Asset Pipeline: add 'the'

Some guides work without 'the'. For instance, 'Migrations' or
'Form Helpers.' But when we talk about the asset pipeline, we...
always say 'the asset pipeline.' The guide title should reflect this.
Move instantiation responsibilities from Inheritance to Persistence. Have Inheritance#discriminate_class_for_record handle STI lookup duties.
Relation.where with no args can be chained with not, like, and not_like

examples:

  Model.where.not field: nil
  #=> "SELECT * FROM models WHERE field IS NOT NULL

  Model.where.like name: 'Jeremy%'
  #=> "SELECT * FROM models WHERE name LIKE 'Jeremy%'

this feature was originally suggested by Jeremy Kemper https://github.com/rails/rails/pull/5950#issuecomment-5591330

Closes #5950
Gemfile source url for plugins updated
Merge pull request #8372 from amparo-luna/gemfile_source_url

Gemfile source url for plugins updated
add documentation to CollectionProxy#empty?
add documentation to CollectionProxy #length and #size methods [ci skip]
nodoc AS::Deprecation::InstanceDelegator class [ci skip]
Normalize on 'After reading this guide, you will know:'

We have three or four different introduction sentences to the guides.
After this commit, we use the same one everywhere.
Split Validations and Callbacks into separate guides.

Two big features that are only barely related in the same guide. Seems
bad.

I did not check references to these guides yet, so some links may need
to be updated.
Merge pull request #8378 from steveklabnik/split_validations_callbacks_guide

Split Validations and Callbacks into separate guides.
Revert "Fix annoy warning, when executing testcase."

This reverts commit a3024f81228d7b3b446408114a5dc2a86870cd35.

REASON: Since warning doesn't exist
Merge pull request #8381 from aderyabin/unnecessary_monkey_patch

Remove outdated monkey patch in mysql tests
Mark Relation mutators as :nodoc:

These are for internal use only and cannot be relied on as part of the
public API. See discussion on 8c2c60511beaad05a218e73c4918ab89fb1804f0.
Fix memory leak in development mode

Keying these hashes by klass causes reloadable classes to never get
freed. Thanks to @thedarkone for pointing this out in
the comments on 221571beb6b4bb7437989bdefaf421f993ab6002.

This doesn't seem to make a massive difference to performance.

Benchmark
---------

require 'active_record'
require 'benchmark/ips'

class Post < ActiveRecord::Base
  establish_connection adapter: 'sqlite3', database: ':memory:'
end

GC.disable

Benchmark.ips(20) do |r|
  r.report { Post.connection }
end

Before
------

Calculating -------------------------------------
                          5632 i/100ms
-------------------------------------------------
                       218671.0 (±1.9%) i/s -    4364800 in  19.969401s

After
-----

Calculating -------------------------------------
                          8743 i/100ms
-------------------------------------------------
                       206525.9 (±17.8%) i/s -    4039266 in  19.992590s
Simplify keys order test for as_json in Active Model
Use separate Relation subclasses for each AR class

At present, ActiveRecord::Delegation compiles delegation methods on a
global basis. The compiled methods apply to all subsequent Relation
instances. This creates several problems:

1) After Post.all.recent has been called, User.all.respond_to?(:recent)
   will be true, even if User.all.recent will actually raise an error due
   to no User.recent method existing. (See #8080.)

2) Depending on the AR class, the delegation should do different things.
   For example, if a Post.zip method exists, then Post.all.zip should call
   it. But this will then result in User.zip being called by a subsequent
   User.all.zip, even if User.zip does not exist, when in fact
   User.all.zip should call User.all.to_a.zip. (There are various
   variants of this problem.)

We are creating these compiled delegations in order to avoid method
missing and to avoid repeating logic on each invocation.

One way of handling these issues is to add additional checks in various
places to ensure we're doing the "right thing". However, this makes the
compiled methods signficantly slower. In which case, there's almost no
point in avoiding method_missing at all. (See #8127 for a proposed
solution which takes this approach.)

This is an alternative approach which involves creating a subclass of
ActiveRecord::Relation for each AR class represented. So, with this
patch, Post.all.class != User.all.class. This means that the delegations
are compiled for and only apply to a single AR class. A compiled method
for Post.all will not be invoked from User.all.

This solves the above issues without incurring significant performance
penalties. It's designed to be relatively seamless, however the downside
is a bit of complexity and potentially confusion for a user who thinks
that Post.all and User.all should be instances of the same class.

Benchmark
---------

require 'active_record'
require 'benchmark/ips'

class Post < ActiveRecord::Base
  establish_connection adapter: 'sqlite3', database: ':memory:'
  connection.create_table :posts

  def self.omg
    :omg
  end
end

relation = Post.all

Benchmark.ips do |r|
  r.report('delegation')   { relation.omg }
  r.report('constructing') { Post.all }
end

Before
------

Calculating -------------------------------------
          delegation      4392 i/100ms
        constructing      4780 i/100ms
-------------------------------------------------
          delegation   144235.9 (±27.7%) i/s -     663192 in   5.038075s
        constructing   182015.5 (±21.2%) i/s -     850840 in   5.005364s

After
-----

Calculating -------------------------------------
          delegation      6677 i/100ms
        constructing      6260 i/100ms
-------------------------------------------------
          delegation   166828.2 (±34.2%) i/s -     754501 in   5.001430s
        constructing   116575.5 (±18.6%) i/s -     563400 in   5.036690s

Comments
--------

Bear in mind that the standard deviations in the above are huge, so we
can't compare the numbers too directly. However, we can conclude that
Relation construction has become a little slower (as we'd expect), but
not by a huge huge amount, and we can still construct a large number of
Relations quite quickly.
hash filters should be accessed with symbols or strings
Merge pull request #8385 from frodsan/strings_love

hash filters should be accessed with symbols or strings
Remove references to AR::Observer from docs

ActiveRecord::Observer was extracted into a separate gem so it
should not be referenced anymore (see https://github.com/rails/rails/commit/ccecab3)