帕尔米拉

巴尔米拉（英語：Palmyra；希臘語：Παλμυρα，也译作：帕尔米拉），是在叙利亚中部的一个重要的古代城市，位于大马士革东北215公里，幼发拉底河西南120公里处。是商队穿越叙利亚沙漠的重要中转站，也是重要的商业中心。巴尔米拉是该城的希腊语名字，来源于它最初的亚拉姆语名字“塔德莫”（Tadmor），意为“棕榈树”。 塔德莫最早是在马利（Mari）公元前2000年的文献中被提到，马力是附近另一连接美索不达米亚和北叙利亚的贸易城市。塔德莫也在旧约中被提到（历代志下8.4），是一座所罗门设防的沙漠城市。塔马城（Tamar）在列王纪上被提到，所罗门也在此设防，塔马被认为是塔德莫在传统希伯来读音中的读法。塔德莫在约瑟夫所著的《犹太古史》中被认为是所罗门所建，并指出希腊语名字巴尔米拉。 在现代希伯来语中，巴尔米拉的名字还是塔德莫。巴尔米拉的语源并不清楚，大多数学者都认为于此地的棕榈树有关，也有学者认为是塔德莫的讹译。 当塞琉古一世于前312年控制叙利亚时，这座城市仍保持独立。城市在公元前1世纪作为过往商队的中转站而繁荣起来。前41年，马克·安东尼带领罗马军队试图占领巴尔米拉，但未能成功，因为巴尔米拉人都逃到幼发拉底河的对岸去了。这说明巴尔米拉当时还是个游牧的定居点，贵重物品可以在很短的时间内被转移。巴尔米拉在提比略统治时期被并入罗马帝国的叙利亚行省。巴尔米拉作为连接波斯、印度、中国和罗马帝国的贸易城市而迅速发展。在129年，哈德良巡幸了该城市，他称赞了巴尔米拉，宣布该城自由，并重命名为巴尔米拉·哈德良那（Palmyra Hadriana）。 从212年起，巴尔米拉的贸易衰落了，因为萨珊王朝控制了底格里斯河和幼发拉底河的河口。巴尔米拉的王子奧登納圖斯被罗马皇帝瓦莱里安任命为叙利亚行省的长官。在瓦莱里安被萨珊人俘虏后，奧登納圖斯为报复进攻萨珊波斯，两度打败沙普尔一世的军队。当奧登納圖斯被暗杀后，他的妻子芝諾比亞掌权，和她的儿子瓦巴拉图斯（Vabalathus）一起统治巴尔米拉。芝諾比亞成立帕米拉王國，与罗马当局对抗，并夺取了西到埃及的广大土地，甚至试图夺取安条克。在272年，罗马皇帝奥雷里安反攻，俘虏了芝諾比亞，并在罗马的凯旋式上让她带着金锁链以炫耀战功。巴尔米拉的叛乱使罗马很愤怒，帝国对巴尔米拉实行高压统治，并成为罗马边防的军事基地。戴克里先在这里增加驻军并修筑更坚固的城墙以抵抗萨珊波斯的威胁。在东罗马帝国时期城市大部分都被遗弃了。 这座城市后来被阿拉伯人攻下。在16世纪，在一座附近的山上建造了法克雷丁·马尼城堡（Fakhredin al Maany）。城堡被一条壕沟围绕，只能从吊桥进入。后来的一场地震毁灭了巴尔米拉。 伊斯蘭國於2015年5月21日起佔領該遺址並開始進行破壞活動。儘管該組織宣稱不會破壞古城的主體建築，但從BBC所刊發的影片來看，針對寺廟壁畫、雕塑及一些神像遭到徹底摧毀。 敘利亞政府於2016年3月27日收復巴尔米拉時，仍保持約80%的完整性，但有些已毀壞，沒有毀壞的劇院則淪為伊斯蘭國殘暴影片的背景。2016年12月11日，伊斯蘭國再次攻佔巴尔米拉。2017年3月2日敘利亞政府與俄羅斯聯軍在帕米拉攻勢後再次收復。 现在的废墟大约保存了城市的原貌。主要的道路网保存完好，一条1.2公里长的有列柱的主干道从西向东，到贝尔神庙结束。在街的南面有议会、集市和剧场。建筑大多是科林斯式的，也受到美索不达米亚和波斯的影响。 在城市的东南面有许多塔状和地下墓穴。大多数塔状坟墓可以追溯到罗马时代以前，而地下墓穴為251年建成的。 巴尔米拉的贸易远到埃及、罗马、印度等地。巴尔米拉的财富主要来源于对商队的课税和当地商站。税收相当可观，商队必须经过这座城市，因为他们必须在穿越沙漠的途中在这里补充水和食物。 巴尔米拉的宗教主要受巴比伦的影响，但也有当地特色。巴尔米拉的主神是贝尔（Bel），可能是混合了巴力（Baal）和马杜克（Marduk）而产生的当地神。贝尔是天空之神，世界的创造者和众神之首。贝尔的旨意被认为可以从星象中反映出来，决定人与国家的命运，或是预示未来。 次于贝尔的神是太阳神亚希波尔（Yarhibol）和月亮神阿格利波尔（Aglibol）。 在2世纪，一种对一位不知名的神灵的崇拜流行了起来，只提到“他的名字是神圣的，慈悲而善良。”这可能和基督教和犹太教有关，也可能受其它宗教影响。 Syrian army announces recapture of Palmyra from Islamic State. 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