无穷小应变理论

无穷小应变理论（infinitesimal strain theory）也稱為无限小应变理论，是连续介质力学中描述固體形變的數學分析法，適用在其形變量遠小於物體尺寸（無窮小量）的情形，因此若是均質材料，可以假設材料每一點的結構性質（密度及剛度）都相等，不會隨變形而不同。 在此假設下，連續介质力學的方程可以簡化。此作法也稱為是小形變理論、小位移理論或小位移梯度理論。无穷小应变理论和有限应变理论的假設恰好相反，後者假設形變量沒有遠小於物體尺寸。 无穷小应变理论常用在土木工程及機械工程中，其中會進行結構的應力分析（英语：stress analysis），而材料是用強度較高的混凝土及钢製成，而結構設計的目標也是在一般結構荷重下，希望其形變量可以降到最小。不過若分析的結構物是較細較薄，較容易變形的元件（例如桿、平板及薄殼），用无限小应变理论來分析就不可靠了。 在連續體的無限小變形中（位移梯度張量遠小於1，也就是 ‖ ∇ u ‖ ≪ 1 {\displaystyle \|\nabla \mathbf {u} \|\ll 1} ），可以用有限應變理論中的任何一個有限應變張量（例如拉格朗日有限應變張量 E {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} } ，或是尤拉有限應變張量 e {\displaystyle \mathbf {e} } ）進行線性化。在線性化中，可以省略有限應變張量中的二次項或是非線性項，因此可得 E = 1 2 ( ∇ X u + ( ∇ X u ) T + ( ∇ X u ) T ∇ X u ) ≈ 1 2 ( ∇ X u + ( ∇ X u ) T ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} ={\frac {1}{2}}\left(\nabla _{\mathbf {X} }\mathbf {u} +(\nabla _{\mathbf {X} }\mathbf {u} )^{T}+(\nabla _{\mathbf {X} }\mathbf {u} )^{T}\nabla _{\mathbf {X} }\mathbf {u} \right)\approx {\frac {1}{2}}\left(\nabla _{\mathbf {X} }\mathbf {u} +(\nabla _{\mathbf {X} }\mathbf {u} )^{T}\right)} 或 E K L = 1 2 ( ∂ U K ∂ X L + ∂ U L ∂ X K + ∂ U M ∂ X K ∂ U M ∂ X L ) ≈ 1 2 ( ∂ U K ∂ X L + ∂ U L ∂ X K ) {\displaystyle E_{KL}={\frac {1}{2}}\left({\frac {\partial U_{K}}{\partial X_{L}}}+{\frac {\partial U_{L}}{\partial X_{K}}}+{\frac {\partial U_{M}}{\partial X_{K}}}{\frac {\partial U_{M}}{\partial X_{L}}}\right)\approx {\frac {1}{2}}\left({\frac {\partial U_{K}}{\partial X_{L}}}+{\frac {\partial U_{L}}{\partial X_{K}}}\right)} 以及 e = 1 2 ( ∇ x u + ( ∇ x u ) T − ∇ x u ( ∇ x u ) T ) ≈ 1 2 ( ∇ x u + ( ∇ x u ) T ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {e} ={\frac {1}{2}}\left(\nabla _{\mathbf {x} }\mathbf {u} +(\nabla _{\mathbf {x} }\mathbf {u} )^{T}-\nabla _{\mathbf {x} }\mathbf {u} (\nabla _{\mathbf {x} }\mathbf {u} )^{T}\right)\approx {\frac {1}{2}}\left(\nabla _{\mathbf {x} }\mathbf {u} +(\nabla _{\mathbf {x} }\mathbf {u} )^{T}\right)} 或 e r s = 1 2 ( ∂ u r ∂ x s + ∂ u s ∂ x r − ∂ u k ∂ x r ∂ u k ∂ x s ) ≈ 1 2 ( ∂ u r ∂ x s + ∂ u s ∂ x r ) {\displaystyle e_{rs}={\frac {1}{2}}\left({\frac {\partial u_{r}}{\partial x_{s}}}+{\frac {\partial u_{s}}{\partial x_{r}}}-{\frac {\partial u_{k}}{\partial x_{r}}}{\frac {\partial u_{k}}{\partial x_{s}}}\right)\approx {\frac {1}{2}}\left({\frac {\partial u_{r}}{\partial x_{s}}}+{\frac {\partial u_{s}}{\partial x_{r}}}\right)} 線性化意味著連續體中特定點的物質坐標（material coordinate）和空間坐標（spatial coordinate）差異很小，拉格朗日描述和尤拉描述近似相等。因此，物質位移梯度張量和空間位移梯度張量的分量也相近相等。可得 E ≈ e ≈ ε = 1 2 ( ( ∇ u ) T + ∇ u ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} \approx \mathbf {e} \approx {\boldsymbol {\varepsilon }}={\frac {1}{2}}\left((\nabla \mathbf {u} )^{T}+\nabla \mathbf {u} \right)} 或 E K L ≈ e r s ≈ ε i j = 1 2 ( u i , j + u j , i ) {\displaystyle E_{KL}\approx e_{rs}\approx \varepsilon _{ij}={\frac {1}{2}}\left(u_{i,j}+u_{j,i}\right)} 其中 ε i j {\displaystyle \varepsilon _{ij}} 是無穷小應變張量（也稱為柯西應變張量、線性應變張量、小應變張量）的分量。 ε i j = 1 2 ( u i , j + u j , i ) = [ ε 11 ε 12 ε 13 ε 21 ε 22 ε 23 ε 31 ε 32 ε 33 ] = [ ∂ u 1 ∂ x 1 1 2 ( ∂ u 1 ∂ x 2 + ∂ u 2 ∂ x 1 ) 1 2 ( ∂ u 1 ∂ x 3 + ∂ u 3 ∂ x 1 ) 1 2 ( ∂ u 2 ∂ x 1 + ∂ u 1 ∂ x 2 ) ∂ u 2 ∂ x 2 1 2 ( ∂ u 2 ∂ x 3 + ∂ u 3 ∂ x 2 ) 1 2 ( ∂ u 3 ∂ x 1 + ∂ u 1 ∂ x 3 ) 1 2 ( ∂ u 3 ∂ x 2 + ∂ u 2 ∂ x 3 ) ∂ u 3 ∂ x 3 ] {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\varepsilon _{ij}&={\frac {1}{2}}\left(u_{i,j}+u_{j,i}\right)\\&={\begin{bmatrix}\varepsilon _{11}&\varepsilon _{12}&\varepsilon _{13}\\\varepsilon _{21}&\varepsilon _{22}&\varepsilon _{23}\\\varepsilon _{31}&\varepsilon _{32}&\varepsilon _{33}\\\end{bmatrix}}\\&={\begin{bmatrix}{\frac {\partial u_{1}}{\partial x_{1}}}&{\frac {1}{2}}\left({\frac {\partial u_{1}}{\partial x_{2}}}+{\frac {\partial u_{2}}{\partial x_{1}}}\right)&{\frac {1}{2}}\left({\frac {\partial u_{1}}{\partial x_{3}}}+{\frac {\partial u_{3}}{\partial x_{1}}}\right)\\{\frac {1}{2}}\left({\frac {\partial u_{2}}{\partial x_{1}}}+{\frac {\partial u_{1}}{\partial x_{2}}}\right)&{\frac {\partial u_{2}}{\partial x_{2}}}&{\frac {1}{2}}\left({\frac {\partial u_{2}}{\partial x_{3}}}+{\frac {\partial u_{3}}{\partial x_{2}}}\right)\\{\frac {1}{2}}\left({\frac {\partial u_{3}}{\partial x_{1}}}+{\frac {\partial u_{1}}{\partial x_{3}}}\right)&{\frac {1}{2}}\left({\frac {\partial u_{3}}{\partial x_{2}}}+{\frac {\partial u_{2}}{\partial x_{3}}}\right)&{\frac {\partial u_{3}}{\partial x_{3}}}\\\end{bmatrix}}\end{aligned}}} 或者使用不同的表示方式： [ ε x x ε x y ε x z ε y x ε y y ε y z ε z x ε z y ε z z ] = [ ∂ u x ∂ x 1 2 ( ∂ u x ∂ y + ∂ u y ∂ x ) 1 2 ( ∂ u x ∂ z + ∂ u z ∂ x ) 1 2 ( ∂ u y ∂ x + ∂ u x ∂ y ) ∂ u y ∂ y 1 2 ( ∂ u y ∂ z + ∂ u z ∂ y ) 1 2 ( ∂ u z ∂ x + ∂ u x ∂ z ) 1 2 ( ∂ u z ∂ y + ∂ u y ∂ z ) ∂ u z ∂ z ] {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}\varepsilon _{xx}&\varepsilon _{xy}&\varepsilon _{xz}\\\varepsilon _{yx}&\varepsilon _{yy}&\varepsilon _{yz}\\\varepsilon _{zx}&\varepsilon _{zy}&\varepsilon _{zz}\\\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}{\frac {\partial u_{x}}{\partial x}}&{\frac {1}{2}}\left({\frac {\partial u_{x}}{\partial y}}+{\frac {\partial u_{y}}{\partial x}}\right)&{\frac {1}{2}}\left({\frac {\partial u_{x}}{\partial z}}+{\frac {\partial u_{z}}{\partial x}}\right)\\{\frac {1}{2}}\left({\frac {\partial u_{y}}{\partial x}}+{\frac {\partial u_{x}}{\partial y}}\right)&{\frac {\partial u_{y}}{\partial y}}&{\frac {1}{2}}\left({\frac {\partial u_{y}}{\partial z}}+{\frac {\partial u_{z}}{\partial y}}\right)\\{\frac {1}{2}}\left({\frac {\partial u_{z}}{\partial x}}+{\frac {\partial u_{x}}{\partial z}}\right)&{\frac {1}{2}}\left({\frac {\partial u_{z}}{\partial y}}+{\frac {\partial u_{y}}{\partial z}}\right)&{\frac {\partial u_{z}}{\partial z}}\\\end{bmatrix}}} 進一步來說，因為形變梯度可以表示成 F = ∇ u + I {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {F}}={\boldsymbol {\nabla }}\mathbf {u} +{\boldsymbol {I}}} 其中 I {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {I}}} 是二階單位張量，可得 ε = 1 2 ( F T + F ) − I {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\varepsilon }}={\frac {1}{2}}\left({\boldsymbol {F}}^{T}+{\boldsymbol {F}}\right)-{\boldsymbol {I}}} 另外，根據拉格朗日有限應變張量及尤拉有限應變張量的通用表示法，可得 E ( m ) = 1 2 m ( U 2 m − I ) = 1 2 m [ ( F T F ) m − I ] ≈ 1 2 m [ { ∇ u + ( ∇ u ) T + I } m − I ] ≈ ε e ( m ) = 1 2 m ( V 2 m − I ) = 1 2 m [ ( F F T ) m − I ] ≈ ε {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {E} _{(m)}&={\frac {1}{2m}}(\mathbf {U} ^{2m}-{\boldsymbol {I}})={\frac {1}{2m}}[({\boldsymbol {F}}^{T}{\boldsymbol {F}})^{m}-{\boldsymbol {I}}]\approx {\frac {1}{2m}}[\{{\boldsymbol {\nabla }}\mathbf {u} +({\boldsymbol {\nabla }}\mathbf {u} )^{T}+{\boldsymbol {I}}\}^{m}-{\boldsymbol {I}}]\approx {\boldsymbol {\varepsilon }}\\\mathbf {e} _{(m)}&={\frac {1}{2m}}(\mathbf {V} ^{2m}-{\boldsymbol {I}})={\frac {1}{2m}}[({\boldsymbol {F}}{\boldsymbol {F}}^{T})^{m}-{\boldsymbol {I}}]\approx {\boldsymbol {\varepsilon }}\end{aligned}}} 形變 应变协调性 應力 应变片 应力-应变曲线 胡克定律 泊松比 有限应变理论 應變率（英语：Strain rate） 平面應力 數位影像相關性（英语：Digital image correlation） Boresi, Arthur P. (Arthur Peter), 1924-. Advanced mechanics of materials. Schmidt, Richard J. (Richard Joseph), 1954- 6th. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 2003: 62. ISBN 1601199228. OCLC 430194205.