文化鬥爭

文化鬥爭（德語：Kulturkampf）是指普魯士王國與羅馬天主教會在1870年代的政治角力。 當時普魯士王國首相卑斯麥於1871年到1878年所頒布的政策，旨在減少羅馬天主教會對普魯士的影響和權力。該政策最終失敗告吹。 俾斯麦作为坚定的新教徒，从未完全相信罗马天主教徒对德意志帝国的忠诚度。此前，教宗无误论在第一次梵蒂冈大公会议中由教宗庇护九世正式颁布为天主教教义，使得德国天主教徒内部产生分裂，也引来的普鲁士政府的干涉。德国政府认为罗马天主教会在德国东方激起波兰民族主义情绪。德国天主教徒支持教廷的行为也使俾斯麦对天主教徒产生了怀疑。天主教徒此前在 1870 年成立了德国中央党，不信任新教为主体的普鲁士在德国内的主导地位，也经常反对俾斯麦的政策。 由1871年至1876年，普鲁士政府颁布了一系列政策，旨在削弱天主教会的势力。政策包括对神职人员的教育背景提出要求并进行考核、禁止耶稣会的工作、将教育和婚姻世俗化（即取消教会主导的制度）等。一部分没有遵守此些政策的天主教神父和主教被驱逐出境或监禁。但文化斗争反而使天主教徒更加团结。在 1874 年的选举中，中央党的得票数反而增加了一倍。至1870年代后期，俾斯麦开始倾向于保守主义和贸易保护主义而非自由主义，并逐渐结束了文化斗争、修改了部分针对天主教会的法律。 有学者认为，文化斗争造就了德国中央党，并使其成为了此后数十年在德国政坛上不可轻视的势力。甚至二战后的德国基督教民主联盟也深受德国中央党影响。 文化戰爭 費里法 宗教自由 David Blackbourn. The Long Nineteenth Century: A History of Germany, 1780-1918. Oxford University Press. 1997: 262.  Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Kulturkampf". Encyclopedia Britannica, 25 Feb. 2013, https://www.britannica.com/event/Kulturkampf. Accessed 30 April 2021. Fulbrook, Mary. A concise history of Germany. Cambridge University Press, 2019. Anderson, Margaret Lavinia. Windthorst: A Political Biography (1981), the leader pf the Catholic Center Party Bennette, Rebecca Ayako. Fighting for the Soul of Germany: The Catholic Struggle for Inclusion After Unification (Harvard University Press; 2012) 368 pages; examines Catholics' promotion of an alternative national identity after 1871. Blackbourn, David. Marpingen: Apparitions of the Virgin Mary in Nineteenth-Century Germany (Oxford, 1993) Gross, Michael B. The War against Catholicism: Liberalism and the Anti-Catholic Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Germany (2005) Hollyday, FBM, Bismarck, Great Lives Observed, Prentice-Hall, 1970 . Hope, Nicholas, "Prussian Protestantism," in Philip G. Dwyer, ed. Modern Prussian History: 1830–1947 (2001) pp. 188–208 Lamberti, Marjorie. "Religious conflicts and German national identity in Prussia, 1866–1914," in Philip G. Dwyer, ed. Modern Prussian History: 1830–1947 (2001) pp. 169–187 Ross, Ronald J. The failure of Bismarck's Kulturkampf: Catholicism and state power in imperial Germany, 1871–1887, (Washington, D.C., 1998) Ross, Ronald J. "Enforcing the Kulturkampf in the Bismarckian state and the limits of coercion in imperial Germany." Journal of Modern History (1984): 456-482. in JSTOR Ross, Ronald J. "The Kulturkampf: Restrictions and Controls on the Practice of Religion in Bismarck’s Germany." in by Richard Helmstadter, ed. Freedom and Religion in the Nineteenth Century (1997) pp: 172-195. Trzeciakowski, Lech. The Kulturkampf in Prussian Poland (East European Monographs, 1990) 223 pp Zeender, John. "Ludwig Windthorst, 1812-1891" History (1992) 77#250 pp 237-54, the leader pf the Catholic Center Party  Kulturkampf. 天主教百科全书. 1913. , detailed article by Martin Spahn, written in 1910. Kulturkampf. 新国际百科全书. 1905.  “Bismarck’s Failure: the Kulturkampf” （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） long description Founding Manifesto of the Protestant League (1887); Statistics on Membership (1887-1913) (English trasnslation) （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） a German anti-Catholic propaganda organization that became active after the Kulturkampf Bismarck’s Domestic Polices 1871 -1890 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） Kulturkampf in the context of Bismarck's entire domestic policies, by a head of history at Catholic University School in Dublin Kulturkampf Now and Then 13-paged essay in pdf by a Professor of the United States Air Force Academy Ludwig Windthorst Speaks in the Prussian Parliament (1873) （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） speech of Ludwig Windthorst following its analysis Bismarck on the purpose of the Kulturkampf （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） Speech in the Prussian House of Lords, March 10, 1873 Kulturkampf: Bibliography by （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） LitDok East-Central Europe Herder-Institut (Marburg)