蒙古第一次入侵匈牙利

蒙古人第一次入侵匈牙利始於1241年3月，並於1242年3月下旬開始撤退。 1241年，速不台和拔都率領的蒙古軍隊入侵包括波蘭、保加利亞、克羅地亞和匈牙利王国等在內的中歐和東歐國家。匈牙利試圖在蒂萨河之战阻止入侵但以失敗告終。儘管少數重裝甲騎士（主要來自圣殿骑士团）在近距離戰鬥中有好的表現，但構成大部分匈牙利騎兵團隊的轻骑兵對蒙古軍隊無效。蒙古人粉碎了匈牙利軍隊，並在次年繼續蹂躪農村，甚至將匈牙利首都埃斯泰爾戈姆給摧毀。至戰役結束時，匈牙利約有四分之一的人口被殺，王國的大部分主要定居點已淪為瓦礫。 其大多數城鎮和堡壘城牆以木質、粘土和泥土等構成，這些防禦設施很容易被蒙古人攻城器械攻破，也有許多匈牙利定居點根本沒有任何防禦工事；一位德國編年史家觀察到，匈牙利人“幾乎沒有城牆或堅固堡壘保護的城市”。然而，為數不多的匈牙利石頭城堡沒有一個倒塌，即使是那些在蒙古人陣線後面的城堡；蒙古軍隊試圖以攻城器械攻擊克利斯要塞，但並沒有帶來任何破壞且被擊退，傷亡慘重。 1241年夏秋兩季，大部分蒙古軍隊駐紮在匈牙利平原。1242年3月下旬，他們開始撤退。對於他們之所以退出的最常見說法是窝阔台於1241年12月11日去世，據說這迫使蒙古人撤退到蒙古，以選舉新的大汗。 但是伊兒汗國的丞相拉施德丁說拔都決定撤退時並不知道窩闊台的死。他說他們從匈牙利撤出以鎮壓庫曼叛亂，然後在1242年晚些時候離開歐洲，因為他們覺得已經完成了他們的使命，而不是因為任何外部影響。 長子西征 蒂薩河之戰 埃斯泰爾戈姆圍城戰 William of Rubruck. "The journey of William of Rubruck to the eastern parts of the world, 1253-55." Translated by William Woodville Rockhill. Page 281. "It would be very easy to conquer or to pass through all these countries. The King of Hungary has not at most XXX thousand soldiers." Sverdrup, p.115: "A near-contemporary source says the Hungarians lost 10,000 men in the Mohi battle. This is no precise number, but as most of the army was lost it may be close to what the author believed the size of the whole army was. When Mongol officer Siban spied the Hungarian camp some weeks before the battle he counted 40 units [Rashid al-Din, 2:474]. In those days the Hungarian units, the so-called banderias, were usually between 50 and 400 men strong [See Julius Bartl, "Slovak History: Chronology and Lexicon" (Bratislava 2002), p. 191]. An average size of 250 would indeed give a total of 10,000 men." [a maximum average of 400 would have given 16,000 men]. Carey, Brian Todd, p. 124 Markó, László, Great Honours of the Hungarian State, Budapest: Magyar Könyvklub, 2000, ISBN 963-547-085-1  Liptai, Ervin, Military History of Hungary, Budapest: Zrínyi Katonai Kiadó, 1985, ISBN 963-326-337-9  Sverdrup, p. 115, citing Kosztolnyik. Sverdrup, p. 114-115, citing Rashid al-Din's chronicles, 1:198, 2:152. Rashid Al-Din's figures give Batu and Subutai about 40,000 horsemen total when they invaded Central Europe in 1241 (including Turkic auxiliaries recruited since the conquest of Rus), divided into five columns; one made a diversionary attacks into Poland, but rejoined with the other four in Hungary after Legnica and participated in the invasion. Carey states on p. 128 that Batu had 40,000 in the main body and ordered Subotai to take 30,000 troops in an encircling maneuver. Batu commanded the central prong of the Mongols' three-pronged assault on eastern Europe. This number seems correct when compared with the numbers reported at the Battles of Legnica to the North and Hermannstadt（英语：Battle of Hermannstadt） (錫比烏) to the South. All three victories occurred in the same week. Sverdrup, p. 115. Citing: Gustav Strakoschd-Grassmann. Der Einfall Der Mongolen In Mitteleuropa In Den Jahren 1241 und 1242 (Innsbruck, 1893), p.183. The Mongols in the West, Denis Sinor, Journal of Asian History, Vol. 33, No. 1 (1999), page 15;"...on April 11, Batu's forces executed a night attack on the Hungarian camp, inflicting terrible losses on its trapped defenders..[..]..While the outcome of the encounter is beyond dispute-some call it a massacre rather than a battle-historians disagree on their assessments of Bela's apparent ineptitude. Of course the Hungarians could have done better; but it is beyond doubt that no "ad hoc", feudal type force could have matched the well disciplined, highly trained, professional soldiers of the Mongol army. A seldom considered measure of the efficacy of the Hungarian resistance is the size of the losses sustained by the attackers. These were very heavy.." John France, Perilous Glory: The Rise of Western Military Power, (Yale University Press, 2011), 144. A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East, Vol. I, ed. Spencer C. Tucker, (ABC-CLIO, 2010), 279;"Although Mongol losses in the battle are heavy...". The Mongol Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia, Vol. II, ed. Timothy May, (ABC-CLIO, 2017), 103. Sugar, p.27: "The majority of the Hungarian forces consisted of light cavalry, who appeared 'oriental' to the Western observers. Yet this army had given up nomadic battle tactics and proved useless when facing the masters of this style of warfare. Hungarian tactics were a mix of eastern and western military traditions, as were the ineffective walls of clay bricks and palisades. Two elements of the Hungarian defense had proved effective, however: close combat with mass armored knights and stone fortifications". Sugar, p.27: "In the plains, between 50 and 80 percent of the settlements were destroyed. In forested areas, in the mountains, and in Transylvania, the demographic loss is estimated at 25-30 percent". Jackon, p. 65 Sugar, p. 26: "The country centers, lacking defenses, and the residences of [nobles], protected at best by moats, fences, and wooden towers, were no obstacle. Using ballistas, the Mongols leveled the forts, and put the settlements to the torch". Jackson, p. 66 Kosztolnyik, p. 174 John of Plano Carpini, “History of the Mongols,” in The Mission to Asia, ed. Christopher Dawson (London:Sheed and Ward, 1955), 44 7 Rashid al-Din, "Successors of Genghis Khan", trans. John Boyle 1971, p. 70-71: "The princes, proceeding by these five routes, seized all the territories of the Bashgh'ird, Majar, and Sas [all refer to the Hungarians], and put their king, Keler [Bela], to flight. They spent the summer on the Tisa [Tisza] and Tanha rivers. Qadan now took the field with an army, captured the territories of the Taqut (Croatians), Arbaraq (Serbs), and Asraf (Vlachs), and pursued Keler, the king of those countries, to the seacoast. When [Keler] embarked on a ship, Qadan turned back... The news of Qa'an's (Ogodei's) death had not yet reached them... In the autumn they returned and passed into the region of Temur-Qahalqa (Caucasus)... they proceeded thither and defeated the Qipchaq (Kipchak/Cumans), who had fled to that region... In the beginning of the taulai yil, that is, the Year of the Hare, corresponding to the months of the year 640/1242, having completed the task of conquering the country, they turned back." Jackson, Peter. The Mongols and the West, 1221–1410. Routledge. 2005.  Peter F. Sugar, Péter Hanák, Tibor Frank -- A History of Hungary. 1990 Indiana University 448p. ISBN 978-0253208675 Salagean, Tudor (2016). Transylvania in the Second Half of the Thirteenth Century: The Rise of the CongregationSystem. Brill. Saunders, J. J. (1971). The History of the Mongol Conquests. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Sophoulis, Panos. The Mongol Invasion of Croatia and Serbia in 1242. Fragmenta Hellenoslavica. 2015, 2: 251–77.  Sverdrup, Carl (2010). "Numbers in Mongol Warfare". Journal of Medieval Military History. Boydell Press. 8: 109–17 [p. 115]. ISBN 978-1-84383-596-7. Sweeney, James Ross. Thomas of Spalato and the Mongols: a Thirteenth-Century Dalmatian View of Mongol Customs. Florilegium. 1982, 4: 156–83.