ktmeng/mec huggingface dataset:
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Child labor in IndiaSource: 1M.C. Naidu & K. Dasratha Ramaiah (2017). Child labor in India: An overview. Journal of social sciences, 13, p: 199-204. This article examines the overview of child labor in India. The popularity of child labor is important problem challenges the world at a large rate, particularly developing countries like India. The main reasons behind the rise in child labor is common unemployment and economic pressure among the adult poor layer of population, due to acute growth of population. Big families with low income and often less education facilities, inability to read or write and unconsciousness of parents about the
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are involved in the life cycle of a child which forecast their active involvement and say in the whole procedure ads a new measurement. The main focusing area in the child growth is protecting the children from savagery, unfair treatment and misuse fall under child protection. Through this article, I will increase my research by examining the present scenario and the focus area of child protection. References M.C. Naidu & K. Dasratha Ramaiah (2017). Child labor in India: An overview. Journal of social sciences, 13, p: 199-204. Dasgupta (2018). Child labor in India: Literary representations along the trajectory of the nation. International research in children’s literature,11, p: 160-172. Viruru (2008). Childhood labor in India: Issues and complexities. Contemporary issues in early childhood, 9, p: 224-233. /10.2304/ciec.2008.9.224Dr.D. Kumuda (2014). Child labor in India: Present scenario. IOSR. Journal of economics and finance (IOSR-JEF), 5, p:33-36. www.iosrjournals.org
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Child Marriages in NamibiaHilma Ndapewa AngulaStudent Number: 219369939University of NamibiaCONCLUTIONTable of ContentsABSTRACT 3CHILD MARRIAGES IN NAMIBIA 3MAIN POINTS OF THE ARTICLE 3HOW IS CHILD MARRIAGE A SOCIAL ISSUE? 3SPECIFIC IMPLICATION FOR SOCAILWORK PRACTICE AND SOCAIL PROGRAMMES IN REGARDS TO CHILD MARRGE 3DISCUSSION 3CONCLUTION 3ABSTRACTDespite national laws put in place to protect the girl and boy child, marriage of girls and boys under the age of 18 years of age is common in some parts of Namibia and affects masses. Child marriage is a human rights violation that prevents girls and boys from obtaining an education, enjoying optimal health, bonding with others their own age, maturing, and ultimately choosing their own life partners’ Child marriage is compelled by poverty and has many effects on girls and boys health.
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It is an international celebration however children’s rights are violated every day, children are married of at a very young age.How can we define child marriage? Child marriage is a formal marriage or casual union entered into by an individual before reaching the age of 18. It traditionally happens in some of our cultures. At its core, child marriage is a violation of child protection and human rights. Many factors can lead to child marriage or a forced marriage ” from financial or food insecurity to cultural or social norms.
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CHAPTER TWOREVIEW OF RELATED LITERATUREIn this chapter, related literature within the context of personality traits and parenting rearing styles as predictors of career choice among undergraduate students will be reviewed under the following headings; Theoretical Framework of the Study Conceptual Framework of the Study The Concept of Personality The Concept of Parenting Rearing Styles The Concept of Career Choice Students Personality traits and Career choice Parenting Rearing Styles and Career Choice Sex and Career Choice Age and Career Choice Summary of Reviewed LiteratureTheoretical FrameworkVarious definitions and perspectives have been assumed in explaining personality and personality theories.
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A theory is defined as a set of related assumptions that allows an individual to use logical deductive reasoning to formulate testable hypotheses. A well-developed career development theory consists of either content or process aspect of career development. Content refers to specific and unique characteristics of individuals such as personality, ability, interest, and attitude. Process includes the development of interactions between them. Career development theories can be broadly categorized into theories focusing on content and theories focusing on process (Ngumi, 2008).
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Ngumi (2008) further explained that theories that focus on content predict career choices and are based on theories of differential and individual psychology; Frank Parsons and John Holland are the most influential in this regard. While theories that focus on process, emanated from developmental psychology, and view career development as a developmental process, rather than a matching exercise. The theories that focus on process assert that career choice is not a spontaneous or static decision but a dynamic developmental process which involves a series of decisions made over a period of time.
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The initial program was piloted at a school in Kingston, Jamaica which provides education to both typically developing children and children with autism spectrum disorder. Administrators from additional schools in the area were invited to the first session of this program to receive insight in order to make a decision on if they would like to provide the same program for the faculty at their institution. This location allowed me to work closely with the teachers and faculty in and outside of the classroom. The mission of this primary institution is to provide a community which promotes the recognition and acceptance of the similarities and the differences among us and change attitudes and social structures which serve as barriers to children that are viewed as different in the wider community.
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Although this is the overall goal for this school, according to the director, the faculty still needs insight on ASD and effective evidence-based techniques for their integration into an inclusive classroom with typically developing children. ParticipantsThis program was provided to teachers of the Kingston community that educate children with Autism Spectrum Disorder, Sensory Processing Disorders, symptoms of both disorders without a current diagnosis as well as children without any disorders. The diversity the teachers varied from their age, level of education, level of experience with teaching children with disorders and years of teaching experience in total. This group provides the ideal type of participants for this program because the leaders of this school supports the idea of an inclusive classroom and encourages their teachers to implement this model in the most effective way within their classroom. Written informed consent was required before each session from each participant. ProcedureThe participants were gathered using a convenience sample.
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The sensitivity training program consists of four out of classroom sessions on a weekly basis and daily in class sessions. The program was ran by one occupational therapy student and one qualified co-leader. Week one focused on the definition and common symptoms they may see of a child with autism or sensory processing disorders. Week two through four focused on sensory needs in a classroom setting, communication difficulties, and behavioral deficits and evidence-based practice techniques to cater to these specific needs as well as classroom modifications. All participants completed the pen-and-paper questionnaire prior to participating and at the end of the four weeks. A focus group discussion was also completed at the beginning and end of the four weeks to clarify responses to the questionnaire.
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The primary outcome measure focused on the participants own view of their understanding of the topic of Autism Spectrum Disorder and other Sensory processing disorders, their opinion on the need for the use of the inclusion model in the classroom and how they perceive their competence of teaching in an inclusive classroom. The questionnaire used in this study is designed to measure what the participant is thinking at that exact moment. All items are answered using a 5-point scale (1= not at all, 2= a little bit, 3= somewhat, 4= very much, 5= extremely) and given to the participants as a pre-test and a post-test to assess the difference. Only the questionnaires that were completely fully were used to compute the results of the study. The focus group discussion was also utilized as an additional outcome measure.
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The data consisted of Likert-scale type consisting of responses ranking from 1 (representing never) to 5 (representing always). This data was collected from the pre and posttests of each session. Following each session, the data was summated into mean and standard deviation from each participant’s responses which was then calculated in a single tailed paired t-test with a significance level of 0.05. This information provided support for the effectiveness of each session. Such results from each session was comprised in an ANOVA to calculate the effectiveness of the program as a whole.Assumptions The intervention was based on a series of assumptions strengthened by the author’s occupational therapy knowledge and experience, research findings, and existing occupational therapy concepts. These assumptions are as follows
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The purpose of this program was to provide education of ASD, common symptoms, effective evidence-based practice techniques and classroom modifications to teachers to utilize in a traditional classroom to increase participation of children with ASD. The intended population of the study was primary level teachers in Jamaica. A representative sample was chosen by way of purposive non-probability sampling due to constraints in reaching the total population of primary level teachers in both public and private schools in Kingston, Jamaica. Data were collected via questionnaires and permission/consent for participation and data collection was sought by the directors of the schools and each participant involved. Upon agreement, the schools were disbursed questionnaires. Concluding statements were written based on the results from the pre and post focus group discussions and questionnaires were collected and analyzed. Survey packets will be kept securely for a period before being destroyed.
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Chapter 1: The narrator describes his childhood in the Salinas Valley. He explains how he learned to tell west from east by simply looking at the mountains, and how the Gabilan Mountains were lovely while the Santa Lucias Mountains were unfriendly. The narrator also explains the the valley’s thirty year weather cycle. There are five to six years of heavy rain, six to seven years of normal rainfall, and the remaining many years left dry and barren. The narrator explains that the valley originally belonged to the Indians, which he described as lazy, then the Spanish, which he described as greedy, then finally the Americans, which he described as even greedier than the Spanish.
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Then I felt as I could see the Indians roaming around their land, the Spanish taking the land, and the Americans stealing the stolen land, as if I was one of the explorers.Chapter 2: The narrator’s grandparents arrive in the Salinas Valley from Ireland. Samuel and Liza Hamilton were left with land that was the most barren and deprived of resources. We get an insight into their lives, and how they manage to survive with their nine children.
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Bowen Family Systems Theory Application NameInstitutionInstructorCourseDate Bowen Family Systems Theory ApplicationThe Bowen family systems theory is a counseling theory which can be used to address behavioral issues affecting clients through the integration of the family system in the counseling process (McLeod, 2013). This theory is based on the assumption that the family is a unit where members are emotionally connected to one another. Family members are able to relate with some of the problems affecting other members in the family (McLeod, 2013). This makes the family the basic support system where clients can get support in diverse aspects during counseling.
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This theory will be the most effective in addressing Ana’s problems by identifying any issues in the family system which could have contributed to the current crisis and how the family can support Ana in addressing her current problems (McLeod, 2013). Concepts of the Bowen Family Systems Theory That Make It the Most Appropriate For the Client in the Case StudyOne of the concepts of the Bowens family systems theory is emotional interdependence which is aimed at promoting cooperation in families and provide support to family members (McLeod, 2013).
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Birth rates in a Britain have declined in the past fifty years due to the trends that have been set in society. Between 1901 to 2010, the birth rate declined from 29 per thousand to 13 per thousand. The birth rate is the number of births per thousand of population per year. Factors such as secularisation, contraception, having a geographically mobile workforce, education being compulsory since 1880, economic burden (changes), the changing values of women in society and the changing position of women such as having children at a later age, and the declining birth rate have affected the birth rates in Britain over the past fifty years.
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The use of contraception has changed from disapproval to acceptance in the past century. The use of contraception was shunned in the last century and was disapproved by society, however, the view of society shifted as they have started accepting the notion of contraception. This could be a reason for the reduction of family size in the UK as couples can now make the decision whether they want to have children or not and how many children they want to have. The secularisation of society has also lead to the decrease in religious activity and the acceptance of cohabitation and abortion.
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Morgan (2007) argues that the decline in birth rates is due a rise in cohabitation as cohabiting couples often have fewer children than married couples. This piece of research is fairly new and can still be applied to modern situations, therefore, this point is not outdated. Another reason that has affected the decline of birth rates is the development of a geographically mobile workforce. Modern societies generally require a geographically mobile workforce. In the last century, workers were more inclined to stay with their family due to the privatization of the nuclear family. However, in modern-day society, nuclear families often encourage the children of the family to go find work elsewhere, therefore, a workforce that can move elsewhere for work or a promotion is needed. The children may leave the household as they need to be geographically mobile therefore this could shift the nuclear family into a smaller sized nuclear family. A factor that has affected birth rates in the United Kingdom is the compulsory education provided for children since 1880.
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Children were banned from employment in the 19th century; this is because children needed to understand the key skills in life and not to be exploited. Children were no longer an economic asset that could add to the income of the family since they had started work from an early age. Parents would only support their child until he/she could earn a living, roughly around 7/8 years old. However, in contemporary society parents often support their children well into their 20’s. This puts couples off from having children. With education becoming compulsory, society has become more child-centred. Most likely, children will be the centre of the family. Parents are expected to spend more money in the upbringing of the child and more time than ever engaged with their children.
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Couples focus better when having one or two children; therefore, the decline in family size and birth rates can be influenced by education.The rising costs of having children have caused a decline in birth rates; the money needed to raise a child up to the age of 21 has increased rapidly. The cost may include things like costs for education, school trips, university costs, internet connection, train and bus fares etc. Over the last century, the cost of raising a child has increased causing couples to have fewer children. A research carried out in 2011 by Opinion Matters for insurance company suggested that the average size of a family is declining due to the rising costs of bringing up the child. In 1972, the number of cohabiting couples who have one child was 16% and the number today is 20%. This shows a 4% increase due to the rising costs of bringing up a child. The couples were asked if they would have a second child, 58% of all cohabiting couples said that money’ was the main issue. Statistics show that the average cost of raising a child from birth until the age of 21 of Ј271,000. Hirsch (2014) argues that the estimated cost of raising a child up until the age of 18 is Ј154,000.
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Other factors such as education being made compulsory alongside this factor forces couples to have fewer children. The research is relatively recent therefore, it can still be applied to modern society. The estimates made by Hirsch (2014) happen to be true and the figure of raising a child is increasing exponentially. However, this piece of research was carried out only on cohabiting couples and married couples were excluded from the research. A factor that contributes to the declining birth rates could be the changing position of women in society. For example, women can now have children at a much later age than in the last century.
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Women were expected to have children, however, in modern-day Britain there happens to be less of an expectation on women to have children. Women now have an equal opportunity when it comes to fertility due to the feminist movement. Women formed legal equality with men and started to outperform boys at school since there was less of an expectation on them as opposed to fifty years ago. Women make up half the workforce which has led to the change in attitude in family life. Fifty years ago, men were seen as the instrumental role, however, in modern society women can also become the instrumental role instead of the expressive role. The decreasing expectations of women to have children has severely affected the declining birth rates and may be one of the major factors for the decline in family size and birth rates. Sharpe (1976, 1994) argues that the priorities of girls have changed from love, marriage, husbands, children, jobs and careers, more or less in that order’ in 1976 to job, career, and being able to support themselves’ in 1994.
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In 18 years, the attitudes of women had shifted as women were not expected to take care of their families and they were expected to assume the expressive role in the family. The average age for a woman to have her first child is in her 30s, whereas, fifty years ago it was in her 20s. Even though this research was carried out more than forty years ago, the contrast between the past and the present is existent within society. However, feminists argue that even though women can choose to have children at a later age, when children do enter the family the majority of the childcare and housework will be taken care of by the woman and that she will automatically assume the expressive role in the family. This means that the women will suffer the consequences of marriage.The declining birth rates and family sizes could be due to couples becoming much more hesitant when it comes to having children.
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The changing values of people are influenced by society and society believes that parenthood involves heavy pressure on couples. Parenthood causes couples to pledge to lifelong commitments. This causes couples to adhere to strict rules. Couples believe that parenthood takes away their freedom and independence. Other rules must be followed, like the sacrifices made to the family income. Fifty years ago, a child was seen as a gift and people wanted to have children; this increased the birth rates. However, with the changing values of society, the number of couples who want to have children are decreasing. Also, a quarter of women are expected to remain childless. Post-modernists believe that the decline in traditional norms and value such as religion is due to the secularisation of society. Since society has been secularised, the use of contraception and abortion have been accepted and are no longer stigmatised. Due to the growing individualisation, people have begun putting their own needs first and they have begun to realise that not choosing to have children is also accepted by society.
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Fifty years ago, people would have been called selfish’ for considering their own needs first but due to the secularisation of society people are encouraged to voice their true opinions. However, a criticism of the post-modernist perspective is that many people do not choose to have children. Moreover, many people are forced into living in an uncertain lifestyle where children may not be a possibility. Children may not be affordable for some people. This may be due to the changes in the economy as fewer jobs are available and more people want to get into lucrative markets. In conclusion, all factors listed above show the decline in family size and birth rates. However, over the past few years, there has been a recent increase in birth rates. Over the last 15 years, sociologists have witnessed an average increase of two babies per woman.
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This may be due to net migration. Increasing immigration ” immigrant couples are more likely to have more children than those who are native to the country. Immigrant mothers account for more than 20% of the recent increase in birth rates. There has also been a decline in child poverty. With the use of benefits and other welfare payments, poorer couples find it easier to have more children as the state provides for the child and not the parents. The advances in technology could be a reason for the increase in family size and birth rates. The increase in the usage of technological innovation such as IVF (In-Vitro Fertilisation) and the freezing of eggs means that women can delay having children well into their 40’s.
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Black Caribbean children are still subjected to teacher racism, which could be the cause of exclusion, and are more likely to be categorised as having special education needs than other ethnic groups, with teachers more likely to underestimate this group of students by selecting lower examination tiers for them to sit, meaning that the highest grade they can achieve will be lower than that for the ethnic majority (Gillborn, 1990; king, 1991; Youdell, 2004, 2007; Rollock, 2007; Sleeter, 1993, 2012). This secondary education literature is meant to help contextualize why members of my sample may remark the education system as something that is set up to disadvantage black boys.
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Low teachers’ expectations, have been particularly cited by many researchers as contributing to low attainment amongst Black children (e.g. Gillborn and Youdell, 2000; Crozier, 2005; Maylor et al., 2006; Rhamie, 2007; DCSF, 2008b). Overall evidence suggests the disruptive or bad behaviour of Black children in the schools receive more adverse action against them than the pupils from other ethnicity. Black Caribbean children are getting excluded three times more than the exclusion rate of the entire pupil population (DfE 2015).Demie and McLean reveal the Black pupils when interviewed said that their teachers have told them that aren’t going to achieve high education and wouldn’t be getting in careers.
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All children must be vaccinated. A vaccine is made from very small amounts of germs that can cause diseases for example, viruses, bacteria, or toxins. It prepares your body to fight the disease faster and more effectively so you won’t get sick. Vaccine are not the same as vaccinations, and immunizations. Vaccination is the act of getting a vaccine, usually as a shot. Immunization is the process of becoming immune to a disease. Many families believe this isn’t necessary for their children.
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Due to their religion or they dont believe its safe. Vaccines contain many harmful ingredients. Chemicals used in vaccines include a suspending fluid, preservatives and stabilizers, and adjuvants or enhancers that help improve the vaccine’s effectiveness. Vaccines also may contain very small amounts of the culture material used to grow the virus or bacteria used in the vaccine this means that there is a small dose of the virus inside the vaccine that could lead to illness, such as chicken egg protein.
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The ingredients in vaccines are safe in the amounts used. The ingredients can be harmful but only in large doses but they are not used in harmful quantities. Children are exposed to one of the ingredients in breast milk and baby formula. Paul Offit, MD, notes that children are exposed to more bacteria, viruses, toxins, and other harmful substances in one day of normal activity than are in vaccines. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) requires up to 10 or more years of testing for all vaccines before they are licensed, and then they are monitored by the Center for Disease Control (CDC) and the FDA to make sure the vaccines and the ingredients used in the vaccines are safeVaccines can cause serious side effects to the human body.
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After Amy Chua’s article, Why Chinese Mothers Are Superior, was published, the different parenting models in the East and the West aroused concern and discussion. Amy Chua believes that Chinese parents raise such stereotypically successful kids and produce so many math whizzes and music prodigies because Chinese parents [arm kids] with skills, work habits and inner confidence that no one can ever take away. (Chua) However, some Western parents disagree with and question this Eastern parenting model. Obviously, there are great differences in parenting models between the East and the West in dealing with success, excellence, children’s self-esteem and child-parent obligations.
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Chinese parents believe that success is the most important thing, and that success depends entirely on academic achievement. In her article, Amy Chua mentions a study showing that Chinese parents believe that academic achievement reflects successful parenting and that if children did not excel at school then there was a problem’ and parents were not doing their job’. (Chua) As a typical Chinese parent, Amy Chua never allows her daughters in a school play, and she requires her daughters to get an A and be the No.
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Being a smart kid in society isn’t easy, as what Grant Penrod says in, Anti-Intellectualism: Why We Hate the Smart Kids. In his essay, he argues that intellectuals are despised by people known as the anti-intellectuals. He believes that the smart kids are never recognized or complimented for their efforts like how the non-smart kids are. Penrod also focuses on why anti-intellectualism exists and how intellectuals are judged and affected based off the stereotypes that were made for them.
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But Penrod’s argument is unconvincing since he generalizes that if someone is smart then they are stereotyped as a nerd, and negative things will happen to them. They will become what society thinks a nerd should be. Or, if you are someone who isn’t as smart, then you definitely hate the idea of intellectualism. He incorrectly assumes that if you are a smart person, you are overshadowed and disliked by the general public.
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Penrod’s questionable argument that smart kids are anti-social because their label results in the lack of social contact, is simply not true. Based on one online venter that he talks about, Dan6erous, nerds don’t have lives socially because they are always concerned for their grades. Penrod thinks that this absurd belief is true. Though he states that not all smart kids are socially excluded, he believes that a few have at least a degree of popularity (760). This is unreasonable because he doesn’t take other people’s cases into consideration.
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In one of Penrod’s examples, he unconvincingly claims that public figures fuel the idea of anti-intellectualism. He lists certain well-known cultural icons that dropped out of high school such as Kid Rock, Christina Aguilera, L.L Cool J and Sammy Sosa. Penrod believes that these public figures are responsible for anti-intellectualism because the image presented by modern celebrities [suggest] that intellectualism has no ties to success (760). What Penrod doesn’t tell us is that even though these celebrities might not be smart at subjects in school, they do have some type of talent that makes them successful, something that they are an intellectual at. He also doesn’t consider that there are also celebrities that dropped out of school but are super smart and successful such as Steve Jobs or Mark Zuckerberg.
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In addition, Penrod generalizes that if you are not intelligent then you automatically believe in uneducated success. But students that aren’t intelligent would definitely not just drop out to become as rich and famous as someone who did, because uneducated success is pretty hard to obtain if you aren’t an intellect at something.Penrod’s illogical arguments in this piece makes it appear that society as a whole looks down on smart kids. He generalizes the attitudes people have towards nerds as a world wide hatred for them. But not everyone in society looks down on those individuals who help it to progress, [excluding] its best and brightest (762).
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Penrod also argues throughout his essay that smart kids can never academically express themselves since people do not notice or appreciate them at all, which is preposterous. He does not realize that most intellectuals are not only looked up to in society but they do not need to prove themselves to anybody. Smart kids do not succeed academically just to be recognized and drowned with compliments, they do it because they want to be successful in school, their jobs, and life in general.Though Grant Penrod’s essay is very well-written and has very few agreeable points, it seems he bases his argument off his own experiences and opinions. In a sense, the argument he makes seems biased. Based off the first paragraph of this essay, Penrod was clearly a smart, hardworking student in one of the teams that were never recognized. Throughout his high school life he was probably treated poorly from others because he was smart. His school might’ve been built on typical stereotypes that portrayed intellectuals as anti-socials, people that only care for their grades, and ones that are generally unaccepted by society. But in reality, other high schools and life in general is nothing like this. Maybe for the sake of both smart kids and the society as a whole, Penrod needs to lay off a little.
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351155869315Vaal university of technology MARIA MBATHA 216152925 M LEGAL ASSISTANCE Legal practice 3 Assignment 2 Essay 09 APRIL 2019[Course title] 00Vaal university of technology MARIA MBATHA 216152925 M LEGAL ASSISTANCE Legal practice 3 Assignment 2 Essay 09 APRIL 2019[Course title] Assay topic: THE APPLICATION OF NASCRITURUS FICTION IN THE LAW OF DELICT.IntroductionIt is regarded as legal rule the fact that the legitimate perspicacity advance into extant at the accouchement of a legal subject and all human beings are entitled to the immunity provided by the law. I think that in case of the expected infant, it necessitates lawful insurance in accepted conditions controlled by exclusive law and as it provide guidance of how the intestate or testate succession will devolve when the is an unborn infant of the testator.
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NASCRITURUS FICTION on events concerning sequence and position of the not yet born minor the law guard the attentiveness. The child who is not yet born interpreted as at present occupying being born when ascendancy is to the unborn. Undeveloped or potential delight of the child carry on being unbolt. Cognisance of information that Nascriturus will be a legitimate subject behind time of delivery, it taken accountable by the law. I think that the Potential legal subject it placed in a condition of abeyance/ undetermined in based on the interest as it will depend whether the unborn child will be alive or not.
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1. IntroductionToys R Us business is one of the worlds leading retailers of branded and unbranded toys, children’s clothing and baby products. During all the bankruptcy and closures of stores, Toys R Us has always remained a well-known store. Even with the losses suffered from competitors like Amazon, the brand still holds sentimental value for many, all over the world, and I feel that these will be key to relaunching the brand in Australia. This report will outline an assessment on TRU re-entering the market place by determining a new marketing strategy.
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2. Strategya) Marketing Objectives:- Target the right market: Toys R Us should reenter the market place across gaming toys and baby goods products. TRU, already has developed a great brand, they have a great chance of selling goods if they can identify the correct markets and current demographics out there. Yes, TRU’s market share has been targeted by the competitor in the time that they have been out, I believe that with an effective marketing strategy in place, they could reclaim its core customer again and win back some of the toy and baby market out there.
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Rural to urban migration has created rapid urbanization especially in sub-Saharan Africa countries concurrently with slow economic growth over the past decades. The number of populations in Africans living in urban has been increased from last 60 years (United Nations, 2010). The urban poverty debate engaged the issue of restructuring and household strategies during the last decade. Sassen’s (1991) thesis reveals that macro-economic restructuring causes a new social l polarization between emergent high-income and low-income occupational strata. A number of studies focus on household strategies in the period of global restructuring. Bryan Roberts (1995) stated that as poor households engaged in informal’ sectors dependent on their household (Roberts, 1994).The study conducted based on livelihood framework’ s suggests that poverty is a product not just of material poverty, but of a set of interlocking factors, including physical weakness, social isolation, vulnerability and powerlessness (Rakodi, 2002). It studied from bottom up’, drawing largely from literature on sustainable livelihoods and then considers the structures and process from the top down’ that helps or enables urban development at the same time oblige for urban development (Coetzee, 2002).
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The study area (Adama) is one of the town where the business and industries are growing rapidly simultaneously where there are many social problems increasing as a result of the population growth. Many of people infiltrate into the town from various parts of the country in search of jobs. Over population, unemployment, destitution, lack of income, poor housing conditions, poor health conditions, lack of access to basic facilities such as potable water, electric power, and a lack of reserves, etc are the major problem that most inhabitants are confronted with (Bezabih, 2009). 1.1 Objectives To identify the poverty and vulnerability level of poor communities in the city, To identify the urban poor households livelihoods strategies that helps them to cope with their poverty and vulnerability, To identify whether family and social ties uses as the urban poor coping strategy.
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The concept of urban livelihood framework’ developed in contexts of developing countries of Africa and Asia (Rakodi, 2002). A livelihood comprises the capabilities, both material and social resources and activities required that are essential for a means of survival. It is sustainable when it helps poor to cope with and recuperate from venerability and enhance its capabilities and assets sustainably. Its approach helps to draw conceptual framework based on different livelihoods dimensions (Carney, 1998). It does not explain poverty only from the income level, but uses broader concepts of deprivation and insecurity (Chambers 1983 and 1989)..
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Mobilization of resources and opportunities such as involving in to labor market, pooling asset and creating social networking are considered as urban household livelihood system (Grown and Sebstad, cited in Rakodi, 2002). The household ‘strategy’ has wonderful benefit of reestablishing urban poor people, however, there is no clear understanding about which poor households have sufficient control over their total assets and environment to pursue goal-oriented behavior that would be sustainable in helping the poor livelihood (Rakodi, 2002). Studies have revealed that the social response to economic crisis has produced other changes at the household level. These are has increased labor force participation by women and income earning of children, reduction of overall consumption level (Chant, 1994, 1996; Escobar Latapi and Gonzalez de la Rocha, 1995; Kanji, 1995; Moser, 1996 cited in Beall and Kanji1,1999). Income, Housing, Education, health and security of urban poor and vulnerability Income is one of important dimension that poverty can be viewed from. Dependence on cash for purchases of essential goods and services, Employment insecurity/casual work, unskilled wage labor/lack of qualifications to get well-paid jobs, inability to hold a job due to bad health, Lack of access to job opportunities.
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The poor are forced economically, socially and politically to settle into slums and squatter areas (UN-HABITAT, 2003). It has been found that slums and squatter settlements house a significant proportion (25%-50%) of city populations in developing countries (Bulsara, 1970)and the access to the basic services such as water supply and road access is poor in squatter areas in the west Africa and this is as the result of their low level of income (O’Connor, 1983)Cairncross et al., 1990; Meikle, 2002 noted that urban poor are living in environmental conditions that are vastly inferior to other areas. Because of this poor people are settled in Informal area which is legally not bounded.
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Recently, there is improvement, however there is substantial part of the urban population in developing cities still remains without adequate access to basic urban infrastructure (Edel and Hellman, 1989; Ward, 1990; Islam, 1996). Health and Education are the other dimensions of poverty. The poor in cities settle on marginal lands, which are prone to environmental hazards, such as landslides and floods, Exposure to diseases due to poor quality air, water, and lack of sanitation, Injury and deaths rising from traffic Industrial occupational risks, unsafe working conditions, especially for those in informal sector jobs.
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Poor people in the urban areas have no capacity to access education due insufficient school sizes in rapidly growing cities and they are inability to afford school expenses. Concerning urban poor people security, they cannot afford Land and housing in authorized areas, therefore, the poor typically build or rent on public or private property. Houses lack proper construction and tend to be in unsafe areas prone to natural hazards as well as many human made problems which characterized by Evictions that cause loss of physical capital, damage social and informal networks for jobs and safety nets, and reduce sense of security (Deniz B. and Christine K, 2001).
Topic: family

The urban poor need to be involved in employment immediately after their movement to cities, as they need higher cash incomes than most rural households in order to survive (Wratten, 1995; Satterthwaite, 1997; Satterthwaite and Tacoil, 2002). Informal economy and family strategies are related and they are a means for urban poor living. In order to engage in to informal economy, binding relationship and kinship are the basis. Urban poor uses family based household for coping with the environment in the absence of state and this is through pooling of inadequate incomes and sharing of shelter (Roberts, 1995).
Topic: family

Kinship and friendship networks (the family) together helps individuals in order to find jobs in the informal economy and provides assistance in the case of hardship and emergencies (Lomnitz, 1977).The various literatures exploring as social organization plays essential role in the life of urban poor (Hossain, 2000, 2001). Urban social organization of the urban poor is a collection of family networks and co-operation found in the family networks is the type of social interaction. In the poor communities most nuclear families lives in the same residential compound arrangement and shares a common housing material or equipment’s. Marriage ties is the base for families are ties/network (Lomnitz, 1997).
Topic: family

Majority of urban poor participated in the study are poor people with age group of 21-30 which is the level of age where they can participate in any types of job. However, these people are living the life of their family yet, means they are in the poverty. Overwhelming of poor people in the city has an origin in the city itself and lives for 2-30 years. This may be because of people in the city poor family in their background and this poverty chain makes them to remain in their poverty. The urban poor of Adama city are mostly involved in a variety of occupations in urban informal sectors and due to a lack of education and employment training, they usually do not get entry into the more competitive formal sectors of urban employment.
Topic: family

Urban poor households have no capacity to save big amount of money and cannot keep their savings securely because lack of awareness about banking system and its importance. Most of them keep their savings in hand’ in order to be able to respond to any economic crises immediately since they are poor they deal with a lot of poverty problem. Some of them lend money to members of their community in the same neighborhood even though it is not considered as formal lending rather it is assumed as support of relatives or neighbors during hard time/crisis. Table 1 Housing and housing materials of the respondentsMaterial Frequency Percent Roof: Tin 177 98.3 Cement 23 1.7Wall: Cement 5 3 Wood 155 86 Other 20 11In many parts of Ethiopian city the majority of urban dwellers suffer from shortage of housing, housing quality, inadequate infrastructures and utilities. Homelessness, Poor quality dwellings, are an increasing the main characteristics of urban slum area as well (kibrom B.).
Topic: family

As shown above (23%) and (98%) roof of houses is made of cement and tin respectively. Dominantly, the walls of (86%) of houses are made of wood with mud and (11%) of houses are made of wood with mud and other. Also the walls of (3%) of houses are made of quality material i.e. cement. The houses characterized by low quality materials and they are subject to further vulnerability especially during the rainy season and for a long time every year the area seriously affected by heavy rain flood.
Topic: family

The study found that urban poor in the Adama city have access to the municipal water supply. Table-2 shows (100%) of the poor to access the water supply even though it is inadequate and insufficient. (60%) of the urban slum poor of the respondents have access waste disposal facilities and the rest of them (22%) dispose their waste in river or hole and (18%) use other method like, they collect waste together and burn it monthly in round. This is evident that inadequate the problems of access to infrastructure and services are serious for the urban poor. Even though poor people access some service it is very inadequate, low quality, and unaffordable especially health service.
Topic: family

In contrary, other study conducted in Nairobi (2006) shows that only five percent of slum households have access to an electricity supply, which is generally used for lighting purposes. Access to safe water is one issue of concern in urban poor communities. The study conducted in ten cities of developing region which revealed that the poor has no access or cannot afford for piped tap water (grant, 2004) and in the early 1990s, statistics shows that more than 80 percent of the urban population in Africa, Asia and Latin America were adequately served’ with water (Satterth waite, 1995).
Topic: family

The same to this finding, this study shows, urban poor in the city have an access to drinking water even though it is inadequate. This means there is a clean water access in slum areas of the city but there is no sufficient public water pipe and concerning the private, unwillingness to sale the water may make the access more inadequate. Supporting to this finding, access to such services is also found to be limited and, where it exists, supply remains highly irregular and inadequate (Islam, 1991; CUS, 1993; Islam et al., 1997).
Topic: family

SAt linthorpe Community Primary School (LCPS) training of Health & Safety is provided to all members of staff who have various roles and responsibilities of safeguarding, fire and first aid. The School Business Manager carries out an enhanced DBS check for all staff and volunteers who deal with children. The school requires all staff/volunteers to have an induction prior commencing to work. The induction covers all aspects of Health and Safety policies. After the induction volunteers/staff are expected to sign that they have understood the Health and Safety policy in the presence of the Business Manager.
Topic: family

This can be through topics within the school’s learning contexts, for instance, a safe place to play which could include Science, English or Technology, and the involvement of outside agencies such as the police, fire brigade, road safety officer, Kerb craft etc. It might also be through a health-related topic such as smoking.The children are encouraged to develop healthy habits through good health and hygiene routines, for example regular exercise or care of themselves, personal hygiene etc.
Topic: family

When children are moving chairs, they should be moved one at a time and children must be shown how to carry them correctly. They may carry single chairs on their own. Tables require one child at each end, a child must not attempt to lift a table on his/her own. Small items of equipment include tape players, CD players, physical education (PE) trolleys etc. These can be moved freely by the children. When any item of equipment or furniture is being moved from one room to another, always ensure that there is another child available to open and close doors. The items children should not move are computers/monitors which can fall off trolleys and wires can get caught/tangled easily.
Topic: family

For any physical education (PE) children change into shorts and T- shirts, and wear pumps or trainers for outside activities. It is part of the school policy that children do not wear any form of jewellery for safety reasons. Ear studs must be removed or covered with sticking plaster. When using large apparatus children must be trained in how to move, lift and set out each piece of apparatus. This includes how to lift correctly, and how many children are required for moving each piece of equipment (this should include how to bend), for example netball posts one child at each end.
Topic: family

In Year 5 children attend swimming lessons the child will be made aware of safe procedures and shown how to evacuate the pool. Whilst travelling to the swimming pool in the coach, the children must remain seated until told otherwise. Seatbelts must always be worn.In accordance with Local Education Authority (LEA) safety regulations, educational visits are carefully planned, with staff visits made if possible. Details are sent to parents. Children are asked to wear appropriate clothing for the activity planned. The correct adult/child ratios are always followed, and a first aid kit and list of emergency phone numbers taken.