瑟索克購地

瑟索克購地是犹太人在早期移民巴勒斯坦时期於耶斯列谷、海法湾以及巴勒斯坦託管地其他地区最大規模的土地购买。 耶斯列谷被认为是巴勒斯坦土地最肥沃的地区。 1946 年 2 月 25 日，在阿拉伯高级委员会提交給英美调查委员会的备忘录中的一份非全面清单指出，瑟索克購地佔犹太人從在外地主购入的土地中的 58%。 這些土地的新猶太人买家要求现有居民遷離土地。结果，許多巴勒斯坦阿拉伯佃农被驱逐，大约有20-25 个村庄被荒廢。根据託管地法律，买家无需就此賠偿，只有小部份被驱逐的居民获得賠偿。 直到 1948 年，瑟索克家族及其合作夥伴賣地的总金额占犹太人在巴勒斯坦购买的全部土地的 22%。正如錫安主義領袖亚瑟·鲁平于 1907 年首次提出，瑟索克購地对于巴勒斯坦犹太人定居点的领土连续性至关重要。 在奥斯曼帝国统治时期的巴勒斯坦，由于低地平原的環境恶劣和生活不安全，令人口不斷减少。然而这并非该地区独有特徵，地中海北部和南部所有沿海地区都有此普遍情況。錫安主义的犹太工人優先理念意味着尽可能將当地的阿拉伯劳动力排除於猶太人購入的土地。 1872 年，鄂圖曼政府以大约 20,000 英镑作價将耶斯列谷（阿拉伯语为 Marj ibn Amir）卖给了瑟索克家族。瑟索克家族隨後继续購得超过 400,000德南的土地（90,000 英亩或 364平方公里 )。这種賣地持续了多年。 根据社會運動家弗朗西斯·E·牛顿在梳爾委员会的證词指出瑟索克购地的起源：「……透过瑟索克向鄂圖曼政府提供的贷款，这些土地由瑟索克購入。这更像是一种抵押，瑟索克只是在收回借出的錢中十分之一的利息。土耳其政府从未打算要阿拉伯人离开这片土地。……在最初，瑟索克并没有為拥有的土地申請地契，至后来瑟索克才向政府申请地契。」 1878 年，探險家 Claude Reignier Conder 解释如下： 我们查明了一个展露政府不道德的的奇怪事实。政府因对一位名叫瑟索克的希腊银行家负有債务，所以允许他以小得可笑的 20,000 英镑额购买大平原的北半部和拿撒勒的一些村庄，總占地達 70 平方英里，二十个村庄的税收总计为 4000 英镑，将好坏收成年計算在內，平均收入不可能低于 12,000 英镑。在瑟索克的管理下，耕作物品质提升了。假如這些土地能確保永久擁有，这财产肯定是非常宝贵的，但政府极有可能在有需要時再次征收土地。农民将这次购地归咎于俄罗斯的阴谋，他们深信這個可恨的敌人将他的贪婪目光投向了巴勒斯坦和作为宗教之都的耶路撒冷，並且一直忙于在此建立根據。 1891年，几年前从俄罗斯移民到巴勒斯坦的錫安主義者約書亞·汉金展開收购耶斯列谷的磋商；後來当奥斯曼政府颁布禁止犹太人移民的法令时，磋商中止。 現代以色列的國父西奥多·赫茨尔在1897 年 3 月 10 日他的日记中提到瑟索克家族正与犹太殖民协会就购买 97 个巴勒斯坦村庄進行磋商： 犹太殖民协会目前正在与一个希腊家族（我认为名叫瑟索克）进行磋商，以购买 97 个巴勒斯坦村庄。这些住在巴黎的希腊人把錢都赌輸了，并希望出售他们的房地产（根据 Willi Bambus 的说法，佔巴勒斯坦整个地区的3％），代價为 700 万法郎。 世界錫安主義組織认为耶斯列谷是巴勒斯坦最具战略性的地区，甚至比沿海地区更具吸引力，因为此地区可进行大规模的农业活動，大面積的購地可加速定居的進度。相反在沿海地区，可供购买的土地较小，土地相對較不肥沃。奥斯曼政府曾多次尝试限制大规模購地和移民，但礙于欧洲戰勝國對奥斯曼帝國的投降条款施压，这些限制并没有持续多久。 在耶路撒冷穆塔薩勒夫被禁止購地後，犹太殖民协会於1901 年进行了第一次重大收购，从瑟索克家族及其合作伙伴手中购入了巴勒斯坦北部提比里亚附近 31,500 德南的土地。 另一宗早期錫安主义者从瑟索克家族的土地收購被称为「富拉事件」（有时被错误地称为「阿富拉事件」）。 1910-11 年，艾利亞斯·瑟索克将位于耶斯列谷拿撒勒山脚的艾爾富拉卖给犹太国家基金。巴勒斯坦农民拒绝离开这片土地，拿撒勒凱馬坎（地方长官） Shukri al-Asali 奋力推翻收購，并拒绝確認交易。 村民们自行向大維齊爾递交了一份请愿书，投訴遭到壓迫。在请愿书中，他们声称艾利亞斯·瑟索克和一个中间人将他们的土地卖给了他们称为「錫安主义者」和「摩西宗教之子」（ siyonist musevi ）的人，这些人不是奥斯曼帝国的子民，此交易将剥夺1000名村民的生计。 在早期关于土地纠纷的请愿书中，请愿者习惯称犹太人为「以色列人」（ Isra'iliyyun ）。 這次反对猶太人購地的政治活动被視為「第一个反对錫安主義日益增长的聯合行动」和「第一次世界大战爆发前发生的最重要的反錫安主義事件」 奥斯曼帝国拒绝批准大量購地，直至第一次世界大战開始前，瑟索克家族无法再向犹太买家出售大量土地。1912 年，巴勒斯坦土地开发公司(PLDC) 已準備好從瑟索克家族购入耶斯列谷的大片土地。由于第一次世界大战爆發，交易没有完成。 1918 年 12 月 18 日，协议正式签订，交易涵盖耶斯列谷 71,356 德南土地，包括泰勒阿達希姆。 在英国託管开始后，1920 年的土地转让条例取消了所有限制。 1921 至 1925 年间，美国锡安联邦(AZC)以作價大约75 万英镑從瑟索克家族購入 80,000 亩（320平方公里）耶斯列谷的土地予，用作重新安置居住在这片土地上的犹太人以及来自較遠地區的犹太人。 1924 年，巴勒斯坦犹太人殖民协会(PICA) 成立，接替了犹太人殖民协会的角色，PICA 成为巴勒斯坦最大的犹太地主。与此同时，PLDC 充当了犹太國家基金的采购單位。犹太國家基金領導人梅納罕·烏西什金主張优先購買这些土地，因為此策略烏西什金遭到其他董事会成员的排斥，原因是昂贵的收购開支佔用了基金接下来十年中大部分的资金。 在英国託管時期，土地法被改写，巴勒斯坦农民被英国当局视为佃农。即使面对当地人的反对，当局仍然维護瑟索克家族出售土地和迁移土地上的人口的权利。在一些被收购的村庄，特别是居住在耶斯列谷村庄的租户，在土地被出售后頓時流离失所。新猶太买家要求现有人口遷離，结果，巴勒斯坦阿拉伯佃农被驱逐，根据新的託管地法律，买家无需就此賠偿，只有小部份被驱逐的居民获得賠偿。有被驱逐的租户（最大規模购地中的1,746 个阿拉伯农民家庭，8,730 人）獲得了每人 17 美元的賠偿。 尽管土地已被出售（例如在阿富拉），一些前租户拒绝搬遷。然而，在伊舒夫的土地劳动理念的推动下，新业主认为这些农民留在供犹太劳工勞動的土地作为租户是不合适的。英国警察不得不驱逐一些被無家可歸的人到沿海區寻找新工作，其中大多数人最终住在雅法和海法边缘的棚户区。 瑟索克购地成为 1930 年梳爾委员会的焦点。前拿撒勒市长的儿子、巴勒斯坦裔美国人 Saleem Raji Farah ，准备了一份详细的瑟索克购地列表，作为委员会的證据，顯示交易前住在 240,000 德南的土地上的 1,746 个家庭因猶太人購地而流离失所： 瑟索克家族另外亦出售了包括以下村庄： Khirbat al-Shuna Malhamiyah (現今Menahemia ) 购买土地后，犹太农民建立了第一个现代定居点，即今天的阿夫拉城。犹太人將沼泽抽干了，使几个世纪以来不能居住的的土地得以進一步开发。1921 年 9 月 11 日，以色列的第一个莫沙夫拿哈拉正式建立。在拿哈拉长大的軍事家摩西·达扬於1969年提起該莫沙夫以及其他三个属于瑟索克购地的地方——是「这个国家的没有一个地方以前是沒有阿拉伯人居住的」的例子： 我們來到這個國家時，這片土地早已住滿阿拉伯人，又我們正在這裡建立一個希伯來、猶太人的國家……猶太人的村莊建在阿拉伯人村莊的土地上。你甚至不知道這些阿拉伯人村莊的名字，但我不會責怪你，因為這些地理書本已不再存在，就連這些阿拉伯人村莊也不再存在。拿哈拉在Mahalul土地中豎立，Gvat 以前是 Jibta、撒立以前是 Haneifs，卡法約書亞以前是 Tell Shaman. 这个国家的没有一个地方以前是沒有阿拉伯人居住的。 Laurens, Henry. La Question de Palestine. vol.2 (Une mission sacrée de civilisation). Paris: Fayard. 2002: 143–148. ISBN 2-213-61251-X （法语）.  Avneri, Arieh L. The Claim of Dispossession : Jewish Land-Settlement and the Arabs 1878–1948. New Brunswick (USA) and London. 1984: 117–130. ISBN 0-87855-964-7.  Hadawi 1988，第72頁: "In ancient times, Esdraelon was the granary of the country, and is regarded by the Palestinians as the most fertile tract of land in Palestine . The bitterness felt owing to the sale of large areas by the absentee Sursock family to the Jews and the displacement of the Arab tenants remained unresolved." sfn error: no target: CITEREFHadawi1988 (help) Hadawi 1988，第66頁: "266,500 dunums out of a total of 461,250 then identified. Note that the memorandum, prepared by Dr. Yusif Sayegh, was compiled from a field survey conducted in only part of Palestine. Sayegh explained: “The real total area sold this way is definitely more. The fuller the data, the less the blame to attach to Palestinian Arabs”". sfn error: no target: CITEREFHadawi1988 (help) Mark Sanagan. Lightning through the Clouds: ʿIzz al-Din al-Qassam and the Making of the Modern Middle East. University of Texas Press. 3 May 2020: 112–113 [2021-08-24]. ISBN 978-1-4773-2058-7. （原始内容存档于2021-08-24）.  Palestine: Report on Immigration, Land Settlement and Development - UK Government report - Non-UN document (see attached also as PDF file at the end of the doc) (1 October 1930). unispal.un.org. [2021-08-24]. （原始内容存档于2021-06-16）.  Khalidi 1997，第113頁: "more than 240,000 dunums... sold by the Sursuq family of Beirut and a number of their Lebanese partners in 1924–25. Together with the other lands in the Marj Ibn ‘Amir (such as al-Fula), sold to the Zionists before 1914 by the Sursuqs and their business partners... this single bloc in one region amounts to 313,000 dunums, or more than 22 percent of all the land purchased by Jews in Palestine until 1948. This would seem to contradict Stein’s assertion that the Marj Ibn ‘Amir sale had “important sig nificance, but certainly not the political value given it by many writers.” And these figures on the size of this sale do not even touch on the purchase’s vital importance in terms of the territorial continuity of Jewish settlement in Palestine, which was first pointed out by Ruppin in 1907, and is correctly emphasized by Gershon Shafir." sfn error: no target: CITEREFKhalidi1997 (help) Henry Laurens, La Question de Palestine, Fayard 2002 p.143. Henry Laurens 2002 p.126. Anonymous. Personal recollections of Turkish misrule and corruption in Syria, by a Syrian. 1877: 14.  Frantzman, Seth J.; Kark, Ruth. Bedouin Settlement in Late Ottoman and British Mandatory Palestine: Influence on the Cultural and Environmental Landscape, 1870–1948. New Middle Eastern Studies. 2011, 1: 1–22 [p. 8]. doi:10.29311/nmes.v1i0.2600.  Zionist Land Broker. islam.ru. [November 12, 2015]. （原始内容存档于2021-06-06）.  LIFE IN MODERN PALESTINE. archive.org.  Palestine Commission on the Disturbances of August, 1929, Volume 1, p.433 Conder, Claude Reignier. Tent Work in Palestine: A Record of Discovery and Adventure. R. Bentley & Son. 1878: 165–66 [2021-08-24]. （原始内容存档于2021-08-28）.  Ruppin, Arthur. Three Decades of Palestine: Speeches and Papers on the Upbuilding of the Jewish National Home. Greenwood Press. 1975: 182 [2021-08-24]. ISBN 978-0-8371-2629-6. （原始内容存档于2021-08-24）. In order to execute this plan the Jaffa office communicated with Messrs. Kalvariski and Joshua Hankin. The latter, then a young man of twenty-five had already demonstrated his skill in such negotiations in the acquisition of land for the colonies Rehoboth and Hederah. By energetic work he succeeded, in 1891, in reaching an agreement with large owners in the Jezreel Valley Emek Jezreel and the Plain of Acco for the purchase of 160,000 dunams [160 km²] at 15 francs per dunam [15,000 franc/km²]....Before the consummation of the agreement, however the Turkish Government, alarmed by the increasing inflow of Russian Jews, prohibited Jewish immigration entirely. This blow proved disastrous for the negotiations. The Russian societies formed for the purposes of purchasing land were dissolved, failed to send in the money they had promised, and the entire magnificent project fell through...It was only in 1910 that Hankin – who, in the meanwhile, had purchased land in Lower Galilee for the ICA – resumed his negotiations for land in the Emek.  The Complete Diaries of Theodor Herzl, ed. Raphael Patai, Herzl Press and Thomas Yoseloff, New York-London, vol.2, p.519 Sufian, Sandra. Healing the Land and the Nation: Malaria and the Zionist Project in Palestine, 1920–1947. University of Chicago.  Neville J. Mandel. The Arabs and Zionism Before World War I. University of California Press. 1976: 22. ISBN 978-0-520-02466-3. In 1897, the year of the first Zionist Congress, a commission was set up in Jerusalem to scrutinise land sales to Jews... the commission effectively halted land sales to Jews in the Mutasarriflik for the next few years. Thus, when the Jewish Colonization Association (JCA — an organisation founded by Baron Maurice de Hirsch in 1891 and un-connected with the Zionist Movement) began to interest itself in Palestine in 1896, it very quickly discovered that the possibilities of buying land were wider in the north of the country... The breakthrough, from JCA's point of view, came in 1901 when the Council of Ministers ruled that JCA’s President, Narcisse Leven, could, as a foreigner, buy land in the Vilayet of Beirut under the Ottoman Land Code of 1867, provided that he undertook not to install foreign Jews on it. The very fact that this concession could be granted shortly after the 1901 regulations went into force points to another weakness in the Government's handling of its own policy. Under this concession, JCA acquired 31,500 dunams of land near Tiberias in the early part of 1901, mainly from the Sursuq family of Beirut.  Khalid A. Sulaiman. Palestine and Modern Arab Poetry. Zed Books. 1984: 9 [2021-08-24]. ISBN 978-0-86232-238-0. （原始内容存档于2021-11-16）.  Ben-Bassat,Yuval, Reactions to Zionist Activity in Palestine before and after the Young Turk Revolution of 1908 as Reflected in Petitions to Istanbul,' （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）Middle Eastern Studies, May 2013,volume =49,3, pp=349–363, pp.355–356 Emanuel Beska, 2014, Political Opposition to Zionism in Palestine and Greater Syria: 1910–1911 as a Turning Point （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）: "In 1910, the Lebanese landlord Najib Ibrahim al-Asfar began to seek a long-term lease (for a period of 95 years) of the extensive crown lands in Palestine and Syria. A false rumor spread that al-Asfar was acting in the interest of the Zionists... al-Karmil became the most important source of information on Zionist endeavors for other Arabic newspapers in Palestine and beyond. Khayriyya Qasimiyya rightly labels its campaign against the lease of crown lands as “the first concerted action against the growing Zionist activities.” As the debate regarding the crown lands was still under way another, more important event started to develop. The sale of lands of the village of al-Fula to the Jewish National Fund can be considered in this context the most significant event that took place in the period before the outbreak of the First World War. The lands of al-Fula belonged to Ilyas Sursuq, the wealthy Greek Orthodox banker, merchant, and landowner from Beirut, who in 1910 reached a deal on their sale with the Zionists... The peasant inhabitants refused to leave their village and were supported in their resistance by the qa’immaqam (district governor) of Nazareth, Shukri al-‘Asali (1878–1916), who was resolutely opposed to this transaction and became a major protagonist in the affair." Glass 2018，第194頁. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGlass2018 (help) Glass 2018，第196-197頁. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGlass2018 (help) Smith, Barbara Jean. The Roots of Separatism in Palestine: British Economic Policy, 1920–1929. Syracuse University Press. 1993: 96–97. ISBN 0-8156-2578-2.  Safarix.com 互联网档案馆的存檔，存档日期11 February 2007., pg. 49 Norman, Theodore (1985). An Outstretched Arm: A History of the Jewish Colonization Association. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Stein, Kenneth W. Jewish National Fund: Land Purchase Methods and Priorities, 1924–1939. Middle Eastern Studies. 1984, 20 (2): 190–205 [p. 194]. JSTOR 4282996.  Stein, Kenneth W. The Land Question in Palestine, 1917–1939. University of North Carolina Press. 1987: 60. ISBN 0-8078-1579-9.  Shaw Commission Report 1930 (Cmd.3530), p. 118 Tessler, Mark A. A History of the Israeli–Palestinian Conflict. Indiana University Press. 1994: 177. ISBN 0-253-35848-5. The Sursock deal is known to have involved the eviction of about 8000 tenants 'compensated' at three pounds ten shillings [about $17] a head.  Buying the Emek by Arthur Ruppin, 1929 (with an introduction). Zionism-israel.com. [24 March 2013]. （原始内容存档于2021-03-29）.  ESCO Foundation 1947，第616頁. sfn error: no target: CITEREFESCO_Foundation1947 (help) Hadawi 1970，第27頁. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHadawi1970 (help) List of villages sold by Sursocks and their partners to the Zionists since British occupation of Palestine, evidence to the Shaw Commission, 1930, p.1074, exhibit 71 Said and Hitchens, 2001, p. 217 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）; notes 28, 29, on p. 232 Bernard Reich and David H. Goldberg. Historical Dictionary of Israel 2. Scarecrow Press. 2008: 329.  Rogan, E.; Shlaim, A. The War for Palestine: Rewriting the History of 1948. Cambridge University Press. 2001: 207 [2021-08-24]. ISBN 0-521-79476-5. （原始内容存档于2021-08-24）.