us space agency nasa has launched two spacecraft that are expected to make the first 3d movies of the sun. cmes will typically throw a billion tonnes of matter into space the stereo mission will study violent eruptions from our parent star known as coronal mass ejections ( cmes ). the eruptions create huge clouds of energetic particles that can trigger magnetic storms, disrupting power grids and air and satellite communications. the mission is expected to help researchers forecast magnetic storms - the worst aspects of " space weather ". " coronal mass ejections are a main thrust of solar physics today, " said mike kaiser, the stereo project scientist at the us space agency ' s ( nasa ) goddard space flight center. " with stereo, we want to understand how cmes get started and how they move through the solar system. " the mission comprises two spacecraft, lofted on a delta - 2 rocket from cape canaveral, florida. the two near - identical satellites will orbit the sun, but one of them will move slightly ahead of the other, to provide stereo vision. technical hitches have delayed previous attempts at launching. coronal mass ejections erupt when " loops " of solar material lifting off the sun suddenly snap, hurling a high - temperature ( hundreds of thousands of degrees ) plasma into space. the plasma is formed of electrons and ions of hydrogen and helium. a cme will contain typically a billion tonnes of matter and move away from the sun at about 400km / s. much of the time, these outbursts are directed away from the earth, but some inevitably come our way. when they do, the particles, and the magnetic fields they carry, can have highly undesirable effects. " when a big storm hits and the conditions are just right, you can get disturbances on power grids and on spacecraft - they are susceptible to high - energy electrons and protons hitting them, " dr kaiser told bbc news. " these particles are hazardous to astronauts ; and even airline companies that fly polar routes are concerned about this because cmes can black out plane communications, and you can get increased radiation doses on the crew and passengers. " if we know when these storms are going to hit, we can take preventive action. " at the moment, solar observatories, because they look at the sun straight on, have great difficulty in determining the precise direction of a cme. by placing two spacecraft in orbit to look at the sun - earth system from two widely spaced locations, scientists will be able look at the


, because they look at the sun straight on, have great difficulty in determining the precise direction of a cme. by placing two spacecraft in orbit to look at the sun - earth system from two widely spaced locations, scientists will be able look at the storms from the side - to work out very rapidly if a cloud of plasma is going to hit our planet. " in solar physics, we make a remarkable leap in understanding either by producing new instruments that have better resolution, so you can probe deeper into the sun or see structures you ' ve never seen before ; or by going to a different vantage point, " said stereo program scientist dr lika guhathakurta. " this is where stereo comes in ; it is not that its instrumentation is a breakthrough in terms of resolution, but it will see the sun in all its 3d glory for the first time - all the way from the surface of our star out to the earth. it ' s going to be spectacular. " the stereo spacecraft each carry 16 instruments. these include telescopes, to image the sun at different wavelengths, and technologies that will sample particles in cmes. the uk has a significant role on the mission, having provided all the camera systems on board the spacecraft. it has also delivered a heliospheric imager ( hi ) for each platform. the spacecraft are identical apart from a few structural details this instrument will follow the progress through space of a bubble of plasma by tracing its reflected light. the engineering demands on the british team have been exacting. " the reflected light from these coronal mass ejections is extremely faint, " explained dr chris eyles of the university of birmingham. " it is typically a [ 100 trillion ] times fainter than the direct light from the sun ' s disc, so we have to use a sophisticated system of baffles to reject that direct light. " critical to the hi ' s operation has been cleanliness of assembly. if we get dust particles, fibres of even hairs on critical surfaces inside the instrument, they would scatter sunlight and destroy the performance of the instrument. " the stereo spacecraft will send their data straight to the us national oceanic and atmospheric administration ( noaa ), the agency which makes the space weather forecasts used worldwide by satellite and airline operators. the new information is expected to lengthen the advance warning forecasters are able to give - from the current few hours to a couple of days. with our ever increasing dependence on spacecraft in orbit - for communications and navigation - the stereo mission comes not a moment


new information is expected to lengthen the advance warning forecasters are able to give - from the current few hours to a couple of days. with our ever increasing dependence on spacecraft in orbit - for communications and navigation - the stereo mission comes not a moment too soon. cleanliness is paramount in the instruments ' preparation earth ' s magnetic field gives the planet and its inhabitants a good measure of protection, but with space agencies seemingly intent on sending astronauts to the moon and even to mars in the next few decades, there is a pressing need for a fuller understanding of the sun ' s activity. moon or mars bases will have to be carefully designed shelters, and astronauts will need very good advice before deciding to venture too far from such protection. august 1972 saw a solar storm that is legendary at nasa. it occurred between two apollo missions, with one crew just returned from the moon and another preparing for launch. if an astronaut had been on the moon at the time, they might have received a 400 rem ( roentgen equivalent man ) radiation dose. not only would this have caused radiation sickness, but without rapid medical treatment such a sudden dose could have been fatal. dr chris davis from the uk ' s rutherford appleton laboratory underlined the power of cmes. " the energy in a cme is typically about 10 - to - the - power - of - 24 joules. that is the same as a bus hitting a wall at 25mph a billion, billion times. it ' s 100 times the energy stored in the world ' s nuclear arsenal, " he said. the spacecraft launched on a trajectory that goes past the moon the lunar swingby will position the spacecraft in widely spaced orbits one will lead the earth in its orbit, the other will lag behind over the course of their mission, the twins will continue to separate their different views will be combined to make 3d movies of cmes


the findings are published in today ' s issue of nature. " this calcium transporter really is an important key to understanding how the heart is regulated, " said dr. donald hilgemann, professor of physiology and senior author of the study. " at every beat, calcium in heart cells increases. and it ' s calcium that is the messenger to the heart to get it to contract. " we knew for a long time that ncx1 brings calcium into and out of heart cells by exchanging it for sodium. and in doing so it generates important electrical currents in the heart. the surprise is that this transporter dances more than just that old waltz from vienna. it knows salsa! " the research reveals two new modes of operation of ncx1. first, the membrane protein can move sodium into heart cells without moving calcium out. this mode generates an electrical current independent of calcium transport that contributes to excitation of the heart. the second mode is to move calcium into heart cells without generating any electrical current. this mode, dr. hilgemann said, may determine the calcium that remains in heart cells after each beat and thereby determines the strength of cardiac contraction over many beats. using so - called " giant membrane patch " techniques together with highly sensitive ion detection techniques, both developed and implemented by dr. hilgemann, ut southwestern researchers were able to determine precisely how ncx1 works as an ion exchanger, how many calcium and sodium ions move across the membrane, when they are exchanged, and, surprisingly, when they move together. " transporters move ions across membranes by grabbing hold of them and transferring the energy of one type of ion to another type, just one contact : amy shields ut southwestern medical center


photograph by george steinmetz, national geographic published november 30, 2012 this piece is part of water grabbers : a global rush on freshwater, a special national geographic news series on how grabbing land — and water — from poor people, desperate governments, and future generations threatens global food security, environmental sustainability, and local cultures. the piece is also this week ' s " in focus " series — stepping back, looking closer. mayor daouda sanankoua had traveled overnight by boat to see me, through flooded forests and submerged banks of hippo grass. there was no other way. sanankoua ' s domain, the district of deboye in the heart of mali in west africa, is on the edge of the sahara. yet sanankoua ' s homeland is mostly water. his people live by catching fish, grazing cattle, and harvesting crops in one of the world ' s largest and most fecund wetlands, a massive inland delta created by the meandering waters of one of africa ' s mightiest waterways, the niger river. nearly two million malians live on the delta. " everything here depends on the water, " said the mayor. " but " — and here he paused gravely, pushed his glasses down an elegant nose, and began waving a long finger — " the government is taking our water. they are giving it to foreign farmers. they don ' t even ask us. " what is happening here in mali is happening all over the world. people who depend on the natural flow of water, and the burst of nature that comes with it, are losing out as powerful people upstream divert the water. as the mayor talked in the schoolyard of akka village, on an island in the heart of the niger inland delta, women rushed around putting straw mats on the ground, and bringing bowls of food. by torchlight, we savored a supper of smoked fish, millet porridge, and green vegetables, all products of the waters around us. this aquatic world, a green smudge on the edge of the sahara 250 miles ( 402 kilometers ) across, seemed well. it is a major wintering ground for millions of european birds. on the way to akka, i constantly grabbed binoculars to watch birds i knew from back home. in england, kingfishers are rare ; here they seemed to be everywhere. there were other european water birds in profusion, like cormorants and herons, along with endangered local birds such as the black crowned crane. without being too


in england, kingfishers are rare ; here they seemed to be everywhere. there were other european water birds in profusion, like cormorants and herons, along with endangered local birds such as the black crowned crane. without being too romantic, there seemed to be a remarkable degree of harmony between nature and human needs. i saw the bozo people, the delta ' s original inhabitants, ply their canoes from dawn to dusk, casting nets that catch an estimated 100, 000 tons of fish a year — from the ubiquitous nile perch and bottom - living cichlids to favorite local species that live only amid roots in the flooded forests. the bambara, founders of the great 13th - century mali empire, planted millet and rice in the delta mud as the waters receded. by the early 19th century the fulani arrived from across west africa to graze their cattle and goats on the aquatic pastures of hippo grasses. there have been disputes, of course, but for the most part, by concentrating on different activities, the different groups have been able to respect each other ' s rights to harvest the wetland over generations. all the scientific evidence suggests that nature thrived too — until recently. for the mayor was clear that the waters are receding. fish catches are down. the flooded forests are being left high and dry. he fears his world could soon be gone. his people are doing their best to cope. the following morning, i watched the women of akka scrape channels in caked and cracked soils on the edge of the village, in an effort to persuade water from the lake to reach their kitchen gardens. each year, it got harder, they said. diverting the niger river some blame failing rains and changing climate for this crisis on the delta. not so, said the mayor. upstream diversions of water are to blame. back on dry land, i found the source of the mayor ' s ire just a few miles away, where engineers were constructing concrete barrages to tame the niger river ' s flow and digging canals to divert its water just before it enters the wetland. the aim is to provide water for chinese sugar farms, libyan rice growers, and german -, french -, and american - funded agricultural development schemes, in a region managed by a government irrigation agency called the office du niger. the government sees such development as the route to modernizing its agriculture through encouraging foreign investment. but critics say ministers in bamako, the capital, are oblivious to the shortage of water that is a


by a government irrigation agency called the office du niger. the government sees such development as the route to modernizing its agriculture through encouraging foreign investment. but critics say ministers in bamako, the capital, are oblivious to the shortage of water that is a critical constraint on achieving this goal. the office du niger already presides over a quarter of a million acres ( roughly 100, 000 hectares ) of irrigated rice fields. that land takes 8 percent of the river ' s flow, according to the agency ' s records. that figure can rise to 70 percent in the dry season, says leo zwarts, a dutch government hydrologist who is a leading authority on the niger river. the local engineer in charge of the main diversion structure on the river, the markala barrage, agrees. sitting on the riverbank beside the massive dam - like structure, lansana keita told me that he and his colleagues often failed to ensure the release of 1, 413 cubic feet ( 40 cubic meters ) a second, the official minimum flow of water downstream into the wetland. " we do our best, but irrigation has priority, " he said. that was evident. during the dry months, there is often more water in the canals that lead from the barrage to the fields than there is in the river itself as it heads for the delta. as a result, the delta is already diminishing. zwarts estimates that existing abstractions — diversions — have cut the area of delta that is flooded annually by an average of 232 square miles ( 600 square kilometers ), killing many flooded forests and expanses of hippo grasses. he has a pair of graphs that show how the amount of fish sold in local markets goes up and down with the size of the delta inundation the previous year. in recent years, both have been declining. but that is just the start. behind keita was a large metal sign displaying a map of the domain of the office du niger. it showed small areas painted green where there is already irrigation, and much larger areas painted yellow to show where irrigation is planned. all three main canals from the barrage were being enlarged during my visit. the government eventually wants to irrigate ten times more land than today, and is bringing in foreign companies to do it. they are offered free land and as much water as they need. zwarts predicts that the diversions could soon take the entire flow of the niger river during the dry season. add to that the impact of a hydroelectric dam planned farther


it. they are offered free land and as much water as they need. zwarts predicts that the diversions could soon take the entire flow of the niger river during the dry season. add to that the impact of a hydroelectric dam planned farther upstream by the government of guinea, and zwarts says the delta could dry up every fourth year. the mali government does not confirm this analysis, but its own figures show that a fall in water levels of just one foot would dry out half of the delta. in an interview, the ( now former ) head of the office du niger said the government ' s targets for minimum flows will protect the delta. but he also said his office is tasked with increasing irrigation for agriculture. when i pointed out these two goals seem to be in contradiction, he declined to comment. mali ' s water deals this won ' t all happen overnight. political unrest in the north of mali in recent months has discouraged foreign investment. a multiyear aid scheme funded by the u. s. government ' s millennium challenge corporation to irrigate some 35, 000 acres and turn herders into rice farmers was terminated a few months early, although many malians did receive farm supplies. but a 50, 000 - acre sugar scheme masterminded by the chinese state - owned china light industrial corporation for foreign economic and technical co - operation is close to completion. and other projects are expected to follow once peace returns, including the biggest of them all, a libyan plan to grow rice on a quarter - million acres ( roughly 100, 000 hectares ). the huge diversion canal for what is known as the malibya project is already dug and full of water. critics of these megaprojects say the government of mali is blind to the damage the water abstractions will do to the wetland, a mysterious region where officials seldom go. " the government is so obsessed with getting investment for its agriculture that it cannot see when that investment will do more harm than good to its people, " lamine coulibaly of the national coordination of peasant organizations of mali told me. jane madgwick, head of wetlands international, a science - based ngo based in the netherlands that is working with people on the delta, agrees. far from filling the bellies of malians, " these projects will decrease food security in mali, by damaging the livelihoods of those most vulnerable, " she says. water grabbing : a global concern? the situation in mali may be part of an emerging global pattern. from the papyrus swamps of lake victoria in


projects will decrease food security in mali, by damaging the livelihoods of those most vulnerable, " she says. water grabbing : a global concern? the situation in mali may be part of an emerging global pattern. from the papyrus swamps of lake victoria in east africa to the flooded forests of cambodia ' s great lake, from the dried - up delta of the colorado in mexico to the marshes of mesopotamia, those living downstream have been at the mercy of those they call water grabbers. some — like those in the niger delta — worry that they may become victims of the " next aral sea, " the doomed body of water in central asia that was once the world ' s fourth largest inland sea. half a century ago, soviet engineers began to grab its water to grow cotton. over a few decades, they largely emptied the sea and created a giant new desert. today, the formerly profitable fishing fleets and fertile wet - delta pastures are all gone. the surrounding region is poisoned by salt blown from the dried - up seabed, the climate is changing, the people are departing, and most of the sea is a distant memory. madgwick of wetlands international says that what mali plans for the inner niger delta would be similar, " a human catastrophe as vicious and shameful as the drainage of the aral sea. " out on the delta today, the bozo and bambara and fulani people await news of their fate. fred pearce is a journalist and author on environmental science. his books include when the rivers run dry and the land grabbers, both for beacon press, boston. he writes regularly for new scientist magazine, yale environment 360, and the guardian, and has been published by nature and the washington post. the world ' s water the world ' s increasing population and development of agricultural land are putting pressure on the earth ' s limited freshwater supplies. find out what ' s at stake and how you can help. learn more about the world ' s water challenge with photos, stories, videos, and more. you might be surprised to see how the daily choices you make affect critical watersheds around the world. water currents, by sandra postel and others drillers turn to alternative sources of water for fracking, but concerns remain. california ' s mountain yellow - legged frog gets new hope from captive breeding. a year in the making, this video highlights nature ' s splendor. connect with nat geo stories from experts in the field national geographic fellow zeb hogan tells us what needs to happen in order to save the region ' s


research shows benefits of poverty simulation for university students march 25, 2011print - denise horton athens, ga. - an article by two university of georgia researchers in the latest issue of the journal of poverty demonstrates that students participating in a simulation " soften their attitudes " regarding those who live in poverty. sharon y. nickols, the janette mcgarity barber distinguished professor in the college of family and consumer sciences, and robb nielsen, an assistant professor in the college, conducted both a qualitative and quantitative study to determine whether students developed " social empathy " after participating in a two - and - a - half hour simulation titled, " welcome to the state of poverty. " during the simulation, students in nickols ' course on managing family resources are clustered into various family groups - two parents and two children ; an older woman living alone ; a single mother with two children ; and a cohabiting couple, for example. faculty members and other volunteers play the roles of community members, such as the town banker, pawn shop owner and a social services employee. during the course of the simulation, the participants must accomplish a variety of tasks, including buying groceries, paying their bills and caring for both toddlers and aging parents while subsisting on low wages and other issues, such as being unable to speak english. during the course of each 15 - minute " month, " new situations are randomly interjected. in some cases, these are helpful events, such as an unemployed parent receiving a job. in other cases, the events add to the families ' difficulties, such as a family without health insurance facing illness. the simulation, which is led by cooperative extension multicultural specialist sharon gibson, has been used for many years with a variety of community leaders to help them realize the complexities of poverty, but the study by nickols and nielsen is apparently the first to measure its impact on college students. in conducting their study, nickols and nielson used two ways of measuring students ' attitudes - a pre - and post - test and a reflective paper that was written after the simulation. what they found, according to nielsen, was that the students were better able to identify with the experiences and reactions of those in adverse or difficult situations. " it wasn ' t a dramatic change, but we didn ' t expect a dramatic change, " he said. " these students started relatively empathetic and became more empathetic. " among the changes, participants in the simulation shifted their opinions about whether people who are poor attempt to get out of poverty ; whether


expect a dramatic change, " he said. " these students started relatively empathetic and became more empathetic. " among the changes, participants in the simulation shifted their opinions about whether people who are poor attempt to get out of poverty ; whether they attempt to save money ; and whether they ' d rather work than be on welfare. in addition, their views on whether the poor have equal access to health care and whether the government does enough to help those who are poor, also shifted. they gained a better understanding of the fact that there are more children than adults living in poverty. in looking at the reflective papers the students wrote a week after the simulation, the researchers found that 65 of the 75 students who wrote papers described themselves as having gained greater insights into the lives of the poor as a result of the simulation. among the remaining students, seven reported no change in their opinions ( in some cases, they stated they already were empathetic to the poor ) and the responses of three students were ambiguous. " i began to understand and realize that it ' s not always a person ' s fault for being in a poverty - stricken lifestyle, " wrote one student. " just sitting in an environment of failure makes your own drive to succeed that much harder. " another student was surprised by the difficulty of assessing social services : " i knew very little about tanf ( temporary assistance for needy families ). i cannot imagine that everyone that is in need of help knows all about the programs available to them. " one finding the authors hadn ' t anticipated, based on previous studies that examined empathy, was the stress the participants felt as they inhabited the roles of those living in poverty. " the stress... was brought on entirely by my family ' s financial insecurity, " a student said. " i had little time to do anything other than go to work, run errands and pay the bills ; i barely saw my children or husband and never had the chance to relax. " " getting groceries, applying for tanf and food stamps and going to the quickcash all took so long to get accomplished, " wrote another. " i think that many people in poverty would feel like they were on a treadmill, not really getting anywhere. " " much of what students learn in the family resources class emphasizes the breadth of resources that are available, including time, space, and family and community support, in addition to the monetary and material goods we frequently think of, " nickols said. " part of what this simulation demonstrates is


uga researcher developing new vaccine to fight resurging mumps virus june 13, 2012print athens, ga. - mumps may seem like a disease of a bygone era to many people in the u. s. who, thanks to immunization programs, have been spared the fever, aches and characteristic swollen jawline of the once common viral infection. biao he, a university of georgia professor of infectious diseases and a georgia research alliance distinguished investigator in the college of veterinary medicine, worries that a new strain of the virus is spreading, and it could lead to the widespread reintroduction of mumps. now, thanks in part a $ 1. 8 million grant from the national institutes of health, he and his team are working on a new vaccine to stop it. although not typically a life - threatening disease, mumps can lead to serious health problems such as viral meningitis, hearing loss and pancreatitis ; and it can cause miscarriage during early pregnancy. vaccinations diminished the number of cases dramatically, and at one point it appeared that the u. s. was on pace to eradicate the disease. but two large outbreaks of the virus in 2006 and 2010 involving thousands of confirmed cases in the midwest and northeast put the hope of eradication on hold. he is concerned that the current vaccine, which has been in use since 1967, may be showing signs of weakness. " the virus is always evolving and mutating, and new viruses will emerge, " he said. " it ' s only a matter of time until the old vaccine we have doesn ' t work. " the current vaccine is commonly called the jeryl lynn strain and is named after the daughter of inventor maurice hilleman. it is based on a specific genotype of the mumps virus called genotype a. however, the 2006 and 2010 mumps outbreaks were caused by another strain, genotype g. even more troubling is that most of the people who contracted mumps during the 2006 and 2010 outbreaks had received the recommended two - dose vaccination in their early childhood, meaning that the virus was spreading even among the vaccinated population. " the question is : with this new genotype virus emerging in the vaccinated population, what do you do about it? " he said. some have suggested administering a third jeryl lynn vaccine to boost immunity later in life, but it is unclear if that approach would be successful. he suggests that modern scientific techniques have made the creation of some vaccines


you do about it? " he said. some have suggested administering a third jeryl lynn vaccine to boost immunity later in life, but it is unclear if that approach would be successful. he suggests that modern scientific techniques have made the creation of some vaccines much easier, so producing a new mumps vaccine may be the most effective method of controlling the emerging threat. " in the past few years, we have taken advantage of genetic engineering, and my lab is particularly good at engineering viruses, " he said. " we can take a virus, look at its genetic sequence, take bits and pieces away and generate a new virus with less virulence that will work as a vaccine. " before the advent of genetic engineering, the process of creating a vaccine could be intensely laborious, as researchers would have to pass the virus through many generations of reproduction until they found a naturally occurring weakened virus. this process can take long periods of time, and there is little guarantee that the weakened virus will work as a vaccine. genetic engineering allows he ' s lab to produce an effective and safe vaccine much more quickly. vaccine safety became a topic of much discussion after british medical researcher andrew wakefield suggested that there was a link between the measles, mumps and rubella vaccine and autism. however, his claims were found to be fraudulent, and wakefield was barred from practicing medicine in the united kingdom. much of the fallout from the wakefield case remains, and some are still hesitant to have their children vaccinated, but he is insistent that administering vaccines to children is the safe and responsible thing to do. " the no. 1 issue for us in making a pediatric vaccine is safety, " he said. " so far our testing suggests we are on the right track. " once he and his laboratory have devised a safe, reliable method to create vaccines for genotype g, they can apply that knowledge to rapidly produce vaccines for the other 12 mumps genotypes currently circulating in populations throughout the world. health professionals were able to contain the outbreaks of 2006 and 2010, but he thinks that the large global population and ease with which people move from one location to another make humankind vulnerable to rapid disease spread. " it ' s almost like a small fire ; if it stays small, we can put it out, " he said. " but if conditions are right, and the wind begins to blow, the fire can take over. " research reported in this publication was supported by the national institutes of health under award number 1r01ai097368 -


cool crop circles last year, quite a complex and elaborate 100ft diameter circle appeared overnight in a field of oil seed rape near silbury hill, wiltshire cool crop circles unseasonably warm and wet spring weather has seen many summer flowers appearing earlier than usual, and, surprisingly for so early in the year as things normally go, has sparked the crop circle creationists into early action. last year, quite a complex and elaborate 100ft diameter circle appeared overnight in a field of oil seed rape near silbury hill, wiltshire, causing a bit of a stir, a fabulous floral creation of six interlocking ' petal ' like crescent shapes, the very first proper design of the season, according to expert lucy pringle. from petersfield in hampshire, lucy is a founder member of the centre for crop circle studies, widely known as an international authority on crop circles, having carried out research over several years into both physiological and psychological effects on those visiting such installations. her research has revealed that there are measurable changes to hormone levels and brain activity in humans after coming into the vicinity of these creations, which have in past years included triangles, birds, complex 3 - d geometric shapes, as well as ahidden mathematical codes, such as that found in 2008 near wroughton, wiltshire, thought to represent the first ten digits of the pi number. a massive crop circle 200ft across appeared overnight close to the age - old topic of conversation amongst scholars, stonehenge, long thought of as a hot spot for this bizarre practice, being the tallest prehistoric man - made mound in europe, iand an obvious focal point. whilst there are indeed those who believe crop circles an entirely man - made phenomenon, others believe them caused by the magnetic field of the planet, while those out on the periphery think them the work of extra - terrestrial being trying to communicate. exactly how crop circles are created is still a mystery in many ways, and enthusiasts argue that not enough night hours exist in summer to allow humans to complete the complex creations. whatever the truth is, the rash of environmental art, of sorts, which gives farmers cause to feel frustration at the mindless destruction of good crop plants, is likely to always be a feature of the summer months. whether or not somebody ever manages to establish just how they are created remains to be seen, but i personally would not bet against the e. t. idea. the truth, as they say, is out there.


for too many new jerseyans, addiction begins in the medicine cabinet. the new jersey division of consumer affairs has developed project medicine drop as an important component of its effort to halt the abuse and diversion of prescription drugs. it allows consumers to dispose of unused and expired medications anonymously, seven days a week, 365 days a year, at “ prescription drug drop boxes ” located within the headquarters of participating police departments. each project medicine drop box is installed indoors, affixed to the floor or wall in a secure area within police department headquarters, within view of law enforcement officers, in an area to which members of the public may be admitted to dispose of their unused medications. their prominent “ project medicine drop ” logos make the boxes highly visible and recognizable. this initiative builds on the success of the u. s. drug enforcement administration ' s national take back initiative, and the american medicine chest challenge, which is sponsored in new jersey by the dea, partnership for a drug free new jersey, and sheriffs ' association of new jersey. both programs provide single - day opportunities to drop off unused medications at pre - identified, secure locations. project medicine drop provides the opportunity to discard unused prescription medications every day throughout the year. the participating police agencies maintain custody of the deposited drugs, and dispose of them according to their normal procedures for the custody and destruction of controlled dangerous substances. they report the quantity of discarded drugs to the division of consumer affairs on a quarterly basis. the division plans to expand the program in 2012, to include police departments in each of new jersey ' s 21 counties. the facts and statistics about prescription drug abuse are staggering : - every day, 40 americans die from an overdose caused by prescription painkiller abuse, according to the u. s. centers of disease control. overdoses of opioid prescription drugs now kill more people in the u. s. than heroin and cocaine combined. - two in five teenagers mistakenly believe prescription drugs are " much safer " than illegal drugs, according to the dea, and three in 10 teens mistakenly believe prescription painkillers are not addictive. - in the united states, every day 2, 500 youths take a prescription pain reliever for the purpose of getting high for the very first time, according to the office of national drug control policy. - the us drug enforcement administration reports that prescription drugs, including opioids and antidepressants, are responsible for more overdose deaths than " street drugs " such as cocaine, heroin, and methamphetamines. - the number of american teenagers and


the earliest record of human activity in northern europe parfitt, simon a. ; barendregt, rene w. ; breda, marzia ; candy, ian ; collins, matthew j. ; coope, g. russell ; durbridge, paul ; field, mike h. ; lee, jonathan r. ; lister, adrian m. ; mutch, robert ; penkman, kirsty e. h. ; preece, richard c. ; rose, james ; stringer, christopher b. ; symmons, robert ; whittaker, john e. ; wymer, john j. ; stuart, anthony j.. 2005 the earliest record of human activity in northern europe. nature, 438. 1008 - 1012. 10. 1038 / nature04227full text not available from this repository. ( request a copy ) the colonization of eurasia by early humans is a key event after their spread out of africa, but the nature, timing and ecological context of the earliest human occupation of northwest europe is uncertain and has been the subject of intense debate1. the southern caucasus was occupied about 1. 8 million years ( myr ) ago2, whereas human remains from atapuerca - td6, spain ( more than 780 kyr ago ) 3 and ceprano, italy ( about 800 kyr ago ) 4 show that early homo had dispersed to the mediterranean hinterland before the brunhes – matuyama magnetic polarity reversal ( 780 kyr ago ). until now, the earliest uncontested artefacts from northern europe were much younger, suggesting that humans were unable to colonize northern latitudes until about 500 kyr ago5, 6. here we report flint artefacts from the cromer forest - bed formation at pakefield ( 52° n ), suffolk, uk, from an interglacial sequence yielding a diverse range of plant and animal fossils. event and lithostratigraphy, palaeomagnetism, amino acid geochronology and biostratigraphy indicate that the artefacts date to the early part of the brunhes chron ( about 700 kyr ago ) and thus represent the earliest unequivocal evidence for human presence north of the alps. | programmes : | | bgs programmes > other | | date made live : | | 29 nov 2011 15 : 13 | actions ( login required )


warm springs : a classic boondoggle? by harold gilliam if president carter wants to bolster his anti - inflation program by saving the government at least $ 200 million, i have a suggestion for him. the planned warm springs dam, on a tributary of the russian river in sonoma county, is a classic boondoggle, a pork barrel item that was somehow overlooked when the president compiled his nationwide ' ' hit list " of water projects that he boldly said he would veto — and did. even in the corps of engineers ' optimistic estimate of the dam ' s benefits, warm springs is a marginal project, with a benefit - cost ratio of 1. 1. that means for every dollar of cost, there will be benefits of $ 1. 10. if the benefits were a shade less, the dam could not be financially justified as a federal project. let ' s look at the principal benefits - recreation and water supply. the federal flood - control program was born 40 years ago in an effort to do a job that no state could handle alone — prevent the kind of disastrous floods that were occurring along the mississippi, with tragic loss of life and property. what happens on the russian river is quite different. floods there come not with a rushing wall of water that wipes out whole communities but with a gradual rising of the river until it laps at the doors of buildings in resort communities like guerneville and sometimes inundates basements and ground floors. traditionally, after this kind of flood, the owners shovel out the mud and go back to work. it ' s a nuisance, but it ' s been happening on the russian river for generations, and no one buying property there has any excuse for being ignorant of the river ' s habit of rising in heavy rains. so we may wonder by what right property owners now demand the federal government bail them out. there are ways of flood - proofing buildings that would accomplish much the same results the dam would provide — lowering the high - water level by two or three feet. along the river and its tributaries there are places where the water is cutting its banks into agricultural land. riprap or other channel work could curtail the bank erosion without the dam. some of the agricultural fields along the river — mostly in grapes now — are flooded by high water, which deposits layers of silt in the vineyards. this process is precisely what caused the land to be productive in the first place, under the natural cycles of soil replenishment. stopping the process may be a convenience to growers,


high water, which deposits layers of silt in the vineyards. this process is precisely what caused the land to be productive in the first place, under the natural cycles of soil replenishment. stopping the process may be a convenience to growers, but in the long run it would amount to a death sentence on the land that is produced and sustained by river overflow. why should the federal government be subsidizing destruction of the soil ' s fertility? but even the protection that the dam would provide to existing buildings and farmlands would not add up to enough dollar benefits to pay for the dam ' s flood - control cost. that cost can only be met by an ingenious accounting gimmick : " benefits " to buildings and other developments that do not exist - but that might exist if the dam were built. if the dam lowers the flood crest, certain lands that otherwise would be in the flood zone could be used for building. so flood protection to those ghostly structures is counted as a benefit in order to justify the cost of the dam. why should the federal government be subsidizing development in the flood plain? why should federal taxpayers be giving handouts to those lucky landowners? even all this remarkable accounting still would not pay for the dam. to help justify the cost, the corps counts recreational benefits. boaters and other users of " lake sonoma, " the reservoir behind the dam, would eventually spend more than $ 1 million a year there. by some puzzling financial legerdemain these millions are counted as part of the benefits supplied by the dam. but who gets the benefits? if a typical family spends, say $ 100 a year at lake sonoma — on boats and gasoline and hot dogs — that ' s $ 100 that it won ' t spend someplace else, such as the bay area. why should the federal taxpayer be subsidizing a diversion of recreation expenditures from the bay area to lake sonoma? what possible federal benefit is involved? the dam would also supply water for use in sonorma county and adjoining areas. the water would be paid for by the water user. theoretically. actually the payment would extend over a 50 to 60 year peroid. but the dam has to be paid for when it is built, not some time in the next century. so uncle sam in effect lends the water users their share of the paid dam ' s cost, to be paid back over that 50 - 60 year period. but because the dam was originally authorized in 1967, at a time when interest


next century. so uncle sam in effect lends the water users their share of the paid dam ' s cost, to be paid back over that 50 - 60 year period. but because the dam was originally authorized in 1967, at a time when interest rates were only 31 / 8 per cent, the water users would pay at that bargain basement rate. the federal taxpayers would have to make up the difference between that and the current market interest rate, which will be three or four times that much. and that difference over a half - century period, could amount to the biggest subsidy of all. if sonoma county wants to double or triple or quadruple its population so that the water supply available from warm springs will be used and paid for, if the people of santa rosa want that city to become another congested san jose, sprawling out into the farmlands, i suppose you could say that ' s their business. but why should the rest of us — the federal taxpayers — pay the bill? somona taxpayers will be paying for the dam on top of their other taxes for generations to come. the result will predictably be irresistible pressure on all local agencies to promote the fastest possible urbanization and industrialization of the county in order to get a broader tax base to pay the bills for the dam. growth under pressure. the dam will create jobs, yes. but if we are to rely on dams for employment, when warm springs is finished it will be necessary to build another big dam and yet another when that is finished ad infinitum. there is room for argument about how much water will be needed and where it will come from. without warm springs, water could be available from wells ( the russian river drainage, particularly the santa rosa plain, is rich in ground water ), from increasing the capacity of coyote dam on the upper russian, from conservation and waste water recycling. how much would be needed from these or other sources — including warm springs — depends on what assumptions you make about population growth and about more efficient use of existing water supplies. the warm springs task force, a sonoma county group opposed to the dam, has a court suit maintaining that the corps ' environmental impact statement does not adequately consider alternatives to the dam, earthquake risks and other matters. the 9th circuit court of appeals heard the case last spring but for some inscrutable reason has not yet spoken. meantime, the preliminary work goes on, millions have already been spent and construction on the main dam is about ready to begin. the corps has estimated that the water supply portion


the case last spring but for some inscrutable reason has not yet spoken. meantime, the preliminary work goes on, millions have already been spent and construction on the main dam is about ready to begin. the corps has estimated that the water supply portion of the dam, to be paid for by sonoma county taxpayers, would amount to $ 60 million dollars. but the task force comes up with another figure. adding the interest to be paid over the life of the project, plus an inflation factor, plus a cost - overrun figure, the task force calculates that the dam will cost the sonoma county taxpayers $ 230 million - - almost $ 1000 added to the property tax for every man, woman and child now living in the county. no matter whose figures are accepted, warm springs seems inordinately expensive way for federal taxpayers as well as for the county to subsidize urban sprawl, riverbank landowners, subdivisions on farmland, reservior recreation, and future construction in flood - prone areas. photograph caption : site of the warm springs dam project. even the engineers consider it a marginal project with a benefit - cost ratio of 1. 1 s. f. sunday examiner & chronicle click tabs to swap between content that is broken into logical sections.


as part of the wrap - up for this course, we ’ re looking back at some of the first things we wrote in june ( introduction to webtools, setting the stage, and guiding principles for tech use in the classroom ). i don ’ t know that my thinking / philosophy on using technology has changed dramatically in the past two and a half months. i was on - board with tech use in the classroom with the goal of improved learning and connection, and i was excited to try out some new tools and learn from a new and diverse group of educators. i still am. i do have a clearer picture of some specific tools that i ’ d like to implement this year in my classes, and i am happy to have made many new connections in my continually - expanding pln. what has changed for me is a renewed focus on the idea that the best web tools allow us to do something completely new. i find myself coming back to three points from jeff utecht ’ s article “ evaluating technology use in the classroom ” : - does the technology allow students to learn from people they never would have been able to without it? - does the technology allow students to interact with information in a way that is meaningful and could not have happened otherwise? - does the technology allow students to create and share their knowledge with an audience they never would have had access to without technology? [ my emphasis ] i ’ ve been focused primarily on the second bullet point ( which isn ’ t horrible ). if that ’ s all we do with new technology, it still represents movement in the right direction. i ’ ve made some progress on the third point ( through student blogging ), but i don ’ t think i ’ ve tapped into the full potential there. my students were very excited to keep track of their blog ’ s page views counter, and they broadened their readership by putting their new biology blog posts up on facebook. ( which, come to think of it, is actually a pretty significant step. i wonder if they were sharing any of their history essays, spanish translations, or math problem sets on fb? ) but i want to try to find some ways to have them interact with people outside of our classroom, outside of our state and country, if possible. that ’ s a new goal of mine for the year. lastly, we should recognize that we ’ re going to ask our students to jump into this whole using tech in the classroom in new ways thing along with us. they ’ ll get their own crash courses in web


healthy diet means better mental health ( australia ) australian researchers have shown that a nutritious diet has a significant, positive effect on mental health and can even aid in the prevention and treatment of depression and anxiety. researchers from the university of melbourne have been studying the impact of teenage diets on depressive symptoms since 2005. over 2000 study participants, age 11 to 18 years, were sampled from 2005 to 2006, and again in 2007 to 2008. diet quality and mental health baselines were established at the beginning of the study and followed up throughout the project. after adjustments for sociodemographic variables and exercise, it was found that a good quality diet predicted better mental health than any other factor. furthermore, dietary changes matched mental health states during the investigation. in other words, improved diet was reflected in improved mental health and a poor quality diet filled with snacks and highly processed foods was associated with a deterioration in mental health. these results corroborate the 2010 findings of the same research team wherein diet and mental health outcomes of australian women across a wide range of ages were studied. in that investigation, researchers found that women who ate a diet of vegetables, fruit, whole grains, high quality meat and fish reduced their risk of depression, dysthymia and anxiety by more than 30 per cent. on the other hand, women eating a diet with high quantities of refined and processed foods as well as saturated fats, had a 50 per cent increased likelihood of developing depression. to read the online study, “ a prospective study of diet quality and mental health in adolescents ”, go to www. plosone. org.


water supply and water quality problems facing the city of el paso and ciudad juarez are complex and interrelated. the twin cities share the water resources of the hueco bolson, a tertiary and quaternary basin fill aquifer that spans the international border. the binational metroplex is located at the junction between the western edge of texas and the northernmost part of chihuahua, mexico. over - pumping of the hueco bolson aquifer has resulted in drawdown of the water table, encroachment of brackish groundwater, and the early retirement of wells. in response to these issues, mexican and american universities formed a partnership to study the surface and ground - water resources of the el paso / juarez area. governmental agencies are participating in the project by providing existing data, access to water wells, and other support services. the research team is applying a suite of isotopic tracers to provide an understanding of the spatial dynamics of the aquifers by tracing water from areas of recharge to regions of discharge. the team is also using a variety of geochemical and isotopic tracers to answer questions about increasing salinity in the developed parts of the aquifer. with an increased understanding of the flowpaths of the aquifer systems, the team is addressing stream - aquifer interactions between the groundwater systems and the rio grande. by combining an understanding of isotopic and geochemical changes in the river system with the information about the groundwater systems, the team is calculating fluxes of water and solutes from the groundwater system to the river system. finally, this geochemical and isotopic information is being used by the municipal partners to constrain physical and management models of groundwater to utilize the fresh and saline water resources of the hueco bolson more effectively.


soon he came upon a peasant singing and scything. ‘ you there, varlet, ’ said shrek. ‘ why so blithe? ’ ” – william steig, “ shrek ” “ shrek ” inspired me to let the words fly around my children. nope, i ’ m not talking about the movie “ shrek ”, but about william steig ’ s wonderful picture book “ shrek. ” and i ’ m not talking about using curse words around my children, but about using a more sophisticated vocabulary in ordinary conversation. the vocabulary in “ shrek ” is extravagant. it ’ s so baroque that i did some research to find out why steig had included phrases like “ shady copse, ” “ churlish knave, ” “ rosy wens, ” and “ fusty fens. ” had he picked words at random from a dictionary and challenged himself to work them into his story? did he have pet underused words that he was determined to bring back into favor? ( i myself have waged a losing campaign to popularize “ chirk. ” ) or had it been the product of a bet? dr. seuss wrote his masterpiece “ green eggs and ham ” using just 50 different words, after his publisher, bennett cerf, bet him $ 50 that he couldn ’ t compose a book with such a limited vocabulary. ( the words? a, am, and, anywhere, are, be, boat, box, car, could, dark, do, eat, eggs, fox, goat, good, green, ham, here, house, i, if, in, let, like, may, me, mouse, not, on, or, rain, sam, say, see, so, thank, that, the, them, there, they, train, tree, try, will, with, would, you. ) but while i couldn ’ t find an explanation for steig ’ s flamboyant vocabulary, i was inspired by his example — and by my daughters ’ unquestioning acceptance of his range — to use more sophisticated vocabulary when talking to children. it made me realize that i ’ d unconsciously been simplifying my language, even though my daughters were perfectly able to handle words like “ nacreous, ” “ nonplussed, ” “ ambivalent ” and “ palanquin. ” it ’ s a secret of adulthood : if we can express ourselves precisely, we can think precisely, and i want my


first, the truth is that no one really knows why some products succeed and others don ’ t. as the purchasing of goods in the market done by multiple individuals whose decisions are often personal and multi - factorial, direct observation and dissection of behavior is nearly impossible. there are some theories, though ( largely from van den bulte, 2007 ). so that i don ’ t forget, and purely for my own benefit, here ’ s a breakdown : 1. people who buy early are different from those who buy late. for example, the people who sit in the cold waiting to buy the new iphone on the day it is released are vastly different from those who wait until the price drops 6 months later. it ’ s hard to tell who ’ s smarter. me, i like heat. ( see rogers, 2003. ) 2. there are market leaders that other people like to follow. people buy products because they want to imitate others, who might mostly be those who pick up on fads early, i. e. there are “ innovators ” and “ imitators. ” people who bought to iphone 1 ( what did that look like? ) early showed it to their friends, who bought one, too. ( see bass, 1969 ) 3. people buy products autonomously, because of influence from above, or because of peer influence. some people buy stuff caring little for anyone else. some people buy stuff because an authority said it was a good idea. some people buy stuff because their friends do. ( see riesman, 1950 and schor, 1998 ) 4. purchase decisions depend on social status. some people buy stuff because they want to emulate those higher on the social ladder than they are. similarly, those on top buy new stuff because they don ’ t want to fall behind or be unseated as a high profile consumer. some people tend to want to buy slightly more car than they can afford, so that they can feel more like those with more money than they have. the stratified nature of society, thus, perpetuates a system of striving to consume more beyond one ’ s means. this desire is, of course, endless. ( see simmel 1971 and burt 1987 ) 5. marketing is a two step process. ads are only effective at influencing behavior of leaders, who, in turn influence their followers. i call this the “ economist effect. ” only a few sad people ( such as myself ) read the british magazine, the economist. when


two step process. ads are only effective at influencing behavior of leaders, who, in turn influence their followers. i call this the “ economist effect. ” only a few sad people ( such as myself ) read the british magazine, the economist. when the economist endorses a presidential candidate, it would seemingly have little effect since only about. 0028 % of the american populace is paying attention. however, the readership of the economist consists of educated and well positioned people who have the capacity to influence large numbers of people who don ’ t read the economist. on numbers alone, an endorsement from that newspaper would seem meaningless, but as a conduit to the less engaged, the effect could be considerable. ( fortunately, though, no one cares what i think. ) ( see lazarsfeld, 1944 ) 6. there are risks to adopting new products, fashions, etc. very, very poor people are very similar to very, very wealthy people in that they have nothing to lose by taking adopting new products or behaviors. ever think about the crazy stuff that some homeless people wear? is it any crazier than high fashion? think of juggalos vs. comme de garcons. ( i don ’ t know anything about fashion ; that was all i could come up with ). people in the middle, however, have a lot to lose by dressing crazy, so they end up really boring. ( see homans, 1961 )


ai and society 9 ( 1 ) : 29 - 42 ( 1995 ) | abstract | | this paper first illustrates what kind of ethical issues arise from the new information, communication and automation technology. it then argues that we may embrace the popular idea that technology is ethically neutral or even ambivalent without having to close our eyes to those issues and in fact, that the ethical neutrality of technology makes them all the more urgent. finally, it suggests that the widely ignored fact of normal responsible behaviour offers a new and fruitful starting point for any future thinking about such issues | | keywords | | no keywords specified ( fix it ) | | through your library | | configure | similar books and articles thomas w. cooper ( 1998 ). new technology effects inventory : forty leading ethical issues. journal of mass media ethics 13 ( 2 ) : 71 – 92. william p. cordeiro ( 1997 ). suggested management responses to ethical issues raised by technological change. journal of business ethics 16 ( 12 - 13 ) : 1393 - 1400. robin s. dillon ( 2010 ). respect for persons, identity, and information technology. ethics and information technology 12 ( 1 ). patrick feng ( 2000 ). rethinking technology, revitalizing ethics : overcoming barriers to ethical design. science and engineering ethics 6 ( 2 ) : 207 - 220. walter maner ( 1996 ). unique ethical problems in information technology. science and engineering ethics 2 ( 2 ). david wright ( 2011 ). a framework for the ethical impact assessment of information technology. ethics and information technology 13 ( 3 ) : 199 - 226. richard de george ( 2006 ). information technology, globalization and ethics. ethics and information technology 8 ( 1 ). bernd stahl, richard heersmink, philippe goujon, catherine flick, jeroen van den hoven, kutoma wakunuma, veikko ikonen & michael rader ( 2010 ). issues, concepts and methods relating to the identification of the ethics of emerging icts. communications of the iima 10 ( 1 ) : 33 - 43. michael d. myers & leigh miller ( 1996 ). ethical dilemmas in the use of information technology : an aristotelian perspective. ethics and behavior 6 ( 2 ) : 153 – 160. chris gastmans ( ed. ) ( 2002 ). between technology and humanity : the impact of technology on health care ethics. leuven university press. nabila boukef charki ( forthcoming )


( 2 ) : 153 – 160. chris gastmans ( ed. ) ( 2002 ). between technology and humanity : the impact of technology on health care ethics. leuven university press. nabila boukef charki ( forthcoming ). toward an ethical understanding of the controversial technology of online reverse auctions. journal of business ethics. bernd carsten stahl, richard heersmink, philippe goujon, catherine flick, jeroen van den hoven, kutoma wakunuma, veikko ikonen & michael rader ( 2010 ). identifying the ethics of emerging information and communication technologies : an essay on issues, concepts and method. international journal of technoethics 1 ( 4 ) : 20 - 38. iordanis kavathatzopoulos ( 2003 ). the use of information and communication technology in the training for ethical competence in business. journal of business ethics 48 ( 1 ) : 43 - 51. mike cooley ( 1995 ). the myth of the moral neutrality of technology. ai and society 9 ( 1 ) : 10 - 17. matteo turilli, antonino vaccaro & mariarosaria taddeo ( 2012 ). internet neutrality : ethical issues in the internet environment. philosophy and technology 25 ( 2 ) : 133 - 151. sorry, there are not enough data points to plot this chart. added to index2010 - 08 - 30 total downloads1 ( # 277, 212 of 556, 837 ) recent downloads ( 6 months ) 0 how can i increase my downloads?


the easiest way is to buy yourself a 3d camera. this option has an excellent advantage : you can see the 3d effect while you compose and when reviewing your images which lets you know if the shot you take worked to give the 3d impression or not. otherwise you have to take 2 nearly identical photos with slightly different viewpoints. there are three methods to do this : - take a photo, move the camera and take a second photo keeping everything constant : focus, dof, exposure, iso, white - balance. this is easier to do with a camera with manual controls, although i suspect you can use panorama assist mode of compact - cameras too. they key is to move the camera along a level path a relatively small distance. the ideal distance between the two shots depends on focal - length, focus distance and desired perspective. - take two photos simultaneously : get two identical cameras and set everything including focus distance and focal - length to exactly the same settings. triggering them simultaneously using an ir remote is ideal. you can get away with mechanically triggering them if there are no movements in the scene. you can buy a dual tripod plate which can hold two cameras to help with this. - use an anamorphic 3d lens : these lenses capture two images side - by - side on your sensor. you need special software ( supplied with cameras that support this lens ) to transform the resulting image into an actual 3d image. the distance between the two shots has to be such that the objects in the plane of focus appear slightly different but not too much. there is no ideal distance. the further the subject you are trying to focus on appears, the wider apart the pictures must be taken. this should take into consideration actual distance and focal - length, so longer a focal - length requires less movement between the shots. you can view these images, which are actually stereoscopic images, by various means : - many new hdtv support 3d hdmi input which you can see using special glasses ( not red - blue ). some display can also display the 3d effect without viewing glasses as long as you are standing with a certain distance and angle from the screen. - you can have your images on paper using lenticular printing services. see this question. - get a 3d digital photo frame. the software you need depends on your viewing device. if you have a 3d display device you have to make sure which format they use. so far, the mpo format is most popular, although stereo jpeg ( jps ) images exist. fuji has software to convert between mpo and


after higgs boson, scientists prepare for next quantum leapfebruary 13th, 2013 in physics / general physics a graphic distributed on july 4, 2012 by cern in geneva shows a representation of traces of a proton - proton collision measured in the search for the higgs boson. seven months after its scientists made a landmark discovery that may explain the mysteries of mass, europe ' s top physics lab will take a break from smashing invisible particles to recharge for the next leap into the unknown. seven months after its scientists made a landmark discovery that may explain the mysteries of mass, europe ' s top physics lab will take a break from smashing invisible particles to recharge for the next leap into the unknown. from thursday, the cutting - edge facilities at the european organisation for nuclear research ( cern ) will begin winding down, then go offline on saturday for an 18 - month upgrade. a vast underground lab straddling the border between france and switzerland, cern ' s large hadron collider ( lhc ) was the scene of an extraordinary discovery announced in july 2012. its scientists said they were 99. 9 percent certain they had found the elusive higgs boson, an invisible particle without which, theorists say, humans and all the other joined - up atoms in the universe would not exist. the upgrade will boost the lhc ' s energy capacity, essential for cern to confirm definitively that its boson is the higgs, and allow it to probe new dimensions such as supersymmetry and dark matter. " the aim is to open the discovery domain, " said frederick bordry, head of cern ' s technology department. " we have what we think is the higgs, and now we have all the theories about supersymmetry and so on. we need to increase the energy to look at more physics. it ' s about going into terra incognita ( unknown territory ), " he told afp. theorised back in 1964, the boson also known as the god particle carries the name of a british physicist, peter higgs. he calculated that a field of bosons could explain a nagging anomaly : why do some particles have mass while others, such as light, have none? that question was a gaping hole in the standard model of particle physics, a conceptual framework for understanding the nuts - and - bolts of the cosmos. one idea is that the higgs was born when the new universe cooled after the big bang some 14 billion years ago. it


gaping hole in the standard model of particle physics, a conceptual framework for understanding the nuts - and - bolts of the cosmos. one idea is that the higgs was born when the new universe cooled after the big bang some 14 billion years ago. it is believed to act like a fork dipped in honey and held up in dusty air. most of the dust particles interact with the honey, acquiring some of its mass to varying degrees, but a few slip through and do not acquire any. with mass comes gravity — and its pulling power brings particles together. supersymmetry, meanwhile, is the notion that there are novel particles which are the opposite number of each of the known particle actors in the standard model. this may, in turn, explain the existence of dark matter — a hypothetical construct that can only be perceived indirectly via its gravitational pull, yet is thought to make up around 25 percent of the universe. at a cost of 6. 03 billion swiss francs ( 4. 9 billion euros, $ 6. 56 billion dollars ), the lhc was constructed in a 26. 6 - kilometre ( 16. 5 - mile ) circular tunnel originally occupied by its predecessor, the large electron positron ( lep ). that had run in cycles of about seven months followed by a five - month shutdown, but the lhc, opened in 2008, has been pushed well beyond. " we ' ve had full operations for three years, 2010, 2011 and 2012, " said bordry. " initially we thought we ' d have the long shutdown in 2012, but in 2011, with some good results and with the perspective of discovering the boson, we pushed the long shutdown back by a year. but we said that in 2013 we must do it. " unlike the lep, which was used to accelerate electrons or positrons, the lhc crashes together protons, which are part of the hadron family. " the game is about smashing the particles together to transform this energy into mass. with high energy, they are transformed into new particles and we observe these new particles and try to understand things, " bordry explained. " it ' s about recreating the first microsecond of the universe, the big bang. we are reproducing in a lab the conditions we had at the start of the big bang. " over the past three years, cern has slammed protons together more than six million billion times. five billion collisions yielded results deemed worthy of further research and data from only


in a lab the conditions we had at the start of the big bang. " over the past three years, cern has slammed protons together more than six million billion times. five billion collisions yielded results deemed worthy of further research and data from only 400 threw up data that paved the road to the higgs boson. despite the shutdown, cern ' s researchers won ' t be taking a breather, as they must trawl through a vast mound of data. " i think a year from now, we ' ll have more information on the data accumulated over the past three years, " said bordry. " maybe the conclusion will be that we need more data! " last year, the lhc achieved a collision energy level of eight teraelectron volts, an energy measure used in particle physics — up from seven in 2011. after it comes back online in 2015, the goal is to take that level to 13 or even 14, with the lhc expected to run for three or four years before another shutdown. the net cost of the upgrade is expected to be up to 50 million swiss francs. cern ' s member states are european, but the prestigious organisation has global reach. india, japan, russia and the united states participate as observers. ( c ) 2013 afp " after higgs boson, scientists prepare for next quantum leap. " february 13th, 2013. http : / / phys. org / news / 2013 - 02 - higgs - boson - scientists - quantum. html


please read how you can help keep the encyclopedia free proclus of athens ( * 412 – 485 c. e. ) was the most authoritative philosopher of late antiquity and played a crucial role in the transmission of platonic philosophy from antiquity to the middle ages. for almost fifty years, he was head or ‘ successor ’ ( diadochos, sc. of plato ) of the platonic ‘ academy ’ in athens. being an exceptionally productive writer, he composed commentaries on aristotle, euclid and plato, systematic treatises in all disciplines of philosophy as it was at that time ( metaphysics and theology, physics, astronomy, mathematics, ethics ) and exegetical works on traditions of religious wisdom ( orphism and chaldaean oracles ). proclus had a lasting influence on the development of the late neoplatonic schools not only in athens, but also in alexandria, where his student ammonius became the head of the school. in a culture dominated by christianity, the neoplatonic philosophers had to defend the superiority of the hellenic traditions of wisdom. continuing a movement that was inaugurated by iamblichus ( 4th c. ) and the charismatic figure of emperor julian, and following the teaching of syrianus, proclus was eager to demonstrate the harmony of the ancient religious revelations ( the mythologies of homer and hesiod, the orphic theogonies and the chaldaean oracles ) and to integrate them in the philosophical tradition of pythagoras and plato. towards this end, his platonic theology offers a magisterial summa of pagan hellenic theology. probably the best starting point for the study of proclus ' philosophy is the elements of theology ( with the masterly commentary by e. r. dodds ) which provide a systematic introduction into the neoplatonic metaphysical system. - 1. life and works - 2. the commentator of plato - 3. philosophical views - 4. influence - academic tools - other internet resources - related entries since proclus ' extant works contain almost no evidence about his biography, we have to rely on the information transmitted by his direct pupil marinus of neapolis in the eulogy he devoted to his predecessor proclus or on happiness. moreover, some scattered remarks on proclus and valuable information about the schools in athens and alexandria can be found in damascius ' life of isidorus ( called by other scholars the philosophical history ). as with porphyry ' s life of plotinus, both marin


proclus and valuable information about the schools in athens and alexandria can be found in damascius ' life of isidorus ( called by other scholars the philosophical history ). as with porphyry ' s life of plotinus, both marinus ' and damascius ' works are biographies written by students praising extensively the achievements of their teachers both in doctrine and in philosophical life. on proclus ' works see beutler ( 1957 ), 190 – 208, saffrey - westerink ( 1968 ), lv – lx, rosan ( ²2009 ), 266 - 274, and the overview given below ( 1. 2 ). although a large part of his numerous writings is lost, some major commentaries on plato have survived ( though incomplete ) and some important systematic works. moreover, later neoplatonists such as damascius, olympiodorus, simplicius, and philoponus have conserved many extracts of lost work, but these fragments have never been collected. proclus or on happiness sets out to prove that proclus reached in his life the culmination of happiness ( eudaimonia ) and wisdom because he ascended the scale of all virtues, the natural, the ethical, the political, the purifying, the intellectual, and the so called theurgic virtues, the latter of which make humans ‘ act with the gods. ’ ( the different virtues have been interpreted in various ways in the neoplatonic tradition ; ultimately they refer to different stages in the purification and ascent of the human soul, see saffrey / segonds 2001, lxix – c. ) proclus was born in constantinople / byzantium ( now istanbul ) into a rich lycian family in 412. not long after his birth his parents returned to their hometown xanthos in lycia, a maritime area of what is now southwest turkey. he began his education in xanthos and moved from there to alexandria ( egypt ) to pursue the study of rhetoric in order to become a lawyer, as was his father. however, during a journey to byzantium he discovered philosophy as his vocation. back in alexandria he studied aristotle and mathematics. marinus reports that the very gifted pupil easily learned all of aristotle ' s logical writings by heart. in 430 – 431, 18 years old, proclus moved to athens, attracted by the fame of the platonic school there. he studied for two years under the direction of pl


easily learned all of aristotle ' s logical writings by heart. in 430 – 431, 18 years old, proclus moved to athens, attracted by the fame of the platonic school there. he studied for two years under the direction of plutarch ( of athens ; to be distinguished from the 1st - 2nd c. philosopher / biographer ), reading with him plato ' s phaedo and aristotle ' s de anima. after plutarch ' s death in 432, syrianus became the head of the academy. proclus followed with him the usual curriculum of the school ( going back to iamblichus ), reading first aristotle ' s works and after that entering the ‘ greater mysteries, ’ the platonic dialogues. under syrianus, proclus also came into contact with the older traditions of wisdom such as the theology of the orphics and the chaldaean oracles. among syrianus ' lost works we find a treatise on the harmony of orpheus, pythagoras and plato with the chaldaean oracles. as the suda lexicon attributes a work with this title also to proclus, it is not unlikely that he published syrianus ' treatise, adding comments of his own. since syrianus and proclus worked intensively together for six years, proclus was strongly influenced by his teacher. on many occasions proclus praises the philosophical achievements of his teacher and he never criticizes him. because of this, it is almost impossible to distinguish between proclus ' original contribution and what he adopted from syrianus. after syrianus ' death ( 437 ), proclus succeeded as head of the athenian school, and he kept this position for almost fifty years until his death in 485. his tight schedule of the day, starting with a prayer to the sun at sunrise ( repeated at noontime and at sunset ), included lectures, reading seminars, discussions with students, and literary work of his own. besides his philosophical activities, marinus also portrays proclus as an experienced practitioner of theurgy ( life of proclus, § 28 – 29 ; on theurgy see below 3. 6 ). the practice of these pagan rites could only be continued in the private sphere of the school ' s grounds. though proclus was in athens a highly respected philosopher and had some christian students, he had to be prudent to avoid anti - pagan reactions. marinus tells that he had to go into exile for about one year


school ' s grounds. though proclus was in athens a highly respected philosopher and had some christian students, he had to be prudent to avoid anti - pagan reactions. marinus tells that he had to go into exile for about one year to lydia ( in asia ) to avoid difficulties ( life of proclus § 15 ). marinus notes that proclus was an extremely industrious writer, having an “ unbounded love of work ” ( life of proclus § 22 ). apart from an impressive teaching - load and several other commitments, proclus wrote every day about 700 lines ( about 20 – 25 pages ). it is unlikely that proclus published all of them. however that may be, from proclus ' extant works and the information about his lost works it emerges that he was a productive writer indeed. roughly two thirds of proclus ' output is now lost and several works, especially his commentaries on plato, have been transmitted in a mutilated form. among proclus ' surviving works we have five commentaries on plato ( on alcibiades, cratylus, republic, timaeus, and parmenides ), one commentary on euclid, two manuals on physics and metaphysics respectively ( elements of physics, elements of theology ), an astronomical work ( hypotyposis ), three monographs ( tria opuscula ) on providence, fate, and free will and the origin of evil, and the platonic theology, which offers an impressive summa of plato ' s theology, as well as theological hymns. see the supplement on proclus ’ works ( the main extant works ). some of his works have been completely lost, such as his commentaries on aristotle ( the organon ), of others only a few fragments remain. see the supplement on proclus ’ complete works ( extant, lost, and spurious ) it is difficult to establish a chronology of proclus ' works. the platonic theology is generally considered to be his last work. in writing the theology proclus heavily depends on his interpretation of the parmenides and often refers to his commentary on this dialogue, which must have been finished some time before. we know from marinus ( life of proclus § 13 ) that proclus finished his commentary on the timaeus by the age of 27. however, it cannot be excluded that proclus rewrote or modified it later. as the alcibiades came at the


proclus probably commented on all dialogues included in the curriculum of the school since iamblichus. in addition proclus wrote the commentary on the republic mentioned above. the curriculum consisted of altogether 12 dialogues distributed into two cycles. the first cycle started with alcibiades ( on self - knowledge ) and ended with the philebus ( on the final cause of everything : the good ), comprising two dialogues on ethics ( the gorgias and the phaedo ), two on logic ( the cratylus and the theaetetus ), two on physics ( the sophist and the statesman ), and two on theology ( the phaedrus and the symposium ). the second cycle included the two perfect dialogues that were considered to encompass plato ' s whole philosophy ( in tim. i 13. 14 – 17 ), namely, the timaeus ( on physics ) and the parmenides ( on theology ). in the form and method of his commentaries, proclus is again influenced by iamblichus. he assumes that each platonic dialogue must have one main theme ( skopos ) to which all parts of the arguments ought to be related. to interpret the text, different approaches are possible ( theological, mathematical, physical, ethical exegesis ), but they are all interconnected according to the principle ‘ everything in everything ’ ( panta en pasin ). thus, the timaeus has in all its parts as its purpose the explanation of nature ( physiologia ). even the introductory sections, the summary of the discussion in the republic and the anticipation of the story about atlantis, must be understood from this point of view ; for they contain, in the mode of ‘ images and examples, ’ a description of the fundamental forces that are at work in the physical world. also the long treatise on human nature, which concludes timaeus ' exposition, has ultimately a cosmological meaning, as the human animal is a microcosmos wherein all elements and all causes of the great universe are found. more problematic was the determination of the skopos of the parmenides. in a long discussion with the whole hermeneutical tradition since middle - platonism, proclus defends a theological interpretation of the dialogue. according to him, the dialectical discussion on the one and the many ( ta alla ) reveals the first divine principles of all things. with the exception of the commentary on the cratylus, of which only a selection of notes from


the dialogue. according to him, the dialectical discussion on the one and the many ( ta alla ) reveals the first divine principles of all things. with the exception of the commentary on the cratylus, of which only a selection of notes from the original commentary is preserved, the exegetical works of proclus have a clear structure. they divide the platonic text in different lemmata or cited passages, discussing first the doctrine exposed in the particular section ( pragmata, later called theoria ), next commenting on the formulation of the argument ( called lexis ) [ see festugiere 1963 ]. whereas modern scholars usually accept a development in plato ' s thought and distinguish between an early, middle, and late plato, the neoplatonists take the platonic corpus as the expression of a divinely inspired and unitary philosophical doctrine. this enables them to connect different platonic dialogues into one system and to see numerous cross - references within the platonic oeuvre. what may seem to be contradictions between statements made in different dialogues, can be explained by different pedagogical contexts, some dialogues being rather maieutic than expository, some elenctic of the sophistic pseudo - science, some offering a dialectical training to young students. a neoplatonic commentary offers much more than a faithful interpretation of an authoritative text of plato. plato ' s text gives the commentator an opportunity to develop his own views on the most fundamental philosophical questions, the first principles, the idea of the good, the doctrine of the forms, the soul and its faculties, nature, etc. as was said, the two culminating dialogues, the timaeus and the parmenides, offer together a comprehensive view of the whole of platonic philosophy. since the whole philosophy is divided into the study of intelligibles and the study of things within the cosmos – and quite rightly so, as the cosmos too is twofold, the intelligible and the sensible, as timaeus himself will say in what follows ( timaeus 30c ) – the parmenides comprehends the study ( pragmateia ) of the intelligibles and the timaeus the study of things within the cosmos. for the former teaches us all the divine orders and the latter all processions of things within the cosmos. ( in tim. i 12. 30 – 13. 7 ) the interpretation of the parmenides thus prepares the way for the platonic theology, offering the systematic structure for a


divine orders and the latter all processions of things within the cosmos. ( in tim. i 12. 30 – 13. 7 ) the interpretation of the parmenides thus prepares the way for the platonic theology, offering the systematic structure for a scientific demonstration of the procession of all the orders of gods from the first principle. as proclus explains at theol. plat. i 2, p. 9. 8 – 19, the platonic theology falls into three parts ( after a long methodological introduction ). the first part ( theol. plat. i 13 – 29 ) is an investigation into the common notions ( koinai ennoiai ) of the gods as we find them in plato ' s dialogues : it is a treatise on the divine names and attributes. the second part ( theol. plat. ii – vi ), which is incomplete, unfolds in a systematic way the procession of the divine hierarchies, from the one, that is the first god, to the ‘ higher kinds, ’ i. e., angels, daimones, and heroes, while the third part, which is altogether missing, was supposed to deal with the individual hypercosmic and encosmic gods. before presenting his own views, proclus usually critically evaluates the opinions and interpretations of his predecessors. in this respect, his commentaries are a rich and indispensible source for the history of middle and neo - platonism. thus, in his commentary on the timaeus proclus reports and criticizes the views of atticus, numenius, longinus, plotinus, porphyry, iamblichus, theodorus of asine and many others, ending usually in full agreement with the explanation of his master syrianus. besides, in explaining plato ' s text, proclus frequently seeks confirmation of his exegesis in the chaldaean oracles or the orphic tradition. as syrianus ( see helmig 2009 ), proclus is often very critical of aristotle and refutes his criticism of plato ' s views. he is certainly not an advocate of the “ harmony of plato and aristotle, ” which became the leading principle of the alexandrian commentaries ( of ammonius and simplicius ). proclus notes significant differences between the two philosophers in epistemology ( theory of abstraction vs. learning as recollection ), metaphysics ( first principle, theory of forms, theory of universals ), physics


simplicius ). proclus notes significant differences between the two philosophers in epistemology ( theory of abstraction vs. learning as recollection ), metaphysics ( first principle, theory of forms, theory of universals ), physics ( plato ' s timaeus vs. aristotle ' s physics ), political philosophy ( aristotle ' s criticism of plato ' s republic ), and language ( cratylus vs. de interpretatione ). according to proclus, plato is not only far superior to aristotle in his theology ( as only plato ascended beyond the intellect to posit the one as the ineffable principle of all things ), but in all other philosophical disciplines, where we owe to him all important discoveries. whereas the peripatetics were accustomed to defend the superiority of aristotle over plato with reference to his impressive physical project, proclus considers the latter as inferior to the great achievement of plato in the timaeus ( see steel 2003 ). aristotle ' s natural philosophy is the work of a zealous admirer, a disciple who tried to be better than the master : it seems to me that the excellent aristotle emulated the teaching of plato as far as possible when he structured the whole investigation about nature. ( in tim. i 6. 21 – 24 ) following plato, aristotle explains in his physics the general principles of natural things : form, matter, nature, the essence and principles of movement, time and place ; again taking inspiration from the timaeus, he studies in other works the specific principles of the distinct regions of the physical world, thus in the de caelo the celestial and the sublunary realm, and in on generation and corruption and in meteorologica the sublunary realm. in this domain, it cannot be denied, aristotle did much more than his master. according to proclus, however, he developed the subject ‘ beyond what is needed ’. the same remark must be made about aristotle ' s extensive zoological research. whereas plato limited himself in the timaeus to an analysis of the fundamental principles of all living organisms, aristotle gave most of his attention to the material components of animals and scarcely, and only in few cases, did he consider the organism from the perspective of the form. plato, on the contrary, when explaining the physical world, never got lost in a detailed examination. when trying to determine proclus ' profile as a philosopher, one has to keep in mind that platonists were not keen on introducing new elements into the plato


the contrary, when explaining the physical world, never got lost in a detailed examination. when trying to determine proclus ' profile as a philosopher, one has to keep in mind that platonists were not keen on introducing new elements into the platonic doctrine. they despised innovation ( kainotomia ). yet it cannot be denied that neoplatonic philosophy differs considerably from what we read in plato ' s dialogues. there is also overwhelming evidence for continual discussions in the school on the right interpretation of plato or on certain doctrinal points ( such as the transcendence of the one, or the question whether the soul wholly descended from the intelligible world ). in order to evaluate proclus ' originality, one ought to compare his views with those of the neoplatonists before him, such as plotinus, porphyry, iamblichus, and syrianus. only with regard to plotinus is this possible to a great extent, because we still have the full corpus of plotinus ' writings. proclus certainly admired the first ‘ founder ’ of the new platonism and even devoted a commentary to the enneads, of which, alas, we have only some fragments. he shared plotinus ' views on the three principal hypostases the one, the intellect and the soul, and often uses language inspired by his reading of plotinus, as in his description of the union of the soul with the ineffable one. yet on many points, he is very critical of plotinus, pointing to contradictions, rejecting provocative views such as the thesis that one is cause of itself ( causa sui ), the doctrine of the undescended soul, or the identification of evil with matter. another radical difference from plotinus ( and porphyry ) is the importance attributed to theurgy for the salvation of the soul and the authority of chaldaean oracles. as said before, it is very difficult to mark off proclus ' originality with regard to his teacher syrianus, the only predecessor he never criticizes. of the literary production of the latter, we have only his commentary on aristotle ' s metaphysics. it is possible that most of syrianus ' courses on plato never were published, but were continued and further worked out by proclus himself. we have, however, the commentary on the phaedrus by hermeias, who was sitting together with proclus, in syrianus ' course. one gets the impression that


were continued and further worked out by proclus himself. we have, however, the commentary on the phaedrus by hermeias, who was sitting together with proclus, in syrianus ' course. one gets the impression that syrianus was very interested in orphic theogony, whereas for proclus the chaldaean oracles are more authoritative when developing a platonic theology. but here again, it is difficult to compare as we do not possess proclus ' own commentary. is proclus after all then not so original, but only an excellent teacher and wonderful systematizer of the new platonic doctrines which became dominant in the school since iamblichus on? we shall never know, and it is after all not so important when assessing the philosophical merits of his works. to praise proclus ' philosophical achievements, marinus devotes in life of proclus one chapter to the discussion of the doctrines we owe to him ( § 23 ). surprisingly, for all his admiration for the master, he can only enumerate a few innovative doctrines ; and they are of such a minor importance that we shall not even discuss them in this article. in late antiquity, aristotle ' s metaphysics was considered to be a theological work, because aristotle investigates in this treatise the first principles of all being. this discipline may be called theology, because the principles of beings and the first and most perfect causes of things are what is most of all divine. ( asclepius, in metaph. 4. 1 – 3 ) indeed, there is precedent for this in aristotle himself, for in metaphysics vi, 1, 1026a15ff, he classifies “ first philosophy, ” or metaphysics, as theology. proclus himself often uses the term ‘ theology ’ in this metaphysical sense for the study of the first ( ‘ divine ’ ) principles of all things. his elements of theology can in fact be considered an introduction to his metaphysics. the work is a concatenated demonstration of 217 propositions, which may be divided into two halves : the first 112 propositions establish the one, unity without any multiplicity, as the ultimate cause of reality and lay down basic metaphysical concepts / structures such as causality, participation, the relation of wholes to parts, infinity, and eternity. the second half deals with the three kinds of true causes within reality recognized by proclus : gods ( which he calls henads or “ unities, ” see below ), intellects


relation of wholes to parts, infinity, and eternity. the second half deals with the three kinds of true causes within reality recognized by proclus : gods ( which he calls henads or “ unities, ” see below ), intellects, and souls. this elaborate metaphysical framework makes it possible for proclus to develop a scientific theology, i. e., a demonstration of the procession and properties of the different classes of gods. in what follows we will only discuss some characteristic features of proclus ' metaphysics ( see further steel 2011 ). on the whole, proclus ’ doctrine of first principles is a further development of plotinus ' innovative interpretation of platonic philosophy. with plotinus, proclus recognizes three fundamental levels of reality called ‘ hypostases ’ ( or self - subsistent entities ) : one, intellect, and soul. however, following a concern of his predecessor iamblichus for greater precision in the relationship and distinction between the one and intellect, proclus distinguishes between the intelligible being ( to noeton — what is the object of intellectual intuition ) and the intellective ( to noeron — what is intelligizing ), and introduces between both, as an intermediary level, the noeton - noeron ( what is being intelligized and intelligizing ). these three ontological levels thus correspond to the triad of being, life, and intellect, which already play an important role in plotinus ' and porphyry ' s speculations about the procession or ‘ emanation ’ of the intelligible world from the one, without, however, being hypostasized. since zeller ( influenced by hegel ) the application of the triadic structure to reality has been seen as the characteristic feature of proclus ' system, but see dodds 19632, pp. xxii and 220, on possible sources of the doctrine. although the distinction of aspects of reality as distinct hupostases and the multiplication of triads might suggest a loss of plotinus ’ intuition of the unity of reality, it is important to stress that each part of the triad of being, life and intellect, mirrors within itself their triadic relationship. this redoubled triadic structure must be understood as expressing an intrinsic and essential relation between successive levels of being. the intimate relation between being, life, and intellect is the origin of the basic structure uniting all causes to their effects, namely the relation of immanence,


ones that are participated in by something, are connected by means of “ the triad of triads ” ( elem. theol. § 23 ), the universal nature of the form can be safeguarded. proclus, however, also applies this principle to explain the most difficult problem facing neoplatonic metaphysics, namely, how to understand the procession of the manifold from the one. how can the one be wholly without multiplicity, when it must somehow be the cause of any and all multiplicity? the one remains in itself absolutely unparticipated ; the many different beings proceeding from it participate in a series of participated henads or unities ( gods ). according to some scholars it was iamblichus who introduced this innovative doctrine, others attribute it to proclus ' teacher syrianus. even if the doctrine does not originate as such from iamblichus himself, the existence of the divine henads somehow follows from his law of mean terms. this law states that “ every producing cause brings into existence things like to itself before the unlike. “ ( elem. theol. § 28 ). thus there are no leaps in the chain of being, but everything is linked together by similar terms. the henads fulfill this function, for as participated unities they bridge the gap between the transcendent one and everything that comes after it. the doctrine of the henads can thus be seen as a way of integrating the traditional gods of greek polytheistic religion into the neoplatonic metaphysics of the one. a. auxiliary and true causes. from middle platonism onwards, various attempts were made to integrate the aristotelian doctrine of causes within the platonic philosophy ( see steel 2003 ). in plato ' s work, it was argued, one can find the four types of causality that aristotle distinguishes, to wit formal, material, efficient, final, and, besides, the paradigmatic cause, which aristotle wrongly rejected. this system of causes ( with the addition of the instrumental cause as a sixth ) became standard in later neoplatonism. in his commentary on the timaeus, proclus observes that aristotle never rises to the proper level of causality. for the four causes, as aristotle understands them, can only be applied to the explanation of processes in the sublunary world. in the platonic view, however, the material and formal causes are only subservient or instrumental causes. those causes are in fact immanent in their effects and consti