法 (印度哲學)

法（梵語：धर्म，dharma，巴利語：धम्म，dhamma），音译为達摩，是在印度的哲學和宗教中極其重要的一個含義多變的術語。 在傳統印度社會中，法在歷史上已經指稱了各種思想，比如吠陀儀式，道德指導、種姓制度和民法與刑法。它的最常用含義附屬著兩個基本思想: 社會生活應當通過良好定義或良好調控的等級（varna）來組織，而在某等級內的個人的生活應當組織成確定的階段（ashrama，參見 dharmasastra）。 依據各種印度宗教，比如印度教、佛教、耆那教和錫克教，如法生活的人更快趨向解脫（dharma yukam, moksha 或 nirvana）。而不如法（adharma）意味著不和諧、不道德或錯誤(即墮落)。 佛教創始人佛陀及耆那教創始人大雄的教導和學說，也使用法這個術語。在佛教哲學中，法還是含義為現象的術語。 法的梵語字根來自dhr-，意思為保持、支撐，並且和拉丁語表示堅固、穩定的詞彙firmus相關，由此得來「既定、公認的慣例」以及「律法」的意思。其源自古老的吠陀梵語（梨俱吠陀等），拼法為帶有n-詞幹的dharman-，字面意思為承擔者、支撐者，而這是指吠陀宗教中的重要概念──ṛta（英语：Ṛta）（/ˈrɪtə/; 梵語 ऋत ṛta，秩序、規則、真理）的面向而言。阿維斯陀語中表示真實、正確、秩序的詞彙aṣ̌a（英语：Asha）（𐬀𐬴𐬀）為ṛta的同源詞，在古波斯語中拼作arta（𐎠𐎼𐎫）。 在古典梵語和最晚成立的吠陀書──阿闥婆吠陀，其拼法是dharma。而在普拉克里特諸語言（古印度俗語）和巴利語中的拼法則是dhamma。在阿育王詔書的古石刻文書坎達哈雙語岩石銘文（英语：Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription）中，用古希臘語的eusebeia（英语：Eusebeia）（εὐσέβεια，虔誠、靈性的成熟、恭敬神明）和亞蘭語的qšyṭʾ（קשיטא，真理、真實），來翻譯印度的宗教哲學詞彙──法。 Dharma在各文字的寫法 在印度教的語境中，它意味著一個人的正當義務與責任，而印度宗教的法受個人的年齡、等級、職業和性別的影響。在現代印度語言中依賴於語境，它可以簡單的等價於“宗教”。 Ainslie Thomas Embree, Stephen N. Hay, William Theodore De Bary, Sources of Indian Tradition: Modern India and Pakistan. Columbia University Press, 1988, page 215. David Kalupahana. The Philosophy of the Middle Way. SUNY Press, 1986, pages 15-16: "The old Indian term dharma was retained by the Buddha to refer to phenomena or things. However, he was always careful to define this dharma as "dependently arisen phenomena" (paticca-samuppanna-dhamma) ... In order to distinguish this notion of dhamma from the Indian conception where the term dharma meant reality (atman), in an ontological sense, the Buddha utilized the conception of result or consequence or fruit (attha, Sk. artha) to bring out the pragmatic meaning of dhamma." Chambers Dictionary of Etymology, Barnhart, R. K., editor (1998). Day, Terence P. The Conception of Punishment in Early Indian Literature. 1982: 42-45.  How did the 'Ramayana' and 'Mahabharata' come to be (and what has 'dharma' got to do with it)?. [2021-05-26]. （原始内容存档于2018-12-16）.  Hiltebeitel, Alf. Dharma: Its Early History in Law, Religion, and Narrative. Oxford University Press, USA. 2011: 36–37 [2021-05-26]. ISBN 978-0-19-539423-8. （原始内容存档于2021-10-31） （英语）.  Ṛgveda(Rigveda) - The Veda. [2021-05-26]. （原始内容存档于2021-05-26）.  𑀥𑀁𑀫. wiktionary. [2021-05-18]. （原始内容存档于2021-04-15）.  * Inscriptions of Asoka. New Edition by E. Hultzsch. 1925: 56–57 （Sanskrit）.  引文格式1维护：未识别语文类型 (link) Mathura lion capital. [2021-06-09]. （原始内容存档于2021-05-01）.  CoinIndia. Coin of both Hermaios and Kujula Kadphises. [2021-06-09]. （原始内容存档于2021-06-09）.  Mon - Aksharamukha. [2021-05-27]. （原始内容存档于2021-05-27）.  * Ahom - Aksharamukha. [2021-05-26]. （原始内容存档于2021-05-26）.  โครงการอักขะระชาติพันธุ์ไต - Tipiṭaka Sajjhāya （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） Tai Tham Ad-hoc Meeting Report (PDF). [2021-06-14]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2020-10-09）.  Denise Cush; Michael York; Catherine Robinson. Encyclopedia of Hinduism. 2012: 455 [2021-06-14]. （原始内容存档于2021-06-14）. For instance, if we find Hindi speakers talking of dharm, Bengalis of dhormo, and Tamils of tharumam, it is useful to know that these are all tatsama forms of the same Sanskrit word dharma.  引文使用过时参数coauthors (帮助) * File:Sri Yashodharman.jpg. [2021-05-28]. （原始内容存档于2021-08-31）.  Fleet, John Faithfull. Inscriptions Of The Early Gupta Kings And Their Successors. 1960: 150-158.  * 義淨. 梵語千字文 (東京東洋文庫本). [2021-05-26]. （原始内容存档于2021-05-18）.  義淨. 梵語千字文 (安永二年敬光刊). [2021-05-18]. （原始内容存档于2021-05-18）.  * Anshuman Pandey. Final proposal to encode Nandinagari in Unicode (PDF). [2021-05-28]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-01-21）.  Anshuman Pandey. Preliminary Proposal to Encode Nandinagari in ISO/IEC 10646 (PDF). [2021-05-28]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-03-09）.  Shriramana Sharma. Proposal to encode characters for Extended Tamil (PDF). [2021-06-10]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-06-10）.  Dieter Maue. Non-Indian Brāhmī scripts along the Silk Roads. 2010 [2021-06-04]. （原始内容存档于2021-06-04）.  * Bali lontar - Palm Leaf Wiki. [2021-05-26]. （原始内容存档于2021-03-05）.  Paparikan Darmapada - Palm Leaf Wiki. [2021-05-26]. （原始内容存档于2021-05-26）.  Javanese character notes - r12a. [2021-05-27]. （原始内容存档于2021-05-27）.  吳昭新. 新編台灣閩南語用字彙編 (PDF). [2021-06-17]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-05-05）. 達：tat8 ……無、麼、摩、磨：moo5  ta̍t 的發音： ta̍t - 臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典.  môo 的發音： môo - 臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典.  * Georgios T. Halkias. When the Greeks Converted the Buddha: Asymmetrical Transfers of Knowledge in Indo-Greek Cultures. [2021-06-07]. （原始内容存档于2021-06-07）. Greco-Bactrian inscription at Jaḡatu, afghanistan, of the sanskrit refuge formula to the “three-jewels”  Bactrian Corpus (NSW) Part No. 125. [2021-06-10]. （原始内容存档于2021-06-10）.  Old Indian Kapāla in a Bactrian Inscription from Qara-Tepe. Bulletin of the Asia Institute. 1994 [2021-06-10]. （原始内容存档于2021-06-10）.  Nicholas Sims-Williams. JAḠATU – Encyclopaedia Iranica. [2021-06-10]. （原始内容存档于2021-06-10）.  Budhist Terminology in Sogdian (PDF). [2021-06-04]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-08-31）.  Georgios T. Halkias. When the Greeks Converted the Buddha: Asymmetrical Transfers of Knowledge in Indo-Greek Cultures. 2014 [2021-06-02]. （原始内容存档于2019-06-07）. In later bilingual Indian-Greek coins, dharma is equated with the Greek word dikē (δίκη), right or justice and is not restricted to eusebeia (εὐσέβεια).  * UNESCO Staff. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. 1994: 400 [2021-05-26]. （原始内容存档于2021-05-26）.  Bilingual (Greek and Aramaic) inscriptions by king Ashoka at Kandahar. [2021-05-26]. （原始内容存档于2021-06-08）.  Michaël Peyrot. Points of Tocharian Agramma (PDF). [2021-06-04]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-06-04）.  Tocharian word of the week: "dharma".  Mauro Maggi. A folio of the Ratnakūṭa (Kāśyapaparivarta) in Khotanese. 法鼓佛學學報. 2015 [2021-06-05]. （原始内容存档于2021-06-06）.  The Turkic Peoples of Central Asia and Buddhism. [2021-06-04]. （原始内容存档于2021-06-04）. Tremblay made the point that both the Uyghur and the Manichaean Sogdian terms were independently copied from spoken Buddhist Sogdian. The frequent usage of nwm for Skt. dharma instead of the Buddhist Sogdian loanword δrm in Uyghur Buddhist texts would point in the same direction: nwm  * Peter Zieme. The first leaf of an Old Uyghur 觀無量壽經 Guanwuliangshoujing translation. Written Monuments of the Orient. 2020 [2021-06-05]. （原始内容存档于2021-06-05）.  Uğur UZUNKAYA. A Fragment of Old Uyghur Uṣṇīṣavijayā-nāma-dhāraṇī from the Berlin Turfan Collection. [2021-06-10]. （原始内容存档于2021-06-10）.  Edited by Khulan D. English-Mongolian Buddhist Glossary. [2021-05-26]. （原始内容存档于2021-05-26）.  莊吉發. 國立故宮博物院典藏《大藏經》滿文譯本研究. 東方宗教研究. 1990 [2021-05-26]. （原始内容存档于2021-02-27）. 「法輪」，滿文譯作"nomun i kurdun"……「而為沙門，受佛法者」，滿文譯作"fucihi i nomun be aliha sarmana" ，意即「受佛法之沙門」  西夏文 - 古今文字集成. [2021-05-26]. （原始内容存档于2021-05-21）.  * Heleen Plaisier. 3. Unravelling Lepcha manuscripts. [2021-06-02]. （原始内容存档于2021-06-28）. In the titles of Lepcha works......cho (book, learning)......These designations are obviously direct loans from equivalent categories in Tibetan literature......Chos......Indeed, a Lepcha book, referred to as cho, typically conveys a canonical message  Albert Grünwedel. Dictionary of the Lepcha-language. [2021-06-02]. （原始内容存档于2021-06-02）.  H. Plaisier. Chapter Four. Nominal Morphology. ᰇᰨᰎᰴ cho–pang......books  * 臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典 - 法. [2021-05-26]. （原始内容存档于2021-05-26）.  香港小學習字表 - 法. [2021-05-26]. （原始内容存档于2021-05-26）.  David Wharton. Language, Orthography and Buddhist Manuscript Culture of the Tai Nuea – An Apocryphal Jātaka Text in Mueang Sing, Laos. University of Passau. 2018: 240 [2021-05-26]. （原始内容存档于2021-02-04）.  Stephen Morey. Ahom and Tangsa: Case studies of language maintenance and loss in North East India (PDF). Language Documentation & Conservation. 2014, 7 [2021-06-20]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2017-11-14）.  Marseille, Carmen Eva. Shan-Ni grammar and processes of linguistic change. 2019: 34 [2021-05-26]. （原始内容存档于2021-05-26）.  * d'Hubert, Thibaut. A Persian Account of the Religious Customs of the Magh (Arakanese) from Early Colonial Bengal. Iranian Studies. 2018 [2021-06-03]. （原始内容存档于2021-06-03）. By the blessing of Tārā (i.e Dharma)......The term tārā transcribes the Arakanese/Burmese tarāḥ, which may be translated as "precept"or "law". This is the same term used by the Chakmas to designate the ritual texts called Āgar tārā, that the Luris used to recite on various occasions.  d'Hubert, Thibaut. India beyond the Ganges: Defining Arakanese Buddhism in Persianate colonial Bengal. The Indian Economic and Social History Review,. 2019 [2021-06-03]. （原始内容存档于2021-06-03）. Then, follows a brief comment on how one may become a Magh by reciting the ten tārā (Burmese tarāḥ; Pali dhamma,‘precepts, laws’)  Buddhist Traditions and its Development among the Chakmas: A Historical Perspective (PDF). The Chakma Voice. 2010: 33–38 [2021-06-03]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-06-03）. According to Bechert, Tara means Dharma or religion......According to other......Tara means religious literature  Sushant Chakma; Jyotir Moy Chakma. A Short Introduction to Chakma Manuscripts. SEEMAANT. 2017: 99–104 [2021-06-07]. （原始内容存档于2021-06-07）.  引文使用过时参数coauthors (帮助) Vinodh Rajan. Aksharamukha : Script Converter. [2021-06-01]. （原始内容存档于2021-07-05）.  polyhedron. 做了一個滿文阿禮嘎禮的輸入法. [2021-05-31]. （原始内容存档于2021-06-03）.  Carol Henderson Garcia Culture and customs of India. 2002, page 31 Brodd, Jefferey. World Religions. Winona, MN: Saint Mary's Press. 2003. ISBN 978-0-88489-725-5.