Add target directory to checkout

This adds the ability for checkout to write to a target directory
instead of having to use the working directory of the repository.
This makes it easier to do exports of repository data and the like.

This is similar to, but not quite the same as, the --prefix option
to `git checkout-index` (this will always be treated as a directory
name, not just as a simple text prefix).

As part of this, the workdir iterator was extended to take the
path to the working directory as a parameter and fallback on the
git_repository_workdir result only if it's not specified.

Fixes #1332
Loosen ensure_not_bare rules in checkout

With the new target directory option to checkout, the non-bareness
of the repository should be checked much later in the parameter
validation process - actually that check was already in place, but
I was doing it redundantly in the checkout APIs.

This removes the now unnecessary early check for bare repos.  It
also adds some other parameter validation and makes it so that
implied parameters can actually be passed as NULL (i.e. if you
pass a git_index, you don't have to pass the git_repository - we
can get it from index).
Addition checkout target directory tests

This adds additonal tests of the checkout target directory option
including using it to dump data from bare repos.
Merge pull request #1665 from arrbee/checkout-target-directory

Add target directory to checkout options