Fix planner's handling of outer PlaceHolderVars within subqueries.

For some reason, in the original coding of the PlaceHolderVar mechanism
I had supposed that PlaceHolderVars couldn't propagate into subqueries.
That is of course entirely possible.  When it happens, we need to treat
an outer-level PlaceHolderVar much like an outer Var or Aggref, that is
SS_replace_correlation_vars() needs to replace the PlaceHolderVar with
a Param, and then when building the finished SubPlan we have to provide
the PlaceHolderVar expression as an actual parameter for the SubPlan.
The handling of the contained expression is a bit delicate but it can be
treated exactly like an Aggref's expression.

In addition to the missing logic in subselect.c, prepjointree.c was failing
to search subqueries for PlaceHolderVars that need their relids adjusted
during subquery pullup.  It looks like everyplace else that touches
PlaceHolderVars got it right, though.

Per report from Mark Murawski.  In 9.1 and HEAD, queries affected by this
oversight would fail with "ERROR: Upper-level PlaceHolderVar found where
not expected".  But in 9.0 and 8.4, you'd silently get possibly-wrong
answers, since the value transmitted into the subquery wouldn't go to null
when it should.
Replace empty locale name with implied value in CREATE DATABASE and initdb.

setlocale() accepts locale name "" as meaning "the locale specified by the
process's environment variables".  Historically we've accepted that for
Postgres' locale settings, too.  However, it's fairly unsafe to store an
empty string in a new database's pg_database.datcollate or datctype fields,
because then the interpretation could vary across postmaster restarts,
possibly resulting in index corruption and other unpleasantness.

Instead, we should expand "" to whatever it means at the moment of calling
CREATE DATABASE, which we can do by saving the value returned by
setlocale().

For consistency, make initdb set up the initial lc_xxx parameter values the
same way.  initdb was already doing the right thing for empty locale names,
but it did not replace non-empty names with setlocale results.  On a
platform where setlocale chooses to canonicalize the spellings of locale
names, this would result in annoying inconsistency.  (It seems that popular
implementations of setlocale don't do such canonicalization, which is a
pity, but the POSIX spec certainly allows it to be done.)  The same risk
of inconsistency leads me to not venture back-patching this, although it
could certainly be seen as a longstanding bug.

Per report from Jeff Davis, though this is not his proposed patch.
Fix COPY FROM for null marker strings that correspond to invalid encoding.

The COPY documentation says "COPY FROM matches the input against the null
string before removing backslashes".  It is therefore reasonable to presume
that null markers like E'\\0' will work ... and they did, until someone put
the tests in the wrong order during microoptimization-driven rewrites.
Since then, we've been failing if the null marker is something that would
de-escape to an invalidly-encoded string.  Since null markers generally
need to be something that can't appear in the data, this represents a
nontrivial loss of functionality; surprising nobody noticed it earlier.

Per report from Jeff Davis.  Backpatch to 8.4 where this got broken.
Code cleanup for heap_freeze_tuple.

It used to be case that lazy vacuum could call this function with only
a shared lock on the buffer, but neither lazy vacuum nor any other
code path does that any more.  Simplify the code accordingly and clean
up some related, obsolete comments.
Remove dead assignment

found by Coverity
Improve PL/Python database access function documentation

Organize the function descriptions as a list instead of running text,
for easier access.
[WIP] Caching for stable expressions with constant arguments

* Refactoring:
Previously, all callers of simplify_function() did their own mutation of
argument lists prior to calling. Also, arguments added in
reorder_function_arguments() and add_function_defaults() were mutated
separately in those functions. Now all of that is done in one place,
in simplify_function(). This also reduces iterations over the argument
list.

reorder_function_arguments() and add_function_defaults() functions now
don't get a context argument anymore.

* Rename eval_const_expressions_mutator -> const_expressions_mutator
This function doesn't just evaluate expressions anymore.
Refactor ExecInitExpr; add one more regression test
Refactor all callers of ExecInitExpr to take useCache argument
Add cost estimation for CacheExpr, expression only evaluated once
Re-add code to strip CacheExpr nodes in estimation mode, since
estimation callers expect to only deal with Const nodes.
Fix const_expressions_mutator calling convention
Don't access datum pointer when datum is NULL.
Store "cache enabled" flag in EState instead of inventing a new context
struct. This reverts most of commit
0791252767973b21914dbfdcb4f727f5d7677afd