president, and indeed, several federation presidents served for twenty years or longer. however, elections in the federation had to occur at least once every five years, due to a five - year limit on how long any government could stay in power. the first federation president, former starfleet captain jonathan archer, was elected in 2184 and served an eight - year term that ended in 2192. archer had played a critical role in the creation of the federation as well as its wartime predecessor, the coalition of planets, and was considered to be the federation ’ s most preeminent founding father. during archer ’ s presidency, the new world economy came into effect, resulting in the abolition of the ownership of private property and the severe restriction of the use of money in the federation. the council established a 100 % tax on the income of all citizens, then allocated resources, goods, services, and property through the use of a system of federation “ credits ” that were rationed out on the basis of need as well as one ’ s perceived relative importance to society. initially, the new world economy was extremely controversial, and a number of worlds attempted to secede from the federation in response to its implementation. in order to prevent the dissolution of the federation, archer dispatched a starfleet militia — led by garth of izar, a prominent starfleet captain who had served in the romulan war — to force the rebels to surrender and accept the authority of the new federation government. in 2187, garth of izar defeated the rebel forces at the battle of axanar, thereby solidifying the council ’ s authority over the federation ’ s member worlds and ensuring that the federation would persevere for the next two centuries. the tenth federation president, former human ambassador hiram roth, served the longest term of any person ever to hold the office, from 2264 to 2287. during his presidency, roth presided over the single greatest period of expansion in the federation ’ s history. the first two five - year missions of the uss enterprise under the command of captain ( later admiral ) james t. kirk occurred during this period, as a result of which the federation made first contact with over one hundred new civilizations, many of which went on to apply for federation membership. the federation also faced a number of significant external threats during this period, including the re - emergence of the romulans from their century - long period of isolation and an intense and volatile cold war with the klingon empire. twice during roth ’ s presidency, earth was thrown into a state


threats during this period, including the re - emergence of the romulans from their century - long period of isolation and an intense and volatile cold war with the klingon empire. twice during roth ’ s presidency, earth was thrown into a state of planetary emergency : first when the entity known as v ’ ger threatened to destroy the planet, and again when the whale probe posed a similar threat in 2286. among the most controversial of hiram roth ’ s actions as president was the approval of project genesis, a terraforming device that many feared could be misused as a terrible weapon. of particular significance during hiram roth ’ s presidency was the federation supreme court case plasus v. kirk, in which plasus, the high advisor of stratos, the capital city of federation member world ardana, sued captain james t. kirk — and by extension, starfleet — for the role that kirk had played in dismantling that planet ’ s rigidly stratified class system, which plasus claimed was a violation of the prime directive. the court however ruled in kirk ’ s favor, declaring that the prime directive did not apply to federation member worlds and that the government of ardana was obligated to provide each and every one of its citizens with equal protection under the law and all of the rights guaranteed to them in the federation constitution. although this ruling resulted in positive social change in favor of the oppressed troglyte citizens of ardana, it also greatly increased the power of the federation ’ s central government over its member worlds, to the point where the last remnants of internal autonomy among the member worlds was permanently erased. the eleventh federation president, ra - ghoratreii, was the first person to hold that office who was from a planet that was not one of the six charter members of the federation ( earth, vulcan, andor, tellar, rigel, and denobula ). ra - ghoratreii, an efrosian, was his own race ’ s ambassador to the federation council and served as president from 2288 to 2300. ra - ghoratreii is most noted for having negotiated the khitomer peace accords with the klingon empire in 2291, which very nearly resulted in his assassination by a conspiracy of klingon officers and members of section 31. he was also president during most of the third and final five - year mission of the uss enterprise ( ncc - 1701 - a ) under the command of captain james


in his assassination by a conspiracy of klingon officers and members of section 31. he was also president during most of the third and final five - year mission of the uss enterprise ( ncc - 1701 - a ) under the command of captain james t. kirk, which led to the establishment of diplomatic relations with a number of races with whom the federation would have extensive dealings in the 24th century, including the cardassians, the talarians, and the breen. for his many accomplishments, ra - ghoratreii is considered to be one of the greatest presidents in federation history and is seen as the individual who guided the federation into the 24th century. the sixteenth president of the federation, grazerite ambassador jaresh - inyo, was elected in 2367, as the federation was still reeling from its stinging defeat by the borg at the battle of wolf 359 the previous year. in stark contrast to ra - ghoratreii, inyo is widely regarded as one of the worst presidents in federation history, due to his incompetence, indecisiveness, and clear lack of leadership ability, as well as a number of controversial actions taken during his presidency that had catastrophic consequences for the entire alpha quadrant. as a grazerite, inyo abhorred all forms of conflict and desperately sought to bring an end to the period of violence that the federation had been enduring for the past several years and to usher in new era of peace and prosperity in its place. instead, however, inyo ’ s term in office was marred by increased violence, internal turmoil, the collapse of the federation - klingon alliance that ra - ghoratreii had helped to create, and the overall diminshing of the federation ’ s standing in the eyes of the rest of the galaxy. shortly after taking office, inyo signed an armistice with the cardassian union, which quickly proved to be tenuous and unstable as the cardassians demonstrated that they could not be trusted. inyo also took a stance of official neutrality in the klingon civil war, forcing captain jean - luc picard of the uss enterprise ( ncc - 1701 - d ) to undertake more surreptitious methods to ensure that the federation ’ s interests were protected. when the cardassians wihdrew from bajor in 2369, inyo extended the hand of friendship to the new bajoran provisional government, arranging for starfleet to take control of the former cardassian space station in orbit of the planet


cardassians wihdrew from bajor in 2369, inyo extended the hand of friendship to the new bajoran provisional government, arranging for starfleet to take control of the former cardassian space station in orbit of the planet, which was subsequently renamed deep space nine, and for the federation to aid the bajorans in the rebuilding of the world, with the goal of eventually admitting bajor as a member of the federation. however, in 2370 inyo signed a second treaty with the cardassians, negotiated by admiral alynna nechayev, and per the terms of this agreement, he ordered the forced relocation of federation colonists in the newly - formed demilitarized zone in 2370 ; this action ultimately led to the maquis uprising, in which former federation citizens who refused to abandon their homes in the dmz took up arms to defend themselves against their cardassian occupiers. upon the discovery of the bajoran wormhole, inyo, under pressure from starfleet, authorized and encouraged the exploration of the gamma quadrant, with the intention of eventually establishing colonies and outposts there and expanding federation influence into that region of space. this policy brought the federation into direct conflict with the dominion, which claimed suzeranity over the gamma quadrant and viewed the federation ’ s attempts to establish a presence there as intrusive and threatening. official first contact between the federation and the dominion occurred in 2370, when the uss odyssey was destroyed by the jem ’ hadar in the gamma quadrant while on a mission to investigate the dominion threat. concurrent with this incident, a vorta representative of the dominion transported onto deep space nine and issued an ultimatum to the federation, demanding that they cease and desist in their efforts to explore the gamma quadrant or face reprisals by the dominion. starfleet ignored this warning and instead began preparing for war ; inyo, though at first receptive to the prospect of trying to meet the dominion ’ s demands, ultimately relented under pressure from starfleet command and the federation council, who were determined not to appear to show weakness by attempting to appease the dominion. in 2371, following the failed attack on the dominion founders ’ homeworld in the gamma quadrant by the romulan tal shiar and the cardassian obsidian order, the military - run government of the cardassian union collapsed, replaced by the democratically - elected detapa council. klingon chancellor gowron, suspecting that the dominion had infiltrate


tal shiar and the cardassian obsidian order, the military - run government of the cardassian union collapsed, replaced by the democratically - elected detapa council. klingon chancellor gowron, suspecting that the dominion had infiltrated the new cardassian government, launched an invasion of the cardassian union and requested the assistance of his federation allies. rather than support the klingons however, inyo condemned the invasion and instructed starfleet to remain neutral in the conflict. in response, gowron withdrew from the khitomer accords, destroying the klingon - federation alliance that had existed for almost thirty years. in early 2372, a changeling agent of the dominion carried out a terrorist attack in the city of antwerp, belgium on earth that killed 27 people and made starfleet aware that the dominion had somehow managed to infiltrate the federation homeworld. presented with evidence of this infiltration by starfleet admiral james leyton and captain benjamin sisko, inyo reluctantly decided to declare martial law on earth and began ordering federation civilians and starfleet personnel to undergo forced blood screenings to prove that they were not changelings. in doing so, inyo played right into the hands of leyton, a section 31 agent, who was plotting to overthrow the federation ’ s democratically - elected government in a military coup d ’ etat — a plot which was later foiled by sisko and the crew of the uss defiant. once the crisis was resolved, these actions scandalized inyo ’ s presidency and caused massive public outcry ; seeking to avoid the political fallout and in desperate need of a scapegoat, the federation council gave inyo a vote of no confidence and made him the first federation president to be forcibly removed from office. the seventeenth president of the federation, bolian ambassador min zife, had been one of jaresh - inyo ’ s chief political opponents in the council and led the charge to have him removed from office after the changeling scare. upon becoming president, zife issued a formal apology to those federation citizens who had seen their civil liberties violated by the previous administration. he then began the process of mobilizing the federation for war against the dominion, which had been made inevitable by his predecessor ’ s policies, while simultaneously contending with renewed aggression on the part of the klingons, who declared war on the federation in 2372, and the borg, who launched an invasion of sector 001 in 2373. zife is best known as the president who guided


simultaneously contending with renewed aggression on the part of the klingons, who declared war on the federation in 2372, and the borg, who launched an invasion of sector 001 in 2373. zife is best known as the president who guided the federation through the dominion war, although during this period the influence of starfleet was so strong that the de facto leaders of the federation were admiral william ross and captain benjamin sisko. zife was one of the primary signators of the treaty of bajor, which officially ended the dominion war in 2375. after the war, zife ’ s primary focus was on rebuilding the federation ’ s defensive capability, which again included strong support for starfleet. also, it was during zife ’ s presidency that the federation first began to explore and attempt to extend its influence into the beta quadrant, incurring the resentment and hostility of many species native to that region of space, who began to see the federation as an imperialistic and hegemonic threat to their sovereignty and the preservation of their religious and cultural identities. one of the most controversial actions taken by the zife administration, in conjunction with the federation council and certain members of starfleet command, was the attempt to forcibly and secretly relocate the inhabitants of the ba ’ ku homeworld in the briar patch so that the federation and its allies, the son ’ a, would be able to exploit the rejuvenating properties of the metaphasic radiation given off by the planet ’ s rings. zife and the council determined that, because the ba ’ ku already possessed warp drive ( even if they chose not to use it ), were not native to the planet, and numbered only around 300 people, this action did not constitute a violation of the prime directive and that the federation was in its rights to remove the planet ’ s inhabitants so long as it was for a purpose that served “ the needs of the many. ” however, captain jean - luc picard and the crew of the uss enterprise ( ncc - 1701 - e ) exposed the federation / son ’ a plot, prevented the forced relocation of the ba ’ ku, and ultimately halted the federation ’ s efforts to take control of the planet. thankfully for zife, the incident in the briar patch was very scarcely reported by the the government - run federation news service ( fns ), the only mainstream media conglomerate in the federation, and thus his popularity was not effected in any way. one of the defining characteristics of min zife ’ s


was very scarcely reported by the the government - run federation news service ( fns ), the only mainstream media conglomerate in the federation, and thus his popularity was not effected in any way. one of the defining characteristics of min zife ’ s presidency was that for the first time in federation history, a strong movement in opposition to the existing political establishment began to develop, in the form of the new essentialists led by pascal fullerton. beginning as a small group of dissidents best known for their attempt to sabotage the weather control network on risa in 2372, the new essentialist movement grew during and after the dominion war, as many federaton citizens, particularly young people, became disillusioned with the federation and began seeking alternative lifestyles. the new essentialists promised a return to the core values upon which the federation had been founded, which meant, among other things, the rejection of the new world economy in favor of a return to a capitalistic free - market system, the restoration of planetary sovereignty that had been lost since plasus v. kirk, and a non - interventionist foreign policy guided by a strict interpretation of the prime directive. by 2377, new essentialists numbered in the millions on planets across the federation and had become powerful enough to organize themselves into the federation ’ s first true political party, the new essentialist party ( nep ), led by fullerton. in response, the federation establishment created the social federalist party ( sfp ) to represent its own values and interests and to keep the nep from getting the upper hand and taking over the council ; the sfp chose zife as their first leader and candidate for president in the election of 2377. although the sfp won the election decisively, the nep did manage to capture more than a quarter of the seats in the federation council ; from this point forward, partisan politics would define how the council worked, and the next president of the federation would be known as soon as the election results came in. in 2378, less than a year after being re - elected, min zife was abruptly forced to resign as president, after the tezwa crisis scandalized his presidency and made a vote of no confidence in him by the federation council almost inevitable. shortly after resigning, zife and several other prominent figures within the federation government were privately assassinated by agents of section 31, while admiral ross watched, powerless to do anything to stop them. the eighteenth president of the federation, cestan ambassador nanietta bacco


resigning, zife and several other prominent figures within the federation government were privately assassinated by agents of section 31, while admiral ross watched, powerless to do anything to stop them. the eighteenth president of the federation, cestan ambassador nanietta bacco, succeeded min zife after his resignation in 2378. bacco, the only female federation president in the 24th century, had considerably more executive experience than either of her two predecessors, having served as governor of cestus iii for eleven years prior to being elected to the federation council. consequently, bacco ’ s administration was far more smoothly run, centralized, and efficient than that of min zife or jaresh - inyo ; her imperial style and extensive delegation of responsibility mirrored that of ra - ghoratreii, and she was initially therefore greeted with great praise and high expectations, especially after the corruption and disappointment that the previous two administrations had brought. although bacco maintained consistent public support during this period, the unexpectedly slow reconstruction of the federation ’ s post - war infrastructure — especially in comparison to the rate at which starfleet was rebuilt — earned her many political enemies and further fueled the rise of the new essentialist movement. in may of 2378, not long after bacco ’ s election, the federation celebrated a momentous and unexpected event : after seven years lost in the delta quadrant, the uss voyager returned to earth, seemingly miraculously. in the process, the crew of voyager dealt a crippling blow to the borg collective, insuring that the borg would pose no threat to the federation for many years to come. furthermore, voyager brought back a number of significant technological advances from the delta quadrant, including replicator technology that was exponentially more efficient than that currently used by the federation, borg - enhanced bio - neural circuitry technology, ablative hull armor, transphasic torpedoes, and even the technology to build a rudimentary transwarp drive system. bacco greeted captain kathryn janeway in person when voyager landed in san francisco and presented her and the rest of her crew with commendations for their actions and their service to the federation. however, admiral nechayev, fearing janeway ’ s newfound popularity and still considering voyager ’ s maquis crew members to be fugitive criminals, placed janeway under arrest shortly thereafter and quickly arranged for her and her crew to be court - martialed for the allegedly criminal actions they had committed in the delta quadrant. nechayev ’ s attempt to smear the reputation of the voyager crew failed however when lieutenant geoffrey henderson


shortly thereafter and quickly arranged for her and her crew to be court - martialed for the allegedly criminal actions they had committed in the delta quadrant. nechayev ’ s attempt to smear the reputation of the voyager crew failed however when lieutenant geoffrey henderson, a voyager crew member who had played a critical role in the ship ’ s return from the delta quadrant and was widely regarded as a hero by the public, gave a stirring testimony in janeway ’ s defense that was broadcast on the federation news service throughout the federation and turned public opinion decidedly in janeway ’ s favor. based on this reaction, bacco took the unprecedented step of intervening in an internal starfleet disciplinary hearing, forcing nechayev to call off the trial and granting a general pardon to all members of the voyager crew for whatever actions they might have committed prior to entering or while in the delta quadrant. nechayev begrudingly complied with the president ’ s demands, under the conditions that voyager herself was to be taken out of service and transferred to the oberon advanced research facility in orbit of the planet uranus ; that none of the ship ’ s former maquis crew members — including senior officers chakotay, b ’ elanna torres, and tom paris — would be permitted to retain their starfleet commissions or serve on starfleet vessels as ranking officers again ; and that janeway would receive a promotion to the rank of vice - admiral, thereby depriving her of the opportunity to command a starship again and placing her behind a desk. bacco and janeway agreed to these terms, but nechayev would nevertheless continue to harbor a deep personal resentment towards the both of them, and she would dedicate the next several years of her career to destroying them and their reputations. meanwhile, bacco and janeway would go on to develop a very close relationship, with janeway becoming the president ’ s most trusted advisor and confidant. as president, bacco ’ s primary focus was on continuing the rebuilding of the federation ’ s defenses, namely starfleet, and on bringing peace to a war - weary quadrant. to these ends, in 2379 bacco signed an alliance with the romulan star empire, made possible by praetor shinzon ’ s coup and subsequent defeat by captain jean - luc picard and the crew of the uss enterprise ( ncc - 1701 - e ). a starfleet task force, led by the uss titan under the command of captain william t. riker, was assigned to assist the romulans in


luc picard and the crew of the uss enterprise ( ncc - 1701 - e ). a starfleet task force, led by the uss titan under the command of captain william t. riker, was assigned to assist the romulans in the rebuilding of their society, and sobath, the first romulan ever to serve in starfleet, entered the academy in september of 2379. however, in january 2380 bacco ’ s plans for achieving peace through strength were complicated by the destruction of the romulan colony on t ’ met iv, and an attack on earth several weeks later that wiped out nearly all of the upper house of the federation council. initially, the remans were blamed for the attacks, and so, on the advice of admiral janeway — who by this time had become the senior - most officer in charge of all beta quadrant and eastern alpha quadrant affairs and had originally ordered picard and the enterprise on the mission that led to the opening of diplomatic relations with the romulans — bacco authorized starfleet to launch an invasion of remus and to institute a regime change that would result in the establishment of a democratic government more friendly towards federation interests. the ensuing conflict, known as the reman war, lasted only a matter of weeks, but it resulted in a prolonged and costly occupation of remus that would cause bacco ’ s reputation to become tarnished over time. furthermore, an investigation by the crew of the titan revealed that the beta quadrant resistance movement ( beta - qrm ), an interstellar terrorist organization dedicated to ousting the federation from the beta quadrant and establishing a theocratic “ anti - federation ” in its place as a counterbalance to the federation / klingon / romulan alliance, was actually responsible for the attacks on t ’ met iv and on the federation council, and that these attacks had been the beta - qrm ’ s way of making their presence known to the galaxy. this revelation threw bacco ’ s entire rationale for the war into question and cost her a significant amount of trust among the federation people, many of whom came to see the federation occupation of remus as a violation of the prime directive. there were accusations from many in the general public, particularly the new essentialist party, that bacco, in collusion with janeway, had exaggerated or fabricated the threat posed by remus as an excuse to go to war, and that their ultimate purpose was really to acquire control of that planet ’ s dilithium resources. some fringe elements


janeway and bacco ) — and the fact that the federation occupation of remus had turned into a virtual quagmire, with an ever increasing number of starfleet officers being killed in guerrilla attacks by reman insurgents — the social federalists managed, just barely, to hold on to a majority of seats in the upper house of the federation council, thereby securing bacco a second term as president. the social federalists did however lose control of the lower house of the federation council to the new essentialists, creating a divided government for the first time in federation history and making it extremely difficult, if not impossible, for bacco to get any of her agenda passed. as the beta - qrm gained strength and support among various rogue states opposed to the federation throughout the beta quadrant, particularly during the occupation of remus, it began conducting increasingly bold attacks against federation colonies, outposts, and interests in that region of space. this included the attack on the uss viking in the phoenix cluster in 2383, in which over 700 starfleet personnel were killed. in 2386, the launch of the powerful battleship uss commodore — widely perceived as an aggressive, escalatory move by starfleet — and the subsequent violent encounters with the remans, dominion, and numerous other races, many of which were allied with the beta - qrm, further reinforced the public ’ s perception of bacco as a warmongering president, incompetent and out of touch, who had reneged on all the promises she made when she was originally elected to office, and whose policies had made the federation less safe and less respected in the galaxy. her approval rating went into a freefall, eventually sinking below 30 %. in 2388, bacco announced that she would not seek another term as president, hoping that by doing so she would increase the chances of the social federalist party retaining control of the upper house of the federation council. instead, the sfp nominated former starfleet admiral william ross as their candidate. nevertheless, the new essentialist party soundly defeated the sfp in the election of 2388, capturing 67 % of the seats in the lower house the federation council as well as 52 % of the seats in the upper house of the federation council. this outcome brought an end to what had in essence been 204 uninterrupted years of social federalist rule. the nineteenth president of the federation, former human ambassador jeremy armstrong, was the first — and last — president elected from the new essentialist party, which had in the


had in essence been 204 uninterrupted years of social federalist rule. the nineteenth president of the federation, former human ambassador jeremy armstrong, was the first — and last — president elected from the new essentialist party, which had in the course of only 15 years grown from a small fringe movement into the dominant political force in the federation. armstrong was also the first human to hold the office of president since hiram roth, although his tenure in the office ultimately turned out to be far shorter and much less distinguished. a suave, handsome, smooth - talking man with endless charm and a tremendous talent for persuading others to follow him, armstrong emerged as the new face of the the new essentialists in 2388 when, to the shock of political commentators throughout the federation, the nep ousted its founder and longtime leader, pascal fullerton, from power despite his immense popularity among the public. at the time, armstrong was a relative unknown who, despite his tremendous charisma and impressive oratorical skills, was a political lightweight with virtually no executive experience. the party ’ s rationale was that fullerton ’ s shady past, along with his age ( over 70 by this time ) would make him a less attractive candidate for president to more moderate, independent voters as well as young voters than the sfp candidate, william ross, thereby causing him to become a liability to the party as a whole. in fact, however, the decision to replace fullerton was greatly influenced by alynna nechayev, who had become a very prominent, powerful voice in the party since joining it after resigning from starfleet at the beginning of the reman war. armstrong was essentially nechayev ’ s man, and the party leaders judged that they could not afford to alienate her or her supporters by nominating fullerton a third time. nevertheless, many new essentialists still loyal to fullerton were outraged by his removal, causing a major schism at the convention with nearly a third of the delegates threatening to walk out in protest. ultimately, however, fullerton stepped out onto the convention floor and publicly endorsed armstrong, managing to retain at least enough cohesion within the party to confirm his nomination. running on a nebulous campaign of “ hope ” and “ change ”, armstrong served as a far more effective spokesperson for the nep than fullerton had been, winning the support of enough moderate and independent voters to swing the election of 2388 in the nep ’ s favor. however, once elected, armstrong found that delivering “ change


a far more effective spokesperson for the nep than fullerton had been, winning the support of enough moderate and independent voters to swing the election of 2388 in the nep ’ s favor. however, once elected, armstrong found that delivering “ change ” was much harder than he had imagined. armstrong ’ s confirmation process, ordinarily a formality in federation politics, was disrupted when a faction of new essentialists in the upper house of the council still loyal to fullerton refused to cast their votes him, instead choosing either to abstain or to cast their votes for ross. as a result, the council remained deadlocked in a tie for several days, unable to garner the votes necessary to actually confer the powers of the office of president upon the president - elect, until finally several social federalists, after making closed - room deals with the incoming administration through nechayev, armstrong ’ s new chief of staff, crossed party lines to vote for him. by the time armstrong was able to assemble a governing coalition, he had made so many concessions to the other side that the domestic policy of his new administration was barely distinguishable from the previous one, thwarting most of the new essentialists ’ hopes for change before his presidency even began. this, however, turned out not to be that great a concern for armstrong, despite what the rhetoric of his campaign had suggested. like most politicians, armstrong ’ s concern was to remain popular and in power, and he pursued any policy he believed would aid him to that end, even if that policy violated the nep platform or was a direct continuation of sfp policies he and other new essentialists had previously condemned. uninterested in the minutiae of being a chief executive, armstrong allowed most of the policy - making for his administration to be crafted by his aides, in particular by nechayev, who became his chief of staff, and her small staff of palais de la concorde officials, many of whom were secretly affiliated in some way with section 31. armstrong meanwhile, enjoyed most of the perks of the office of the president, spending most of his time womanizing, playing sports and acting - out holonovels in the palais ’ s auditorium - sized holosuite, or consuming illicit substances acquired through presidential privilege. despite all this, armstrong was shielded from public criticism, both by his immense popularity and by the fact that fns was engineered to provide positive coverage for him and his administration. under armstrong ’ s inept, largely indifferent leadership,


through presidential privilege. despite all this, armstrong was shielded from public criticism, both by his immense popularity and by the fact that fns was engineered to provide positive coverage for him and his administration. under armstrong ’ s inept, largely indifferent leadership, the nep began to lose its way, gradually becoming little more than a lightweight version of the sfp. one set of new essentialist reforms that armstrong did implement, shortly after the federation ’ s disastrous first contact with the fen domar in july of 2388, was to reorganize the structure of the federation ’ s military by commissioning the creation of the federation defense force ( fdf ), a separate military entity designed to compliment starfleet ’ s traditional role as the sole armed forces of the federation. the federation ’ s first real army, the fdf was placed directly under civilian control, with the federation president as its commander - in - chief. also, the fdf was initially composed entirely of volunteer soldiers rather than academy - schooled cadets ; these recruits were trained specifically for combat, not science, and in the field they were led by generals, not admirals, who had no interest in exploration. the armstrong administration sold the fdf to the public as both a necessary tool for the defense of the federation in the wake of the glaringly obvious threats posed to the federation by outsiders and as a response to public distrust and antipathy towards starfleet, whose power and influence many felt had grown too great in the years since the dominion war. the public eagerly embraced the idea of the fdf, and starfleet was made subordinate to that new civilian institution. this effectively put an end to starfleet ’ s exploratory activities and made the commander - in - chief of starfleet, admiral jean - luc picard, into little more than a powerless figurehead who took his orders directly from the president. meanwhile, captain benjamin sisko, who had recently returned from his thirteen year sojurn with the bajoran prophets, was given a promotion to admiral and appointed chairman of the joint chiefs of staff, thereby placing him in command of the fdf and placing starfleet at his disposal. the uss commodore, which had been assigned to the beta quadrant as the federation ’ s first line of defense in that region, was reassigned to the alpha quadrant and placed under the authority admiral sisko, while admiral janeway was reassigned to be superintendant of starfleet academy. in january of 2389, only a matter of months after armstrong took office, terrorists belonging to


reassigned to the alpha quadrant and placed under the authority admiral sisko, while admiral janeway was reassigned to be superintendant of starfleet academy. in january of 2389, only a matter of months after armstrong took office, terrorists belonging to the beta quadrant resistance movement hijacked two civilian transport vessels and, bypassing earth ’ s defenses from within, crashed them into starfleet headquarters in san francisco and the palais de la concorde in paris, resulting in the deaths of nearly 42, 000 civilians, including almost all of the lower house of the federation council ( a third ctv had also been hijacked and was headed for the federation council chambers in san francisco, but this ship was intercepted and destroyed by the uss commodore before it could reach its target ). for several days after the attacks, armstrong ’ s whereabouts were unknown to the general public ; most people assumed he was being held in an undisclosed location for security reasons, and this idea was reinforced by fns. in truth, however, armstrong was buried alive, trapped beneath the rubble of the palais along with several surviving members of his staff. eighteen hours after the palais crumbled to the ground, nechayev and some of her aides found the president, gravely wounded and unlikely to survive if moved. nechayev recognized how valuable armstrong was to the implementation of their goals, and she knew how the loss of their beloved new leader would devastate the morale of the federation people ; however, rather than attempting to rescue him, nechayev shot armstrong with a phaser set to kill. she then had his consciousness transferred into a computer and resurrected him as a sentient isomorphic projection, keeping him in place as the figurehead leader of a federation government of which she — and by extension, section 31 — was now actually in control. from this point forward, armstrong would occasionally be trotted out by the administration to act as the mouthpiece for the government ’ s policies, but he had little to no input in any of the actual decision - making process, his movement was severely restricted ( unless he was provided with a mobile emitter ), and nechayev could turn him on and off at will. in response to the attacks on earth, nechayev had armstrong order the fdf — and by extension, starfleet — to launch a retaliatory strike against the ktarian republic, whose theocratic leaders, the shimars, were among the primary supporters of the beta - qrm and were known to be providing its leaders with safe haven


, starfleet — to launch a retaliatory strike against the ktarian republic, whose theocratic leaders, the shimars, were among the primary supporters of the beta - qrm and were known to be providing its leaders with safe haven. angry and thirsty for vengeance, the federation people wholeheartedly supported this action, and the federation council authorized the new war with little debate on the matter. a fleet of federation starships, led by the uss commodore under the command of now - captain geoffrey henderson, invaded the ktarian system and quickly dispatched the ktarian and beta - qrm defense forces there. as the fleet surrounded ktaris, nechayev ordered henderson to carry out starfleet general order 24 — the complete destruction of all life on the planet ’ s surface — unless the ktarians agreed to hand over the leaders of the beta - qrm. believing the federation to be bluffing, the ktarians refused ; however, henderson, himself so blinded by anger and hatred towards the ktarians dating as far back as the death of his brother aboard the uss viking, actually carried out the order, against the advice of his first officer and another prominent member of his crew. the federation fleet bombarded ktaris with transphasic torpedoes, destroying most of the planet ’ s major cities and causing the ktarian government to collapse. over 700 million ktarians were killed in the assault, in comparison to the nearly 42, 000 people who had died in the attack on earth. as intended, the federation assault on the ktarian homeworld broke the back of the beta quadrant resistance movement. federation forces occupied the planet and began hunting down the remnants of the beta - qrm leadership, as well as the ktarian republic ’ s theocratic leaders, the shimars. however, even after the beta - qrm collapsed, a number of other significant threats to federation security remained. in march of 2389, a terrorist group known as the new maquis hyjacked a federation civilian transport vessel on its way from mars to earth. the new maquis intended to crash the ctv into downtown san francisco, killing tens of thouands, in retribution for the attack on ktaris. two passengers however, tom paris and b ’ elanna torres, who themselves were former members of the original maquis, managed to stop the terrorists with the assistance of the uss commmodore — but not without they themselves being accused of having been part of the plot first. two months later, the


april 12, 2005 > new year, thai style new year, thai style by ceri hitchcock - hodgson splashes of water, lots of color and good times mark the songkran celebration of the thai new year, the most important of all thai festivals and holidays. from april 13 to 15, families and friends gather to celebrate by visiting temples, make offerings to the monks, bathe buddha images, thoroughly clean their houses and sprinkle water on each other to wish good luck. songkran is a physical and spiritual " spring cleaning " that ushers in the coming year and sweeps out the old. this is a time of introspection for the thai theravada buddhist population, which makes up about 95 percent of the thai population. individuals reflect upon acts of kindness and thoughtfulness each has personally experienced and how generosity and compassion bring peace, happiness and well - being. songkran is also the time when reunions and family ties are renewed and respect is paid to elders. the underlying significance of songkran is the process of cleansing and purification - purging ills, misfortune and evil and starting the new year fresh. water is symbolic of the cleaning process and signifies purity. the practices of songkran date back to the pre - buddhist spring festivals during which throwing water was a symbol of luck to bring rain for the crops. buddhism spread to thailand in the 13th century and the ritual was converted to the religious custom of cleansing the statues of buddha once a year. songkran is a word from the sanskrit language that means " movement " or " change " and refers to the orbit of the sun moving into aries of the zodiac calendar. the traditional thai calendar is a combination of the solar and lunar movements but the new year is based on movements of the sun. in modern times, the date is set as april 13. the first day of the celebration, known as maha songkran, begins by bidding farewell to the outgoing year with a thorough " spring cleaning. " this act emphasizes awareness of responsibilities toward family and home. the day continues with merit - making, offerings such as rice, dessert and / or fruit, drinking water, candles and lotus blossoms presented to buddhist monks. merit - making is an act of giving that demonstrates generosity toward others and is an integral part of the festival. later in the day, buddha images are bathed with lustral ( blessed ) water in a gesture of respect. religious ceremonies include a procession of buddha images through city streets offering residents of the community to take part in


is an integral part of the festival. later in the day, buddha images are bathed with lustral ( blessed ) water in a gesture of respect. religious ceremonies include a procession of buddha images through city streets offering residents of the community to take part in the bathing rites. in thailand, an annual " miss songkran " parade and floral floats are part of the popular festivities. during wan nao ( april 14 ), the day between the old and new years, when the position of the sun is in transition between pisces and aries, merit - making continues in the morning with more offerings of food to the monks and family members. in the evening, sand is brought to temples to build pagodas called " phra chedis sai " decorated with colorful flags and flowers. an ancient belief says that when an individual walks away from a temple, particles of sand from the temple grounds are inadvertently carried away on shoes or sandals. building these " sand castles " is seen to be a practical way of replacing the sand lost and a merit - making act through which blessings are earned. this tradition may have started centuries ago as a part of cleansing rituals where new, clean sand was added to the temple floor once a year. this custom highlights the roles and responsibilities of temples, monasteries and the community that is served by the religious institution. wan nao is also the day when the world - famous water festival takes place. water is an integral part of thai new year traditions, both as a symbol of cleansing and of renewal. the ceremonial sprinkling of water on another ' s shoulder has evolved in to a day of water fights, complete with water guns and hoses. although throwing large amounts of water has become the epitome of songkran festivities, it has always been the more delicate water splashing that represents the true nature of songkran and the thai new year. sprinkling water on each other during the festival is a gesture of hospitality ; individuals ' attempt to cool each other off in the intense summer heat. traditionally, younger people pay respect by pouring water from silver bowls on the hands of elders in a ceremony known as " rod nahm dum hua. " the elders then ask the younger people to forgive them for speaking harshly during the past year and offer the youth a blessing and words of wisdom. this ritual is performed in the home while more vigorous water throwing is done outside. pouring small amounts of scented lustral water on the heads of the elders on " wan parg - bpee " as a sign of respect


blessing and words of wisdom. this ritual is performed in the home while more vigorous water throwing is done outside. pouring small amounts of scented lustral water on the heads of the elders on " wan parg - bpee " as a sign of respect is also part of this custom that dates back to ancient times. while some people might sprinkle a bit of scented water on the shoulder to wish a happy new year, the young people of thailand have turned it in to the world ' s largest water fight. during the day, water ceremonies involving the temple and home are performed in a subdued, happy manner. at night, thai youth use buckets, barrels, water guns and hoses to celebrate the custom in their own exaggerated manner. it is not unusual in bangkok to get dowsed with a bucket of ice water by someone on the back of a moving pickup truck. a related practice is tying strings around the wrists of others and expressing good wishes for the new year. a person approaches another with a gentle smile and holds out the string by the two ends and then begins to tie. the person receiving the string has his or her arm outstretched with the under side of the wrist facing upward. while tying the strings, the person recites short prayers of blessing spoken directly for the individual. during songkran a person could have as many as 25 or 30 strings on each wrist, each from a different person ; these are to be left on until they fall off on their own accord. another common custom involves a person with a small silver bowl filled with a white powder or pasty substance as a sign of protection and promises to ward off evil. in one of the oldest songkran rituals, a person with the paste is often older and he or she applies the paste to various parts of the face, neck and torso of others. one is expected to leave this paste on until it washes off with normal bathing. new year ' s day falls on april 15. typical merit - making rites performed on this day include the presentation of food and other offerings to buddhist monks at the temples ; donations are made ; fish and birds are released ; and a bathing ritual is observed whereby lustral water is poured over respected elders in a gesture of respect and reverence. the seeking of their blessing or forgiveness for past wrongdoing is also implied. the religious ceremonies and folk rituals associated with songkran are principally performed to bring good luck and prosperity. the rituals are also acts of gratitude and indebtedness undertaken in the memory of those who have passed


prefixes, suffixes, inflectional endings, and root words spelling words correctly using prefixes this strategy will focus on the prefix " re - " to help predict the meaning of words. the same strategy can be used to introduce other common prefixes such as " dis - ", " in - " and " im - ". prefixes and suffixes students will create two mini books. one will incorporate prefixes and the other will focus on suffixes. each book will include the meanings, sample words, and two well - written sentences for each suffix or prefix. also supports tech cos 12 making singular nouns plural this lesson involves the use of the structural analysis element of the inflectional ending " - s " to make singular nouns plural. vocabulary root word drawing a lesson plans page lesson plan, lesson idea, thematic unit, or activity in language arts and art called vocabulary root word drawing. forming possessives showing possession in english is a relatively easy matter ( believe it or not ). by adding an apostrophe and an s we can manage to transform most singular nouns into their possessive form : word confusion : students choose the correct word to complete the sentence in this online game. inflected endings : some languages, such as chinese, hmong, and vietnamese do not use inflected endings to form verb tenses. students may need help understanding that adding - ed to a verb indicates that the action happened in the past. spelling changes in inflected verbs may be difficult for ells to master. prefixes and suffixes : some english prefixes and suffixes have equivalent forms in the romance languages. for example, the prefix dis - in english ( disapprove ) corresponds to the spanish des - ( desaprobar ), the french des - ( desapprouver ), and the haitian creole dis - or dez - ( dezaprouve ). students who are literate in a romance language may be able to transfer their understanding of prefixes and suffixes much easier than those from non - romance languages. e / b, d, e : help ells classify english words into meaningful categories. use word walls, graphic organizers, and concept maps to group related words, record them in meaningful ways, and create visual references that can be used in future lessons. teachers can help students group and relate words in different ways. for example, place a large picture of a tree on the wall. place prefix and suffix cards on the different branches ( i. e


create visual references that can be used in future lessons. teachers can help students group and relate words in different ways. for example, place a large picture of a tree on the wall. place prefix and suffix cards on the different branches ( i. e. prefixes : pre -, re - un - ; suffixes : - ful, - less ) and root words on the roots ( write, view, paint ). this visual representation can help students conceptualize that prefixes and suffixes are added on to root words. e / b, d, e : the teacher creates a display of words containing greek and latin roots and adds to it during the school year. ells can refer to the display to help in understanding new words. ( example of display : the tree display above, or a poster with three columns - root, meaning, and word, i. e. aqua, water, aquarium ) e / b : read one ' s own writing or simple narrative text and begin to produce phonemes appropriately. e / b : recognize and produce english phonemes students already know, and possibly use them in simple phrases or sentences. e / b : recognize sounds in spoken words with accompanying illustrations e / b : use cues for sounding out unfamiliar words with accompanying illustrations e / b : blend sounds together to make words, shown visually d : remove or add sounds to existing words to make new words, shown visually ( i. e. " cover up the t in cart. what do you have now? " ) d : use letter - sound relationships and word roots to produce and understand multi - syllabic words ; e : use letter - sound relationships and word roots to produce and understand new word families. d, e : recognize and use prefixes and suffixes to find meanings of unknown words. e : segment illustrated sentences into words and phrases. e : identify and analyze sentence and context clues to find meanings of unknown words. e / b, d, e : when sharing new vocabulary words, make sure to write each word divided into syllables ( i. e. dic - tion - ar - y ). when introducing each word, sound it out, pausing between each syllable, and then blend the syllables together. have students repeat after you. ask students how many syllables the word has. tell students : pay attention to the syllables in a word. this will help you spell the word, and it will help you pronounce it, too. e / b, d, e : before teaching the phonics skills


the sun is an incredibly powerful source of energy. that ’ s why tva is using photovoltaic ( pv ) panels to transform solar energy into usable electricity. when rays of sunshine strike a solar panel, they give some of the electrons inside it more energy, a process that creates an electrical current. tva has set up photovoltaic systems at various solar sites throughout the region. can pv systems produce power on cloudy days? see the solar faq for the answer to this question and others. properly placed wind turbines can generate electric power anywhere the wind blows steady and strong. wind turbines use the momentum of moving air to quietly turn large blades that are attached to the shaft of an efficient electric generator. wind energy is a major contributor to green power switch. tva has one wind power site, located on buffalo mountain near oak ridge, tenn. the site has 15 very large and three smaller turbines. how large are the blades on the wind turbines? see the wind q & a for the answer to this question and others. wastewater methane collection is a potential source of renewable energy. biogas energy is produced when organic wastes decay – in wastewater treatment plants or landfills, for example. tva collects methane gas, a by - product of organic decay, from the city of memphis wastewater treatment plant and co - fires it with coal at allen fossil plant. how does firing methane with coal help the environment? read the answer to this and other questions in the biogas faq.


what leed measures leed is a voluntary certification program that can be applied to any building type and any building lifecycle phase. it promotes a whole - building approach to sustainability by recognizing performance in key areas : choosing a building ’ s site and managing that site during construction are important considerations for a project ’ s sustainability. the sustainable sites category discourages development on previously undeveloped land ; minimizes a building ’ s impact on ecosystems and waterways ; encourages regionally appropriate landscaping ; rewards smart transportation choices ; controls stormwater runoff ; and reduces erosion, light pollution, heat island effect and construction - related pollution. buildings are major users of our potable water supply. the goal of the water efficiency credit category is to encourage smarter use of water, inside and out. water reduction is typically achieved through more efficient appliances, fixtures and fittings inside and water - wise landscaping outside. | energy & atmosphere according to the u. s. department of energy, buildings use 39 % of the energy and 74 % of the electricity produced each year in the united states. the energy & atmosphere category encourages a wide variety of energy strategies : commissioning ; energy use monitoring ; efficient design and construction ; efficient appliances, systems and lighting ; the use of renewable and clean sources of energy, generated on - site or off - site ; and other innovative strategies. | materials & resources during both the construction and operations phases, buildings generate a lot of waste and use a lot of materials and resources. this credit category encourages the selection of sustainably grown, harvested, produced and transported products and materials. it promotes the reduction of waste as well as reuse and recycling, and it takes into account the reduction of waste at a product ’ s source. | indoor environmental quality the u. s. environmental protection agency estimates that americans spend about 90 % of their day indoors, where the air quality can be significantly worse than outside. the indoor environmental quality credit category promotes strategies that can improve indoor air as well as providing access to natural daylight and views and improving acoustics. | locations & linkages the leed for homes rating system recognizes that much of a home ’ s impact on the environment comes from where it is located and how it fits into its community. the locations & linkages credits encourage homes being built away from environmentally sensitive places and instead being built in infill, previously developed and other preferable sites. it rewards homes that are built near already - existing infrastructure, community resources and transit, and it encourages access to open space for walking, physical activity and time spent outdoors. | awareness & education


infill, previously developed and other preferable sites. it rewards homes that are built near already - existing infrastructure, community resources and transit, and it encourages access to open space for walking, physical activity and time spent outdoors. | awareness & education the leed for homes rating system acknowledges that a green home is only truly green if the people who live in it use the green features to maximum effect. the awareness & education credits encourage home builders and real estate professionals to provide homeowners, tenants and building managers with the education and tools they need to understand what makes their home green and how to make the most of those features. | innovation in design the innovation in design credit category provides bonus points for projects that use new and innovative technologies and strategies to improve a building ’ s performance well beyond what is required by other leed credits or in green building considerations that are not specifically addressed elsewhere in leed. this credit category also rewards projects for including a leed accredited professional on the team to ensure a holistic, integrated approach to the design and construction phase. usgbc ’ s regional councils, chapters and affiliates have identified the environmental concerns that are locally most important for every region of the country, and six leed credits that address those local priorities were selected for each region. a project that earns a regional priority credit will earn one bonus point in addition to any points awarded for that credit. up to four extra points can be earned in this way. see the regional priority credits for your state » source : u. s. green building council


a major thrust of the effort is to establish the potential of this technology for calibration and validation of satellite - based ocean - color measurements. the new floats are enabled with a two - way communication system that allows researchers to control when the floats descend and ascend, and when they take measurements. “ radiometers allow us to do a better job in modeling primary production, ” says boss. “ we ’ re trying to see if we can use them to calibrate satellites, and plan on having other sensors measure for scattering. that allows us to get more information on what ’ s in the water. ” most of the existing floats are programmed to descend and ascend for specific periods of time to take a predetermined number of measurements. using wireless communication and data dissemination created by cls america, researchers will provide the floats with commands during missions, including changes in response to events such as hurricanes. the data collected will be sent to a centralized web site for all researchers to analyze and for future input into assimilating ocean ecosystem models. with more advanced communications systems, it may also be possible to increase the life of profiling floats. currently, researchers can record about 300 profiles from one float. the devices are limited by battery life, and once the batteries die, it ’ s not possible to recapture the devices. one of boss ’ goals is to test recovery possibilities, so that floats can be reused. scientists from the nasa goddard earth sciences data and information services center, partners in this project, are building a tool that will provide crucial remotely sensed information around the float surfacing location for measurement context. every time a float reports its location, nasa will provide real - time data on weather, temperature and events in a 50 - kilometer radius. “ we have the opportunity to make a huge difference in the future of our field and its ability to provide much - needed information on how carbon and other material are processed globally, ” says boss.


sensors flag environmental damage to art at the met new york it will take a good eye to spot them, but dozens of tiny, very modern works of art have been installed near the 15th - century unicorn tapestries and other medieval masterpieces at a new york city museum. the metropolitan museum of art announced this week that a network of wireless environmental sensors designed to prevent damage to the collection is being tested at its cloisters branch. the ibm sensors — each housed with a radio and a microcontroller in a case about the size of a pack of cigarettes — can measure temperature, humidity, air flow, light levels, contaminants and more. they are inexpensive and run on low power, and several can be positioned in a room, scientists said. the information collected goes into a three - dimensional " climate map " that can be accessed on a computer, and the data can then be analyzed to adjust the climate, spot trends and even make predictions. " nobody in the world at this moment has this kind of information, not at this level of detail, " said paolo dionosi vici, associate research scientist at the metropolitan. " it ' s the analytics that will keep us one step ahead technologically. " the network now covers about a third of the cloisters, which houses 3, 000 medieval works in several ancient buildings that were disassembled in europe and rebuilt in northern manhattan. the met expects to expand the network throughout the cloisters and eventually to the main museum on fifth avenue. the climate at museums like the cloisters is already tightly controlled, with especially fragile items kept in sealed cases. curators don ' t have to worry about the ravages that might happen to a fresco in an open italian church, for example. but the artwork is sensitive to small climate variations. " a window in a museum, in summer, that can be a hot spot, " vici said. " and the light from the window on the floor can increase the temperature of the floor. until now, that is a variation we might not know about because we were not taking so many measurements. " another factor that can influence the climate in a museum is the number of visitors — and where the visitors have been. " if it ' s raining outside the cloisters and the tourists that come in are wet, that has an effect, " vici said. the idea is to keep the effects from causing any damage, even slow damage, to the art. " whenever we have to act on an object to


the etiology and treatment of childhood jordan w. smoller university of pennsylvania childhood is a syndrome which has only recently begun to receive serious attention from clinicians. the syndrome itself, however, is not at all recent. as early as the 8th century, the persian historian kidnom made references to " short, noisy creatures, " who may well have been what we now call " children. " the treatment of children, however, was unknown until this century, when so - called " child psychologists " and " child psychiatrists " became common. despite this history of clinical neglect, it has been estimated that well over half of all americans alive today have experienced childhood directly ( suess, 1983 ). in fact, the actual numbers are probably much higher, since these data are based on self - reports which may be subject to social desirability biases and the growing acceptance of childhood as a distinct phenomenon is reflected in the proposed inclusion of the syndrome in the upcoming diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th edition, or dsm - iv, of the american psychiatric association ( 1990 ). clinicians are still in disagreement about the significan clinical features of childhood, but the proposed dsm - iv will almost certainly include the following core - congenital onset - emotional lability and immaturity - knowledgy deficits - legume anorexia clinical features of childhood although the focus of this paper is on the efficacy of conventional treatment of childhood, the five clinical markers mentioned above merit further discussion for those unfamiliar with this patient in one of the few existing literature reviews on childhood, temple - black ( 1982 ) has noted that childhood is almost always present at birth, although it may go undetected for years or even remain subclinical indefinitely. this observation has led some investigators to speculate on biological contribution to childhood. as one psychologist has put it, " we may soon be in a position to distinguish organic childhood from functional childhood " ( rogers, 1979 ). this is certainly the most familiar marker of childhood. it is widely known that children are physically short relative to the population at large. indeed, common clinical wisdom suggests that the treatment of the so - called " small child " ( or " tot " ) is particularly difficult. these children are known to exhibit infantile behavior and display a startling lack of insight ( tom and jerry, 1967 ). emotional lability and immaturity this aspect of childhood is often the only basis for a clinician ' s diagnosis. as a result, many otherwise normal adults are mis


behavior and display a startling lack of insight ( tom and jerry, 1967 ). emotional lability and immaturity this aspect of childhood is often the only basis for a clinician ' s diagnosis. as a result, many otherwise normal adults are misdiagnosed as children and must suffer the unnecessary social stigma of being labelled a " child " by professionals and friends alike. while many children have iqs with or even above the norm, almost all will manifest knowledge deficits. anyone who has known a real child has experienced the frustration of trying to discuss any topic that requires some general knowledge. children seem to have little knowledge about the world they live in. politics, art, and science - - children are largely ignorant of these. perhaps it is because of this ignorance, but the sad fact that most children have few friends who are not, themselves, this last identifying feature is perhaps the most unexpected. folk wisdom is supported by empirical observation - - children will rarely eat their vegetables ( see popeye, 1957, for review ). causes of childhood now that we know what it is, what can we say about the causes of childhood? recent years have seen a flurry of theory and speculation from a number of perspectives. some of the most prominent are reviewed emile durkind was perhaps the first to speculate about sociological causes of childhood. he points out two key observations about - the vast majority of children are unemployed, and - children represent one of the least educated segments of our society. in fact, it has been estimated that less than 20 % of children have had more than fourth grad education. clearly, children are an " out - group. " because of their intellectual handicap, children are even denied the right to vote. from the sociologist ' s perspective, treatment should be aimed at helping assimilate children into mainstream society. unfortunately, some victims are so incapacitated by their childhood that they are simply not competent to work. one promising rehabilitaion program ( spanky and alfalfa, 1978 ) has trained victims of severe childhood to sell lemonade. the observation that childhood is usually present from birth has led some to speculate on a biological contribution. an early investigation by flintstone and jetson ( 1939 ) indicated that childhood runs in families. their survey of over 8, 000 american families revealed that over half contained more than one child. further investigation revealed that even most non - child family members had experienced childhood at some point. cross - cultural studies ( e. g., mowgli and din, 1950 )


, 000 american families revealed that over half contained more than one child. further investigation revealed that even most non - child family members had experienced childhood at some point. cross - cultural studies ( e. g., mowgli and din, 1950 ) indicated that family childhood is even more prevalent in the far east. for example, in indian and chinese families, as many as three out of four family members may have childhood. impressive evidence of a genetic component of childhood comes from a large - scale twin study by brady and partridge ( 1972 ). these authors studied over 106 pairs of twins, looking at concordance rates for childhood. among identical or monozygotic twins, concordance was unusually high ( 0. 92 ), i. e., when one twin was diagnosed with childhood, the other twin was almost always a child as well. a considerable number of psychologically - based theories of the development of childhood exist. they are too numerous to review here. among the more familiar models are seligman ' s " learned childishness " model. according to this model, individuals who are treated like children eventually give up and become children. as a counterpoint to such theories, some experts have claimed that childhood does not really exist. szasz ( 1980 ) has called " childhood " an expedient label. in seeking conformity, we handicap those whom we find unruly or too short to deal with by labelling them " children. " treatment of childhood efforts to treat childhood are as old as the syndrome itself. only in modern times, however, have human and systematic treatment protocols been applied. in part, this increased attention to the problem may be due to the sheer number of individuals suffering from childhood. government statistics ( dhhs ) reveal that there are more children alive today than at any time in our history. to paraphrase p. t. barnum : " there ' s a child born every minute. " the overwhelming number of children has made government intervention inevitable. the nineteenth century saw the institution of what remains the largest single program for the treatment of childhood - - so - called " public schools. " under this colossal program, individuals are placed into treatment groups based on the severity of their condition. for example, those most severely afflicted may be placed in a " kindergarten " program. patients at this level are typically short, unruly, emotionally immature, and intellectually deficient. given this type of individual, therapy is essentially one of patient management and of helping the child master basic skills ( e


a " kindergarten " program. patients at this level are typically short, unruly, emotionally immature, and intellectually deficient. given this type of individual, therapy is essentially one of patient management and of helping the child master basic skills ( e. g. finger - painting ). unfortunately, the " school " system has been largely ineffective. not only is the problem a massive tax burden, but it has failed even to slow down the rising incidence of childhood. faced with this failure and the growing epidemic of childhood, mental health professionals are devoting increasing attention to the treatment of childhood. given a theoretical framework by freud ' s landmark treatises on childhood, child psychiatrists and psychologists claimed great successes in their clinical intervention. by the 1950 ' s, however, the clinicians ' optimism had waned. even after years of costly analysis, many victims remained children. the following case ( taken from gumbie and poke, 1957 ) is typical. - billy j., age 8, was brought to treatment by his parents. billy ' s affliction was painfully obvious. he stood only 4 ' 3 " high and weighed a scant 70 lbs., despite the fact that he ate voraciously. billy presented a variety of troubling symptoms. his voice was noticably high for a man. he displayed legume anorexia, and, according to his parents, often refused to bathe. his intellectual functioning was also below normal - - he had little general knowledge and could barely write a structured sentence. social skills were also deficient. he often spoke inappropriately and exhibited " whining behaviour. " his sexual experience was non - existent. indeed, billy considered women " icky. " his parents reported that his condition had been present from birth, improving gradually after he was placed in a school at age 5. the diagnosis was " primary childhood. " after years of painstaking treatment, billy improved gradually. at age 11, his height and weight have increased, his social skills are broader, and he is now functional enough to hold down a " paper route. " after years of this kind of frustration, startling new evidence has come to light which suggests that the prognosis in cases of childhood may not be all gloom. a critical review by fudd ( 1972 ) noted that studies of the childhood syndrome tend to lack careful follow - up. acting on this observation, moe, larrie, and kirly ( 1974 ) began a large - scale longitudinal study. these investigators studied two groups. the first group


1972 ) noted that studies of the childhood syndrome tend to lack careful follow - up. acting on this observation, moe, larrie, and kirly ( 1974 ) began a large - scale longitudinal study. these investigators studied two groups. the first group consisted of 34 children currently engaged in a long - term conventional treatment program. the second was a group of 42 children receiving no treatment. all subjects had been diagnosed as children at least 4 years previously, with a mean duration of childhood at 6. 4 years. at the end of one year, the results confirmed the clinical wisdom that childhood is a refractory disorder - - virtually all symptoms persisted and the treatment group was only slightly better off than the controls. the results, however, of a careful 10 - year follow - up were startling. the investigators ( moe, larrie, kirly, & shemp, 1984 ) assessed the original cohort on a variety of measures. general knowledge and emotional maturity were assessed with standard measures. height was assess by the " metric system " ( see ruler, 1923 ), and legume appetite by the vegetable appetite test ( vat ) designed by popeye ( 1968 ). moe et al. found that subjects improved uniformly on all measures. indeed, in most cases, the subjects appeared to be symptom - free. moe et al. report a spontaneous remission rate of 95 %, a finding which is certain to revolutionize the clinical approach to childhood. these recent results suggests that the prognosis for victims of childhood may not be so bad as we have feared. we must not, however, become too complacent. despite its apparently high spontaneous remission rate, childhood remains one of the most serious and rapidly growing disorders facing mental health professionals today. and, beyond the psychological pain it brings, childhood has recently been linked to a number of physical disorders. twenty years ago, howdi, doodi, and beauzeau ( 1965 ) demonstrated a six - fold increased risk of chicken pox, measles, and mumps among children as compared with normal controls. later, barby and kenn ( 1971 ) linked childhood to an elevated risk of accidents - - compared with normal adults, victims of childhood were much more likely to scrape their knees, lose their teeth, and fall off their bikes. clearly, much more research is need before we can give any real hope to the millions of victims wracked by this insidious disorder. american psychiatric association ( 1990 ). the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders,


fall off their bikes. clearly, much more research is need before we can give any real hope to the millions of victims wracked by this insidious disorder. american psychiatric association ( 1990 ). the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th edition : a preliminary report. washington, d. c. ; apa. barby, b., & kenn, k. ( 1971 ). the plasticity of behavior. in b. barby & k. kenn ( eds. ), psychotherapies r us. detroit : flintstone, f., & jetson, g. ( 1939 ). cognitive mediation of labour disputes. industrial psychology today, 2, 23 - 35. fudd, e. j. ( 1972 ). locus of control and shoe - size. journal of footwear psychology, 78, 345 - 356. gumbie, g., & pokey, p. ( 1957 ). a cognitive theory of iron - smelting. journal of abnormal metallurgy, 45, 235 - 239. howdi, c., doodi, c., & beauzeau, c. ( 1965 ). western civilization : a review of the literature. reader ' s digest, 60, moe, r., larrie, t., and kirly, q. ( 1974 ). state childhood versus trait childhood. tv guide, may 12 - 19, 1 - 3. moe, r., larrie, t., kirly, q. ( 1974 ). spontaneous remission of childhood. in w. c. fields ( ed. ), new hope for children and animals. hollywood : acme press. popeye, t. s. m. ( 1957 ). the use of spinach in extreme circumstances. journal of vegetable science, 58, 530 - 538. popeye, t. s. m. ( 1968 ). spinach : a phenomenological perspective. existential botany, 35, 908 - 813. rogers, f. ( 1979 ). becoming my neighbour. new york : ruler, y. ( 1923 ). assessing measurements protocols by the multi - method multiple regression index for the psychometric analysis of factorial interaction. annals of boredom, 67, 1190 - 1260. spanky, d., & alfalfa, q. ( 1978 ). coping with puberty. sears catalog, 45 - 46. suess, d. r. ( 1983 ). a psychometric analysis


supporting people through diagnosis with chronic hepatitis b - australian research suggests that little or no pre or post test counselling occurs at the time people are diagnosed with chronic hepatitis b. people who have recently been diagnosed with chronic hepatitis b may be feeling confused, worried, shocked or afraid. - as it is likely that newly diagnosed people will have many unanswered questions about hepatitis b, it is to provide information about hepatitis b in an appropriate format. avoid giving too much information at once, and encourage people to meet with you a few times to go over their questions and concerns about their diagnosis. it could be useful if you are not confident about your hepatitis b knowledge to frame the discussion in terms of both of you learning more about hepatitis b. - if you are working with a someone recently diagnosed with chronic hepatitis b, encourage them to think about if, when and how they might disclose their new diagnosis to others. family and friends may be a great source of care and support, but unexpected reactions can and do happen. generally speaking, hepatitis b is not very well understood in the community, so print resources might be useful to help the person manage any questions that may arise. - unfortunately printed resources about hepatitis b are not available in all languages and for all literacy levels, so face to face conversations are ideal in many instances. if you have printed resources, they can be useful as a prop for having a more in - depth discussion about hepatitis b and the realities of living with hepatitis b. - people with chronic hepatitis b should regularly see hepatitis specialist such as a gastroenterologist or infectious disease physician at a local hospital. people will need to be referred to these specialists by a general practitioner ( gp ). not all gps are aware of this, so check with your patient / client whether they have had such a referral. - gps with a good understanding of hepatitis b are another useful resource, although many gps are not aware of the implications of hepatitis b infection or of the impact of infection on their patients. other support services can be found here.


editor ’ s note : jon margolis, a retired political reporter for the chicago tribune, is a vtdigger. org columnist. rural living isn ’ t necessarily a country idyll. in fact, for the last few decades, rural areas, such as most of vermont, have been tougher places to live – and to earn a living – than the cities and suburbs. now comes word that rural life is not only harder but shorter. a new study called “ falling behind : life expectancy in us counties from 2000 to 2007 in an international context, ” shows life expectancy is actually declining in many rural counties. as can be seen from its title, the study, whose lead writer was sandeep c. kulkarni of the university of washington ’ s institute for health metrics and evaluation, was primarily focused on comparing longevity outcomes between the u. s. and other advanced countries. it found far more disparities between affluent and poorer counties in the u. s. than elsewhere. the disparities were striking. on a county - by - county basis, “ life expectancy in 2007 ranged from 65. 9 to 81. 1 years for men and 73. 5 to 86. 0 years for women, ” the study found. in all, the report found, life expectancy fell in 860 – or more than one fourth – of the nation ’ s 3, 147 counties. more than 60 percent of those counties – 561 of them – are rural. in fact, in every rural state, life expectancy fell for at least one sex in at least one county. well, almost every rural state. the exception? vermont, where life expectancy for both men and women rose in all 14 counties. barely in essex county ( four tenths of a percent for men ; three tenths for women ) but at a healthy rate in the other counties. the longest life expectancy for men was 77. 8 years in lamoille county. chittenden and addison county women could expect to live 82. 2 years, the longest of their sex. in every county, women lived longer, but male life expectancy had increased more between 1987 and 2007. the results do not necessarily prove that vermont is healthier than other rural states. perhaps it ’ s just whiter. everywhere, african - americans and hispanics had lower life expectancies. the lowest “ were in counties in appalachia and the deep south, extending across northern texas … ( with ) more isolated counties with low life


’ s just whiter. everywhere, african - americans and hispanics had lower life expectancies. the lowest “ were in counties in appalachia and the deep south, extending across northern texas … ( with ) more isolated counties with low life expectancies in a number of western counties with large native american populations, ” the report found. still, even in comparison with other white, rural, counties around the country, vermont ’ s appear relatively healthier and perhaps more prosperous. before celebration gets out of hand, though, vermonters might ponder the results of another new study – this one from the university of new hampshire ’ s carsey institute – which found that “ last year more people died than were born in nearly a quarter of u. s. counties, ” and four of them were in vermont : bennington, essex, rutland and windsor. bennington ’ s ‘ natural decrease “ was 252 deaths over births. rutland county ’ s was 157, windsor ’ s 74 and essex county ’ s 63. ( in the carsey study, all four counties also had total population declines. but these are 2009 figures, and differ from the 2010 census, in which population declined only in bennington, essex, and windsor counties. what have thee counties – or the state – been doing wrong? apparently nothing. unless that is, being rural is doing something wrong. “ this is pretty typical for rural areas, ” said the carsey institute ’ s senior demographer, unh sociology professor kenneth johnson. “ natural decrease is pretty widespread across country, and is much more evident in the great plains. ” as johnson explained it, natural decrease is especially common wherever farming, logging, or mining were important to a county ’ s economic foundation. producing these goods needs far fewer workers than it did a few decades ago, so even where the mines and forests have not been depleted, there is less demand for young and middle - aged adult workers, which would include women – and the husbands of women – in their child - bearing years. but, he said, there is also a generally positive development that can lead to natural decrease – the in - migration of “ amenity - minded ” relatively affluent, relatively young, retirees. if a county attracts new residents who are empty - nesters in their early sixties, 25 years or so later, they will start dying. their children who are having children of their own are having them elsewhere. johnson said this factor is more evident in several counties in florida and in carroll county, n. h.,


early sixties, 25 years or so later, they will start dying. their children who are having children of their own are having them elsewhere. johnson said this factor is more evident in several counties in florida and in carroll county, n. h., just north of lake winnipesaukee. but vermont has also been a destination for not - quite - senior citizens, both retirees and professionals who can earn their keep from their homes. this influx started in the late 1960s and early 1970s. as johnson pointed out, “ natural decrease doesn ’ t occur immediately, ” and people who moved to vermont in their fifties and sixties in the late decades of the last century would be reaching their final years in the first decades of this one. just because vermont ’ s rural population is declining no faster ( and probably more slowly ) than those in other states does not mean that falling populations are not a problem. “ people don ’ t want to see a decline, ” johnson said. “ usually natural decrease occurs because of the loss of so many young people. probably some schools have to close because there aren ’ t enough kids any more. and there are other problems, such as not enough volunteer firefighters in towns that depend on them. ” so what can be done? perhaps little or nothing. “ some of it is just inevitable, ” johnson said. neither in vermont nor on the great plans are so many small farms ever likely to be economically viable as was the case 50 and 100 years ago. where natural decrease has ended, he said, is usually in rural counties “ just beyond the edges of metropolitan areas, ” where better transportation and cheaper homes encouraged people to move farther away from the cities and from their jobs. that, of course, is the suburban sprawl solution, not the most popular course in vermont. there is a small - farm agricultural revival in the state, with an increasing number of farms growing fresh vegetables for local consumption or producing cheese from their own cows, sheep, and goats. but whether there are or will be enough of these farms to bring a critical mass of young and middle - aged people to rural vermont remains unknown. the other possibility, johnson said, is expanding those “ amenities ” enough to attract newcomers to rural counties. even if the first newcomers are older, he said, their presence eventually “ creates opportunities for younger adults ” to staff, restaurants, hotels, hospitals, and the other services the new residents want. but to make a major difference, at least some of those “ amenity ” attractions would have to be big


a barbados family tree with ' sugar in the blood ' in her new book, sugar in the blood, andrea stuart weaves her family story around the history of slavery and sugar in barbados. stuart ' s great - great - great - great - great - great - great - great - grandfather landed on the island in the 1630s. he had been a blacksmith in england, but became a sugar planter in barbados, at a time when demand for the crop was exploding worldwide. stuart is descended from a slave owner who, several generations after the family landed in barbados, had relations with an unknown slave. stuart was well into her research and writing of the book before she fully accepted the reality of her family ' s story. it was, she tells fresh air ' s terry gross, " not until maybe four years into the research that i realized that this was the truth of it... of my family ' s story that... one side of my family had owned another, and that that was as bleak and as straightforward as it got.... that is the quintessence of the hideousness of slavery, isn ' t it? that a family member could own their child... or own a series of children and live with that, and... keep them in continued slavery and live comfortably with that. it made me understand slavery or see it in a very, very personal, intense way. " stuart says that it was " completely common in the caribbean " for planters to have many different family groups, meaning that a planter would have his legitimate, white family and then father children with enslaved women. the thinking behind this practice was, in one sense, that the planter was breeding his own slaves to work the plantation after britain outlawed the trans - atlantic slave trade in 1807. more psychologically speaking, however, stuart says, the practice also provided a " sense of claiming your... total power over everybody in the plantation world over which you preside. " on when planters would baptize the slave women they had sex with " that was often something that planters did if they were going to be in a slightly longer - term relationship with a new, individual female slave. while they have kind of one - off... relations with a slave that they... just sort of... picked randomly on the plantation, usually if... the relationship was going to last, it was quite common for them to get... the slave woman baptized, which is


with a slave that they... just sort of... picked randomly on the plantation, usually if... the relationship was going to last, it was quite common for them to get... the slave woman baptized, which is an ironic thing because, obviously, they felt that that was... a rather virtuous gesture, which is extraordinary when, in fact, they were basically raping underage girls. " on how, after some of her ancestors worked as slaves on a plantation, her grandparents bought and farmed a sugar plantation in barbados " it always seems to me an extraordinary irony that... my grandfather would decide — or rather his father would decide — that it was a good idea to go back into sugar, after the history — the torrid history — that our family had had with that particular crop, but i think, you know, even at the turn of the [ 20th ] century... it must have felt like sugar was still the biggest game in town, still the historic crop of the island. to be a planter was to be at the absolute top of the social tree and so, in some ways, you can see that for successful businessmen — even those who came from a slave line — that becoming a planter must have felt like real success, and i think that is why my great - grandfather decided to buy and also start to farm a plantation again. " on how, after moving to england from barbados in 1976 with her family, the color of her skin meant something different " whereas in the caribbean my slightly lighter skin marked me out as being perhaps potentially a little more privileged, in britain there was none of that subtlety or ideas... about race. it was very much : i was a black person and that was that, and one was very much reduced to a series of stereotypes — and rather dull stereotypes at that — about what it was to be a black person. " on the current prospect of her family ' s barbados plantation being sold for real estate " i can remember and spent so much of my youth being at my grandmother ' s and grandfather ' s plantation and listening to the... sound of the cane and running around... this little magic world of beautiful gardens that surround the plantation house.... it was all for me a very idyllic adventure, and so the idea of it being over is both painful, because it represents to me very much my caribbean childhood, my past, my family, and then another part of


.... it was all for me a very idyllic adventure, and so the idea of it being over is both painful, because it represents to me very much my caribbean childhood, my past, my family, and then another part of me thinks that it ' s time... for me — as well as the island — to close the door on the plantation story and walk into the future. " on how her research and knowledge of her family ' s past has changed her thinking about sugar " it was not until i was reading some of the work by the abolitionists, and... one of their big... campaigns was that it was ' blood - stained sugar, '... that it carried the blood of slaves, and i remember actually at that point putting some sugar into something and thinking, ' ah, it ' s this! ' and... i thought again about the way that commodities — in my case it was sugar ; in america the parallels would be, as i say, cotton or tobacco — how these... commodities have such real, visceral impacts on the way our lives unfold and how extraordinary that is. " terry gross, host : this is fresh air. i ' m terry gross. i want to thank dave davies for filling in for me last week while i took the week off. my guest, andrea stuart, is the descendent of a slave owner and one of that man ' s slaves. she has a bloodline that she describes as blending the history of both oppressed and oppressor. she suspects this is true of many families, which, like hers, are mixed - race on both sides. stewart has written a new book called " sugar in the blood, " which traces her family tree beginning with her white ancestor who left ireland for barbados in the late 1630s. his great - great - grandson owned a plantation in barbados and fathered children with several of his slaves, including the woman who became stuart ' s forebear. stuart ' s book also describes the history of slavery in the caribbean, where she was born and raised. her father became dean of the medical school at the university college of the west indies in jamaica. as a child, she spent her summers with her extended family in barbados, where her grandparents owned a plantation. andrea stuart, welcome to fresh air. when did you start thinking about the fact that one of your ancestors was owned by another one of your ancestors? andrea stuart : i don ' t think i actually


in barbados, where her grandparents owned a plantation. andrea stuart, welcome to fresh air. when did you start thinking about the fact that one of your ancestors was owned by another one of your ancestors? andrea stuart : i don ' t think i actually thought about that until quite late in the process of writing my book. it was really one of those things that kind of hits you sort of later on. i mean, it very much began as a process of being interested in my family history. so it wasn ' t until quite late in the day that i had this moment of clarity, maybe four years into the research, that i realized that this was the truth of it, that was the reality of my life, of my family ' s story, that we - you know, one side of my family had owned another. gross : and what did that mean to you? stuart : i think i found that a real kind of one of those aha moments, you know, where you sort of think that is the quintessence of the hideousness of slavery, isn ' t it, that a family member could own their child and - or you know what i mean, or own series of children and live with that and remain - and keep them in continued slavery. and it made me understand slavery or see it in a very, very personal, intense way. gross : in trying to find documentation of your slave - owning ancestors and of your ancestors who were slaves, one of the things you found was that there was documentation of your white ancestors, but for the slave the only documentation you found was what? stuart : well, the irony of slavery is that - and i think it ' s true whether it ' s on mainland america or in the caribbean or south america, is that the system is such that you only know what the white planter who owns you has recorded about you. so it ' s always through the conduit of this other person. so what i could know about my slave ancestors were the things that were recorded by their owner, and in the case of my ancestors, their father, in his inventories and mentions of slaves for sale or documents that he ' d created, which are usually about transactions and / or money in relation to them as stock. gross : so i ' m going to open to the page now of the family tree. gross : so here it is. there ' s robert cooper ashby, who is your great - great - great - great grandfather. gross : and then there ' s women


so i ' m going to open to the page now of the family tree. gross : so here it is. there ' s robert cooper ashby, who is your great - great - great - great grandfather. gross : and then there ' s women on either side of him in this family tree. there ' s mary ann ashby, who is a slave, who became kind of like his wife after robert cooper ' s wife died, although they couldn ' t marry because she had been a slave, and that would have been illegal at that time. stuart : yes, that ' s right, yes. gross : but they had how many children together? gross : that ' s a lot. stuart : it is a lot, especially since many of the children were born concurrent with his legitimate white wife, who had only one child, and also with other relationships with slave women on the plantation. so, he was a very busy man. gross : how many slave women were you able to document that he had either sexual relations with or children with? stuart : well, i think we kind of came down to about four or five groups. i suspect, of course, that there would have been more, it ' s just a question of what you can work out historically. and apparently, this was completely common in the caribbean for planters to have, you know, kind of quite a large number of family groups. a contemporary of robert cooper ' s had six separate little family groups. and there are rumors of plantation owners on the other islands who - one french planter declared that up to a third of his slave stock came from his " own loins, " was the quote. so it was quite common, this very profligate sexual behavior with slaves. gross : that ' s just kind of chilling, what you just said. it almost sounds like you ' re breeding your own slaves to work the plantation. stuart : i think there is certainly a degree of feeling like that. it ' s sort of, you know, you are kind of producing your own workforce. but also i think it ' s that sort of sense of claiming you ' re in total power over everybody in the plantation world over which you preside. your - his legitimate wife would have had very little redress. there was no chance, really, of her leaving him, as all the money that she had previously brought to the marriage was now in his name. so everyone - from his wife, his legitimate white wife, to his various other liaisons really had very