April 2019). 25 May 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。25 May 2020閲覧。 “SpaceX has built the thrusters into the capsule's outer walls. Eight SuperDraco engines are embedded in the hull and will "push" the capsule away from the rocket in an emergency. [...] Boeing's CST-100 Starliner uses a similar launch escape system as the one on the Crew Dragon, but instead of eight SuperDraco engines, it uses four RS-88 engines, which are built by Aerojet Rocketdyne.” ^ Leone, Dan (29 May 2014). “SpaceX's SuperDraco Thruster for Manned Dragon Spacecraft Passes Big Test (Video)”. Space.com. 25 May 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。25 May 2020閲覧。 “Besides launch abort, SuperDraco thrusters will allow SpaceX's spacecraft to land propulsively on the ground, the company says. Propulsive Dragon landing tests are slated to begin at McGregor under the DragonFly program” ^ Bergin, Chris (21 October 2015). “SpaceX DragonFly arrives at McGregor for testing”. NASASpaceFlight.com. 25 May 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。25 May 2020閲覧。 “SpaceX's DragonFly test vehicle has arrived at its test facility in McGregor, Texas. DragonFly will be attached to a large crane, ahead of a series of test firings of its SuperDraco thrusters to set the stage towards the eventual goal of propulsive landings.” ^ Wall 2018, "It makes parachute-aided splashdowns in the ocean when its work on orbit is done. [...] SpaceX founder and CEO Elon Musk had previously stated that Crew Dragon would eventually be capable of touchdowns on terra firma, using parachutes and retrorocket firings [...] But that option is apparently no longer in the works." ^ Reichhardt 2018, "Landing Site: Atlantic Ocean" ^ a b Dreier, Casey (19 May 2020). “NASA's Commercial Crew Program is a Fantastic Deal”. The Planetary Society. 27 June 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。27 June 2020閲覧。 “Crew Dragon $60 - $67 million; Starliner $91 - $99 million [...] Starliner and Crew Dragon per-seat costs use the total contract value for operations divided by the maximum 24 seats available. The upper range reflects the inclusion of NASA's program overhead.” ^ a b McCarthy, Niall (4 June 2020). “Why SpaceX Is A Game Changer For NASA [Infographic]”. Forbes. 27 June 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。27 June 2020閲覧。 “According to the NASA audit, the SpaceX Crew Dragon's per-seat cost works out at an estimated $55 million while a seat on Boeing's Starliner is approximately $90 million...” ^ a b “SpaceX is set to launch astronauts on Wednesday. Here's how Elon Musk's company became NASA's best shot at resurrecting American spaceflight”. Business Insider (26 January 2020). 27 June 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。27 June 2020閲覧。 “Eventually, a round-trip seat on the Crew Dragon is expected to cost about $US55 million. A seat on Starliner will cost about $US90 million. That's according to a November 2019 report from the NASA Office of Inspector General.” ^ a b Wall, Mike (16 November 2019). “Here's How Much NASA Is Paying Per Seat on SpaceX's Crew Dragon & Boeing's Starliner”. Space.com. 27 June 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。27 June 2020閲覧。 “NASA will likely pay about $90 million for each astronaut who flies aboard Boeing's CST-100 Starliner capsule on International Space Station (ISS) missions, the report estimated. The per-seat cost for SpaceX's Crew Dragon capsule, meanwhile, will be around $55 million, according to the OIG's calculations.” ^ Reichhardt 2018, "Head / Leg Room: Diameter: 15 ft. Height: 16.6 ft. Dimensions include service (propulsion) module." ^ Reichhardt 2018, "Reusable?: Yes Crew capsule can be reflown up to 10 times. Service module will be discarded after each flight." ^ a b c Clark, Stephen (27 November 2015). “Aerojet Rocketdyne wins propulsion contracts worth nearly $1.4 billion”. Spaceflight Now. 8 June 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。25 May 2020閲覧。 “Aerojet Rocketdyne, an aerospace propulsion contractor based in Sacramento, California, also announced this week it secured an expected contract from Boeing to provide thrusters, fuel tanks and abort engines for the CST-100 Starliner commercial crew capsule. [...] Each shipset includes four 40,000-pound thrust launch abort engines for the CST-100’s pusher escape system and 24 orbital maneuvering and attitude control thrusters, each generating 1,500 pounds of thrust for low-altitude abort attitude control and in-space orbit adjustments.” ^ a b c Gebhardt, Chris (19 December 2019). “Boeing, ULA launches Starliner, suffers orbital insertion issue – will return home Sunday”. NASASpaceFlight.com. 25 May 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。25 May 2020閲覧。 “The Crew Module is equipped with 12 Reaction Control System (RCS) thrusters that can produce 100 lbf of thrust each. [...] The Service Module contains 28 RCS thrusters that produce 85 lbf thrust each and 20 Orbital Maneuvering and Attitude Control (OMAC) engines. The OMACs produce 1,500 lbf thrust each. [...] This suborbital trajectory was requested by Boeing so that under normal conditions, Starliner can then burn most of its unused launch abort fuel (via the Orbit Insertion Burn) to lighten its mass before it boosts its orbit to phase up to the Station.” ^ a b Rhian, Jason (2 November 2016). “Launch Abort Engines for Boeing's CST-100 Starliner undergo testing”. Spaceflight Insider. 25 May 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。25 May 2020閲覧。 “The OMAC thrusters are 1,500-pound (6,672-newton) thrust class and are used for low-altitude launch abort attitude control, maneuvering, and stage-separation functions [...] The spacecraft's RCS engines are 100-pound (445-newton) thrust class and provide high-altitude abort attitude control and on-orbit maneuvering.” ^ The Boeing Company (December 2019). “Reporter's Starliner Notebook”. The Boeing Company. p. 5. 25 May 2020閲覧。 “Service Module: [...] 4 Launch Abort Engines, 40,000 lbf each” ^ Wall 2018, "But Starliner touches down on land, not in the ocean, and therefore also sports impact-cushioning airbags at its rounded base." ^ a b Reichhardt 2018, "Landing Site: Western U.S. Starliner will parachute to dry land, like Soyuz, and use airbags to cushion the impact. Landing sites at White Sands, NM; Dugway Proving Ground, UT; Edwards AFB, CA; Willcox Playa, AZ." ^ Howell 2018, "If an emergency takes place, though, the spacecraft can splash down in the ocean, just like Apollo and Dragon." ^ Reichhardt 2018, "Each company has contracted for up to six additional taxi flights, during which the Starliner or Crew Dragon will dock with the station, remain attached for six months as a lifeboat for the crew, then return the astronauts to Earth." ^ a b Harding, Pete (26 February 2017). “Commercial rotation plans firming up as US Segment crew to increase early”. NASASpaceFlight.com. 21 August 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 August 2019閲覧。 “But with the new generation of US commercial crew vehicles, which can accommodate four astronauts, it will finally become possible to increase the station's crew size to its originally conceived number of seven, including four USOS crewmembers. [...] establishing the norm for all subsequent commercial crew vehicles, which will then continue to launch at a cadence of once every six months.” ^ Northon, Karen (26 October 2020). "NASA, SpaceX Invite Media to Crew-1 Mission Update, Target New Date" (Press release). NASA. ^ Carter, Jamie (23 May 2020). “'Historic' NASA-SpaceX Rocket Launch Will Begin New Era In Human Spaceflight This Week”. Forbes. 25 May 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。25 May 2020閲覧。 “...Crew-1, that will see four astronauts—three astronauts from NASA (Mike Hopkins, Shannon Walker and Victor Glover) and one, Soichi Noguchi, from JAXA, the Japanese space agency—head from Florida to the ISS for a planned six-month expedition. Crew-1 will be SpaceX's first scheduled crew rotation mission.” ^ The Planetary Society staff (20 May 2020). “Your Guide to Crew Dragon's First Astronaut Flight”. The Planetary Society. 25 May 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。25 May 2020閲覧。 “Not just NASA astronauts will fly aboard Crew Dragon—Japan's Soichi Noguchi will be 1 of 4 crewmembers on the very next flight scheduled for September 2020.” ^ a b Gebhardt, Chris (29 May 2019). “NASA briefly updates status of Crew Dragon anomaly, SpaceX test schedule”. NASASpaceFlight.com. 21 August 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 August 2019閲覧。 “Even with the anomaly that occurred last month, Ms. Lueders was able to update the NAC directly on the current hardware readiness dates for the In Flight Abort test and the Demo-2 crew mission, both of which now have to use different Crew Dragon capsules than originally planned. [...] Current capsule reassignments: [...] SN 207; Original Assignment Crew-2; New Assignment Crew-1” ^ a b Foust, Jeff (24 July 2020). “NASA safety panel has lingering doubts about Boeing Starliner quality control”. SpaceNews. 24 July 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。24 July 2020閲覧。 “...the first operational Crew Dragon mission, Crew-1. NASA said in a July 22 media advisory it anticipated a launch no earlier than late September. [...] NASA approved a contract modification in May that allows SpaceX to reuse boosters and capsule starting on the Crew-2 mission, which would launch in 2021. McErlean said NASA expects that the Crew-2 will use the Falcon 9 booster that launches Crew-1, and the capsule from the ongoing Demo-2 mission.” ^ Gebhardt, Chris (20 June 2019). “Station mission planning reveals new target Commercial Crew launch dates”. NASASpaceFlight.com. 21 August 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。21 August 2019閲覧。 “...the two U.S. crew members who will be on that flight to the Station in May 2020 is completely dependent on whether Starliner or Dragon flies the mission. [...] Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) astronaut Soichi Noguchi will be on that first crew rotation mission regardless of which commercial partner flies it.” ^ Harwood, William (9 April 2020). “Soyuz crew docks with the International Space Station”. Spaceflight Now. 25 May 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。25 May 2020閲覧。 “Strapped into the Soyuz MS-16/62S command module's center seat was veteran cosmonaut Anatoli Ivanishin, joined by rookie flight engineer Ivan Vagner on the left and Navy SEAL-turned-astronaut Chris Cassidy on the right.” ^ “NASA says SpaceX can reuse Crew Dragon capsules and rockets on astronaut missions: report”. Space.com (18 June 2020). 30 June 2020時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。30 June 2020閲覧。 “The agency has approved the use of preflown Crew Dragon capsules and Falcon 9 rockets on SpaceX's crewed missions to the International Space Station (ISS) [...] The first flight with used hardware could be Crew-2, the second contracted mission, which will likely lift off sometime in 2021...” ^ Potter, Sean (5 March 2021). “NASA, SpaceX Invite Media to Next Commercial Crew Launch”. NASA. 5 March 2021閲覧。  この記述には、アメリカ合衆国内でパブリックドメインとなっている記述を含む。 ^ “NASA Announces Astronauts to Fly on SpaceX Crew-2 Mission”. NASA (28 July 2020). 2024年7月25日閲覧。 ^ a b Sempsrott, Danielle (19 October 2021). “NASA, SpaceX Adjust Next Crew Launch Date to Space Station”. NASA. 20 October 2021閲覧。 ^ “NASA, ESA Choose Astronauts for SpaceX Crew-3 Mission to Space Station”. NASA.gov. NASA (December 14, 2020). December 14, 2020閲覧。 ^ “Kayla Barron Joins NASA's SpaceX Crew-3 Mission to Space Station”. NASA.gov. NASA (May 17, 2021). May 18, 2021閲覧。 ^ “NASA Assigns Astronauts to Agency's SpaceX Crew-4 Mission to Space Station”. NASA.gov. NASA (February 12, 2021). February 12, 2021閲覧。  この記述には、アメリカ合衆国内でパブリックドメインとなっている記述を含む。 ^ “SMSR Integrated Master Schedule”. Office of Safety and Mission Assurance. NASA (7 June 2021). 13 June 2021閲覧。 ^ “Commanding role for ESA astronaut Samantha Cristoforetti”. European Space Agency (May 28, 2021). June 13, 2021閲覧。 ^ “NASA Assigns Astronaut Jessica Watkins to NASA's SpaceX Crew-4 Mission”. NASA (16 November 2021). November 16, 2021閲覧。 ^ "NASA Announces Astronaut Changes for Upcoming Commercial Crew Missions" (Press release). NASA. 6 October 2021. 2021年10月6日閲覧。  この記述には、アメリカ合衆国内でパブリックドメインとなっている記述を含む。 ^ @jaxa_wdc (2021年10月12日). "JAXA has announced their WAKATA Koichi @Astro_Wakata is headed for the International Space Station aboard SpaceX's…". X（旧Twitter）より2024年7月25日閲覧。 ^ “Rogozin says Crew Dragon safe for Russian cosmonauts” (英語). SpaceNews (2021年10月26日). 2021年10月29日閲覧。 ^ “NASA to Secure Additional Commercial Crew Transportation”. NASA Blogs (3 December 2021). 2024年7月25日閲覧。 ^ @thesheetztweetz (2021年12月3日). "NASA announces the agency intends to acquire "up to three additional crew flights to the International Space Station" from SpaceX, with the company halfway through its initial 6 flight contract and Boeing's Starliner capsule not yet operational, NASA says it may need to use the additional Crew Dragon flights "as early as 2023," effectively giving an additional buffer for any more Starliner delays". X（旧Twitter）より2024年7月25日閲覧。 ^ “Russian-US seat swap agreement to be in force through the end of 2024 — NASA”. TASS. (August 4, 2022). https://tass.com/science/1489643 August 5, 2022閲覧。  ^ “NASA Awards SpaceX More Crew Flights to Space Station” (31 August 2022). 2024年7月25日閲覧。 ^ “NASA official sees possibility of expanding integrated flight deal with Russia”. TASS. (August 4, 2022). https://tass.com/science/1489645 August 5, 2022閲覧。  ^ Clark, Stephen (28 September 2022). “SpaceX, ULA postpone launches as Hurricane Ian moves toward Florida”. Spaceflight Now. 2 October 2022閲覧。 ^ Clark, Stephen (22 September 2022). “Launch Schedule”. Spaceflight Now. 23 September 2022閲覧。 ^ “NASA, SpaceX Reset Crew-7 Launch to Friday, Aug. 25 – Commercial Crew Program” (英語). blogs.nasa.gov (2023年8月3日). 2023年8月12日閲覧。 ^ “NASA Shares Assignments for its SpaceX Crew-9 Space Station Mission - NASA” (英語). 2024年1月31日閲覧。 ^ Cawley, James (2023年11月22日). “Mission Specialist Assigned to NASA's Boeing Starliner-1 Mission”. NASA. 2023年11月22日閲覧。 Notes ^ 「注目度の高い事故」および「注目度の高い危機一髪」とは、一般市民、メディア、および/または政治の注目度が高く、ミッションの宇宙船や乗組員に影響を与える事故を表す名称のこと。「注目度の高い危機一髪」という用語は、以前の第36次長期滞在中に中止された船外活動を説明するためにも使われていた。 ウィキメディア・コモンズには、商業乗員輸送計画に関連するカテゴリがあります。 Commercial Crew Program at NASA (Archived 1 March 2019, 25 May 2020) CCtCap contract between Boeing and NASA CCtCap contract between SpaceX and NASA