##rhythmia. a stroke occurs when blood cannot reach the brain. in about 80 percent of strokes, a blood clot prevents blood flow to the brain. these are called ischemic strokes. sometimes, blood accumulates in the brain, or in the spaces surrounding it. this causes hemorrhagic strokes. both binge drinking and long - term heavy drinking can lead to strokes even in people without coronary heart disease. recent studies show that people who binge drink are about 56 percent more likely than people who never binge drink to suffer an ischemic stroke over 10 years. binge drinkers also are about 39 percent more likely to suffer any type of stroke than people who never binge drink. in addition, alcohol exacerbates the problems that often lead to strokes, including hypertension, arrhythmias, and cardiomyopathy. chronic alcohol use, as well as binge drinking, can cause high blood pressure, or hypertension. your blood pressure is a measurement of the pressure your heart creates as it beats, and the pressure inside your veins and arteries. healthy blood vessels stretch like elastic as the heart pumps blood through them. hypertension develops when the blood vessels stiffen, making them less flexible. heavy alcohol consumption triggers the release of certain stress hormones that in turn constrict blood vessels. this elevates blood pressure. in addition, alcohol may affect the function of the muscles within the blood vessels, causing them to constrict and elevate blood pressure. know the benefits : research shows that healthy people who drink moderate amounts of alcohol may have a lower risk of developing coronary heart disease than nondrinkers. moderate drinking is usually defined as no more than two drinks in a given day for men and one drink per day for women who are not pregnant or trying to conceive. a variety of factors, including diet, genetics, high blood pressure, and age, can cause fat to build up in your arteries, resulting in coronary heart disease. an excess of fat narrows the coronary arteries, which are the blood vessels that supply blood directly to the heart. clogged arteries reduce blood supply to the heart muscle, and make it easier for blood clots to form. blood clots can lead to both heart attacks and strokes. according to recent studies, drinking moderately can protect your heart from these conditions. moderate drinking helps inhibit and reduce the build - up of fat in the arteries. it can raise the levels of hdl — or “


lead to both heart attacks and strokes. according to recent studies, drinking moderately can protect your heart from these conditions. moderate drinking helps inhibit and reduce the build - up of fat in the arteries. it can raise the levels of hdl — or “ good ” cholesterol — in the blood, which wards off heart disease. it can help guard against heart attack and stroke by preventing blood clots from forming and by dissolving blood clots that do develop. drinking moderately also may help keep blood pressure levels in check. these benefits may not apply to people with existing medical conditions, or who regularly take certain medications. in addition, researchers discourage people from beginning to drink just for the health benefits. rather, you can use this research to help you spark a conversation with your medical professional about the best path for you. effects on the liver know the facts : liver disease is one of the leading causes of illness and death in the united states. more than 2 million americans suffer from liver disease caused by alcohol. in general, liver disease strikes people who drink heavily over many years. while many of us recognize that excessive alcohol consumption can lead to liver disease, we might not know why. understanding the connections between alcohol and the liver can help you make smarter decisions about drinking and take better control of your health. know the function : your liver works hard to keep your body productive and healthy. it stores energy and nutrients. it generates proteins and enzymes your body uses to function and ward off disease. it also rids your body of substances that can be dangerous — including alcohol. the liver breaks down most of the alcohol a person consumes. but the process of breaking alcohol down generates toxins even more harmful than alcohol itself. these by - products damage liver cells, promote inflammation, and weaken the body ’ s natural defenses. eventually, these problems can disrupt the body ’ s metabolism and impair the function of other organs. because the liver plays such a vital role in alcohol detoxification, it is especially vulnerable to damage from excessive alcohol. know the consequences : heavy drinking — even for just a few days at a time — can cause fat to build up in the liver. this condition, called steatosis, or fatty liver, is the earliest stage of alcoholic liver disease and the most common alcohol - induced liver disorder. the excessive fat makes it more difficult for the liver to operate and leaves it open to developing dangerous inflammations, like alcoholic hepatitis. for some, alcoholic hepatitis does not present obvious symptoms. for others, though, alcoholic hepatitis can cause


induced liver disorder. the excessive fat makes it more difficult for the liver to operate and leaves it open to developing dangerous inflammations, like alcoholic hepatitis. for some, alcoholic hepatitis does not present obvious symptoms. for others, though, alcoholic hepatitis can cause fever, nausea, appetite loss, abdominal pain, and even mental confusion. as it increases in severity, alcoholic hepatitis dangerously enlarges the liver, and causes jaundice, excessive bleeding, and clotting difficulties. another liver condition associated with heavy drinking is fibrosis, which causes scar tissue to build up in the liver. alcohol alters the chemicals in the liver needed to break down and remove this scar tissue. as a result, liver function suffers. if you continue to drink, this excessive scar tissue builds up and creates a condition called cirrhosis, which is a slow deterioration of the liver. cirrhosis prevents the liver from performing critical functions, including managing infections, removing harmful substances from the blood, and absorbing nutrients. a variety of complications, including jaundice, insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes, and even liver cancer, can result as cirrhosis weakens liver function. risk factors ranging from genetics and gender, to alcohol accessibility, social customs around drinking, and even diet can affect a person ’ s individual susceptibility to alcoholic liver disease. statistics show that about one in five heavy drinkers will develop alcoholic hepatitis, while one in four will develop cirrhosis. know there ’ s a bright side : the good news is that a variety of lifestyle changes can help treat alcoholic liver disease. the most critical lifestyle change is abstinence from alcohol. quitting drinking will help prevent further injury to your liver. cigarette smoking, obesity, and poor nutrition all contribute to alcoholic liver disease. it is important to stop smoking and improve your eating habits to keep liver disease in check. but when conditions like cirrhosis become severe, a liver transplant may be the primary treatment option. effects on the pancreas know the facts : each year, acute pancreatitis sends more than 200, 000 americans to the hospital. many of those who suffer from pancreatic problems are also heavy drinkers. habitual and excessive drinking damages the pancreas, and commonly causes pancreatitis. learning more about the links between alcohol and pancreatic problems can help you make better decisions to protect your health. know the function : the pancreas plays an important role in food digestion and its conversion into fuel to power your body. it sends enzymes


about the links between alcohol and pancreatic problems can help you make better decisions to protect your health. know the function : the pancreas plays an important role in food digestion and its conversion into fuel to power your body. it sends enzymes into the small intestine to digest carbohydrates, proteins, and fat. it also secretes insulin and glucagon, hormones that regulate the process of utilizing glucose, the body ’ s main source of energy. insulin and glucagon control glucose levels, which helps all cells use the energy glucose provides. insulin also ensures that extra glucose gets stored away as either glycogen or fat. when you drink, alcohol damages pancreatic cells and influences metabolic processes involving insulin. this process leaves the pancreas open to dangerous inflammations. know the risks : a pancreas unaffected by alcohol sends enzymes out to the small intestine to metabolize food. alcohol jumbles this process. it causes the pancreas to secrete its digestive juices internally, rather than sending the enzymes to the small intestine. these enzymes, as well as acetaldehyde — a substance produced from metabolizing, or breaking down the alcohol — are harmful to the pancreas. if you consume alcohol excessively over a long time, this continued process can cause inflammation, as well as swelling of tissues and blood vessels. this inflammation is called pancreatitis, and it prevents the pancreas from working properly. pancreatitis occurs as a sudden attack, called acute pancreatitis. as excessive drinking continues, the inflammation can become constant. this condition is known as chronic pancreatitis. pancreatitis is also a risk factor for the development of pancreatic cancer. a heavy drinker may not be able to detect the build - up of pancreatic damage until the problems set off an attack. an acute pancreatic attack causes symptoms including : - abdominal pain, which may radiate up the back - nausea and vomiting - rapid heart rate chronic pancreatitis causes these symptoms as well as severe abdominal pain, significant reduction in pancreatic function and digestion, and blood sugar problems. chronic pancreatitis can slowly destroy the pancreas and lead to diabetes or even death. while a single drinking binge will not automatically lead to pancreatitis, the risk of developing the disease increases as excessive drinking continues over time. these risks apply to all heavy drinkers,


pancreas and lead to diabetes or even death. while a single drinking binge will not automatically lead to pancreatitis, the risk of developing the disease increases as excessive drinking continues over time. these risks apply to all heavy drinkers, but only about 5 percent of people with alcohol dependence develop pancreatitis. some people are more susceptible to the disease than others, but researchers have not yet identified exactly what environmental and genetic factors play the biggest role. treatment helps — but does not cure abstinence from alcohol can slow the progression of pancreatitis and reduce its painful symptoms. a low - fat diet also may help. it is also critical to guard against infections and to get supportive treatment. treatment options, including enzyme - replacement therapy or insulin, can improve pancreatic function. in some cases, surgery is necessary to relieve pain, clear blockages, and reduce attacks. the effects of alcoholic pancreatitis can be managed, but not easily reversed. know the risks : genetics, environment, and lifestyle habits can all heighten your risk of getting cancer. we can ’ t do anything to change our genes, and we often can ’ t do much to change our environment. but lifestyle habits are a different story. drinking too much alcohol is one lifestyle habit that can increase your risk of developing certain cancers. this does not mean that anyone who drinks too much will develop cancer. but numerous studies do show the more you drink, the more you increase your chances of developing certain types of cancer. for example, a group of italy - based scientists reviewed more than 200 studies examining alcohol ’ s impact on cancer risk. the collective results of these studies clearly demonstrate that the more you drink, the higher your risk for developing a variety of cancers. the national cancer institute identifies alcohol as a risk factor for the following types of cancer : at least 7 out of 10 people with mouth cancer drink heavily. drinking five or more drinks per day can also increase your risk of developing other types of cancers, including colon or rectal cancer. in fact, summary estimates from the recent world cancer research fund report indicate that women who drink five standard alcohol drinks each day have about 1. 2 times the risk of developing colon or rectal cancer than women who do not drink at all. people who drink are also more likely to smoke, and the combination increases the risk significantly. smoking alone is a known risk factor for some cancers. but smoking and drinking together intensifies the cancer - causing properties of each substance. the overall effect poses an even greater


are also more likely to smoke, and the combination increases the risk significantly. smoking alone is a known risk factor for some cancers. but smoking and drinking together intensifies the cancer - causing properties of each substance. the overall effect poses an even greater risk. the risk of throat and mouth cancers is especially high because alcohol and tobacco both come in direct contact with those areas. overall, people who drink and smoke are 15 times more likely to develop cancers of the mouth and throat than nondrinkers and nonsmokers. in addition, recent studies estimate that alcohol and tobacco together are responsible for : - 80 percent of throat and mouth cancer in men - 65 percent of throat and mouth cancer in women - 80 percent of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma, a type of esophagus cancer - 25 to 30 percent of all liver cancers women and cancer one recent, groundbreaking study followed the drinking habits of 1. 2 million middle - aged women over 7 years. the study found that alcohol increases women ’ s chances of developing cancers of the breast, mouth, throat, rectum, liver, and esophagus. the researchers link alcohol to about 13 percent of these cancer cases. in addition, the study concluded that cancer risk increases no matter how little or what kind of alcohol a woman drinks. even one drink a day can raise risk, and it continues to rise with each additional drink. while men did not participate in this study, the researchers believe this risk is likely similar for men. this study also attributes about 11 percent of all breast cancer cases to alcohol. that means that of the 250, 000 breast cancer cases diagnosed in the united states in 2008, about 27, 000 may stem from alcohol. know the reasons : scientists are still trying to figure out exactly how and why alcohol can promote cancer. there are a variety of possible explanations. one explanation is that alcohol itself is not the primary trigger for cancer. we know that metabolizing, or breaking down, alcohol results in harmful toxins in the body. one of these toxins is called acetylaldehyde. acetylaldehyde damages the genetic material in cells — and renders the cells incapable of repairing the damage. it also causes cells to grow too quickly, which makes conditions ripe for genetic changes and mistakes. cancer can develop more easily in cells with damaged genetic material. in addition, recent animal studies have shown that as cells try to break down alcohol, they cause the body to produce additional amounts of a protein called vascular endothelial


genetic changes and mistakes. cancer can develop more easily in cells with damaged genetic material. in addition, recent animal studies have shown that as cells try to break down alcohol, they cause the body to produce additional amounts of a protein called vascular endothelial growth factor ( vegf ). vegf promotes the growth of blood vessels and organ tissue. but, the flip side of having too much vegf is that it allows blood vessels to grow in cancer cells that would die on their own. this allows the cancer cells to develop into tumors. we also know that alcohol can damage the liver, causing cirrhosis. cirrhosis results when too much scar tissue builds up within the liver and leaves it unable to perform its vital functions. one of the many complications that can result from cirrhosis is liver cancer. hormones may be the link between alcohol and breast cancer. alcohol can increase the amounts of some hormones in the body, including estrogen. an excess of estrogen may lead to breast cancer. finally, genetics may play a role in preventing some heavy drinkers from developing cancer. a european research team examined 9, 000 people with similar lifestyle habits to determine why some of them developed mouth and throat cancers, and some did not. of the participants who were heavy drinkers, those who did not develop cancers had a particular genetic alteration that enabled them to break down alcohol about 100 times faster than in those without it. the study suggested that this gene is the reason why some people are less likely to develop cancer in response to heavy drinking. know there ’ s a bright side : fortunately, studies show that you can reduce your risk for cancer by drinking less. a recent canadian report analyzed studies from 1966 through 2006 and concluded that risk reduction is possible, specifically for head and neck cancers. the study found that as people abstained from drinking, their risk for developing cancer plunged. after 20 years of abstinence, former drinkers had the same risk for head and neck cancers as people who never drank. effects on the immune system germs and bacteria surround us everywhere. luckily, our immune system is designed to protect our bodies from the scores of foreign substances that can make us sick. drinking too much alcohol weakens the immune system, making your body a much easier target for disease. understanding the effect alcohol can have on your immune system can inform the decisions you make about drinking alcohol. know the facts : your immune system is often compared to an army. this army defends your body from infection and disease. your skin and the mucous that lines


alcohol can have on your immune system can inform the decisions you make about drinking alcohol. know the facts : your immune system is often compared to an army. this army defends your body from infection and disease. your skin and the mucous that lines your respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts help block bacteria from entering or staying in your body. if foreign substances somehow make it through these barriers, your immune system kicks into gear with two defensive systems : innate and adaptive. the innate system exists in your body before you are exposed to foreign substances like bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites. these substances, which are called antigens, can invade your body and make you sick. the components of the innate system include : - white blood cells – white blood cells form your first line of defense against infection. they surround and swallow foreign bodies quickly. - natural killer ( nk ) cells – natural killers are special white blood cells that detect and destroy cells infected with cancer or viruses. - cytokines – white blood cells send out these chemical messengers directly to an infected site. cytokines trigger inflammatory responses, like dilating blood vessels and increasing blood flow to the affected area. they also call on more white blood cells to swarm an infected area. the adaptive system kicks in after you are exposed to an infection for the first time. the next time you encounter the same infection, your adaptive system fights it off even faster and more efficiently than the first time. the components of the adaptive system include : - t - lymphocyte cells – t - cells reinforce the work of white blood cells by targeting individual foreign substances. t - cells can identify and destroy a vast array of bacteria and viruses. they can also kill infected cells and secrete cytokines. - b - lymphocyte cells – b - cells produce antibodies that fight off harmful substances by sticking to them and making them stand out to other immune cells. - antibodies – after b - cells encounter antigens, they produce antibodies. these are proteins that target specific antigens and then remember how to combat the antigen. know the risks : alcohol suppresses both the innate and the adaptive immune systems. chronic alcohol use reduces the ability of white blood cells to effectively engulf and swallow harmful bacteria. excessive drinking also disrupts the production of cytokines, causing your body to either produce too much or not enough of these chemical messengers. an abundance of cytokines can damage your tissues, whereas a lack of cytokines leaves you open to infection. chronic alcohol use also suppresses


cytokines, causing your body to either produce too much or not enough of these chemical messengers. an abundance of cytokines can damage your tissues, whereas a lack of cytokines leaves you open to infection. chronic alcohol use also suppresses the development of t - cells and may impair the ability of nk cells to attack tumor cells. this reduced function makes you more vulnerable to bacteria and viruses, and less capable of destroying cancerous cells. with a compromised immune system, chronic drinkers are more liable to contract diseases like pneumonia and tuberculosis than people who do not drink too much. there is also data linking alcohol ’ s damage to the immune system with an increased susceptibility to contracting hiv infection. hiv develops faster in chronic drinkers who already have the virus. drinking a lot on a single occasion also can compromise your immune system. drinking to intoxication can slow your body ’ s ability to produce cytokines that ward off infections by causing inflammations. without these inflammatory responses, your body ’ s ability to defend itself against bacteria is significantly reduced. a recent study shows that slower inflammatory cytokine production can reduce your ability to fight off infections for up to 24 hours after getting drunk. still looking for the bright side at this point, scientists do not know whether abstinence, reduced drinking, or other measures will help reverse the effects of alcohol on the immune system. nevertheless, it is important to keep in mind that avoiding drinking helps minimize the burden on your immune system, particularly if you are fighting a viral or bacterial infection.


glob, globfree - generate pathnames matching a pattern int glob ( const char * restrict pattern, int flags, int ( * errfunc ) ( const char * epath, int eerrno ), glob _ t * restrict pglob ) ; void globfree ( glob _ t * pglob ) ; the glob ( ) function is a pathname generator that shall implement the rules defined in xcu pattern matching notation, with optional support for rule 3 in xcu patterns used for filename expansion. the structure type glob _ t is defined in < glob. h > and includes at least the following members : count of paths matched by pattern. pointer to a list of matched pathnames. slots to reserve at the beginning of gl _ pathv. the argument pattern is a pointer to a pathname pattern to be expanded. the glob ( ) function shall match all accessible pathnames against this pattern and develop a list of all pathnames that match. in order to have access to a pathname, glob ( ) requires search permission on every component of a path except the last, and read permission on each directory of any filename component of pattern that contains any of the following special characters : ' * ', '? ', and ' [ '. the glob ( ) function shall store the number of matched pathnames into pglob - > gl _ pathc and a pointer to a list of pointers to pathnames into pglob - > gl _ pathv. the pathnames shall be in sort order as defined by the current setting of the lc _ collate category ; see xbd lc _ collate. the first pointer after the last pathname shall be a null pointer. if the pattern does not match any pathnames, the returned number of matched paths is set to 0, and the contents of pglob - > gl _ pathv are implementation - defined. it is the caller ' s responsibility to create the structure pointed to by pglob. the glob ( ) function shall allocate other space as needed, including the memory pointed to by gl _ pathv. the globfree ( ) function shall free any space associated with pglob from a previous call to glob ( ). the flags argument is used to control the behavior of glob


pointed to by gl _ pathv. the globfree ( ) function shall free any space associated with pglob from a previous call to glob ( ). the flags argument is used to control the behavior of glob ( ). the value of flags is a bitwise - inclusive or of zero or more of the following constants, which are defined in < glob. h > : - append pathnames generated to the ones from a previous call to glob ( ). - make use of pglob - > gl _ offs. if this flag is set, pglob - > gl _ offs is used to specify how many null pointers to add to the beginning of pglob - > gl _ pathv. in other words, pglob - > gl _ pathv shall point to pglob - > gl _ offs null pointers, followed by pglob - > gl _ pathc pathname pointers, followed by a null pointer. - cause glob ( ) to return when it encounters a directory that it cannot open or read. ordinarily, glob ( ) continues to find matches. - each pathname that is a directory that matches pattern shall have a < slash > appended. - supports rule 3 in xcu patterns used for filename expansion. if pattern does not match any pathname, then glob ( ) shall return a list consisting of only pattern, and the number of matched pathnames is 1. - disable backslash escaping. - ordinarily, glob ( ) sorts the matching pathnames according to the current setting of the lc _ collate category ; see xbd lc _ collate. when this flag is used, the order of pathnames returned is unspecified. the glob _ append flag can be used to append a new set of pathnames to those found in a previous call to glob ( ). the following rules apply to applications when two or more calls to glob ( ) are made with the same value of pglob and without intervening calls to globfree ( ) : the first such call shall not set glob _ append. all subsequent calls shall set it. all the calls shall set glob _ dooffs, or all shall not set it. after the second call, pglob - > gl _ pathv points to a


not fail because of large files. upon successful completion, glob ( ) shall return 0. the argument pglob - > gl _ pathc shall return the number of matched pathnames and the argument pglob - > gl _ pathv shall contain a pointer to a null - terminated list of matched and sorted pathnames. however, if pglob - > gl _ pathc is 0, the content of pglob - > gl _ pathv is undefined. the globfree ( ) function shall not return a value. if glob ( ) terminates due to an error, it shall return one of the non - zero constants defined in < glob. h >. the arguments pglob - > gl _ pathc and pglob - > gl _ pathv are still set as defined above. the glob ( ) function shall fail and return the corresponding value if : - the scan was stopped because glob _ err was set or ( * errfunc ( ) ) returned non - zero. - the pattern does not match any existing pathname, and glob _ nocheck was not set in flags. - an attempt to allocate memory failed. one use of the glob _ dooffs flag is by applications that build an argument list for use with execv ( ), execve ( ), or execvp ( ). suppose, for example, that an application wants to do the equivalent of : ls - l *. c but for some reason : system ( " ls - l *. c " ) is not acceptable. the application could obtain approximately the same result using the sequence : globbuf. gl _ offs = 2 ; glob ( " *. c ", glob _ dooffs, null, & globbuf ) ; globbuf. gl _ pathv = " ls " ; globbuf. gl _ pathv = " - l " ; execvp ( " ls ", & globbuf. gl _ pathv ) ; using the same example : ls - l *. c *. h could be approximately simulated using glob _ append as follows : globbuf. gl _ offs = 2 ; glob ( " *. c ", glob _ dooffs, null,


. c *. h could be approximately simulated using glob _ append as follows : globbuf. gl _ offs = 2 ; glob ( " *. c ", glob _ dooffs, null, & globbuf ) ; glob ( " *. h ", glob _ dooffs | glob _ append, null, & globbuf ) ;... this function is not provided for the purpose of enabling utilities to perform pathname expansion on their arguments, as this operation is performed by the shell, and utilities are explicitly not expected to redo this. instead, it is provided for applications that need to do pathname expansion on strings obtained from other sources, such as a pattern typed by a user or read from a file. if a utility needs to see if a pathname matches a given pattern, it can use fnmatch ( ). note that gl _ pathc and gl _ pathv have meaning even if glob ( ) fails. this allows glob ( ) to report partial results in the event of an error. however, if gl _ pathc is 0, gl _ pathv is unspecified even if glob ( ) did not return an error. the glob _ nocheck option could be used when an application wants to expand a pathname if wildcards are specified, but wants to treat the pattern as just a string otherwise. the sh utility might use this for option - arguments, for example. the new pathnames generated by a subsequent call with glob _ append are not sorted together with the previous pathnames. this mirrors the way that the shell handles pathname expansion when multiple expansions are done on a command line. applications that need tilde and parameter expansion should use wordexp ( ). it was claimed that the glob _ dooffs flag is unnecessary because it could be simulated using : new = ( char * * ) malloc ( ( n + pglob - > gl _ pathc + 1 ) * sizeof ( char * ) ) ; ( void ) memcpy ( new + n, pglob - > gl _ pathv, pglob - > gl _ pathc * sizeof ( char * ) ) ; ( void ) memset ( new, 0, n * sizeof ( char * ) ) ; free ( pglob - > gl


, pglob - > gl _ pathc * sizeof ( char * ) ) ; ( void ) memset ( new, 0, n * sizeof ( char * ) ) ; free ( pglob - > gl _ pathv ) ; pglob - > gl _ pathv = new ; however, this assumes that the memory pointed to by gl _ pathv is a block that was separately created using malloc ( ). this is not necessarily the case. an application should make no assumptions about how the memory referenced by fields in pglob was allocated. it might have been obtained from malloc ( ) in a large chunk and then carved up within glob ( ), or it might have been created using a different memory allocator. it is not the intent of the standard developers to specify or imply how the memory used by glob ( ) is managed. the glob _ append flag would be used when an application wants to expand several different patterns into a single list. exec, fdopendir, fnmatch, fstatat, readdir, wordexp xbd lc _ collate, < glob. h > first released in issue 4. derived from the iso posix - 2 standard. moved from posix2 c - language binding to base. the normative text is updated to avoid use of the term " must " for application requirements. the restrict keyword is added to the glob ( ) prototype for alignment with the iso / iec 9899 : 1999 standard. return to top of page


stakeholder relationships and connections ( from figure 1 ) future research priorities of geography emphasize the discipline ' s leadership role in the u. s. geological survey ( usgs ) in multidisciplinary and integrated research on human and environmental systems and how these systems are interrelated and respond to change geography ' s research priorities also emphasize providing science that is usable to society and creating decision support products applicable to given customer problems. to achieve these goals, we must understand the relationship between our research and our customer, and how to integrate the customer into the research process. this report details the elements of the research process that help achieve the degree of stakeholder involvement necessary to ensure a successful end - product. it offers suggestions that can help researchers better understand stakeholders and customers and involve them in the research process more effectively, while preserving the integrity of the science. its aim is to help researchers understand the problems and challenges faced by our customers and communicate the ways in which geography can help address their problems. adopting these guidelines can improve the efficiency of the research process and lead to higher quality output. we will be able to conduct better research because we will have an improved understanding of the research problem and the stakeholders involved. this report covers a broad range of topics, from identifying and communicating with stakeholders and users, to the use of language, to how to effectively present scientific information to the user. it does not offer a " one size fits all " method. instead, perhaps only specific sections are suitable for a given project and customers, depending on project scope and needs. this report is based on the objectives of geography ' s strategic plan, u. s. geological survey ' s strategic plan, and department of interior ' s strategic plan. section 2 of these guidelines describes the purpose of the research process in geography and the need for better user involvement in the process. section 3 explains how to conduct a stakeholder analysis. section 4 explains how to conduct a user - needs assessment. download this report as a 35 - page pdf file ( of2006 - 1344. pdf ; 416 kb ) for questions about the content of this report, contact caroline hermans download a copy of the latest version of adobe reader for free. pdf help | publications main page | | western open - file reports for 2006 | | geography | science impact |


spawning, larval abundance and growth rate of sardinops sagax off southwestern australia : influence of an anomalous eastern boundary current muhling, b. a., beckley, l. e., gaughan, d. j., jones, c. m., miskiewicz, a. g. and hesp, s. a. ( 2008 ) spawning, larval abundance and growth rate of sardinops sagax off southwestern australia : influence of an anomalous eastern boundary current. marine ecology progress series, 364. pp. 157 - 167. | pdf - published version | download ( 651kb ) | preview * subscription may be required the temporal and spatial distributions of sardine sardinops sagax eggs and larvae off the oligotrophic southwestern coast of australia were examined and related to gonadosomatic index, daily growth rates of larvae and regional biological oceanography. seasonal environmental cycles were established from remotely sensed sea surface temperature and chlorophyll concentration, wind and sea surface height data. sardine egg and larval distributions were determined from regular transect surveys and annual grid surveys. sardine eggs and larvae were common across the continental shelf throughout the year between two rocks and cape naturaliste ( to 34°s ), and gonadosomatic index data suggested a distinct winter peak in spawning activity. surface chlorophyll concentrations were highest during winter, coincident with the seasonal peak in the southward flow of the leeuwin current along the continental shelf break. retention conditions on the mid - outer shelf for pelagic eggs and larvae were therefore poor during this time. egg and larval concentrations were lower than expected in winter and higher in summer when retention conditions were more favourable. larval sardine growth rates were unexpectedly high, averaging 0. 82 mm d - 1. fisheries for clupeiod species off southwestern australia are insignificant compared to other eastern boundary current systems. our data suggest that this may be due to a combination of low primary productivity caused by suppression of large - scale upwelling by the leeuwin current and the modest seasonal maximum in primary productivity occurring during the time least favourable for pelagic larval retention. | publication type : | | journal article | | murdoch affiliation : | | school of biological sciences and biotechnology | school of environmental science | copyright : | | © inter - research 2008 | | item control page |


charles hall, the father of the energy return on investment ( eroi ) concept, once told me that our current society would probably not be able to function if the eroi for the entire society slipped below five. what does that mean? first, a quick review. it takes energy to get energy. eroi is a measurement of how efficient a process, an enterprise or a society is in obtaining energy. eroi is usually expressed in a ratio, say, 20 to 1. that would mean that the process being studied produced 20 units of energy for every one unit expended. as it turns out, that ' s about what conventional crude oil returns. hall estimates that the united states is currently running on an eroi of just under 40 to 1. this looks like a fairly substantial margin of safety over the 5 to 1 that might lead to societal breakdown. but worrisome developments in the oil, natural gas and coal fields may send us rushing toward that figure. a post earlier this year on the oil drum suggests that the eroi for natural gas in north america is dropping like a stone. this is, in part, reflected in the price of natural gas which is up fourfold in this decade. it is also reflected in the number of wells and the number of total feet drilled just to maintain production. we are having to drill faster and deeper just to stay even. the recent uptick in u. s. supplies may represent a small flattening of the eroi decline, but those supplies are the product of furious drilling and huge exploration expenditures. the tar sands, presumed to be the great energy savior for north america, have long been a low eroi source of oil. estimates range from 1 to 1 to about 7 to 1. work by charles hall and his students posted on the oil drum gives a tentative estimate of 5. 2 to 1 based on admittedly incomplete data. coal has a very high return when used to generate electricity, around 80 to 1. but evidence now suggests that in the united states at least, not only has the energy content per ton of coal declined by more than 30 percent since 1955, but the total energy content of coal mined in the country is now falling despite rising coal tonnage. but what about nuclear? hall and his students once again attempted to calculate the eroi. others have made claims of 1. 86 to 1 to 93 to 1. the very high estimates appear to leave out many steps in the nuclear fuel and construction cycle. some contend that the eroi of nuclear is favorable enough


to calculate the eroi. others have made claims of 1. 86 to 1 to 93 to 1. the very high estimates appear to leave out many steps in the nuclear fuel and construction cycle. some contend that the eroi of nuclear is favorable enough - - perhaps 11 to 1 - - to argue for expansion of nuclear power. but, if one takes into account all the energy that will be expended over time storing nuclear waste and guarding the waste and the mothballed nuclear plants in the future, the eroi could drop below 1. essentially, we get the benefit now, and future generations get both the security and energy expenditures. on its current trajectory, nuclear power may not even maintain its share of world energy production. it would certainly be useful to know what the true eroi of nuclear power is in order to assess its importance to our energy future. solar power has promise as shown in this chart compiled by hall and his students. but, the estimated eroi ranges are so wide that it would be difficult to promise that solar photovoltaic could consistently provide returns above 5 to 1. this chart provides an estimate of above 70 to 1 for wind power in one location. eroi in this case, of course, depends heavily on whether the wind generators are located in ultra - windy denmark or not - so - windy japan. the main problem with wind and solar, however, is that they are intermittent ; the energy produced is difficult to store for use during nighttime or low - wind conditions. finally, hydroelectric has a very high eroi. while there is still room for some expansion of hydro power in the developing world, most of the good sites have already been taken in north america and europe. and, this brings us to the idea of the net energy cliff. if our energy transition away from fossil fuels does not result in their replacement by high eroi sources of energy with the necessary versatility and storage characteristics, or if such replacements are possible, but delayed too long, then we may be facing a net energy cliff. it may seem that the difference between an eroi of 40 to 1 and one of, say, 30 to 1 would be comparable to a move from 20 to 1 to 10 to 1. but the mathematics say otherwise. in a society that has an eroi of 40 ( which is approximately what the united states is thought to have ) about 2. 5 percent of the economy is devoted to gathering energy for the other 97. 5 percent. if an economy has an eroi of 30 to 1, then the


of 40 ( which is approximately what the united states is thought to have ) about 2. 5 percent of the economy is devoted to gathering energy for the other 97. 5 percent. if an economy has an eroi of 30 to 1, then the portion of the economy involved in gathering energy rises to about 3. 3 percent. this is a significant jump, but probably manageable. however, an eroi that drops from 20 to 1 to 10 to 1 results in the doubling of the part of the economy devoted to securing energy from 5 percent to 10 percent. a further drop to an eroi of 5 to 1, puts 20 percent of the economy within the general classification of energy gathering. this is the net energy cliff. a drop to an eroi of 5 in today ' s american economy would mean that the energy sector of society would have to grow eightfold. if the drop came quickly, it would be very difficult to adapt. if the eroi were to drop to, say, 3, this would imply that potentially every third person would be involved in gathering energy in some fashion. such a society would have little resemblence to the one we now inhabit. the net energy cliff shows us how important eroi is when considering energy alternatives. even very large resources such as the tar sands and oil shale become problematic when one considers their eroi. there appear to be two ways forward then. one is to hope for breakthroughs which increase the energy returns of alternative energy sources. a second is to rework our infrastructure and our way of living so that our society can better withstand a significant overall decline in eroi should it develop.


bringing a new baby home is one of the most exciting times for parents and grandparents. 9 months of planning and anticipation finally pays off when the new addition arrives safe and sound. however, there may be one person who isn ' t quite sure what all the fuss is about and what having a new child in the family is going to mean for them. the sibling. a new brother or sister may be thrilling to most of the family members, but a new baby who is getting all the attention can seem overwhelming to the first child, especially for very young siblings. their very sense of security can feel threatened, leaving them feeling angry and acting out. so, before the little bundle of joy arrives, it ' s a good idea to prepare the older child for big changes ahead. you can do that as early as when mom starts showing. introduce the idea that mommy is pregnant. being pregnant means that mom & dad are going to have another child, and that means a little brother or sister is going to be part of the family. one good tip is to have a calendar on hand and circle the date when the baby is due. have the older child start marking the days as they go by. if you have a very young child you can say the baby will arrive in the summer, when the weather gets hot. or in the fall, when all the leaves start to fall. give them something they can identify with if they are too young to understand dates. once that ' s established, ask them if they have any questions about having a little brother or sister. children may be so surprised that they don ' t have anything to ask right away. but as time goes on, they will have plenty of questions. give answers that are age appropriate in a language that is easy to understand. keep your answers simple but inclusive of how a new baby may affect their life. an example might be the baby will cry and may wake you up at night for a while. that ' s normal behavior for a new baby. we ' ll all be tired for a little while, but it will get better. you can also bring out pictures or videos of when they were babies. children love to hear stories about when they were little. explain how much you loved them then and now. this little exercise in closeness can also help them understand the importance of babies and what a baby can bring to the family. as the due date gets closer, try and keep everything as routine as possible. avoid big transitions such as potty training, changing to a big girl or boy bed


help them understand the importance of babies and what a baby can bring to the family. as the due date gets closer, try and keep everything as routine as possible. avoid big transitions such as potty training, changing to a big girl or boy bed, getting rid of the pacifier or binky or anything that may separate the older sibling from the family. if the sibling must undergo some of these changes, start as early as possible so that they don ' t make a negative association between these changes and the baby. one unavoidable change that might occur is that mom will be away for a few days when the baby is born. prepare your child for your absence during the birth of the new baby ( how long you will be gone, where your child will stay ). if your child is going to stay with someone else for a few days, do a couple of practice stay - overs so they will see that you will come back and bring them home. for toddlers, you might also consider role - playing with dolls. let them use the doll to ask questions or talk about their fears or excitement about the baby. once the baby is born allow the sibling to come to the hospital and see the baby and that mom is ok. a cute tip is to have a gift from the new baby for the sibling. once baby is home, suppress any negative comparisons such as you cried a lot more, or he or she is a lot calmer than you were. other things to keep in mind are : - don ' t be alarmed if siblings don ' t express an interest in the new baby. sibling relationships have a lifetime to develop. - accept that some regression may occur ; this is normal. baby your big - boy / girl for a while, if that ' s what he / she seems to need. - remind visitors to pay attention to your older kids and monitor gift - giving. it can be upsetting for sibling to see all of the presents that the newborn receives, especially when people don ' ' t bring something for them. - try not to blame the baby for your new limitations ( mommy can ' t play with you now because i have to feed the baby or mommy needs to change the baby, so you need to read to yourself ). blaming new babies for decreased time spent with you can breed sibling resentment. instead, involve siblings in child - care as helpers. - create opportunities for older siblings to be participants and not competitors ( e. g., getting a diaper ready, reading the baby a story,


spent with you can breed sibling resentment. instead, involve siblings in child - care as helpers. - create opportunities for older siblings to be participants and not competitors ( e. g., getting a diaper ready, reading the baby a story, pushing the carriage ). - remind siblings of the things they can do because they are older ( e. g., eating food, playing with toys, going to the playground ). - remember to give siblings private time with you and reinforce the idea that many of the things they are able to help out with ( e. g., errand running, meal preparation, etc. ), are because of their advanced abilities. while you are busy with a new baby, developmental changes are still going on with your older child. kids that are two or under may have difficulty with a new addition because they still have strong needs as well. stress in the family can make the sibling ' s adjustment more difficult. so remember to stay calm when you ' re with the children. one more thing to be aware of is how rough a sibling may be with a new baby. they really don ' t understand how delicate the baby is and have to learn what kind of playing or interaction is too rough. they may also hug a little to hard. you ' ll have to guide them in the correct gentle behaviors. focus on your older child ' s positive behaviors towards the new baby such as i like how you gently kiss your little brother or sister. having a new baby in the family is difficult, but don ' t despair. the first few months will be an adjustment for everyone. but before you know it, the new baby will feel like he or she has always been a part of the family. source : bronwyn charlton, phd, http : / / www. everydayhealth. com / kids - health / prepping - your - child - for - a - new - sibling. aspx


the coalition is watering down a commitment to tough new environmental emissions standards, raising the possibility of dirty coal - fired power stations such as kingsnorth going ahead. to understand why the coalition is appearing to slow down, one needs to understand the policy context of decisions about energy policy. a new report out by arthur d. little, a consultancy, clearly and concisely spells out the practical realities facing uk policy makers. the issue of decarbonization is not so much about rhetoric and good intentions, but about the facts on the ground related to technology, costs and implementation. green groups are aghast that a flagship policy called for in opposition by both lib dems and tories, and which they last year tried to force on the labour government, will now not be implemented in the coalition ' s first energy bill to be published this year. their criticism of the government ' s commitment to green issues follows news last week that nature reserves could be sold off as countryside protection measures also bear the brunt of budget cuts in the department for environment. introducing a so - called " environmental performance standard " ( eps ) for power companies would have restricted greenhouse gas emissions from coal and gas plants and encouraged companies wishing to build to use more efficient technology. david cameron, george osborne and nick clegg when in opposition ; their opposition to kingsnorth became something of a cause celebre – and even features in the coalition agreement – but was opposed by energy companies and tory backbenchers. the chief executive at one coal - plant operating company warned that the uk ' s renewable energy technology – which would be used to help new plants meet the target – was too undeveloped to make the eps feasible. now government sources confirm they will not be bringing forward legislation in the autumn and will instead spend the summer working on " the larger picture ". they will open a consultation on the idea in the autumn with the results being presented to parliament as a white paper in the new year. the report first explains the nature of the challenge : the [ uk low carbon transition ] plan set out how the uk would reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 34 % below 1990 levels by 2020. this is a step along the path to the much more ambitious target of an 80 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions across the entire economy by 2050. central to the plan is increasing the proportion of electricity from renewable sources to around 30 % by 2020, up from the current level of 6. 2 % in the first quarter of 2010. the report then explains the practical realities shaping efforts to reach the


. central to the plan is increasing the proportion of electricity from renewable sources to around 30 % by 2020, up from the current level of 6. 2 % in the first quarter of 2010. the report then explains the practical realities shaping efforts to reach the emissions reduction targets set forth in uk law : these targets are to be met through a plethora of initiatives and incentives ranging from the renewables obligation and feed - in tariffs, respectively aimed at bringing large - and small - scale renewable generation onto the system, through to increasing the share of renewable fuels in the transport sector to over 5 % from 2013. there is also a plan to install smart meters in all 26 million uk homes by 2020, which, together with feed - in tariffs, are expected inter alia to speed - up the installation of small - scale heat and power generation in households, and to facilitate the development of smart grids to allow better system management and enable wider distributed generation growth. consumers are also expected to make large greenhouse gas reductions by both significant changes in behaviour, enabled by smart meters, and further energy efficiency improvements within the home. at the same time, the government apparently favours the widespread adoption of electric vehicles, which will add significantly to the amount of power generation capacity required, and for which significant investment in a battery charging infrastructure will be needed. all of these measures, combined with reductions from many other initiatives in a range of sectors, are designed to help reach the government ’ s ambitious targets. but governments in general tend to over - estimate the level of take - up of different policy measures. the growth in large - scale renewable generation, for example, has not been anywhere near as fast as successive government estimates have predicted, and has focused heavily on one technology, namely wind generation. this slow take - up is likely to continue, at least in the near term, and each year that passes without significant construction makes it more and more difficult to reach the 2020 targets. recent estimates are that 7, 000 offshore turbines will need to be constructed between now and 2020, nearly two per day every day of this decade. even investors in this activity doubt that such a level of activity is achievable. the report explains that costs of all of these proposed actions are high and may not even deliver the promised emissions reductions. the report argues that new wind power costs 6 times as much as equivalent gas - fired energy ( or as much as 18 times more, depending on the methods used, capital costs only ). the report has this bottom line : the rollout of smart meters


report argues that new wind power costs 6 times as much as equivalent gas - fired energy ( or as much as 18 times more, depending on the methods used, capital costs only ). the report has this bottom line : the rollout of smart meters will also be a herculean task, with over 2. 5 million meters having to be installed every year, from a near standing start, by 2020 at the latest. there is currently not enough capacity to install this number of meters, nor is it clear exactly what these meters will look like because there is, as yet, no agreed standard. it is also worth noting that there are different degrees of “ smartness ” in meters. they can range from meters that display real - time energy usage, to meters that allow two - way communication, enabling price signals to be sent to consumers or remote signalling of appliances to turn off during periods of high demand and high prices. it is not clear which level of “ smartness ” will be installed, although ofgem proposes two - way communication as a minimum. again, there is an implicit assumption by policy makers that a large shift in consumer behaviour will occur once smart meters are installed e. g. responding to price signals and turning off appliances at times of high demand. however, there is little evidence that this will occur to anywhere near the expected degree : pilot studies may not reflect the real world. if parallels can be drawn, they would be with consumer switching behaviour in the face of energy market liberalisation. the uk has one of the highest rates of consumer energy switching, yet in a july 2008 survey ofgem found that 44 % of electricity and 40 % of gas customers had never switched supplier, and that a further 44 % of electricity and 31 % of gas consumers had only switched once. this is despite high - profile advertising campaigns by retailers setting out how much money consumers could save, and very simple processes for switching, facilitated by internet sites. what is really needed now will be a bitter pill for many to swallow : a slow - down in the drive for low carbon solutions. a slow - down in uk decarbonization policy with respect to the targets of the 2008 climate change act is inevitable. i do the math in this paper. in that paper, written in early 2009, soon after the act was passed as law, i wrote that the uk would need to achieve the 2006 carbon efficiency of france by no later than 2015 if it was going to be on track to meeting its short - term emissions reduction target ( france was at 0


studying php ' s ( 5. 3. 1 and below ) lcg ( linear congruential generator, a pseudorandom number generator ), i discovered that there are weaknesses that reduce the complexity of determining the sequence of pseudorandom numbers. what this means is that php is severely deficient in producing random session ids or random numbers, leading to the possibility of stealing sessions or other sensitive information. the initial seed can be reduced from 64 - bits to 35 - bits, and with php code execution, can be reduced further down to just under 20 - bits, which takes only seconds to recreate the initial seed. you can test with sources available below. mad hax0r pr0pz to arshan " dhs - most - wanted " dabirsiaghi ( bless you ) and amit " smartypants " klein for pointing me in the right direction with the lcg. other tools to work out the lcg in forward and reverse, as well as determine session ids, found below. to test breaking the seed, run the following ( after compiling s1s2. c ) time. / s1s2 11484 0. 82548251995711 can you guess my next lcg _ value based off the above? ( hint : it ' s 0. 86290409858717 ). test by running : time. / lcg - state - forward [ s1 ] [ s2 ] 100 your session _ id is mfbu1v8qjnp003ob1pt6bbkft4 ( or just look at your cookie ) session _ start ( ) ; echo " hi $ _ server [ remote _ addr ]! the time is ". time ( ). " < p > " ; echo " to test breaking the seed, run the following ( after compiling < a href = ' s1s2. c ' > s1s2. c < / a > ) < br > " ; echo " < code > time < a href = ' s1s2. c ' >. / s1s2 < / a > ". getmypid ( ). " ". lcg _ value ( ). " < / code > < p > " ; echo " can you guess my next lcg _ value based off the above? ( hint : it ' s ". lcg _ value ( ). " ). < br > " ; echo " test by


( l - r ) aces ’ s team behaviorist vince rose, ucla, phd research student marisa tellez and holy cross manager vernon wilson. holy cross croc saved submitted by marine biologist cherie chenot - rose, aces / american crocodile education sanctuary north of the cut on ambergris island, a five foot american crocodile decided to take up residence in a shallow canal on the property of the managers of holy cross anglican school, francis and vernon wilson. worried that the bold reptile would make a beloved pet its prey, the wilson ’ s decided it needed to be removed. with the word out that a nuisance crocodile needed to be relocated, a few locals stopped by and offered to ‘ off ’ the cute little bugger for a price. not wishing to harm the juvenile croc, the wilson ’ s were put in contact with aces / american crocodile education sanctuary in punta gorda by wildlife advocate, colette kase. being aces is a non ‐ profit organization with limited funding, the wilson ’ s graciously put the aces ’ s team up for the night, and the holy cross anglican school donated funds to cover the costs of the crocodile ’ s relocation. american crocodiles are not only protected under the belize wildlife protection act ( chapter 220 ) ; but are also currently considered ‘ vulnerable ’ by the international union for the conservation of nature ( iucn ) and on a global level are facing a high risk of extinction in the wild. aces ’ s team, behaviorist vince rose, biologist cherie chenot ‐ rose and ucla, phd research student marisa tellez, arrived on the scene tuesday, august 4th, at lunchtime and was fed a yummy, complimentary meal by the holy cross school. setting up traps in the hot day ’ s sun, the team caught the croc by 5 : 00 pm in a snare type trap ; and then, collected scientific data pertinent to the conservation of crocodilians in belize. the captured croc was a female and name alice e. after francis ’ s mother. in the species crocodylus acutus, american crocodiles, the female is the more aggressive. this particular croc had taken up residence in the wilson ’ s canal because the contained water had a lower salinity than the surrounding canals. with fresher water to drink and ample food sources, from not only the birds and fish but from the nearby workers, the croc was protecting her little water hole with all she had. this was truly one of the feisti


the surrounding canals. with fresher water to drink and ample food sources, from not only the birds and fish but from the nearby workers, the croc was protecting her little water hole with all she had. this was truly one of the feistiest little crocs i have ever encountered. and, even though this croc was successfully relocated to aces in punta gorda where she will be used in educational lectures on how to safely co ‐ exist with crocs, another croc will most likely move into her now vacant water hole. it is important to understand that removing all the problematic crocs is not an answer to ambergris ’ s ever growing problem of human ‐ croc conflicts. the answer to coexisting with these modern day dinosaurs is to recognize it is us, humans, who are the intruder and we need them more than they need us. the number one thing everyone can do to decrease the number of problem crocodiles is never discard food waste, especially chicken and fish scraps, into the waters. everyone enjoys a free meal and will choose it over paying or expending extra energy. feeding crocodiles directly or indirectly by this manner is the number one cause of croc attacks and is illegal in belize. if you have small pets or children and you are living on a canal or lagoon front, a sea wall will assure protection from crocodiles coming into your yard. at times of mating and when dry seasons are extra dry, crocs will seek waterholes with a lower salinity than the sea. even though american crocs are a saltwater species and can excrete salt through a specialized gland on their tongue and through their feces, high continual concentrations of salt can be stressful on them, especially the young and nesting females. normally, these crocs will drink fresh water from the thin layer of rainwater that being less dense lays on the surface of the saltier sea. this year, with as dry as it has been, this layer at times does not exist and the crocs will seek out pools, puddles and contained water areas for their lower salinity. aces would like to thank francis and vernon for their hospitality and the holy cross anglican school for funding the capture. we praise their decision in taking the extra mile to save this highly threatened apex predator. so many people do not seem to understand the importance of crocodiles in keeping belize ’ s ecosystems in balance. not only do they feed upon small mammals and rodents that carry disease, such as


in the advanced learning work session there was a slide that showed the growth of ap and ib in the district. it is true that many more students are taking ap classes than ever before. but it doesn ' t necessarily mean what you think it means. take, for example, roosevelt high school. at roosevelt about half of the 10th grade students used to take ap european history. this is typically the first ap available to students, one of the few open to 10th grade students on the typical pathway. the class is challenging for 10th grade students and the fact that about half of the students took it is a testament to roosevelt ' s academic strength. the other half of the students took a history class similar to the one that students all across district and the state take in the 10th grade. some folks at roosevelt didn ' t like that. they didn ' t like the fact that about half of the students were self - selecting to take on the challenge and rigor of ap european history. even more, they didn ' t like the fact that about half of the students were not self - selecting the class, the challenge, or the rigor. so they came up with a solution. now every 10th grader at roosevelt has to take ap human geography. every one of them, both those who would have taken the regular history class and those who would have taken ap european history. ap human geography, although it is also an ap class, is not comparable to ap european history in rigor. it is intended to be a one semester class instead of a two semester class. at roosevelt, it is stretched across two semesters. moreover, the class is not taught as a college level class ( as ap classes typically are ), but with material with a ceiling at a 10th grade reading level. so, yes, more students are taking an ap class, but you could not say that students were taking more rigorous classes. half of them maybe, half of them definitely not. you might wonder why the school didn ' t simply substitute ap human geography for the old history class so that half of the students would still take the more rigorous ap european history and half would take the ap human geography. the answer is obvious. while that would have addressed the academic problem - lack of rigor for students in the old history class - it would not address the political problem of some students - primarily white and asian middle class students - self - selecting more rigor while other students - disproportionately black and latino and fre students - self - selecting less rigor


water contamination – special education edition : fracking to view hydraulic fracturing infograghics click on toggles. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non - profit organization. hydraulic fracturing is the propagation of fractures in a rock layer by a pressurized fluid. some hydraulic fractures form naturally certain veins or dikes are examples — and can create conduits along which gas and petroleum from source rocks may migrate to reservoir rocks. induced hydraulic fracturing or hydrofracturing, commonly known as fracing, fraccing, or fracking, is a technique used to release petroleum, natural gas ( including shale gas, tight gas, and coal seam gas ), or other substances for extraction. this type of fracturing creates fractures from a wellbore drilled into reservoir rock formations. the first use of hydraulic fracturing was in 1947. however, it was only in 1998 that modern fracturing technology, referred to as horizontal slickwater fracturing, made possible the economical extraction of shale gas ; this new technology was first used in the barnett shale in texas. the energy from the injection of a highly pressurized hydraulic fracturing fluid creates new channels in the rock, which can increase the extraction rates and ultimate recovery of hydrocarbons. proponents of hydraulic fracturing point to the economic benefits from vast amounts of formerly inaccessible hydrocarbons the process can extract. opponents point to potential environmental impacts, including contamination of ground water, risks to air quality, the migration of gases and hydraulic fracturing chemicals to the surface, surface contamination from spills and flowback and the health effects of these. for these reasons hydraulic fracturing has come under scrutiny internationally, with some countries suspending or banning it. fracturing as a method to stimulate shallow, hard rock oil wells dates back to the 1860s. it was applied by oil producers in the us states of pennsylvania, new york, kentucky, and west virginia by using liquid and later also solidified nitroglycerin. later, the same method was applied to water and gas wells. the idea to use acid as a nonexplosive fluid for well stimulation was introduced in the 1930s. due to acid etching, fractures would not close completely and therefore productivity was enhanced. the same phenomenon was discovered with water injection and squeeze cementing operations. the relationship between well performance and treatment pressures was studied by floyd farris of stanolind oil and gas corporation. this study became a basis of the first hydraulic fracturing experiment, which was conducted in 1947 at the


injection and squeeze cementing operations. the relationship between well performance and treatment pressures was studied by floyd farris of stanolind oil and gas corporation. this study became a basis of the first hydraulic fracturing experiment, which was conducted in 1947 at the hugoton gas field in grant county of southwestern kansas by stanolind. for the well treatment 1, 000 us gallons ( 3, 800 l ; 830 imp gal ) of gelled gasoline and sand from the arkansas river was injected into the gas - producing limestone formation at 2, 400 feet ( 730 m ). the experiment was not very successful as deliverability of the well did not change appreciably. the process was further described by j. b. clark of stanolind in his paper published in 1948. a patent on this process was issued in 1949 and an exclusive license was granted to the halliburton oil well cementing company. on march 17, 1949, halliburton performed the first two commercial hydraulic fracturing treatments in stephens county, oklahoma, and archer county, texas. since then, hydraulic fracturing has been used to stimulate approximately a million oil and gas wells. in the soviet union, the first hydraulic proppant fracturing was carried out in 1952. in western europe in 1977 – 1985, hydraulic fracturing was conducted at rotliegend and carboniferous gas - bearing sandstones in germany, netherlands onshore and offshore gas fields, and the united kingdoms sector of the north sea. other countries in europe and northern africa included norway, the soviet union, poland, czechoslovakia, yugoslavia, hungary, austria, france, italy, bulgaria, romania, turkey, tunisia, and algeria. due to shale ’ s high porosity and low permeability, technology research, development and demonstration were necessary before hydraulic fracturing could be commercially applied to shale gas deposits. in the 1970s the united states government initiated the eastern gas shales project, a set of dozens of public - private hydraulic fracturing pilot demonstration projects. during the same period, the gas research institute, a gas industry research consortium, received approval for research and funding from the federal energy regulatory commission. in 1977, the department of energy pioneered massive hydraulic fracturing in tight sandstone formations. in 1997, based on earlier techniques used by union pacific resources, now part of anadarko petroleum corporation, mitchell energy, now part of devon energy, developed the hydraulic fracturing technique known as “ slickwater fracturing ” which involves adding chemicals to water to increase the fluid flow, that made the shale gas extraction


now part of anadarko petroleum corporation, mitchell energy, now part of devon energy, developed the hydraulic fracturing technique known as “ slickwater fracturing ” which involves adding chemicals to water to increase the fluid flow, that made the shale gas extraction economical. method a hydraulic fracture is formed by pumping the fracturing fluid into the wellbore at a rate sufficient to increase pressure downhole to exceed that of the fracture gradient ( pressure gradient ) of the rock. the fracture gradient is defined as the pressure increase per unit of the depth due to its density and it is usually measured in pounds per square inch per foot or bars per meter. the rock cracks and the fracture fluid continues further into the rock, extending the crack still further, and so on. operators typically try to maintain “ fracture width ”, or slow its decline, following treatment by introducing into the injected fluid a proppant – a material such as grains of sand, ceramic, or other particulates, that prevent the fractures from closing when the injection is stopped and the pressure of the fluid is reduced. consideration of proppant strengths and prevention of proppant failure becomes more important at greater depths where pressure and stresses on fractures are higher. the propped fracture is permeable enough to allow the flow of formation fluids to the well. formation fluids include gas, oil, salt water, fresh water and fluids introduced to the formation during completion of the well during fracturing. during the process fracturing fluid leakoff, loss of fracturing fluid from the fracture channel into the surrounding permeable rock occurs. if not controlled properly, it can exceed 70 % of the injected volume. this may result in formation matrix damage, adverse formation fluid interactions, or altered fracture geometry and thereby decreased production efficiency. the location of one or more fractures along the length of the borehole is strictly controlled by various methods that create or seal off holes in the side of the wellbore. typically, hydraulic fracturing is performed in cased wellbores and the zones to be fractured are accessed by perforating the casing at those locations. hydraulic - fracturing equipment used in oil and natural gas fields usually consists of a slurry blender, one or more high - pressure, high - volume fracturing pumps ( typically powerful triplex or quintuplex pumps ) and a monitoring unit. associated equipment includes fracturing tanks, one or more units for storage and handling of proppant, high - pressure treating iron, a chemical additive unit ( used to accurately monitor chemical addition )


quintuplex pumps ) and a monitoring unit. associated equipment includes fracturing tanks, one or more units for storage and handling of proppant, high - pressure treating iron, a chemical additive unit ( used to accurately monitor chemical addition ), low - pressure flexible hoses, and many gauges and meters for flow rate, fluid density, and treating pressure. fracturing equipment operates over a range of pressures and injection rates, and can reach up to 100 megapascals ( 15, 000 psi ) and 265 litres per second ( 9. 4 cu ft / s ) ( 100 barrels per minute ). proppants and fracking fluids and list of additives for hydraulic fracturing high - pressure fracture fluid is injected into the wellbore, with the pressure above the fracture gradient of the rock. the two main purposes of fracturing fluid is to extend fractures and to carry proppant into the formation, the purpose of which is to stay there without damaging the formation or production of the well. two methods of transporting the proppant in the fluid are used – high - rate and high - viscosity. high - viscosity fracturing tends to cause large dominant fractures, while high - rate ( slickwater ) fracturing causes small spread - out micro - fractures. this fracture fluid contains water - soluble gelling agents ( such as guar gum ) which increase viscosity and efficiently deliver the proppant into the formation. the fluid injected into the rock is typically a slurry of water, proppants, and chemical additives. additionally, gels, foams, and compressed gases, including nitrogen, carbon dioxide and air can be injected. typically, of the fracturing fluid 90 % is water and 9. 5 % is sand with the chemical additives accounting to about 0. 5 %. a proppant is a material that will keep an induced hydraulic fracture open, during or following a fracturing treatment, and can be gel, foam, or slickwater - based. fluids make tradeoffs in such material properties as viscosity, where more viscous fluids can carry more concentrated proppant ; the energy or pressure demands to maintain a certain flux pump rate ( flow velocity ) that will conduct the proppant appropriately ; ph, various rheological factors, among others. types of proppant include silica sand, resin - coated sand, and man - made ceramics. these vary depending on the type of permeability or grain strength needed. the most commonly used proppan


rheological factors, among others. types of proppant include silica sand, resin - coated sand, and man - made ceramics. these vary depending on the type of permeability or grain strength needed. the most commonly used proppant is silica sand, though proppants of uniform size and shape, such as a ceramic proppant, is believed to be more effective. due to a higher porosity within the fracture, a greater amount of oil and natural gas is liberated. the fracturing fluid varies in composition depending on the type of fracturing used, the conditions of the specific well being fractured, and the water characteristics. a typical fracture treatment uses between 3 and 12 additive chemicals. although there may be unconventional fracturing fluids, the typical used chemical additives are : • acids — hydrochloric acid ( usually 28 % - 5 % ), or acetic acid is used in the pre - fracturing stage for cleaning the perforations and initiating fissure in the near - wellbore rock. • sodium chloride ( salt ) — delays breakdown of the gel polymer chains. • polyacrylamide and other friction reducers — minimizes the friction between fluid and pipe, thus allowing the pumps to pump at a higher rate without having greater pressure on the surface. polyacrylamide are good suspension agents ensuring the proppant does not fall out. • ethylene glycol — prevents formation of scale deposits in the pipe. • borate salts — used for maintaining fluid viscosity during the temperature increase. • sodium and potassium carbonates — used for maintaining effectiveness of crosslinkers. • glutaraldehyde — used as disinfectant of the water ( bacteria elimination ). • guar gum and other water - soluble gelling agents — increases viscosity of the fracturing fluid to deliver more efficiently the proppant into the formation. • citric acid — used for corrosion prevention. • isopropanol — increases the viscosity of the fracture fluid. the most common chemical used for hydraulic fracturing in the united states in 2005 – 2009 was methanol, while some other most widely used chemicals were isopropyl alcohol, 2 - butoxyethanol, and ethylene glycol. typical fluid types. • conventional linear gels. these gels are cellulose derivatives ( carboxymethyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl cellulose, carboxymethyl hydroxyethyl cell


glycol. typical fluid types. • conventional linear gels. these gels are cellulose derivatives ( carboxymethyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl cellulose, carboxymethyl hydroxyethyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, methyl hydroxyl ethyl cellulose ), guar or its derivatives ( hydroxypropyl guar, carboxymethyl hydroxypropyl guar ) based, with other chemicals providing the necessary chemistry for the desired results. • borate - crosslinked fluids. these are guar - based fluids cross - linked with boron ions ( from aqueous borax / boric acid solution ). these gels have higher viscosity at ph 9 onwards and are used to carry proppants. after the fracturing job the ph is reduced to 3 – 4 so that the cross - links are broken and the gel is less viscous and can be pumped out. • organometallic - crosslinked fluids zirconium, chromium, antimony, titanium salts are known to crosslink the guar based gels. the crosslinking mechanism is not reversible. so once the proppant is pumped down along with the cross - linked gel, the fracturing part is done. the gels are broken down with appropriate breakers. • aluminium phosphate - ester oil gels. aluminium phosphate and ester oils are slurried to form cross - linked gel. these are one of the first known gelling systems. for slickwater it is common to include sweeps or a reduction in the proppant concentration temporarily to ensure the well is not overwhelmed with proppant causing a screen - off. as the fracturing process proceeds, viscosity reducing agents such as oxidizers and enzyme breakers are sometimes then added to the fracturing fluid to deactivate the gelling agents and encourage flowback. the oxidizer reacts with the gel to break it down, reducing the fluid ’ s viscosity and ensuring that no proppant is pulled from the formation. an enzyme acts as a catalyst for the breaking down of the gel. sometimes ph modifiers are used to break down the crosslink at the end of a hydraulic fracturing job, since many require a ph buffer system to stay viscous. at the end of the job the well is commonly flushed with water ( sometimes blended with a friction reducing chemical ) under pressure. injected fluid


##link at the end of a hydraulic fracturing job, since many require a ph buffer system to stay viscous. at the end of the job the well is commonly flushed with water ( sometimes blended with a friction reducing chemical ) under pressure. injected fluid is to some degree recovered and is managed by several methods, such as underground injection control, treatment and discharge, recycling, or temporary storage in pits or containers while new technology is being continually being developed and improved to better handle waste water and improve re - usability. click here for lake peigneur part one : video – lake peigneur could be worse than assumption sinkhole click here for lake peigneur part two : largest man - made vortex – lake peigneur update – special report. click here for grand bayou sinkhole begins part one : bayou corne – grand bayou sinkhole begins – can it end? click here for grand bayou sinkhole begins part two : 06 / 28 / 13 – 05 / 16 / 13 – facts about grand bayou sink hole. whole world water seeks to prove that economic, social, and environmental progress are not mutually exclusive. developed to end the global water and sanitation crisis, whole world water works to engage the hospitality and tourism industry to filter, bottle, and sell its own water, and contribute 10 % of the proceeds to the whole world water fund. 100 % of the proceeds will go directly to clean and safe water initiatives worldwide. water news archives – 750 articles - march 2012 ~ may 2013 : updated daily – click here support save the water™ click here. supporting the water research and education programs of save the water™ is vital to our future generation ’ s health, your funding is needed today.


seasonal recharge components in an urban / agricultural mountain front aquifer system using noble gas thermometry thirteen noble gas samples were collected from eleven wells and two mountain springs in the treasure valley, idaho, usa to derive recharge temperatures using noble gas thermometry. one common assumption with noble gas thermometry is that recharge temperatures are roughly equal to the mean annual surface temperature. when water table depths are shallow or variable, or infiltration is seasonal recharge temperatures may be significantly different from the mean annual surface temperature. water table depths throughout the study area were used to estimate recharge source temperatures using an infiltration - weighted recharge temperature model which takes into account a time - variable water table. this model was applied to six different seasonally - dependent recharge scenarios. the modeled recharge temperatures for all scenarios showed a strong dependence of recharge temperature on mean annual depth to water. temperature results from the different recharge scenarios ranged from near the mean annual surface temperature to as much as 6 °c warmer. this compared well to noble gas derived recharge temperatures from the valley wells which ranged from 5 °c below to 7. 4 °c above the mean annual surface temperature of the valley. cooler temperatures suggest an influence of recharge through the adjacent mountain block while warmer temperatures suggest an influence from summer irrigation. thoma, michael j. ; mcnamara, james p. ; and benner, shawn g.. ( 2011 ). " seasonal recharge components in an urban / agricultural mountain front aquifer system using noble gas thermometry ". journal of hydrology, 409 ( 1 - 2 ), 118 - 127. http : / / dx. doi. org / 10. 1016 / j. jhydrol. 2011. 08. 003


for immediate release 703 - 739 - 3900 ext 124 school lunch at sixty : promoting healthy eating habits alexandria, va. ( june 5, 2006 ) – this year marks the sixtieth anniversary of the national school lunch program and the school nutrition association. both began in 1946 and share the goal of ensuring that america ’ s school children receive healthy school meals. when the national school lunch act was signed into law by president harry truman on june 4, 1946, truman remarked, " no nation is any healthier than its children. " in a later speech on the same subject, truman said " the well nourished school child is a better student. he is healthier and more alert. he is developing good food habits that will benefit him for the rest of his life. in short, he is a better asset for his country in every way. " that same year the national school cafeteria association and the conference of food service directors merged to become the school food service association. in 2004 the association changed its name to the school nutrition association. sixty years later the 55, 000 members of the school nutrition association remain committed to president truman ’ s promise to our nation ’ s children. every school day over 37 million school breakfasts and lunches are served to america ’ s school children. provided through the u. s. department of agriculture ’ s ( usda ) national school lunch program and school breakfast program, these nutritious, balanced meals are provided in age - appropriate serving sizes. several recent studies, including those of the u. s. general accounting office and dr. alice jo rainville of eastern michigan university, found that the national school lunch program ( nslp ) provides children with twice the servings of fruits and vegetables and greater amounts of grains and dairy than children who eat lunch brought from home or who leave school to eat lunch. dr. rainville ’ s study concluded that students who eat school lunches consume less calories from fat and twice as many servings of fruits and vegetables than students who eat a bag lunch. in a letter to members of congress marking the anniversary of the national school lunch act, sna president ruth jonen, sfns wrote, “ when president truman signed the nslp into law on june 4, 1946, it was to address the under nutrition of children. now, the program is on the front lines in the fight against obesity. today ’ s school lunches meet federal nutrition requirements that limit calories from fat and saturated fat, while providing the fruits, vegetables, dairy, protein


under nutrition of children. now, the program is on the front lines in the fight against obesity. today ’ s school lunches meet federal nutrition requirements that limit calories from fat and saturated fat, while providing the fruits, vegetables, dairy, protein and grains that children need to achieve and maintain a healthy weight. ” the nutritious school meals of 2006 include entree salads, shaker salads and salad bars that may feature locally grown produce ; yogurt parfaits and multigrain rolls ; reduced fat versions of old favorites ; healthy cooking techniques like baking ; cafeteria and classroom nutrition education ; and much more. this year sna members will continue to play leadership roles in the development of local school wellness policies that promote nutritious foods and beverages on the entire school campus, not just in the lunchroom. while school nutrition professionals face both new challenges like over - nutrition and ones similar to those of 1946, like under - nutrition, they remain passionate and dedicated to advancing good nutrition for all children. the school nutrition association ( formerly asfsa ) is a national, non - profit professional organization representing more than 55, 000 members who provide high - quality, low - cost meals to students across the country. the association and its members are dedicated to feeding children safe and nutritious meals. founded in 1946, sna is the only association devoted exclusively to protecting and enhancing children ’ s health and well being through school meals and sound nutrition education. © 2000 - 2013 school nutrition association, all rights reserved


aboard the tugnacious with dr. doom topics : climate, environment, geology, news, radio, water - copy and paste to embed two - thirds of california residents rely on water pumped through the sacramento - san joaquin river delta, as its delicate ecosystem teeters on the brink, and its aging levees crumble. planners have spent decades searching for a fix. but they ' ll have to finish the job without the advice of a man who ’ s played a central role in delta science. jeffrey mount, the scientist dubbed “ dr. doom ” for his dire pronouncements about the delta, has retired from his post at university california, davis. science editor craig miller caught up with him – where else – on the river, aboard his 27 - foot cruiser, “ tugnacious. ” this is an edited version of their conversation. the question of what to do about deteriorating conditions in the sacramento - san joaquin delta has dogged mount throughout his 33 years as a professor of geology, as co - founder of the center for watershed studies at uc davis and going back to governor brown ’ s first administration. i asked mount – one of the delta ’ s most plainspoken explainers, why it matters so much. craig miller : eight in 10 californians can ’ t even tell you where or what the delta is. why do they need to know? jm : very few californians get the notion that this is an interconnected system now, with water that comes all the way out of the trinity river, piped over and into the sacramento river and down through the delta, run into canals and ends up in san diego. i mean really, that ’ s extraordinary, all the way from the klamath basin to san diego. this is an interconnected network, so 25 million people get some of their water out of the delta. cm : you said in an interview that you thought we were down to our last shot with the delta. what did you mean by that? and what do you think the real chance is that we ' ll have a long - term solution in hand by, say 2020? jm : let me explain why i think we ’ re down to our last shot. we have deeply entrenched interests, and regrettably it ’ s not simple. you ’ ve got farmers fighting against farmers. you have urban interests fighting against urban interests. you have environmental groups fighting against environmental groups, and then they ’ re all fighting each other, and that makes it wickedly complicated. and


s not simple. you ’ ve got farmers fighting against farmers. you have urban interests fighting against urban interests. you have environmental groups fighting against environmental groups, and then they ’ re all fighting each other, and that makes it wickedly complicated. and instead of coming out of their foxholes, they seem to be digging deeper and deeper foxholes. events will eventually dictate how we manage the delta and i have said many times, and nothing in the last seven or eight years has changed in this, that we ’ re dealing with a system that is unstable, and it will rearrange itself, whether from floods or earthquakes or rising sea level or changing human demands on the system or invasive species, it is unstable and it is changing and if we don ’ t get our hands around it now, it ’ s going to be doubly hard to get our hands around it in the future. some believe one way to “ get our hands around it ” is to move southbound water around this fragile ecosystem – or in the case of the latest proposal, under it, with twin tunnels that would shuttle water from upstream on the sacramento, more than 30 miles south to serve needs in the central valley and southern california. mount agrees, saying it ’ s the only way to comply with current laws that put water needs and the environment on equal footing. jm : to meet the co - equal goals of the 2009 legislation, i think you ’ re going to have to have a tunnel or two. don ’ t like it, go back and change the policy. you could say, " we ’ re going to manage this ecosystem. we ’ re going to go for ecosystem health as the primary objective within it. " if that ’ s the case, at best you want a tiny little pipe – a peripheral garden hose would be the best description of it. you want to dramatically reduce your withdrawals from the delta, both in - delta exports and then all those people upstream ; all those people like san francisco, let ’ s take them for example, they ’ re taking water from the delta, they ’ re just taking it out upstream. cm : by upstream, you mean up in the sierra. jm : yeah, they ’ re just taking it out before it gets to delta, that ’ s all. cm : give me your pithiest version of why a tunnel beats a canal. jm : actually i don ’ t think there ’ s any difference between the two in terms of system performance, but there are major differences politically.


s all. cm : give me your pithiest version of why a tunnel beats a canal. jm : actually i don ’ t think there ’ s any difference between the two in terms of system performance, but there are major differences politically. good luck building a peripheral canal across the delta given the level of local resistance and changes in our practices of eminent domain. i can completely understand why they want to spend more money and go under the problem rather than over the problem. cm : we talked a little about this deja vu aspect of it, this goes further back than jerry brown ’ s first term, this goes back to pat brown, doesn ’ t it? jm : that ’ s correct. when the state water project was developed, they knew all along that they had left a hole in it, and that is the delta. they knew there was a problem even back in the 1950s that the delta was going to be a major issue. from that point on, this intractable, difficult wicked problem has bedeviled governors, heads of the department of water resources and water managers in california nonstop. cm : if they were so aware that this was a problem looming, why didn ’ t they address the problem head on the first time around? jm : there ’ s a tendency in water supply to leave the most complicated and difficult problems to later. we are a society – and there ’ s no difference in the water supply community – that likes to pluck the low hanging fruit and put off the hard work until later. the delta fix, if there is one, is not simple, it ’ s not cheap, it involves burning massive amounts of political capital to get it done, and it involves lots of angry people no matter what you do. i can easily understand why people kept putting that one off. and yet, with all of the rancor that remains in the delta water wars, mount sees a light at end of this tunnel. jm : i can actually say that i think the state government and federal government are starting to paddle together, which has not been the case – it ’ s actually been one of the principal problems. they are actually starting to look like they ’ re much more in sync with each other, and that ’ s a glimmer of hope. cm : does that mean you think we have a decent shot at a long - term solution? jm : i think it ’ s a 50 - 50 chance that we ’ ll get a long - term solution out of this. this is all


after a nasty blizzard temporarily disabled washington this winter, conservative politicians and pundits jammed the airwaves with claims the storm “ contradicted al gore ’ s hysterical global warming theories. ” their myopia was derided by climate scientists and stephen colbert alike, who said on his show : “ now folks, that is simple observational research : whatever just happened is the only thing that is happening. ask any peekaboo - ologist. ” still, in the wake of the storm, the national oceanic and atmospheric administration decided to cancel its scheduled announcement of a climate service office, which would keep the public up - to - date on on global warming. timing matters. now, with the east coast woozy from a humid heat wave, it ’ s the climate scientists ’ turn to spread their message. a press release today highlights a stanford study showing heat waves and extremely high temperatures could be commonplace in the u. s. by 2039 : according to the climate models, an intense heat wave – equal to the longest on record from 1951 to 1999 – is likely to occur as many as five times between 2020 and 2029 over areas of the western and central united states. the 2030s are projected to be even hotter … the stanford team also forecast a dramatic spike in extreme seasonal temperatures during the current decade. temperatures equaling the hottest season on record from 1951 to 1999 could occur four times between now and 2019 over much of the u. s., according to the researchers. the 2020s and 2030s could be even hotter, particularly in the american west. from 2030 to 2039, most areas of utah, colorado, arizona and new mexico could endure at least seven seasons equally as intense as the hottest season ever recorded between 1951 and 1999, the researchers concluded. “ frankly, i was expecting that we ’ d see large temperature increases later this century with higher greenhouse gas levels and global warming, ” [ noah ] diffenbaugh said. “ i did not expect to see anything this large within the next three decades. this was definitely a surprise. ” photo by leeroy09481