民主倒退

民主倒退（英語：Democratic backsliding），又称专制化（英語：autocratization） ，是一个政治学术语，用以描述政治体制中民主特征的减少 ，是民主化的反义词。 虽然自冷战结束以来通过军事政变进行的政权更迭有所减少，但更微妙的民主倒退形式却有所增加。在20世纪后期的第三次民主化浪​​潮中，许多新的、制度化薄弱的民主国家建立起来。正是这些政权最容易受到民主倒退的影响。自2010年自由民主国家数量到达历史最高点以来，第三波专制化浪潮一直在持续。 在民主国家，民主倒退是由于国家主导的民主制度的政治制度，例如权力的和平过渡或自由公正的选举，被削弱而造成的。对作为民主基础的个人权利，尤其是言论自由的侵犯，随着时间的推移，对民主制度的健康、效率和可持续性提出了质疑。 在国家处于巨大危机期间，尤其存在民主倒退的风险。当领导人在紧急状态期间实施与危机严重程度不成比例的独裁规则在局势改善后仍然存在时，就会发生这种情况。 当民主的重要组成部分受到威胁时，就会形成民主倒退现象。民主倒退的表现包括： 自由和公平的选举被降格； 言论、新闻和结社自由受到限制，削弱了反对派挑战政府、追究政府责任并提出替代现政权的能力； 法治（即对政府的司法和官僚限制）被削弱，例如当司法独立受到威胁，或者当公务员任期保护被削弱或取消时。 对恐怖主义行为或反对派，过分强调国家安全。 Andersen, David. Comparative Democratization and Democratic Backsliding: The Case for a Historical-Institutional Approach. Comparative Politics. July 2019, 51 (4): 645–663. JSTOR 26663952. S2CID 201373568. doi:10.5129/001041519X15647434970117.  Bieber, Florian. The Rise of Authoritarianism in the Western Balkans. Springer Nature. 2019. ISBN 978-3-030-22149-2 （英语）.  Cheeseman, Nic; Klaas, Brian. How to Rig an Election. New Haven. 2018. ISBN 978-0-300-20443-8.  Daly, Tom Gerald. Democratic Decay: Conceptualising an Emerging Research Field. Hague Journal on the Rule of Law. April 2019, 11 (1): 9–36. S2CID 159354232. doi:10.1007/s40803-019-00086-2.  Haggard, Stephan; Kaufman, Robert. Backsliding: Democratic Regress in the Contemporary World. Cambridge University Press. 2021. ISBN 978-1-108-95840-0 （英语）.  Foa, Roberto Stefan; Mounk, Yascha. The Danger of Deconsolidation: The Democratic Disconnect. Journal of Democracy. 2016, 27 (3): 5–17 [2022-09-27]. S2CID 156622248. doi:10.1353/jod.2016.0049. （原始内容存档于2019-03-11）.  Jee, Haemin; Lueders, Hans; Myrick, Rachel (2021). "Towards a unified approach to research on democratic backsliding". Democratization Klaas, Brian. Despot's Accomplice: How the West is Aiding and Abetting the Decline of Democracy. Hurst Publishers. 2016. ISBN 978-1-84904-930-6.  Levitsky, Steven; Ziblatt, Daniel. How Democracies Die. New York: Crown. 2018. ISBN 978-1-5247-6293-3.  Levitsky, Steven; Way, Lucan A. Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes After the Cold War. 2010. ISBN 9780511781353. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511781353.  Przeworski, Adam. 2019. Crises of Democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Qvortrup, Matt. Death by a Thousand Cuts: The Slow Demise of Democracy. De Gruyter. 2021. ISBN 978-3-11-071332-9 （英语）.  Waldner, David; Lust, Ellen. Unwelcome Change: Coming to Terms with Democratic Backsliding. Annual Review of Political Science. 2018-05-11, 21 (1): 93–113. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-050517-114628 .  Other names include: democratic decline, de-democratization, democratic erosion, democratic decay, democratic recession, democratic regression, and democratic deconsolidation Skaaning, Svend-Erik. Waves of autocratization and democratization: a critical note on conceptualization and measurement. Democratization. 2020, 27 (8): 1533–1542. S2CID 225378571. doi:10.1080/13510347.2020.1799194.  Lührmann, Anna; Lindberg, Staffan I. A third wave of autocratization is here: what is new about it?. Democratization. 2019, 26 (7): 1095–1113. S2CID 150992660. doi:10.1080/13510347.2019.1582029 . The decline of democratic regime attributes – autocratization  Mietzner, Marcus. Sources of resistance to democratic decline: Indonesian civil society and its trials. Democratization. 2021, 28 (1): 161–178. S2CID 225475139. doi:10.1080/13510347.2020.1796649.  Mudde, Cas and Kaltwasser, Cristóbal Rovira (2017) Populism: a Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. pp.86-96. ISBN 978-0-19-023487-4 Laebens, Melis G.; Lührmann, Anna. What halts democratic erosion? The changing role of accountability. Democratization. 2021, 28 (5): 908–928. S2CID 234870008. doi:10.1080/13510347.2021.1897109.  Daly, Tom Gerald. Democratic Decay: Conceptualising an Emerging Research Field. Hague Journal on the Rule of Law. 2019, 11: 9–36. S2CID 159354232. doi:10.1007/s40803-019-00086-2.  Huq, Aziz Z. How (not) to explain a democratic recession. International Journal of Constitutional Law. 2021, 19 (2): 723–737. doi:10.1093/icon/moab058.  Chull Shin, Doh. Democratic deconsolidation in East Asia: exploring system realignments in Japan, Korea, and Taiwan. Democratization. 2021, 28 (1): 142–160. S2CID 228959708. doi:10.1080/13510347.2020.1826438.  Walder, D.; Lust, E. Unwelcome Change: Coming to Terms with Democratic Backsliding. Annual Review of Political Science. 2018, 21 (1): 93–113. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-050517-114628 . Backsliding entails a deterioration of qualities associated with democratic governance, within any regime. In democratic regimes, it is a decline in the quality of democracy; in autocracies, it is a decline in democratic qualities of governance.  Bermeo, Nancy. On Democratic Backsliding (PDF). Journal of Democracy. January 2016, 27 (1): 5–19 [2019-04-26]. ISSN 1086-3214. S2CID 155798358. doi:10.1353/jod.2016.0012. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-03-29）.  Rocha Menocal, Alina; Fritz, Verena; Rakner, Lise. Hybrid regimes and the challenges of deepening and sustaining democracy in developing countries1. South African Journal of International Affairs. June 2008, 15 (1): 29–40 [2021-01-27]. ISSN 1022-0461. S2CID 55589140. doi:10.1080/10220460802217934. （原始内容存档于2020-01-21） （英语）.  Maerz, Seraphine F.; Lührmann, Anna; Hellmeier, Sebastian; Grahn, Sandra; Lindberg, Staffan I. State of the world 2019: autocratization surges – resistance grows. Democratization. 2020-05-18, 27 (6): 909–927. ISSN 1351-0347. doi:10.1080/13510347.2020.1758670 .  Boese, Vanessa A.; Lundstedt, Martin; Morrison, Kelly; Sato, Yuko; Lindberg, Staffan I. State of the world 2021: autocratization changing its nature?. Democratization. 2022: 1–31 [2022-09-27]. ISSN 1351-0347. S2CID 249031421. doi:10.1080/13510347.2022.2069751. （原始内容存档于2022-05-26）.  Lindberg, Staffan I. The Nature of Democratic Backsliding in Europe. Carnegie Europe. [2021-01-27]. （原始内容存档于2021-04-13） （英语）.  Pandemic Backsliding. www.v-dem.net. V-Dem. [2021-01-23]. （原始内容存档于2020-12-21）.  How democratic backsliding happens. Democracy Digest. 2017-02-21 [2017-06-23]. （原始内容存档于2020-04-17）.  Waldner, David; Lust, Ellen. Unwelcome Change: Coming to Terms with Democratic Backsliding. Annual Review of Political Science. 2018-05-11, 21 (1): 93–113. ISSN 1094-2939. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-050517-114628  （英语）.  Diamond, Larry. Democratic regression in comparative perspective: scope, methods, and causes. Democratization. 2020-09-15, 28: 22–42. ISSN 1351-0347. doi:10.1080/13510347.2020.1807517 .  Huq, Aziz; Ginsburg, Tom. How to lose a constitutional democracy. Vox'. 2017-02-21 [2017-09-05]. （原始内容存档于2021-02-16）.