Fix cpluspluscheck in checksum code

C++ is more picky about comparing signed and unsigned integers.
Retry short writes when flushing WAL.

We don't normally bother retrying when the number of bytes written by
write() is short of what was requested. It is generally assumed that a
write() to disk doesn't return short, unless you run out of disk space.
While writing the WAL, however, it seems prudent to try a bit harder,
because a failure leads to PANIC. The write() is also much larger than most
write()s in the backend (up to wal_buffers), so there's more room for
surprises.

Also retry on EINTR. All signals used in the backend are flagged SA_RESTART
nowadays, so it shouldn't happen, but better to be defensive.
Optimize pglz compressor for small inputs.

The pglz compressor has a significant startup cost, because it has to
initialize to zeros the history-tracking hash table. On a 64-bit system, the
hash table was 64kB in size. While clearing memory is pretty fast, for very
short inputs the relative cost of that was quite large.

This patch alleviates that in two ways. First, instead of storing pointers
in the hash table, store 16-bit indexes into the hist_entries array. That
slashes the size of the hash table to 1/2 or 1/4 of the original, depending
on the pointer width. Secondly, adjust the size of the hash table based on
input size. For very small inputs, you don't need a large hash table to
avoid collisions.

Review by Amit Kapila.
Remove undocumented -h (help) option
The -h option was not supported by many tools, and not documented, so
remove them for consistency from pg_upgrade, pg_test_fsync, and
pg_test_timing.
Update LSB URL in pg_ctl
Update Linux Standard Base Core Specification 3.1 URL mention in pg_ctl
comments.
Improve support for building PGXS modules with VPATH.

A VPATH build will be performed when the module's make file path is not
the current directory or when USE_VPATH is set.

This will assist packagers and others who prefer to build without
polluting the source directories.

There is still a bit of work to do here, notably documentation, but it's
probably a good idea to commit what we have so far and let people test
it out on their modules.

Cédric Villemain, with an addition from me.
Add timezone offset output option to to_char()
Add ability for to_char() to output the timezone's UTC offset (OF).  We
already have the ability to return the timezone abbeviation (TZ/tz).
Per request from Andrew Dunstan
pg_upgrade:  use "" rather than '', for Windows
If we ever support unix sockets on Windows, we should use "" rather than
'' for zero-length strings on the command-line, so use that.
Add a convenience routine makeFuncCall to reduce duplication.

David Fetter and Andrew Gierth, reviewed by Jeevan Chalke
pg_dump docs:  use escaped double-quotes, for Windows
On Unix, you can embed double-quotes in single-quotes, and via versa.
However, on Windows, you can only escape double-quotes in double-quotes,
so use that in the pg_dump -t/table example.
Backpatch to 9.3.
Report from Mike Toews
Fix regression test make dependencies

The dependencies on the spi and dummy_seclabel contrib modules were
incomplete, because they did not pick up automatically generated
dependencies on header files.  This will manifest itself especially when
switching major versions, where the contrib modules would not be
recompiled to contain the new version number, leading to regression test
failures.

To fix this, use the submake approach already in use elsewhere, so that
the contrib modules are built using their full rules.
Use an MVCC snapshot, rather than SnapshotNow, for catalog scans.

SnapshotNow scans have the undesirable property that, in the face of
concurrent updates, the scan can fail to see either the old or the new
versions of the row.  In many cases, we work around this by requiring
DDL operations to hold AccessExclusiveLock on the object being
modified; in some cases, the existing locking is inadequate and random
failures occur as a result.  This commit doesn't change anything
related to locking, but will hopefully pave the way to allowing lock
strength reductions in the future.

The major issue has held us back from making this change in the past
is that taking an MVCC snapshot is significantly more expensive than
using a static special snapshot such as SnapshotNow.  However, testing
of various worst-case scenarios reveals that this problem is not
severe except under fairly extreme workloads.  To mitigate those
problems, we avoid retaking the MVCC snapshot for each new scan;
instead, we take a new snapshot only when invalidation messages have
been processed.  The catcache machinery already requires that
invalidation messages be sent before releasing the related heavyweight
lock; else other backends might rely on locally-cached data rather
than scanning the catalog at all.  Thus, making snapshot reuse
dependent on the same guarantees shouldn't break anything that wasn't
already subtly broken.

Patch by me.  Review by Michael Paquier and Andres Freund.
pg_upgrade:  revert changing '' to ""
On the command line, GUC option strings are handled by the guc parser,
not by the shell parser, so '' is the proper way to represent a
zero-length string.  This reverts commit
3132a9b7ab3d76c15f88cfa29792fd888e7a959e.
Silence compiler warning in assertion-enabled builds.

With -Wtype-limits, gcc correctly points out that size_t can never be < 0.
Backpatch to 9.3 and 9.2. It's been like this forever, but in <= 9.1 you got
a lot other warnings with -Wtype-limits anyway (at least with my version of
gcc).

Andres Freund
Mention extra_float_digits in floating point docs

Make it easier for readers of the FP docs to find out about possibly
truncated values.

Per complaint from Tom Duffey in message
F0E0F874-C86F-48D1-AA2A-0C5365BF5118@trillitech.com

Author: Albe Laurenz
Reviewed by: Abhijit Menon-Sen
Add support for multiple kinds of external toast datums.

To that end, support tags rather than lengths for external datums.
As an example of how this can be used, add support or "indirect"
tuples which point to some externally allocated memory containing
a toast tuple.  Similar infrastructure could be used for other
purposes, including, perhaps, support for alternative compression
algorithms.

Andres Freund, reviewed by Hitoshi Harada and myself
pg_restore: Error about incompatible options

This mirrors the equivalent error cases in pg_dump.
doc: Arrange See Also links in more consistent order
Add #include to make header file independent
doc: Remove i18ngurus.com link

The web site is dead, and the Wayback Machine shows that it didn't have
much useful content before.