認知偏誤列表

認知偏誤，是判斷中的系統性偏離或是直覺、非理性的思維模式，使人們在得到確切結果前，以快速、直覺、自動或緩慢、深思熟慮、分析性的兩種不同思維系統做出主觀的判斷和決策，尤其在訊息量龐大、無明顯最佳解決方案、時間緊迫等情況下。這些判斷過程影響範圍不拘限於個人，也囊括各社會層面以及組織，例如公司治理、政策制定等複雜決策當中，並可能導致決策偏離理性和最佳選擇。該主題經常在心理學、社會學和行為經濟學中被進行研究。 儘管大多該些偏見的現實已被可重複（英語：reproducible）的研究證實，關於如何對這些偏見進行分類或如何解釋它們經常存在爭議。 一些認知偏差的幾個理論原因是已知的，這些偏差通過其共同的生成機制（例如嘈雜的信息處理（英語：noisy information-processing））提供了對偏差的分類。 Gerd Gigerenzer 曾批評將認知偏見視為判斷錯誤，並傾向於將其解釋為與邏輯思維的理性偏差。 解釋包括信息處理規則（英語：information-processing rules，或稱心理捷徑（英語：mental shortcuts）），稱為啟發式，大腦用來產生決定或判斷。偏見有多種形式，表現為認知（“冷”）偏見，例如心理噪音（英語：mental noise），或動機（“熱”）偏見，例如當信念被一廂情願扭曲時。兩種效果可以同時存在。 關於這些偏見中的一些是否被視為無用或非理性（英語：irrational），或者它們是否會導致有用的態度或行為，也存在爭議。例如，在結識他人時，人們傾向於提出引導性問題，這些問題似乎偏向於確認他們對這個人的假設。然而，這種確認偏差也被認為是社交技巧（英語：social skill）的一個例子。一種與他人建立聯繫的方式。 儘管這項研究絕大多數涉及人類受試者，但在非人類動物中也發現了一些表明存在偏見的發現。例如，猴子已經表現出厭惡損失，而在老鼠、鴿子和猴子中已經觀察到雙曲折現（英语：Hyperbolic discounting）等現象。 這些偏誤多半會影響信念的形成、商業與經濟決策、以及其他一般的人類行為它們是可複製與再現的，面臨特定情境時，一般可預期人們會有相應的偏差傾向。 这些偏誤大多是由归因偏誤導致。 在心理学和认知科学中，記憶偏誤是一種認知偏誤，導致記憶的強化、弱化（包括能否想起的機會、想起所需的時間，或兩者皆有），或者記憶內容的改變。記憶偏誤有很多種，如下： 機率性推論是指根據有關機率的資訊推論事情的可能性，而機率的估算通常來自統計資料，因此兩者密不可分。以下列出不熟悉或誤用機率造成的錯誤認知或推理： 這是一些科學實驗或統計研究容易發生的偏誤。 以下列出解釋認知偏誤成因的常見理論： 有限理性 - 理性與最佳化的限制 前景理论 心理账户 適應偏誤 - 在資訊有限下做出決策而造成偏誤，並以可能的錯誤為代價 属性替代 - 建立複雜、困難的判斷，卻不自覺地換成簡單地判斷 归因理论 显着性 素樸實在論 认知失调，及相关的： 印象管理 自我知觉理论 判斷與決策的捷思，包括： 可用性捷思 - 估計哪些比較容易從記憶中取得，例如生動的、不尋常的、或激起情緒的例子 代表性捷思 - 根據相似性判斷可能性 情感捷思 - 根據情緒反應決策，而非計算風險與效益 情感的一些其他理论，如： 情緒二因論 體細胞標記假說 內省錯覺 統計的誤解與誤用；數學盲。 2012年一篇《心理学公报》文章表明，至少有八種看似无关的偏誤可由同一種資訊理論的产生机制产生，此機制假設從人類記憶儲存與提取資訊時，雜亂的資訊處理過程導致了偏誤。 Korteling, J.E. 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