do not perform such services. commissioners of oaths are able to undertake the bulk of routine domestic attestation work within the uk, and many documents, including signatures for normal property transactions, do not need professional attestation of signature at all, a lay witness being sufficient. in practice the need for notaries in purely english legal matters is very small ; for example they are not involved in normal property transactions. since a great many solicitors also perform the function of commissioners for oaths and can witness routine declarations etc. ( all are qualified to do so, but not all offer the service ), most work performed by notaries relates to international matters in some way, and documents needing to be used abroad, and many of the small number of english notaries have strong foreign language skills and often a foreign legal qualification. the work of notaries and solicitors in england is separate although most notaries are solicitors. the notaries society gives the number of notaries in england and wales as " about 1, 000, " all but seventy of whom are solicitors. there are also scrivener notaries, who get their name from the scriveners ' company ; until 1999, when they lost this monopoly, they were the only notaries permitted to practise in the city of london. they used not to have to first qualify as solicitors, but they had knowledge of foreign laws and languages. currently to qualify as a notary public in england and wales it is necessary to have earned a law degree or qualified as a solicitor or barrister in the past five years, and then to take a two - year distance - learning course styled the postgraduate diploma in notarial practice. at the same time, any applicant must also gain practical experience. the few who go on to become scrivener notaries require further study of two foreign languages and foreign law and a two - year mentorship under an active scrivener notary. the other notaries in england are either ecclesiastical notaries whose functions are limited to the affairs of the church of england or other qualified persons who are not trained as solicitors or barristers but satisfy the master of the faculties of the archbishop of canterbury that they possess an adequate understanding of the law. both the latter two categories are required to pass examinations set by the master of faculties. the regulation of notaries was modernized in the 1990s as a result of section 57 of the courts and legal services act 1990. notarial services generally include : - attesting the signature and


required to pass examinations set by the master of faculties. the regulation of notaries was modernized in the 1990s as a result of section 57 of the courts and legal services act 1990. notarial services generally include : - attesting the signature and execution of documents - authenticating the execution of documents - authenticating the contents of documents - administration of oaths and declarations - drawing up or noting ( and extending ) protests of happenings to ships, crews and cargoes - presenting bills of exchange for acceptance and payment, noting and protesting bills in cases of dishonour and preparing acts of honour - attending upon the drawing up of bonds - drawing mercantile documents, deeds, sales or purchases of property, and wills in english and ( via translation ), in foreign languages for use in britain, the commonwealth and other foreign countries - providing documents to deal with the administration of the estate of people who are abroad, or owning property abroad - authenticating personal documents and information for immigration or emigration purposes, or to apply to marry, divorce, adopt children or to work abroad - verification of translations from foreign languages to english and vice versa - taking evidence in england and wales as a commissioner for oaths for foreign courts - provision of notarial copies - preparing and witnessing powers of attorney, corporate records, contracts for use in britain or overseas - authenticating company and business documents and transactions - international internet domain name transfers notaries public have existed in scotland since the 13th century and developed as a distinct element of the scottish legal profession. those who wish to practice as a notary must petition the court of session. this petition is usually presented at the same time as a petition to practice as a solicitor, but can sometimes be earlier or later. however, to qualify, a notary must hold a current practising certificate from the law society of scotland, a new requirement from 2007, before which all scottish solicitors were automatically notaries. whilst notaries in scotland are always solicitors, the profession remains separate in that there are additional rules and regulations governing notaries and it is possible to be a solicitor, but not a notary. since 2007 an additional practising certificate is required, so now most, but not all, solicitors in scotland are notaries - a significant difference from the english profession. they are also separate from notaries in other jurisdictions of the united kingdom. the profession is administered by the council of the law society of scotland under the law reform ( miscellaneous provisions ) ( scotland ) act 1990. in scotland, the duties and services provided by


are also separate from notaries in other jurisdictions of the united kingdom. the profession is administered by the council of the law society of scotland under the law reform ( miscellaneous provisions ) ( scotland ) act 1990. in scotland, the duties and services provided by the notary are similar to england and wales, although they are needed for some declarations in divorce matters for which they are not in england. their role declined following the law agents ( scotland ) amendment act 1896 which stipulated only enrolled law agents could become notaries and the conveyancing ( scotland ) act 1924 which extended notarial execution to law agents. the primary functions of a scottish notary are : - oaths, affidavits, and affirmations - affidavits in undefended divorces and for matrimonial homes - maritime protests - execution or certification for foreign jurisdictions, e. g., estates, court actions, powers of attorney, etc. - notarial execution for the blind or illiterate - entry of a person to overseas territories - completion of the documentation required for the registration of a company in certain foreign jurisdictions ; and - drawing for repayment of bonds of debenture in the united states, a notary public is a person appointed by a state government, e. g., the governor, lieutenant governor, state secretary, or in some cases the state legislature, and whose primary role is to serve the public as an impartial witness when important documents are signed. since the notary is a state officer, a notary ' s duties may vary widely from state to state and in most cases bars a notary from acting outside his or her home state unless they also have a commission there as well. in 32 states the main requirements are to fill out a form and pay a fee ; many states have restrictions concerning notaries with criminal histories, but the requirements vary from state to state. notaries in 18 states and the district of columbia are required to take a course, pass an exam, or both ; the education or exam requirements in delaware and kansas only apply to notaries who will perform electronic notarizations. a notary is almost always permitted to notarize a document anywhere in the state where their commission is issued. some states simply issue a commission " at large " meaning no indication is made as to from what county the person ' s commission was issued, but some states do require the notary include the county of issue of their commission as part of the jurat, or where seals are required,


at large " meaning no indication is made as to from what county the person ' s commission was issued, but some states do require the notary include the county of issue of their commission as part of the jurat, or where seals are required, to indicate the county of issue of their commission on the seal. merely because a state requires indicating the county where the commission was issued does not necessarily mean that the notary is restricted to notarizing documents in that county, although some states may impose this as a requirement. some states ( montana, wyoming, north dakota, among others ) allow a notary who is commissioned in a state bordering that state to also act as a notary in the state if the other allows the same. thus someone who was commissioned in montana could notarize documents in wyoming and north dakota, and a notary commissioned in wyoming could notarize documents in montana, a notary from wyoming could not notarize documents from north dakota ( or the inverse ) unless they had a commission from north dakota or a state bordering north dakota that also allowed north dakota notaries to practice in that state as well. notaries in the united states are much less closely regulated than notaries in most other common - law countries, typically because u. s. notaries have little legal authority. in the united states, a lay notary may not offer legal advice or prepare documents - except in louisiana and puerto rico - and in most cases cannot recommend how a person should sign a document or what type of notarization is necessary. there are some exceptions ; for example, florida notaries may take affidavits, draft inventories of safe deposit boxes, draft protests for payment of dishonored checks and promissory notes, and solemnize marriages. in most states, a notary can also certify or attest a copy or facsimile. the most common notarial acts in the united states are the taking of acknowledgements and oaths. many professions may require a person to double as a notary public, which is why us court reporters are often notaries as this enables them to swear in witnesses ( deponents ) when they are taking depositions, and secretaries, bankers, and some lawyers are commonly notaries public. despite their limited role, some american notaries may also perform a number of far - ranging acts not generally found anywhere else. depending on the jurisdiction, they may : take depositions, certify any and all petitions ( me ), witness third - party


limited role, some american notaries may also perform a number of far - ranging acts not generally found anywhere else. depending on the jurisdiction, they may : take depositions, certify any and all petitions ( me ), witness third - party absentee ballots ( me ), provide no - impediment marriage licenses, solemnize civil marriages ( me, fl, sc ), witness the opening of a safe deposit box or safe and take an official inventory of its contents, take a renunciation of dower or inheritance ( sc ), and so on. " an acknowledgment is a formal [ oral ] declaration before an authorized public officer. it is made by a person executing [ signing ] an instrument who states that it was his [ or her ] free act and deed. " that is, the person signed it without undue influence and for the purposes detailed in it. a certificate of acknowledgment is a written statement signed ( and in some jurisdictions, sealed ) by the notary or other authorized official that serves to prove that the acknowledgment occurred. the form of the certificate varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, but will be similar to the following : before me, the undersigned authority, on this _ _ _ _ _ _ day of _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _, 20 _ _ personally appeared _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _, to me well known to be the person who executed the foregoing instrument, and he / she acknowledged before me that he / she executed the same as his / her voluntary act and deed. oath, affirmation, and jurat a jurat is the official written statement by a notary public that he or she has administered and witnessed an oath or affirmation for an oath of office, or on an affidavit - that is, that a person has sworn to or affirmed the truth of information contained in a document, under penalty of perjury, whether that document is a lengthy deposition or a simple statement on an application form. the simplest form of jurat and the oath or affirmation administered by a notary are : - jurat : " sworn ( or affirmed ) to before me this _ _ _ _ _ _ _ day of _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _, 20 _ _. " - oath : " do you solemnly swear that the contents of


: " sworn ( or affirmed ) to before me this _ _ _ _ _ _ _ day of _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _, 20 _ _. " - oath : " do you solemnly swear that the contents of this affidavit subscribed by you are correct and true? " - affirmation ( for those opposed to swearing oaths ) : " do you solemnly, sincerely, and truly declare and affirm that the statements made by you are true and correct? " in the u. s., notarial acts normally include what is called a venue or caption, that is, an official listing of the place where a notarization occurred, usually in the form of the state and county and with the abbreviation " ss. " ( for latin scilicet, " to wit " ) normally referred to as a " subscript ", often in these forms : state of....... ) ) ss : county of....... ) state of _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ county of _ _ _ _ _ _ _, to - wit : the venue is usually set forth at the beginning of the instrument or at the top of the notary ’ s certificate. if at the head of the document, it is usually referred to as a caption. in times gone by, the notary would indicate the street address at which the ceremony was performed, and this practice, though unusual today, is occasionally encountered. the california secretary of state, notary public & special filings section, is responsible for appointing and commissioning qualified persons as notaries public for four - year terms. prior to sitting for the notary exam, one must complete a mandatory six - hour course of study. this required course of study is conducted either in an online, home study, or in - person format via an approved notary education vendor. both prospective notaries as well as current notaries seeking reappointment must undergo an " expanded " f. b. i. and california department of justice background check. various statutes, rules, and regulations govern notaries public. california law sets maximum, but not minimum, fees for services related to notarial acts ( e. g., per signature : acknowledgment $ 10, jurat $ 10, certified power of attorney $ 10, et cetera ). a finger print ( typically the right thumb ) may be required in the notary journal based on the transaction in


signature : acknowledgment $ 10, jurat $ 10, certified power of attorney $ 10, et cetera ). a finger print ( typically the right thumb ) may be required in the notary journal based on the transaction in question ( e. g., deed, quitclaim deed, deed of trust affecting real property, power of attorney document, et cetera ). documents with blank spaces cannot be notarized ( a further anti - fraud measure ). california explicitly prohibits notaries public from using literal foreign language translation of their title. the use of a notary seal is required. notarial acts performed in colorado are governed under the notaries public act, 12 - 55 - 101, et seq. pursuant to the act, notaries are appointed by the secretary of state for a term not to exceed four years. notaries may apply for appointment or reappointment online at the secretary of state ' s website. a notary may apply for reappointment to the notary office 90 days before her commission expires. beginning in early 2010, all new notaries will be required to take a training course and pass an examination to ensure minimal competence of the notaries public act. a course of instruction approved by the secretary of state may be administered by approved vendors and shall bear an emblem with a certification number assigned by the secretary of state ' s office. an approved course of instruction covers relevant provisions of the colorado notaries public act, the model notary act, and widely accepted best practices. in addition to courses offered by approved vendors, the secretary of state offers free certification courses at the secretary of state ' s office. to sign up for a free course, visit the notary public training page at the following link. a third party seeking to verify the status of a colorado notary may do so by visiting the secretary of state ' s website at the following link. constituents seeking an apostille or certificate of magistracy are requested to complete the form found on the following page before sending in their documents or presenting at the secretary of state ' s office. florida notaries public are appointed by the governor to serve a four - year term. new applicants and commissioned notary public must be bona fide residents of the state of florida and first time applicants must complete a mandatory three - hour education course administered by an approved educator. florida state law also requires that a notary public post bond in the amount of $ 7, 500. 00. a bond is required in order


of florida and first time applicants must complete a mandatory three - hour education course administered by an approved educator. florida state law also requires that a notary public post bond in the amount of $ 7, 500. 00. a bond is required in order to compensate an individual harmed as a result of a breach of duty by the notary. applications are submitted and processed through an authorized bonding agency. florida is one of three states ( maine and south carolina are the others ) where a notary public can solemnize the rites of matrimony ( perform a marriage ceremony ). the department of state appoints civil law notaries, also called " florida international notaries ", who must be florida attorneys who have practiced law for five or more years. applicants must attend a seminar and pass an exam administered by the department of state or any private vendor approved by the department. such civil law notaries are appointed for life and may perform all of the acts of a notary public in addition to preparing authentic acts. notaries public in illinois are appointed by the secretary of state for a four - year term. also, residents of a state bordering illinois ( iowa, indiana, kentucky, missouri, wisconsin ) who work or have a place of business in illinois can be appointed for a one year term. notaries must be united states citizens ( though the requirement that a notary public must be a united states citizen is unconstitutional ; see bernal v. fainter ), or aliens lawfully admitted for permanent residence ; be able to read and write the english language ; be residents of ( or employed within ) the state of illinois for at least 30 days ; be at least 18 years old ; not be convicted of a felony ; and not had a notary commission revoked or suspended during the past 10 years. an applicant for the notary public commission must also post a $ 5, 000 bond, usually with an insurance company and pay an application fee of $ 10. the application is usually accompanied with an oath of office. if the secretary of state ' s office approves the application, the secretary of state then sends the commission to the clerk of the county where the applicant resides. if the applicant records the commission with the county clerk, he or she then receives the commission. illinois law prohibits notaries from using the literal spanish translation in their title and requires them to use a rubber stamp seal for their notarizations. the notary public can then perform his or her duties anywhere in the state, as long as the notary resides ( or works or does


literal spanish translation in their title and requires them to use a rubber stamp seal for their notarizations. the notary public can then perform his or her duties anywhere in the state, as long as the notary resides ( or works or does business ) in the county where he or she was appointed. louisiana notaries public are commissioned by the governor. they are the only notaries to be appointed for life. the louisiana notary public is a civil law notary with broad powers, as authorized by law, usually reserved for the american style combination " barrister / solicitor " lawyers and other legally authorized practitioners in other states. a commissioned notary in louisiana is a civil law notary that can perform / prepare many civil law notarial acts usually associated with attorneys and other legally authorized practitioners in other states, except represent another person or entity before a court of law for a fee ( unless they are also admitted to the bar ). notaries are not allowed to give " legal " advice, but they are allowed to give " notarial " advice - i. e., explain or recommend what documents are needed or required to perform a certain act - and do all things necessary or incidental to the performance of their civil law notarial duties. they can prepare any document a civil law notary can prepare ( to include inventories, appraisements, partitions, wills, protests, matrimonial contracts, conveyances, and, generally, all contracts and instruments in writing ) and, if ordered or requested to by a judge, prepare certain notarial legal documents, in accordance with law, to be returned and filed with that court of law. maine notaries public are appointed by the secretary of state to serve a seven - year term. maine is one of three states ( florida and south carolina are the others ) where a notary public can solemnize the rites of matrimony ( perform a marriage ceremony ). maryland notaries public are appointed by the governor on the recommendation of the secretary of state to serve a four - year term. new applicants and commissioned notaries public must be bona fide residents of the state of maryland or work in the state. an application must be approved by a state senator before it is submitted to the secretary of state. the official document of appointment is imprinted with the signatures of the governor and the secretary of state as well as the great seal of maryland. before exercising the duties of a notary public, an appointee must appear before the clerk of one of maryland '


official document of appointment is imprinted with the signatures of the governor and the secretary of state as well as the great seal of maryland. before exercising the duties of a notary public, an appointee must appear before the clerk of one of maryland ' s 24 circuit courts to take an oath of office. a bond is not required. a notary is required to keep a log of all notarial acts, indicating the name of the person, their address, what type of document is being notarized, the type of id used to authenticate them ( or that they are known personally ) by the notary, and the person ' s signature. the notary ' s log is the only document for which a notary may write their own certificate. minnesota notaries public are commissioned by the governor with the advice and consent of the senate for a five - year term. all commissions expire on 31 january of the fifth year following the year of issue. citizens and resident aliens over the age of 18 years apply to the secretary of state for appointment and reappointment. residents of adjoining counties in adjoining states may also apply for a notary commission in minnesota. notaries public have the power to administer all oaths required or authorized to be administered in the state ; take and certify all depositions to be used in any of the courts of the state ; take and certify all acknowledgments of deeds, mortgages, liens, powers of attorney and other instruments in writing or electronic records ; and receive, make out and record notarial protests. the secretary of state ' s website ( ) provides more information about the duties, requirements and appointments of notaries public. montana notaries public are appointed by the secretary of state and serve a four - year term. a montana notary public has jurisdiction throughout the states of montana, north dakota, and wyoming. these states permit notaries from neighboring states to act in the state in the same manner as one from that state under reciprocity, e. g., as long as that state grants notaries from neighboring states to act in their state. [ montana code 1 - 5 - 605 ] the secretary of state is charged with the responsibility of appointing notaries by the provisions of chapter 240 of the nevada revised statutes. nevada notaries public who are not also practicing attorneys are prohibited by law from using " notario ", " notario publico " or any non - english term to describe their services. ( 2005 changes to nrs


of the nevada revised statutes. nevada notaries public who are not also practicing attorneys are prohibited by law from using " notario ", " notario publico " or any non - english term to describe their services. ( 2005 changes to nrs 240 ) nevada notary duties : administer oaths or affirmations ; take acknowledgments ; use of subscribing witness ; certify copies ; and execute jurats or take a verification upon oath or affirmation. the state of nevada notary division page provides more information about duties, requirements, appointments, and classes. notaries are commissioned by the state treasurer for a period of five years. notaries must also be sworn in by the clerk of the county in which he or she resides. one can become a notary in the state of new jersey if he or she : ( 1 ) is over the age of 18 ; ( 2 ) is a resident of new jersey or is regularly employed in new jersey and lives in an adjoining state ; ( 3 ) has never been convicted of a crime under the laws of any state or the united states, for an offense involving dishonesty, or a crime of the first or second degree, unless the person has met the requirements of the rehabilitated convicted offenders act ( njsa 2a : 168 - 1 ). notary applications must be endorsed by a state legislator. notaries in the state of new jersey serve as impartial witnesses to the signing of documents, attests to the signature on the document, and may also administer oaths and affirmations. seals are not required ; many people prefer them and as a result, most notaries have seals in addition to stamps. notaries may administer oaths and affirmations to public officials and officers of various organizations. they may also administer oaths and affirmations in order to execute jurats for affidavits / verifications, and to swear in witnesses. notaries are prohibited from pre - dating actions ; lending notary equipment to someone else ( stamps, seals, journals, etc. ) ; preparing legal documents or giving legal advice ; appearing as a representative of another person in a legal proceeding. notaries should also refrain from notarizing documents in which they have a personal interest. by statute, new jersey attorneys may administer oaths and affirmations. new york notaries are empowered to administer oaths and affirmations ( including oaths of office ), to take affidavits and depositions,


personal interest. by statute, new jersey attorneys may administer oaths and affirmations. new york notaries are empowered to administer oaths and affirmations ( including oaths of office ), to take affidavits and depositions, to receive and certify acknowledgments or proof of deeds, mortgages and powers of attorney and other instruments in writing ; to demand acceptance or payment of foreign and inland bills of exchange, promissory notes and obligations in writing, and to protest these ( that is, certify them ) for non - acceptance or non - payment. they are not empowered to marry couples, their notarization of a will is insufficient to give the will legal force, and they are strictly forbidden to certify " true copies " of documents. every county clerk ' s office in new york must have a notary public available to serve the public free of charge. admitted attorneys are automatically eligible to be notaries in the state of new york, but must make an application through the proper channels and pay a fee. new york notaries initially must pass a test and then renew their status every 4 years. oregon notaries public are appointed by the governor and commissioned by the secretary of state to serve a four - year term. oregon notaries are empowered to administer oaths, jurats and affirmations ( including oaths of office ), to take affidavits and depositions, to receive and certify acknowledgments or proof of deeds, mortgages and powers of attorney and other instruments in writing ; to demand acceptance or payment of foreign and inland bills of exchange, promissory notes and obligations in writing, and to protest these ( that is, certify them ) for non - acceptance or non - payment. they are also empowered to certify " true copies " of most documents. every court clerk in oregon is also empowered to act as a notary public, although they are not required to keep a journal. oregon formerly required that impression seals be used, but now it is optional. the ink seal must be in black ink. beginning in 2001, all oregon notaries were required to pass an open - book examination to receive their commission. beginning in 2006, new notary applicants were also required to complete a free three - hour online or live in - person instructional seminar, however this requirement is waived for notaries who are renewing their commissions, as long as the commission is renewed before its expiration date. oregon law


applicants were also required to complete a free three - hour online or live in - person instructional seminar, however this requirement is waived for notaries who are renewing their commissions, as long as the commission is renewed before its expiration date. oregon law specifically prohibits the use of the term " notorio publico " by a notary in advertising his or her services, but translation of the title into other languages is not restricted. a notary in the commonwealth of pennsylvania is empowered to perform seven distinct official acts : take affidavits, verifications, acknowledgments and depositions, certify copies of documents, administer oaths and affirmations, and protest dishonored negotiable instruments. a notary is strictly prohibited from giving legal advice or drafting legal documents such as contracts, mortgages, leases, wills, powers of attorney, liens or bonds. pennsylvania is one of the few states with a successful electronic notarization initiative. for more information, visit the secretary of the commonwealth ' s website. note that as of 9 jan 2011 pennsylvania is accepting new applicants for this program. south carolina notaries public are appointed by the governor to serve a ten - year term. all applicants must first have that application endorsed by a state legislator before submitting their application to the secretary of state. south carolina is one of three states ( florida and maine are the others ) where a notary public can solemnize the rites of matrimony ( perform a marriage ceremony ). utah notaries public are appointed by the lieutenant governor to serve a four - year term. utah used to require that impression seals be used, but now it is optional. the seal must be in purple ink. a virginia notary must either be a resident of virginia or work in virginia, and is authorized to acknowledge signatures, take oaths, and certify copies of non - government documents which are not otherwise available, e. g. a notary cannot certify a copy of a birth or death certificate since a certified copy of the document can be obtained from the issuing agency. changes to the law effective 1 july 2008 imposes certain new requirements ; while seals are still not required, if they are used they must be photographically reproducible. also, the notary ' s registration number must appear on any document notarized. changes to the law effective 1 july 2008 will permit notarization of electronic signatures. on july 1, 2012, virginia became the first state to authorize a signer to be


prosecutions in such cases are difficult, as the victims are often deported and thus unavailable to testify. certain members of the united states armed forces are given the powers of a notary under federal law ( 10 u. s. c. section 1044 ). some military members have authority to certify documents or administer oaths, without being given all notarial powers. in addition to the powers granted by the federal government, some states have enacted laws granting notarial powers to commissioned officers. civil law jurisdictions the role of notaries in civil law countries is much greater than in common law countries. civilian notaries are full - time lawyers and holders of a public office who routinely undertake non - contentious transactional work done in common law countries by attorneys / solicitors, as well as, in some countries, those of government registries, title offices, and public recorders. the qualifications imposed by civil law countries are much greater, requiring generally an undergraduate law degree, a graduate degree in notarial law and practice, three or more years of practical training ( " articles " ) under an established notary, and must sit a national examination to be admitted to practice. typically, notaries work in private practice and are fee earners, but a small minority of countries have salaried public service ( or " government " ) notaries ( e. g., baden - wurttemberg in germany, certain cantons of switzerland ). civil law notaries have jurisdiction over strictly non - contentious domestic civil - private law in the areas of property law, family law, agency, wills and succession, and company formation. the point to which a country ' s notarial profession monopolizes these areas can vary greatly. on one extreme is france ( and french - derived systems ) which statutorily give notaries a monopoly over their reserved areas of practice, as opposed to austria where there is no discernable monopoly whatsoever and notaries are in direct competition with attorneys / solicitors. in the few united states jurisdictions where trained notaries are allowed ( such as louisiana, puerto rico ), the practice of these legal practitioners is limited to legal advice on purely non - contentious matters that fall within the purview of a notary ' s reserved areas of practice. upon the death of president warren g. harding in 1923, calvin coolidge was sworn in as president by his father, john calvin coolidge, sr., a vermont notary public. however, as there was some controversy as to whether a state notary public had the


warren g. harding in 1923, calvin coolidge was sworn in as president by his father, john calvin coolidge, sr., a vermont notary public. however, as there was some controversy as to whether a state notary public had the authority to administer the presidential oath of office, coolidge took the oath, again, upon returning to washington. - articles about common notarial certificates ( varies by jurisdiction ) : - peace commissioner - justice of the peace - medallion signature guarantee - " notaries public ", montgomery county, alabama probate judge : [ dead link ], retrieved on 20 january 2009. - " history of the nna ". retrieved 9 july 2006. - notary. ( 2008 ). kent, england : warners law llp. retrieved on 22 january 2009. - chapter 1 of brooke ' s notary ( 13th edition, stevens, london, 2010 ) - " an application by marilyn reyes bos to be a public notary no. scciv - 02 - 1688 sasc 320 ( 12 september 2003 ) ". australasian legal information institute, a joint facility of uts and unsw faculties of law. retrieved 21 may 2011. - the society of notaries public of bc. ( 2011 ). : becoming a notary. - notaries and commissioners act - nova scotia commissioners of oaths | justice | government of nova scotia - a general overview of the notarial profession in quebec : taken from the website of the chambre des notaires du quebec. - the main page for the chambre des notaires du quebec. - the notaries rules, 1956 - the hindu business line : notes on the notary - the notaries society ( england & wales ) - the difference between a notary and a solicitor? - law society of scotland [ dead link ] - david a. brand & michael p. clancy, the modern notary public in scotland : guidance for intrant notaries, thth edn. ( 2009 ), the law society of scotland. - issues and trends in state notary regulation. ( 2011 ). national association of secretaries of state. pp. 6, 17 – 18. - piombino, alfred e. ( 1996 ). notary public handbook : a guide for vermont. n. p. : east coast press. 91. - california government code § 8200. - california secretary of state. ( n. d. ). notary public check list. [ dead link ] viewed 9 january 2008. - california


. n. p. : east coast press. 91. - california government code § 8200. - california secretary of state. ( n. d. ). notary public check list. [ dead link ] viewed 9 january 2008. - california government code § 8201. 1. - california government code § 8211. - notary public disciplinary guidelines. ( 2001 ). california secretary of state. p. 25. - [ dead link ] - [ dead link ] - colorado secretary of state - verify a notary - [ dead link ] - florida department of state. ( n. d. ). marriage ceremony. viewed 3 december 2006. - illinois secretary of state. 2010 ). notary public handbook. pp. 4 - 5. - illinois secretary of state. ( 2010 ). notary public handbook. pp. 5 - 6. - louisiana notary association - maine department of the secretary of state. ( n. d. ). notary public handbook. p. 8 viewed 3 december 2006. - [ dead link ] - [ dead link ] - south carolina office of the secretary of state. ( 2005 ). duties of a south carolina notary public - a handbook for virginia notaries public. [ dead link ] ( 2009 ). richmond, virginia : office of the secretary of the commonwealth. - " chapter 834 ". retrieved 2011 - 04 - 06. - " frequently asked questions about becoming a virginia electronic notary ". - " revised code of washington chapter 42. 44 " - [ dead link ] - " notarial services ". u. s. army. 10 april 1997. retrieved 4 june 2009. - short guide for vermont notaries public. ( 2011 ). vermont secretary of state. p. i.


chewa, also known as nyanja, is a language of the bantu language family. the gender prefix chi - is used for languages, so the language is also known as chichewa and chinyanja ( spelled cinyanja in zambia ), and locally nyasa in mozambique. chewa is the national language of malawi. it is also one of the seven official african languages of zambia, where it is spoken mostly in the eastern province. it is also spoken in mozambique, especially in the provinces of tete and niassa, as well as in zimbabwe where, according to some estimates, it ranks as the third - most widely used local language, after shona and northern ndebele. it was one of the 55 languages featured on the voyager. an urban variety of nyanja, sometimes called town nyanja, is the lingua franca of the zambian capital lusaka and is widely spoken as a second language throughout zambia. this is a distinctive nyanja dialect with some features of nsenga, although the language also incorporates large numbers of english - derived words, as well as showing influence from other zambian languages such as bemba. town nyanja has no official status, and the presence of large numbers of loanwords and colloquial expressions has given rise to the misconception that it is an unstructured mixture of languages or a form of slang. the fact that the standard nyanja used in schools differs dramatically from the variety actually spoken in lusaka has been identified as a barrier to the acquisition of literacy among zambian children. ischool. zm, which develops online educational content in zambian languages, has begun making ' lusaka nyanja ' available as a separate language of instruction after finding that schoolchildren in lusaka do not understand standard nyanja. chinyanja has its origin in the eastern province of zambia from the 15th century to the 18th century. the language remained dominant despite the breakup of the empire and the nguni invasions and was adopted by christian missionaries at the beginning of the colonial period. in zambia, chewa is spoken by other peoples like the ngoni and the kunda, so a more neutral name, chinyanja " ( language ) of the lake " ( referring to lake malawi ), is used instead of chewa. the first grammar, a grammar of the chinyanja language as spoken at lake nyasa with chinyanja – english and english – chinyanja vocabulary, was written by


" ( referring to lake malawi ), is used instead of chewa. the first grammar, a grammar of the chinyanja language as spoken at lake nyasa with chinyanja – english and english – chinyanja vocabulary, was written by alexander in 1880 and partial translations of the bible were made at the end of 19th century. further early grammars and vocabularies include a vocabulary of english – chinyanja and chinyanja – english : as spoken at likoma, lake nyasa and a grammar of chinyanja, a language spoken in british central africa, on and near the shores of lake nyasa, by george henry ( 1891 ). the whole bible was translated by william percival johnson and published as buku lopatulika ndilo mau a mulungu in 1912. a strong historical link of the nyanja, bemba and yao people to the shona empire, who can point their earlier origins to mashonaland, proves linguistically evident today. the ancient shonas who temporarily dwelt in malambo, a place in the drc, eventually shifted into northern zambia, and then south and east into the highlands of malawi. | | town nyanja ( lusaka ) | how are you? | | nili bwino / nili mushe | what ' s your name? | | dzina lanu ndani? | | zina yanu ndimwe bandani? | my name is... | | dzina langa ndine... | | zina yanga ndine... | how many children do you have? | | muli ndi ana angati? | | muli na bana bangati? | i have two children | | ndili ndi ana awiri | | nili na bana babili | how much is it? | see you tomorrow - ^ nationalencyklopedin " varldens 100 storsta sprak 2007 " the world ' s 100 largest languages in 2007 - ^ jouni filip maho, 2009. new updated guthrie list online - ^ cf. kiswahili for the swahili language. - ^ williams, e ( 1998 ). investigating bilingual literacy : evidence from malawi and zambia ( education research paper no. 24 ). department for international development. - ^ woodward, m. e. 1895. - ^ henry, george. 1891. - ^ the umca in malawi, p


investigating bilingual literacy : evidence from malawi and zambia ( education research paper no. 24 ). department for international development. - ^ woodward, m. e. 1895. - ^ henry, george. 1891. - ^ the umca in malawi, p 126, james tengatenga, 2010 : " two important pieces of work have been accomplished during these later years. first, the completion by archdeacon johnson of the bible in chinyanja, and secondly, the completed chinyanja prayer book in 1908. " - paas, steven, 2012. 3rd edition. dictionary / mtanthauziramawu. english – chichewa / chinyanja / / chichewa / chinyanja – english. vtr publications. isbn 978 - 3 - 941750 - 87 - 6 - mchombo, sam, 2004. the syntax of chichewa. cambridge syntax guides - hetherwick, alexander ( 1907 ). a practical manual of the nyanja language.... society for promoting christian knowledge. retrieved 25 august 2012. - gray, andrew ; lubasi, brighton ; bwalya, phallen ( 2013 ). town nyanja : a learner ' s guide to zambia ' s emerging national language. - henry, george, 1904. a grammar of chinyanja, a language spoken in british central africa, on and near the shores of lake nyasa. - laws, robert ( 1894 ). an english – nyanja dictionary of the nyanja language spoken in british central africa. j. thin. pp. 1 –. retrieved 25 august 2012. - rebman, john ; church missionary society ( 1877 ). dictionary of the kiniassa language. gregg. pp. 65 –. retrieved 25 august 2012. - riddel, alexander ( 1880 ). a grammar of the chinyanja language as spoken at lake nyassa : with chinyanja – english and english – chinyanja vocabularies. j. maclaren & son. retrieved 25 august 2012. - woodward, m. e., 1895. a vocabulary of english – chinyanja and chinyanja – english as spoken at likoma, lake nyasa. society for promoting christian knowledge. - missionarios da companhia de jesus 1963. dicionario cinyanja – portugues. junta de investigacoes do ultramar.


| | this article has multiple issues. please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. in software development and product management, a user story is one or more sentences in the everyday or business language of the end user or user of a system that captures what a user does or needs to do as part of his or her job function. user stories are used with agile software development methodologies as the basis for defining the functions a business system must provide, and to facilitate requirements management. it captures the ' who ', ' what ' and ' why ' of a requirement in a simple, concise way, often limited in detail by what can be hand - written on a small paper notecard. user stories are written by or for the business user as that user ' s primary way to influence the functionality of the system being developed. user stories may also be written by developers to express non - functional requirements ( security, performance, quality, etc. ), though primarily it is the task of a product manager to ensure user stories are captured. user stories are a quick way of handling customer requirements without having to create formalized requirement documents and without performing administrative tasks related to maintaining them. the intention of the user story is to be able to respond faster and with less overhead to rapidly changing real - world requirements. a user story is an informal statement of the requirement as long as the correspondence of acceptance testing procedures is lacking. before a user story is to be implemented, an appropriate acceptance procedure must be written by the customer to ensure by testing or otherwise whether the goals of the user story have been fulfilled. some formalization finally happens when the developer accepts the user story and the acceptance procedure as a work specific order. creating user stories when the time comes for creating user stories, one of the developers ( or the product owner in scrum ) gets together with a customer representative. the customer has the responsibility for formulating the user stories. the developer may use a series of questions to get the customer going, such as asking about the desirability of some particular functionality, but must take care not to dominate the idea - creation process. as the customer conceives the user stories, they are written down [ by whom? ] on a note card ( e. g. 3x5 inches or 8x13 cm ) with a name and a description which the customer has formulated. if the developer and customer find a user story deficient in some way ( too large, complicated, imprecise ), it is rewritten until it is satisfactory -


, description, amount, and any comments regarding the expense. at any time the consultant can do any of the following options : ( 1 ) when the consultant has finished entering the expense, the consultant will “ submit ”. if the expense is under fifty ( < 50 ), the expense will go directly to the system for processes. ( 2 ) in the event the consultant has not finished entering the expense, the consultant may want to “ save for later ”. the entered data should then be displayed on a list ( queue ) for the consultant with the status of “ incomplete ”. ( 3 ) in the event the consultant decides to clear the data and close the form, the consultant will “ cancel and exit ”. the entered data will not be saved anywhere. as a central part of many agile development methodologies, such as in xp ' s planning game, user stories define what has to be built in the software project. user stories are prioritized by the customer to indicate which are most important for the system and will be broken down in tasks and estimated by the developers. when user stories are about to be implemented the developers should have the possibility to talk to the customer about it. the short stories may be difficult to interpret, may require some background knowledge or the requirements may have changed since the story was written. every user story must at some point have one or more acceptance tests attached, allowing the developer to test when the user story is done and also allowing the customer to validate it. without a precise formulation of the requirements, prolonged nonconstructive arguments may arise when the product is to be delivered. xp and other agile methodologies favor face - to - face communication over comprehensive documentation and quick adaptation to change instead of fixation on the problem. user stories achieve this by : - being very short. they represent small chunks of business value that can be implemented in a period of days to weeks. - allowing developer and the client representative to discuss requirements throughout the project lifetime. - needing very little maintenance. - only being considered at the time of use. - maintaining a close customer contact. - allowing projects to be broken into small increments. - being suited to projects where the requirements are volatile or poorly understood. iterations of discovery drive the refinement process. - making it easier to estimate development effort. - require close customer contact throughout the project so that the most valued parts of the software get implemented. story maps a story map is the graphical, two - dimensional product backlog. at the top of the map are big


easier to estimate development effort. - require close customer contact throughout the project so that the most valued parts of the software get implemented. story maps a story map is the graphical, two - dimensional product backlog. at the top of the map are big user stories, which can sometimes be considered " epics ” as mike cohn describes them and other times correspond to " themes " or " activities ". these grouping units are created by orienting at the user ’ s workflow or " the order you ' d explain the behavior of the system ". vertically, below the epics, the actual story cards are allocated and ordered by priority. the first horizontal row is a " walking skeleton " and below that represents increasing sophistication. in this way it becomes possible to describe even big systems without losing the big picture. some of the limitations of user stories in agile methodologies : - they can be difficult to scale to large projects. - they are regarded as conversation starters. user stories and use cases while both user stories and use cases serve the purpose to capture specific user requirements in terms of interactions between the user and the system, there are major differences between them. | user stories | | use cases | see also - acceptance testing - extreme programming - use case - kanban board - agile software development - invest mnemonic - daniel h. steinberg and daniel w. palmer : extreme software engineering, pearson education, inc., isbn 0 - 13 - 047381 - 2 - mike cohn, " user stories applied ", 2004, addison wesley, isbn 0 - 321 - 20568 - 5 - mike cohn : agile estimating and planning, 2006, prentice hall, isbn 0 - 13 - 147941 - 5 - davies, rachel. " non - functional requirements : do user stories really help? ". retrieved 12 may 2011. - patton, jeff. " the new user story backlog is a map ". retrieved 4 march 2013. - cockburn, alistair. " walking skeleton ". retrieved 4 march 2013. - " story mapping ". agile alliance. retrieved 4 march 2013. - advantages of user stories for requirements


family : hirundinidae, swallows view all from this family description adult has bluish black cap and white - lined bluish black back. note the pale collar, reddish orange cheeks, and dark throat ; forehead is white in most birds. rump is buffy and square - ended tail is dark. underparts are mostly pale with darker spots on undertail coverts. juvenile duller than adult, with unmarked back ; lacks reddish elements of facial plumage and has paler rump. throat is dark ( cf. juvenile cave ). dimensions length : 5 - 6 " ( 13 - 15 cm ) habitat common summer visitor ( mainly apr - sep ) to a wide range of habitats. winters in south america. observation tips easy to find. range texas, rocky mountains, southwest, southeast, alaska, california, eastern canada, mid - atlantic, florida, great lakes, northwest, western canada, plains, new england voice utters various soft twittering notes. discussion compact swallow with broad - based, triangular, and relatively short wings. pale orange - buff rump, obvious in flight, is diagnostic across much of range, but beware of confusion with cave swallow within that species ' limited north american range. nests colonially, making mud nests on cliffs and manmade structures. catches flying insects on the wing. sexes are similar.


the price of european immigration frontpage magazine 28 june 2012 in his 2008 book et delt folk ( " a nation divided ” ), the danish historian and writer morten uhrskov jensen carefully went through publicly available sources. he demonstrated that the opening up of his country for mass immigration was arranged by just part of the population, sometimes in the face of considerable popular opposition. roughly speaking, those representing the political and media establishment and the upper classes were in favor of open borders, whereas those from the lower classes were often opposed. this divide is viewed by those from the upper segments of society as caused mainly by racism, prejudice, ignorance and xenophobia. since the educated classes enjoyed a virtual hegemony over public debate, they were able to define all opposition as hate and intolerance, exemplified by people such as pia kjarsgaard of the danish people ’ s party. the well - to - do themselves rarely lived in areas with many immigrants and could afford to move, at least for a while, if that was needed. they focused on the abstract and allegedly humanitarian aspects of mass migration. immigrants are simply referred to as " new countrymen, ” who as if by magic always seem to enrich the natives with their presence. in denmark, multiculturalists have successfully managed to establish the neologism nydansker or " new danes, ” a vibrant new breed of people currently displacing the tired and boring " old danes. ” for poorer people, immigration was a concrete issue, as immigrants moved into their neighborhoods and went to school with their children. to put it bluntly, for those with money, globalization initially meant that they could travel on holidays to exotic lands and treat the world as their playground. for those who were less well off, it meant that the entire world suddenly moved into their street and took over their children ’ s local playground. when the titanic during her maiden voyage across the atlantic ocean struck an iceberg just before midnight on 14 april 1912, the first people who could see the water pouring in were the third - class passengers who happened to be situated closest to the waterline. meanwhile, the richest passengers at the top were drinking fine cognac long after the ship had started sinking. they didn ’ t realize what was going on for quite some time, because they were further removed from the physical problem. the poor passengers still unfortunately suffered the highest fatality rates, because the wealthy benefitted from having privileged access to the lifeboats. we see the same phenomenon on display today, on a


some time, because they were further removed from the physical problem. the poor passengers still unfortunately suffered the highest fatality rates, because the wealthy benefitted from having privileged access to the lifeboats. we see the same phenomenon on display today, on a much larger scale. having islamophobia in europe today is just as rational as having icebergophobia on board the titanic in 1912. uhrskov jensen in 2012 published another book, indvandringens pris ( " the price of immigration ” ) about how much money non - european mass immigration costs his native denmark. his conclusion is that this cost is great in terms of welfare payments and rising crime combined with declining efficiency and technological innovation. he shows through carefully researched statistics that only certain asian immigrants are able to keep up with northern europeans in the educational system. a few skilled immigrants from india or elsewhere can compete, but mainly those from east asia : japanese, koreans, chinese, and to some extent vietnamese. all other non - western immigrants show lower levels of skill and competence than europeans, many of them a lot lower. it should be mentioned here that these numbers correlate quite well with average iq, where a few other asians can compete with europeans, but primarily east asians. other ethnic groups cannot do so. although it has become taboo to say this in the modern western world, it is well - documented fact that iq correlates well with economic level, for individuals as well as for nations. the scholar charles murray has written much about this. former professor helmuth nyborg at aarhus university in denmark has conducted controversial research on the subject of the genetic inheritance of intelligence. his conclusion is that today ’ s mass immigration of non - europeans will lead to an overall marked decline in the average intelligence of the population, and by extension a significant decline in social and economic competence, scientific progress, as well as technological innovation. for decades westerners have been told that immigration from less developed third world countries is " good for the economy ” and will " pay for future pensions. ” morten uhrskov jensen proves conclusively that this claim is fundamentally wrong, not just regarding denmark or scandinavia but for other western countries, too. certain private companies may enjoy short - term benefits by having access to cheap labor and borderless export markets. socialist parties can cynically import a reliable voter base of backward peoples who overwhelmingly vote for left - wing parties so they can receive generous welfare payments from the high tax payments extracted from the majority population, essentially forcing the white natives to fund


genuinely critical journalists in norway who later published a fairly realistic biography of muhammed, in 2006 cited a report from nho, the confederation of norwegian enterprise. nho warned that the current immigration policies constitute a serious threat to the country ’ s economy. norway is one of the world ’ s largest exporters of oil and natural gas due to its offshore resources in the north sea and elsewhere. yet according to nho, there is a risk that much of the profit norway earns from selling oil could be spent on paying welfare for its rapidly growing immigrant population. these warnings were left unheeded by political leaders, yet the problem hasn ’ t gone away. in 2012, the business daily dagens næringsliv reported that researcher erling holmøy from statistics norway together with senior advisor birger strøm studied how immigration affects government budgets. they concluded that in the long run it would prove to be very costly, stating that mass immigration bears certain similarities to a pyramid scheme. author morten uhrskov jensen states that the basic trends are identical in sweden, france, germany and the usa. the only reasonable conclusion to be drawn from this is, in his view, to stop all non - western mass immigration. yet the western political elites continue to promote such mass immigration, in spite of mounting evidence that this is greatly harmful to their own countries. this dangerous stubbornness could be due to ideological blindness, or may be because the political elites see their positions, prestige and personal privileges tied to maintaining the status quo. in the end, the historian uhrskov jensen fears that only a massive traumatic event or a major shock to the system can change the direction the western world is currently headed and reestablish reasonable and sensible immigration policies that are in line with the long - term interests of the european majority population.


an ancient proverb says that the gloom is heaviest immediately before the dawn. indeed, in the history of bulgaria, the year 1876 was seemingly one of the gloomiest eras, filled with bloodshed, suffering, and horrors. why? “ when the fruit is brought forth, ” the ( heavenly ) farmer “ immediately... putteth in the sickle, because the harvest is come ” ( st. mark 4 : 29 ). a russian newspaper thus wrote the following, with regard to this fateful year : “ recently, in neighboring bulgaria, a pogrom has been underway against the christians, which — in the words of one of our hierarchs — has taken us back to the times of the ancient christian martyrs. hundreds of bulgarian towns and villages are in throes and have been drowned in blood. thousands of men, tens of thousands of old people and women, maidens and children, have been slaughtered, burned alive, or taken into captivity as slaves. many of the enslaved were forcefully converted to islam, though not a few preferred death to islam. in the monasteries and convents, monks and nuns have been cut to pieces ; on the roads innocent children are murdered only for having crossed themselves as orthodox christians ; virgins are raped and burned alive at the stake ; unborn babies are cut out of their mothers ’ bellies with the sword ; and infants are slashed in two or impaled on the yataghan ; those whose bulgarian faith has remained ineradicable are uprooted from amongst the living. ” from amongst the unknown martyrs for faith and kin in 1876, alustrous constellation shines over the land of bulgaria even to this day : that of batak, a name both dear and unforgettable for every bulgarian christian soul! the duration of the batak massacre was but several days. on the night of may 1, 1876 ( old style ), batak shone forth like a new sun from the conflagration of the bashibazouks ’ vengeance, illuminating henceforth and for all ages, by its martyrdom, our christian history. the batak golgotha began from the lower end of the village — from the martyrs in bogdan ’ s house. disarmed by means of deception, the citizens of batak, lively at the outset, now become christ ’ s lambs, doomed to slaughter. only those children who immediately agreed to accept islam, upon being asked, were spared their lives. the torturers took even the last shirt


the citizens of batak, lively at the outset, now become christ ’ s lambs, doomed to slaughter. only those children who immediately agreed to accept islam, upon being asked, were spared their lives. the torturers took even the last shirt or chemise from the martyrs ’ backs, as though to let their souls fly toward the heavens unburdened of all earthly weight. and, by god ’ s grace, moments before their demise, heavenly peace descended into the souls of these sufferers ( who until then had been weeping and screaming ), by their firm decision to be faithful to christ unto death. one by one, they went to the chopping block in silence. some pressed their necks tightly to the block, so that the blow might more definitely separate their souls from the flesh. a few mothers pushed their own children forward to be slain before they themselves were killed, so as to be assured that their children would not be taken into moslem households and lose their faith, together with their souls. when attempts were made to ravish them moments before their deaths, the maidens of batak resisted like lionesses, so as to preserve their virginal purity to the last breath. thus, they were slashed into pieces. at one side of the chopping block rose mountains of martyred bodies, swimming in pools of blood ; and separately, on the other side, lesser mountains, consisting of the martyrs ’ heads, with their eyes half - open, as if looking up towards heaven itself. read the full article here.


a special child well - being index ( cwi ) report from duke university tracks trends over time of middle and high school students exposed to peer - to - peer violence in schools. key findings include : - from 1991 - 2009, more teens in middle and high schools were threatened than actually injured ; these trends have now merged, in 2010, so that both threats and injuries occur at the same level. - trends in numbers of middle and high school students exposed to violence began to increase in 2002 and 2003, peaked between 2007 and 2008, and began to decrease around 2008 and 2009. violence in schools increased in the early 1990s - prior to the more recent peaks. - the annual numbers of teens injured without a weapon showed the greatest fluctuation. injury without a weapon increased dramatically from 2003 - 2007, flattened out in 2008 - 2009, and decreased slightly in 2009 - 2010. visit our website to read more about the report. new book on the cwi! the well - being of america ' s children : developing and improving the child and youth well - being index, edited by kenneth c. land, has been released by springer. this is the first book to address the development and refinement of the cwi to understand how the well - being of america ' s children can be measured and improved.


how strong is the strong force? i bet you think you asked a simple question. the simple answer is that the strength depends on the range over which it is acting. at short distances the strong force is weak and at long distances it is strong. that is completely different from the other three forces and arises because the forces transmitters, called gluons, are massless and carry strong force charge. i hope that you are still interested in the more complicated answer given below in which i try to explain how this can be so. the strong force attraction between two protons has a complicated shape which depends on the distance between the protons. the strong force between two protons is partially offset by the repelling electromagnetic forces. the strong force binds the protons with about 25 mev of energy. the electromagnetic forces repel it with slightly less. the result is that about 1 mev of energy would be required to split the two protons apart. in the rest of this reply i discuss the fundamental forces in more detail so you can get an idea why the strong force is different from the others. the four forces of nature are the strong force, the electromagnetic force, the weak force, and the gravitational force. we study the first three ( and experience the last ) at fermilab. we are most familiar with gravity and second - most familiar with the electromagnetic force in our daily routine. so i will start by comparing the strength of them and then show how they compare to the weak and strong forces. first of all, the strength of a force depends on the distance over which it is acting. for gravity, the force exerted by one object on another drops according to the square of the distance between the two objects. the equation for the force exerted by gravity is : where g is a small constant, and m and m are the masses of the two objects. the minus sign merely indicates the force is attractive. we say the " range " of the gravitional force is " unlimited " because it is exertible over an arbitrarily large distance. it just gets smaller the further the two objects are from each other. the electromagnetic force has a similar formula. the replusive force between two electrons is : where c is a big constant, and e ( typed in once for each of the two charges ) is the charge of the electron. notice the strength of the force drops with the distance between the charges in a way identical to gravity. also, if we were talking about an electron and an anti - electron


in once for each of the two charges ) is the charge of the electron. notice the strength of the force drops with the distance between the charges in a way identical to gravity. also, if we were talking about an electron and an anti - electron ( which has the opposite charge ), then there would be a minus sign indicating the force between opposite charges is attractive. we can compare the strength of the gravitational force to the electromagnetic force on two electrons by taking the ratio between the two forces. the distance - squared cancels out and we are left with : f ( gravity ) / f ( em ) = gmm / cee. i intentionally dropped the minus sign ; i will simply remember that the gravitional force between the electrons is attractive and the electromagnetic force between the two electrons is replusive. anyway, when i plug in the values for g, m, c, and e, the ratio is 2. 4x10 ^ ( - 43 ). in words that is pronounced two - point - four times ten to the minus forty - three. that is a very small number. in other words, the gravitational force between two electrons is feeble compared to the electromagnetic force. the reason that you feel the force of gravity, even though it is so weak, is that every atom in the earth is attracting every one of your atoms and there are a lot of atoms in both you and the earth. the reason you aren ' t buffeted around by electromagnetic forces is that you have almost the same number of positive charges as negative ones, so you are ( essentially ) electrically neutral. the weak force is misnamed. it ' s thought to be just as strong as the em force but, unlike the em force, it ' s a short - ranged force. in fact, the range is only about 1 / 100 the size of an atomic nucleus. the weak force is outside the realm of our everyday experience. we study it at fermilab by using the accelerator to produce the particles which transmit the force. these are real particles called the w - boson and the z - boson. because they are very massive, we need a high - energy accelerator to produce them. the large mass of the w - boson and the z - boson is also the reason the force has a short range. incidentally, the particle which carries the em force is called the photon ( yes, light ). because photons are massless, the em force has a long range as i described above. the weak force and


the force has a short range. incidentally, the particle which carries the em force is called the photon ( yes, light ). because photons are massless, the em force has a long range as i described above. the weak force and the em force have been found to be linked at high - energy or, equivalently, short range. they both can be described by one set of equations which we call the " electro - weak " theory. this was discovered in 1967 - 1971 by steven weinberg, sheldon glashow, and abdus salam. they got the nobel prize in physics for unifying those forces. finally i am ready to talk about the strong force. this is way out of the experience we get in everyday life ( not that it doesn ' t have everyday life consequences ), so i will be a little more long - winded in describing it. remember that a proton or neutron is composed of three quarks? these quarks have strong charge and are bound together by the strong force. unlike the case of the em force, where there is one electric charge and one anti - charge ( plus and minus charges ) there are three strong force charges and three anti - charges. we call the strong force charges " red ", " blue ", and " yellow " and the anti - charges are called " anti - red " and so forth. the particles which transmit the force are called gluons. gluons are massless, like the photon. but unlike the photon, which is electrically neutral, the gluons carry strong charge and a different strong anti - charge. a gluon could be " red - anti - blue ", for example, and there are eight kinds of gluons. we call the three charges " colors " even though they have nothing to do with how we see. because the gluon is massless, at first you might think the range of the strong force is infinite, like the em force. but if you study the behavior of the strong force, you find that the three quarks in a proton or neutron behave almost as if they were bouncing around freely in a relaxed, elastic spherical container. none of the quarks can escape the container because when the quark reaches the boundary of the proton or neutron, the force begins to act and gets stronger and stronger the further away the that quark gets from the others. that is very different from the other forces which get weaker at longer distances and it occurs because the gluons


of the proton or neutron, the force begins to act and gets stronger and stronger the further away the that quark gets from the others. that is very different from the other forces which get weaker at longer distances and it occurs because the gluons have the color and anti - color charge. the strong force also acts between protons and neutrons in an atomic nucleus much in the same way that simple chemicals are held together by the electric force. a nucleus such as helium, which has two ( positively em - charged ) protons, is stable because the strong force overcomes the electromagnetic forces. the strong force binds the two protons with about 25 - 35 mev of energy. the electromagnetic forces try to push the protons apart. the net result is that approximately 1 million electron - volts of energy are needed to separate the two protons. in contrast, an electron is bound to a proton in a hydrogen atom by only a few electron - volts. by now you know enough to consider the size of the nucleus in comparison to the size of an atom to judge if this is truly a fair comparison! the strong force is, indeed, strong. we think that if we could study the electroweak and strong forces at high enough energy we would find out they were linked together somehow, like electricity and magnetism are to form em, and like em and the weak force are to form electro - weak. such a theory would be called a grand - unified theory. and we also think that it may be possibe to include gravity with the other three. such a theory would be called a super - grand - unified theory and there is a candidate for that called " superstrings ". so you asked a simple question : " how strong is the strong force? ". the answer is that it depends on the range. at short distances it is weak and at long distances it is strong. that effect is completely different from the other three forces and arises because the forces transmitters, called gluons, are massless and have strong - charge and different strong anti - charge. if you want to learn more about particle physics and the work we do at fermilab, the book " the god particle " by leon lederman and dick teresi gives a very good and readable explanation. | last modified 1 / 11 / 1999 firstname. lastname @ example. org |


you hold in your hands the definitive version of writings of halfard. it is one of the most famous books in history, and with good reason, being chronicle of a period of time in the fourth fused universe, 1419 - 1819. this was, of course, the time of puff. this version of the book holds all materials ever incorporated into it. this means it will be quite thicker than most university editions, which are non - definitive. halfard was puffs elfish secretary. he lived from about 40, 000, 000 bc to 2487 ad. it is unclear of the circumstances in which he wrote this, but it may be assumed that most of it was written off his notes, and the rest was gradually fitted in between his writing and the posthumous publication in 2493 ad. halfard was an interesting person, in that he wrote such an important book, but was barely mentioned in other writings, or even in this. we shall, sadly, know very little about him, but what we do is sufficient for now. since halfard was an elf, we do fortunately have that odd elfish style which is a sure sign of anyone ’ s origin. this is mainly how we know certain things were added after the original writing. if halfard is interesting, puff is more so. he was born in the dark depths of russia, and his family emigrated to england in the yaga - gnomic war of the 800 ’ s. st. george then promptly killed his family. this leads to an interesting thought. puff is known for being a great lover of freedom and equality of peoples. but he intensely hated knights, and, during his government, launched wars for their destruction. these contradictions are interesting, but i should not deign to address everything in the introduction. good reading. john kivvers, editor. all material in this book, except that written by myself, was originally written in a foreign language. i have attempted to translate it as literally as possible without making it unintelligible. if a line has been left in its original language, that is because it is a foreign language to the author, and intentionally written in that language. any of these will be translated in the appendix.


to successfully manage our valued resources the following efforts are being undertaken : encouraging a healthy natural community which increases both plant and wildlife diversity and strengthen the communal eco - system of each is the goal of our forestry management efforts. professional forestry management is critical in managing the division ’ s natural resources including : in partnership with wildlife resource division and usda wildlife services, state parks & historic sites has been managing deer populations since 2003. our primary method of deer reduction is to enlist the use of hunters during managed quota hunts. in coordination with forestry management and deer population control, prescribed fire is a major tool in both habitat health and diversification of species. in 2006, through an arrangement with the vegetative management services section of georgia power, the division arranged a contract that provides access to arborist, tree crews, emergency equipment and certified operators 24 hours a day in any location within the state. this service is funded through timber revenue. two significant restoration grants funded by the national fish and wildlife foundation include : this project was designed to attract birds, especially sand hill cranes, to overnight in a protected habitat area on their traditional migrating routes. the project created a 15 - acre seasonally inundated impoundment with gated water controls that allow park staff to control water levels at times of flooding. this project began in 2005. the five sites were identified. slash or plantation type pine stands were removed and, planting containerized long leaf pine seedlings and wire grass to restore a traditional long leaf - wiregrass community. the usda, wildlife services provides many wildlife management services through an annual contractual agreement. wildlife services has worked with our division as a critical team member in our red top mountain deer reduction program. additional services provided are the lethal control of beavers and impounded waterways and streams which can cause flooding or endanger structures. many sites require the services of the removal of feral cats, diseased raccoons and pigeons. annually, wildlife services re - locates 150 + canada geese from our swimming beaches, day - use areas and golf courses. the re - location eliminates fecal contaminate issues for swimmers, picknickers, boaters and golfers. in 2007 wildlife services partnered with us to remove wildlife predators that were endangering newly hatched gopher tortoises at reed bingham state park. this work proved very successful in increasing our survival rates to the highest levels on record.


no one seemed less well - cast for the role of reformer, in an age of reform, than abraham lincoln. to begin with, he was a stranger, emotionally and intellectually, to evangelical christianity, the great engine of reform in the nineteenth century. raised in a household of uncompromisingly calvinistic baptists who abhorred slavery, the young lincoln rejected the authority of any religion and never joined any religious congregation. his stepmother, sarah bush lincoln, remembered that her stepson “ had no particular religion, ” and when pressed on the subject, lincoln himself would only say that “ when he did good he felt good, when he did bad he felt bad. ” that, said lincoln, “ is my religion. ” lacking that impetus, lincoln had little interest in the network of reform movements spun - off by evangelical revivals. he was a tee - totaller, but largely on the grounds of health rather than moral purity, since drink, to him, tasted “ unpleasant and always leaves me flabby and undone. ” he shunned all of the temperance societies of his day, except for the washington temperance society, and even then, he espoused the washingtonian movement only because of their secularized strategy of persuasion rather than condemnation. “ the warfare heretofore waged against the demon of intemperance, has... been erroneous, ” lincoln said to a gathering of the local washingtonians in 1842. “ too much denunciation against dram sellers and dram ‑ drinkers was indulged in, ” and precious few flies were attracted by the vinegar of damnation, compared to the washingtonians ’ preference for the sugar of persuasion. no would - be reformer should demand such a moral volte - face from the sinner ; this would be to “ expect a reversal of human nature, ” and lincoln had none of the reformers ’ enthusiastic confidence that people could be upbraided into acts of disinterested benevolence. “ what an ignorance of human nature does it exhibit, to ask or expect a whole community to rise up and labor for the temporal happiness of others, ” lincoln warned. show full essayhide full essay in the same way, lincoln opposed slavery, going on record against it for the first time in 1837 when he joined with one other member of the illinois state legislature in criticizing “ the institution of slavery ” as “ both injustice and bad policy, ” and twenty - seven years later, he would still be insisting that “ i am naturally anti


time in 1837 when he joined with one other member of the illinois state legislature in criticizing “ the institution of slavery ” as “ both injustice and bad policy, ” and twenty - seven years later, he would still be insisting that “ i am naturally anti ‑ slavery. if slavery is not wrong, nothing is wrong. i cannot remember when i did not so think, and feel. ” but he joined no anti - slavery society, and he condemned as reckless the abolitionists ’ demands for an immediate elimination of slave - holding. his 1837 protest against slavery was followed immediately by the balancing concession that “ the promulgation of abolition doctrines tends rather to increase than to abate its evils. ” as late as 1862, he told horace greeley that the most effective way to end slavery was through a stage - by - stage buy - out by the federal government. ending slavery should have “ three main features – gradual – compensation – and [ the ] vote of the people, ” and should be urged “ persuasively, and not menacingly, upon the south. ” there was, deep in the grain of lincoln ’ s temperament, a prudence that resisted the demand that conversion and enlightenment be embraced now, totally, without any reckoning of the cost. he chided “ free soil men ” in 1848 for “ declaring that they would ‘ do their duty and leave the consequences to god, ’ ” since this proclamation of the relentless principle of fiat justitia ruat coelum ( “ do justice though the heavens fall ” ) merely gave an excuse for taking a course that they were not able to maintain by a fair and full argument. to make this declaration did not show what their duty was. if it did we should have no use for judgment, we might as well be made without intellect, and when divine or human law does not clearly point out what is our duty, we have no means of finding out what it is by using our most intelligent judgment of the consequences. much as he might cheer - on temperance and emancipation, lincoln was too much a “ fatalist, ” too much a believer that human behavior was guided by selfishness and self - interest, to be confident that the key to the new jerusalem lay within americans ’ grasp, if only they would put forth the will to seize it. abolitionists feared that view as the real enemy to their cause. the brahmin abolitionist wendell phillips complained angrily against “ these men ” who “ are ever parading their wish to draw a line between themselves and us, because they


to seize it. abolitionists feared that view as the real enemy to their cause. the brahmin abolitionist wendell phillips complained angrily against “ these men ” who “ are ever parading their wish to draw a line between themselves and us, because they must be permitted to wait, - to trust more to reason than feeling, — to indulge a generous charity, — to rely on the sure influences of simple truth, uttered in love, & c., & c. ” it was the duty of convinced abolitionists, wrote arthur tappan ( the wealthy bankroller of the american & foreign anti - slavery society ) in 1832, to “ inculcate everywhere, the great fundamental principle of immediate abolition, ” to “ insist principally on the sin of slavery, ” and “ reprobate the idea of compensation to slave holders, because it implies the right of slavery.... the duty of whites in regard to this cruel prejudice is not to indulge it, but to repent and overcome it. ” let “ the woful, blood - stained facts ” about slavery “ be spread out ” and “ let the tale of a slave ’ s wrongs enter the ear, ” declared elizur wright a year later, and converts to the gospel of abolition would “ rise up ” to overthrow the idol of slavery — and, as lincoln feared, “ trust god for the consequences. ” no wonder, then, that so many of the abolitionist faithful found lincoln unexciting. “ i do not believe in the anti - slavery of abraham lincoln, ” wrote the black illinois abolitionist h. ford douglass, “ because he is on the side of this slave power... that has possession of the federal government. ” wendell phillips dismissed lincoln as “ not an abolitionist, hardly an antislavery man, ” and tolerable only to the extent that he “ consents to represent an antislavery idea. ” and yet, it is the name of abraham lincoln that appears at the bottom of the most sweeping act of reform in the american nineteenth century, the emancipation proclamation ; and it was abraham lincoln who, as president, strong - armed a reluctant congress to adopt a thirteenth amendment to the federal constitution banning slavery completely. “ there are four millions of people in this country who now regard abraham lincoln as their deliverer from bondage, ” declared massachusetts congressman george boutwell, four days after lincoln ’ s death, “ and whose prosperity, through all the coming centuries, will render tribute of praise to his name and


country who now regard abraham lincoln as their deliverer from bondage, ” declared massachusetts congressman george boutwell, four days after lincoln ’ s death, “ and whose prosperity, through all the coming centuries, will render tribute of praise to his name and memory. ” but the contrast between the reality of a chilly and uncommitted lincoln on one hand and the image of the great emancipator on the other continues to pose far more difficulties for placing lincoln in the line of reformers than boutwell anticipated. the principal difficulty in understanding lincoln ’ s place as a reformer may lie in how easy it is to miss his enthusiasm for a kind of reform that later generations have not often classified as a reform at all, but which was the real engine behind lincoln ’ s anti - slavery beliefs. when the american republic emerged from its colonial cocoon as an independent nation, its economic structure remained very much as british imperial planners had designed it — overwhelmingly agricultural, chronically dependent on imported manufactures, with poor internal transportation, and very little in the way of banks and investment capital to fund economic growth. when the united states went to war a second time with great britain in 1812, its feeble economic infrastructure virtually collapsed under british pressure. as early as the 1790s, alexander hamilton, the first secretary of the treasury, argued for the promotion of manufacturing and banking by the federal government as the surest road to security from the great empires all around america ’ s frontiers. but hamilton encountered strenuous resistance from thomas jefferson, the first secretary of state, who argued that an agricultural economy was precisely what promoted civic virtue and discouraged a different kind of peril to liberty within, from concentrations of too much economic power in too few hands. in a republic where farmers made up 90 percent of the population, jefferson ’ s arguments had long innings. however, the debacle of the war of 1812 convinced many americans that economic backwardness spelled an imperiled future for american liberty and independence. by the mid - 1830s, american politics had become polarized into two well - organized political parties, democrats ( the heirs of jefferson and acolytes of andrew jackson ) and whigs ( led by henry clay ). the whigs promoted a three - point program of banking ( to generate the capital needed for creating new manufacturing enterprises ), tariffs ( to protect the new manufactures from foreign competition ) and “ internal improvements ” ( transportation projects, funded by the government, to connect the rural hinterlands with manufacturers, and connect farmers with markets instead of merely sub


creating new manufacturing enterprises ), tariffs ( to protect the new manufactures from foreign competition ) and “ internal improvements ” ( transportation projects, funded by the government, to connect the rural hinterlands with manufacturers, and connect farmers with markets instead of merely subsisting on their own produce ). and from his first moments of political awakening, it was the whigs to whom lincoln gravitated. when the whig party foundered in the mid - 1850s, lincoln attached himself to the new republican party because of its anti - slavery stance ; but he was also attracted by how the republicans embraced the whigs ’ economic policies. what the republican agenda offered lincoln was an entirely different species of reform — the transformation of the self. people like lincoln, born in backwoods poverty, could climb the economic ladders of opportunity offered by markets and economic development to make for themselves landscapes entirely different from the isolated drudgery of the hinterlands. “ we stand at once the wonder and admiration of the whole world, ” lincoln said in 1856. and why? “ this cause is that every man can make himself. ” liberty, for lincoln, was economic liberty, and the genius of the american republic was the allowance it made for everyone to re - make themselves. and no better example of that re - making existed than lincoln himself. “ there is no permanent class of hired laborers amongst us, ” lincoln insisted in 1859 : twenty - five years ago, i was a hired laborer. the hired laborer of yesterday, labors on his own account to - day ; and will hire others to labor for him to - morrow. advancement — improvement in condition — is the order of things in a society of equals. lincoln was less afraid than his democratic peers that a society in which some people could transform themselves into the prosperous and wealthy meant that others would be transformed downward into poverty. “ i don ’ t believe in a law to prevent a man from getting rich, ” he told an audience of workingmen in 1860, “ we do not propose any war upon capital. ” what he wished instead was to give “ the humblest man an equal chance to get rich with everybody else. ” and he did not mind aiding “ the humblest man ” through the three - fold government - sponsored mechanism of “ internal improvements, ” banking, and tariffs. government could — and should — “ do for a community of people, whatever they need to have done, but cannot do, at all, or cannot, so well do, for themselves — in their separate, and


, ” banking, and tariffs. government could — and should — “ do for a community of people, whatever they need to have done, but cannot do, at all, or cannot, so well do, for themselves — in their separate, and individual capacities. ” but that responsibility pointed government in the direction of economic enablement, not ( as the jacksonians wanted ) economic restraint, and if after all the efforts of enablement had been expended, some people still remained mired in poverty, lincoln saw no virtue in shedding tears over the failures. “ if any continue through life in the condition of the hired laborer, it is not the fault of the system, ” he told the wisconsin state agricultural fair in 1859, “ but because of either a dependent nature which prefers it, or improvidence, folly, or singular misfortune. ” some of you will be successful, and such will need but little philosophy to take them home in cheerful spirits ; others will be disappointed, and will be in a less happy mood. to such, let it be said, “ lay it not too much to heart. ” let them adopt the maxim, “ better luck next time ; ” and then, by renewed exertion, make that better luck for themselves. it was exactly the unpredictable spiraling of “ better luck ” in markets and manufacturing that appalled jacksonian democrats and fueled their resistance to banks, tariffs, and highways. and among slaveholders in the american south, the whig agenda generated fears that a government big enough to build roads, levy tariffs, and charter banks would also turn out to be a government big enough to emancipate their slaves. and so a fateful alliance was struck between jackson ’ s democrats and the plantation oligarchy of the south that persisted all the way to the doorstep of the civil war. but it was also lincoln ’ s advocacy of a market - driven society that lay at the root of his hostility to slavery, for if slavery was anything, it was a loathsome determination on the part of the slaveholder to deny at least one class of human beings — namely, black slaves — all hope of self - transformation, or even to deny that african americans had even the capacity to improve themselves. like most white americans of his day, lincoln took the superior “ intellectual endowment ” and “ physical difference ” of white people for granted ; unlike many white americans, however, he also insisted that “ there is no reason in the world why the negro is not entitled to all the natural


day, lincoln took the superior “ intellectual endowment ” and “ physical difference ” of white people for granted ; unlike many white americans, however, he also insisted that “ there is no reason in the world why the negro is not entitled to all the natural rights enumerated in the declaration of independence, ” and that especially included the right to economic self - improvement — “ to eat the bread, without the leave of anybody else, which his own hand earns. ” what slavery symbolized to lincoln was stasis — a society in which people were assigned a status, and in which government existed to preserve that status and prevent any disruption of it, using either the carrot of subsidy ( for poorer whites who did not own slaves ) or the stick of force ( to suppress slave restlessness and restrain the possibility of black - white alliances ). slavery was the badge of a society that looked with suspicion upon self - transformation, as well as the labor that made it possible. slavery “ betokened not only the possession of wealth but indicated the gentleman of leisure who was above and scorned labour. ” slaveholding was “ highly seductive to the thoughtless and giddy headed young men ” of america because it taught them that work, enterprise, and money - making was “ vulgar and ungentlemanly. ” it represented a receding from the high promise of the american republic into “ a british aristocratic ” pattern. and when the southern states attempted to secede from the union in order to insulate slavery from federal tampering, he made very clear what he thought the stakes in the ensuing civil war were about, at the highest level : on the side of the union, it is a struggle for maintaining in the world, that form, and substance of government, whose leading object is, to elevate the condition of men — to lift artificial weights from all shoulders — to clear the paths of laudable pursuit for all — to afford all, an unfettered start, and a fair chance, in the race of life. lincoln, unlike wendell phillips, saw slavery as an economic problem more than a racial one. but on either count, he found it difficult to prescribe a means for ending it. slavery was legal in fifteen states in 1860, when lincoln was nominated for the presidency, and in each case, its legalization was a matter of state statute, rather than federal law. “ according to our political system, as a matter of civil administration, the general government had no lawful power to effect emancipation in any state,


presidency, and in each case, its legalization was a matter of state statute, rather than federal law. “ according to our political system, as a matter of civil administration, the general government had no lawful power to effect emancipation in any state, ” he acknowledged. back in 1856, when he was prominent only in illinois political circles, he had admitted that “ if all earthly power were given me, i should not know what to do, as to the existing institution. ” he clung to the hope that “ systems of gradual emancipation might be adopted, ” especially if slavery was prevented from expanding into the western territories. but legalizing slavery in the territories was precisely what had been sanctioned by the kansas - nebraska act in 1854 ( the event that galvanized lincoln politically ) and been protected by the supreme court ’ s decision in dred scott v. sanford in 1857. even after his election as president, lincoln understand all - too - clearly that he had no civil authority to interfere with slavery ; and if the south was successful in its fight to tear away from the union, slavery would be even further beyond the reach of the united states government to deal with. lincoln ’ s impulse, in 1861, was to implement his federally funded buy - out plan in delaware ( one of the four slave states that remained loyal to the union ), as a way of showing how state legislatures could back their way painlessly out of slavery. but the delaware legislature failed to act, and in the spring of 1862, the other loyal slave states — kentucky, maryland, and missouri — rejected lincoln ’ s proposal with contempt. by the summer of 1862, lincoln ’ s mind revolved to a different, but much more constitutionally controversial strategy — a “ war powers ” proclamation of emancipation, issued on the strength of his constitutional designation as commander in chief, and based on the premise that freeing the south ’ s slaves would constitute a legitimate blow to the southern ability to carry on the war. no such proclamation had ever been issued by an american president — no such “ war powers ” had even been defined judicially — but by that time lincoln “ had about come to the conclusion that we must free the slaves or be ourselves subdued. ” on july 22, 1862, lincoln laid before his cabinet a preliminary draft of an emancipation proclamation, declaring that “ all persons held as slaves within any state, or designated part of a state, the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the united states, shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free. ” his secretary of