時間地理學

時間地理學（英語：time geography）或時空地理學（time-space geography）是关于空間和时间过程和事件的发展中的跨学科视角，其中事件可以是社会互动、种间关系、社会和环境变化，甚至個人傳記。时间地理学“本身并不是一个學科領域”，而是一个整合的本体论框架和视觉语言（英语：Visual language），其中空间和时间是动态过程分析的基本维度。时间地理学最初是由人文地理学家发明的，但如今已应用于交通運輸、区域规划（英语：Regional planning）、地理学，人类学、时间利用研究（英语：Time-use research）、生态学、环境科学和公共卫生等多个领域。瑞典地理学家Bo Lenntorp認為：“它是一种基本方法，每个研究人员都可以依照自己的方式将其与理論考虑联系起来。” 瑞典地理学家托斯腾·哈格斯特朗基於他早期的关于瑞典人口遷徙模式的经验研究中的思想，于1960年代中期创立了时间地理学。他使用“一种關於研究时空框架内事件如何发生的物理方法”，寻求“一种发现大型社会环境机制运作方式的方法”。哈格斯特朗在一定程度上受到了时空物理学的概念进步和物理主义哲学的启发。 哈格斯特朗最早的时间地理学表述非正式地描述了其主要的本体论特征：在一定情景下，“個體在時空中畫出了一条軌跡”。“生活軌跡被束缚在一系列的制約之網中，其中有些制約是生理和身体上的需要所施加的，有些是私人和集體决定所施加的”。哈格斯特朗表示“不可能提供所有可视作时空现象的制约的類別，”但他“初步描述”了三种重要的制约类别： 能力制约（capability constraints）：由于個體的生物学结构（英语：biological constraints）和/或他们可掌握的工具而對其個體活動的限制， 组合制约（coupling constraints）：“界定一人必须在何处、何时以及持續多久地與其他人、工具和材料一同进行生产、消费和交易”的限制（与关键路径分析密切相关），以及 权威制约（authority constraints）：对領域或“时空实体的限制，其中事物和事件在特定的个人或特定的群體的控制下”。 哈格斯特朗用新创立的图形符号形式说明了这些概念（一定程度上是受音乐符号（英语：Musical notation）的启发），如： 时空水族馆（space-time aquarium）或时空立方体（space-time cube），以空间和时间坐标的轴测投影的形式表示各軌跡； 时空棱柱（space-time prism），它表示在特定的能力制约和组合制约的情况下，個體在时空中可能的行为； 軌跡束（bundles），它们是軌跡的匯合處，部分是由于它们的能力制约和组合制约而形成的，并且有助于创建“地方秩序嵌套（pockets of local order）”； 同心管（concentric tubes）或可及性環（rings of accessibility），標示特定个体的某些能力制約，例如空间大小有限，手、口、听觉和视觉能力有限；以及 領域的嵌套層級（nested hierarchies of domains），表示特定个人或群组的权威制约。 尽管这种创新的视觉语言（英语：Visual language）是时间地理学的基本特征，但哈格斯特朗的同事Bo Lenntorp强调，它是作为基础的本体论的产物，不能本末倒置。记号系统是一种非常有用的工具，但是对于丰富的世界观而言却是相当贫乏的反映。许多情况下，记号工具一直是时间地理学的标志。但是，作为基础的本体论才是最重要的功能。时间地理并不只是与时间-地理图有关，就像音乐不只是与音乐符号有关一样。哈格斯特朗随后解释说：“这其中蕴含的是一个四维世界的形式。它不能完全以图形方式描绘。但话说回来，人应该能够足够清晰地想象它，以便指导经验和理论研究。” 到1981年，地理学家奈杰尔·斯里夫特（英语：Nigel Thrift）和艾蘭·普瑞德（英语：Allan Pred）已经在为时间地理学辩护，以反驳那些认为其“只是空间和时间组织的僵硬的描述性模型、只能用于可达性制约分析（以及社会工程学的相关活动）”的人。他们认为，时间地理学不仅仅是制约的模型；它是对现实的灵活而发展的思考方式，可以补足多种理论和研究方法。此后的几十年中，哈格斯特朗等人一直在努力阐明他最初的一套概念。哈格斯特朗晚年时不再使用“时间地理学”一词来指代这种思维方式，而改为使用诸如“拓扑生态学”等。 自1980年代以来，时间地理学已得到社会科学、生物科学和跨学科领域的研究者的应用。 1993年，英国地理学家吉莉安·罗斯（英语：Gillian Rose (geographer)）指出：“时间地理学在关注人们的日常轨迹方面与女性主義是相通的，并且和女性主义类似，通过考虑制约因素，将这类轨迹与更大的社会结构联系起来。”但是，她指出，时间地理学尚未应用于对女性主义者来说重要的问题上，她称其为“社会科学男性化”的一种形式。在随后的几十年中，女性主义地理学（英语：Feminist geography）家重新审视了时间地理学，并开始将其用作解决女权问题的工具。 GIS软件已经能够在各种空间尺度上计算和分析时间地理问题。这些分析使用了不同类型的网络数据集（例如步行网络、公路网络和公共交通时刻表）以及各种可视化策略。GeoTime（英语：GeoTime）等专用软件可以帮助进行时间地理視覺化和视觉分析。 时间地理学也被用作心理健康的治疗评价（英语：Therapeutic assessment）的一种形式。 本杰明·巴赫（Benjamin Bach）及其同事将时空立方体推广为一个时间数据可视化的框架，该框架适用于所有能够用两个维度外加时间来表示的数据。 在2019冠状病毒病疫情中，时间地理学方法在追踪密切接触者方面得到了应用。疫情大流行限制了人类的物理活动，也使得时间地理学在后疫情时代交往虚拟化、数字化的背景下必须采用新的方法。 个体为本模型 GIS与公共卫生（英语：GIS and public health） 历史生态学（英语：Historical ecology） 历史地理信息系统（英语：Historical geographic information system） 物质流分析（英语：Material flow analysis） 社会代谢多尺度综合评估（英语：MuSIASEM） 桑基图（英语：Sankey diagram） 时空数据库（英语：Spatiotemporal database） 时间-距离图（英语：Time–distance diagram） Thrift & Pred 1981，第277頁; Carlstein 1982，第ii頁 Lenntorp 1999，第155頁 Sui 2012 Lenntorp 1999，第158頁 Lenntorp 1999，第157頁 Hägerstrand 1970 In Hägerstrand 1983 and Kuklinski 1987, Hägerstrand cites the writings of Albert Einstein and Arthur Eddington on general relativity as inspirations. Physicalist philosopher and sociologist Otto Neurath is cited in Hägerstrand 1970. While these ideas are important sources for time-geographic ontology, time geography should not be portrayed as exclusively physicalist. Hägerstrand also cited phenomenologist Martin Heidegger and conservationist Rachel Carson as major influences, along with numerous geographers (Kuklinski 1987，第507頁). "Hägerstrand wanted to stress the importance of the material aspects of the real world as the basis of life, with an imperative for researchers to take basic constraints into consideration: that natural resources, time, and space are limited... Nevertheless, Torsten Hägerstrand was not a hardcore materialist. His materialism is embedded in a deep concern for the importance of human experiences, reflections, and reasoning for the development of geographical knowledge." (Ellegård & Svedin 2012，第18頁) Hägerstrand 1970，第10–11頁 Hägerstrand 1970，第11–17頁 Kuklinski 1987，第507頁; Buttimer & Mels 2006，第119頁; Ellegård & Svedin 2012 Hägerstrand 1970; Carlstein 1982 Lenntorp 1999，第156頁 Hägerstrand & Carlstein 2004，第323頁 Thrift & Pred 1981，第277頁 For a more extensive list of Hägerstrand's publications, see Torsten Hägerstrand Ellegård & Svedin 2012，第18頁; Hägerstrand & Carlstein 2004，第323頁 Allen 2019 For example: Ellegård & de Pater 1999 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFEllegårdde_Pater1999 (help); Ellegård & Palm 2011; Fischer-Kowalski et al. 2010; Kwan 2004; Latham 2003; Ringhofer 2009; Schwanen & Kwan 2009; Singh et al. 2010; Tani & Surma-Aho 2012 For example: Baer & Butler 2000; Brasebin & Buard 2011; Downs, Horner & Tucker 2011; Huettmann & Cushman 2009; Zhao et al. 2013; Saeedimoghaddam et al. 2017 Rose 1993 For example: Kwan 2007; Kwan & Ding 2008; McQuoid & Dijst 2012; Scholten, Friberg & Sandén 2012 For example: Andrienko et al. 2013; Kwan et al. 2014; Allen 2019 Lewchanin & Zubrod 2001; Sunnqvist et al. 2007; Sunnqvist et al. 2013 Bach et al. 2014; Bach et al. 2016 Yin, Zhangcai, et al. 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