語調

语调（英語：intonation），又稱語氣、口氣、音高，是指说话者交談發聲的音調，即说话者依據個人心情（态度、個性），讓声调的高低轻重音調，再附加上發聲的高低轻重音調；前者是文法上的音調、後者是心情上的音調。 例如在汉语中，接到对方的電話，然後回應：「喂，你是谁？」，这样一句话，套上不同的语调，則会給人有不同的感受；說話者的语气平缓，表示心情较为平和或较为克制；說話者的语气高降调、重音明顯，表示心情不好或性格较为急躁。 Интонация. Русская грамматика I. 科學出版社（英语：Nauka (publisher)）. 1980 （俄语）.  （俄文） Bolinger, D. (1951) ‘Intonation – levels versus configurations’, Word 7, 199–200 Brazil (1975) Discourse Intonation, University of Birmingham: English Language Research Brazil, Coultheart and Johns (1980) Discourse Intonation and Language Teaching, Longman Celce-Murcia, M., D. Brinton and J. Goodwin (1996) Teaching Pronunciation, Cambridge University Press Cooper-Kuhlen, Elizabeth, Introduction to English Prosody, 1986, Edward Arnold Cruttenden, A. (1997) Intonation (Second Edition), Cambridge University Press Crystal, D. (1969) Prosodic Systems and Intonation in English, Cambridge University Press Crystal, D. (1975) 'Prosodic features and linguistic theory', in The English Tone of Voice, Edward Arnold Crystal, D. and R. Quirk (1964) Systems of Prosodic and Paralinguistic Features in English, Mouton Gussenhoven, C. (2004). The Phonology of Tone and Intonation, Cambridge University Press. Halliday, M.A.K. (1967) Intonation and Grammar in British English, Mouton Halliday, M.A.K., and Greaves, W.S., Intonation in the Grammar of English, London, Equinox, 2008. Hirst, D.J. & Di Cristo, A. (eds) 1998. Intonation Systems. A survey of Twenty Languages. (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press). [ISBN 0521395135 (Hardback); ISBN 0-521-39550-X (Paperback)]. Jones, Daniel (1964) An Outline of English Phonetics, Heffer. Ladd, D. Robert. (2009). Intonational Phonology, 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Lee, W.R. (1958) English Intonation: A New Approach, North-Holland Lian, A-P. Intonation Patterns of French, River Seine Publications, Melbourne, 1980. http://www.andrewlian.com/andrewlian/prowww/ipf_teacher/ipf_teacher.pdf （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） Liu F, Patel AD, Fourcin A, Stewart L. (2010). Intonation processing in congenital amusia: discrimination, identification and imitation. Brain. 133(Pt 6):1682–93. doi:10.1093/brain/awq089 PMID 20418275 Michaud, A. and J. Vaissière (2015). Tone and intonation: introductory notes and practical recommendations. KALIPHO - Kieler Arbeiten zur Linguistik und Phonetik 3. 43–80. https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01091477v3/document （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） O'Connor, J.D. and G.F. Arnold (1961, 1973) The Intonation of Colloquial English, Longman Palmer, H.E. (1922) English Intonation with Systematic Exercises, Heffer. Pierrehumbert, Janet B. (1980) "The Phonology and Phonetics of English Intonation" Ph.D. Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, published by Indiana Linguistics Club 1987. Pike, K.L. (1945) The Intonation of American English, University of Michigan Press. Roach, Peter (2009) English Phonetics and Phonology, (Fourth Edition), Cambridge University Press. Schack, Katrina. "Comparison of intonation patterns in Mandarin and English for a particular speaker", University of Rochester Working Papers in the Language Sciences, Spring 2000, no. 1: p. 29. https://web.archive.org/web/20080821131034/http://www.bcs.rochester.edu/cls/s2000n1/schack.pdf Shen, Xiao-nan Susan. The Prosody of Mandarin Chinese. Vol. 118 of University of California Publications in Linguistics. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990. p. 95. Trager, G. and H.Smith (1951) An Outline of English Structure, American Council of Learned Societies. Trager, G. (1964) 'The intonation system of American English', in Abercrombie D. et al. In Honour of Daniel Jones, Longman Wells, J.C. (2006) English Intonation: An Introduction, Cambridge University Press. ToBI – Ohio State University, Department of Linguistics