人类演化历程

人类演化历程记录了人及其祖先在发展与演化过程中的重要事件，还包括对可能是人类祖先的物种的简要介绍。但其中并不包含生命起源的内容，只是描述从生命诞生直至演化为人类的可能历程。本条目的内容都基于对古生物学、发育生物学、形态学的研究，以及解剖学和遗传学的数据。对人类演化的研究是人类学的一个重要分支。 以下为现代人类的生物学分类： 地球历史 博物学 世界历史 人类演化 生命演化历程 演化的證據 演化 "'Experiments with sex have been very hard to conduct,' Goddard said. 'In an experiment, one needs to hold all else constant, apart from the aspect of interest. This means that no higher organisms can be used, since they have to have sex to reproduce and therefore provide no asexual control.' Goddard and colleagues instead turned to a single-celled organism, yeast, to test the idea that sex allows populations to adapt to new conditions more rapidly than asexual populations." Sex Speeds Up Evolution, Study Finds （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）（URL accessed on January 9, 2005） "Proterospongia is a rare freshwater protist, a colonial member of the Choanoflagellata." "Proterospongia itself is not the ancestor of sponges. However, it serves as a useful model for what the ancestor of sponges and other metazoans may have been like." http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/protista/proterospongia.html （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） Berkeley University "It is possible that Pikaia, until now the cynosure of Cambrianchordates, is peripheral to the line-age leading to the vertebrates." http://creation.com/images/pdfs/tj/j18_1/j18_1_10-11.pdf （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） "Obviously vertebrates must have had ancestors living in the Cambrian, but they were assumed to be invertebrate forerunners of the true vertebrates—protochordates. Pikaia has been heavily promoted as the oldest fossil protochordate." Richard Dawkins 2004 The Ancestor's Tale Page 289, ISBN 0-618-00583-8 These first vertebrates lacked jaws, like the living hagfish and lampreys. Jawed vertebrates appeared 100 million years later, in the Silurian. http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/vertintro.html （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） Berkeley University "Bones of first gill arch became upper and lower jaws." (Image) （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）（URL accessed on November 16, 2006） "Lungfish are believed to be the closest living relatives of the tetrapods, and share a number of important characteristics with them. Among these characters are tooth enamel, separation of pulmonary blood flow from body blood flow, arrangement of the skull bones, and the presence of four similarly sized limbs with the same position and structure as the four tetrapod legs." http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/sarco/dipnoi.html （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） Berkeley University "the ancestor that amphibians share with reptiles and ourselves? " " These possibly transitional fossils have been much studied, among them Acanthostega, which seems to have been wholly aquatic, and Ichthyostega" Richard Dawkins 2004 The Ancestor's Tale page 250, ISBN 0-618-00583-8 "In many respects, the pelycosaurs are intermediate between the reptiles and mammals" http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/synapsids/pelycosaurs.html （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） Berkeley University "Tlvinaxodon, like any fossil, should be thought of as a cousin of our ancestor, not the ancestor itself. It was a member of a group of mammal-like reptiles called the cynodonts. The cynodonts were so mammal-like, it is tempting to call them mammals. But who cares what we call them? They are almost perfect intermediates." Richard Dawkins 2004 The Ancestor's Tale page 211, ISBN 0-618-00583-8 "Fossils that might help us reconstruct what Concestor 8 was like include the large group called plesiadapi-forms. They lived about the right time, and they have many of the qualities you would expect of the grand ancestor of all the primates" Richard Dawkins 2004 The Ancestor's Tale page 136, ISBN 0-618-00583-8 Raauma, Ryan, Sternera, K.，（2005）"Catarrhine primate divergence dates estimated from complete mitochondrial genomes", Journal of Human Evolution 48: 237-257 [1] （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） Perlman, David. Fossils From Ethiopia May Be Earliest Human Ancestor. National Geographic News. July 12, 2001 [July 2009]. （原始内容存档于2012-10-11）. Another co-author is Tim D. White, a paleoanthropologist at UC-Berkeley who in 1994 discovered a pre-human fossil, named Ardipithecus ramidus, that was then the oldest known, at 4.4 million years.  White, Tim D.; Asfaw, Berhane; Beyene, Yonas; Haile-Selassie, Yohannes; Lovejoy, C. Owen; Suwa, Gen; WoldeGabriel, Giday. Ardipithecus ramidus and the Paleobiology of Early Hominids.. Science. 2009, 326 (5949): 75–86. doi:10.1126/science.1175802.  引文使用过时参数coauthors (帮助) NOVA: Becoming Human Part 2 http://video.pbs.org/video/1319997127/ （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） Green, R. E., Krause, J, Ptak, S. E., Briggs, A. W., Ronan, M. T., Simons, J. F., et al.（2006）Analysis of one million base pairs of Neanderthal DNA. Nature, 16, 330–336. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v444/n7117/abs/nature05336.html （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） "Rubin also said analysis so far suggests human and Neanderthal DNA are some 99.5 percent to nearly 99.9 percent identical." Neanderthal bone gives DNA clues （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）（URL accessed on November 16, 2006） "The conclusion is the old saw that we share 98.5% of our DNA sequence with chimpanzee is probably in error. For this sample, a better estimate would be that 95% of the base pairs are exactly shared between chimpanzee and human DNA." Britten, R.J. Divergence between samples of chimpanzee and human DNA sequences is 5%, counting indels. PNAS. 2002, 99: 13633. PMID 12368483. doi:10.1073/pnas.172510699.  "...of the three billion letters that make up the human genome, only 15 million--less than 1 percent--have changed in the six million years or so since the human and chimp lineages diverged." Pollard, K.S., What makes us human?, Scientific American, 2009, 300–5: 44–49.  Krause J, Lalueza-Fox C, Orlando L, Enard W, Green RE, Burbano HA, Hublin JJ, Hänni C, Fortea J, de la Rasilla M, Bertranpetit J, Rosas A, Pääbo S. The derived FOXP2 variant of modern humans was shared with Neandertals. Curr. Biol. November 2007, 17 (21): 1908–12. PMID 17949978. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2007.10.008. （原始内容存档于2013-05-10） 使用|archiveurl=需要含有|url= (帮助). 简明摘要 – New York Times (2007-10-19).  使用|accessdate=需要含有|url= (帮助) Genetic Analysis of Lice Supports Direct Contact between Modern and Archaic Humans Reed DL, Smith VS, Hammond SL, Rogers AR, Clayton DH PLoS Biology Vol. 2, No. 11, e340 doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020340 http://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=slideshow&type=figure&doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0020340&id=15540 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） Homo sapiens sapiens 不為學界多數一致認可。