德內-高加索語系

本页面有國際音標符号，操作系统及浏览器須支持特殊字母与符号才能正確显示为正确的IPA符号，否则可能變成乱码、问号、空格等其它符号。 德内－高加索语系（Dené-Caucasian），或译作達內－高加索語系，亦称汉－高加索语系（Sino–Caucasian），是一个假设的超语系，包括汉藏语系、布鲁夏斯基语、叶尼塞语系、北高加索語系、北美的纳－德内语系，甚至是欧洲的瓦斯科尼亚语系（英语：Vasconic languages）（包括巴斯克语）。有时苏美尔语和阿尔吉克语系（阿尔冈昆－瓦卡希语系（英语：Algonquian–Wakashan languages））也被归入其中。该语系存在与否还处在争议中，大部分关于该超语系的研究在20世纪90年代之后才开始展开。 2008年语言学家愛德華·瓦伊達提出了一个范围更小的超语系假说，即德內－葉尼塞語系，该假说认为西伯利亚的叶尼塞语系与北美的纳－德内语系存在同源关系，该假说获得了许多历史语言学家的认可。但至今，多数语言学家仍对德內－高加索語系假说持怀疑或否定态度。 20世紀時，特隆贝蒂（英语：Alfredo Trombetti）、薩丕爾、布雷齐斯特内（英语：Robert Bleichsteiner）、斯瓦迪士和托普洛夫（英语：Vladimir Toporov）等學者先後提出類似於德內－高加索语系的假说，并对该问题进行了相关探索。20世纪80年代，苏联语言学家斯塔罗斯金提出汉－高加索语系假说，指出高加索语、叶尼塞语和汉藏语可能具有同源关系，并提供了大量的语言学证据。80年代末，本特森也加入到这项假说的研究中来。 汉－高加索语系的成员自该假说提出后就不断扩充。1991年，尼古拉耶夫证明了高加索语与纳－德内语的发生学关系，从而在该超语系假说中加入纳－德内语。1996年，本特森（英语：John Bengtson）将瓦斯科尼亚语系（英语：Vasconic languages）（这一语系包括巴斯克语、阿基坦语甚至是伊比利亚语（英语：Iberian language））纳入该超語系假说中，1997年，本特森又将布魯夏斯基語纳入。扩充后的假说被称为“德內－高加索語系”。 2005年，斯塔罗斯金进一步提出“德內－台语系”假说，该假说假定德內－高加索語系和澳语系为德內－台语系的两个分支，这个更为宏大的假说将汉藏语、北高加索语、侗台语、苗瑶语、南亚语、南岛语等许多语系包含进来。斯塔罗斯金还猜测德內－台语系可能于公元前一万年分化，形成了德內－高加索語系和澳语系两大分支。 以斯塔罗斯金为首的莫斯科学派坚信“基本词汇对应是证明发生学关系的关键”，他们因此以语言年代学为基础，依照词汇对应等为证据对德內－高加索语系展开论证，但是他们并不注重考古学等旁证。至2005年，斯塔罗斯金提供了956组词汇对应形式，以证明汉藏语、高加索语等语言之间存在同源关系。其中有一部分词汇原始形态存在明显的相似，如： 有些词汇原始形态不甚近似，但在高加索语中的语音变化却与汉藏语一致，如“血”一词在高加索语系的达吉语中读 "ħi" ，而在汉藏语系的杜密语中读 "hi" 。除词汇对应外，斯塔罗斯金及其同事还发现了高加索语与汉藏语之间的数种语音对应和形态对应形式。在语音对应方面，斯塔罗斯金认为原始德内－高加索语边塞音/tˡ/、/dˡ/在原始汉藏语中分化，词首保留边音/l/、/tˡ/，词尾则变成软腭音/k/；斯塔罗斯金亦发现原始高加索语的紧音与叶尼塞语的喉塞音/ʔ/对应，并猜测这种对应与原始德内－高加索语的超音段成分有关。 斯塔罗斯金等莫斯科学派语言学家坚信人类语言的单一起源论，并开展了名为“巴別塔計劃”的研究项目，斯塔罗斯金本人提出了“汉－高加索语系”并认为納－德內語可能属于汉－高加索语系，其同事则展开了汉－高加索语系与納－德內語等其它语系的比较。根据研究成果，斯塔罗斯金及其同事整理出如下的谱系树，并通过修订语言年代学估算了德內－高加索語系各语言的分化时间： 本特森(John D. Bengtson)把巴斯克語、高加索語及布魯夏斯基語組合成為大高加索語系(Macro-Caucasian family)。本特森并未对大高加索语系之外的德內－高加索語系分支画出详细的谱系树，而是将这些分支暂时直接放在德內－高加索語系之下，因为他认为目前对这些分支的研究尚不成熟。本特森也留意到蘇美爾語在地理上與其西支及東支分享着相同的等語線。 德內－葉尼塞語門 语言系属分类 祖語 汉－高加索语系的范围与德内－高加索语系有所不同，汉－高加索语系通常不包括納－德內語和瓦斯科尼亚语系，见该章节。 Sanchez-Mazas, Alicia; Blench, Roger; Ross, Malcolm D.; Peiros, Ilia; Lin, Marie. Past Human Migrations in East Asia: Matching Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics. 2008-07-25 [2020-01-28]. ISBN 9781134149629. （原始内容存档于2020-03-28）.  Campbell, Lyle（英语：Lyle Campbell） (1997). American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 286-288 Goddard, Ives（英语：Ives Goddard） (1996). "The Classification of the Native Languages of North America". In Ives Goddard, ed., "Languages". Vol. 17 of William Sturtevant, ed., Handbook of North American Indians. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. pg. 318 Trask, R. L.（英语：Larry Trask） (2000). The Dictionary of Historical and Comparative Linguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pg. 85 Dalby, Andrew (1998). Dictionary of Languages. New York: Columbia University Press. pg. 434 参见 Starostin 1984, Starostin 1991 参见 Nikola(y)ev 1991 李艳 2012，第237-239頁 李艳 2012，第241頁 李艳 2012，第242-247頁 李艳 2012，第248-251頁 參见 The preliminary phylogenetic tree according to the Tower of Babel Project 見 Bengtson 1997a 見 Bengtson 1997b BENEDICT, Paul K., 1972. Sino-Tibetan: A Conspectus: 103ff; Ed. by J. A. Matisoff. Cambridge University Press. BENGTSON, John D., Materials for a Comparative Grammar of the Dene–Caucasian (Sino-Caucasian) Languages. (PDF), Aspects of Comparative Linguistics 3, Moscow: RSUH Publishers: 45–118, 2008 [2010-07-03], （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2011-06-08）  BENGTSON, John D., 2004. "Some features of Dene–Caucasian phonology (with special reference to Basque)." In Cahiers de l'Institut de Linguistique de Louvain (CILL): 33–54. BENGTSON, John D., 2003. "Notes on Basque Comparative Phonology." Mother Tongue 8: 21–39. BENGTSON, John D., 2002. "The Dene–Caucasian noun prefix *s-." In The Linguist's Linguist: A Collection of Papers in Honour of Alexis Manaster Ramer, ed. by F. Cavoto, pp. 53–57. Munich: LINCOM Europa. BENGTSON, John D., 1999a. "Review of R.L. Trask, The History of Basque." In Romance Philology 52 (Spring): 219–224. BENGTSON, John D., 1999b. "Wider genetic affiliations of the Chinese language." Journal of Chinese Linguistics 27 (1): 1–12.*BENGTSON, John D., 1994. "Edward Sapir and the 'Sino-Dene' Hypothesis." Anthropological Science (Tokyo) 102: 207-230. BENGTSON, John D., 1998. "Caucasian and Sino-Tibetan: A Hypothesis of S. A. Starostin." General Linguistics, Vol. 36, no. 1/2, 1998 (1996). Pegasus Press, University of North Carolina, Asheville, North Carolina. BENGTSON, John D., 1997a. "Ein Vergleich von Buruschaski und Nordkaukasisch [A comparison of B. and North Caucasian]." Georgica 20: 88–94. BENGTSON, John D., 1997b. "The riddle of Sumerian: A Dene–Caucasic language?" Mother Tongue 3: 63–74. BENGTSON, John D., 1996. "A Final (?) Response to the Basque Debate in Mother Tongue 1." (see External links below) BERGER, Hermann, 1998. Die Burushaski-Sprache von Hunza und Nager. 3 volumes. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. BERGER, Hermann, 1974. Das Yasin-Burushaski (Werchikwar). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. BOMHARD, Allan R.（英语：Allan R. Bomhard）, 1997. "On the origin of Sumerian." Mother Tongue 3: 75-93. CATFORD, J. C., 1977. "Mountain of Tongues: The languages of the Caucasus." Annual Review of Anthropology 6: 283-314. DIAKONOFF, Igor M., 1997. "External Connections of the Sumerian Language." Mother Tongue 3: 54-63. ENRICO, John. 2004. Toward Proto–Na-Dene. Anthropological Linguistics 46(3).229–302. HANDEL, Zev Joseph. The Medial Systems of Old Chinese and Proto-Sino-Tibetan. PhD thesis. University of California at Berkeley. 1998 [2008-01-28]. （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2008-01-03）.  KOROTAYEV, Andrey, and KAZANKOV, Alexander, 2000. "Regions Based on Social Structure: A Reconsideration （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）". Current Anthropology 41/5 (October, 2000): 668–69. CHIRIKBA, Vyacheslav A., 1985. "Баскский и северокавказские языки [Basque and the North Caucasian languages]." In Древняя Анатолия [Ancient Anatolia], pp. 95-105. Moscow: Nauka. NIKOLA(Y)EV, Sergei L., 1991. "Sino-Caucasian Languages in America." In Shevoroshkin (1991), pp. 42–66. PEIROS, Ilia, and STAROSTIN, Sergei A., 1996. "A comparative vocabulary of five Sino-Tibetan languages". University of Melbourne Department of Linguistics and Applied Linguistics. PINNOW, Heinz-Jürgen (1990a). Die Na-Dene-Sprachen im Lichte der Greenberg-Klassifikation [The Na-Dene languages in the light of the Greenberg classification]. Nortorf: Völkerkundliche Arbeitsgemeinschaft. (Abhandlungen, Heft 64) PINNOW, Heinz-Jürgen (1990b) (in two parts). Vogelnamen des Tlingit und Haida. Materialien zu ihrer sprachhistorischen Erforschung sowie Auflistung der Vogelarten von Alaska [Bird names of Tlingit and Haida. Materials to their language-historical investigation and list of the bird species of Alaska]. Nortorf: Völkerkundliche Arbeitsgemeinschaft. (Abhandlungen, Hefte 67–68) PINNOW, Heinz-Jürgen (1988). Verwandtschafts- und andere Personenbezeichnungen im Tlingit und Haida: Versuch ihrer sprachhistorischen Deutung [Kinship and other person terms in Tlingit and Haida: attempt at their language-historical interpretation]. Nortorf: Völkerkundliche Arbeitsgemeinschaft. (Abhandlungen, Heft 62) PINNOW, Heinz-Jürgen (1986a). Die Zahlwörter des Haida in sprachvergleichender Sicht [The numerals of Haida in comparative view]. Nortorf: Völkerkundliche Arbeitsgemeinschaft. (Abhandlungen, Heft 47) PINNOW, Heinz-Jürgen (1986b). Säugetiernamen des Haida und Tlingit: Materialien zu ihrer historischen Erforschung [Mammal names of Haida and Tlingit: materials to their historical investigation]. Nortorf: Völkerkundliche Arbeitsgemeinschaft. (Abhandlungen, Heft 50) PINNOW, Heinz-Jürgen (1985a). Sprachhistorische Untersuchung einiger Tiernamen im Haida (Fische, Stachelhäuter, Weichtiere, Gliederfüßer, u.a.) [Language-historical investigation of some animal names in Haida (fish, echinoderms, mollusks, arthropods, and others)]. Nortorf: Völkerkundliche Arbeitsgemeinschaft. (Abhandlungen, Heft 39) PINNOW, Heinz-Jürgen (1985b) (in four parts). Das Haida als Na-Dene-Sprache [Haida as a Na-Dene language]. Nortorf: Völkerkundliche Arbeitsgemeinschaft. (Abhandlungen, Hefte 43–46) RUBICZ, R., MELVIN, K. L., CRAWFORD, M.H. 2002. Genetic Evidence for the phylogenetic relationship between Na-Dene and Yeniseian speakers. Human Biology, Dec 1 2002 74 (6) 743-761. RUHLEN, Merritt, 2001a. "Il Dene–caucasico: una nuova famiglia linguistica." Pluriverso 2: 76–85. RUHLEN, Merritt, 2001b. "Taxonomic Controversies in the Twentieth Century", in New Essays on the Origin of Language, ed. by Jürgen Trabant and Sean Ward, Berlin, Mouton de Gruyter, 197–214. RUHLEN, Merritt, 1998a. "Dene–Caucasian: A New Linguistic Family," in The Origins and Past of Modern Humans—Towards Reconciliation, ed. by Keiichi Omoto and Phillip V. Tobias, Singapore: World Scientific, 231–46. RUHLEN, Merritt, 1998b. "The Origin of the Na-Dene." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the U.S.A. 95: 13994–13996. RUHLEN, Merritt, 1998c. "The Origin of the Na-Dene." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 95: 13994–96. RUHLEN, Merritt. 1997. "Une nouvelle famille de langues: le déné-caucasien," Pour la Science (Dossier, October), 68–73. SCHMIDT, Karl Horst, 1994. "Class Inflection and Related Categories in the Caucasus." In Non-Slavic Languages of the USSR, ed. by H. I. Aronson, pp. 185-192. Columbus, OH: Slavica. SCHULZE-FÜRHOFF, Wolfgang, 1992. "How Can Class Markers Petrify? Towards a Functional Diachrony of Morphological Subsystems in the East Caucasian Languages." In The Non-Slavic Languages of the USSR: Linguistic Studies, Second Series, ed. by H. I. Aronson, pp. 183-233. Chicago: Chicago Linguistic Society. SHEVOROSHKIN, Vitaliy V., 2004. "Proto-Salishan and Proto-North-Caucasian Consonants: a few cognate sets." in Nostratic Centennial Conference: the Pécs Papers. ed. by. I. Hegedűs & P. Sidwell, pp. 181–191. Pécs: Lingua Franca Group. SHEVOROSHKIN, Vitaliy V., 2003. "Salishan and North Caucasian." Mother Tongue 8: 39–64. STAROSTIN, Sergei A. and Orel, V., 1989. "Etruscan and North Caucasian." Explorations in Language Macrofamilies. Ed. V. Shevoroshkin. Bochum Publications in Evolutionary Cultural Semiotics. 23. Bochum. SHEVOROSHKIN, Vitaliy V., 1999 "Nostratic and Sino-Caucasian: two ancient language phyla." In From Neanderthal to Easter Island (Festschrift W. W. Schuhmacher), ed. by N. A. Kirk & P. J. Sidwell. pp. 44–74. Melbourne. SHEVOROSHKIN, Vitaly V., 1998 Symposium on Nostratic at Cambridge, Mother Tongue（英语：Mother Tongue (journal)） (ASLIP), Fall 1998, (31): 28–32 [2008-01-28], （原始内容 (JPEG)存档于2008-02-19）  SHEVOROSHKIN, Vitaliy V., 1991. (Ed.) Dene–Sino-Caucasian Languages. Bochum: Brockmeyer. STAROSTIN, Sergei A., 2004–2005. Sino-Caucasian [comparative phonology] & Sino-Caucasian [comparative glossary]. STAROSTIN, Sergei A., 2002. "A response to Alexander Vovin's criticism of the Sino-Caucasian theory." Journal of Chinese Linguistics 30.1:142–153. STAROSTIN, Sergei A., 2000. "Genesis of the Long Vowels in Sino-Tibetan." In Проблемы изучения дальнего родства языков на рыбеже третьего тысячелетия: Доклады и тезисы международной конференции РГГУ [Problems of the research on the distant origin of languages at the beginning of the third millennium: Talks and abstracts of the international conference of the RGGU], Moscow 2000. STAROSTIN, Sergei A., 1996. "Word-final resonants in Sino-Caucasian." Journal of Chinese Linguistics 24.2: 281–311. (written for the 3rd International Conference on Chinese Linguistics in Hongkong in 1994)*STAROSTIN, Sergei A., 1995. "Old Chinese Basic Vocabulary: A Historical Perspective." In The Ancestry of the Chinese Language (Journal of Chinese Linguistics Monograph No. 8), ed. by W. S.-Y. Wang, pp. 225–251. Berkeley, CA. STAROSTIN, Sergei A., Preface (PDF), Sergei A., Starostin; Nikola(y)ev, Sergei L. (编), A North Caucasian Etymological Dictionary, Moscow: Asterisk Publishers: 7–199, 1994  STAROSTIN, Sergei A., On the Hypothesis of a Genetic Connection Between the Sino-Tibetan Languages and the Yeniseian and North Caucasian Languages, SHEVOROSHKIN, Vitaliy V. (编), Dene-Sino-Caucasian languages: materials from the First International Interdisciplinary Symposium on Language and Prehistory, Ann Harbor: Bochum: Brockmeyer: 12–41, 1991  [Translation of Starostin 1984] STAROSTIN, Sergei A., Гипотеза о генетических связях синотибетских языков с енисейскими и северокавказскими языками [A hypothesis on the genetic relationships of the Sino-Tibetan languages with the Yeniseian and the North Caucasian languages], Vardu, I. F. (编), Лингвистическая реконструкция и древнейшая история Востока [Linguistic reconstruction and the ancient history of the East], Moscow: Академия наук, Институт востоковедения Institute of Orientalistics of the USSR Academy of Sciences: 19–38, 1984  [See Starostin 1991 for English translation] The preliminary phylogenetic tree, The Tower of Babel (Evolution of Human Language Project), 2006-05-28 [2008-01-28], （原始内容 (PNG)存档于2007-09-26）  TRASK, R. L., 1999. "Why should a language have any relatives?" Pages 157–176 in: C. Renfrew & D. Nettle (eds.): Nostratic: Examining a Linguistic Macrofamily, McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge (UK). TRASK, R. L., 1997. "Basque and the Superfamilies". The History of Basque, Routledge, London. (See especially pages 403–408.) TRASK, R. L., 1995. "Basque and Dene–Caucasian: A Critique from the Basque Side". Mother Tongue 1:3–82. TRASK, R. L., 1994–1995. "Basque: The Search for Relatives (Part 1)." Dhumbadji! 2:3–54. VAJDA, Edward J. (2004): Ket. (Languages of the World, Materials, 204) München: LINCOM Europa VAJDA, Edward J. (2002): The origin of phonemic tone in Yeniseic. CLS 37 (Parasession on Arctic languages): 305-320 VAJDA, Edward J. (2001a): Toward a typology of position class: comparing Navajo and Ket verb morphology. Read at: SSILA Summer Meeting, July 7, 2001 VAJDA, Edward J. (2001b): Linguistic relations across Bering Strait: Siberia and the Native Americans. Read at: Bureau of Faculty Research, Western Washington University, Bellingham, WA, March 8, 2001 VAJDA, Edward J. 2000. Evidence for a genetic connection between Na-Dene and Yeniseian (Central Siberia). – Paper read at: January 2000 meeting of Society for the Study of Indigenous Languages of America (SSILA) and Linguistic Society of America (LSA) VAJDA, Edward J. 2000a. Yeniseian and Na-Dene: evidence for a genetic relationship. – Paper read at: 38th Conference on American Indian Languages (SSILA), Chicago, Jan. 2000 VAJDA, Edward J. 2000b. Yeniseian and Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit.' – Paper read at: Linguistics Department Colloquium, University of British Columbia, Mar. 2000 VAJDA, Edward J. 2000c. Ket verb morphology and its parallels with Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit: evidence of a genetic link. – Paper read at: Athabaskan Language Conference, Moricetown, BC, June 9, 2000 VAJDA, Edward J. 2000d. Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit and Yeniseian: lexical and phonological parallels. Read at: 39th Conference on American Indian Languages, San Francisco, Nov. 14-18, 2000 VAN DRIEM, George, 2001. "The Languages of the Himalayas." Brill, Leiden. VOVIN, Alexander, 2002. "Building a 'bum-pa for Sino-Caucasian." Journal of Chinese Linguistics 30.1: 154–171. VOVIN, Alexander, 1997. "The Comparative Method and Ventures Beyond Sino-Tibetan." Journal of Chinese Linguistics 25.2: 308–336. WERNER, Heinrich K. (2004): Zur jenissejisch-indianischen Urverwandtschaft [On the Yeniseian-[American] Indian primordial relationship]. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz 李艳. 汉藏—高加索超级语系：斯塔罗斯金的论证. 超级语系—历史比较语言学的新理论 第1版. 北京: 中国社会科学出版社. 2012-03. ISBN 978-7-5161-0613-6.  Dené–Caucasian ethno-linguistic map （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） The Tower of Babel （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） (site in English and Russian including Proposed family tree （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） and Word-final resonants in Sino-Caucasian （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）) A Final (?) Response to the Basque Debate in Mother Tongue 1 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） (GIF) Merritt Ruhlen on the Dené–Caucasian hypothesis(PDF)