fix($exceptionHandlerProvider): call `inject()` to run tests

In the current angular-mocksSpec, the tests for $exceptionHandlerProvider
call `module` to run tests on `$exceptionHandlerProvider.mode()`, but do
not call `inject()` to pump the module definitions.
feat($exceptionHandlerProvider): add mode `logAndRethrow`

Mode `logAndRethrow` captures the logged exception for later inspection by test
assertions, while also throwing the exception for when the implementation
depends on thrown behavior (eg leaving the method early).

Depends on #10563
Closes #10540