[SPARK-4180] [Core] Prevent creation of multiple active SparkContexts

This patch adds error-detection logic to throw an exception when attempting to create multiple active SparkContexts in the same JVM, since this is currently unsupported and has been known to cause confusing behavior (see SPARK-2243 for more details).

**The solution implemented here is only a partial fix.**  A complete fix would have the following properties:

1. Only one SparkContext may ever be under construction at any given time.
2. Once a SparkContext has been successfully constructed, any subsequent construction attempts should fail until the active SparkContext is stopped.
3. If the SparkContext constructor throws an exception, then all resources created in the constructor should be cleaned up (SPARK-4194).
4. If a user attempts to create a SparkContext but the creation fails, then the user should be able to create new SparkContexts.

This PR only provides 1) and 2) (and partial support for 4) in two limited cases); we should be able to provide all of these properties, but the correct fix will involve larger changes to SparkContext's construction / initialization, so we'll target it for a different Spark release.

### The correct solution:

I think that the correct way to do this would be to move the construction of SparkContext's dependencies into a static method in the SparkContext companion object.  Specifically, we could make the default SparkContext constructor `private` and change it to accept a `SparkContextDependencies` object that contains all of SparkContext's dependencies (e.g. DAGScheduler, ContextCleaner, etc.).  Secondary constructors could call a method on the SparkContext companion object to create the `SparkContextDependencies` and pass the result to the primary SparkContext constructor.  For example:

```scala
class SparkContext private (deps: SparkContextDependencies) {
  def this(conf: SparkConf) {
    this(SparkContext.getDeps(conf))
  }
}

object SparkContext(
  private[spark] def getDeps(conf: SparkConf): SparkContextDependencies = synchronized {
    if (anotherSparkContextIsActive) { throw Exception(...) }
    var dagScheduler: DAGScheduler = null
    try {
        dagScheduler = new DAGScheduler(...)
        [...]
    } catch {
      case e: Exception =>
         Option(dagScheduler).foreach(_.stop())
          [...]
    }
    SparkContextDependencies(dagScheduler, ....)
  }
} 
```

This gives us mutual exclusion and ensures that any resources created during the failed SparkContext initialization are properly cleaned up.

This indirection is necessary to maintain binary compatibility.  In retrospect, it would have been nice if SparkContext had no private constructors and could only be created through builder / factory methods on its companion object, since this buys us lots of flexibility and makes dependency injection easier.

### Alternative solutions:

As an alternative solution, we could refactor SparkContext's primary constructor to perform all object creation in a giant `try-finally` block.  Unfortunately, this will require us to turn a bunch of `vals` into `vars` so that they can be assigned from the `try` block.  If we still want `vals`, we could wrap each `val` in its own `try` block (since the try block can return a value), but this will lead to extremely messy code and won't guard against the introduction of future code which doesn't properly handle failures.

The more complex approach outlined above gives us some nice dependency injection benefits, so I think that might be preferable to a `var`-ification.

### The limitations of this PR's solution:

This PR ensures that _an error_ will occur if multiple SparkContexts are active at the same time, even if multiple threads race to construct those contexts.  The key problem is the fact that we don't hold the `SparkContext.SPARK_CONTEXT_CONSTRUCTOR_LOCK` for the entire duration of the constructor, so we don't have a way to distinguish between a SparkContext creation attempt that failed because another SparkContext was undergoing construction and a case where a previous construction attempt failed and left some state that wasn't cleaned up.  This means that it's possible for SparkContext's constructor to throw an exception in a way that prevents any future creations of SparkContext until the JVM is restarted.

This is unlikely to be a problem in practice, though, especially since I've added special-casing so that this issue doesn't affect the most common causes of SparkContext construction errors (e.g. forgetting to set the master URL or application name).  In case it is, I've added an undocumented `spark.driver.disableMultipleSparkContextsErrorChecking` option which turns this error into a warning.