dir.c: record untracked cache for read_directory()

The big comment block in dir.h lists all inputs that read_directory()
needs to produce the same output. We can cheaply validate all those
inputs for any directory _if_ your file system updates directory mtime
when the directory listing is changed. If the inputs are unchanged,
the results must be the same and we could reuse cached results.

Two hash_sha1_file() are required for $GIT_DIR/info/exclude and
core.excludesfile unless their stat data matches. hash_sha1_file() is
only needed when .gitignore is modified. We could store stat data for
.gitignore so we don't have to rehash them if their content is
different from index, but I think .gitignore files are rarely
modified, so not worth extra cache data (and hashing penalty because
untracked cache will be stored in $GIT_DIR/index)

We try not to open(gitignore) if we know it does not exist, so
open(.gitignore)/fstat/read/close sequence does not apply to every
directory. The sequence could be reduced further, as noted in
prep_exclude().
dir.c: validate and use untracked cache

The main readdir loop in read_directory_recursive() is replaced with a
new one that checks if cached results of a directory is still valid.

If a file is added or removed from the index, the containing directory
is invalidated (but not its subdirs). If directory's mtime is changed,
the same happens. If a .gitignore is updated, the containing directory
and all subdirs are invalidated recursively. If dir_struct#flags or
other conditions change, the cache is ignored.

If a directory is invalidated, we opendir/readdir/closedir and run the
exclude machinery on that directory listing as usual. If untracked
cache is also enabled, we'll update the cache along the way. If a
directory is validated, we simply pull the untracked listing out from
the cache. The cache also records the list of direct subdirs that we
have to recurse in. Fully excluded directories are seen as "untracked
files".

In the best case when no dirs are invalidated, read_directory()
becomes a series of stat(dir), open(.gitignore), fstat, read, close
and optionally hash_sha1_file. For comparison, standard
read_directory() is a sequence of opendir, readdir, open(gitignore),
fstat, read, close, (expensive) last_exclude_matching and closedir.

We already try not to open(gitignore) if we know it does not exist, so
open/fstat/read/close sequence does not apply to every directory. The
sequence could be reduced further, as noted in prep_exclude(). So in
theory, the entire best-case read_directory sequence could be reduced
to a series of stat() and nothing else.

This is not a silver bullet approach. When you compile a C file, for
example, the old .o file is removed and a new one with the same name
created, effectively invalidating the containing directory's cache
(but not its subdirectories). If your build process touches every
directory, this cache adds extra overhead for nothing, so it's a good
idea to separate generated files from tracked files.. Editors may use
the same strategy for saving files. And of course you're out of luck
running your repo on an unsupported filesytem and/or operating system.
read-cache: save untracked cache as an extension
status: support untracked cache
update-index: manually enable or disable untracked cache

Some numbers below. In short, the saving on wt_status_collect_untracked()
is about 80%. There are some overhead on read/write_cache, but it seems
lower than 50ms, while the .._untracked() saving is in the 500ms range
(except linux-2.6, about 150ms). "git status" time saving ranges from
33% to 42%.

On gentoo-x86.git (100k files, 23k dirs, quite balance
tree, 8.5MB index v4, cache-tree fully populated), before turning
untracked cache on (the most important line is wt_status_collect:625)

   184.650 gitmodules_config:201 if (read_cache() < 0) die("index
     0.004 cmd_status:1299 read_cache_preload(&s.pathspec)
   226.231 cmd_status:1300 refresh_index(&the_index, REFRESH_QUIET
     3.096 cmd_status:1304 update_index_if_able(&the_index, &index_lock)
     6.788  wt_status_collect:619 wt_status_collect_changes_worktree(s)
     6.780  wt_status_collect:624 wt_status_collect_changes_index(s)
   772.866  wt_status_collect:625 wt_status_collect_untracked(s)
   786.686 cmd_status:1308 wt_status_collect(&s)

real    0m1.211s
user    0m0.566s
sys     0m0.638s

and after (saving 42% total time):

   220.888 gitmodules_config:201 if (read_cache() < 0) die("index
    36.368 cmd_status:1299 read_cache_preload(&s.pathspec)
   223.936 cmd_status:1300 refresh_index(&the_index, REFRESH_QUIET
     2.935 cmd_status:1304 update_index_if_able(&the_index, &index_lock)
     7.031  wt_status_collect:619 wt_status_collect_changes_worktree(s)
     7.156  wt_status_collect:624 wt_status_collect_changes_index(s)
   148.022  wt_status_collect:625 wt_status_collect_untracked(s)
   162.443 cmd_status:1308 wt_status_collect(&s)
    36.943 cmd_status:1348 if (the_index.untracked) { struct

real    0m0.696s
user    0m0.406s
sys     0m0.288s

On webkit.git (182k files, 6k dirs, 14M index v4), before:

   283.182 gitmodules_config:201 if (read_cache() < 0) die("index
     0.004 cmd_status:1299 read_cache_preload(&s.pathspec)
   515.836 cmd_status:1300 refresh_index(&the_index, REFRESH_QUIET
     5.428 cmd_status:1304 update_index_if_able(&the_index, &index_lock)
    11.162  wt_status_collect:619 wt_status_collect_changes_worktree(s)
    11.068  wt_status_collect:624 wt_status_collect_changes_index(s)
   887.247  wt_status_collect:625 wt_status_collect_untracked(s)
   909.722 cmd_status:1308 wt_status_collect(&s)

real    0m1.729s
user    0m0.785s
sys     0m0.941s

and after (saving 38% total time):

   290.994 gitmodules_config:201 if (read_cache() < 0) die("index
    10.132 cmd_status:1299 read_cache_preload(&s.pathspec)
   516.656 cmd_status:1300 refresh_index(&the_index, REFRESH_QUIET
     5.159 cmd_status:1304 update_index_if_able(&the_index, &index_lock)
    12.605  wt_status_collect:619 wt_status_collect_changes_worktree(s)
    11.262  wt_status_collect:624 wt_status_collect_changes_index(s)
   186.032  wt_status_collect:625 wt_status_collect_untracked(s)
   210.134 cmd_status:1308 wt_status_collect(&s)
    12.332 cmd_status:1348 if (the_index.untracked) { struct index_state

real    0m1.058s
user    0m0.525s
sys     0m0.532s

And linux-2.6 (45k files, 3k dirs, 3.2MB index v4), before:

    68.668 gitmodules_config:201 if (read_cache() < 0) die("index
     0.004 cmd_status:1299 read_cache_preload(&s.pathspec)
   114.270 cmd_status:1300 refresh_index(&the_index, REFRESH_QUIET
     1.180 cmd_status:1304 update_index_if_able(&the_index, &index_lock)
     4.027  wt_status_collect:619 wt_status_collect_changes_worktree(s)
     4.265  wt_status_collect:624 wt_status_collect_changes_index(s)
   191.285  wt_status_collect:625 wt_status_collect_untracked(s)
   199.825 cmd_status:1308 wt_status_collect(&s)

real    0m0.392s
user    0m0.177s
sys     0m0.215s

and after (saving 33%):

    71.756 gitmodules_config:201 if (read_cache() < 0) die("index
     5.201 cmd_status:1299 read_cache_preload(&s.pathspec)
   111.064 cmd_status:1300 refresh_index(&the_index, REFRESH_QUIET
     1.171 cmd_status:1304 update_index_if_able(&the_index, &index_lock)
     3.054  wt_status_collect:619 wt_status_collect_changes_worktree(s)
     4.945  wt_status_collect:624 wt_status_collect_changes_index(s)
    27.203  wt_status_collect:625 wt_status_collect_untracked(s)
    35.475 cmd_status:1308 wt_status_collect(&s)
    25.759 cmd_status:1348 if (the_index.untracked) { struct index_state

real    0m0.259s
user    0m0.106s
sys     0m0.132s
Add TIME() macro for measuring how long a block is executed

Convenient macro to measure how long a code block takes. Support
nested timing. _Not_ meant to be actually used in official code.
time
FIXME