Prevent Relation#merge from collapsing wheres on the RHS

This caused a bug with the new associations implementation, because now
association conditions are represented as Arel nodes internally right up
to when the whole thing gets turned to SQL.

In Rails 3.2, association conditions get turned to raw SQL early on,
which prevents Relation#merge from interfering.

The current implementation was buggy when a default_scope existed on the
target model, since we would basically end up doing:

  default_scope.merge(association_scope)

If default_scope contained a where(foo: 'a') and association_scope
contained a where(foo: 'b').where(foo: 'c') then the merger would see
that the same column is representated on both sides of the merge and
collapse the wheres to all but the last: where(foo: 'c')

Now, the RHS of the merge is left alone.

Fixes #8990
add fetch to CookieJar
Use already defined Encoding constants rather than creating one-trip Strings
Use Encoding::UTF_8 constant :do_not_litter: