[{"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1-4", "Text": "Element\nSymbol\nAtomic\nMolar\nNumber\nmass/\n (g mol\u20131)\nActinium\nAc\n89\n227 03\nAluminium\nAl\n13\n26 98\nAmericium\nAm\n95\n(243)\nAntimony\nSb\n51\n121 75\nArgon\nAr\n18\n39"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2-5", "Text": "03\nAluminium\nAl\n13\n26 98\nAmericium\nAm\n95\n(243)\nAntimony\nSb\n51\n121 75\nArgon\nAr\n18\n39 95\nArsenic\nAs\n33\n74"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3-6", "Text": "98\nAmericium\nAm\n95\n(243)\nAntimony\nSb\n51\n121 75\nArgon\nAr\n18\n39 95\nArsenic\nAs\n33\n74 92\nAstatine\nAt\n85\n 210\nBarium\nBa\n56\n137"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4-7", "Text": "75\nArgon\nAr\n18\n39 95\nArsenic\nAs\n33\n74 92\nAstatine\nAt\n85\n 210\nBarium\nBa\n56\n137 34\nBerkelium\nBk\n97\n(247)\nBeryllium\nBe\n4\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5-8", "Text": "95\nArsenic\nAs\n33\n74 92\nAstatine\nAt\n85\n 210\nBarium\nBa\n56\n137 34\nBerkelium\nBk\n97\n(247)\nBeryllium\nBe\n4\n9 01\nBismuth\nBi\n83\n208"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6-9", "Text": "92\nAstatine\nAt\n85\n 210\nBarium\nBa\n56\n137 34\nBerkelium\nBk\n97\n(247)\nBeryllium\nBe\n4\n9 01\nBismuth\nBi\n83\n208 98\nBohrium\nBh\n107\n(264)\nBoron\nB\n5\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7-10", "Text": "34\nBerkelium\nBk\n97\n(247)\nBeryllium\nBe\n4\n9 01\nBismuth\nBi\n83\n208 98\nBohrium\nBh\n107\n(264)\nBoron\nB\n5\n10 81\nBromine\nBr\n35\n79"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8-11", "Text": "01\nBismuth\nBi\n83\n208 98\nBohrium\nBh\n107\n(264)\nBoron\nB\n5\n10 81\nBromine\nBr\n35\n79 91\nCadmium\nCd\n48\n112"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "9-12", "Text": "98\nBohrium\nBh\n107\n(264)\nBoron\nB\n5\n10 81\nBromine\nBr\n35\n79 91\nCadmium\nCd\n48\n112 40\nCaesium\nCs\n55\n132"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "10-13", "Text": "81\nBromine\nBr\n35\n79 91\nCadmium\nCd\n48\n112 40\nCaesium\nCs\n55\n132 91\nCalcium\nCa\n20\n40"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "11-14", "Text": "91\nCadmium\nCd\n48\n112 40\nCaesium\nCs\n55\n132 91\nCalcium\nCa\n20\n40 08\nCalifornium\nCf\n98\n251"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "12-15", "Text": "40\nCaesium\nCs\n55\n132 91\nCalcium\nCa\n20\n40 08\nCalifornium\nCf\n98\n251 08\nCarbon\nC\n6\n12"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "13-16", "Text": "91\nCalcium\nCa\n20\n40 08\nCalifornium\nCf\n98\n251 08\nCarbon\nC\n6\n12 01\nCerium\nCe\n58\n140"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "14-17", "Text": "08\nCalifornium\nCf\n98\n251 08\nCarbon\nC\n6\n12 01\nCerium\nCe\n58\n140 12\nChlorine\nCl\n17\n35"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "15-18", "Text": "08\nCarbon\nC\n6\n12 01\nCerium\nCe\n58\n140 12\nChlorine\nCl\n17\n35 45\nChromium\nCr\n24\n52"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "16-19", "Text": "01\nCerium\nCe\n58\n140 12\nChlorine\nCl\n17\n35 45\nChromium\nCr\n24\n52 00\nCobalt\nCo\n27\n58"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "17-20", "Text": "12\nChlorine\nCl\n17\n35 45\nChromium\nCr\n24\n52 00\nCobalt\nCo\n27\n58 93\nCopper\nCu\n29\n63"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "18-21", "Text": "45\nChromium\nCr\n24\n52 00\nCobalt\nCo\n27\n58 93\nCopper\nCu\n29\n63 54\nCurium\nCm\n96\n247"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "19-22", "Text": "00\nCobalt\nCo\n27\n58 93\nCopper\nCu\n29\n63 54\nCurium\nCm\n96\n247 07\nDubnium\nDb\n105\n(263)\nDysprosium\nDy\n66\n162"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "20-23", "Text": "93\nCopper\nCu\n29\n63 54\nCurium\nCm\n96\n247 07\nDubnium\nDb\n105\n(263)\nDysprosium\nDy\n66\n162 50\nEinsteinium\nEs\n99\n(252)\nErbium\nEr\n68\n167"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "21-24", "Text": "54\nCurium\nCm\n96\n247 07\nDubnium\nDb\n105\n(263)\nDysprosium\nDy\n66\n162 50\nEinsteinium\nEs\n99\n(252)\nErbium\nEr\n68\n167 26\nEuropium\nEu\n63\n151"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "22-25", "Text": "07\nDubnium\nDb\n105\n(263)\nDysprosium\nDy\n66\n162 50\nEinsteinium\nEs\n99\n(252)\nErbium\nEr\n68\n167 26\nEuropium\nEu\n63\n151 96\nFermium\nFm\n100\n(257"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "23-26", "Text": "50\nEinsteinium\nEs\n99\n(252)\nErbium\nEr\n68\n167 26\nEuropium\nEu\n63\n151 96\nFermium\nFm\n100\n(257 10)\nFluorine\nF\n9\n19"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "24-27", "Text": "26\nEuropium\nEu\n63\n151 96\nFermium\nFm\n100\n(257 10)\nFluorine\nF\n9\n19 00\nFrancium\nFr\n87\n(223)\nGadolinium\nGd\n64\n157"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "25-28", "Text": "96\nFermium\nFm\n100\n(257 10)\nFluorine\nF\n9\n19 00\nFrancium\nFr\n87\n(223)\nGadolinium\nGd\n64\n157 25\nGallium\nGa\n31\n69"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "26-29", "Text": "10)\nFluorine\nF\n9\n19 00\nFrancium\nFr\n87\n(223)\nGadolinium\nGd\n64\n157 25\nGallium\nGa\n31\n69 72\nGermanium\nGe\n32\n72"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "27-30", "Text": "00\nFrancium\nFr\n87\n(223)\nGadolinium\nGd\n64\n157 25\nGallium\nGa\n31\n69 72\nGermanium\nGe\n32\n72 61\nGold\nAu\n79\n196"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "28-31", "Text": "25\nGallium\nGa\n31\n69 72\nGermanium\nGe\n32\n72 61\nGold\nAu\n79\n196 97\nHafnium\nHf\n72\n178"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "29-32", "Text": "72\nGermanium\nGe\n32\n72 61\nGold\nAu\n79\n196 97\nHafnium\nHf\n72\n178 49\nHassium\nHs\n108\n(269)\nHelium\nHe\n2\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "30-33", "Text": "61\nGold\nAu\n79\n196 97\nHafnium\nHf\n72\n178 49\nHassium\nHs\n108\n(269)\nHelium\nHe\n2\n4 00\nHolmium\nHo\n67\n164"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "31-34", "Text": "97\nHafnium\nHf\n72\n178 49\nHassium\nHs\n108\n(269)\nHelium\nHe\n2\n4 00\nHolmium\nHo\n67\n164 93\nHydrogen\nH\n1\n 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "32-35", "Text": "49\nHassium\nHs\n108\n(269)\nHelium\nHe\n2\n4 00\nHolmium\nHo\n67\n164 93\nHydrogen\nH\n1\n 1 0079\nIndium\nIn\n49\n 114"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "33-36", "Text": "00\nHolmium\nHo\n67\n164 93\nHydrogen\nH\n1\n 1 0079\nIndium\nIn\n49\n 114 82\nIodine\nI\n53\n 126"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "34-37", "Text": "93\nHydrogen\nH\n1\n 1 0079\nIndium\nIn\n49\n 114 82\nIodine\nI\n53\n 126 90\nIridium\nIr\n77\n192"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "35-38", "Text": "0079\nIndium\nIn\n49\n 114 82\nIodine\nI\n53\n 126 90\nIridium\nIr\n77\n192 2\nIron\nFe\n26\n55"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "36-39", "Text": "82\nIodine\nI\n53\n 126 90\nIridium\nIr\n77\n192 2\nIron\nFe\n26\n55 85\nKrypton\nKr\n36\n83"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "37-40", "Text": "90\nIridium\nIr\n77\n192 2\nIron\nFe\n26\n55 85\nKrypton\nKr\n36\n83 80\nLanthanum\nLa\n57\n138"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "38-41", "Text": "2\nIron\nFe\n26\n55 85\nKrypton\nKr\n36\n83 80\nLanthanum\nLa\n57\n138 91\nLawrencium\nLr\n103\n(262"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "39-42", "Text": "85\nKrypton\nKr\n36\n83 80\nLanthanum\nLa\n57\n138 91\nLawrencium\nLr\n103\n(262 1)\nLead\nPb\n82\n207"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "40-43", "Text": "80\nLanthanum\nLa\n57\n138 91\nLawrencium\nLr\n103\n(262 1)\nLead\nPb\n82\n207 19\nLithium\nLi\n3\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "41-44", "Text": "91\nLawrencium\nLr\n103\n(262 1)\nLead\nPb\n82\n207 19\nLithium\nLi\n3\n6 94\nLutetium\nLu\n71\n174"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "42-45", "Text": "1)\nLead\nPb\n82\n207 19\nLithium\nLi\n3\n6 94\nLutetium\nLu\n71\n174 96\nMagnesium\nMg\n12\n24"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "43-46", "Text": "19\nLithium\nLi\n3\n6 94\nLutetium\nLu\n71\n174 96\nMagnesium\nMg\n12\n24 31\nManganese\nMn\n25\n54"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "44-47", "Text": "94\nLutetium\nLu\n71\n174 96\nMagnesium\nMg\n12\n24 31\nManganese\nMn\n25\n54 94\nMeitneium\nMt\n109\n(268)\nMendelevium\nMd\n101\n258"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "45-48", "Text": "96\nMagnesium\nMg\n12\n24 31\nManganese\nMn\n25\n54 94\nMeitneium\nMt\n109\n(268)\nMendelevium\nMd\n101\n258 10\nMercury\n Hg\n80\n200"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "46-49", "Text": "31\nManganese\nMn\n25\n54 94\nMeitneium\nMt\n109\n(268)\nMendelevium\nMd\n101\n258 10\nMercury\n Hg\n80\n200 59\nMolybdenum\nMo\n42\n95"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "47-50", "Text": "94\nMeitneium\nMt\n109\n(268)\nMendelevium\nMd\n101\n258 10\nMercury\n Hg\n80\n200 59\nMolybdenum\nMo\n42\n95 94\nNeodymium\nNd\n60\n144"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "48-51", "Text": "10\nMercury\n Hg\n80\n200 59\nMolybdenum\nMo\n42\n95 94\nNeodymium\nNd\n60\n144 24\nNeon\nNe\n10\n20"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "49-52", "Text": "59\nMolybdenum\nMo\n42\n95 94\nNeodymium\nNd\n60\n144 24\nNeon\nNe\n10\n20 18\nNeptunium\nNp\n93\n(237"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "50-53", "Text": "94\nNeodymium\nNd\n60\n144 24\nNeon\nNe\n10\n20 18\nNeptunium\nNp\n93\n(237 05)\nNickel\nNi\n28\n58"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "51-54", "Text": "24\nNeon\nNe\n10\n20 18\nNeptunium\nNp\n93\n(237 05)\nNickel\nNi\n28\n58 71\nNiobium\nNb\n41\n92"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "52-55", "Text": "18\nNeptunium\nNp\n93\n(237 05)\nNickel\nNi\n28\n58 71\nNiobium\nNb\n41\n92 91\nNitrogen\nN\n7\n14"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "53-56", "Text": "05)\nNickel\nNi\n28\n58 71\nNiobium\nNb\n41\n92 91\nNitrogen\nN\n7\n14 0067\nNobelium\nNo\n102\n(259)\nOsmium\nOs\n76\n190"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "54-57", "Text": "71\nNiobium\nNb\n41\n92 91\nNitrogen\nN\n7\n14 0067\nNobelium\nNo\n102\n(259)\nOsmium\nOs\n76\n190 2\nOxygen\nO\n8\n16"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "55-58", "Text": "91\nNitrogen\nN\n7\n14 0067\nNobelium\nNo\n102\n(259)\nOsmium\nOs\n76\n190 2\nOxygen\nO\n8\n16 00\nPalladium\nPd\n46\n106"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "56-59", "Text": "0067\nNobelium\nNo\n102\n(259)\nOsmium\nOs\n76\n190 2\nOxygen\nO\n8\n16 00\nPalladium\nPd\n46\n106 4\nPhosphorus\nP\n15\n30"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "57-60", "Text": "2\nOxygen\nO\n8\n16 00\nPalladium\nPd\n46\n106 4\nPhosphorus\nP\n15\n30 97\nPlatinum\nPt\n78\n195"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "58-61", "Text": "00\nPalladium\nPd\n46\n106 4\nPhosphorus\nP\n15\n30 97\nPlatinum\nPt\n78\n195 09\nPlutonium\nPu\n94\n(244)\nPolonium\nPo\n84\n210\nPotassium\nK\n19\n39"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "59-62", "Text": "4\nPhosphorus\nP\n15\n30 97\nPlatinum\nPt\n78\n195 09\nPlutonium\nPu\n94\n(244)\nPolonium\nPo\n84\n210\nPotassium\nK\n19\n39 10\nPraseodymium\nPr\n59\n140"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "60-63", "Text": "97\nPlatinum\nPt\n78\n195 09\nPlutonium\nPu\n94\n(244)\nPolonium\nPo\n84\n210\nPotassium\nK\n19\n39 10\nPraseodymium\nPr\n59\n140 91\nPromethium\nPm\n61\n(145)\nProtactinium\nPa\n91\n231"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "61-64", "Text": "09\nPlutonium\nPu\n94\n(244)\nPolonium\nPo\n84\n210\nPotassium\nK\n19\n39 10\nPraseodymium\nPr\n59\n140 91\nPromethium\nPm\n61\n(145)\nProtactinium\nPa\n91\n231 04\nRadium\nRa\n88\n(226)\nRadon\nRn\n86\n(222)\nRhenium\nRe\n75\n186"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "62-65", "Text": "10\nPraseodymium\nPr\n59\n140 91\nPromethium\nPm\n61\n(145)\nProtactinium\nPa\n91\n231 04\nRadium\nRa\n88\n(226)\nRadon\nRn\n86\n(222)\nRhenium\nRe\n75\n186 2\nRhodium\nRh\n45\n102"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "63-66", "Text": "91\nPromethium\nPm\n61\n(145)\nProtactinium\nPa\n91\n231 04\nRadium\nRa\n88\n(226)\nRadon\nRn\n86\n(222)\nRhenium\nRe\n75\n186 2\nRhodium\nRh\n45\n102 91\nRubidium\nRb\n37\n85"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "64-67", "Text": "04\nRadium\nRa\n88\n(226)\nRadon\nRn\n86\n(222)\nRhenium\nRe\n75\n186 2\nRhodium\nRh\n45\n102 91\nRubidium\nRb\n37\n85 47\nRuthenium\nRu\n44\n101"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "65-68", "Text": "2\nRhodium\nRh\n45\n102 91\nRubidium\nRb\n37\n85 47\nRuthenium\nRu\n44\n101 07\nRutherfordium\nRf\n104\n(261)\nSamarium\nSm\n62\n150"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "66-69", "Text": "91\nRubidium\nRb\n37\n85 47\nRuthenium\nRu\n44\n101 07\nRutherfordium\nRf\n104\n(261)\nSamarium\nSm\n62\n150 35\nScandium\nSc\n21\n44"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "67-70", "Text": "47\nRuthenium\nRu\n44\n101 07\nRutherfordium\nRf\n104\n(261)\nSamarium\nSm\n62\n150 35\nScandium\nSc\n21\n44 96\nSeaborgium\nSg\n106\n(266)\nSelenium\nSe\n34\n78"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "68-71", "Text": "07\nRutherfordium\nRf\n104\n(261)\nSamarium\nSm\n62\n150 35\nScandium\nSc\n21\n44 96\nSeaborgium\nSg\n106\n(266)\nSelenium\nSe\n34\n78 96\nSilicon\nSi\n14\n28"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "69-72", "Text": "35\nScandium\nSc\n21\n44 96\nSeaborgium\nSg\n106\n(266)\nSelenium\nSe\n34\n78 96\nSilicon\nSi\n14\n28 08\nSilver\nAg\n47\n107"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "70-73", "Text": "96\nSeaborgium\nSg\n106\n(266)\nSelenium\nSe\n34\n78 96\nSilicon\nSi\n14\n28 08\nSilver\nAg\n47\n107 87\nSodium\nNa\n11\n22"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "71-74", "Text": "96\nSilicon\nSi\n14\n28 08\nSilver\nAg\n47\n107 87\nSodium\nNa\n11\n22 99\nStrontium\nSr\n38\n87"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "72-75", "Text": "08\nSilver\nAg\n47\n107 87\nSodium\nNa\n11\n22 99\nStrontium\nSr\n38\n87 62\nSulphur\nS\n16\n32"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "73-76", "Text": "87\nSodium\nNa\n11\n22 99\nStrontium\nSr\n38\n87 62\nSulphur\nS\n16\n32 06\nTantalum\nTa\n73\n180"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "74-77", "Text": "99\nStrontium\nSr\n38\n87 62\nSulphur\nS\n16\n32 06\nTantalum\nTa\n73\n180 95\nTechnetium\nTc\n43\n(98"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "75-78", "Text": "62\nSulphur\nS\n16\n32 06\nTantalum\nTa\n73\n180 95\nTechnetium\nTc\n43\n(98 91)\nTellurium\nTe\n52\n127"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "76-79", "Text": "06\nTantalum\nTa\n73\n180 95\nTechnetium\nTc\n43\n(98 91)\nTellurium\nTe\n52\n127 60\nTerbium\nTb\n65\n158"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "77-80", "Text": "95\nTechnetium\nTc\n43\n(98 91)\nTellurium\nTe\n52\n127 60\nTerbium\nTb\n65\n158 92\nThallium\nTl\n81\n204"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "78-81", "Text": "91)\nTellurium\nTe\n52\n127 60\nTerbium\nTb\n65\n158 92\nThallium\nTl\n81\n204 37\nThorium\nTh\n90\n232"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "79-82", "Text": "60\nTerbium\nTb\n65\n158 92\nThallium\nTl\n81\n204 37\nThorium\nTh\n90\n232 04\nThulium\nTm\n69\n168"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "80-83", "Text": "92\nThallium\nTl\n81\n204 37\nThorium\nTh\n90\n232 04\nThulium\nTm\n69\n168 93\nTin\nSn\n50\n118"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "81-84", "Text": "37\nThorium\nTh\n90\n232 04\nThulium\nTm\n69\n168 93\nTin\nSn\n50\n118 69\nTitanium\nTi\n22\n47"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "82-85", "Text": "04\nThulium\nTm\n69\n168 93\nTin\nSn\n50\n118 69\nTitanium\nTi\n22\n47 88\nTungsten\nW\n74\n183"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "83-86", "Text": "93\nTin\nSn\n50\n118 69\nTitanium\nTi\n22\n47 88\nTungsten\nW\n74\n183 85\nUnunbium\nUub\n112\n(277)\nUnunnilium\nUun\n110\n(269)\nUnununium\nUuu\n111\n(272)\nUranium\nU\n92\n238"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "84-87", "Text": "69\nTitanium\nTi\n22\n47 88\nTungsten\nW\n74\n183 85\nUnunbium\nUub\n112\n(277)\nUnunnilium\nUun\n110\n(269)\nUnununium\nUuu\n111\n(272)\nUranium\nU\n92\n238 03\nVanadium\nV\n23\n50"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "85-88", "Text": "88\nTungsten\nW\n74\n183 85\nUnunbium\nUub\n112\n(277)\nUnunnilium\nUun\n110\n(269)\nUnununium\nUuu\n111\n(272)\nUranium\nU\n92\n238 03\nVanadium\nV\n23\n50 94\nXenon\nXe\n54\n131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "86-89", "Text": "85\nUnunbium\nUub\n112\n(277)\nUnunnilium\nUun\n110\n(269)\nUnununium\nUuu\n111\n(272)\nUranium\nU\n92\n238 03\nVanadium\nV\n23\n50 94\nXenon\nXe\n54\n131 30\nYtterbium\nYb\n70\n173"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "87-90", "Text": "03\nVanadium\nV\n23\n50 94\nXenon\nXe\n54\n131 30\nYtterbium\nYb\n70\n173 04\nYttrium\nY\n39\n88"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "88-91", "Text": "94\nXenon\nXe\n54\n131 30\nYtterbium\nYb\n70\n173 04\nYttrium\nY\n39\n88 91\nZinc\nZn\n30\n65"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "89-92", "Text": "30\nYtterbium\nYb\n70\n173 04\nYttrium\nY\n39\n88 91\nZinc\nZn\n30\n65 37\nZirconium\nZr\n40\n91"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "90-93", "Text": "04\nYttrium\nY\n39\n88 91\nZinc\nZn\n30\n65 37\nZirconium\nZr\n40\n91 22\nElement\nSymbol\nAtomic\nMolar\nNumber\nmass/\n (g mol\u20131)\nThe value given in parenthesis is the molar mass of the isotope of largest known half-life"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "91-94", "Text": "91\nZinc\nZn\n30\n65 37\nZirconium\nZr\n40\n91 22\nElement\nSymbol\nAtomic\nMolar\nNumber\nmass/\n (g mol\u20131)\nThe value given in parenthesis is the molar mass of the isotope of largest known half-life Elements, their Atomic Number and Molar Mass\nAPPENDIX I\nRationalised 2023-24\n142\nChemistry\nCommon Unit of Mass and Weight\n1 pound = 453"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "92-95", "Text": "37\nZirconium\nZr\n40\n91 22\nElement\nSymbol\nAtomic\nMolar\nNumber\nmass/\n (g mol\u20131)\nThe value given in parenthesis is the molar mass of the isotope of largest known half-life Elements, their Atomic Number and Molar Mass\nAPPENDIX I\nRationalised 2023-24\n142\nChemistry\nCommon Unit of Mass and Weight\n1 pound = 453 59 grams\n1 pound = 453"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "93-96", "Text": "22\nElement\nSymbol\nAtomic\nMolar\nNumber\nmass/\n (g mol\u20131)\nThe value given in parenthesis is the molar mass of the isotope of largest known half-life Elements, their Atomic Number and Molar Mass\nAPPENDIX I\nRationalised 2023-24\n142\nChemistry\nCommon Unit of Mass and Weight\n1 pound = 453 59 grams\n1 pound = 453 59 grams = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "94-97", "Text": "Elements, their Atomic Number and Molar Mass\nAPPENDIX I\nRationalised 2023-24\n142\nChemistry\nCommon Unit of Mass and Weight\n1 pound = 453 59 grams\n1 pound = 453 59 grams = 0 45359 kilogram\n1 kilogram = 1000 grams = 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "95-98", "Text": "59 grams\n1 pound = 453 59 grams = 0 45359 kilogram\n1 kilogram = 1000 grams = 2 205 pounds\n1 gram = 10 decigrams = 100 centigrams\n = 1000 milligrams\n1 gram = 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "96-99", "Text": "59 grams = 0 45359 kilogram\n1 kilogram = 1000 grams = 2 205 pounds\n1 gram = 10 decigrams = 100 centigrams\n = 1000 milligrams\n1 gram = 6 022 \u00b4 1023 atomic mass units or u\n1 atomic mass unit = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "97-100", "Text": "45359 kilogram\n1 kilogram = 1000 grams = 2 205 pounds\n1 gram = 10 decigrams = 100 centigrams\n = 1000 milligrams\n1 gram = 6 022 \u00b4 1023 atomic mass units or u\n1 atomic mass unit = 1 6606 \u00b4 10\u201324 gram\n1 metric tonne = 1000 kilograms\n = 2205 pounds\nCommon Unit of Volume\n1 quart = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "98-101", "Text": "205 pounds\n1 gram = 10 decigrams = 100 centigrams\n = 1000 milligrams\n1 gram = 6 022 \u00b4 1023 atomic mass units or u\n1 atomic mass unit = 1 6606 \u00b4 10\u201324 gram\n1 metric tonne = 1000 kilograms\n = 2205 pounds\nCommon Unit of Volume\n1 quart = 0 9463 litre\n1 litre = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "99-102", "Text": "022 \u00b4 1023 atomic mass units or u\n1 atomic mass unit = 1 6606 \u00b4 10\u201324 gram\n1 metric tonne = 1000 kilograms\n = 2205 pounds\nCommon Unit of Volume\n1 quart = 0 9463 litre\n1 litre = 1 056 quarts\n1 litre = 1 cubic decimetre = 1000 cubic\ncentimetres = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "100-103", "Text": "6606 \u00b4 10\u201324 gram\n1 metric tonne = 1000 kilograms\n = 2205 pounds\nCommon Unit of Volume\n1 quart = 0 9463 litre\n1 litre = 1 056 quarts\n1 litre = 1 cubic decimetre = 1000 cubic\ncentimetres = 0 001 cubic metre\n1 millilitre = 1 cubic centimetre = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "101-104", "Text": "9463 litre\n1 litre = 1 056 quarts\n1 litre = 1 cubic decimetre = 1000 cubic\ncentimetres = 0 001 cubic metre\n1 millilitre = 1 cubic centimetre = 0 001 litre\n = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "102-105", "Text": "056 quarts\n1 litre = 1 cubic decimetre = 1000 cubic\ncentimetres = 0 001 cubic metre\n1 millilitre = 1 cubic centimetre = 0 001 litre\n = 1 056 \u00b4 10-3 quart\n1 cubic foot = 28"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "103-106", "Text": "001 cubic metre\n1 millilitre = 1 cubic centimetre = 0 001 litre\n = 1 056 \u00b4 10-3 quart\n1 cubic foot = 28 316 litres = 29"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "104-107", "Text": "001 litre\n = 1 056 \u00b4 10-3 quart\n1 cubic foot = 28 316 litres = 29 902 quarts\n = 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "105-108", "Text": "056 \u00b4 10-3 quart\n1 cubic foot = 28 316 litres = 29 902 quarts\n = 7 475 gallons\nCommon Units of Energy\n1 joule = 1 \u00b4\u00b4\u00b4\u00b4\u00b4 107 ergs\n1 thermochemical calorie**\n= 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "106-109", "Text": "316 litres = 29 902 quarts\n = 7 475 gallons\nCommon Units of Energy\n1 joule = 1 \u00b4\u00b4\u00b4\u00b4\u00b4 107 ergs\n1 thermochemical calorie**\n= 4 184 joules\n= 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "107-110", "Text": "902 quarts\n = 7 475 gallons\nCommon Units of Energy\n1 joule = 1 \u00b4\u00b4\u00b4\u00b4\u00b4 107 ergs\n1 thermochemical calorie**\n= 4 184 joules\n= 4 184 \u00b4 107 ergs\n= 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "108-111", "Text": "475 gallons\nCommon Units of Energy\n1 joule = 1 \u00b4\u00b4\u00b4\u00b4\u00b4 107 ergs\n1 thermochemical calorie**\n= 4 184 joules\n= 4 184 \u00b4 107 ergs\n= 4 129 \u00b4 10\u20132 litre-atmospheres\n= 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "109-112", "Text": "184 joules\n= 4 184 \u00b4 107 ergs\n= 4 129 \u00b4 10\u20132 litre-atmospheres\n= 2 612 \u00b4 1019 electron volts\n1 ergs = 1 \u00b4 10\u20137 joule = 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "110-113", "Text": "184 \u00b4 107 ergs\n= 4 129 \u00b4 10\u20132 litre-atmospheres\n= 2 612 \u00b4 1019 electron volts\n1 ergs = 1 \u00b4 10\u20137 joule = 2 3901 \u00b4 10\u20138 calorie\n1 electron volt = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "111-114", "Text": "129 \u00b4 10\u20132 litre-atmospheres\n= 2 612 \u00b4 1019 electron volts\n1 ergs = 1 \u00b4 10\u20137 joule = 2 3901 \u00b4 10\u20138 calorie\n1 electron volt = 1 6022 \u00b4 10\u201319 joule\n = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "112-115", "Text": "612 \u00b4 1019 electron volts\n1 ergs = 1 \u00b4 10\u20137 joule = 2 3901 \u00b4 10\u20138 calorie\n1 electron volt = 1 6022 \u00b4 10\u201319 joule\n = 1 6022 \u00b4 10\u201312 erg\n = 96"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "113-116", "Text": "3901 \u00b4 10\u20138 calorie\n1 electron volt = 1 6022 \u00b4 10\u201319 joule\n = 1 6022 \u00b4 10\u201312 erg\n = 96 487 kJ/mol\u2020\n1 litre-atmosphere = 24"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "114-117", "Text": "6022 \u00b4 10\u201319 joule\n = 1 6022 \u00b4 10\u201312 erg\n = 96 487 kJ/mol\u2020\n1 litre-atmosphere = 24 217 calories\n = 101"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "115-118", "Text": "6022 \u00b4 10\u201312 erg\n = 96 487 kJ/mol\u2020\n1 litre-atmosphere = 24 217 calories\n = 101 32 joules\n = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "116-119", "Text": "487 kJ/mol\u2020\n1 litre-atmosphere = 24 217 calories\n = 101 32 joules\n = 1 0132 \u00b4109 ergs\n1 British thermal unit = 1055"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "117-120", "Text": "217 calories\n = 101 32 joules\n = 1 0132 \u00b4109 ergs\n1 British thermal unit = 1055 06 joules\n= 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "118-121", "Text": "32 joules\n = 1 0132 \u00b4109 ergs\n1 British thermal unit = 1055 06 joules\n= 1 05506 \u00b41010 ergs\n= 252"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "119-122", "Text": "0132 \u00b4109 ergs\n1 British thermal unit = 1055 06 joules\n= 1 05506 \u00b41010 ergs\n= 252 2 calories\nCommon Units of Length\n1 inch = 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "120-123", "Text": "06 joules\n= 1 05506 \u00b41010 ergs\n= 252 2 calories\nCommon Units of Length\n1 inch = 2 54 centimetres (exactly)\n1 mile = 5280 feet = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "121-124", "Text": "05506 \u00b41010 ergs\n= 252 2 calories\nCommon Units of Length\n1 inch = 2 54 centimetres (exactly)\n1 mile = 5280 feet = 1 609 kilometres\n1 yard = 36 inches = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "122-125", "Text": "2 calories\nCommon Units of Length\n1 inch = 2 54 centimetres (exactly)\n1 mile = 5280 feet = 1 609 kilometres\n1 yard = 36 inches = 0 9144 metre\n1 metre = 100 centimetres = 39"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "123-126", "Text": "54 centimetres (exactly)\n1 mile = 5280 feet = 1 609 kilometres\n1 yard = 36 inches = 0 9144 metre\n1 metre = 100 centimetres = 39 37 inches\n= 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "124-127", "Text": "609 kilometres\n1 yard = 36 inches = 0 9144 metre\n1 metre = 100 centimetres = 39 37 inches\n= 3 281 feet\n= 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "125-128", "Text": "9144 metre\n1 metre = 100 centimetres = 39 37 inches\n= 3 281 feet\n= 1 094 yards\n1 kilometre = 1000 metres = 1094 yards\n= 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "126-129", "Text": "37 inches\n= 3 281 feet\n= 1 094 yards\n1 kilometre = 1000 metres = 1094 yards\n= 0 6215 mile\n1 Angstrom = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "127-130", "Text": "281 feet\n= 1 094 yards\n1 kilometre = 1000 metres = 1094 yards\n= 0 6215 mile\n1 Angstrom = 1 0 \u00b4 10\u20138 centimetre\n = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "128-131", "Text": "094 yards\n1 kilometre = 1000 metres = 1094 yards\n= 0 6215 mile\n1 Angstrom = 1 0 \u00b4 10\u20138 centimetre\n = 0 10 nanometre\n = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "129-132", "Text": "6215 mile\n1 Angstrom = 1 0 \u00b4 10\u20138 centimetre\n = 0 10 nanometre\n = 1 0 \u00b4 10\u201310 metre\n = 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "130-133", "Text": "0 \u00b4 10\u20138 centimetre\n = 0 10 nanometre\n = 1 0 \u00b4 10\u201310 metre\n = 3 937 \u00b4 10\u20139 inch\nCommon Units of Force* and Pressure\n1 atmosphere = 760 millimetres of mercury\n = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "131-134", "Text": "10 nanometre\n = 1 0 \u00b4 10\u201310 metre\n = 3 937 \u00b4 10\u20139 inch\nCommon Units of Force* and Pressure\n1 atmosphere = 760 millimetres of mercury\n = 1 013 \u00b4 105 pascals\n = 14"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "132-135", "Text": "0 \u00b4 10\u201310 metre\n = 3 937 \u00b4 10\u20139 inch\nCommon Units of Force* and Pressure\n1 atmosphere = 760 millimetres of mercury\n = 1 013 \u00b4 105 pascals\n = 14 70 pounds per square inch\n1 bar = 105 pascals\n1 torr = 1 millimetre of mercury\n1 pascal = 1 kg/ms2 = 1 N/m2\nTemperature\nSI Base Unit: Kelvin (K)\nK = -273"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "133-136", "Text": "937 \u00b4 10\u20139 inch\nCommon Units of Force* and Pressure\n1 atmosphere = 760 millimetres of mercury\n = 1 013 \u00b4 105 pascals\n = 14 70 pounds per square inch\n1 bar = 105 pascals\n1 torr = 1 millimetre of mercury\n1 pascal = 1 kg/ms2 = 1 N/m2\nTemperature\nSI Base Unit: Kelvin (K)\nK = -273 15\u00b0C\nK = \u00b0C + 273"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "134-137", "Text": "013 \u00b4 105 pascals\n = 14 70 pounds per square inch\n1 bar = 105 pascals\n1 torr = 1 millimetre of mercury\n1 pascal = 1 kg/ms2 = 1 N/m2\nTemperature\nSI Base Unit: Kelvin (K)\nK = -273 15\u00b0C\nK = \u00b0C + 273 15\n\u00b0F = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "135-138", "Text": "70 pounds per square inch\n1 bar = 105 pascals\n1 torr = 1 millimetre of mercury\n1 pascal = 1 kg/ms2 = 1 N/m2\nTemperature\nSI Base Unit: Kelvin (K)\nK = -273 15\u00b0C\nK = \u00b0C + 273 15\n\u00b0F = 1 8(\u00b0C) + 32\nF\n32\nC\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "136-139", "Text": "15\u00b0C\nK = \u00b0C + 273 15\n\u00b0F = 1 8(\u00b0C) + 32\nF\n32\nC\n1 8\n\uf0b0\n\uf02d\n\uf0b0\n\uf03d\n*\nForce: 1 newton (N) = 1 kg m/s2, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "137-140", "Text": "15\n\u00b0F = 1 8(\u00b0C) + 32\nF\n32\nC\n1 8\n\uf0b0\n\uf02d\n\uf0b0\n\uf03d\n*\nForce: 1 newton (N) = 1 kg m/s2, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "138-141", "Text": "8(\u00b0C) + 32\nF\n32\nC\n1 8\n\uf0b0\n\uf02d\n\uf0b0\n\uf03d\n*\nForce: 1 newton (N) = 1 kg m/s2, i e ,the force that, when applied for 1 second, gives a\n1-kilogram mass a velocity of 1 metre per second"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "139-142", "Text": "8\n\uf0b0\n\uf02d\n\uf0b0\n\uf03d\n*\nForce: 1 newton (N) = 1 kg m/s2, i e ,the force that, when applied for 1 second, gives a\n1-kilogram mass a velocity of 1 metre per second \u2020** The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water from 14"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "140-143", "Text": "e ,the force that, when applied for 1 second, gives a\n1-kilogram mass a velocity of 1 metre per second \u2020** The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water from 14 50C to 15"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "141-144", "Text": ",the force that, when applied for 1 second, gives a\n1-kilogram mass a velocity of 1 metre per second \u2020** The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water from 14 50C to 15 50C"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "142-145", "Text": "\u2020** The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water from 14 50C to 15 50C Note that the other units are per particle and must be multiplied by 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "143-146", "Text": "50C to 15 50C Note that the other units are per particle and must be multiplied by 6 022 \u00b41023 to be strictly\ncomparable"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "144-147", "Text": "50C Note that the other units are per particle and must be multiplied by 6 022 \u00b41023 to be strictly\ncomparable Some Useful Conversion Factors\nAPPENDIX II\nRationalised 2023-24\n143\nAppendix\nReduction half-reaction\nEo/V\nH4XeO6 + 2H+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae XeO3 + 3H2O\n+3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "145-148", "Text": "Note that the other units are per particle and must be multiplied by 6 022 \u00b41023 to be strictly\ncomparable Some Useful Conversion Factors\nAPPENDIX II\nRationalised 2023-24\n143\nAppendix\nReduction half-reaction\nEo/V\nH4XeO6 + 2H+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae XeO3 + 3H2O\n+3 0\nF2 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2F\u2013\n+2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "146-149", "Text": "022 \u00b41023 to be strictly\ncomparable Some Useful Conversion Factors\nAPPENDIX II\nRationalised 2023-24\n143\nAppendix\nReduction half-reaction\nEo/V\nH4XeO6 + 2H+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae XeO3 + 3H2O\n+3 0\nF2 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2F\u2013\n+2 87\nO3 + 2H+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae O2 + H2O\n+2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "147-150", "Text": "Some Useful Conversion Factors\nAPPENDIX II\nRationalised 2023-24\n143\nAppendix\nReduction half-reaction\nEo/V\nH4XeO6 + 2H+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae XeO3 + 3H2O\n+3 0\nF2 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2F\u2013\n+2 87\nO3 + 2H+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae O2 + H2O\n+2 07\nS2O\n2\u2013\n8 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2SO\n42\u2013\n+2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "148-151", "Text": "0\nF2 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2F\u2013\n+2 87\nO3 + 2H+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae O2 + H2O\n+2 07\nS2O\n2\u2013\n8 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2SO\n42\u2013\n+2 05\nAg+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ag+\n+1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "149-152", "Text": "87\nO3 + 2H+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae O2 + H2O\n+2 07\nS2O\n2\u2013\n8 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2SO\n42\u2013\n+2 05\nAg+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ag+\n+1 98\nCo3+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Co2+\n+1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "150-153", "Text": "07\nS2O\n2\u2013\n8 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2SO\n42\u2013\n+2 05\nAg+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ag+\n+1 98\nCo3+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Co2+\n+1 81\nH2O2 + 2H+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2H2O\n+1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "151-154", "Text": "05\nAg+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ag+\n+1 98\nCo3+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Co2+\n+1 81\nH2O2 + 2H+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2H2O\n+1 78\nAu+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Au\n+1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "152-155", "Text": "98\nCo3+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Co2+\n+1 81\nH2O2 + 2H+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2H2O\n+1 78\nAu+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Au\n+1 69\nPb4+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Pb2+\n+1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "153-156", "Text": "81\nH2O2 + 2H+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2H2O\n+1 78\nAu+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Au\n+1 69\nPb4+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Pb2+\n+1 67\n2HClO + 2H+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cl2 + 2H2O\n+1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "154-157", "Text": "78\nAu+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Au\n+1 69\nPb4+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Pb2+\n+1 67\n2HClO + 2H+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cl2 + 2H2O\n+1 63\nCe4+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ce3+\n+1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "155-158", "Text": "69\nPb4+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Pb2+\n+1 67\n2HClO + 2H+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cl2 + 2H2O\n+1 63\nCe4+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ce3+\n+1 61\n2HBrO + 2H+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Br2 + 2H2O\n+1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "156-159", "Text": "67\n2HClO + 2H+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cl2 + 2H2O\n+1 63\nCe4+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ce3+\n+1 61\n2HBrO + 2H+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Br2 + 2H2O\n+1 60\nMnO\n\u2013\n4 + 8H+ + 5e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Mn2+ + 4H2O\n+1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "157-160", "Text": "63\nCe4+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ce3+\n+1 61\n2HBrO + 2H+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Br2 + 2H2O\n+1 60\nMnO\n\u2013\n4 + 8H+ + 5e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Mn2+ + 4H2O\n+1 51\nMn3+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Mn2+\n+1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "158-161", "Text": "61\n2HBrO + 2H+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Br2 + 2H2O\n+1 60\nMnO\n\u2013\n4 + 8H+ + 5e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Mn2+ + 4H2O\n+1 51\nMn3+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Mn2+\n+1 51\nAu3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Au\n+1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "159-162", "Text": "60\nMnO\n\u2013\n4 + 8H+ + 5e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Mn2+ + 4H2O\n+1 51\nMn3+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Mn2+\n+1 51\nAu3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Au\n+1 40\nCl2 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2Cl\u2013\n+1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "160-163", "Text": "51\nMn3+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Mn2+\n+1 51\nAu3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Au\n+1 40\nCl2 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2Cl\u2013\n+1 36\nCr2O\n2\u2013\n7 + 14H+ + 6e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2Cr3+ + 7H2O\n+1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "161-164", "Text": "51\nAu3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Au\n+1 40\nCl2 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2Cl\u2013\n+1 36\nCr2O\n2\u2013\n7 + 14H+ + 6e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2Cr3+ + 7H2O\n+1 33\nO3 + H2O + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae O2 + 2OH\u2013\n+1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "162-165", "Text": "40\nCl2 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2Cl\u2013\n+1 36\nCr2O\n2\u2013\n7 + 14H+ + 6e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2Cr3+ + 7H2O\n+1 33\nO3 + H2O + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae O2 + 2OH\u2013\n+1 24\nO2 + 4H+ + 4e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2H2O\n+1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "163-166", "Text": "36\nCr2O\n2\u2013\n7 + 14H+ + 6e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2Cr3+ + 7H2O\n+1 33\nO3 + H2O + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae O2 + 2OH\u2013\n+1 24\nO2 + 4H+ + 4e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2H2O\n+1 23\nClO\u2013\n4 + 2H+ +2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae ClO\u2013\n3 + 2H2O\n+1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "164-167", "Text": "33\nO3 + H2O + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae O2 + 2OH\u2013\n+1 24\nO2 + 4H+ + 4e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2H2O\n+1 23\nClO\u2013\n4 + 2H+ +2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae ClO\u2013\n3 + 2H2O\n+1 23\nMnO2 + 4H+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Mn2+ + 2H2O\n+1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "165-168", "Text": "24\nO2 + 4H+ + 4e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2H2O\n+1 23\nClO\u2013\n4 + 2H+ +2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae ClO\u2013\n3 + 2H2O\n+1 23\nMnO2 + 4H+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Mn2+ + 2H2O\n+1 23\nPt2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Pt\n+1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "166-169", "Text": "23\nClO\u2013\n4 + 2H+ +2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae ClO\u2013\n3 + 2H2O\n+1 23\nMnO2 + 4H+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Mn2+ + 2H2O\n+1 23\nPt2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Pt\n+1 20\nBr2 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2Br\u2013\n+1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "167-170", "Text": "23\nMnO2 + 4H+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Mn2+ + 2H2O\n+1 23\nPt2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Pt\n+1 20\nBr2 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2Br\u2013\n+1 09\nPu4+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Pu3+\n+0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "168-171", "Text": "23\nPt2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Pt\n+1 20\nBr2 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2Br\u2013\n+1 09\nPu4+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Pu3+\n+0 97\nNO\u2013\n3 + 4H+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae NO + 2H2O\n+0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "169-172", "Text": "20\nBr2 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2Br\u2013\n+1 09\nPu4+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Pu3+\n+0 97\nNO\u2013\n3 + 4H+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae NO + 2H2O\n+0 96\n2Hg2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Hg2+\n2\n+0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "170-173", "Text": "09\nPu4+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Pu3+\n+0 97\nNO\u2013\n3 + 4H+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae NO + 2H2O\n+0 96\n2Hg2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Hg2+\n2\n+0 92\nClO\u2013 + H2O + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cl\u2013 + 2OH\u2013\n+0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "171-174", "Text": "97\nNO\u2013\n3 + 4H+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae NO + 2H2O\n+0 96\n2Hg2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Hg2+\n2\n+0 92\nClO\u2013 + H2O + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cl\u2013 + 2OH\u2013\n+0 89\nHg2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Hg\n+0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "172-175", "Text": "96\n2Hg2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Hg2+\n2\n+0 92\nClO\u2013 + H2O + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cl\u2013 + 2OH\u2013\n+0 89\nHg2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Hg\n+0 86\nNO\u2013\n3 + 2H+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae NO2 + H2O\n+0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "173-176", "Text": "92\nClO\u2013 + H2O + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cl\u2013 + 2OH\u2013\n+0 89\nHg2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Hg\n+0 86\nNO\u2013\n3 + 2H+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae NO2 + H2O\n+0 80\nAg+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ag\n+0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "174-177", "Text": "89\nHg2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Hg\n+0 86\nNO\u2013\n3 + 2H+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae NO2 + H2O\n+0 80\nAg+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ag\n+0 80\nHg2+\n2 +2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2Hg\n+0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "175-178", "Text": "86\nNO\u2013\n3 + 2H+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae NO2 + H2O\n+0 80\nAg+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ag\n+0 80\nHg2+\n2 +2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2Hg\n+0 79\nFe3+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Fe2+\n+0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "176-179", "Text": "80\nAg+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ag\n+0 80\nHg2+\n2 +2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2Hg\n+0 79\nFe3+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Fe2+\n+0 77\nBrO\u2013 + H2O + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Br\u2013 + 2OH\u2013\n+0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "177-180", "Text": "80\nHg2+\n2 +2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2Hg\n+0 79\nFe3+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Fe2+\n+0 77\nBrO\u2013 + H2O + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Br\u2013 + 2OH\u2013\n+0 76\nHg2SO4 +2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2Hg + SO2\u2013\n4\n+0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "178-181", "Text": "79\nFe3+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Fe2+\n+0 77\nBrO\u2013 + H2O + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Br\u2013 + 2OH\u2013\n+0 76\nHg2SO4 +2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2Hg + SO2\u2013\n4\n+0 62\nMnO2\u2013\n4 + 2H2O + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae MnO2 + 4OH\u2013\n+0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "179-182", "Text": "77\nBrO\u2013 + H2O + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Br\u2013 + 2OH\u2013\n+0 76\nHg2SO4 +2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2Hg + SO2\u2013\n4\n+0 62\nMnO2\u2013\n4 + 2H2O + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae MnO2 + 4OH\u2013\n+0 60\nMnO\u2013\n4 + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae MnO2\u2013\n4\n+0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "180-183", "Text": "76\nHg2SO4 +2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2Hg + SO2\u2013\n4\n+0 62\nMnO2\u2013\n4 + 2H2O + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae MnO2 + 4OH\u2013\n+0 60\nMnO\u2013\n4 + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae MnO2\u2013\n4\n+0 56\nI2 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2I\u2013\n+0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "181-184", "Text": "62\nMnO2\u2013\n4 + 2H2O + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae MnO2 + 4OH\u2013\n+0 60\nMnO\u2013\n4 + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae MnO2\u2013\n4\n+0 56\nI2 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2I\u2013\n+0 54\nI\n\u2013\n3 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 3I\u2013\n+0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "182-185", "Text": "60\nMnO\u2013\n4 + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae MnO2\u2013\n4\n+0 56\nI2 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2I\u2013\n+0 54\nI\n\u2013\n3 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 3I\u2013\n+0 53\nReduction half-reaction\nEo/V\nCu+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cu\n+0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "183-186", "Text": "56\nI2 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2I\u2013\n+0 54\nI\n\u2013\n3 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 3I\u2013\n+0 53\nReduction half-reaction\nEo/V\nCu+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cu\n+0 52\nNiOOH + H2O + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ni(OH)2 + OH\u2013\n+0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "184-187", "Text": "54\nI\n\u2013\n3 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 3I\u2013\n+0 53\nReduction half-reaction\nEo/V\nCu+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cu\n+0 52\nNiOOH + H2O + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ni(OH)2 + OH\u2013\n+0 49\nAg2CrO4 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2Ag + CrO2\u2013\n4\n+0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "185-188", "Text": "53\nReduction half-reaction\nEo/V\nCu+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cu\n+0 52\nNiOOH + H2O + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ni(OH)2 + OH\u2013\n+0 49\nAg2CrO4 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2Ag + CrO2\u2013\n4\n+0 45\nO2 + 2H2O + 4e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 4OH\u2013\n+0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "186-189", "Text": "52\nNiOOH + H2O + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ni(OH)2 + OH\u2013\n+0 49\nAg2CrO4 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2Ag + CrO2\u2013\n4\n+0 45\nO2 + 2H2O + 4e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 4OH\u2013\n+0 40\nClO\u2013\n4 + H2O + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae ClO\u2013\n3 + 2OH\u2013\n+0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "187-190", "Text": "49\nAg2CrO4 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2Ag + CrO2\u2013\n4\n+0 45\nO2 + 2H2O + 4e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 4OH\u2013\n+0 40\nClO\u2013\n4 + H2O + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae ClO\u2013\n3 + 2OH\u2013\n+0 36\n[Fe(CN)6]3\u2013 + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae [Fe(CN)6]4\u2013\n+0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "188-191", "Text": "45\nO2 + 2H2O + 4e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 4OH\u2013\n+0 40\nClO\u2013\n4 + H2O + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae ClO\u2013\n3 + 2OH\u2013\n+0 36\n[Fe(CN)6]3\u2013 + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae [Fe(CN)6]4\u2013\n+0 36\nCu2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cu\n+0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "189-192", "Text": "40\nClO\u2013\n4 + H2O + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae ClO\u2013\n3 + 2OH\u2013\n+0 36\n[Fe(CN)6]3\u2013 + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae [Fe(CN)6]4\u2013\n+0 36\nCu2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cu\n+0 34\nHg2Cl2 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2Hg + 2Cl\u2013\n+0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "190-193", "Text": "36\n[Fe(CN)6]3\u2013 + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae [Fe(CN)6]4\u2013\n+0 36\nCu2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cu\n+0 34\nHg2Cl2 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2Hg + 2Cl\u2013\n+0 27\nAgCl + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ag + Cl\u2013\n+0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "191-194", "Text": "36\nCu2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cu\n+0 34\nHg2Cl2 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2Hg + 2Cl\u2013\n+0 27\nAgCl + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ag + Cl\u2013\n+0 27\nBi3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Bi\n+0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "192-195", "Text": "34\nHg2Cl2 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2Hg + 2Cl\u2013\n+0 27\nAgCl + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ag + Cl\u2013\n+0 27\nBi3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Bi\n+0 20\nSO4\n2 \u2013 + 4H+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae H2SO3 + H2O\n+0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "193-196", "Text": "27\nAgCl + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ag + Cl\u2013\n+0 27\nBi3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Bi\n+0 20\nSO4\n2 \u2013 + 4H+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae H2SO3 + H2O\n+0 17\nCu2+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cu+\n+0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "194-197", "Text": "27\nBi3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Bi\n+0 20\nSO4\n2 \u2013 + 4H+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae H2SO3 + H2O\n+0 17\nCu2+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cu+\n+0 16\nSn4+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Sn2+\n+0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "195-198", "Text": "20\nSO4\n2 \u2013 + 4H+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae H2SO3 + H2O\n+0 17\nCu2+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cu+\n+0 16\nSn4+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Sn2+\n+0 15\nAgBr + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ag + Br\u2013\n+0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "196-199", "Text": "17\nCu2+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cu+\n+0 16\nSn4+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Sn2+\n+0 15\nAgBr + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ag + Br\u2013\n+0 07\nTi4+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ti3+\n 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "197-200", "Text": "16\nSn4+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Sn2+\n+0 15\nAgBr + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ag + Br\u2013\n+0 07\nTi4+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ti3+\n 0 00\n2H+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae H2\n 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "198-201", "Text": "15\nAgBr + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ag + Br\u2013\n+0 07\nTi4+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ti3+\n 0 00\n2H+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae H2\n 0 0 by\ndefinition\nFe3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Fe\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "199-202", "Text": "07\nTi4+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ti3+\n 0 00\n2H+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae H2\n 0 0 by\ndefinition\nFe3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Fe\n\u20130 04\nO2 + H2O + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae HO\u2013\n2 + OH\u2013\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "200-203", "Text": "00\n2H+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae H2\n 0 0 by\ndefinition\nFe3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Fe\n\u20130 04\nO2 + H2O + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae HO\u2013\n2 + OH\u2013\n\u20130 08\nPb2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Pb\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "201-204", "Text": "0 by\ndefinition\nFe3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Fe\n\u20130 04\nO2 + H2O + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae HO\u2013\n2 + OH\u2013\n\u20130 08\nPb2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Pb\n\u20130 13\nIn+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae In\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "202-205", "Text": "04\nO2 + H2O + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae HO\u2013\n2 + OH\u2013\n\u20130 08\nPb2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Pb\n\u20130 13\nIn+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae In\n\u20130 14\nSn2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Sn\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "203-206", "Text": "08\nPb2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Pb\n\u20130 13\nIn+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae In\n\u20130 14\nSn2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Sn\n\u20130 14\nAgI + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ag + I\u2013\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "204-207", "Text": "13\nIn+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae In\n\u20130 14\nSn2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Sn\n\u20130 14\nAgI + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ag + I\u2013\n\u20130 15\nNi2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ni\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "205-208", "Text": "14\nSn2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Sn\n\u20130 14\nAgI + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ag + I\u2013\n\u20130 15\nNi2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ni\n\u20130 23\nV3+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae V2+\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "206-209", "Text": "14\nAgI + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ag + I\u2013\n\u20130 15\nNi2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ni\n\u20130 23\nV3+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae V2+\n\u20130 26\nCo2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Co\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "207-210", "Text": "15\nNi2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ni\n\u20130 23\nV3+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae V2+\n\u20130 26\nCo2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Co\n\u20130 28\nIn3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae In\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "208-211", "Text": "23\nV3+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae V2+\n\u20130 26\nCo2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Co\n\u20130 28\nIn3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae In\n\u20130 34\nTl+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Tl\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "209-212", "Text": "26\nCo2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Co\n\u20130 28\nIn3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae In\n\u20130 34\nTl+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Tl\n\u20130 34\nPbSO4 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Pb + SO2\u2013\n4\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "210-213", "Text": "28\nIn3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae In\n\u20130 34\nTl+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Tl\n\u20130 34\nPbSO4 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Pb + SO2\u2013\n4\n\u20130 36\nTi3+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ti2+\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "211-214", "Text": "34\nTl+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Tl\n\u20130 34\nPbSO4 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Pb + SO2\u2013\n4\n\u20130 36\nTi3+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ti2+\n\u20130 37\nCd2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cd\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "212-215", "Text": "34\nPbSO4 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Pb + SO2\u2013\n4\n\u20130 36\nTi3+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ti2+\n\u20130 37\nCd2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cd\n\u20130 40\nIn2+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae In+\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "213-216", "Text": "36\nTi3+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ti2+\n\u20130 37\nCd2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cd\n\u20130 40\nIn2+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae In+\n\u20130 40\nCr3+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cr2+\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "214-217", "Text": "37\nCd2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cd\n\u20130 40\nIn2+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae In+\n\u20130 40\nCr3+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cr2+\n\u20130 41\nFe2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Fe\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "215-218", "Text": "40\nIn2+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae In+\n\u20130 40\nCr3+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cr2+\n\u20130 41\nFe2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Fe\n\u20130 44\nIn3+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae In+\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "216-219", "Text": "40\nCr3+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cr2+\n\u20130 41\nFe2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Fe\n\u20130 44\nIn3+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae In+\n\u20130 44\nS + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae S2\u2013\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "217-220", "Text": "41\nFe2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Fe\n\u20130 44\nIn3+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae In+\n\u20130 44\nS + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae S2\u2013\n\u20130 48\nIn3+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae In2+\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "218-221", "Text": "44\nIn3+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae In+\n\u20130 44\nS + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae S2\u2013\n\u20130 48\nIn3+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae In2+\n\u20130 49\nU4+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae U3+\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "219-222", "Text": "44\nS + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae S2\u2013\n\u20130 48\nIn3+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae In2+\n\u20130 49\nU4+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae U3+\n\u20130 61\nCr3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cr\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "220-223", "Text": "48\nIn3+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae In2+\n\u20130 49\nU4+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae U3+\n\u20130 61\nCr3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cr\n\u20130 74\nZn2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Zn\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "221-224", "Text": "49\nU4+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae U3+\n\u20130 61\nCr3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cr\n\u20130 74\nZn2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Zn\n\u20130 76\n(continued)\nStandard potentials at 298 K in electrochemical order\nAPPENDIX III\nRationalised 2023-24\n144\nChemistry\nReduction half-reaction\nEo/V\nCd(OH)2 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cd + 2OH\u2013\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "222-225", "Text": "61\nCr3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cr\n\u20130 74\nZn2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Zn\n\u20130 76\n(continued)\nStandard potentials at 298 K in electrochemical order\nAPPENDIX III\nRationalised 2023-24\n144\nChemistry\nReduction half-reaction\nEo/V\nCd(OH)2 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cd + 2OH\u2013\n\u20130 81\n2H2O + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae H2 + 2OH\u2013\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "223-226", "Text": "74\nZn2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Zn\n\u20130 76\n(continued)\nStandard potentials at 298 K in electrochemical order\nAPPENDIX III\nRationalised 2023-24\n144\nChemistry\nReduction half-reaction\nEo/V\nCd(OH)2 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cd + 2OH\u2013\n\u20130 81\n2H2O + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae H2 + 2OH\u2013\n\u20130 83\nCr2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cr\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "224-227", "Text": "76\n(continued)\nStandard potentials at 298 K in electrochemical order\nAPPENDIX III\nRationalised 2023-24\n144\nChemistry\nReduction half-reaction\nEo/V\nCd(OH)2 + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cd + 2OH\u2013\n\u20130 81\n2H2O + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae H2 + 2OH\u2013\n\u20130 83\nCr2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cr\n\u20130 91\nMn2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Mn\n\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "225-228", "Text": "81\n2H2O + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae H2 + 2OH\u2013\n\u20130 83\nCr2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cr\n\u20130 91\nMn2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Mn\n\u20131 18\nV2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae V\n\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "226-229", "Text": "83\nCr2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cr\n\u20130 91\nMn2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Mn\n\u20131 18\nV2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae V\n\u20131 19\nTi2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ti\n\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "227-230", "Text": "91\nMn2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Mn\n\u20131 18\nV2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae V\n\u20131 19\nTi2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ti\n\u20131 63\nAl3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Al\n\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "228-231", "Text": "18\nV2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae V\n\u20131 19\nTi2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ti\n\u20131 63\nAl3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Al\n\u20131 66\nU3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae U\n\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "229-232", "Text": "19\nTi2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ti\n\u20131 63\nAl3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Al\n\u20131 66\nU3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae U\n\u20131 79\nSc3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Sc\n\u20132"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "230-233", "Text": "63\nAl3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Al\n\u20131 66\nU3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae U\n\u20131 79\nSc3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Sc\n\u20132 09\nMg2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Mg\n\u20132"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "231-234", "Text": "66\nU3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae U\n\u20131 79\nSc3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Sc\n\u20132 09\nMg2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Mg\n\u20132 36\nCe3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ce\n\u20132"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "232-235", "Text": "79\nSc3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Sc\n\u20132 09\nMg2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Mg\n\u20132 36\nCe3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ce\n\u20132 48\nReduction half-reaction\nEo/V\nLa3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae La\n\u20132"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "233-236", "Text": "09\nMg2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Mg\n\u20132 36\nCe3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ce\n\u20132 48\nReduction half-reaction\nEo/V\nLa3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae La\n\u20132 52\nNa+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Na\n\u20132"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "234-237", "Text": "36\nCe3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ce\n\u20132 48\nReduction half-reaction\nEo/V\nLa3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae La\n\u20132 52\nNa+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Na\n\u20132 71\nCa2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ca\n\u20132"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "235-238", "Text": "48\nReduction half-reaction\nEo/V\nLa3+ + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae La\n\u20132 52\nNa+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Na\n\u20132 71\nCa2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ca\n\u20132 87\nSr2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Sr\n\u20132"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "236-239", "Text": "52\nNa+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Na\n\u20132 71\nCa2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ca\n\u20132 87\nSr2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Sr\n\u20132 89\nBa2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ba\n\u20132"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "237-240", "Text": "71\nCa2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ca\n\u20132 87\nSr2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Sr\n\u20132 89\nBa2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ba\n\u20132 91\nRa2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ra\n\u20132"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "238-241", "Text": "87\nSr2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Sr\n\u20132 89\nBa2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ba\n\u20132 91\nRa2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ra\n\u20132 92\nCs+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cs\n\u20132"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "239-242", "Text": "89\nBa2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ba\n\u20132 91\nRa2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ra\n\u20132 92\nCs+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cs\n\u20132 92\nRb+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Rb\n\u20132"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "240-243", "Text": "91\nRa2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Ra\n\u20132 92\nCs+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cs\n\u20132 92\nRb+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Rb\n\u20132 93\nK+ +e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae K\n\u20132"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "241-244", "Text": "92\nCs+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Cs\n\u20132 92\nRb+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Rb\n\u20132 93\nK+ +e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae K\n\u20132 93\nLi+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Li\n\u20133"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "242-245", "Text": "92\nRb+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Rb\n\u20132 93\nK+ +e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae K\n\u20132 93\nLi+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Li\n\u20133 05\nAPPENDIX III CONTINUED\nRationalised 2023-24\n145\nAppendix\nSometimes, a numerical expression may involve multiplication, division or rational powers of large\nnumbers"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "243-246", "Text": "93\nK+ +e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae K\n\u20132 93\nLi+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Li\n\u20133 05\nAPPENDIX III CONTINUED\nRationalised 2023-24\n145\nAppendix\nSometimes, a numerical expression may involve multiplication, division or rational powers of large\nnumbers For such calculations, logarithms are very useful"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "244-247", "Text": "93\nLi+ + e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Li\n\u20133 05\nAPPENDIX III CONTINUED\nRationalised 2023-24\n145\nAppendix\nSometimes, a numerical expression may involve multiplication, division or rational powers of large\nnumbers For such calculations, logarithms are very useful They help us in making difficult calculations\neasy"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "245-248", "Text": "05\nAPPENDIX III CONTINUED\nRationalised 2023-24\n145\nAppendix\nSometimes, a numerical expression may involve multiplication, division or rational powers of large\nnumbers For such calculations, logarithms are very useful They help us in making difficult calculations\neasy In Chemistry, logarithm values are required in solving problems of chemical kinetics, thermodynamics,\nelectrochemistry, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "246-249", "Text": "For such calculations, logarithms are very useful They help us in making difficult calculations\neasy In Chemistry, logarithm values are required in solving problems of chemical kinetics, thermodynamics,\nelectrochemistry, etc We shall first introduce this concept, and discuss the laws, which will have to be\nfollowed in working with logarithms, and then apply this technique to a number of problems to show\nhow it makes difficult calculations simple"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "247-250", "Text": "They help us in making difficult calculations\neasy In Chemistry, logarithm values are required in solving problems of chemical kinetics, thermodynamics,\nelectrochemistry, etc We shall first introduce this concept, and discuss the laws, which will have to be\nfollowed in working with logarithms, and then apply this technique to a number of problems to show\nhow it makes difficult calculations simple We know that\n23 = 8, 32 = 9, 53 = 125, 70 = 1\nIn general, for a positive real number a, and a rational number m, let am = b,\nwhere b is a real number"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "248-251", "Text": "In Chemistry, logarithm values are required in solving problems of chemical kinetics, thermodynamics,\nelectrochemistry, etc We shall first introduce this concept, and discuss the laws, which will have to be\nfollowed in working with logarithms, and then apply this technique to a number of problems to show\nhow it makes difficult calculations simple We know that\n23 = 8, 32 = 9, 53 = 125, 70 = 1\nIn general, for a positive real number a, and a rational number m, let am = b,\nwhere b is a real number In other words\nthe mth power of base a is b"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "249-252", "Text": "We shall first introduce this concept, and discuss the laws, which will have to be\nfollowed in working with logarithms, and then apply this technique to a number of problems to show\nhow it makes difficult calculations simple We know that\n23 = 8, 32 = 9, 53 = 125, 70 = 1\nIn general, for a positive real number a, and a rational number m, let am = b,\nwhere b is a real number In other words\nthe mth power of base a is b Another way of stating the same fact is\nlogarithm of b to base a is m"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "250-253", "Text": "We know that\n23 = 8, 32 = 9, 53 = 125, 70 = 1\nIn general, for a positive real number a, and a rational number m, let am = b,\nwhere b is a real number In other words\nthe mth power of base a is b Another way of stating the same fact is\nlogarithm of b to base a is m If for a positive real number a, a \u00b9 1\nam = b,\nwe say that m is the logarithm of b to the base a"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "251-254", "Text": "In other words\nthe mth power of base a is b Another way of stating the same fact is\nlogarithm of b to base a is m If for a positive real number a, a \u00b9 1\nam = b,\nwe say that m is the logarithm of b to the base a We write this as \nlogab\nm ,\n\uf03d\n\u201clog\u201d being the abbreviation of the word \u201clogarithm\u201d"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "252-255", "Text": "Another way of stating the same fact is\nlogarithm of b to base a is m If for a positive real number a, a \u00b9 1\nam = b,\nwe say that m is the logarithm of b to the base a We write this as \nlogab\nm ,\n\uf03d\n\u201clog\u201d being the abbreviation of the word \u201clogarithm\u201d Thus, we have\n=\n=\n=\n=\n=\n=\n=\n=\n3\n2\n2\n3\n3\n5\n0\n7\nlog\n8\n3,\nSince2\n8\nlog\n9\n2,\nSince3\n9\nlog 125\n3,\nSince5\n125\nlog 1\n0,\nSince7\n1\nLaws of Logarithms\nIn the following discussion, we shall take logarithms to any base a, (a > 0 and a \u00b9 1)\nFirst Law: loga\n (mn) = logam + logan\nProof: Suppose that logam = x and logan = y\nThen ax= m, ay = n\nHence mn = ax"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "253-256", "Text": "If for a positive real number a, a \u00b9 1\nam = b,\nwe say that m is the logarithm of b to the base a We write this as \nlogab\nm ,\n\uf03d\n\u201clog\u201d being the abbreviation of the word \u201clogarithm\u201d Thus, we have\n=\n=\n=\n=\n=\n=\n=\n=\n3\n2\n2\n3\n3\n5\n0\n7\nlog\n8\n3,\nSince2\n8\nlog\n9\n2,\nSince3\n9\nlog 125\n3,\nSince5\n125\nlog 1\n0,\nSince7\n1\nLaws of Logarithms\nIn the following discussion, we shall take logarithms to any base a, (a > 0 and a \u00b9 1)\nFirst Law: loga\n (mn) = logam + logan\nProof: Suppose that logam = x and logan = y\nThen ax= m, ay = n\nHence mn = ax ay = ax+y\nIt now follows from the definition of logarithms that\nloga (mn) = x + y = loga m \u2013 loga n\nSecond Law: loga\n \nm\nn\n\uf0e6\n\uf0f6\n\uf0e7\n\uf0f7\n\uf0e8\n\uf0f8 = loga m \u2013 logan\nProof: Let logam = x, logan = y\nLogarithms\nAPPENDIX IV\nRationalised 2023-24\n146\nChemistry\nThen ax = m, ay = n\nHence \nx\nx y\nay\nm\na\nn\na\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\n\uf03d\nTherefore\na\na\na\nm\nlog\nx\ny\nlog\nm\nlog\nn\nn\n\uf03d\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\n\uf02d\n\uf0e6\n\uf0f6\n\uf0e7\n\uf0f7\n\uf0e8\n\uf0f8\nThird Law : loga(mn) = n logam\nProof : As before, if logam = x, then ax = m\nThen \n\uf028\n\uf029\nn\nn\nx\nnx\nm\na\na\n\uf03d\n\uf03d\ngiving loga(mn) = nx = n loga m\nThus according to First Law: \u201cthe log of the product of two numbers is equal to the sum of their logs"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "254-257", "Text": "We write this as \nlogab\nm ,\n\uf03d\n\u201clog\u201d being the abbreviation of the word \u201clogarithm\u201d Thus, we have\n=\n=\n=\n=\n=\n=\n=\n=\n3\n2\n2\n3\n3\n5\n0\n7\nlog\n8\n3,\nSince2\n8\nlog\n9\n2,\nSince3\n9\nlog 125\n3,\nSince5\n125\nlog 1\n0,\nSince7\n1\nLaws of Logarithms\nIn the following discussion, we shall take logarithms to any base a, (a > 0 and a \u00b9 1)\nFirst Law: loga\n (mn) = logam + logan\nProof: Suppose that logam = x and logan = y\nThen ax= m, ay = n\nHence mn = ax ay = ax+y\nIt now follows from the definition of logarithms that\nloga (mn) = x + y = loga m \u2013 loga n\nSecond Law: loga\n \nm\nn\n\uf0e6\n\uf0f6\n\uf0e7\n\uf0f7\n\uf0e8\n\uf0f8 = loga m \u2013 logan\nProof: Let logam = x, logan = y\nLogarithms\nAPPENDIX IV\nRationalised 2023-24\n146\nChemistry\nThen ax = m, ay = n\nHence \nx\nx y\nay\nm\na\nn\na\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\n\uf03d\nTherefore\na\na\na\nm\nlog\nx\ny\nlog\nm\nlog\nn\nn\n\uf03d\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\n\uf02d\n\uf0e6\n\uf0f6\n\uf0e7\n\uf0f7\n\uf0e8\n\uf0f8\nThird Law : loga(mn) = n logam\nProof : As before, if logam = x, then ax = m\nThen \n\uf028\n\uf029\nn\nn\nx\nnx\nm\na\na\n\uf03d\n\uf03d\ngiving loga(mn) = nx = n loga m\nThus according to First Law: \u201cthe log of the product of two numbers is equal to the sum of their logs Similarly, the Second Law says: the log of the ratio of two numbers is the difference of their logs"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "255-258", "Text": "Thus, we have\n=\n=\n=\n=\n=\n=\n=\n=\n3\n2\n2\n3\n3\n5\n0\n7\nlog\n8\n3,\nSince2\n8\nlog\n9\n2,\nSince3\n9\nlog 125\n3,\nSince5\n125\nlog 1\n0,\nSince7\n1\nLaws of Logarithms\nIn the following discussion, we shall take logarithms to any base a, (a > 0 and a \u00b9 1)\nFirst Law: loga\n (mn) = logam + logan\nProof: Suppose that logam = x and logan = y\nThen ax= m, ay = n\nHence mn = ax ay = ax+y\nIt now follows from the definition of logarithms that\nloga (mn) = x + y = loga m \u2013 loga n\nSecond Law: loga\n \nm\nn\n\uf0e6\n\uf0f6\n\uf0e7\n\uf0f7\n\uf0e8\n\uf0f8 = loga m \u2013 logan\nProof: Let logam = x, logan = y\nLogarithms\nAPPENDIX IV\nRationalised 2023-24\n146\nChemistry\nThen ax = m, ay = n\nHence \nx\nx y\nay\nm\na\nn\na\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\n\uf03d\nTherefore\na\na\na\nm\nlog\nx\ny\nlog\nm\nlog\nn\nn\n\uf03d\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\n\uf02d\n\uf0e6\n\uf0f6\n\uf0e7\n\uf0f7\n\uf0e8\n\uf0f8\nThird Law : loga(mn) = n logam\nProof : As before, if logam = x, then ax = m\nThen \n\uf028\n\uf029\nn\nn\nx\nnx\nm\na\na\n\uf03d\n\uf03d\ngiving loga(mn) = nx = n loga m\nThus according to First Law: \u201cthe log of the product of two numbers is equal to the sum of their logs Similarly, the Second Law says: the log of the ratio of two numbers is the difference of their logs Thus,\nthe use of these laws converts a problem of multiplication/division into a problem of addition/subtraction,\nwhich are far easier to perform than multiplication/division"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "256-259", "Text": "ay = ax+y\nIt now follows from the definition of logarithms that\nloga (mn) = x + y = loga m \u2013 loga n\nSecond Law: loga\n \nm\nn\n\uf0e6\n\uf0f6\n\uf0e7\n\uf0f7\n\uf0e8\n\uf0f8 = loga m \u2013 logan\nProof: Let logam = x, logan = y\nLogarithms\nAPPENDIX IV\nRationalised 2023-24\n146\nChemistry\nThen ax = m, ay = n\nHence \nx\nx y\nay\nm\na\nn\na\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\n\uf03d\nTherefore\na\na\na\nm\nlog\nx\ny\nlog\nm\nlog\nn\nn\n\uf03d\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\n\uf02d\n\uf0e6\n\uf0f6\n\uf0e7\n\uf0f7\n\uf0e8\n\uf0f8\nThird Law : loga(mn) = n logam\nProof : As before, if logam = x, then ax = m\nThen \n\uf028\n\uf029\nn\nn\nx\nnx\nm\na\na\n\uf03d\n\uf03d\ngiving loga(mn) = nx = n loga m\nThus according to First Law: \u201cthe log of the product of two numbers is equal to the sum of their logs Similarly, the Second Law says: the log of the ratio of two numbers is the difference of their logs Thus,\nthe use of these laws converts a problem of multiplication/division into a problem of addition/subtraction,\nwhich are far easier to perform than multiplication/division That is why logarithms are so useful in\nall numerical computations"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "257-260", "Text": "Similarly, the Second Law says: the log of the ratio of two numbers is the difference of their logs Thus,\nthe use of these laws converts a problem of multiplication/division into a problem of addition/subtraction,\nwhich are far easier to perform than multiplication/division That is why logarithms are so useful in\nall numerical computations Logarithms to Base 10\nBecause number 10 is the base of writing numbers, it is very convenient to use logarithms to the base\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "258-261", "Text": "Thus,\nthe use of these laws converts a problem of multiplication/division into a problem of addition/subtraction,\nwhich are far easier to perform than multiplication/division That is why logarithms are so useful in\nall numerical computations Logarithms to Base 10\nBecause number 10 is the base of writing numbers, it is very convenient to use logarithms to the base\n10 Some examples are:\nlog10\n 10 = 1,\nsince 101 = 10\nlog10 100 = 2,\nsince 102 = 100\nlog10 10000 = 4,\nsince 104 = 10000\nlog10 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "259-262", "Text": "That is why logarithms are so useful in\nall numerical computations Logarithms to Base 10\nBecause number 10 is the base of writing numbers, it is very convenient to use logarithms to the base\n10 Some examples are:\nlog10\n 10 = 1,\nsince 101 = 10\nlog10 100 = 2,\nsince 102 = 100\nlog10 10000 = 4,\nsince 104 = 10000\nlog10 0 01 = \u20132,\nsince 10\u20132 = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "260-263", "Text": "Logarithms to Base 10\nBecause number 10 is the base of writing numbers, it is very convenient to use logarithms to the base\n10 Some examples are:\nlog10\n 10 = 1,\nsince 101 = 10\nlog10 100 = 2,\nsince 102 = 100\nlog10 10000 = 4,\nsince 104 = 10000\nlog10 0 01 = \u20132,\nsince 10\u20132 = 0 01\nlog10 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "261-264", "Text": "Some examples are:\nlog10\n 10 = 1,\nsince 101 = 10\nlog10 100 = 2,\nsince 102 = 100\nlog10 10000 = 4,\nsince 104 = 10000\nlog10 0 01 = \u20132,\nsince 10\u20132 = 0 01\nlog10 0 001 = \u20133,\nsince 10\u20133\n = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "262-265", "Text": "01 = \u20132,\nsince 10\u20132 = 0 01\nlog10 0 001 = \u20133,\nsince 10\u20133\n = 0 001\nand log101 = 0\nsince 100 = 1\nThe above results indicate that if n is an integral power of 10, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "263-266", "Text": "01\nlog10 0 001 = \u20133,\nsince 10\u20133\n = 0 001\nand log101 = 0\nsince 100 = 1\nThe above results indicate that if n is an integral power of 10, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "264-267", "Text": "001 = \u20133,\nsince 10\u20133\n = 0 001\nand log101 = 0\nsince 100 = 1\nThe above results indicate that if n is an integral power of 10, i e , 1 followed by several zeros or\n1 preceded by several zeros immediately to the right of the decimal point, then log n can be easily found"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "265-268", "Text": "001\nand log101 = 0\nsince 100 = 1\nThe above results indicate that if n is an integral power of 10, i e , 1 followed by several zeros or\n1 preceded by several zeros immediately to the right of the decimal point, then log n can be easily found If n is not an integral power of 10, then it is not easy to calculate log n"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "266-269", "Text": "e , 1 followed by several zeros or\n1 preceded by several zeros immediately to the right of the decimal point, then log n can be easily found If n is not an integral power of 10, then it is not easy to calculate log n But mathematicians have\nmade tables from which we can read off approximate value of the logarithm of any positive number\nbetween 1 and 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "267-270", "Text": ", 1 followed by several zeros or\n1 preceded by several zeros immediately to the right of the decimal point, then log n can be easily found If n is not an integral power of 10, then it is not easy to calculate log n But mathematicians have\nmade tables from which we can read off approximate value of the logarithm of any positive number\nbetween 1 and 10 And these are sufficient for us to calculate the logarithm of any number expressed\nin decimal form"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "268-271", "Text": "If n is not an integral power of 10, then it is not easy to calculate log n But mathematicians have\nmade tables from which we can read off approximate value of the logarithm of any positive number\nbetween 1 and 10 And these are sufficient for us to calculate the logarithm of any number expressed\nin decimal form For this purpose, we always express the given decimal as the product of an integral\npower of 10 and a number between 1 and 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "269-272", "Text": "But mathematicians have\nmade tables from which we can read off approximate value of the logarithm of any positive number\nbetween 1 and 10 And these are sufficient for us to calculate the logarithm of any number expressed\nin decimal form For this purpose, we always express the given decimal as the product of an integral\npower of 10 and a number between 1 and 10 Standard Form of Decimal\nWe can express any number in decimal form, as the product of (i) an integral power of 10, and (ii)\na number between 1 and 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "270-273", "Text": "And these are sufficient for us to calculate the logarithm of any number expressed\nin decimal form For this purpose, we always express the given decimal as the product of an integral\npower of 10 and a number between 1 and 10 Standard Form of Decimal\nWe can express any number in decimal form, as the product of (i) an integral power of 10, and (ii)\na number between 1 and 10 Here are some examples:\n(i) 25"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "271-274", "Text": "For this purpose, we always express the given decimal as the product of an integral\npower of 10 and a number between 1 and 10 Standard Form of Decimal\nWe can express any number in decimal form, as the product of (i) an integral power of 10, and (ii)\na number between 1 and 10 Here are some examples:\n(i) 25 2 lies between 10 and 100\n25"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "272-275", "Text": "Standard Form of Decimal\nWe can express any number in decimal form, as the product of (i) an integral power of 10, and (ii)\na number between 1 and 10 Here are some examples:\n(i) 25 2 lies between 10 and 100\n25 2 = \n1\n25"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "273-276", "Text": "Here are some examples:\n(i) 25 2 lies between 10 and 100\n25 2 = \n1\n25 2\n10\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "274-277", "Text": "2 lies between 10 and 100\n25 2 = \n1\n25 2\n10\n2 52\n10\n10\n\uf0b4\n\uf03d\n\uf0b4\n(ii) 1038"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "275-278", "Text": "2 = \n1\n25 2\n10\n2 52\n10\n10\n\uf0b4\n\uf03d\n\uf0b4\n(ii) 1038 4 lies between 1000 and 10000"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "276-279", "Text": "2\n10\n2 52\n10\n10\n\uf0b4\n\uf03d\n\uf0b4\n(ii) 1038 4 lies between 1000 and 10000 3\n3\n1 0 3 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "277-280", "Text": "52\n10\n10\n\uf0b4\n\uf03d\n\uf0b4\n(ii) 1038 4 lies between 1000 and 10000 3\n3\n1 0 3 8 4\n1 0 3 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "278-281", "Text": "4 lies between 1000 and 10000 3\n3\n1 0 3 8 4\n1 0 3 8 4\n1 0\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "279-282", "Text": "3\n3\n1 0 3 8 4\n1 0 3 8 4\n1 0\n1 0 3 8 4\n1 0\n1 0 0 0\n\uf05c\n\uf03d\n\uf0b4\n\uf03d\n\uf0b4\n(iii) 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "280-283", "Text": "4\n1 0 3 8 4\n1 0\n1 0 3 8 4\n1 0\n1 0 0 0\n\uf05c\n\uf03d\n\uf0b4\n\uf03d\n\uf0b4\n(iii) 0 005 lies between 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "281-284", "Text": "4\n1 0\n1 0 3 8 4\n1 0\n1 0 0 0\n\uf05c\n\uf03d\n\uf0b4\n\uf03d\n\uf0b4\n(iii) 0 005 lies between 0 001 and 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "282-285", "Text": "0 3 8 4\n1 0\n1 0 0 0\n\uf05c\n\uf03d\n\uf0b4\n\uf03d\n\uf0b4\n(iii) 0 005 lies between 0 001 and 0 01\n\u2234 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "283-286", "Text": "005 lies between 0 001 and 0 01\n\u2234 0 005 = (0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "284-287", "Text": "001 and 0 01\n\u2234 0 005 = (0 005 \u00d7 1000) \u00d7 10\n\u20133 = 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "285-288", "Text": "01\n\u2234 0 005 = (0 005 \u00d7 1000) \u00d7 10\n\u20133 = 5 0 \u00d7 10\n\u20133\n(iv) 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "286-289", "Text": "005 = (0 005 \u00d7 1000) \u00d7 10\n\u20133 = 5 0 \u00d7 10\n\u20133\n(iv) 0 00025 lies between 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "287-290", "Text": "005 \u00d7 1000) \u00d7 10\n\u20133 = 5 0 \u00d7 10\n\u20133\n(iv) 0 00025 lies between 0 0001 and 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "288-291", "Text": "0 \u00d7 10\n\u20133\n(iv) 0 00025 lies between 0 0001 and 0 001\n\u2234 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "289-292", "Text": "00025 lies between 0 0001 and 0 001\n\u2234 0 00025 = (0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "290-293", "Text": "0001 and 0 001\n\u2234 0 00025 = (0 00025 \u00d7 10000) \u00d7 10\n\u20134 = 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "291-294", "Text": "001\n\u2234 0 00025 = (0 00025 \u00d7 10000) \u00d7 10\n\u20134 = 2 5 \u00d7 10\n\u20134\nRationalised 2023-24\n147\nAppendix\nIn each case, we divide or multiply the decimal by a power of 10, to bring one non-zero digit to the left\nof the decimal point, and do the reverse operation by the same power of 10, indicated separately"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "292-295", "Text": "00025 = (0 00025 \u00d7 10000) \u00d7 10\n\u20134 = 2 5 \u00d7 10\n\u20134\nRationalised 2023-24\n147\nAppendix\nIn each case, we divide or multiply the decimal by a power of 10, to bring one non-zero digit to the left\nof the decimal point, and do the reverse operation by the same power of 10, indicated separately Thus, any positive decimal can be written in the form\nn = m \u00d7 10\np\nwhere p is an integer (positive, zero or negative) and 1< m < 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "293-296", "Text": "00025 \u00d7 10000) \u00d7 10\n\u20134 = 2 5 \u00d7 10\n\u20134\nRationalised 2023-24\n147\nAppendix\nIn each case, we divide or multiply the decimal by a power of 10, to bring one non-zero digit to the left\nof the decimal point, and do the reverse operation by the same power of 10, indicated separately Thus, any positive decimal can be written in the form\nn = m \u00d7 10\np\nwhere p is an integer (positive, zero or negative) and 1< m < 10 This is called the \u201cstandard form of n"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "294-297", "Text": "5 \u00d7 10\n\u20134\nRationalised 2023-24\n147\nAppendix\nIn each case, we divide or multiply the decimal by a power of 10, to bring one non-zero digit to the left\nof the decimal point, and do the reverse operation by the same power of 10, indicated separately Thus, any positive decimal can be written in the form\nn = m \u00d7 10\np\nwhere p is an integer (positive, zero or negative) and 1< m < 10 This is called the \u201cstandard form of n \u201d\nWorking Rule\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "295-298", "Text": "Thus, any positive decimal can be written in the form\nn = m \u00d7 10\np\nwhere p is an integer (positive, zero or negative) and 1< m < 10 This is called the \u201cstandard form of n \u201d\nWorking Rule\n1 Move the decimal point to the left, or to the right, as may be necessary, to bring one non-zero digit\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "296-299", "Text": "This is called the \u201cstandard form of n \u201d\nWorking Rule\n1 Move the decimal point to the left, or to the right, as may be necessary, to bring one non-zero digit\n2 to the left of decimal point"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "297-300", "Text": "\u201d\nWorking Rule\n1 Move the decimal point to the left, or to the right, as may be necessary, to bring one non-zero digit\n2 to the left of decimal point (i) If you move p places to the left, multiply by 10\n(ii) If you move p places to the right, multiply by 10p"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "298-301", "Text": "Move the decimal point to the left, or to the right, as may be necessary, to bring one non-zero digit\n2 to the left of decimal point (i) If you move p places to the left, multiply by 10\n(ii) If you move p places to the right, multiply by 10p \u2013p"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "299-302", "Text": "to the left of decimal point (i) If you move p places to the left, multiply by 10\n(ii) If you move p places to the right, multiply by 10p \u2013p (iii) If you do not move the decimal point at all, multiply by 10\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "300-303", "Text": "(i) If you move p places to the left, multiply by 10\n(ii) If you move p places to the right, multiply by 10p \u2013p (iii) If you do not move the decimal point at all, multiply by 10\n0 (iv) Write the new decimal obtained by the power of 10 (of step 2) to obtain the standard form of\nthe given decimal"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "301-304", "Text": "\u2013p (iii) If you do not move the decimal point at all, multiply by 10\n0 (iv) Write the new decimal obtained by the power of 10 (of step 2) to obtain the standard form of\nthe given decimal Characteristic and Mantissa\nConsider the standard form of n\nn = m \u00d710\np, where 1 < m < 10\nTaking logarithms to the base 10 and using the laws of logarithms\nlog n = log m + log 10\np\n= log m + p log 10\n= p + log m\nHere p is an integer and as 1 < m < 10, so 0 < log m < 1, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "302-305", "Text": "(iii) If you do not move the decimal point at all, multiply by 10\n0 (iv) Write the new decimal obtained by the power of 10 (of step 2) to obtain the standard form of\nthe given decimal Characteristic and Mantissa\nConsider the standard form of n\nn = m \u00d710\np, where 1 < m < 10\nTaking logarithms to the base 10 and using the laws of logarithms\nlog n = log m + log 10\np\n= log m + p log 10\n= p + log m\nHere p is an integer and as 1 < m < 10, so 0 < log m < 1, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "303-306", "Text": "(iv) Write the new decimal obtained by the power of 10 (of step 2) to obtain the standard form of\nthe given decimal Characteristic and Mantissa\nConsider the standard form of n\nn = m \u00d710\np, where 1 < m < 10\nTaking logarithms to the base 10 and using the laws of logarithms\nlog n = log m + log 10\np\n= log m + p log 10\n= p + log m\nHere p is an integer and as 1 < m < 10, so 0 < log m < 1, i e , m lies between 0 and 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "304-307", "Text": "Characteristic and Mantissa\nConsider the standard form of n\nn = m \u00d710\np, where 1 < m < 10\nTaking logarithms to the base 10 and using the laws of logarithms\nlog n = log m + log 10\np\n= log m + p log 10\n= p + log m\nHere p is an integer and as 1 < m < 10, so 0 < log m < 1, i e , m lies between 0 and 1 When log\nn has been expressed as p + log m, where p is an integer and 0 log m < 1, we say that p is the\n\u201ccharacteristic\u201d of log n and that log m is the \u201cmantissa of log n"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "305-308", "Text": "e , m lies between 0 and 1 When log\nn has been expressed as p + log m, where p is an integer and 0 log m < 1, we say that p is the\n\u201ccharacteristic\u201d of log n and that log m is the \u201cmantissa of log n Note that characteristic is always an\ninteger \u2013 positive, negative or zero, and mantissa is never negative and is always less than 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "306-309", "Text": ", m lies between 0 and 1 When log\nn has been expressed as p + log m, where p is an integer and 0 log m < 1, we say that p is the\n\u201ccharacteristic\u201d of log n and that log m is the \u201cmantissa of log n Note that characteristic is always an\ninteger \u2013 positive, negative or zero, and mantissa is never negative and is always less than 1 If we can\nfind the characteristics and the mantissa of log n, we have to just add them to get log n"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "307-310", "Text": "When log\nn has been expressed as p + log m, where p is an integer and 0 log m < 1, we say that p is the\n\u201ccharacteristic\u201d of log n and that log m is the \u201cmantissa of log n Note that characteristic is always an\ninteger \u2013 positive, negative or zero, and mantissa is never negative and is always less than 1 If we can\nfind the characteristics and the mantissa of log n, we have to just add them to get log n Thus to find log n, all we have to do is as follows:\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "308-311", "Text": "Note that characteristic is always an\ninteger \u2013 positive, negative or zero, and mantissa is never negative and is always less than 1 If we can\nfind the characteristics and the mantissa of log n, we have to just add them to get log n Thus to find log n, all we have to do is as follows:\n1 Put n in the standard form, say\nn = m \u00d7 10\np, 1 < m <10\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "309-312", "Text": "If we can\nfind the characteristics and the mantissa of log n, we have to just add them to get log n Thus to find log n, all we have to do is as follows:\n1 Put n in the standard form, say\nn = m \u00d7 10\np, 1 < m <10\n2 Read off the characteristic p of log n from this expression (exponent of 10)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "310-313", "Text": "Thus to find log n, all we have to do is as follows:\n1 Put n in the standard form, say\nn = m \u00d7 10\np, 1 < m <10\n2 Read off the characteristic p of log n from this expression (exponent of 10) 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "311-314", "Text": "Put n in the standard form, say\nn = m \u00d7 10\np, 1 < m <10\n2 Read off the characteristic p of log n from this expression (exponent of 10) 3 Look up log m from tables, which is being explained below"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "312-315", "Text": "Read off the characteristic p of log n from this expression (exponent of 10) 3 Look up log m from tables, which is being explained below 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "313-316", "Text": "3 Look up log m from tables, which is being explained below 4 Write log n = p + log m\nIf the characteristic p of a number n is say, 2 and the mantissa is"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "314-317", "Text": "Look up log m from tables, which is being explained below 4 Write log n = p + log m\nIf the characteristic p of a number n is say, 2 and the mantissa is 4133, then we have log n = 2\n+"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "315-318", "Text": "4 Write log n = p + log m\nIf the characteristic p of a number n is say, 2 and the mantissa is 4133, then we have log n = 2\n+ 4133 which we can write as 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "316-319", "Text": "Write log n = p + log m\nIf the characteristic p of a number n is say, 2 and the mantissa is 4133, then we have log n = 2\n+ 4133 which we can write as 2 4133"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "317-320", "Text": "4133, then we have log n = 2\n+ 4133 which we can write as 2 4133 If, however, the characteristic p of a number m is say \u20132 and the\nmantissa is"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "318-321", "Text": "4133 which we can write as 2 4133 If, however, the characteristic p of a number m is say \u20132 and the\nmantissa is 4123, then we have log m = \u20132 +"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "319-322", "Text": "4133 If, however, the characteristic p of a number m is say \u20132 and the\nmantissa is 4123, then we have log m = \u20132 + 4123"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "320-323", "Text": "If, however, the characteristic p of a number m is say \u20132 and the\nmantissa is 4123, then we have log m = \u20132 + 4123 We cannot write this as \u20132"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "321-324", "Text": "4123, then we have log m = \u20132 + 4123 We cannot write this as \u20132 4123"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "322-325", "Text": "4123 We cannot write this as \u20132 4123 (Why"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "323-326", "Text": "We cannot write this as \u20132 4123 (Why ) In order\nto avoid this confusion we write 2 for \u20132 and thus we write log m = 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "324-327", "Text": "4123 (Why ) In order\nto avoid this confusion we write 2 for \u20132 and thus we write log m = 2 4123"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "325-328", "Text": "(Why ) In order\nto avoid this confusion we write 2 for \u20132 and thus we write log m = 2 4123 Now let us explain how to use the table of logarithms to find mantissas"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "326-329", "Text": ") In order\nto avoid this confusion we write 2 for \u20132 and thus we write log m = 2 4123 Now let us explain how to use the table of logarithms to find mantissas A table is appended at the\nend of this Appendix"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "327-330", "Text": "4123 Now let us explain how to use the table of logarithms to find mantissas A table is appended at the\nend of this Appendix Observe that in the table, every row starts with a two digit number, 10, 11, 12,"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "328-331", "Text": "Now let us explain how to use the table of logarithms to find mantissas A table is appended at the\nend of this Appendix Observe that in the table, every row starts with a two digit number, 10, 11, 12, 97, 98, 99"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "329-332", "Text": "A table is appended at the\nend of this Appendix Observe that in the table, every row starts with a two digit number, 10, 11, 12, 97, 98, 99 Every\ncolumn is headed by a one-digit number, 0, 1, 2,"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "330-333", "Text": "Observe that in the table, every row starts with a two digit number, 10, 11, 12, 97, 98, 99 Every\ncolumn is headed by a one-digit number, 0, 1, 2, 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "331-334", "Text": "97, 98, 99 Every\ncolumn is headed by a one-digit number, 0, 1, 2, 9 On the right, we have the section called \u201cMean\ndifferences\u201d which has 9 columns headed by 1, 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "332-335", "Text": "Every\ncolumn is headed by a one-digit number, 0, 1, 2, 9 On the right, we have the section called \u201cMean\ndifferences\u201d which has 9 columns headed by 1, 2 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "333-336", "Text": "9 On the right, we have the section called \u201cMean\ndifferences\u201d which has 9 columns headed by 1, 2 9 1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "334-337", "Text": "On the right, we have the section called \u201cMean\ndifferences\u201d which has 9 columns headed by 1, 2 9 1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9 1\n1\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n6\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n6\n6\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n6\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "335-338", "Text": "9 1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9 1\n1\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n6\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n6\n6\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n6\n6 0\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "336-339", "Text": "1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9 1\n1\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n6\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n6\n6\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n6\n6 0\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9 61\n7853\n7860 7868\n7875\n7882 7889\n7896\n7803 7810\n7817\n62\n7924\n7931 7935\n7945\n7954 7959\n7966\n7973 7980\n7987\n63\n7993\n8000 8007\n8014\n8021 8028\n8035\n8041 8048\n8055"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "337-340", "Text": "1\n1\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n6\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n6\n6\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n6\n6 0\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9 61\n7853\n7860 7868\n7875\n7882 7889\n7896\n7803 7810\n7817\n62\n7924\n7931 7935\n7945\n7954 7959\n7966\n7973 7980\n7987\n63\n7993\n8000 8007\n8014\n8021 8028\n8035\n8041 8048\n8055 Rationalised 2023-24\n148\nChemistry\nNow suppose we wish to find log (6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "338-341", "Text": "0\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9 61\n7853\n7860 7868\n7875\n7882 7889\n7896\n7803 7810\n7817\n62\n7924\n7931 7935\n7945\n7954 7959\n7966\n7973 7980\n7987\n63\n7993\n8000 8007\n8014\n8021 8028\n8035\n8041 8048\n8055 Rationalised 2023-24\n148\nChemistry\nNow suppose we wish to find log (6 234)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "339-342", "Text": "61\n7853\n7860 7868\n7875\n7882 7889\n7896\n7803 7810\n7817\n62\n7924\n7931 7935\n7945\n7954 7959\n7966\n7973 7980\n7987\n63\n7993\n8000 8007\n8014\n8021 8028\n8035\n8041 8048\n8055 Rationalised 2023-24\n148\nChemistry\nNow suppose we wish to find log (6 234) Then look into the row starting with 62"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "340-343", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n148\nChemistry\nNow suppose we wish to find log (6 234) Then look into the row starting with 62 In this row, look\nat the number in the column headed by 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "341-344", "Text": "234) Then look into the row starting with 62 In this row, look\nat the number in the column headed by 3 The number is 7945"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "342-345", "Text": "Then look into the row starting with 62 In this row, look\nat the number in the column headed by 3 The number is 7945 This means that\nlog (6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "343-346", "Text": "In this row, look\nat the number in the column headed by 3 The number is 7945 This means that\nlog (6 230) = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "344-347", "Text": "The number is 7945 This means that\nlog (6 230) = 0 7945*\nBut we want log (6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "345-348", "Text": "This means that\nlog (6 230) = 0 7945*\nBut we want log (6 234)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "346-349", "Text": "230) = 0 7945*\nBut we want log (6 234) So our answer will be a little more than 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "347-350", "Text": "7945*\nBut we want log (6 234) So our answer will be a little more than 0 7945"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "348-351", "Text": "234) So our answer will be a little more than 0 7945 How much more"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "349-352", "Text": "So our answer will be a little more than 0 7945 How much more We look\nthis up in the section on Mean differences"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "350-353", "Text": "7945 How much more We look\nthis up in the section on Mean differences Since our fourth digit is 4, look under the column headed\nby 4 in the Mean difference section (in the row 62)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "351-354", "Text": "How much more We look\nthis up in the section on Mean differences Since our fourth digit is 4, look under the column headed\nby 4 in the Mean difference section (in the row 62) We see the number 3 there"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "352-355", "Text": "We look\nthis up in the section on Mean differences Since our fourth digit is 4, look under the column headed\nby 4 in the Mean difference section (in the row 62) We see the number 3 there So add 3 to 7945"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "353-356", "Text": "Since our fourth digit is 4, look under the column headed\nby 4 in the Mean difference section (in the row 62) We see the number 3 there So add 3 to 7945 We\nget 7948"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "354-357", "Text": "We see the number 3 there So add 3 to 7945 We\nget 7948 So we finally have\nlog (6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "355-358", "Text": "So add 3 to 7945 We\nget 7948 So we finally have\nlog (6 234) = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "356-359", "Text": "We\nget 7948 So we finally have\nlog (6 234) = 0 7948"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "357-360", "Text": "So we finally have\nlog (6 234) = 0 7948 Take another example"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "358-361", "Text": "234) = 0 7948 Take another example To find log (8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "359-362", "Text": "7948 Take another example To find log (8 127), we look in the row 81 under column 2, and we find 9096"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "360-363", "Text": "Take another example To find log (8 127), we look in the row 81 under column 2, and we find 9096 We continue in the same row and see that the mean difference under 7 is 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "361-364", "Text": "To find log (8 127), we look in the row 81 under column 2, and we find 9096 We continue in the same row and see that the mean difference under 7 is 4 Adding this to 9096, and\nwe get 9100"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "362-365", "Text": "127), we look in the row 81 under column 2, and we find 9096 We continue in the same row and see that the mean difference under 7 is 4 Adding this to 9096, and\nwe get 9100 So, log (8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "363-366", "Text": "We continue in the same row and see that the mean difference under 7 is 4 Adding this to 9096, and\nwe get 9100 So, log (8 127) = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "364-367", "Text": "Adding this to 9096, and\nwe get 9100 So, log (8 127) = 0 9100"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "365-368", "Text": "So, log (8 127) = 0 9100 Finding N when log N is given\nWe have so far discussed the procedure for finding log n when a positive number n given"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "366-369", "Text": "127) = 0 9100 Finding N when log N is given\nWe have so far discussed the procedure for finding log n when a positive number n given We now turn\nto its converse i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "367-370", "Text": "9100 Finding N when log N is given\nWe have so far discussed the procedure for finding log n when a positive number n given We now turn\nto its converse i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "368-371", "Text": "Finding N when log N is given\nWe have so far discussed the procedure for finding log n when a positive number n given We now turn\nto its converse i e , to find n when log n is given and give a method for this purpose"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "369-372", "Text": "We now turn\nto its converse i e , to find n when log n is given and give a method for this purpose If log n = t, we\nsometimes say n = antilog t"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "370-373", "Text": "e , to find n when log n is given and give a method for this purpose If log n = t, we\nsometimes say n = antilog t Therefore our task is given t, find its antilog"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "371-374", "Text": ", to find n when log n is given and give a method for this purpose If log n = t, we\nsometimes say n = antilog t Therefore our task is given t, find its antilog For this, we use the ready-\nmade antilog tables"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "372-375", "Text": "If log n = t, we\nsometimes say n = antilog t Therefore our task is given t, find its antilog For this, we use the ready-\nmade antilog tables Suppose log n = 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "373-376", "Text": "Therefore our task is given t, find its antilog For this, we use the ready-\nmade antilog tables Suppose log n = 2 5372"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "374-377", "Text": "For this, we use the ready-\nmade antilog tables Suppose log n = 2 5372 To find n, first take just the mantissa of log n"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "375-378", "Text": "Suppose log n = 2 5372 To find n, first take just the mantissa of log n In this case it is"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "376-379", "Text": "5372 To find n, first take just the mantissa of log n In this case it is 5372"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "377-380", "Text": "To find n, first take just the mantissa of log n In this case it is 5372 (Make sure it is positive"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "378-381", "Text": "In this case it is 5372 (Make sure it is positive )\nNow take up antilog of this number in the antilog table which is to be used exactly like the log table"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "379-382", "Text": "5372 (Make sure it is positive )\nNow take up antilog of this number in the antilog table which is to be used exactly like the log table In the antilog table, the entry under column 7 in the row"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "380-383", "Text": "(Make sure it is positive )\nNow take up antilog of this number in the antilog table which is to be used exactly like the log table In the antilog table, the entry under column 7 in the row 53 is 3443 and the mean difference for the\nlast digit 2 in that row is 2, so the table gives 3445"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "381-384", "Text": ")\nNow take up antilog of this number in the antilog table which is to be used exactly like the log table In the antilog table, the entry under column 7 in the row 53 is 3443 and the mean difference for the\nlast digit 2 in that row is 2, so the table gives 3445 Hence,\nantilog ("}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "382-385", "Text": "In the antilog table, the entry under column 7 in the row 53 is 3443 and the mean difference for the\nlast digit 2 in that row is 2, so the table gives 3445 Hence,\nantilog ( 5372) = 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "383-386", "Text": "53 is 3443 and the mean difference for the\nlast digit 2 in that row is 2, so the table gives 3445 Hence,\nantilog ( 5372) = 3 445\nNow since log n = 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "384-387", "Text": "Hence,\nantilog ( 5372) = 3 445\nNow since log n = 2 5372, the characteristic of log n is 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "385-388", "Text": "5372) = 3 445\nNow since log n = 2 5372, the characteristic of log n is 2 So the standard form of n is given by\n n = 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "386-389", "Text": "445\nNow since log n = 2 5372, the characteristic of log n is 2 So the standard form of n is given by\n n = 3 445 \u00d7 10\n2\nor n = 344"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "387-390", "Text": "5372, the characteristic of log n is 2 So the standard form of n is given by\n n = 3 445 \u00d7 10\n2\nor n = 344 5\nIllustration 1:\nIf log x = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "388-391", "Text": "So the standard form of n is given by\n n = 3 445 \u00d7 10\n2\nor n = 344 5\nIllustration 1:\nIf log x = 1 0712, find x"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "389-392", "Text": "445 \u00d7 10\n2\nor n = 344 5\nIllustration 1:\nIf log x = 1 0712, find x Solution: We find that the number corresponding to 0712 is 1179"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "390-393", "Text": "5\nIllustration 1:\nIf log x = 1 0712, find x Solution: We find that the number corresponding to 0712 is 1179 Since characteristic of log x is 1, we\nhave\nx = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "391-394", "Text": "0712, find x Solution: We find that the number corresponding to 0712 is 1179 Since characteristic of log x is 1, we\nhave\nx = 1 179 \u00d7 10\n1\n= 11"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "392-395", "Text": "Solution: We find that the number corresponding to 0712 is 1179 Since characteristic of log x is 1, we\nhave\nx = 1 179 \u00d7 10\n1\n= 11 79\nIllustration 2:\nIf log10 x = 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "393-396", "Text": "Since characteristic of log x is 1, we\nhave\nx = 1 179 \u00d7 10\n1\n= 11 79\nIllustration 2:\nIf log10 x = 2 1352, find x"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "394-397", "Text": "179 \u00d7 10\n1\n= 11 79\nIllustration 2:\nIf log10 x = 2 1352, find x Solution: From antilog tables, we find that the number corresponding to 1352 is 1366"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "395-398", "Text": "79\nIllustration 2:\nIf log10 x = 2 1352, find x Solution: From antilog tables, we find that the number corresponding to 1352 is 1366 Since the\ncharacteristic is 2 i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "396-399", "Text": "1352, find x Solution: From antilog tables, we find that the number corresponding to 1352 is 1366 Since the\ncharacteristic is 2 i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "397-400", "Text": "Solution: From antilog tables, we find that the number corresponding to 1352 is 1366 Since the\ncharacteristic is 2 i e , \u20132, so\nx = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "398-401", "Text": "Since the\ncharacteristic is 2 i e , \u20132, so\nx = 1 366 \u00d7 10\n\u20132 = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "399-402", "Text": "e , \u20132, so\nx = 1 366 \u00d7 10\n\u20132 = 0 01366\nUse of Logarithms in Numerical Calculations\nIllustration 1:\nFind 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "400-403", "Text": ", \u20132, so\nx = 1 366 \u00d7 10\n\u20132 = 0 01366\nUse of Logarithms in Numerical Calculations\nIllustration 1:\nFind 6 3 \u00d7 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "401-404", "Text": "366 \u00d7 10\n\u20132 = 0 01366\nUse of Logarithms in Numerical Calculations\nIllustration 1:\nFind 6 3 \u00d7 1 29\nSolution: Let x = 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "402-405", "Text": "01366\nUse of Logarithms in Numerical Calculations\nIllustration 1:\nFind 6 3 \u00d7 1 29\nSolution: Let x = 6 3 \u00d7 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "403-406", "Text": "3 \u00d7 1 29\nSolution: Let x = 6 3 \u00d7 1 29\nThen log10 x = log (6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "404-407", "Text": "29\nSolution: Let x = 6 3 \u00d7 1 29\nThen log10 x = log (6 3 \u00d7 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "405-408", "Text": "3 \u00d7 1 29\nThen log10 x = log (6 3 \u00d7 1 29) = log 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "406-409", "Text": "29\nThen log10 x = log (6 3 \u00d7 1 29) = log 6 3 + log 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "407-410", "Text": "3 \u00d7 1 29) = log 6 3 + log 1 29\nNow,\nlog 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "408-411", "Text": "29) = log 6 3 + log 1 29\nNow,\nlog 6 3 = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "409-412", "Text": "3 + log 1 29\nNow,\nlog 6 3 = 0 7993\nlog 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "410-413", "Text": "29\nNow,\nlog 6 3 = 0 7993\nlog 1 29 = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "411-414", "Text": "3 = 0 7993\nlog 1 29 = 0 1106\n\\ log10 x = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "412-415", "Text": "7993\nlog 1 29 = 0 1106\n\\ log10 x = 0 9099,\n* It should, however, be noted that the values given in the table are not exact"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "413-416", "Text": "29 = 0 1106\n\\ log10 x = 0 9099,\n* It should, however, be noted that the values given in the table are not exact They are only approximate values,\nalthough we use the sign of equality which may give the impression that they are exact values"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "414-417", "Text": "1106\n\\ log10 x = 0 9099,\n* It should, however, be noted that the values given in the table are not exact They are only approximate values,\nalthough we use the sign of equality which may give the impression that they are exact values The same\nconvention will be followed in respect of antilogarithm of a number"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "415-418", "Text": "9099,\n* It should, however, be noted that the values given in the table are not exact They are only approximate values,\nalthough we use the sign of equality which may give the impression that they are exact values The same\nconvention will be followed in respect of antilogarithm of a number Rationalised 2023-24\n149\nAppendix\nTaking antilog\nx = 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "416-419", "Text": "They are only approximate values,\nalthough we use the sign of equality which may give the impression that they are exact values The same\nconvention will be followed in respect of antilogarithm of a number Rationalised 2023-24\n149\nAppendix\nTaking antilog\nx = 8 127\nIllustration 2:\nFind \n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "417-420", "Text": "The same\nconvention will be followed in respect of antilogarithm of a number Rationalised 2023-24\n149\nAppendix\nTaking antilog\nx = 8 127\nIllustration 2:\nFind \n1 5\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "418-421", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n149\nAppendix\nTaking antilog\nx = 8 127\nIllustration 2:\nFind \n1 5\n(1 23)\n11"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "419-422", "Text": "127\nIllustration 2:\nFind \n1 5\n(1 23)\n11 2\n23"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "420-423", "Text": "5\n(1 23)\n11 2\n23 5\n\uf0b4\nSolution: Let x = \n23\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "421-424", "Text": "23)\n11 2\n23 5\n\uf0b4\nSolution: Let x = \n23\n(1 23)\n11"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "422-425", "Text": "2\n23 5\n\uf0b4\nSolution: Let x = \n23\n(1 23)\n11 2\n23"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "423-426", "Text": "5\n\uf0b4\nSolution: Let x = \n23\n(1 23)\n11 2\n23 5\n\uf0b4\nThen log x = log \n23\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "424-427", "Text": "23)\n11 2\n23 5\n\uf0b4\nThen log x = log \n23\n(1 23)\n11"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "425-428", "Text": "2\n23 5\n\uf0b4\nThen log x = log \n23\n(1 23)\n11 2\n23"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "426-429", "Text": "5\n\uf0b4\nThen log x = log \n23\n(1 23)\n11 2\n23 5\n\uf0b4\n= \n3\n2 log 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "427-430", "Text": "23)\n11 2\n23 5\n\uf0b4\n= \n3\n2 log 1 23 \u2013 log (11"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "428-431", "Text": "2\n23 5\n\uf0b4\n= \n3\n2 log 1 23 \u2013 log (11 2 \u00d7 23"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "429-432", "Text": "5\n\uf0b4\n= \n3\n2 log 1 23 \u2013 log (11 2 \u00d7 23 5)\n= \n3\n2 log 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "430-433", "Text": "23 \u2013 log (11 2 \u00d7 23 5)\n= \n3\n2 log 1 23 \u2013 log 11"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "431-434", "Text": "2 \u00d7 23 5)\n= \n3\n2 log 1 23 \u2013 log 11 2 \u2013 23"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "432-435", "Text": "5)\n= \n3\n2 log 1 23 \u2013 log 11 2 \u2013 23 5\nNow,\nlog 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "433-436", "Text": "23 \u2013 log 11 2 \u2013 23 5\nNow,\nlog 1 23 = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "434-437", "Text": "2 \u2013 23 5\nNow,\nlog 1 23 = 0 0899\n3\n2 log 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "435-438", "Text": "5\nNow,\nlog 1 23 = 0 0899\n3\n2 log 1 23 = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "436-439", "Text": "23 = 0 0899\n3\n2 log 1 23 = 0 13485\nlog 11"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "437-440", "Text": "0899\n3\n2 log 1 23 = 0 13485\nlog 11 2 = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "438-441", "Text": "23 = 0 13485\nlog 11 2 = 1 0492\nlog 23"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "439-442", "Text": "13485\nlog 11 2 = 1 0492\nlog 23 5 = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "440-443", "Text": "2 = 1 0492\nlog 23 5 = 1 3711\nlog x = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "441-444", "Text": "0492\nlog 23 5 = 1 3711\nlog x = 0 13485 \u2013 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "442-445", "Text": "5 = 1 3711\nlog x = 0 13485 \u2013 1 0492 \u2013 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "443-446", "Text": "3711\nlog x = 0 13485 \u2013 1 0492 \u2013 1 3711\n= 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "444-447", "Text": "13485 \u2013 1 0492 \u2013 1 3711\n= 3 71455\n\\ x = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "445-448", "Text": "0492 \u2013 1 3711\n= 3 71455\n\\ x = 0 005183\nIllustration 3:\nFind \n5\n7\n(71"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "446-449", "Text": "3711\n= 3 71455\n\\ x = 0 005183\nIllustration 3:\nFind \n5\n7\n(71 24)\n56\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "447-450", "Text": "71455\n\\ x = 0 005183\nIllustration 3:\nFind \n5\n7\n(71 24)\n56\n(2 3)\n21\n\uf0b4\n\uf0b4\nSolution: Let x = \n5\n7\n(71"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "448-451", "Text": "005183\nIllustration 3:\nFind \n5\n7\n(71 24)\n56\n(2 3)\n21\n\uf0b4\n\uf0b4\nSolution: Let x = \n5\n7\n(71 24)\n56\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "449-452", "Text": "24)\n56\n(2 3)\n21\n\uf0b4\n\uf0b4\nSolution: Let x = \n5\n7\n(71 24)\n56\n(2 3)\n21\n\uf0b4\n\uf0b4\nThen log x = \n1\n2 log \n5\n7\n(71"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "450-453", "Text": "3)\n21\n\uf0b4\n\uf0b4\nSolution: Let x = \n5\n7\n(71 24)\n56\n(2 3)\n21\n\uf0b4\n\uf0b4\nThen log x = \n1\n2 log \n5\n7\n(71 24)\n56\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "451-454", "Text": "24)\n56\n(2 3)\n21\n\uf0b4\n\uf0b4\nThen log x = \n1\n2 log \n5\n7\n(71 24)\n56\n(2 3)\n21\n\uf0b4\n\uf0b4\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0ea\n\uf0fa\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n= \n1\n2 [log (71"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "452-455", "Text": "3)\n21\n\uf0b4\n\uf0b4\nThen log x = \n1\n2 log \n5\n7\n(71 24)\n56\n(2 3)\n21\n\uf0b4\n\uf0b4\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0ea\n\uf0fa\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n= \n1\n2 [log (71 24)\n5 + log \n7\n56\nlog (2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "453-456", "Text": "24)\n56\n(2 3)\n21\n\uf0b4\n\uf0b4\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0ea\n\uf0fa\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n= \n1\n2 [log (71 24)\n5 + log \n7\n56\nlog (2 3)\nlog\n21]\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n= \n5\n1\n7\n1\nlog 71"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "454-457", "Text": "3)\n21\n\uf0b4\n\uf0b4\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0ea\n\uf0fa\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n= \n1\n2 [log (71 24)\n5 + log \n7\n56\nlog (2 3)\nlog\n21]\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n= \n5\n1\n7\n1\nlog 71 24 + \n log 56\nlog 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "455-458", "Text": "24)\n5 + log \n7\n56\nlog (2 3)\nlog\n21]\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n= \n5\n1\n7\n1\nlog 71 24 + \n log 56\nlog 2 3 \n log 21\n2\n4\n2\n4\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\nNow, using log tables\nlog 71"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "456-459", "Text": "3)\nlog\n21]\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n= \n5\n1\n7\n1\nlog 71 24 + \n log 56\nlog 2 3 \n log 21\n2\n4\n2\n4\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\nNow, using log tables\nlog 71 24 = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "457-460", "Text": "24 + \n log 56\nlog 2 3 \n log 21\n2\n4\n2\n4\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\nNow, using log tables\nlog 71 24 = 1 8527\nlog 56 = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "458-461", "Text": "3 \n log 21\n2\n4\n2\n4\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\nNow, using log tables\nlog 71 24 = 1 8527\nlog 56 = 1 7482\nlog 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "459-462", "Text": "24 = 1 8527\nlog 56 = 1 7482\nlog 2 3 = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "460-463", "Text": "8527\nlog 56 = 1 7482\nlog 2 3 = 0 3617\nlog 21 = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "461-464", "Text": "7482\nlog 2 3 = 0 3617\nlog 21 = 1 3222\n\\ log x = \n5\n1\n7\n1\nlog (1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "462-465", "Text": "3 = 0 3617\nlog 21 = 1 3222\n\\ log x = \n5\n1\n7\n1\nlog (1 8527) + \n (1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "463-466", "Text": "3617\nlog 21 = 1 3222\n\\ log x = \n5\n1\n7\n1\nlog (1 8527) + \n (1 7482)\n(0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "464-467", "Text": "3222\n\\ log x = \n5\n1\n7\n1\nlog (1 8527) + \n (1 7482)\n(0 3617) \n (1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "465-468", "Text": "8527) + \n (1 7482)\n(0 3617) \n (1 3222)\n2\n4\n2\n4\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n= 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "466-469", "Text": "7482)\n(0 3617) \n (1 3222)\n2\n4\n2\n4\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n= 3 4723\n\\ x = 2967\nRationalised 2023-24\n150\nChemistry\nLOGARITHMS\nN\n0\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n10\n0000 0043\n0086\n0128\n0170\n5\n9\n13\n17\n21\n26\n30\n34 38\n0212\n0253 0294\n0334\n0374\n4\n 8\n12\n16\n2O\n24\n28\n32 36\n11\n0414 0453\n0492\n0531\n0569\n4\n 8\n12\n16\n20\n23\n27\n31 35\n0607\n0645 0682\n0719\n0755\n4\n7\n11\n15\n18\n22\n26\n29 33\n12\n0792 0828\n0864\n0899\n0934\n3\n7\n11\n14\n18\n21\n25\n28 32\n0969\n1004 1038 1072\n1106\n3\n7\n10\n14\n17\n20\n24\n27 31\n13\n1139 1173\n1206\n1239\n1271\n3\n6\n10\n13\n16\n19\n23\n26 29\n1303\n1335 1367\n1399\n1430\n3\n7\n10\n13\n16\n19\n22\n25 29\n14\n1461 1492\n1523\n1553\n1584\n3\n6\n9\n12\n15\n19\n22\n25 28\n1614\n1644 1673\n1703\n1732\n3\n6\n9\n12\n14\n17\n20\n23 26\n15\n1761 1790\n1818\n1847\n1875\n3\n6\n9\n11\n14\n17\n20\n23 26\n1903\n1931 1959\n1987\n2014\n3\n6\n8\n11\n14\n17\n19\n22 25\n16\n2041 2068\n2095\n2122\n2148\n3\n6\n8\n11\n14\n 16\n19\n22 24\n2175\n2201 2227\n2253\n2279\n3\n5\n8\n10\n 13 16\n18\n21 23\n17\n2304 2330\n2355\n2380\n2405\n3\n5\n8\n10\n13\n15\n18\n20 23\n2430\n2455 2480\n2504\n2529\n3\n5\n8\n10\n12\n15\n17\n20 22\n18\n2553 2577\n2601\n2625\n2648\n2\n5\n7\n9\n12\n14\n17\n19 21\n2672\n2695 2718\n2742\n2765\n2\n4\n7\n9\n 11 14\n16\n18 21\n19\n2788 2810\n2833\n2856\n2878\n2\n4\n7\n9\n11\n13\n16\n18 20\n2900\n2923 2945\n2967\n2989\n2\n4\n6\n8\n11\n13\n15\n17 19\n20\n3010 3032\n3054\n3075\n3096\n3118\n3139 3160\n3181\n3201\n2\n4\n6\n8\n11\n13\n15\n17 19\n21\n3222 3243\n3263\n3284\n3304\n3324\n3345 3365\n3385\n3404\n2\n4\n6\n8\n10\n12\n14\n16 18\n22\n3424 3444\n3464\n3483\n3502\n3522\n3541 3560\n3579\n3598\n2\n4\n6\n8\n10\n12\n14\n15 17\n23\n3617 3636\n3655\n3674\n3692\n3711\n3729 3747\n3766\n3784\n2\n4\n6\n7\n9\n11\n13\n15 17\n24\n3802 3820\n3838\n3856\n3874\n3892\n3909 3927\n3945\n3962\n2\n4\n5\n7\n9\n11\n12\n14 16\n25\n3979 3997\n4014\n4031\n4048\n4065\n4082 4099\n4116\n4133\n2\n3\n5\n7\n9\n10\n12\n14 15\n26\n4150 4166\n4183\n4200\n4216\n4232\n4249 4265\n4281\n4298\n2\n3\n5\n7\n8\n10\n11\n13 15\n27\n4314 4330\n4346\n4362\n4378\n4393\n4409 4425\n4440\n4456\n2\n3\n5\n6\n8\n9\n11\n13 14\n28\n4472 4487\n4502\n4518\n4533\n4548\n4564 4579\n4594\n4609\n2\n3\n5\n6\n8\n9\n11\n12 14\n29\n4624 4639\n4654\n4669\n4683\n4698\n4713 4728\n4742\n4757\n1\n3\n4\n6\n7\n9\n10\n12 13\n30\n4771 4786\n4800\n4814\n4829\n4843\n4857 4871\n4886\n4900\n1\n3\n4\n6\n7\n9\n10\n11 13\n31\n4914 4928\n 4942 4955\n4969\n4983\n4997 5011\n5024\n5038\n1\n3\n 4\n6\n7\n8\n10\n11 12\n32\n5051 5065\n5079\n5092\n5105\n5119\n5132 5145\n5159\n5172\n1\n3\n4\n5\n7\n8\n9\n11 12\n33\n5185 5198\n5211\n5224\n5237\n5250\n5263 5276\n5289\n5302\n1\n3\n4\n5\n6\n8\n9\n10 12\n34\n5315 5328\n5340\n5353\n5366\n5378\n5391 5403\n5416\n5428\n1\n3\n4\n5\n6\n8\n9\n10 11\n35\n5441 5453\n5465\n5478\n5490\n5502\n5514 5527\n5539\n5551\n1\n2\n4\n5\n6\n7\n9\n10 11\n36\n5563 5575\n5587\n5599\n5611\n5623\n5635 5647\n5658\n5670\n1\n2\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n10 11\n37\n5682 5694\n5705\n5717\n5729\n5740\n5752 5763\n5775\n5786\n1\n2\n3\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n10\n38\n5798 5809\n5821\n5832\n5843\n5855\n5866 5877\n5888\n5899\n1\n2\n3\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n10\n39\n5911 5922\n5933\n5944\n5955\n5966\n5977 5988\n5999\n6010\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n7\n8\n9\n10\n40\n6021 6031\n6042\n6053\n6064\n6075\n6085 6096\n6107\n6117\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n8\n9\n10\n41\n6128 6138\n6149\n6160\n6170\n6180\n6191 6201\n6212\n6222\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n42\n6232 6243\n6253\n6263\n6274\n6284\n6294 6304\n6314\n6325\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n43\n6335 6345\n6355\n6365\n6375\n6385\n6395 6405\n6415\n6425\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n44\n6435 6444\n6454\n6464\n6474\n6484\n6493 6503\n6513\n6522\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n45\n6532 6542\n6551\n6561\n6471\n6580\n6590 6599\n6609\n6618\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n46\n6628 6637\n6646\n6656\n6665\n6675\n6684 6693\n6702\n6712\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n7\n8\n47\n6721 6730\n6739\n6749\n6758\n6767\n6776 6785\n6794\n6803\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n7\n8\n48\n6812 6821\n6830\n6839\n6848\n6857\n6866 6875\n6884\n6893\n1\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n49\n6902 6911\n6920\n6928\n6937\n6946\n6955 6964\n6972\n6981\n1\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\nTABLE I\nRationalised 2023-24\n151\nAppendix\nLOGARITHMS\nTABLE 1 (Continued)\nN\n0\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n50\n6990 6998\n7007\n7016\n7024\n7033\n7042 7050\n7059\n7067\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n51\n7076 7084\n7093\n7101\n7110\n7118\n7126 7135\n7143\n7152\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n52\n7160 7168\n7177\n7185\n7193\n7202\n7210 7218\n7226\n7235\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n7\n53\n7243 7251\n7259\n7267\n7275\n7284\n7292 7300\n7308\n7316\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n6\n7\n54\n7324 7332\n7340\n7348\n7356\n7364\n7372 7380\n7388\n7396\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n6\n7\n55\n7404 7412\n7419\n7427\n7435\n7443\n7451 7459\n7466\n7474\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n7\n56\n7482 7490\n7497\n7505\n7513\n7520\n7528 7536\n7543\n7551\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n7\n57\n7559 7566\n7574\n7582\n7589\n7597\n7604 7612\n7619\n7627\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n7\n58\n7634 7642\n7649\n7657\n7664\n7672\n7679 7686\n7694\n7701\n1\n1\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n7\n59\n7709 7716\n7723\n7731\n7738\n7745\n7752 7760\n7767\n7774\n1\n1\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n7\n60\n7782 7789\n7796\n7803\n7810\n7818\n7825 7832\n7839\n7846\n1\n1\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n6\n61\n7853 7860\n7768\n7875\n7882\n7889\n7896 7903\n7910\n7917\n1\n1\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n 6\n62\n7924 7931\n7938\n7945\n7952\n7959\n7966 7973\n7980\n7987\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n6\n6\n63\n7993 8000\n8007\n8014\n8021\n8028\n8035 8041\n8048\n8055\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n64\n8062 8069\n8075\n8082\n8089\n8096\n8102 8109\n8116\n8122\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n65\n8129 8136\n8142\n8149\n8156\n8162\n8169 8176\n8182\n8189\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n66\n8195 8202\n8209\n8215\n8222\n8228\n8235 8241\n8248\n8254\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n67\n8261 8267\n8274\n8280\n8287\n8293\n8299 8306\n8312\n8319\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n68\n8325 8331\n8338\n8344\n8351\n8357\n8363 8370\n8376\n8382\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n69\n8388 8395\n8401\n8407\n8414\n8420\n8426 8432\n8439\n8445\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n70\n8451 8457\n8463\n8470\n8476\n8482\n8488 8494\n8500\n8506\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n71\n8513 8519\n8525\n8531\n8537\n8543\n8549 8555\n8561\n8567\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n5\n72\n8573 8579\n8585\n 8591 8597\n8603\n8609 8615\n8621\n8627\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n5\n73\n8633 8639\n8645\n8651\n8657\n8663\n8669 8675\n8681\n8686\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n5\n74\n8692 8698\n8704\n8710\n8716\n8722\n8727 8733\n8739\n8745\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n5\n75\n8751 8756\n8762\n8768\n8774\n8779\n8785 8791\n8797\n8802\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n76\n8808 8814\n8820\n8825\n8831\n8837\n8842 8848\n8854\n8859\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n77\n8865 8871\n8876\n8882\n8887\n8893\n8899 8904\n8910\n8915\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n78\n8921 8927\n8932\n8938\n8943\n8949\n8954 8960\n8965\n8971\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n79\n8976 8982\n8987\n8993\n8998\n9004\n9009 9015\n9020\n9025\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n80\n9031 9036\n9042\n9047\n9053\n9058\n9063 9069\n9074\n9079\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n81\n9085 9090\n9096\n9101\n9106\n9112\n9117 9122\n9128\n9133\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n82\n9138 9143\n9149\n9154\n9159\n9165\n9170 9175\n9180\n9186\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n83\n9191 9196\n9201\n9206\n9212\n9217\n9222 9227\n9232\n9238\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n84\n9243 9248\n9253\n9258\n9263\n9269\n9274 9279\n9284\n9289\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n85\n9294 9299\n9304\n9309\n9315\n9320\n9325 9330\n9335\n9340\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n86\n9345 9350\n9355\n9360\n9365\n9370\n9375 9380\n9385\n9390\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n87\n9395 9400\n9405\n9410\n9415\n9420\n9425 9430\n9435\n9440\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n88\n9445 9450\n9455\n9460\n9465\n9469\n9474 9479\n9484\n9489\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n89\n9494 9499\n9504\n9509\n9513\n9518\n9523 9528\n9533\n9538\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n90\n9542 9547\n9552\n9557\n9562\n9566\n9571 9576\n9581\n9586\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n91\n9590 9595\n9600\n9605\n9609\n9614\n9619 9624\n9628\n9633\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n92\n9638 9643\n9647\n9652\n9657\n9661\n9666 9671\n9675\n9680\n0\n1\n 1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n93\n9685 9689\n9694\n9699\n9703\n9708\n9713 9717\n9722\n9727\n0\n1\n 1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n94\n9731 9736 9741\n9745\n9750\n9754\n9759 9763\n9768\n9773\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n95\n9777 9782\n9786\n9791\n9795\n9800\n9805 9809\n9814\n9818\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n96\n9823 9827\n9832\n9836\n9841\n9845\n9850 9854\n9859\n9863\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n97\n9868 9872\n9877\n9881\n9886\n9890\n9894 9899\n9903\n9908\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n98\n9912 9917\n9921\n9926\n9930\n9934\n9939 9943\n9948\n9952\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n99\n9956 9961\n9965\n9969\n9974\n9978\n9983 9987\n9997\n9996\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n3\n4\nRationalised 2023-24\n152\nChemistry\nN\n0\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n00\n1000 1002\n1005\n1007\n1009\n1012\n1014 1016\n1019\n1021\n0\n0\n1\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "467-470", "Text": "3617) \n (1 3222)\n2\n4\n2\n4\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n= 3 4723\n\\ x = 2967\nRationalised 2023-24\n150\nChemistry\nLOGARITHMS\nN\n0\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n10\n0000 0043\n0086\n0128\n0170\n5\n9\n13\n17\n21\n26\n30\n34 38\n0212\n0253 0294\n0334\n0374\n4\n 8\n12\n16\n2O\n24\n28\n32 36\n11\n0414 0453\n0492\n0531\n0569\n4\n 8\n12\n16\n20\n23\n27\n31 35\n0607\n0645 0682\n0719\n0755\n4\n7\n11\n15\n18\n22\n26\n29 33\n12\n0792 0828\n0864\n0899\n0934\n3\n7\n11\n14\n18\n21\n25\n28 32\n0969\n1004 1038 1072\n1106\n3\n7\n10\n14\n17\n20\n24\n27 31\n13\n1139 1173\n1206\n1239\n1271\n3\n6\n10\n13\n16\n19\n23\n26 29\n1303\n1335 1367\n1399\n1430\n3\n7\n10\n13\n16\n19\n22\n25 29\n14\n1461 1492\n1523\n1553\n1584\n3\n6\n9\n12\n15\n19\n22\n25 28\n1614\n1644 1673\n1703\n1732\n3\n6\n9\n12\n14\n17\n20\n23 26\n15\n1761 1790\n1818\n1847\n1875\n3\n6\n9\n11\n14\n17\n20\n23 26\n1903\n1931 1959\n1987\n2014\n3\n6\n8\n11\n14\n17\n19\n22 25\n16\n2041 2068\n2095\n2122\n2148\n3\n6\n8\n11\n14\n 16\n19\n22 24\n2175\n2201 2227\n2253\n2279\n3\n5\n8\n10\n 13 16\n18\n21 23\n17\n2304 2330\n2355\n2380\n2405\n3\n5\n8\n10\n13\n15\n18\n20 23\n2430\n2455 2480\n2504\n2529\n3\n5\n8\n10\n12\n15\n17\n20 22\n18\n2553 2577\n2601\n2625\n2648\n2\n5\n7\n9\n12\n14\n17\n19 21\n2672\n2695 2718\n2742\n2765\n2\n4\n7\n9\n 11 14\n16\n18 21\n19\n2788 2810\n2833\n2856\n2878\n2\n4\n7\n9\n11\n13\n16\n18 20\n2900\n2923 2945\n2967\n2989\n2\n4\n6\n8\n11\n13\n15\n17 19\n20\n3010 3032\n3054\n3075\n3096\n3118\n3139 3160\n3181\n3201\n2\n4\n6\n8\n11\n13\n15\n17 19\n21\n3222 3243\n3263\n3284\n3304\n3324\n3345 3365\n3385\n3404\n2\n4\n6\n8\n10\n12\n14\n16 18\n22\n3424 3444\n3464\n3483\n3502\n3522\n3541 3560\n3579\n3598\n2\n4\n6\n8\n10\n12\n14\n15 17\n23\n3617 3636\n3655\n3674\n3692\n3711\n3729 3747\n3766\n3784\n2\n4\n6\n7\n9\n11\n13\n15 17\n24\n3802 3820\n3838\n3856\n3874\n3892\n3909 3927\n3945\n3962\n2\n4\n5\n7\n9\n11\n12\n14 16\n25\n3979 3997\n4014\n4031\n4048\n4065\n4082 4099\n4116\n4133\n2\n3\n5\n7\n9\n10\n12\n14 15\n26\n4150 4166\n4183\n4200\n4216\n4232\n4249 4265\n4281\n4298\n2\n3\n5\n7\n8\n10\n11\n13 15\n27\n4314 4330\n4346\n4362\n4378\n4393\n4409 4425\n4440\n4456\n2\n3\n5\n6\n8\n9\n11\n13 14\n28\n4472 4487\n4502\n4518\n4533\n4548\n4564 4579\n4594\n4609\n2\n3\n5\n6\n8\n9\n11\n12 14\n29\n4624 4639\n4654\n4669\n4683\n4698\n4713 4728\n4742\n4757\n1\n3\n4\n6\n7\n9\n10\n12 13\n30\n4771 4786\n4800\n4814\n4829\n4843\n4857 4871\n4886\n4900\n1\n3\n4\n6\n7\n9\n10\n11 13\n31\n4914 4928\n 4942 4955\n4969\n4983\n4997 5011\n5024\n5038\n1\n3\n 4\n6\n7\n8\n10\n11 12\n32\n5051 5065\n5079\n5092\n5105\n5119\n5132 5145\n5159\n5172\n1\n3\n4\n5\n7\n8\n9\n11 12\n33\n5185 5198\n5211\n5224\n5237\n5250\n5263 5276\n5289\n5302\n1\n3\n4\n5\n6\n8\n9\n10 12\n34\n5315 5328\n5340\n5353\n5366\n5378\n5391 5403\n5416\n5428\n1\n3\n4\n5\n6\n8\n9\n10 11\n35\n5441 5453\n5465\n5478\n5490\n5502\n5514 5527\n5539\n5551\n1\n2\n4\n5\n6\n7\n9\n10 11\n36\n5563 5575\n5587\n5599\n5611\n5623\n5635 5647\n5658\n5670\n1\n2\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n10 11\n37\n5682 5694\n5705\n5717\n5729\n5740\n5752 5763\n5775\n5786\n1\n2\n3\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n10\n38\n5798 5809\n5821\n5832\n5843\n5855\n5866 5877\n5888\n5899\n1\n2\n3\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n10\n39\n5911 5922\n5933\n5944\n5955\n5966\n5977 5988\n5999\n6010\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n7\n8\n9\n10\n40\n6021 6031\n6042\n6053\n6064\n6075\n6085 6096\n6107\n6117\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n8\n9\n10\n41\n6128 6138\n6149\n6160\n6170\n6180\n6191 6201\n6212\n6222\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n42\n6232 6243\n6253\n6263\n6274\n6284\n6294 6304\n6314\n6325\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n43\n6335 6345\n6355\n6365\n6375\n6385\n6395 6405\n6415\n6425\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n44\n6435 6444\n6454\n6464\n6474\n6484\n6493 6503\n6513\n6522\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n45\n6532 6542\n6551\n6561\n6471\n6580\n6590 6599\n6609\n6618\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n46\n6628 6637\n6646\n6656\n6665\n6675\n6684 6693\n6702\n6712\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n7\n8\n47\n6721 6730\n6739\n6749\n6758\n6767\n6776 6785\n6794\n6803\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n7\n8\n48\n6812 6821\n6830\n6839\n6848\n6857\n6866 6875\n6884\n6893\n1\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n49\n6902 6911\n6920\n6928\n6937\n6946\n6955 6964\n6972\n6981\n1\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\nTABLE I\nRationalised 2023-24\n151\nAppendix\nLOGARITHMS\nTABLE 1 (Continued)\nN\n0\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n50\n6990 6998\n7007\n7016\n7024\n7033\n7042 7050\n7059\n7067\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n51\n7076 7084\n7093\n7101\n7110\n7118\n7126 7135\n7143\n7152\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n52\n7160 7168\n7177\n7185\n7193\n7202\n7210 7218\n7226\n7235\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n7\n53\n7243 7251\n7259\n7267\n7275\n7284\n7292 7300\n7308\n7316\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n6\n7\n54\n7324 7332\n7340\n7348\n7356\n7364\n7372 7380\n7388\n7396\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n6\n7\n55\n7404 7412\n7419\n7427\n7435\n7443\n7451 7459\n7466\n7474\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n7\n56\n7482 7490\n7497\n7505\n7513\n7520\n7528 7536\n7543\n7551\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n7\n57\n7559 7566\n7574\n7582\n7589\n7597\n7604 7612\n7619\n7627\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n7\n58\n7634 7642\n7649\n7657\n7664\n7672\n7679 7686\n7694\n7701\n1\n1\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n7\n59\n7709 7716\n7723\n7731\n7738\n7745\n7752 7760\n7767\n7774\n1\n1\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n7\n60\n7782 7789\n7796\n7803\n7810\n7818\n7825 7832\n7839\n7846\n1\n1\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n6\n61\n7853 7860\n7768\n7875\n7882\n7889\n7896 7903\n7910\n7917\n1\n1\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n 6\n62\n7924 7931\n7938\n7945\n7952\n7959\n7966 7973\n7980\n7987\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n6\n6\n63\n7993 8000\n8007\n8014\n8021\n8028\n8035 8041\n8048\n8055\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n64\n8062 8069\n8075\n8082\n8089\n8096\n8102 8109\n8116\n8122\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n65\n8129 8136\n8142\n8149\n8156\n8162\n8169 8176\n8182\n8189\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n66\n8195 8202\n8209\n8215\n8222\n8228\n8235 8241\n8248\n8254\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n67\n8261 8267\n8274\n8280\n8287\n8293\n8299 8306\n8312\n8319\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n68\n8325 8331\n8338\n8344\n8351\n8357\n8363 8370\n8376\n8382\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n69\n8388 8395\n8401\n8407\n8414\n8420\n8426 8432\n8439\n8445\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n70\n8451 8457\n8463\n8470\n8476\n8482\n8488 8494\n8500\n8506\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n71\n8513 8519\n8525\n8531\n8537\n8543\n8549 8555\n8561\n8567\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n5\n72\n8573 8579\n8585\n 8591 8597\n8603\n8609 8615\n8621\n8627\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n5\n73\n8633 8639\n8645\n8651\n8657\n8663\n8669 8675\n8681\n8686\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n5\n74\n8692 8698\n8704\n8710\n8716\n8722\n8727 8733\n8739\n8745\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n5\n75\n8751 8756\n8762\n8768\n8774\n8779\n8785 8791\n8797\n8802\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n76\n8808 8814\n8820\n8825\n8831\n8837\n8842 8848\n8854\n8859\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n77\n8865 8871\n8876\n8882\n8887\n8893\n8899 8904\n8910\n8915\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n78\n8921 8927\n8932\n8938\n8943\n8949\n8954 8960\n8965\n8971\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n79\n8976 8982\n8987\n8993\n8998\n9004\n9009 9015\n9020\n9025\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n80\n9031 9036\n9042\n9047\n9053\n9058\n9063 9069\n9074\n9079\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n81\n9085 9090\n9096\n9101\n9106\n9112\n9117 9122\n9128\n9133\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n82\n9138 9143\n9149\n9154\n9159\n9165\n9170 9175\n9180\n9186\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n83\n9191 9196\n9201\n9206\n9212\n9217\n9222 9227\n9232\n9238\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n84\n9243 9248\n9253\n9258\n9263\n9269\n9274 9279\n9284\n9289\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n85\n9294 9299\n9304\n9309\n9315\n9320\n9325 9330\n9335\n9340\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n86\n9345 9350\n9355\n9360\n9365\n9370\n9375 9380\n9385\n9390\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n87\n9395 9400\n9405\n9410\n9415\n9420\n9425 9430\n9435\n9440\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n88\n9445 9450\n9455\n9460\n9465\n9469\n9474 9479\n9484\n9489\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n89\n9494 9499\n9504\n9509\n9513\n9518\n9523 9528\n9533\n9538\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n90\n9542 9547\n9552\n9557\n9562\n9566\n9571 9576\n9581\n9586\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n91\n9590 9595\n9600\n9605\n9609\n9614\n9619 9624\n9628\n9633\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n92\n9638 9643\n9647\n9652\n9657\n9661\n9666 9671\n9675\n9680\n0\n1\n 1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n93\n9685 9689\n9694\n9699\n9703\n9708\n9713 9717\n9722\n9727\n0\n1\n 1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n94\n9731 9736 9741\n9745\n9750\n9754\n9759 9763\n9768\n9773\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n95\n9777 9782\n9786\n9791\n9795\n9800\n9805 9809\n9814\n9818\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n96\n9823 9827\n9832\n9836\n9841\n9845\n9850 9854\n9859\n9863\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n97\n9868 9872\n9877\n9881\n9886\n9890\n9894 9899\n9903\n9908\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n98\n9912 9917\n9921\n9926\n9930\n9934\n9939 9943\n9948\n9952\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n99\n9956 9961\n9965\n9969\n9974\n9978\n9983 9987\n9997\n9996\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n3\n4\nRationalised 2023-24\n152\nChemistry\nN\n0\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n00\n1000 1002\n1005\n1007\n1009\n1012\n1014 1016\n1019\n1021\n0\n0\n1\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2 01\n1023 1026\n1028\n1030\n1033\n1035\n1038 1040\n1042\n1045\n0\n0\n1\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "468-471", "Text": "3222)\n2\n4\n2\n4\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n= 3 4723\n\\ x = 2967\nRationalised 2023-24\n150\nChemistry\nLOGARITHMS\nN\n0\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n10\n0000 0043\n0086\n0128\n0170\n5\n9\n13\n17\n21\n26\n30\n34 38\n0212\n0253 0294\n0334\n0374\n4\n 8\n12\n16\n2O\n24\n28\n32 36\n11\n0414 0453\n0492\n0531\n0569\n4\n 8\n12\n16\n20\n23\n27\n31 35\n0607\n0645 0682\n0719\n0755\n4\n7\n11\n15\n18\n22\n26\n29 33\n12\n0792 0828\n0864\n0899\n0934\n3\n7\n11\n14\n18\n21\n25\n28 32\n0969\n1004 1038 1072\n1106\n3\n7\n10\n14\n17\n20\n24\n27 31\n13\n1139 1173\n1206\n1239\n1271\n3\n6\n10\n13\n16\n19\n23\n26 29\n1303\n1335 1367\n1399\n1430\n3\n7\n10\n13\n16\n19\n22\n25 29\n14\n1461 1492\n1523\n1553\n1584\n3\n6\n9\n12\n15\n19\n22\n25 28\n1614\n1644 1673\n1703\n1732\n3\n6\n9\n12\n14\n17\n20\n23 26\n15\n1761 1790\n1818\n1847\n1875\n3\n6\n9\n11\n14\n17\n20\n23 26\n1903\n1931 1959\n1987\n2014\n3\n6\n8\n11\n14\n17\n19\n22 25\n16\n2041 2068\n2095\n2122\n2148\n3\n6\n8\n11\n14\n 16\n19\n22 24\n2175\n2201 2227\n2253\n2279\n3\n5\n8\n10\n 13 16\n18\n21 23\n17\n2304 2330\n2355\n2380\n2405\n3\n5\n8\n10\n13\n15\n18\n20 23\n2430\n2455 2480\n2504\n2529\n3\n5\n8\n10\n12\n15\n17\n20 22\n18\n2553 2577\n2601\n2625\n2648\n2\n5\n7\n9\n12\n14\n17\n19 21\n2672\n2695 2718\n2742\n2765\n2\n4\n7\n9\n 11 14\n16\n18 21\n19\n2788 2810\n2833\n2856\n2878\n2\n4\n7\n9\n11\n13\n16\n18 20\n2900\n2923 2945\n2967\n2989\n2\n4\n6\n8\n11\n13\n15\n17 19\n20\n3010 3032\n3054\n3075\n3096\n3118\n3139 3160\n3181\n3201\n2\n4\n6\n8\n11\n13\n15\n17 19\n21\n3222 3243\n3263\n3284\n3304\n3324\n3345 3365\n3385\n3404\n2\n4\n6\n8\n10\n12\n14\n16 18\n22\n3424 3444\n3464\n3483\n3502\n3522\n3541 3560\n3579\n3598\n2\n4\n6\n8\n10\n12\n14\n15 17\n23\n3617 3636\n3655\n3674\n3692\n3711\n3729 3747\n3766\n3784\n2\n4\n6\n7\n9\n11\n13\n15 17\n24\n3802 3820\n3838\n3856\n3874\n3892\n3909 3927\n3945\n3962\n2\n4\n5\n7\n9\n11\n12\n14 16\n25\n3979 3997\n4014\n4031\n4048\n4065\n4082 4099\n4116\n4133\n2\n3\n5\n7\n9\n10\n12\n14 15\n26\n4150 4166\n4183\n4200\n4216\n4232\n4249 4265\n4281\n4298\n2\n3\n5\n7\n8\n10\n11\n13 15\n27\n4314 4330\n4346\n4362\n4378\n4393\n4409 4425\n4440\n4456\n2\n3\n5\n6\n8\n9\n11\n13 14\n28\n4472 4487\n4502\n4518\n4533\n4548\n4564 4579\n4594\n4609\n2\n3\n5\n6\n8\n9\n11\n12 14\n29\n4624 4639\n4654\n4669\n4683\n4698\n4713 4728\n4742\n4757\n1\n3\n4\n6\n7\n9\n10\n12 13\n30\n4771 4786\n4800\n4814\n4829\n4843\n4857 4871\n4886\n4900\n1\n3\n4\n6\n7\n9\n10\n11 13\n31\n4914 4928\n 4942 4955\n4969\n4983\n4997 5011\n5024\n5038\n1\n3\n 4\n6\n7\n8\n10\n11 12\n32\n5051 5065\n5079\n5092\n5105\n5119\n5132 5145\n5159\n5172\n1\n3\n4\n5\n7\n8\n9\n11 12\n33\n5185 5198\n5211\n5224\n5237\n5250\n5263 5276\n5289\n5302\n1\n3\n4\n5\n6\n8\n9\n10 12\n34\n5315 5328\n5340\n5353\n5366\n5378\n5391 5403\n5416\n5428\n1\n3\n4\n5\n6\n8\n9\n10 11\n35\n5441 5453\n5465\n5478\n5490\n5502\n5514 5527\n5539\n5551\n1\n2\n4\n5\n6\n7\n9\n10 11\n36\n5563 5575\n5587\n5599\n5611\n5623\n5635 5647\n5658\n5670\n1\n2\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n10 11\n37\n5682 5694\n5705\n5717\n5729\n5740\n5752 5763\n5775\n5786\n1\n2\n3\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n10\n38\n5798 5809\n5821\n5832\n5843\n5855\n5866 5877\n5888\n5899\n1\n2\n3\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n10\n39\n5911 5922\n5933\n5944\n5955\n5966\n5977 5988\n5999\n6010\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n7\n8\n9\n10\n40\n6021 6031\n6042\n6053\n6064\n6075\n6085 6096\n6107\n6117\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n8\n9\n10\n41\n6128 6138\n6149\n6160\n6170\n6180\n6191 6201\n6212\n6222\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n42\n6232 6243\n6253\n6263\n6274\n6284\n6294 6304\n6314\n6325\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n43\n6335 6345\n6355\n6365\n6375\n6385\n6395 6405\n6415\n6425\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n44\n6435 6444\n6454\n6464\n6474\n6484\n6493 6503\n6513\n6522\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n45\n6532 6542\n6551\n6561\n6471\n6580\n6590 6599\n6609\n6618\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n46\n6628 6637\n6646\n6656\n6665\n6675\n6684 6693\n6702\n6712\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n7\n8\n47\n6721 6730\n6739\n6749\n6758\n6767\n6776 6785\n6794\n6803\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n7\n8\n48\n6812 6821\n6830\n6839\n6848\n6857\n6866 6875\n6884\n6893\n1\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n49\n6902 6911\n6920\n6928\n6937\n6946\n6955 6964\n6972\n6981\n1\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\nTABLE I\nRationalised 2023-24\n151\nAppendix\nLOGARITHMS\nTABLE 1 (Continued)\nN\n0\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n50\n6990 6998\n7007\n7016\n7024\n7033\n7042 7050\n7059\n7067\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n51\n7076 7084\n7093\n7101\n7110\n7118\n7126 7135\n7143\n7152\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n52\n7160 7168\n7177\n7185\n7193\n7202\n7210 7218\n7226\n7235\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n7\n53\n7243 7251\n7259\n7267\n7275\n7284\n7292 7300\n7308\n7316\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n6\n7\n54\n7324 7332\n7340\n7348\n7356\n7364\n7372 7380\n7388\n7396\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n6\n7\n55\n7404 7412\n7419\n7427\n7435\n7443\n7451 7459\n7466\n7474\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n7\n56\n7482 7490\n7497\n7505\n7513\n7520\n7528 7536\n7543\n7551\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n7\n57\n7559 7566\n7574\n7582\n7589\n7597\n7604 7612\n7619\n7627\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n7\n58\n7634 7642\n7649\n7657\n7664\n7672\n7679 7686\n7694\n7701\n1\n1\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n7\n59\n7709 7716\n7723\n7731\n7738\n7745\n7752 7760\n7767\n7774\n1\n1\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n7\n60\n7782 7789\n7796\n7803\n7810\n7818\n7825 7832\n7839\n7846\n1\n1\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n6\n61\n7853 7860\n7768\n7875\n7882\n7889\n7896 7903\n7910\n7917\n1\n1\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n 6\n62\n7924 7931\n7938\n7945\n7952\n7959\n7966 7973\n7980\n7987\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n6\n6\n63\n7993 8000\n8007\n8014\n8021\n8028\n8035 8041\n8048\n8055\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n64\n8062 8069\n8075\n8082\n8089\n8096\n8102 8109\n8116\n8122\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n65\n8129 8136\n8142\n8149\n8156\n8162\n8169 8176\n8182\n8189\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n66\n8195 8202\n8209\n8215\n8222\n8228\n8235 8241\n8248\n8254\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n67\n8261 8267\n8274\n8280\n8287\n8293\n8299 8306\n8312\n8319\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n68\n8325 8331\n8338\n8344\n8351\n8357\n8363 8370\n8376\n8382\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n69\n8388 8395\n8401\n8407\n8414\n8420\n8426 8432\n8439\n8445\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n70\n8451 8457\n8463\n8470\n8476\n8482\n8488 8494\n8500\n8506\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n71\n8513 8519\n8525\n8531\n8537\n8543\n8549 8555\n8561\n8567\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n5\n72\n8573 8579\n8585\n 8591 8597\n8603\n8609 8615\n8621\n8627\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n5\n73\n8633 8639\n8645\n8651\n8657\n8663\n8669 8675\n8681\n8686\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n5\n74\n8692 8698\n8704\n8710\n8716\n8722\n8727 8733\n8739\n8745\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n5\n75\n8751 8756\n8762\n8768\n8774\n8779\n8785 8791\n8797\n8802\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n76\n8808 8814\n8820\n8825\n8831\n8837\n8842 8848\n8854\n8859\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n77\n8865 8871\n8876\n8882\n8887\n8893\n8899 8904\n8910\n8915\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n78\n8921 8927\n8932\n8938\n8943\n8949\n8954 8960\n8965\n8971\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n79\n8976 8982\n8987\n8993\n8998\n9004\n9009 9015\n9020\n9025\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n80\n9031 9036\n9042\n9047\n9053\n9058\n9063 9069\n9074\n9079\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n81\n9085 9090\n9096\n9101\n9106\n9112\n9117 9122\n9128\n9133\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n82\n9138 9143\n9149\n9154\n9159\n9165\n9170 9175\n9180\n9186\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n83\n9191 9196\n9201\n9206\n9212\n9217\n9222 9227\n9232\n9238\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n84\n9243 9248\n9253\n9258\n9263\n9269\n9274 9279\n9284\n9289\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n85\n9294 9299\n9304\n9309\n9315\n9320\n9325 9330\n9335\n9340\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n86\n9345 9350\n9355\n9360\n9365\n9370\n9375 9380\n9385\n9390\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n87\n9395 9400\n9405\n9410\n9415\n9420\n9425 9430\n9435\n9440\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n88\n9445 9450\n9455\n9460\n9465\n9469\n9474 9479\n9484\n9489\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n89\n9494 9499\n9504\n9509\n9513\n9518\n9523 9528\n9533\n9538\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n90\n9542 9547\n9552\n9557\n9562\n9566\n9571 9576\n9581\n9586\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n91\n9590 9595\n9600\n9605\n9609\n9614\n9619 9624\n9628\n9633\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n92\n9638 9643\n9647\n9652\n9657\n9661\n9666 9671\n9675\n9680\n0\n1\n 1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n93\n9685 9689\n9694\n9699\n9703\n9708\n9713 9717\n9722\n9727\n0\n1\n 1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n94\n9731 9736 9741\n9745\n9750\n9754\n9759 9763\n9768\n9773\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n95\n9777 9782\n9786\n9791\n9795\n9800\n9805 9809\n9814\n9818\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n96\n9823 9827\n9832\n9836\n9841\n9845\n9850 9854\n9859\n9863\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n97\n9868 9872\n9877\n9881\n9886\n9890\n9894 9899\n9903\n9908\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n98\n9912 9917\n9921\n9926\n9930\n9934\n9939 9943\n9948\n9952\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n99\n9956 9961\n9965\n9969\n9974\n9978\n9983 9987\n9997\n9996\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n3\n4\nRationalised 2023-24\n152\nChemistry\nN\n0\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n00\n1000 1002\n1005\n1007\n1009\n1012\n1014 1016\n1019\n1021\n0\n0\n1\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2 01\n1023 1026\n1028\n1030\n1033\n1035\n1038 1040\n1042\n1045\n0\n0\n1\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2 02\n1047 1050\n1052\n1054\n1057\n1059\n1062 1064\n1067\n1069\n0\n 0\n1\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "469-472", "Text": "4723\n\\ x = 2967\nRationalised 2023-24\n150\nChemistry\nLOGARITHMS\nN\n0\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n10\n0000 0043\n0086\n0128\n0170\n5\n9\n13\n17\n21\n26\n30\n34 38\n0212\n0253 0294\n0334\n0374\n4\n 8\n12\n16\n2O\n24\n28\n32 36\n11\n0414 0453\n0492\n0531\n0569\n4\n 8\n12\n16\n20\n23\n27\n31 35\n0607\n0645 0682\n0719\n0755\n4\n7\n11\n15\n18\n22\n26\n29 33\n12\n0792 0828\n0864\n0899\n0934\n3\n7\n11\n14\n18\n21\n25\n28 32\n0969\n1004 1038 1072\n1106\n3\n7\n10\n14\n17\n20\n24\n27 31\n13\n1139 1173\n1206\n1239\n1271\n3\n6\n10\n13\n16\n19\n23\n26 29\n1303\n1335 1367\n1399\n1430\n3\n7\n10\n13\n16\n19\n22\n25 29\n14\n1461 1492\n1523\n1553\n1584\n3\n6\n9\n12\n15\n19\n22\n25 28\n1614\n1644 1673\n1703\n1732\n3\n6\n9\n12\n14\n17\n20\n23 26\n15\n1761 1790\n1818\n1847\n1875\n3\n6\n9\n11\n14\n17\n20\n23 26\n1903\n1931 1959\n1987\n2014\n3\n6\n8\n11\n14\n17\n19\n22 25\n16\n2041 2068\n2095\n2122\n2148\n3\n6\n8\n11\n14\n 16\n19\n22 24\n2175\n2201 2227\n2253\n2279\n3\n5\n8\n10\n 13 16\n18\n21 23\n17\n2304 2330\n2355\n2380\n2405\n3\n5\n8\n10\n13\n15\n18\n20 23\n2430\n2455 2480\n2504\n2529\n3\n5\n8\n10\n12\n15\n17\n20 22\n18\n2553 2577\n2601\n2625\n2648\n2\n5\n7\n9\n12\n14\n17\n19 21\n2672\n2695 2718\n2742\n2765\n2\n4\n7\n9\n 11 14\n16\n18 21\n19\n2788 2810\n2833\n2856\n2878\n2\n4\n7\n9\n11\n13\n16\n18 20\n2900\n2923 2945\n2967\n2989\n2\n4\n6\n8\n11\n13\n15\n17 19\n20\n3010 3032\n3054\n3075\n3096\n3118\n3139 3160\n3181\n3201\n2\n4\n6\n8\n11\n13\n15\n17 19\n21\n3222 3243\n3263\n3284\n3304\n3324\n3345 3365\n3385\n3404\n2\n4\n6\n8\n10\n12\n14\n16 18\n22\n3424 3444\n3464\n3483\n3502\n3522\n3541 3560\n3579\n3598\n2\n4\n6\n8\n10\n12\n14\n15 17\n23\n3617 3636\n3655\n3674\n3692\n3711\n3729 3747\n3766\n3784\n2\n4\n6\n7\n9\n11\n13\n15 17\n24\n3802 3820\n3838\n3856\n3874\n3892\n3909 3927\n3945\n3962\n2\n4\n5\n7\n9\n11\n12\n14 16\n25\n3979 3997\n4014\n4031\n4048\n4065\n4082 4099\n4116\n4133\n2\n3\n5\n7\n9\n10\n12\n14 15\n26\n4150 4166\n4183\n4200\n4216\n4232\n4249 4265\n4281\n4298\n2\n3\n5\n7\n8\n10\n11\n13 15\n27\n4314 4330\n4346\n4362\n4378\n4393\n4409 4425\n4440\n4456\n2\n3\n5\n6\n8\n9\n11\n13 14\n28\n4472 4487\n4502\n4518\n4533\n4548\n4564 4579\n4594\n4609\n2\n3\n5\n6\n8\n9\n11\n12 14\n29\n4624 4639\n4654\n4669\n4683\n4698\n4713 4728\n4742\n4757\n1\n3\n4\n6\n7\n9\n10\n12 13\n30\n4771 4786\n4800\n4814\n4829\n4843\n4857 4871\n4886\n4900\n1\n3\n4\n6\n7\n9\n10\n11 13\n31\n4914 4928\n 4942 4955\n4969\n4983\n4997 5011\n5024\n5038\n1\n3\n 4\n6\n7\n8\n10\n11 12\n32\n5051 5065\n5079\n5092\n5105\n5119\n5132 5145\n5159\n5172\n1\n3\n4\n5\n7\n8\n9\n11 12\n33\n5185 5198\n5211\n5224\n5237\n5250\n5263 5276\n5289\n5302\n1\n3\n4\n5\n6\n8\n9\n10 12\n34\n5315 5328\n5340\n5353\n5366\n5378\n5391 5403\n5416\n5428\n1\n3\n4\n5\n6\n8\n9\n10 11\n35\n5441 5453\n5465\n5478\n5490\n5502\n5514 5527\n5539\n5551\n1\n2\n4\n5\n6\n7\n9\n10 11\n36\n5563 5575\n5587\n5599\n5611\n5623\n5635 5647\n5658\n5670\n1\n2\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n10 11\n37\n5682 5694\n5705\n5717\n5729\n5740\n5752 5763\n5775\n5786\n1\n2\n3\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n10\n38\n5798 5809\n5821\n5832\n5843\n5855\n5866 5877\n5888\n5899\n1\n2\n3\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n10\n39\n5911 5922\n5933\n5944\n5955\n5966\n5977 5988\n5999\n6010\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n7\n8\n9\n10\n40\n6021 6031\n6042\n6053\n6064\n6075\n6085 6096\n6107\n6117\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n8\n9\n10\n41\n6128 6138\n6149\n6160\n6170\n6180\n6191 6201\n6212\n6222\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n42\n6232 6243\n6253\n6263\n6274\n6284\n6294 6304\n6314\n6325\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n43\n6335 6345\n6355\n6365\n6375\n6385\n6395 6405\n6415\n6425\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n44\n6435 6444\n6454\n6464\n6474\n6484\n6493 6503\n6513\n6522\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n45\n6532 6542\n6551\n6561\n6471\n6580\n6590 6599\n6609\n6618\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n46\n6628 6637\n6646\n6656\n6665\n6675\n6684 6693\n6702\n6712\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n7\n8\n47\n6721 6730\n6739\n6749\n6758\n6767\n6776 6785\n6794\n6803\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n7\n8\n48\n6812 6821\n6830\n6839\n6848\n6857\n6866 6875\n6884\n6893\n1\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n49\n6902 6911\n6920\n6928\n6937\n6946\n6955 6964\n6972\n6981\n1\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\nTABLE I\nRationalised 2023-24\n151\nAppendix\nLOGARITHMS\nTABLE 1 (Continued)\nN\n0\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n50\n6990 6998\n7007\n7016\n7024\n7033\n7042 7050\n7059\n7067\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n51\n7076 7084\n7093\n7101\n7110\n7118\n7126 7135\n7143\n7152\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n52\n7160 7168\n7177\n7185\n7193\n7202\n7210 7218\n7226\n7235\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n7\n53\n7243 7251\n7259\n7267\n7275\n7284\n7292 7300\n7308\n7316\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n6\n7\n54\n7324 7332\n7340\n7348\n7356\n7364\n7372 7380\n7388\n7396\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n6\n7\n55\n7404 7412\n7419\n7427\n7435\n7443\n7451 7459\n7466\n7474\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n7\n56\n7482 7490\n7497\n7505\n7513\n7520\n7528 7536\n7543\n7551\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n7\n57\n7559 7566\n7574\n7582\n7589\n7597\n7604 7612\n7619\n7627\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n7\n58\n7634 7642\n7649\n7657\n7664\n7672\n7679 7686\n7694\n7701\n1\n1\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n7\n59\n7709 7716\n7723\n7731\n7738\n7745\n7752 7760\n7767\n7774\n1\n1\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n7\n60\n7782 7789\n7796\n7803\n7810\n7818\n7825 7832\n7839\n7846\n1\n1\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n6\n61\n7853 7860\n7768\n7875\n7882\n7889\n7896 7903\n7910\n7917\n1\n1\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n 6\n62\n7924 7931\n7938\n7945\n7952\n7959\n7966 7973\n7980\n7987\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n6\n6\n63\n7993 8000\n8007\n8014\n8021\n8028\n8035 8041\n8048\n8055\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n64\n8062 8069\n8075\n8082\n8089\n8096\n8102 8109\n8116\n8122\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n65\n8129 8136\n8142\n8149\n8156\n8162\n8169 8176\n8182\n8189\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n66\n8195 8202\n8209\n8215\n8222\n8228\n8235 8241\n8248\n8254\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n67\n8261 8267\n8274\n8280\n8287\n8293\n8299 8306\n8312\n8319\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n68\n8325 8331\n8338\n8344\n8351\n8357\n8363 8370\n8376\n8382\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n69\n8388 8395\n8401\n8407\n8414\n8420\n8426 8432\n8439\n8445\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n70\n8451 8457\n8463\n8470\n8476\n8482\n8488 8494\n8500\n8506\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n71\n8513 8519\n8525\n8531\n8537\n8543\n8549 8555\n8561\n8567\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n5\n72\n8573 8579\n8585\n 8591 8597\n8603\n8609 8615\n8621\n8627\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n5\n73\n8633 8639\n8645\n8651\n8657\n8663\n8669 8675\n8681\n8686\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n5\n74\n8692 8698\n8704\n8710\n8716\n8722\n8727 8733\n8739\n8745\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n5\n75\n8751 8756\n8762\n8768\n8774\n8779\n8785 8791\n8797\n8802\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n76\n8808 8814\n8820\n8825\n8831\n8837\n8842 8848\n8854\n8859\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n77\n8865 8871\n8876\n8882\n8887\n8893\n8899 8904\n8910\n8915\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n78\n8921 8927\n8932\n8938\n8943\n8949\n8954 8960\n8965\n8971\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n79\n8976 8982\n8987\n8993\n8998\n9004\n9009 9015\n9020\n9025\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n80\n9031 9036\n9042\n9047\n9053\n9058\n9063 9069\n9074\n9079\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n81\n9085 9090\n9096\n9101\n9106\n9112\n9117 9122\n9128\n9133\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n82\n9138 9143\n9149\n9154\n9159\n9165\n9170 9175\n9180\n9186\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n83\n9191 9196\n9201\n9206\n9212\n9217\n9222 9227\n9232\n9238\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n84\n9243 9248\n9253\n9258\n9263\n9269\n9274 9279\n9284\n9289\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n85\n9294 9299\n9304\n9309\n9315\n9320\n9325 9330\n9335\n9340\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n86\n9345 9350\n9355\n9360\n9365\n9370\n9375 9380\n9385\n9390\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n87\n9395 9400\n9405\n9410\n9415\n9420\n9425 9430\n9435\n9440\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n88\n9445 9450\n9455\n9460\n9465\n9469\n9474 9479\n9484\n9489\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n89\n9494 9499\n9504\n9509\n9513\n9518\n9523 9528\n9533\n9538\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n90\n9542 9547\n9552\n9557\n9562\n9566\n9571 9576\n9581\n9586\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n91\n9590 9595\n9600\n9605\n9609\n9614\n9619 9624\n9628\n9633\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n92\n9638 9643\n9647\n9652\n9657\n9661\n9666 9671\n9675\n9680\n0\n1\n 1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n93\n9685 9689\n9694\n9699\n9703\n9708\n9713 9717\n9722\n9727\n0\n1\n 1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n94\n9731 9736 9741\n9745\n9750\n9754\n9759 9763\n9768\n9773\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n95\n9777 9782\n9786\n9791\n9795\n9800\n9805 9809\n9814\n9818\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n96\n9823 9827\n9832\n9836\n9841\n9845\n9850 9854\n9859\n9863\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n97\n9868 9872\n9877\n9881\n9886\n9890\n9894 9899\n9903\n9908\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n98\n9912 9917\n9921\n9926\n9930\n9934\n9939 9943\n9948\n9952\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n99\n9956 9961\n9965\n9969\n9974\n9978\n9983 9987\n9997\n9996\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n3\n4\nRationalised 2023-24\n152\nChemistry\nN\n0\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n00\n1000 1002\n1005\n1007\n1009\n1012\n1014 1016\n1019\n1021\n0\n0\n1\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2 01\n1023 1026\n1028\n1030\n1033\n1035\n1038 1040\n1042\n1045\n0\n0\n1\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2 02\n1047 1050\n1052\n1054\n1057\n1059\n1062 1064\n1067\n1069\n0\n 0\n1\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2 03\n1072 1074\n1076\n1079\n1081\n1084\n1086 1089\n1091\n1094\n0\n0\n1\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "470-473", "Text": "01\n1023 1026\n1028\n1030\n1033\n1035\n1038 1040\n1042\n1045\n0\n0\n1\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2 02\n1047 1050\n1052\n1054\n1057\n1059\n1062 1064\n1067\n1069\n0\n 0\n1\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2 03\n1072 1074\n1076\n1079\n1081\n1084\n1086 1089\n1091\n1094\n0\n0\n1\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2 04\n1096 1099\n1102\n1104\n1107\n1109\n1112 1114\n1117\n1119\n0\n1\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "471-474", "Text": "02\n1047 1050\n1052\n1054\n1057\n1059\n1062 1064\n1067\n1069\n0\n 0\n1\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2 03\n1072 1074\n1076\n1079\n1081\n1084\n1086 1089\n1091\n1094\n0\n0\n1\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2 04\n1096 1099\n1102\n1104\n1107\n1109\n1112 1114\n1117\n1119\n0\n1\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n2 05\n1122 1125\n1127\n1130\n1132\n1135\n1138 1140\n1143\n1146\n0\n1\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "472-475", "Text": "03\n1072 1074\n1076\n1079\n1081\n1084\n1086 1089\n1091\n1094\n0\n0\n1\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2 04\n1096 1099\n1102\n1104\n1107\n1109\n1112 1114\n1117\n1119\n0\n1\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n2 05\n1122 1125\n1127\n1130\n1132\n1135\n1138 1140\n1143\n1146\n0\n1\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n2 06\n1148 1151\n1153\n1156\n1159\n1161\n1164 1167\n1169\n1172\n0\n1\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "473-476", "Text": "04\n1096 1099\n1102\n1104\n1107\n1109\n1112 1114\n1117\n1119\n0\n1\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n2 05\n1122 1125\n1127\n1130\n1132\n1135\n1138 1140\n1143\n1146\n0\n1\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n2 06\n1148 1151\n1153\n1156\n1159\n1161\n1164 1167\n1169\n1172\n0\n1\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n2 07\n1175 1178\n1180\n1183\n1186\n1189\n1191 1194\n1197\n1199\n0\n1\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "474-477", "Text": "05\n1122 1125\n1127\n1130\n1132\n1135\n1138 1140\n1143\n1146\n0\n1\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n2 06\n1148 1151\n1153\n1156\n1159\n1161\n1164 1167\n1169\n1172\n0\n1\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n2 07\n1175 1178\n1180\n1183\n1186\n1189\n1191 1194\n1197\n1199\n0\n1\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n2 08\n1202 1205\n1208\n1211\n1213\n1216\n1219 1222\n1225\n1227\n0\n1\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "475-478", "Text": "06\n1148 1151\n1153\n1156\n1159\n1161\n1164 1167\n1169\n1172\n0\n1\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n2 07\n1175 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1291\n1294\n1297\n1300\n1303\n1306 1309\n1312\n1315\n0\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n2\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "478-481", "Text": "09\n1230 1233\n1236\n1239\n1242\n1245\n1247 1250\n1253\n1256\n0\n1\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3 10\n1259 1262\n1265\n1268\n1271\n1274\n1276 1279\n1282\n1285\n0\n1\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3 11\n1288 1291\n1294\n1297\n1300\n1303\n1306 1309\n1312\n1315\n0\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n2\n3 12\n1318 1321\n1324\n1327\n1330\n1334\n1337 1340\n1343\n1346\n0\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n2\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "479-482", "Text": "10\n1259 1262\n1265\n1268\n1271\n1274\n1276 1279\n1282\n1285\n0\n1\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3 11\n1288 1291\n1294\n1297\n1300\n1303\n1306 1309\n1312\n1315\n0\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n2\n3 12\n1318 1321\n1324\n1327\n1330\n1334\n1337 1340\n1343\n1346\n0\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n2\n3 13\n1349 1352\n1355\n1358\n1361\n1365\n1368 1371\n1374\n1377\n0\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "480-483", "Text": "11\n1288 1291\n1294\n1297\n1300\n1303\n1306 1309\n1312\n1315\n0\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n2\n3 12\n1318 1321\n1324\n1327\n1330\n1334\n1337 1340\n1343\n1346\n0\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n2\n3 13\n1349 1352\n1355\n1358\n1361\n1365\n1368 1371\n1374\n1377\n0\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3 14\n1380 1384\n1387\n1390\n1393\n1396\n1400 1403\n1406\n1409\n0\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "481-484", "Text": "12\n1318 1321\n1324\n1327\n1330\n1334\n1337 1340\n1343\n1346\n0\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n2\n3 13\n1349 1352\n1355\n1358\n1361\n1365\n1368 1371\n1374\n1377\n0\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3 14\n1380 1384\n1387\n1390\n1393\n1396\n1400 1403\n1406\n1409\n0\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3 15\n1413 1416\n1419\n1422\n1426\n1429\n1432 1435\n1439\n1442\n0\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "482-485", "Text": "13\n1349 1352\n1355\n1358\n1361\n1365\n1368 1371\n1374\n1377\n0\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3 14\n1380 1384\n1387\n1390\n1393\n1396\n1400 1403\n1406\n1409\n0\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3 15\n1413 1416\n1419\n1422\n1426\n1429\n1432 1435\n1439\n1442\n0\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3 16\n1445 1449\n1452\n1455\n1459\n1462\n1466 1469\n1472\n1476\n0\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "483-486", "Text": "14\n1380 1384\n1387\n1390\n1393\n1396\n1400 1403\n1406\n1409\n0\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3 15\n1413 1416\n1419\n1422\n1426\n1429\n1432 1435\n1439\n1442\n0\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3 16\n1445 1449\n1452\n1455\n1459\n1462\n1466 1469\n1472\n1476\n0\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3 17\n1479 1483\n1486\n1489\n1493\n1496\n1500 1503\n1507\n1510\n0\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "484-487", "Text": "15\n1413 1416\n1419\n1422\n1426\n1429\n1432 1435\n1439\n1442\n0\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3 16\n1445 1449\n1452\n1455\n1459\n1462\n1466 1469\n1472\n1476\n0\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3 17\n1479 1483\n1486\n1489\n1493\n1496\n1500 1503\n1507\n1510\n0\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3 18\n1514 1517\n1521\n1524\n1528\n1531\n1535 1538\n1542\n1545\n0\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "485-488", "Text": "16\n1445 1449\n1452\n1455\n1459\n1462\n1466 1469\n1472\n1476\n0\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3 17\n1479 1483\n1486\n1489\n1493\n1496\n1500 1503\n1507\n1510\n0\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3 18\n1514 1517\n1521\n1524\n1528\n1531\n1535 1538\n1542\n1545\n0\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3 19\n1549 1552\n1556\n1560\n1563\n1567\n1570 1574\n1578\n1581\n0\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "486-489", "Text": "17\n1479 1483\n1486\n1489\n1493\n1496\n1500 1503\n1507\n1510\n0\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3 18\n1514 1517\n1521\n1524\n1528\n1531\n1535 1538\n1542\n1545\n0\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3 19\n1549 1552\n1556\n1560\n1563\n1567\n1570 1574\n1578\n1581\n0\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n3 20\n1585 1589\n1592\n1596\n1600\n1603\n1607 1611\n1614\n1618\n0\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "487-490", "Text": "18\n1514 1517\n1521\n1524\n1528\n1531\n1535 1538\n1542\n1545\n0\n1\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3 19\n1549 1552\n1556\n1560\n1563\n1567\n1570 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1726\n1730\n1734\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "490-493", "Text": "21\n1622 1626\n1629\n1633\n1637\n1641\n1644 1648\n1652\n1656\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3\n3 22\n1660 1663\n1667\n1671\n1675\n1679\n1683 1687\n1690\n1694\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3\n3 23\n1698 1702\n1706\n1710\n1714\n1718\n1722 1726\n1730\n1734\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4 24\n1738 1742\n1746\n1750\n1754\n1758\n1762 1766\n1770\n1774\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "491-494", "Text": "22\n1660 1663\n1667\n1671\n1675\n1679\n1683 1687\n1690\n1694\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3\n3 23\n1698 1702\n1706\n1710\n1714\n1718\n1722 1726\n1730\n1734\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4 24\n1738 1742\n1746\n1750\n1754\n1758\n1762 1766\n1770\n1774\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4 25\n1778 1782\n1786\n1791\n1795\n1799\n1803 1807\n1811\n1816\n0\n1\n 1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "492-495", "Text": "23\n1698 1702\n1706\n1710\n1714\n1718\n1722 1726\n1730\n1734\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4 24\n1738 1742\n1746\n1750\n1754\n1758\n1762 1766\n1770\n1774\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4 25\n1778 1782\n1786\n1791\n1795\n1799\n1803 1807\n1811\n1816\n0\n1\n 1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4 26\n1820 1824\n1828\n1832\n1837\n1841\n1845 1849\n1854\n1858\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n3\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "493-496", "Text": "24\n1738 1742\n1746\n1750\n1754\n1758\n1762 1766\n1770\n1774\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4 25\n1778 1782\n1786\n1791\n1795\n1799\n1803 1807\n1811\n1816\n0\n1\n 1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4 26\n1820 1824\n1828\n1832\n1837\n1841\n1845 1849\n1854\n1858\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n3\n4 27\n1862 1866\n1871\n1875\n1879\n1884\n1888 1892\n1897\n1901\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n3\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "494-497", "Text": "25\n1778 1782\n1786\n1791\n1795\n1799\n1803 1807\n1811\n1816\n0\n1\n 1\n2\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4 26\n1820 1824\n1828\n1832\n1837\n1841\n1845 1849\n1854\n1858\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n3\n4 27\n1862 1866\n1871\n1875\n1879\n1884\n1888 1892\n1897\n1901\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n3\n4 28\n1905 1910\n1914\n1919\n1923\n1928\n1932 1936\n1941\n1945\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "495-498", "Text": "26\n1820 1824\n1828\n1832\n1837\n1841\n1845 1849\n1854\n1858\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n3\n4 27\n1862 1866\n1871\n1875\n1879\n1884\n1888 1892\n1897\n1901\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n3\n4 28\n1905 1910\n1914\n1919\n1923\n1928\n1932 1936\n1941\n1945\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4 29\n1950 1954\n1959\n1963\n1968\n1972\n1977 1982\n1986\n1991\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "496-499", "Text": "27\n1862 1866\n1871\n1875\n1879\n1884\n1888 1892\n1897\n1901\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n3\n4 28\n1905 1910\n1914\n1919\n1923\n1928\n1932 1936\n1941\n1945\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4 29\n1950 1954\n1959\n1963\n1968\n1972\n1977 1982\n1986\n1991\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4 30\n1995 2000\n2004\n2009\n2014\n2018\n2023 2028\n2032\n2037\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "497-500", "Text": "28\n1905 1910\n1914\n1919\n1923\n1928\n1932 1936\n1941\n1945\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4 29\n1950 1954\n1959\n1963\n1968\n1972\n1977 1982\n1986\n1991\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4 30\n1995 2000\n2004\n2009\n2014\n2018\n2023 2028\n2032\n2037\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4 31\n2042 2046\n2051\n2056\n2061\n2065\n2070 2075\n2080\n2084\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "498-501", "Text": "29\n1950 1954\n1959\n1963\n1968\n1972\n1977 1982\n1986\n1991\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4 30\n1995 2000\n2004\n2009\n2014\n2018\n2023 2028\n2032\n2037\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4 31\n2042 2046\n2051\n2056\n2061\n2065\n2070 2075\n2080\n2084\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4 32\n2089 2094\n2099\n2104\n2109\n2113\n2118 2123\n2128\n2133\n0\n1\n 1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "499-502", "Text": "30\n1995 2000\n2004\n2009\n2014\n2018\n2023 2028\n2032\n2037\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4 31\n2042 2046\n2051\n2056\n2061\n2065\n2070 2075\n2080\n2084\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4 32\n2089 2094\n2099\n2104\n2109\n2113\n2118 2123\n2128\n2133\n0\n1\n 1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4 33\n2138 2143\n2148\n2153\n2158\n2163\n2168 2173\n2178\n2183\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "500-503", "Text": "31\n2042 2046\n2051\n2056\n2061\n2065\n2070 2075\n2080\n2084\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4 32\n2089 2094\n2099\n2104\n2109\n2113\n2118 2123\n2128\n2133\n0\n1\n 1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4 33\n2138 2143\n2148\n2153\n2158\n2163\n2168 2173\n2178\n2183\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4 34\n2188 2193\n2198\n2203\n2208\n2213\n2218 2223\n2228\n2234\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "501-504", "Text": "32\n2089 2094\n2099\n2104\n2109\n2113\n2118 2123\n2128\n2133\n0\n1\n 1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4 33\n2138 2143\n2148\n2153\n2158\n2163\n2168 2173\n2178\n2183\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4 34\n2188 2193\n2198\n2203\n2208\n2213\n2218 2223\n2228\n2234\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5 35\n2239 2244\n2249\n2254\n2259\n2265\n2270 2275\n2280\n2286\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "502-505", "Text": "33\n2138 2143\n2148\n2153\n2158\n2163\n2168 2173\n2178\n2183\n0\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4 34\n2188 2193\n2198\n2203\n2208\n2213\n2218 2223\n2228\n2234\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5 35\n2239 2244\n2249\n2254\n2259\n2265\n2270 2275\n2280\n2286\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5 36\n2291 2296\n2301\n2307\n2312\n2317\n2323 2328\n2333\n2339\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "503-506", "Text": "34\n2188 2193\n2198\n2203\n2208\n2213\n2218 2223\n2228\n2234\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5 35\n2239 2244\n2249\n2254\n2259\n2265\n2270 2275\n2280\n2286\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5 36\n2291 2296\n2301\n2307\n2312\n2317\n2323 2328\n2333\n2339\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5 37\n2344 2350\n2355\n2360\n2366\n2371\n2377 2382\n2388\n2393\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "504-507", "Text": "35\n2239 2244\n2249\n2254\n2259\n2265\n2270 2275\n2280\n2286\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5 36\n2291 2296\n2301\n2307\n2312\n2317\n2323 2328\n2333\n2339\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5 37\n2344 2350\n2355\n2360\n2366\n2371\n2377 2382\n2388\n2393\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5 38\n2399 2404\n2410\n2415\n2421\n2427\n2432 2438\n2443\n2449\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "505-508", "Text": "36\n2291 2296\n2301\n2307\n2312\n2317\n2323 2328\n2333\n2339\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5 37\n2344 2350\n2355\n2360\n2366\n2371\n2377 2382\n2388\n2393\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5 38\n2399 2404\n2410\n2415\n2421\n2427\n2432 2438\n2443\n2449\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5 39\n2455 2460\n2466\n2472\n2477\n2483\n2489 2495\n2500\n2506\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "506-509", "Text": "37\n2344 2350\n2355\n2360\n2366\n2371\n2377 2382\n2388\n2393\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5 38\n2399 2404\n2410\n2415\n2421\n2427\n2432 2438\n2443\n2449\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5 39\n2455 2460\n2466\n2472\n2477\n2483\n2489 2495\n2500\n2506\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5 40\n2512 2518\n2523\n2529\n2535\n2541\n2547 2553\n2559\n2564\n1\n 1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "507-510", "Text": "38\n2399 2404\n2410\n2415\n2421\n2427\n2432 2438\n2443\n2449\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5 39\n2455 2460\n2466\n2472\n2477\n2483\n2489 2495\n2500\n2506\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5 40\n2512 2518\n2523\n2529\n2535\n2541\n2547 2553\n2559\n2564\n1\n 1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n5 41\n2570 2576\n2582\n2588\n2594\n2600\n2606 2612\n2618\n2624\n1\n 1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n4\n 5\n 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "508-511", "Text": "39\n2455 2460\n2466\n2472\n2477\n2483\n2489 2495\n2500\n2506\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5 40\n2512 2518\n2523\n2529\n2535\n2541\n2547 2553\n2559\n2564\n1\n 1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n5 41\n2570 2576\n2582\n2588\n2594\n2600\n2606 2612\n2618\n2624\n1\n 1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n4\n 5\n 5 42\n2630 2636\n2642\n2649\n2655\n2661\n2667 2673\n2679\n2685\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n 4\n5\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "509-512", "Text": "40\n2512 2518\n2523\n2529\n2535\n2541\n2547 2553\n2559\n2564\n1\n 1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n5 41\n2570 2576\n2582\n2588\n2594\n2600\n2606 2612\n2618\n2624\n1\n 1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n4\n 5\n 5 42\n2630 2636\n2642\n2649\n2655\n2661\n2667 2673\n2679\n2685\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n 4\n5\n6 43\n2692 2698\n2704\n2710\n2716\n2723\n2729 2735\n2742\n2748\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "510-513", "Text": "41\n2570 2576\n2582\n2588\n2594\n2600\n2606 2612\n2618\n2624\n1\n 1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n4\n 5\n 5 42\n2630 2636\n2642\n2649\n2655\n2661\n2667 2673\n2679\n2685\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n 4\n5\n6 43\n2692 2698\n2704\n2710\n2716\n2723\n2729 2735\n2742\n2748\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6 44\n2754 2761\n2767\n2773\n2780\n2786\n2793 2799\n2805\n2812\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "511-514", "Text": "42\n2630 2636\n2642\n2649\n2655\n2661\n2667 2673\n2679\n2685\n1\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n 4\n5\n6 43\n2692 2698\n2704\n2710\n2716\n2723\n2729 2735\n2742\n2748\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6 44\n2754 2761\n2767\n2773\n2780\n2786\n2793 2799\n2805\n2812\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6 45\n2818 2825\n2831\n2838\n2844\n2851\n2858 2864\n2871\n2877\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "512-515", "Text": "43\n2692 2698\n2704\n2710\n2716\n2723\n2729 2735\n2742\n2748\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6 44\n2754 2761\n2767\n2773\n2780\n2786\n2793 2799\n2805\n2812\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6 45\n2818 2825\n2831\n2838\n2844\n2851\n2858 2864\n2871\n2877\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6 46\n2884 2891\n2897\n2904\n2911\n2917\n2924 2931\n2938\n2944\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "513-516", "Text": "44\n2754 2761\n2767\n2773\n2780\n2786\n2793 2799\n2805\n2812\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6 45\n2818 2825\n2831\n2838\n2844\n2851\n2858 2864\n2871\n2877\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6 46\n2884 2891\n2897\n2904\n2911\n2917\n2924 2931\n2938\n2944\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6 47\n2951 2958\n2965\n2972\n2979\n2985\n2992 2999\n3006\n3013\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "514-517", "Text": "45\n2818 2825\n2831\n2838\n2844\n2851\n2858 2864\n2871\n2877\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6 46\n2884 2891\n2897\n2904\n2911\n2917\n2924 2931\n2938\n2944\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6 47\n2951 2958\n2965\n2972\n2979\n2985\n2992 2999\n3006\n3013\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6 48\n3020 3027\n3034\n3041\n3048\n3055\n3062 3069\n3076\n3083\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n6\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "515-518", "Text": "46\n2884 2891\n2897\n2904\n2911\n2917\n2924 2931\n2938\n2944\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6 47\n2951 2958\n2965\n2972\n2979\n2985\n2992 2999\n3006\n3013\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6 48\n3020 3027\n3034\n3041\n3048\n3055\n3062 3069\n3076\n3083\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n6\n6 49\n3090 3097\n3105\n3112\n3119\n3126\n3133 3141\n3148\n3155\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n6\n6\nANTILOGARITHMS\nTABLE II\nRationalised 2023-24\n153\nAppendix\nANTILOGARITHMS\nTABLE II (Continued)\nN\n0\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "516-519", "Text": "47\n2951 2958\n2965\n2972\n2979\n2985\n2992 2999\n3006\n3013\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6 48\n3020 3027\n3034\n3041\n3048\n3055\n3062 3069\n3076\n3083\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n6\n6 49\n3090 3097\n3105\n3112\n3119\n3126\n3133 3141\n3148\n3155\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n6\n6\nANTILOGARITHMS\nTABLE II\nRationalised 2023-24\n153\nAppendix\nANTILOGARITHMS\nTABLE II (Continued)\nN\n0\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9 50\n3162 3170\n3177\n3184\n3192\n3199\n3206 3214\n3221\n3228\n1\n1\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "517-520", "Text": "48\n3020 3027\n3034\n3041\n3048\n3055\n3062 3069\n3076\n3083\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n6\n6 49\n3090 3097\n3105\n3112\n3119\n3126\n3133 3141\n3148\n3155\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n6\n6\nANTILOGARITHMS\nTABLE II\nRationalised 2023-24\n153\nAppendix\nANTILOGARITHMS\nTABLE II (Continued)\nN\n0\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9 50\n3162 3170\n3177\n3184\n3192\n3199\n3206 3214\n3221\n3228\n1\n1\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n7 51\n3236 3243\n3251\n3258\n3266\n3273\n3281 3289\n3296\n3304\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "518-521", "Text": "49\n3090 3097\n3105\n3112\n3119\n3126\n3133 3141\n3148\n3155\n1\n1\n2\n3\n3\n4\n5\n6\n6\nANTILOGARITHMS\nTABLE II\nRationalised 2023-24\n153\nAppendix\nANTILOGARITHMS\nTABLE II (Continued)\nN\n0\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9 50\n3162 3170\n3177\n3184\n3192\n3199\n3206 3214\n3221\n3228\n1\n1\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n7 51\n3236 3243\n3251\n3258\n3266\n3273\n3281 3289\n3296\n3304\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n7 52\n3311 3319\n3327\n3334\n3342\n3350\n3357 3365\n3373\n3381\n1\n2\n2\n3\n4\n5\n5\n6\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "519-522", "Text": "50\n3162 3170\n3177\n3184\n3192\n3199\n3206 3214\n3221\n3228\n1\n1\n2\n3\n4\n4\n5\n6\n7 51\n3236 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6180\n6194\n6209\n6223\n6237\n6252 6266\n6281\n6295\n1\n3\n4\n6\n7\n9\n10\n11 13 80\n6310 6324\n6339\n6353\n6368\n6383\n6397 6412\n6427\n6442\n1\n3\n4\n6\n7\n9\n10\n12 13 81\n6457 6471\n6486\n6501\n6516\n6531\n6546 6561\n6577\n6592\n2\n3\n5\n6\n8\n9\n11\n12 14 82\n6607 6622\n6637\n6653\n6668\n6683\n6699 6714\n6730\n6745\n2\n3\n5\n6\n8\n9\n11\n12 14"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "549-552", "Text": "80\n6310 6324\n6339\n6353\n6368\n6383\n6397 6412\n6427\n6442\n1\n3\n4\n6\n7\n9\n10\n12 13 81\n6457 6471\n6486\n6501\n6516\n6531\n6546 6561\n6577\n6592\n2\n3\n5\n6\n8\n9\n11\n12 14 82\n6607 6622\n6637\n6653\n6668\n6683\n6699 6714\n6730\n6745\n2\n3\n5\n6\n8\n9\n11\n12 14 83\n6761 6776\n6792\n6808\n6823\n6839\n6855 6871\n6887\n6902\n2\n3\n5\n6\n8\n9\n11\n 1314"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "550-553", "Text": "81\n6457 6471\n6486\n6501\n6516\n6531\n6546 6561\n6577\n6592\n2\n3\n5\n6\n8\n9\n11\n12 14 82\n6607 6622\n6637\n6653\n6668\n6683\n6699 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7261\n7278\n7295\n7311\n7328\n7345 7362\n7379\n7396\n2\n3\n5\n7\n8\n10\n12\n13 15"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "553-556", "Text": "84\n6918 6934\n6950\n6966\n6982\n6998\n7015 7031\n7047\n7063\n2\n3\n5\n6\n8\n10\n11\n13 15 85\n7079 7096\n7112\n7129\n7145\n7161\n7178 7194\n7211\n7228\n2\n3\n5\n7\n8\n10\n12\n13 15 86\n7244 7261\n7278\n7295\n7311\n7328\n7345 7362\n7379\n7396\n2\n3\n5\n7\n8\n10\n12\n13 15 87\n7413 7430\n7447\n7464\n7482\n7499\n7516 7534\n7551\n7568\n2\n3\n5\n7\n9\n10\n12\n14 16"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "554-557", "Text": "85\n7079 7096\n7112\n7129\n7145\n7161\n7178 7194\n7211\n7228\n2\n3\n5\n7\n8\n10\n12\n13 15 86\n7244 7261\n7278\n7295\n7311\n7328\n7345 7362\n7379\n7396\n2\n3\n5\n7\n8\n10\n12\n13 15 87\n7413 7430\n7447\n7464\n7482\n7499\n7516 7534\n7551\n7568\n2\n3\n5\n7\n9\n10\n12\n14 16 88\n7586 7603\n7621\n7638\n7656\n7674\n7691 7709\n7727\n7745\n2\n4\n5\n7\n9\n11\n12\n14 16"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "555-558", "Text": "86\n7244 7261\n7278\n7295\n7311\n7328\n7345 7362\n7379\n7396\n2\n3\n5\n7\n8\n10\n12\n13 15 87\n7413 7430\n7447\n7464\n7482\n7499\n7516 7534\n7551\n7568\n2\n3\n5\n7\n9\n10\n12\n14 16 88\n7586 7603\n7621\n7638\n7656\n7674\n7691 7709\n7727\n7745\n2\n4\n5\n7\n9\n11\n12\n14 16 89\n7762 7780\n7798\n7816\n7834\n7852\n7870 7889\n7907\n7925\n2\n4\n5\n7\n9\n11\n13\n14 16"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "556-559", "Text": "87\n7413 7430\n7447\n7464\n7482\n7499\n7516 7534\n7551\n7568\n2\n3\n5\n7\n9\n10\n12\n14 16 88\n7586 7603\n7621\n7638\n7656\n7674\n7691 7709\n7727\n7745\n2\n4\n5\n7\n9\n11\n12\n14 16 89\n7762 7780\n7798\n7816\n7834\n7852\n7870 7889\n7907\n7925\n2\n4\n5\n7\n9\n11\n13\n14 16 90\n7943 7962\n7980\n7998\n8017\n8035\n8054 8072\n8091\n8110\n2\n4\n6\n7 9 11\n13\n15 17"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "557-560", "Text": "88\n7586 7603\n7621\n7638\n7656\n7674\n7691 7709\n7727\n7745\n2\n4\n5\n7\n9\n11\n12\n14 16 89\n7762 7780\n7798\n7816\n7834\n7852\n7870 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8531\n8551\n8570\n8590\n8610\n8630 8650\n8670\n8690\n2\n4\n6\n8\n10\n12\n14\n16 18"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "560-563", "Text": "91\n8128 8147\n8166\n8185\n8204\n8222\n8241 8260\n8279\n8299\n2\n4\n6\n8\n9\n11\n13\n15 17 92\n8318 8337\n8356\n8375\n8395\n8414\n8433 8453\n8472\n8492\n2\n4\n6\n8\n10\n12\n14\n15 17 93\n8511 8531\n8551\n8570\n8590\n8610\n8630 8650\n8670\n8690\n2\n4\n6\n8\n10\n12\n14\n16 18 94\n8710 8730\n8750\n8770\n8790\n8810\n8831 8851\n8872\n8892\n2\n4\n6\n8\n10\n12\n14\n16 18"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "561-564", "Text": "92\n8318 8337\n8356\n8375\n8395\n8414\n8433 8453\n8472\n8492\n2\n4\n6\n8\n10\n12\n14\n15 17 93\n8511 8531\n8551\n8570\n8590\n8610\n8630 8650\n8670\n8690\n2\n4\n6\n8\n10\n12\n14\n16 18 94\n8710 8730\n8750\n8770\n8790\n8810\n8831 8851\n8872\n8892\n2\n4\n6\n8\n10\n12\n14\n16 18 95\n8913 8933\n8954\n8974\n8995\n9016\n9036 9057\n9078\n9099\n2\n4\n6\n8\n10\n12\n15\n17 19"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "562-565", "Text": "93\n8511 8531\n8551\n8570\n8590\n8610\n8630 8650\n8670\n8690\n2\n4\n6\n8\n10\n12\n14\n16 18 94\n8710 8730\n8750\n8770\n8790\n8810\n8831 8851\n8872\n8892\n2\n4\n6\n8\n10\n12\n14\n16 18 95\n8913 8933\n8954\n8974\n8995\n9016\n9036 9057\n9078\n9099\n2\n4\n6\n8\n10\n12\n15\n17 19 96\n9120 9141\n9162\n9183\n9204\n9226\n9247 9268\n9290\n9311\n2\n4\n6\n8\n11\n13\n15\n17 19"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "563-566", "Text": "94\n8710 8730\n8750\n8770\n8790\n8810\n8831 8851\n8872\n8892\n2\n4\n6\n8\n10\n12\n14\n16 18 95\n8913 8933\n8954\n8974\n8995\n9016\n9036 9057\n9078\n9099\n2\n4\n6\n8\n10\n12\n15\n17 19 96\n9120 9141\n9162\n9183\n9204\n9226\n9247 9268\n9290\n9311\n2\n4\n6\n8\n11\n13\n15\n17 19 97\n9333 9354\n9376\n9397\n9419\n9441\n9462 9484\n9506\n9528\n2\n4\n7\n9\n11\n13\n15\n17 20"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "564-567", "Text": "95\n8913 8933\n8954\n8974\n8995\n9016\n9036 9057\n9078\n9099\n2\n4\n6\n8\n10\n12\n15\n17 19 96\n9120 9141\n9162\n9183\n9204\n9226\n9247 9268\n9290\n9311\n2\n4\n6\n8\n11\n13\n15\n17 19 97\n9333 9354\n9376\n9397\n9419\n9441\n9462 9484\n9506\n9528\n2\n4\n7\n9\n11\n13\n15\n17 20 98\n9550 9572\n9594\n9616\n9638\n9661\n9683 9705\n9727\n9750\n2\n4\n7\n9\n11\n13\n16\n18 20"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "565-568", "Text": "96\n9120 9141\n9162\n9183\n9204\n9226\n9247 9268\n9290\n9311\n2\n4\n6\n8\n11\n13\n15\n17 19 97\n9333 9354\n9376\n9397\n9419\n9441\n9462 9484\n9506\n9528\n2\n4\n7\n9\n11\n13\n15\n17 20 98\n9550 9572\n9594\n9616\n9638\n9661\n9683 9705\n9727\n9750\n2\n4\n7\n9\n11\n13\n16\n18 20 99\n9772 9795\n9817\n9840\n9863\n9886\n9908 9931\n9954\n9977\n2\n5\n7\n9\n11\n14\n16\n18 20\nRationalised 2023-24\nAfter studying this Unit, you will be\nable to\n\u00b7\ndescribe the formation of different\ntypes of solutions;\n\u00b7\nexpress concentration of solution\nin different units;\n\u00b7\nstate and explain Henry\u2019s law and\nRaoult\u2019s law;\n\u00b7\ndistinguish between ideal and\nnon-ideal solutions;\n\u00b7\nexplain deviations of real solutions\nfrom Raoult\u2019s law;\n\u00b7\ndescribe colligative properties of\nsolutions and correlate these with\nmolar masses of the solutes;\n\u00b7\nexplain abnormal colligative\nproperties exhibited by some\nsolutes in solutions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "566-569", "Text": "97\n9333 9354\n9376\n9397\n9419\n9441\n9462 9484\n9506\n9528\n2\n4\n7\n9\n11\n13\n15\n17 20 98\n9550 9572\n9594\n9616\n9638\n9661\n9683 9705\n9727\n9750\n2\n4\n7\n9\n11\n13\n16\n18 20 99\n9772 9795\n9817\n9840\n9863\n9886\n9908 9931\n9954\n9977\n2\n5\n7\n9\n11\n14\n16\n18 20\nRationalised 2023-24\nAfter studying this Unit, you will be\nable to\n\u00b7\ndescribe the formation of different\ntypes of solutions;\n\u00b7\nexpress concentration of solution\nin different units;\n\u00b7\nstate and explain Henry\u2019s law and\nRaoult\u2019s law;\n\u00b7\ndistinguish between ideal and\nnon-ideal solutions;\n\u00b7\nexplain deviations of real solutions\nfrom Raoult\u2019s law;\n\u00b7\ndescribe colligative properties of\nsolutions and correlate these with\nmolar masses of the solutes;\n\u00b7\nexplain abnormal colligative\nproperties exhibited by some\nsolutes in solutions In normal life we rarely come across pure substances"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "567-570", "Text": "98\n9550 9572\n9594\n9616\n9638\n9661\n9683 9705\n9727\n9750\n2\n4\n7\n9\n11\n13\n16\n18 20 99\n9772 9795\n9817\n9840\n9863\n9886\n9908 9931\n9954\n9977\n2\n5\n7\n9\n11\n14\n16\n18 20\nRationalised 2023-24\nAfter studying this Unit, you will be\nable to\n\u00b7\ndescribe the formation of different\ntypes of solutions;\n\u00b7\nexpress concentration of solution\nin different units;\n\u00b7\nstate and explain Henry\u2019s law and\nRaoult\u2019s law;\n\u00b7\ndistinguish between ideal and\nnon-ideal solutions;\n\u00b7\nexplain deviations of real solutions\nfrom Raoult\u2019s law;\n\u00b7\ndescribe colligative properties of\nsolutions and correlate these with\nmolar masses of the solutes;\n\u00b7\nexplain abnormal colligative\nproperties exhibited by some\nsolutes in solutions In normal life we rarely come across pure substances Most of these are mixtures containing two or more pure\nsubstances"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "568-571", "Text": "99\n9772 9795\n9817\n9840\n9863\n9886\n9908 9931\n9954\n9977\n2\n5\n7\n9\n11\n14\n16\n18 20\nRationalised 2023-24\nAfter studying this Unit, you will be\nable to\n\u00b7\ndescribe the formation of different\ntypes of solutions;\n\u00b7\nexpress concentration of solution\nin different units;\n\u00b7\nstate and explain Henry\u2019s law and\nRaoult\u2019s law;\n\u00b7\ndistinguish between ideal and\nnon-ideal solutions;\n\u00b7\nexplain deviations of real solutions\nfrom Raoult\u2019s law;\n\u00b7\ndescribe colligative properties of\nsolutions and correlate these with\nmolar masses of the solutes;\n\u00b7\nexplain abnormal colligative\nproperties exhibited by some\nsolutes in solutions In normal life we rarely come across pure substances Most of these are mixtures containing two or more pure\nsubstances Their utility or importance in life depends\non their composition"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "569-572", "Text": "In normal life we rarely come across pure substances Most of these are mixtures containing two or more pure\nsubstances Their utility or importance in life depends\non their composition For example, the properties of\nbrass (mixture of copper and zinc) are quite different\nfrom those of German silver (mixture of copper, zinc\nand nickel) or bronze (mixture of copper and tin);\n1 part per million (ppm) of fluoride ions in water\nprevents tooth decay, while 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "570-573", "Text": "Most of these are mixtures containing two or more pure\nsubstances Their utility or importance in life depends\non their composition For example, the properties of\nbrass (mixture of copper and zinc) are quite different\nfrom those of German silver (mixture of copper, zinc\nand nickel) or bronze (mixture of copper and tin);\n1 part per million (ppm) of fluoride ions in water\nprevents tooth decay, while 1 5 ppm causes the tooth\nto become mottled and high concentrations of fluoride\nions can be poisonous (for example, sodium fluoride is\nused in rat poison); intravenous injections are always\ndissolved in water containing salts at particular ionic\nconcentrations that match with blood plasma\nconcentrations and so on"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "571-574", "Text": "Their utility or importance in life depends\non their composition For example, the properties of\nbrass (mixture of copper and zinc) are quite different\nfrom those of German silver (mixture of copper, zinc\nand nickel) or bronze (mixture of copper and tin);\n1 part per million (ppm) of fluoride ions in water\nprevents tooth decay, while 1 5 ppm causes the tooth\nto become mottled and high concentrations of fluoride\nions can be poisonous (for example, sodium fluoride is\nused in rat poison); intravenous injections are always\ndissolved in water containing salts at particular ionic\nconcentrations that match with blood plasma\nconcentrations and so on In this Unit, we will consider mostly liquid\nsolutions and their formation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "572-575", "Text": "For example, the properties of\nbrass (mixture of copper and zinc) are quite different\nfrom those of German silver (mixture of copper, zinc\nand nickel) or bronze (mixture of copper and tin);\n1 part per million (ppm) of fluoride ions in water\nprevents tooth decay, while 1 5 ppm causes the tooth\nto become mottled and high concentrations of fluoride\nions can be poisonous (for example, sodium fluoride is\nused in rat poison); intravenous injections are always\ndissolved in water containing salts at particular ionic\nconcentrations that match with blood plasma\nconcentrations and so on In this Unit, we will consider mostly liquid\nsolutions and their formation This will be followed by\nstudying the properties of the solutions, like vapour\npressure and colligative properties"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "573-576", "Text": "5 ppm causes the tooth\nto become mottled and high concentrations of fluoride\nions can be poisonous (for example, sodium fluoride is\nused in rat poison); intravenous injections are always\ndissolved in water containing salts at particular ionic\nconcentrations that match with blood plasma\nconcentrations and so on In this Unit, we will consider mostly liquid\nsolutions and their formation This will be followed by\nstudying the properties of the solutions, like vapour\npressure and colligative properties We will begin with\ntypes of solutions and then various alternatives in\nwhich concentrations of a solute can be expressed in\nliquid solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "574-577", "Text": "In this Unit, we will consider mostly liquid\nsolutions and their formation This will be followed by\nstudying the properties of the solutions, like vapour\npressure and colligative properties We will begin with\ntypes of solutions and then various alternatives in\nwhich concentrations of a solute can be expressed in\nliquid solution Solutions\nSolutions\nAlmost all processes in body occur in some kind of liquid solutions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "575-578", "Text": "This will be followed by\nstudying the properties of the solutions, like vapour\npressure and colligative properties We will begin with\ntypes of solutions and then various alternatives in\nwhich concentrations of a solute can be expressed in\nliquid solution Solutions\nSolutions\nAlmost all processes in body occur in some kind of liquid solutions Objectives\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "576-579", "Text": "We will begin with\ntypes of solutions and then various alternatives in\nwhich concentrations of a solute can be expressed in\nliquid solution Solutions\nSolutions\nAlmost all processes in body occur in some kind of liquid solutions Objectives\n1 1\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "577-580", "Text": "Solutions\nSolutions\nAlmost all processes in body occur in some kind of liquid solutions Objectives\n1 1\n1 1\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "578-581", "Text": "Objectives\n1 1\n1 1\n1 1\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "579-582", "Text": "1\n1 1\n1 1\n1 1\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "580-583", "Text": "1\n1 1\n1 1\n1 1\nTypes of\nTypes of\nTypes of\nTypes of\nTypes of\nSolutions\nSolutions\nSolutions\nSolutions\nSolutions\n1\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit1\nSolutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more than two\ncomponents"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "581-584", "Text": "1\n1 1\n1 1\nTypes of\nTypes of\nTypes of\nTypes of\nTypes of\nSolutions\nSolutions\nSolutions\nSolutions\nSolutions\n1\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit1\nSolutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more than two\ncomponents By homogenous mixture we mean that its composition\nand properties are uniform throughout the mixture"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "582-585", "Text": "1\n1 1\nTypes of\nTypes of\nTypes of\nTypes of\nTypes of\nSolutions\nSolutions\nSolutions\nSolutions\nSolutions\n1\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit1\nSolutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more than two\ncomponents By homogenous mixture we mean that its composition\nand properties are uniform throughout the mixture Generally, the\ncomponent that is present in the largest quantity is known as solvent"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "583-586", "Text": "1\nTypes of\nTypes of\nTypes of\nTypes of\nTypes of\nSolutions\nSolutions\nSolutions\nSolutions\nSolutions\n1\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit1\nSolutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more than two\ncomponents By homogenous mixture we mean that its composition\nand properties are uniform throughout the mixture Generally, the\ncomponent that is present in the largest quantity is known as solvent Solvent determines the physical state in which solution exists"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "584-587", "Text": "By homogenous mixture we mean that its composition\nand properties are uniform throughout the mixture Generally, the\ncomponent that is present in the largest quantity is known as solvent Solvent determines the physical state in which solution exists One or\nmore components present in the solution other than solvent are called\nsolutes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "585-588", "Text": "Generally, the\ncomponent that is present in the largest quantity is known as solvent Solvent determines the physical state in which solution exists One or\nmore components present in the solution other than solvent are called\nsolutes In this Unit we shall consider only binary solutions (i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "586-589", "Text": "Solvent determines the physical state in which solution exists One or\nmore components present in the solution other than solvent are called\nsolutes In this Unit we shall consider only binary solutions (i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "587-590", "Text": "One or\nmore components present in the solution other than solvent are called\nsolutes In this Unit we shall consider only binary solutions (i e ,\nRationalised 2023-24\n2\nChemistry\nType of Solution\nSolute\nSolvent\nCommon Examples\nGaseous Solutions\nGas\nGas\nMixture of oxygen and nitrogen gases\nLiquid\nGas\nChloroform mixed with nitrogen gas\nSolid\nGas\nCamphor in nitrogen gas\nLiquid Solutions\nGas\nLiquid\nOxygen dissolved in water\nLiquid\nLiquid\nEthanol dissolved in water\nSolid\nLiquid\nGlucose dissolved in water\nSolid Solutions\nGas\nSolid\nSolution of hydrogen in palladium\nLiquid\nSolid\nAmalgam of mercury with sodium\nSolid\nSolid\nCopper dissolved in gold\nTable 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "588-591", "Text": "In this Unit we shall consider only binary solutions (i e ,\nRationalised 2023-24\n2\nChemistry\nType of Solution\nSolute\nSolvent\nCommon Examples\nGaseous Solutions\nGas\nGas\nMixture of oxygen and nitrogen gases\nLiquid\nGas\nChloroform mixed with nitrogen gas\nSolid\nGas\nCamphor in nitrogen gas\nLiquid Solutions\nGas\nLiquid\nOxygen dissolved in water\nLiquid\nLiquid\nEthanol dissolved in water\nSolid\nLiquid\nGlucose dissolved in water\nSolid Solutions\nGas\nSolid\nSolution of hydrogen in palladium\nLiquid\nSolid\nAmalgam of mercury with sodium\nSolid\nSolid\nCopper dissolved in gold\nTable 1 1: Types of Solutions\nconsisting of two components)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "589-592", "Text": "e ,\nRationalised 2023-24\n2\nChemistry\nType of Solution\nSolute\nSolvent\nCommon Examples\nGaseous Solutions\nGas\nGas\nMixture of oxygen and nitrogen gases\nLiquid\nGas\nChloroform mixed with nitrogen gas\nSolid\nGas\nCamphor in nitrogen gas\nLiquid Solutions\nGas\nLiquid\nOxygen dissolved in water\nLiquid\nLiquid\nEthanol dissolved in water\nSolid\nLiquid\nGlucose dissolved in water\nSolid Solutions\nGas\nSolid\nSolution of hydrogen in palladium\nLiquid\nSolid\nAmalgam of mercury with sodium\nSolid\nSolid\nCopper dissolved in gold\nTable 1 1: Types of Solutions\nconsisting of two components) Here each component may be\nsolid, liquid or in gaseous state and are summarised in Table 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "590-593", "Text": ",\nRationalised 2023-24\n2\nChemistry\nType of Solution\nSolute\nSolvent\nCommon Examples\nGaseous Solutions\nGas\nGas\nMixture of oxygen and nitrogen gases\nLiquid\nGas\nChloroform mixed with nitrogen gas\nSolid\nGas\nCamphor in nitrogen gas\nLiquid Solutions\nGas\nLiquid\nOxygen dissolved in water\nLiquid\nLiquid\nEthanol dissolved in water\nSolid\nLiquid\nGlucose dissolved in water\nSolid Solutions\nGas\nSolid\nSolution of hydrogen in palladium\nLiquid\nSolid\nAmalgam of mercury with sodium\nSolid\nSolid\nCopper dissolved in gold\nTable 1 1: Types of Solutions\nconsisting of two components) Here each component may be\nsolid, liquid or in gaseous state and are summarised in Table 1 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "591-594", "Text": "1: Types of Solutions\nconsisting of two components) Here each component may be\nsolid, liquid or in gaseous state and are summarised in Table 1 1 Composition of a solution can be described by expressing its\nconcentration"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "592-595", "Text": "Here each component may be\nsolid, liquid or in gaseous state and are summarised in Table 1 1 Composition of a solution can be described by expressing its\nconcentration The latter can be expressed either qualitatively\nor quantitatively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "593-596", "Text": "1 Composition of a solution can be described by expressing its\nconcentration The latter can be expressed either qualitatively\nor quantitatively For example, qualitatively we can say that the\nsolution is dilute (i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "594-597", "Text": "Composition of a solution can be described by expressing its\nconcentration The latter can be expressed either qualitatively\nor quantitatively For example, qualitatively we can say that the\nsolution is dilute (i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "595-598", "Text": "The latter can be expressed either qualitatively\nor quantitatively For example, qualitatively we can say that the\nsolution is dilute (i e , relatively very small quantity of solute)\nor it is concentrated (i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "596-599", "Text": "For example, qualitatively we can say that the\nsolution is dilute (i e , relatively very small quantity of solute)\nor it is concentrated (i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "597-600", "Text": "e , relatively very small quantity of solute)\nor it is concentrated (i e , relatively very large quantity of\nsolute)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "598-601", "Text": ", relatively very small quantity of solute)\nor it is concentrated (i e , relatively very large quantity of\nsolute) But in real life these kinds of description can add to\nlot of confusion and thus the need for a quantitative description\nof the solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "599-602", "Text": "e , relatively very large quantity of\nsolute) But in real life these kinds of description can add to\nlot of confusion and thus the need for a quantitative description\nof the solution There are several ways by which we can describe the concentration\nof the solution quantitatively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "600-603", "Text": ", relatively very large quantity of\nsolute) But in real life these kinds of description can add to\nlot of confusion and thus the need for a quantitative description\nof the solution There are several ways by which we can describe the concentration\nof the solution quantitatively (i) Mass percentage (w/w): The mass percentage of a component of a\nsolution is defined as:\nMass % of a component\n= \nMass of the component in the solution \uf0b4\n100\nTotal mass of the solution\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "601-604", "Text": "But in real life these kinds of description can add to\nlot of confusion and thus the need for a quantitative description\nof the solution There are several ways by which we can describe the concentration\nof the solution quantitatively (i) Mass percentage (w/w): The mass percentage of a component of a\nsolution is defined as:\nMass % of a component\n= \nMass of the component in the solution \uf0b4\n100\nTotal mass of the solution\n(1 1)\nFor example, if a solution is described by 10% glucose in water by\nmass, it means that 10 g of glucose is dissolved in 90 g of water\nresulting in a 100 g solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "602-605", "Text": "There are several ways by which we can describe the concentration\nof the solution quantitatively (i) Mass percentage (w/w): The mass percentage of a component of a\nsolution is defined as:\nMass % of a component\n= \nMass of the component in the solution \uf0b4\n100\nTotal mass of the solution\n(1 1)\nFor example, if a solution is described by 10% glucose in water by\nmass, it means that 10 g of glucose is dissolved in 90 g of water\nresulting in a 100 g solution Concentration described by mass\npercentage is commonly used in industrial chemical applications"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "603-606", "Text": "(i) Mass percentage (w/w): The mass percentage of a component of a\nsolution is defined as:\nMass % of a component\n= \nMass of the component in the solution \uf0b4\n100\nTotal mass of the solution\n(1 1)\nFor example, if a solution is described by 10% glucose in water by\nmass, it means that 10 g of glucose is dissolved in 90 g of water\nresulting in a 100 g solution Concentration described by mass\npercentage is commonly used in industrial chemical applications For example, commercial bleaching solution contains 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "604-607", "Text": "1)\nFor example, if a solution is described by 10% glucose in water by\nmass, it means that 10 g of glucose is dissolved in 90 g of water\nresulting in a 100 g solution Concentration described by mass\npercentage is commonly used in industrial chemical applications For example, commercial bleaching solution contains 3 62 mass\npercentage of sodium hypochlorite in water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "605-608", "Text": "Concentration described by mass\npercentage is commonly used in industrial chemical applications For example, commercial bleaching solution contains 3 62 mass\npercentage of sodium hypochlorite in water (ii) Volume percentage (V/V): The volume percentage is defined as:\nVolume % of a component = \nVolume of the component\uf0b4\n100\nTotal volume of solution\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "606-609", "Text": "For example, commercial bleaching solution contains 3 62 mass\npercentage of sodium hypochlorite in water (ii) Volume percentage (V/V): The volume percentage is defined as:\nVolume % of a component = \nVolume of the component\uf0b4\n100\nTotal volume of solution\n(1 2)\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "607-610", "Text": "62 mass\npercentage of sodium hypochlorite in water (ii) Volume percentage (V/V): The volume percentage is defined as:\nVolume % of a component = \nVolume of the component\uf0b4\n100\nTotal volume of solution\n(1 2)\n1 2\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "608-611", "Text": "(ii) Volume percentage (V/V): The volume percentage is defined as:\nVolume % of a component = \nVolume of the component\uf0b4\n100\nTotal volume of solution\n(1 2)\n1 2\n1 2\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "609-612", "Text": "2)\n1 2\n1 2\n1 2\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "610-613", "Text": "2\n1 2\n1 2\n1 2\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "611-614", "Text": "2\n1 2\n1 2\n1 2\nExpressing\nExpressing\nExpressing\nExpressing\nExpressing\nConcentration\nConcentration\nConcentration\nConcentration\nConcentration\nof Solutions\nof Solutions\nof Solutions\nof Solutions\nof Solutions\nRationalised 2023-24\n3\nSolutions\nFor example, 10% ethanol solution in water means that 10 mL\nof ethanol is dissolved in water such that the total volume of\nthe solution is 100 mL"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "612-615", "Text": "2\n1 2\n1 2\nExpressing\nExpressing\nExpressing\nExpressing\nExpressing\nConcentration\nConcentration\nConcentration\nConcentration\nConcentration\nof Solutions\nof Solutions\nof Solutions\nof Solutions\nof Solutions\nRationalised 2023-24\n3\nSolutions\nFor example, 10% ethanol solution in water means that 10 mL\nof ethanol is dissolved in water such that the total volume of\nthe solution is 100 mL Solutions containing liquids are commonly\nexpressed in this unit"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "613-616", "Text": "2\n1 2\nExpressing\nExpressing\nExpressing\nExpressing\nExpressing\nConcentration\nConcentration\nConcentration\nConcentration\nConcentration\nof Solutions\nof Solutions\nof Solutions\nof Solutions\nof Solutions\nRationalised 2023-24\n3\nSolutions\nFor example, 10% ethanol solution in water means that 10 mL\nof ethanol is dissolved in water such that the total volume of\nthe solution is 100 mL Solutions containing liquids are commonly\nexpressed in this unit For example, a 35% (v/v) solution of\nethylene glycol, an antifreeze, is used in cars for cooling the\nengine"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "614-617", "Text": "2\nExpressing\nExpressing\nExpressing\nExpressing\nExpressing\nConcentration\nConcentration\nConcentration\nConcentration\nConcentration\nof Solutions\nof Solutions\nof Solutions\nof Solutions\nof Solutions\nRationalised 2023-24\n3\nSolutions\nFor example, 10% ethanol solution in water means that 10 mL\nof ethanol is dissolved in water such that the total volume of\nthe solution is 100 mL Solutions containing liquids are commonly\nexpressed in this unit For example, a 35% (v/v) solution of\nethylene glycol, an antifreeze, is used in cars for cooling the\nengine At this concentration the antifreeze lowers the freezing\npoint of water to 255"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "615-618", "Text": "Solutions containing liquids are commonly\nexpressed in this unit For example, a 35% (v/v) solution of\nethylene glycol, an antifreeze, is used in cars for cooling the\nengine At this concentration the antifreeze lowers the freezing\npoint of water to 255 4K (\u201317"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "616-619", "Text": "For example, a 35% (v/v) solution of\nethylene glycol, an antifreeze, is used in cars for cooling the\nengine At this concentration the antifreeze lowers the freezing\npoint of water to 255 4K (\u201317 6\u00b0C)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "617-620", "Text": "At this concentration the antifreeze lowers the freezing\npoint of water to 255 4K (\u201317 6\u00b0C) (iii) Mass by volume percentage (w/V): Another unit which is\ncommonly used in medicine and pharmacy is mass by\nvolume percentage"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "618-621", "Text": "4K (\u201317 6\u00b0C) (iii) Mass by volume percentage (w/V): Another unit which is\ncommonly used in medicine and pharmacy is mass by\nvolume percentage It is the mass of solute dissolved in\n100 mL of the solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "619-622", "Text": "6\u00b0C) (iii) Mass by volume percentage (w/V): Another unit which is\ncommonly used in medicine and pharmacy is mass by\nvolume percentage It is the mass of solute dissolved in\n100 mL of the solution (iv) Parts per million: When a solute is present in trace quantities, it\nis convenient to express concentration in parts per million (ppm)\nand is defined as:\nParts per million =\n \n6\nNumber of parts of the component\n\u00d710\nTotal number of parts of all components of the solution\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "620-623", "Text": "(iii) Mass by volume percentage (w/V): Another unit which is\ncommonly used in medicine and pharmacy is mass by\nvolume percentage It is the mass of solute dissolved in\n100 mL of the solution (iv) Parts per million: When a solute is present in trace quantities, it\nis convenient to express concentration in parts per million (ppm)\nand is defined as:\nParts per million =\n \n6\nNumber of parts of the component\n\u00d710\nTotal number of parts of all components of the solution\n(1 3)\nAs in the case of percentage, concentration in parts per million can\nalso be expressed as mass to mass, volume to volume and mass to\nvolume"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "621-624", "Text": "It is the mass of solute dissolved in\n100 mL of the solution (iv) Parts per million: When a solute is present in trace quantities, it\nis convenient to express concentration in parts per million (ppm)\nand is defined as:\nParts per million =\n \n6\nNumber of parts of the component\n\u00d710\nTotal number of parts of all components of the solution\n(1 3)\nAs in the case of percentage, concentration in parts per million can\nalso be expressed as mass to mass, volume to volume and mass to\nvolume A litre of sea water (which weighs 1030 g) contains about\n6 \u00d7 10\n\u20133 g of dissolved oxygen (O2)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "622-625", "Text": "(iv) Parts per million: When a solute is present in trace quantities, it\nis convenient to express concentration in parts per million (ppm)\nand is defined as:\nParts per million =\n \n6\nNumber of parts of the component\n\u00d710\nTotal number of parts of all components of the solution\n(1 3)\nAs in the case of percentage, concentration in parts per million can\nalso be expressed as mass to mass, volume to volume and mass to\nvolume A litre of sea water (which weighs 1030 g) contains about\n6 \u00d7 10\n\u20133 g of dissolved oxygen (O2) Such a small concentration is\nalso expressed as 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "623-626", "Text": "3)\nAs in the case of percentage, concentration in parts per million can\nalso be expressed as mass to mass, volume to volume and mass to\nvolume A litre of sea water (which weighs 1030 g) contains about\n6 \u00d7 10\n\u20133 g of dissolved oxygen (O2) Such a small concentration is\nalso expressed as 5 8 g per 10\n6 g (5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "624-627", "Text": "A litre of sea water (which weighs 1030 g) contains about\n6 \u00d7 10\n\u20133 g of dissolved oxygen (O2) Such a small concentration is\nalso expressed as 5 8 g per 10\n6 g (5 8 ppm) of sea water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "625-628", "Text": "Such a small concentration is\nalso expressed as 5 8 g per 10\n6 g (5 8 ppm) of sea water The\nconcentration of pollutants in water or atmosphere is often expressed\nin terms of mg mL\n\u20131 or ppm"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "626-629", "Text": "8 g per 10\n6 g (5 8 ppm) of sea water The\nconcentration of pollutants in water or atmosphere is often expressed\nin terms of mg mL\n\u20131 or ppm (v) Mole fraction: Commonly used symbol for mole fraction is x and\nsubscript used on the right hand side of x denotes the component"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "627-630", "Text": "8 ppm) of sea water The\nconcentration of pollutants in water or atmosphere is often expressed\nin terms of mg mL\n\u20131 or ppm (v) Mole fraction: Commonly used symbol for mole fraction is x and\nsubscript used on the right hand side of x denotes the component It is defined as:\nMole fraction of a component =\nNumber of moles of the component\nTotal number of moles of all the components\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "628-631", "Text": "The\nconcentration of pollutants in water or atmosphere is often expressed\nin terms of mg mL\n\u20131 or ppm (v) Mole fraction: Commonly used symbol for mole fraction is x and\nsubscript used on the right hand side of x denotes the component It is defined as:\nMole fraction of a component =\nNumber of moles of the component\nTotal number of moles of all the components\n(1 4)\nFor example, in a binary mixture, if the number of moles of A and B are\nnA and nB respectively, the mole fraction of A will be\nxA =\n\uf02b\nA\nA\nB\n \nn\nn\nn\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "629-632", "Text": "(v) Mole fraction: Commonly used symbol for mole fraction is x and\nsubscript used on the right hand side of x denotes the component It is defined as:\nMole fraction of a component =\nNumber of moles of the component\nTotal number of moles of all the components\n(1 4)\nFor example, in a binary mixture, if the number of moles of A and B are\nnA and nB respectively, the mole fraction of A will be\nxA =\n\uf02b\nA\nA\nB\n \nn\nn\nn\n(1 5)\nFor a solution containing i number of components, we have:\nxi = \n\uf02b\n\uf02b\n\uf02b\ni\n1\n2\ni"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "630-633", "Text": "It is defined as:\nMole fraction of a component =\nNumber of moles of the component\nTotal number of moles of all the components\n(1 4)\nFor example, in a binary mixture, if the number of moles of A and B are\nnA and nB respectively, the mole fraction of A will be\nxA =\n\uf02b\nA\nA\nB\n \nn\nn\nn\n(1 5)\nFor a solution containing i number of components, we have:\nxi = \n\uf02b\n\uf02b\n\uf02b\ni\n1\n2\ni n\nn\nn\nn = \uf0e5\ni\ni\nn\nn\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "631-634", "Text": "4)\nFor example, in a binary mixture, if the number of moles of A and B are\nnA and nB respectively, the mole fraction of A will be\nxA =\n\uf02b\nA\nA\nB\n \nn\nn\nn\n(1 5)\nFor a solution containing i number of components, we have:\nxi = \n\uf02b\n\uf02b\n\uf02b\ni\n1\n2\ni n\nn\nn\nn = \uf0e5\ni\ni\nn\nn\n(1 6)\nIt can be shown that in a given solution sum of all the mole\nfractions is unity, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "632-635", "Text": "5)\nFor a solution containing i number of components, we have:\nxi = \n\uf02b\n\uf02b\n\uf02b\ni\n1\n2\ni n\nn\nn\nn = \uf0e5\ni\ni\nn\nn\n(1 6)\nIt can be shown that in a given solution sum of all the mole\nfractions is unity, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "633-636", "Text": "n\nn\nn\nn = \uf0e5\ni\ni\nn\nn\n(1 6)\nIt can be shown that in a given solution sum of all the mole\nfractions is unity, i e x1 + x2 +"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "634-637", "Text": "6)\nIt can be shown that in a given solution sum of all the mole\nfractions is unity, i e x1 + x2 + + xi = 1\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "635-638", "Text": "e x1 + x2 + + xi = 1\n(1 7)\nMole fraction unit is very useful in relating some physical properties\nof solutions, say vapour pressure with the concentration of the\nsolution and quite useful in describing the calculations involving\ngas mixtures"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "636-639", "Text": "x1 + x2 + + xi = 1\n(1 7)\nMole fraction unit is very useful in relating some physical properties\nof solutions, say vapour pressure with the concentration of the\nsolution and quite useful in describing the calculations involving\ngas mixtures Rationalised 2023-24\n4\nChemistry\nCalculate the mole fraction of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) in a solution\ncontaining 20% of C2H6O2 by mass"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "637-640", "Text": "+ xi = 1\n(1 7)\nMole fraction unit is very useful in relating some physical properties\nof solutions, say vapour pressure with the concentration of the\nsolution and quite useful in describing the calculations involving\ngas mixtures Rationalised 2023-24\n4\nChemistry\nCalculate the mole fraction of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) in a solution\ncontaining 20% of C2H6O2 by mass Assume that we have 100 g of solution (one can start with any amount of\nsolution because the results obtained will be the same)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "638-641", "Text": "7)\nMole fraction unit is very useful in relating some physical properties\nof solutions, say vapour pressure with the concentration of the\nsolution and quite useful in describing the calculations involving\ngas mixtures Rationalised 2023-24\n4\nChemistry\nCalculate the mole fraction of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) in a solution\ncontaining 20% of C2H6O2 by mass Assume that we have 100 g of solution (one can start with any amount of\nsolution because the results obtained will be the same) Solution will\ncontain 20 g of ethylene glycol and 80 g of water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "639-642", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n4\nChemistry\nCalculate the mole fraction of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) in a solution\ncontaining 20% of C2H6O2 by mass Assume that we have 100 g of solution (one can start with any amount of\nsolution because the results obtained will be the same) Solution will\ncontain 20 g of ethylene glycol and 80 g of water Molar mass of C2H6O2 = 12 \u00d7 2 + 1 \u00d7 6 + 16 \u00d7 2 = 62 g mol\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "640-643", "Text": "Assume that we have 100 g of solution (one can start with any amount of\nsolution because the results obtained will be the same) Solution will\ncontain 20 g of ethylene glycol and 80 g of water Molar mass of C2H6O2 = 12 \u00d7 2 + 1 \u00d7 6 + 16 \u00d7 2 = 62 g mol\u20131 Moles of C2H6O2 = \n\uf02d1\n20 g\n62 g mol\n= 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "641-644", "Text": "Solution will\ncontain 20 g of ethylene glycol and 80 g of water Molar mass of C2H6O2 = 12 \u00d7 2 + 1 \u00d7 6 + 16 \u00d7 2 = 62 g mol\u20131 Moles of C2H6O2 = \n\uf02d1\n20 g\n62 g mol\n= 0 322 mol\nMoles of water = \n-1\n80 g\n18 g mol\n = 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "642-645", "Text": "Molar mass of C2H6O2 = 12 \u00d7 2 + 1 \u00d7 6 + 16 \u00d7 2 = 62 g mol\u20131 Moles of C2H6O2 = \n\uf02d1\n20 g\n62 g mol\n= 0 322 mol\nMoles of water = \n-1\n80 g\n18 g mol\n = 4 444 mol\n\uf03d\n\uf02b\n2\n6\n2\nglycol\n2\n6\n2\n2\nmoles of C H O\nx\nmoles of C H O\nmoles of H O\n \uf03d\n\uf02b\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "643-646", "Text": "Moles of C2H6O2 = \n\uf02d1\n20 g\n62 g mol\n= 0 322 mol\nMoles of water = \n-1\n80 g\n18 g mol\n = 4 444 mol\n\uf03d\n\uf02b\n2\n6\n2\nglycol\n2\n6\n2\n2\nmoles of C H O\nx\nmoles of C H O\nmoles of H O\n \uf03d\n\uf02b\n0 322 mol\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "644-647", "Text": "322 mol\nMoles of water = \n-1\n80 g\n18 g mol\n = 4 444 mol\n\uf03d\n\uf02b\n2\n6\n2\nglycol\n2\n6\n2\n2\nmoles of C H O\nx\nmoles of C H O\nmoles of H O\n \uf03d\n\uf02b\n0 322 mol\n0 322mol\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "645-648", "Text": "444 mol\n\uf03d\n\uf02b\n2\n6\n2\nglycol\n2\n6\n2\n2\nmoles of C H O\nx\nmoles of C H O\nmoles of H O\n \uf03d\n\uf02b\n0 322 mol\n0 322mol\n4 444 mol = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "646-649", "Text": "322 mol\n0 322mol\n4 444 mol = 0 068\nSimilarly, \n\uf03d\n\uf03d\n\uf02b\nwater\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "647-650", "Text": "322mol\n4 444 mol = 0 068\nSimilarly, \n\uf03d\n\uf03d\n\uf02b\nwater\n4 444 mol \n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "648-651", "Text": "444 mol = 0 068\nSimilarly, \n\uf03d\n\uf03d\n\uf02b\nwater\n4 444 mol \n0 932\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "649-652", "Text": "068\nSimilarly, \n\uf03d\n\uf03d\n\uf02b\nwater\n4 444 mol \n0 932\n0 322 mol \n 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "650-653", "Text": "444 mol \n0 932\n0 322 mol \n 4 444 mol\nx\nMole fraction of water can also be calculated as: 1 \u2013 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "651-654", "Text": "932\n0 322 mol \n 4 444 mol\nx\nMole fraction of water can also be calculated as: 1 \u2013 0 068 = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "652-655", "Text": "322 mol \n 4 444 mol\nx\nMole fraction of water can also be calculated as: 1 \u2013 0 068 = 0 932\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "653-656", "Text": "444 mol\nx\nMole fraction of water can also be calculated as: 1 \u2013 0 068 = 0 932\nExample 1 1\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "654-657", "Text": "068 = 0 932\nExample 1 1\nExample 1 1\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "655-658", "Text": "932\nExample 1 1\nExample 1 1\nExample 1 1\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "656-659", "Text": "1\nExample 1 1\nExample 1 1\nExample 1 1\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "657-660", "Text": "1\nExample 1 1\nExample 1 1\nExample 1 1\n(vi) Molarity: Molarity (M) is defined as number of moles of solute dissolved\nin one litre (or one cubic decimetre) of solution,\n\uf03d\nMoles of solute\nMolarity\nVolume of solution in litre\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "658-661", "Text": "1\nExample 1 1\nExample 1 1\n(vi) Molarity: Molarity (M) is defined as number of moles of solute dissolved\nin one litre (or one cubic decimetre) of solution,\n\uf03d\nMoles of solute\nMolarity\nVolume of solution in litre\n(1 8)\nFor example, 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "659-662", "Text": "1\nExample 1 1\n(vi) Molarity: Molarity (M) is defined as number of moles of solute dissolved\nin one litre (or one cubic decimetre) of solution,\n\uf03d\nMoles of solute\nMolarity\nVolume of solution in litre\n(1 8)\nFor example, 0 25 mol L\u20131 (or 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "660-663", "Text": "1\n(vi) Molarity: Molarity (M) is defined as number of moles of solute dissolved\nin one litre (or one cubic decimetre) of solution,\n\uf03d\nMoles of solute\nMolarity\nVolume of solution in litre\n(1 8)\nFor example, 0 25 mol L\u20131 (or 0 25 M) solution of NaOH means that\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "661-664", "Text": "8)\nFor example, 0 25 mol L\u20131 (or 0 25 M) solution of NaOH means that\n0 25 mol of NaOH has been dissolved in one litre (or one cubic decimetre)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "662-665", "Text": "25 mol L\u20131 (or 0 25 M) solution of NaOH means that\n0 25 mol of NaOH has been dissolved in one litre (or one cubic decimetre) Example 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "663-666", "Text": "25 M) solution of NaOH means that\n0 25 mol of NaOH has been dissolved in one litre (or one cubic decimetre) Example 1 2\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "664-667", "Text": "25 mol of NaOH has been dissolved in one litre (or one cubic decimetre) Example 1 2\nExample 1 2\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "665-668", "Text": "Example 1 2\nExample 1 2\nExample 1 2\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "666-669", "Text": "2\nExample 1 2\nExample 1 2\nExample 1 2\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "667-670", "Text": "2\nExample 1 2\nExample 1 2\nExample 1 2\nCalculate the molarity of a solution containing 5 g of NaOH in 450 mL\nsolution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "668-671", "Text": "2\nExample 1 2\nExample 1 2\nCalculate the molarity of a solution containing 5 g of NaOH in 450 mL\nsolution Moles of NaOH = \n-1\n5 g\n40 g mol\n = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "669-672", "Text": "2\nExample 1 2\nCalculate the molarity of a solution containing 5 g of NaOH in 450 mL\nsolution Moles of NaOH = \n-1\n5 g\n40 g mol\n = 0 125 mol\nVolume of the solution in litres = 450 mL / 1000 mL L-1\nUsing equation (2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "670-673", "Text": "2\nCalculate the molarity of a solution containing 5 g of NaOH in 450 mL\nsolution Moles of NaOH = \n-1\n5 g\n40 g mol\n = 0 125 mol\nVolume of the solution in litres = 450 mL / 1000 mL L-1\nUsing equation (2 8),\nMolarity = \n\u20131\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "671-674", "Text": "Moles of NaOH = \n-1\n5 g\n40 g mol\n = 0 125 mol\nVolume of the solution in litres = 450 mL / 1000 mL L-1\nUsing equation (2 8),\nMolarity = \n\u20131\n0 125 mol \u00d7 1000 mL L\n450 mL\n = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "672-675", "Text": "125 mol\nVolume of the solution in litres = 450 mL / 1000 mL L-1\nUsing equation (2 8),\nMolarity = \n\u20131\n0 125 mol \u00d7 1000 mL L\n450 mL\n = 0 278 M\n= 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "673-676", "Text": "8),\nMolarity = \n\u20131\n0 125 mol \u00d7 1000 mL L\n450 mL\n = 0 278 M\n= 0 278 mol L\u20131\n= 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "674-677", "Text": "125 mol \u00d7 1000 mL L\n450 mL\n = 0 278 M\n= 0 278 mol L\u20131\n= 0 278 mol dm\u20133\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n5\nSolutions\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "675-678", "Text": "278 M\n= 0 278 mol L\u20131\n= 0 278 mol dm\u20133\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n5\nSolutions\nExample 1 3\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "676-679", "Text": "278 mol L\u20131\n= 0 278 mol dm\u20133\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n5\nSolutions\nExample 1 3\nExample 1 3\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "677-680", "Text": "278 mol dm\u20133\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n5\nSolutions\nExample 1 3\nExample 1 3\nExample 1 3\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "678-681", "Text": "3\nExample 1 3\nExample 1 3\nExample 1 3\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "679-682", "Text": "3\nExample 1 3\nExample 1 3\nExample 1 3\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n(vii) Molality: Molality (m) is defined as the number of moles of the solute\nper kilogram (kg) of the solvent and is expressed as:\nMolality (m) =\nMoles of solute\nMass of solvent in kg\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "680-683", "Text": "3\nExample 1 3\nExample 1 3\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n(vii) Molality: Molality (m) is defined as the number of moles of the solute\nper kilogram (kg) of the solvent and is expressed as:\nMolality (m) =\nMoles of solute\nMass of solvent in kg\n(1 9)\nFor example, 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "681-684", "Text": "3\nExample 1 3\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n(vii) Molality: Molality (m) is defined as the number of moles of the solute\nper kilogram (kg) of the solvent and is expressed as:\nMolality (m) =\nMoles of solute\nMass of solvent in kg\n(1 9)\nFor example, 1 00 mol kg\n\u20131 (or 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "682-685", "Text": "3\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n(vii) Molality: Molality (m) is defined as the number of moles of the solute\nper kilogram (kg) of the solvent and is expressed as:\nMolality (m) =\nMoles of solute\nMass of solvent in kg\n(1 9)\nFor example, 1 00 mol kg\n\u20131 (or 1 00 m) solution of KCl means that\n1 mol (74"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "683-686", "Text": "9)\nFor example, 1 00 mol kg\n\u20131 (or 1 00 m) solution of KCl means that\n1 mol (74 5 g) of KCl is dissolved in 1 kg of water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "684-687", "Text": "00 mol kg\n\u20131 (or 1 00 m) solution of KCl means that\n1 mol (74 5 g) of KCl is dissolved in 1 kg of water Each method of expressing concentration of the solutions has its\nown merits and demerits"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "685-688", "Text": "00 m) solution of KCl means that\n1 mol (74 5 g) of KCl is dissolved in 1 kg of water Each method of expressing concentration of the solutions has its\nown merits and demerits Mass %, ppm, mole fraction and molality\nare independent of temperature, whereas molarity is a function of\ntemperature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "686-689", "Text": "5 g) of KCl is dissolved in 1 kg of water Each method of expressing concentration of the solutions has its\nown merits and demerits Mass %, ppm, mole fraction and molality\nare independent of temperature, whereas molarity is a function of\ntemperature This is because volume depends on temperature\nand the mass does not"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "687-690", "Text": "Each method of expressing concentration of the solutions has its\nown merits and demerits Mass %, ppm, mole fraction and molality\nare independent of temperature, whereas molarity is a function of\ntemperature This is because volume depends on temperature\nand the mass does not Solubility of a substance is its maximum amount that can be dissolved\nin a specified amount of solvent at a specified temperature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "688-691", "Text": "Mass %, ppm, mole fraction and molality\nare independent of temperature, whereas molarity is a function of\ntemperature This is because volume depends on temperature\nand the mass does not Solubility of a substance is its maximum amount that can be dissolved\nin a specified amount of solvent at a specified temperature It depends\nupon the nature of solute and solvent as well as temperature and\npressure"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "689-692", "Text": "This is because volume depends on temperature\nand the mass does not Solubility of a substance is its maximum amount that can be dissolved\nin a specified amount of solvent at a specified temperature It depends\nupon the nature of solute and solvent as well as temperature and\npressure Let us consider the effect of these factors in solution of a solid\nor a gas in a liquid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "690-693", "Text": "Solubility of a substance is its maximum amount that can be dissolved\nin a specified amount of solvent at a specified temperature It depends\nupon the nature of solute and solvent as well as temperature and\npressure Let us consider the effect of these factors in solution of a solid\nor a gas in a liquid 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "691-694", "Text": "It depends\nupon the nature of solute and solvent as well as temperature and\npressure Let us consider the effect of these factors in solution of a solid\nor a gas in a liquid 1 3 Solubility\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "692-695", "Text": "Let us consider the effect of these factors in solution of a solid\nor a gas in a liquid 1 3 Solubility\n1 3 Solubility\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "693-696", "Text": "1 3 Solubility\n1 3 Solubility\n1 3 Solubility\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "694-697", "Text": "3 Solubility\n1 3 Solubility\n1 3 Solubility\n1 3 Solubility\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "695-698", "Text": "3 Solubility\n1 3 Solubility\n1 3 Solubility\n1 3 Solubility\nCalculate molality of 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "696-699", "Text": "3 Solubility\n1 3 Solubility\n1 3 Solubility\nCalculate molality of 2 5 g of ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) in 75 g of benzene"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "697-700", "Text": "3 Solubility\n1 3 Solubility\nCalculate molality of 2 5 g of ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) in 75 g of benzene Molar mass of C2H4O2: 12 \u00d7 2 + 1 \u00d7 4 + 16 \u00d7 2 = 60 g mol\u20131\nMoles of C2H4O2 = \n1\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "698-701", "Text": "3 Solubility\nCalculate molality of 2 5 g of ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) in 75 g of benzene Molar mass of C2H4O2: 12 \u00d7 2 + 1 \u00d7 4 + 16 \u00d7 2 = 60 g mol\u20131\nMoles of C2H4O2 = \n1\n2 5 g\n60 g mol\u2212 = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "699-702", "Text": "5 g of ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) in 75 g of benzene Molar mass of C2H4O2: 12 \u00d7 2 + 1 \u00d7 4 + 16 \u00d7 2 = 60 g mol\u20131\nMoles of C2H4O2 = \n1\n2 5 g\n60 g mol\u2212 = 0 0417 mol\nMass of benzene in kg = 75 g/1000 g kg\u20131 = 75 \u00d7 10\u20133 kg\nMolality of C2H4O2 = \n2\n4\n2\nMoles of C H O\nkg of benzene\n = \n1\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "700-703", "Text": "Molar mass of C2H4O2: 12 \u00d7 2 + 1 \u00d7 4 + 16 \u00d7 2 = 60 g mol\u20131\nMoles of C2H4O2 = \n1\n2 5 g\n60 g mol\u2212 = 0 0417 mol\nMass of benzene in kg = 75 g/1000 g kg\u20131 = 75 \u00d7 10\u20133 kg\nMolality of C2H4O2 = \n2\n4\n2\nMoles of C H O\nkg of benzene\n = \n1\n0 0417 mol\n1000 g kg\n \n75 g \n\u2212\n\u00d7\n = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "701-704", "Text": "5 g\n60 g mol\u2212 = 0 0417 mol\nMass of benzene in kg = 75 g/1000 g kg\u20131 = 75 \u00d7 10\u20133 kg\nMolality of C2H4O2 = \n2\n4\n2\nMoles of C H O\nkg of benzene\n = \n1\n0 0417 mol\n1000 g kg\n \n75 g \n\u2212\n\u00d7\n = 0 556 mol kg\u20131\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "702-705", "Text": "0417 mol\nMass of benzene in kg = 75 g/1000 g kg\u20131 = 75 \u00d7 10\u20133 kg\nMolality of C2H4O2 = \n2\n4\n2\nMoles of C H O\nkg of benzene\n = \n1\n0 0417 mol\n1000 g kg\n \n75 g \n\u2212\n\u00d7\n = 0 556 mol kg\u20131\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n1 1 Calculate the mass percentage of benzene (C6H6) and carbon\ntetrachloride (CCl4) if 22 g of benzene is dissolved in 122 g of\ncarbon tetrachloride"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "703-706", "Text": "0417 mol\n1000 g kg\n \n75 g \n\u2212\n\u00d7\n = 0 556 mol kg\u20131\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n1 1 Calculate the mass percentage of benzene (C6H6) and carbon\ntetrachloride (CCl4) if 22 g of benzene is dissolved in 122 g of\ncarbon tetrachloride 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "704-707", "Text": "556 mol kg\u20131\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n1 1 Calculate the mass percentage of benzene (C6H6) and carbon\ntetrachloride (CCl4) if 22 g of benzene is dissolved in 122 g of\ncarbon tetrachloride 1 2 Calculate the mole fraction of benzene in solution containing 30%\nby mass in carbon tetrachloride"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "705-708", "Text": "1 Calculate the mass percentage of benzene (C6H6) and carbon\ntetrachloride (CCl4) if 22 g of benzene is dissolved in 122 g of\ncarbon tetrachloride 1 2 Calculate the mole fraction of benzene in solution containing 30%\nby mass in carbon tetrachloride 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "706-709", "Text": "1 2 Calculate the mole fraction of benzene in solution containing 30%\nby mass in carbon tetrachloride 1 3 Calculate the molarity of each of the following solutions: (a) 30 g of\nCo(NO3)2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "707-710", "Text": "2 Calculate the mole fraction of benzene in solution containing 30%\nby mass in carbon tetrachloride 1 3 Calculate the molarity of each of the following solutions: (a) 30 g of\nCo(NO3)2 6H2O in 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "708-711", "Text": "1 3 Calculate the molarity of each of the following solutions: (a) 30 g of\nCo(NO3)2 6H2O in 4 3 L of solution (b) 30 mL of 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "709-712", "Text": "3 Calculate the molarity of each of the following solutions: (a) 30 g of\nCo(NO3)2 6H2O in 4 3 L of solution (b) 30 mL of 0 5 M H2SO4 diluted to\n500 mL"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "710-713", "Text": "6H2O in 4 3 L of solution (b) 30 mL of 0 5 M H2SO4 diluted to\n500 mL 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "711-714", "Text": "3 L of solution (b) 30 mL of 0 5 M H2SO4 diluted to\n500 mL 1 4 Calculate the mass of urea (NH2CONH2) required in making 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "712-715", "Text": "5 M H2SO4 diluted to\n500 mL 1 4 Calculate the mass of urea (NH2CONH2) required in making 2 5 kg of\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "713-716", "Text": "1 4 Calculate the mass of urea (NH2CONH2) required in making 2 5 kg of\n0 25 molal aqueous solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "714-717", "Text": "4 Calculate the mass of urea (NH2CONH2) required in making 2 5 kg of\n0 25 molal aqueous solution 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "715-718", "Text": "5 kg of\n0 25 molal aqueous solution 1 5 Calculate (a) molality (b) molarity and (c) mole fraction of KI if the density\nof 20% (mass/mass) aqueous KI is 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "716-719", "Text": "25 molal aqueous solution 1 5 Calculate (a) molality (b) molarity and (c) mole fraction of KI if the density\nof 20% (mass/mass) aqueous KI is 1 202 g mL-1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "717-720", "Text": "1 5 Calculate (a) molality (b) molarity and (c) mole fraction of KI if the density\nof 20% (mass/mass) aqueous KI is 1 202 g mL-1 Rationalised 2023-24\n6\nChemistry\nEvery solid does not dissolve in a given liquid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "718-721", "Text": "5 Calculate (a) molality (b) molarity and (c) mole fraction of KI if the density\nof 20% (mass/mass) aqueous KI is 1 202 g mL-1 Rationalised 2023-24\n6\nChemistry\nEvery solid does not dissolve in a given liquid While sodium chloride\nand sugar dissolve readily in water, naphthalene and anthracene do\nnot"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "719-722", "Text": "202 g mL-1 Rationalised 2023-24\n6\nChemistry\nEvery solid does not dissolve in a given liquid While sodium chloride\nand sugar dissolve readily in water, naphthalene and anthracene do\nnot On the other hand, naphthalene and anthracene dissolve readily in\nbenzene but sodium chloride and sugar do not"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "720-723", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n6\nChemistry\nEvery solid does not dissolve in a given liquid While sodium chloride\nand sugar dissolve readily in water, naphthalene and anthracene do\nnot On the other hand, naphthalene and anthracene dissolve readily in\nbenzene but sodium chloride and sugar do not It is observed that\npolar solutes dissolve in polar solvents and non polar solutes in non-\npolar solvents"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "721-724", "Text": "While sodium chloride\nand sugar dissolve readily in water, naphthalene and anthracene do\nnot On the other hand, naphthalene and anthracene dissolve readily in\nbenzene but sodium chloride and sugar do not It is observed that\npolar solutes dissolve in polar solvents and non polar solutes in non-\npolar solvents In general, a solute dissolves in a solvent if the\nintermolecular interactions are similar in the two or we may say like\ndissolves like"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "722-725", "Text": "On the other hand, naphthalene and anthracene dissolve readily in\nbenzene but sodium chloride and sugar do not It is observed that\npolar solutes dissolve in polar solvents and non polar solutes in non-\npolar solvents In general, a solute dissolves in a solvent if the\nintermolecular interactions are similar in the two or we may say like\ndissolves like When a solid solute is added to the solvent, some solute dissolves\nand its concentration increases in solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "723-726", "Text": "It is observed that\npolar solutes dissolve in polar solvents and non polar solutes in non-\npolar solvents In general, a solute dissolves in a solvent if the\nintermolecular interactions are similar in the two or we may say like\ndissolves like When a solid solute is added to the solvent, some solute dissolves\nand its concentration increases in solution This process is known as\ndissolution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "724-727", "Text": "In general, a solute dissolves in a solvent if the\nintermolecular interactions are similar in the two or we may say like\ndissolves like When a solid solute is added to the solvent, some solute dissolves\nand its concentration increases in solution This process is known as\ndissolution Some solute particles in solution collide with the solid solute\nparticles and get separated out of solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "725-728", "Text": "When a solid solute is added to the solvent, some solute dissolves\nand its concentration increases in solution This process is known as\ndissolution Some solute particles in solution collide with the solid solute\nparticles and get separated out of solution This process is known as\ncrystallisation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "726-729", "Text": "This process is known as\ndissolution Some solute particles in solution collide with the solid solute\nparticles and get separated out of solution This process is known as\ncrystallisation A stage is reached when the two processes occur at the\nsame rate"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "727-730", "Text": "Some solute particles in solution collide with the solid solute\nparticles and get separated out of solution This process is known as\ncrystallisation A stage is reached when the two processes occur at the\nsame rate Under such conditions, number of solute particles going\ninto solution will be equal to the solute particles separating out and\na state of dynamic equilibrium is reached"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "728-731", "Text": "This process is known as\ncrystallisation A stage is reached when the two processes occur at the\nsame rate Under such conditions, number of solute particles going\ninto solution will be equal to the solute particles separating out and\na state of dynamic equilibrium is reached Solute + Solvent \u21cc Solution\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "729-732", "Text": "A stage is reached when the two processes occur at the\nsame rate Under such conditions, number of solute particles going\ninto solution will be equal to the solute particles separating out and\na state of dynamic equilibrium is reached Solute + Solvent \u21cc Solution\n(1 10)\nAt this stage the concentration of solute in solution will remain\nconstant under the given conditions, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "730-733", "Text": "Under such conditions, number of solute particles going\ninto solution will be equal to the solute particles separating out and\na state of dynamic equilibrium is reached Solute + Solvent \u21cc Solution\n(1 10)\nAt this stage the concentration of solute in solution will remain\nconstant under the given conditions, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "731-734", "Text": "Solute + Solvent \u21cc Solution\n(1 10)\nAt this stage the concentration of solute in solution will remain\nconstant under the given conditions, i e , temperature and pressure"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "732-735", "Text": "10)\nAt this stage the concentration of solute in solution will remain\nconstant under the given conditions, i e , temperature and pressure Similar process is followed when gases are dissolved in liquid solvents"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "733-736", "Text": "e , temperature and pressure Similar process is followed when gases are dissolved in liquid solvents Such a solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at the same\ntemperature and pressure is called a saturated solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "734-737", "Text": ", temperature and pressure Similar process is followed when gases are dissolved in liquid solvents Such a solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at the same\ntemperature and pressure is called a saturated solution An\nunsaturated solution is one in which more solute can be dissolved at\nthe same temperature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "735-738", "Text": "Similar process is followed when gases are dissolved in liquid solvents Such a solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at the same\ntemperature and pressure is called a saturated solution An\nunsaturated solution is one in which more solute can be dissolved at\nthe same temperature The solution which is in dynamic equilibrium\nwith undissolved solute is the saturated solution and contains the\nmaximum amount of solute dissolved in a given amount of solvent"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "736-739", "Text": "Such a solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at the same\ntemperature and pressure is called a saturated solution An\nunsaturated solution is one in which more solute can be dissolved at\nthe same temperature The solution which is in dynamic equilibrium\nwith undissolved solute is the saturated solution and contains the\nmaximum amount of solute dissolved in a given amount of solvent Thus, the concentration of solute in such a solution is its solubility"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "737-740", "Text": "An\nunsaturated solution is one in which more solute can be dissolved at\nthe same temperature The solution which is in dynamic equilibrium\nwith undissolved solute is the saturated solution and contains the\nmaximum amount of solute dissolved in a given amount of solvent Thus, the concentration of solute in such a solution is its solubility Earlier we have observed that solubility of one substance into\nanother depends on the nature of the substances"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "738-741", "Text": "The solution which is in dynamic equilibrium\nwith undissolved solute is the saturated solution and contains the\nmaximum amount of solute dissolved in a given amount of solvent Thus, the concentration of solute in such a solution is its solubility Earlier we have observed that solubility of one substance into\nanother depends on the nature of the substances In addition to these\nvariables, two other parameters, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "739-742", "Text": "Thus, the concentration of solute in such a solution is its solubility Earlier we have observed that solubility of one substance into\nanother depends on the nature of the substances In addition to these\nvariables, two other parameters, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "740-743", "Text": "Earlier we have observed that solubility of one substance into\nanother depends on the nature of the substances In addition to these\nvariables, two other parameters, i e , temperature and pressure also\ncontrol this phenomenon"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "741-744", "Text": "In addition to these\nvariables, two other parameters, i e , temperature and pressure also\ncontrol this phenomenon Effect of temperature\nThe solubility of a solid in a liquid is significantly affected by temperature\nchanges"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "742-745", "Text": "e , temperature and pressure also\ncontrol this phenomenon Effect of temperature\nThe solubility of a solid in a liquid is significantly affected by temperature\nchanges Consider the equilibrium represented by equation 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "743-746", "Text": ", temperature and pressure also\ncontrol this phenomenon Effect of temperature\nThe solubility of a solid in a liquid is significantly affected by temperature\nchanges Consider the equilibrium represented by equation 1 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "744-747", "Text": "Effect of temperature\nThe solubility of a solid in a liquid is significantly affected by temperature\nchanges Consider the equilibrium represented by equation 1 10 This,\nbeing dynamic equilibrium, must follow Le Chateliers Principle"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "745-748", "Text": "Consider the equilibrium represented by equation 1 10 This,\nbeing dynamic equilibrium, must follow Le Chateliers Principle In\ngeneral, if in a nearly saturated solution, the dissolution process is\nendothermic (Dsol H > 0), the solubility should increase with rise in\ntemperature and if it is exothermic (Dsol H < 0) the solubility should\ndecrease"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "746-749", "Text": "10 This,\nbeing dynamic equilibrium, must follow Le Chateliers Principle In\ngeneral, if in a nearly saturated solution, the dissolution process is\nendothermic (Dsol H > 0), the solubility should increase with rise in\ntemperature and if it is exothermic (Dsol H < 0) the solubility should\ndecrease These trends are also observed experimentally"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "747-750", "Text": "This,\nbeing dynamic equilibrium, must follow Le Chateliers Principle In\ngeneral, if in a nearly saturated solution, the dissolution process is\nendothermic (Dsol H > 0), the solubility should increase with rise in\ntemperature and if it is exothermic (Dsol H < 0) the solubility should\ndecrease These trends are also observed experimentally Effect of pressure\nPressure does not have any significant effect on solubility of solids in\nliquids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "748-751", "Text": "In\ngeneral, if in a nearly saturated solution, the dissolution process is\nendothermic (Dsol H > 0), the solubility should increase with rise in\ntemperature and if it is exothermic (Dsol H < 0) the solubility should\ndecrease These trends are also observed experimentally Effect of pressure\nPressure does not have any significant effect on solubility of solids in\nliquids It is so because solids and liquids are highly incompressible\nand practically remain unaffected by changes in pressure"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "749-752", "Text": "These trends are also observed experimentally Effect of pressure\nPressure does not have any significant effect on solubility of solids in\nliquids It is so because solids and liquids are highly incompressible\nand practically remain unaffected by changes in pressure Many gases dissolve in water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "750-753", "Text": "Effect of pressure\nPressure does not have any significant effect on solubility of solids in\nliquids It is so because solids and liquids are highly incompressible\nand practically remain unaffected by changes in pressure Many gases dissolve in water Oxygen dissolves only to a small extent\nin water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "751-754", "Text": "It is so because solids and liquids are highly incompressible\nand practically remain unaffected by changes in pressure Many gases dissolve in water Oxygen dissolves only to a small extent\nin water It is this dissolved oxygen which sustains all aquatic life"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "752-755", "Text": "Many gases dissolve in water Oxygen dissolves only to a small extent\nin water It is this dissolved oxygen which sustains all aquatic life On\nthe other hand, hydrogen chloride gas (HCl) is highly soluble in water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "753-756", "Text": "Oxygen dissolves only to a small extent\nin water It is this dissolved oxygen which sustains all aquatic life On\nthe other hand, hydrogen chloride gas (HCl) is highly soluble in water Solubility of gases in liquids is greatly affected by pressure and\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "754-757", "Text": "It is this dissolved oxygen which sustains all aquatic life On\nthe other hand, hydrogen chloride gas (HCl) is highly soluble in water Solubility of gases in liquids is greatly affected by pressure and\n1 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "755-758", "Text": "On\nthe other hand, hydrogen chloride gas (HCl) is highly soluble in water Solubility of gases in liquids is greatly affected by pressure and\n1 3 1 Solubility of\na Solid in a\nLiquid\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "756-759", "Text": "Solubility of gases in liquids is greatly affected by pressure and\n1 3 1 Solubility of\na Solid in a\nLiquid\n1 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "757-760", "Text": "3 1 Solubility of\na Solid in a\nLiquid\n1 3 2 Solubility of\na Gas in a\nLiquid\nRationalised 2023-24\n7\nSolutions\ntemperature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "758-761", "Text": "1 Solubility of\na Solid in a\nLiquid\n1 3 2 Solubility of\na Gas in a\nLiquid\nRationalised 2023-24\n7\nSolutions\ntemperature The solubility of gases increase with increase of pressure"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "759-762", "Text": "3 2 Solubility of\na Gas in a\nLiquid\nRationalised 2023-24\n7\nSolutions\ntemperature The solubility of gases increase with increase of pressure For solution of gases in a solvent, consider a system as shown in\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "760-763", "Text": "2 Solubility of\na Gas in a\nLiquid\nRationalised 2023-24\n7\nSolutions\ntemperature The solubility of gases increase with increase of pressure For solution of gases in a solvent, consider a system as shown in\nFig 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "761-764", "Text": "The solubility of gases increase with increase of pressure For solution of gases in a solvent, consider a system as shown in\nFig 1 1 (a)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "762-765", "Text": "For solution of gases in a solvent, consider a system as shown in\nFig 1 1 (a) The lower part is solution and the upper part is gaseous\nsystem at pressure p and temperature T"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "763-766", "Text": "1 1 (a) The lower part is solution and the upper part is gaseous\nsystem at pressure p and temperature T Assume this system to be in\na state of dynamic equilibrium, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "764-767", "Text": "1 (a) The lower part is solution and the upper part is gaseous\nsystem at pressure p and temperature T Assume this system to be in\na state of dynamic equilibrium, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "765-768", "Text": "The lower part is solution and the upper part is gaseous\nsystem at pressure p and temperature T Assume this system to be in\na state of dynamic equilibrium, i e , under these conditions rate of\ngaseous particles entering and leaving the solution phase is the same"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "766-769", "Text": "Assume this system to be in\na state of dynamic equilibrium, i e , under these conditions rate of\ngaseous particles entering and leaving the solution phase is the same Now increase the pressure over the solution phase by compressing the\ngas to a smaller volume [Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "767-770", "Text": "e , under these conditions rate of\ngaseous particles entering and leaving the solution phase is the same Now increase the pressure over the solution phase by compressing the\ngas to a smaller volume [Fig 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "768-771", "Text": ", under these conditions rate of\ngaseous particles entering and leaving the solution phase is the same Now increase the pressure over the solution phase by compressing the\ngas to a smaller volume [Fig 1 1 (b)]"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "769-772", "Text": "Now increase the pressure over the solution phase by compressing the\ngas to a smaller volume [Fig 1 1 (b)] This will increase the number of\ngaseous particles per unit volume over the solution and also the rate\nat which the gaseous particles are striking the surface of solution to\nenter it"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "770-773", "Text": "1 1 (b)] This will increase the number of\ngaseous particles per unit volume over the solution and also the rate\nat which the gaseous particles are striking the surface of solution to\nenter it The solubility of the gas will increase until a new equilibrium\nis reached resulting in an increase in the pressure of a gas above the\nsolution and thus its solubility increases"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "771-774", "Text": "1 (b)] This will increase the number of\ngaseous particles per unit volume over the solution and also the rate\nat which the gaseous particles are striking the surface of solution to\nenter it The solubility of the gas will increase until a new equilibrium\nis reached resulting in an increase in the pressure of a gas above the\nsolution and thus its solubility increases Henry was the first to give a\nquantitative relation between\npressure and solubility of a gas in\na solvent which is known as\nHenry\u2019s law"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "772-775", "Text": "This will increase the number of\ngaseous particles per unit volume over the solution and also the rate\nat which the gaseous particles are striking the surface of solution to\nenter it The solubility of the gas will increase until a new equilibrium\nis reached resulting in an increase in the pressure of a gas above the\nsolution and thus its solubility increases Henry was the first to give a\nquantitative relation between\npressure and solubility of a gas in\na solvent which is known as\nHenry\u2019s law The law states that\nat a constant temperature, the\nsolubility of a gas in a liquid is\ndirectly proportional to the\npartial pressure of the gas\npresent above the surface of\nliquid or solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "773-776", "Text": "The solubility of the gas will increase until a new equilibrium\nis reached resulting in an increase in the pressure of a gas above the\nsolution and thus its solubility increases Henry was the first to give a\nquantitative relation between\npressure and solubility of a gas in\na solvent which is known as\nHenry\u2019s law The law states that\nat a constant temperature, the\nsolubility of a gas in a liquid is\ndirectly proportional to the\npartial pressure of the gas\npresent above the surface of\nliquid or solution Dalton, a\ncontemporary of Henry, also\nconcluded independently that the\nsolubility of a gas in a liquid\nsolution is a function of partial\npressure of the gas"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "774-777", "Text": "Henry was the first to give a\nquantitative relation between\npressure and solubility of a gas in\na solvent which is known as\nHenry\u2019s law The law states that\nat a constant temperature, the\nsolubility of a gas in a liquid is\ndirectly proportional to the\npartial pressure of the gas\npresent above the surface of\nliquid or solution Dalton, a\ncontemporary of Henry, also\nconcluded independently that the\nsolubility of a gas in a liquid\nsolution is a function of partial\npressure of the gas If we use the mole fraction of a gas in\nthe solution as a measure of its solubility, then it can be\nsaid that the mole fraction of gas in the solution is\nproportional to the partial pressure of the gas over\nthe solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "775-778", "Text": "The law states that\nat a constant temperature, the\nsolubility of a gas in a liquid is\ndirectly proportional to the\npartial pressure of the gas\npresent above the surface of\nliquid or solution Dalton, a\ncontemporary of Henry, also\nconcluded independently that the\nsolubility of a gas in a liquid\nsolution is a function of partial\npressure of the gas If we use the mole fraction of a gas in\nthe solution as a measure of its solubility, then it can be\nsaid that the mole fraction of gas in the solution is\nproportional to the partial pressure of the gas over\nthe solution The most commonly used form of Henry\u2019s\nlaw states that \u201cthe partial pressure of the gas in\nvapour phase (p) is proportional to the mole fraction\nof the gas (x) in the solution\u201d and is expressed as:\np = KH x\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "776-779", "Text": "Dalton, a\ncontemporary of Henry, also\nconcluded independently that the\nsolubility of a gas in a liquid\nsolution is a function of partial\npressure of the gas If we use the mole fraction of a gas in\nthe solution as a measure of its solubility, then it can be\nsaid that the mole fraction of gas in the solution is\nproportional to the partial pressure of the gas over\nthe solution The most commonly used form of Henry\u2019s\nlaw states that \u201cthe partial pressure of the gas in\nvapour phase (p) is proportional to the mole fraction\nof the gas (x) in the solution\u201d and is expressed as:\np = KH x\n(1 11)\nHere KH is the Henry\u2019s law constant"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "777-780", "Text": "If we use the mole fraction of a gas in\nthe solution as a measure of its solubility, then it can be\nsaid that the mole fraction of gas in the solution is\nproportional to the partial pressure of the gas over\nthe solution The most commonly used form of Henry\u2019s\nlaw states that \u201cthe partial pressure of the gas in\nvapour phase (p) is proportional to the mole fraction\nof the gas (x) in the solution\u201d and is expressed as:\np = KH x\n(1 11)\nHere KH is the Henry\u2019s law constant If we draw a\ngraph between partial pressure of the gas versus mole\nfraction of the gas in solution, then we should get a plot\nof the type as shown in Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "778-781", "Text": "The most commonly used form of Henry\u2019s\nlaw states that \u201cthe partial pressure of the gas in\nvapour phase (p) is proportional to the mole fraction\nof the gas (x) in the solution\u201d and is expressed as:\np = KH x\n(1 11)\nHere KH is the Henry\u2019s law constant If we draw a\ngraph between partial pressure of the gas versus mole\nfraction of the gas in solution, then we should get a plot\nof the type as shown in Fig 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "779-782", "Text": "11)\nHere KH is the Henry\u2019s law constant If we draw a\ngraph between partial pressure of the gas versus mole\nfraction of the gas in solution, then we should get a plot\nof the type as shown in Fig 1 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "780-783", "Text": "If we draw a\ngraph between partial pressure of the gas versus mole\nfraction of the gas in solution, then we should get a plot\nof the type as shown in Fig 1 2 Different gases have different KH values at the same\ntemperature (Table 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "781-784", "Text": "1 2 Different gases have different KH values at the same\ntemperature (Table 1 2)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "782-785", "Text": "2 Different gases have different KH values at the same\ntemperature (Table 1 2) This suggests that KH is a\nfunction of the nature of the gas"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "783-786", "Text": "Different gases have different KH values at the same\ntemperature (Table 1 2) This suggests that KH is a\nfunction of the nature of the gas It is obvious from equation (1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "784-787", "Text": "2) This suggests that KH is a\nfunction of the nature of the gas It is obvious from equation (1 11) that higher the\nvalue of KH at a given pressure, the lower is the solubility\nof the gas in the liquid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "785-788", "Text": "This suggests that KH is a\nfunction of the nature of the gas It is obvious from equation (1 11) that higher the\nvalue of KH at a given pressure, the lower is the solubility\nof the gas in the liquid It can be seen from Table 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "786-789", "Text": "It is obvious from equation (1 11) that higher the\nvalue of KH at a given pressure, the lower is the solubility\nof the gas in the liquid It can be seen from Table 1 2\nthat KH values for both N2 and O2 increase with increase\nof temperature indicating that the solubility of gases\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "787-790", "Text": "11) that higher the\nvalue of KH at a given pressure, the lower is the solubility\nof the gas in the liquid It can be seen from Table 1 2\nthat KH values for both N2 and O2 increase with increase\nof temperature indicating that the solubility of gases\nFig 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "788-791", "Text": "It can be seen from Table 1 2\nthat KH values for both N2 and O2 increase with increase\nof temperature indicating that the solubility of gases\nFig 1 1: Effect of pressure on the solubility of a gas"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "789-792", "Text": "2\nthat KH values for both N2 and O2 increase with increase\nof temperature indicating that the solubility of gases\nFig 1 1: Effect of pressure on the solubility of a gas The\nconcentration of dissolved gas is proportional to the\npressure on the gas above the solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "790-793", "Text": "1 1: Effect of pressure on the solubility of a gas The\nconcentration of dissolved gas is proportional to the\npressure on the gas above the solution Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "791-794", "Text": "1: Effect of pressure on the solubility of a gas The\nconcentration of dissolved gas is proportional to the\npressure on the gas above the solution Fig 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "792-795", "Text": "The\nconcentration of dissolved gas is proportional to the\npressure on the gas above the solution Fig 1 2: Experimental results for\nthe solubility of HCl gas in\ncyclohexane at 293 K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "793-796", "Text": "Fig 1 2: Experimental results for\nthe solubility of HCl gas in\ncyclohexane at 293 K The\nslope of the line is the\nHenry\u2019s Law constant, KH"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "794-797", "Text": "1 2: Experimental results for\nthe solubility of HCl gas in\ncyclohexane at 293 K The\nslope of the line is the\nHenry\u2019s Law constant, KH Rationalised 2023-24\n8\nChemistry\nincreases with decrease of temperature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "795-798", "Text": "2: Experimental results for\nthe solubility of HCl gas in\ncyclohexane at 293 K The\nslope of the line is the\nHenry\u2019s Law constant, KH Rationalised 2023-24\n8\nChemistry\nincreases with decrease of temperature It is due to this reason that\naquatic species are more comfortable in cold waters rather than in\nwarm waters"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "796-799", "Text": "The\nslope of the line is the\nHenry\u2019s Law constant, KH Rationalised 2023-24\n8\nChemistry\nincreases with decrease of temperature It is due to this reason that\naquatic species are more comfortable in cold waters rather than in\nwarm waters Henry\u2019s law finds several applications in industry and explains some\nbiological phenomena"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "797-800", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n8\nChemistry\nincreases with decrease of temperature It is due to this reason that\naquatic species are more comfortable in cold waters rather than in\nwarm waters Henry\u2019s law finds several applications in industry and explains some\nbiological phenomena Notable among these are:\n\u00b7 To increase the solubility of CO2 in soft drinks and soda water, the\nbottle is sealed under high pressure"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "798-801", "Text": "It is due to this reason that\naquatic species are more comfortable in cold waters rather than in\nwarm waters Henry\u2019s law finds several applications in industry and explains some\nbiological phenomena Notable among these are:\n\u00b7 To increase the solubility of CO2 in soft drinks and soda water, the\nbottle is sealed under high pressure \u00b7 Scuba divers must cope with high concentrations of dissolved gases\nwhile breathing air at high pressure underwater"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "799-802", "Text": "Henry\u2019s law finds several applications in industry and explains some\nbiological phenomena Notable among these are:\n\u00b7 To increase the solubility of CO2 in soft drinks and soda water, the\nbottle is sealed under high pressure \u00b7 Scuba divers must cope with high concentrations of dissolved gases\nwhile breathing air at high pressure underwater Increased pressure\nincreases the solubility of atmospheric gases in blood"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "800-803", "Text": "Notable among these are:\n\u00b7 To increase the solubility of CO2 in soft drinks and soda water, the\nbottle is sealed under high pressure \u00b7 Scuba divers must cope with high concentrations of dissolved gases\nwhile breathing air at high pressure underwater Increased pressure\nincreases the solubility of atmospheric gases in blood When the\ndivers come towards surface, the pressure gradually decreases"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "801-804", "Text": "\u00b7 Scuba divers must cope with high concentrations of dissolved gases\nwhile breathing air at high pressure underwater Increased pressure\nincreases the solubility of atmospheric gases in blood When the\ndivers come towards surface, the pressure gradually decreases This\nreleases the dissolved gases and leads to the formation of bubbles\nof nitrogen in the blood"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "802-805", "Text": "Increased pressure\nincreases the solubility of atmospheric gases in blood When the\ndivers come towards surface, the pressure gradually decreases This\nreleases the dissolved gases and leads to the formation of bubbles\nof nitrogen in the blood This blocks capillaries and creates a medical\ncondition known as bends, which are painful and dangerous to life"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "803-806", "Text": "When the\ndivers come towards surface, the pressure gradually decreases This\nreleases the dissolved gases and leads to the formation of bubbles\nof nitrogen in the blood This blocks capillaries and creates a medical\ncondition known as bends, which are painful and dangerous to life If N2 gas is bubbled through water at 293 K, how many millimoles of N2\ngas would dissolve in 1 litre of water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "804-807", "Text": "This\nreleases the dissolved gases and leads to the formation of bubbles\nof nitrogen in the blood This blocks capillaries and creates a medical\ncondition known as bends, which are painful and dangerous to life If N2 gas is bubbled through water at 293 K, how many millimoles of N2\ngas would dissolve in 1 litre of water Assume that N2 exerts a partial\npressure of 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "805-808", "Text": "This blocks capillaries and creates a medical\ncondition known as bends, which are painful and dangerous to life If N2 gas is bubbled through water at 293 K, how many millimoles of N2\ngas would dissolve in 1 litre of water Assume that N2 exerts a partial\npressure of 0 987 bar"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "806-809", "Text": "If N2 gas is bubbled through water at 293 K, how many millimoles of N2\ngas would dissolve in 1 litre of water Assume that N2 exerts a partial\npressure of 0 987 bar Given that Henry\u2019s law constant for N2 at 293 K is\n76"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "807-810", "Text": "Assume that N2 exerts a partial\npressure of 0 987 bar Given that Henry\u2019s law constant for N2 at 293 K is\n76 48 kbar"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "808-811", "Text": "987 bar Given that Henry\u2019s law constant for N2 at 293 K is\n76 48 kbar The solubility of gas is related to the mole fraction in aqueous solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "809-812", "Text": "Given that Henry\u2019s law constant for N2 at 293 K is\n76 48 kbar The solubility of gas is related to the mole fraction in aqueous solution The mole fraction of the gas in the solution is calculated by applying\nHenry\u2019s law"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "810-813", "Text": "48 kbar The solubility of gas is related to the mole fraction in aqueous solution The mole fraction of the gas in the solution is calculated by applying\nHenry\u2019s law Thus:\nx (Nitrogen) = \nH\np (nitrogen)\nK\n = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "811-814", "Text": "The solubility of gas is related to the mole fraction in aqueous solution The mole fraction of the gas in the solution is calculated by applying\nHenry\u2019s law Thus:\nx (Nitrogen) = \nH\np (nitrogen)\nK\n = 0 987bar\n76,480 bar = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "812-815", "Text": "The mole fraction of the gas in the solution is calculated by applying\nHenry\u2019s law Thus:\nx (Nitrogen) = \nH\np (nitrogen)\nK\n = 0 987bar\n76,480 bar = 1 29 \u00d7 10\u20135\nAs 1 litre of water contains 55"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "813-816", "Text": "Thus:\nx (Nitrogen) = \nH\np (nitrogen)\nK\n = 0 987bar\n76,480 bar = 1 29 \u00d7 10\u20135\nAs 1 litre of water contains 55 5 mol of it, therefore if n represents\nnumber of moles of N2 in solution,\nx (Nitrogen) = \n mol \n mol\nn+55"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "814-817", "Text": "987bar\n76,480 bar = 1 29 \u00d7 10\u20135\nAs 1 litre of water contains 55 5 mol of it, therefore if n represents\nnumber of moles of N2 in solution,\nx (Nitrogen) = \n mol \n mol\nn+55 5 mol \nn\n = 55"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "815-818", "Text": "29 \u00d7 10\u20135\nAs 1 litre of water contains 55 5 mol of it, therefore if n represents\nnumber of moles of N2 in solution,\nx (Nitrogen) = \n mol \n mol\nn+55 5 mol \nn\n = 55 5\nn \n = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "816-819", "Text": "5 mol of it, therefore if n represents\nnumber of moles of N2 in solution,\nx (Nitrogen) = \n mol \n mol\nn+55 5 mol \nn\n = 55 5\nn \n = 1 29 \u00d7 10\u20135\n(n in denominator is neglected as it is < < 55"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "817-820", "Text": "5 mol \nn\n = 55 5\nn \n = 1 29 \u00d7 10\u20135\n(n in denominator is neglected as it is < < 55 5)\nThus n = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "818-821", "Text": "5\nn \n = 1 29 \u00d7 10\u20135\n(n in denominator is neglected as it is < < 55 5)\nThus n = 1 29 \u00d7 10\u20135 \u00d7 55"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "819-822", "Text": "29 \u00d7 10\u20135\n(n in denominator is neglected as it is < < 55 5)\nThus n = 1 29 \u00d7 10\u20135 \u00d7 55 5 mol = 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "820-823", "Text": "5)\nThus n = 1 29 \u00d7 10\u20135 \u00d7 55 5 mol = 7 16 \u00d7 10\u20134 mol\n= \n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "821-824", "Text": "29 \u00d7 10\u20135 \u00d7 55 5 mol = 7 16 \u00d7 10\u20134 mol\n= \n7 16\u00d710\uf02d4\n mol \u00d7 1000 mmol\n1 mol\n = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "822-825", "Text": "5 mol = 7 16 \u00d7 10\u20134 mol\n= \n7 16\u00d710\uf02d4\n mol \u00d7 1000 mmol\n1 mol\n = 0 716 mmol\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "823-826", "Text": "16 \u00d7 10\u20134 mol\n= \n7 16\u00d710\uf02d4\n mol \u00d7 1000 mmol\n1 mol\n = 0 716 mmol\nExample 1 4\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "824-827", "Text": "16\u00d710\uf02d4\n mol \u00d7 1000 mmol\n1 mol\n = 0 716 mmol\nExample 1 4\nExample 1 4\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "825-828", "Text": "716 mmol\nExample 1 4\nExample 1 4\nExample 1 4\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "826-829", "Text": "4\nExample 1 4\nExample 1 4\nExample 1 4\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "827-830", "Text": "4\nExample 1 4\nExample 1 4\nExample 1 4\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nGas\nTemperature/K\nKH /kbar\nGas\nTemperature/K\nKH/kbar\nHe\n293\n144"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "828-831", "Text": "4\nExample 1 4\nExample 1 4\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nGas\nTemperature/K\nKH /kbar\nGas\nTemperature/K\nKH/kbar\nHe\n293\n144 97\nH2\n293\n69"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "829-832", "Text": "4\nExample 1 4\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nGas\nTemperature/K\nKH /kbar\nGas\nTemperature/K\nKH/kbar\nHe\n293\n144 97\nH2\n293\n69 16\nN2\n293\n76"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "830-833", "Text": "4\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nGas\nTemperature/K\nKH /kbar\nGas\nTemperature/K\nKH/kbar\nHe\n293\n144 97\nH2\n293\n69 16\nN2\n293\n76 48\nN2\n303\n88"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "831-834", "Text": "97\nH2\n293\n69 16\nN2\n293\n76 48\nN2\n303\n88 84\nO2\n293\n34"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "832-835", "Text": "16\nN2\n293\n76 48\nN2\n303\n88 84\nO2\n293\n34 86\nO2\n303\n46"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "833-836", "Text": "48\nN2\n303\n88 84\nO2\n293\n34 86\nO2\n303\n46 82\nTable 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "834-837", "Text": "84\nO2\n293\n34 86\nO2\n303\n46 82\nTable 1 2: Values of Henry's Law Constant for Some Selected Gases in Water\nArgon\n298\n40"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "835-838", "Text": "86\nO2\n303\n46 82\nTable 1 2: Values of Henry's Law Constant for Some Selected Gases in Water\nArgon\n298\n40 3\nCO2\n298\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "836-839", "Text": "82\nTable 1 2: Values of Henry's Law Constant for Some Selected Gases in Water\nArgon\n298\n40 3\nCO2\n298\n1 67\nFormaldehyde\n298\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "837-840", "Text": "2: Values of Henry's Law Constant for Some Selected Gases in Water\nArgon\n298\n40 3\nCO2\n298\n1 67\nFormaldehyde\n298\n1 83\u00d710-5\nMethane\n298\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "838-841", "Text": "3\nCO2\n298\n1 67\nFormaldehyde\n298\n1 83\u00d710-5\nMethane\n298\n0 413\nVinyl chloride\n298\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "839-842", "Text": "67\nFormaldehyde\n298\n1 83\u00d710-5\nMethane\n298\n0 413\nVinyl chloride\n298\n0 611\nRationalised 2023-24\n9\nSolutions\nTo avoid bends, as well as, the toxic effects of high concentrations\nof nitrogen in the blood, the tanks used by scuba divers are filled\nwith air diluted with helium (11"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "840-843", "Text": "83\u00d710-5\nMethane\n298\n0 413\nVinyl chloride\n298\n0 611\nRationalised 2023-24\n9\nSolutions\nTo avoid bends, as well as, the toxic effects of high concentrations\nof nitrogen in the blood, the tanks used by scuba divers are filled\nwith air diluted with helium (11 7% helium, 56"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "841-844", "Text": "413\nVinyl chloride\n298\n0 611\nRationalised 2023-24\n9\nSolutions\nTo avoid bends, as well as, the toxic effects of high concentrations\nof nitrogen in the blood, the tanks used by scuba divers are filled\nwith air diluted with helium (11 7% helium, 56 2% nitrogen and\n32"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "842-845", "Text": "611\nRationalised 2023-24\n9\nSolutions\nTo avoid bends, as well as, the toxic effects of high concentrations\nof nitrogen in the blood, the tanks used by scuba divers are filled\nwith air diluted with helium (11 7% helium, 56 2% nitrogen and\n32 1% oxygen)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "843-846", "Text": "7% helium, 56 2% nitrogen and\n32 1% oxygen) \u00b7 At high altitudes the partial pressure of oxygen is less than that at\nthe ground level"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "844-847", "Text": "2% nitrogen and\n32 1% oxygen) \u00b7 At high altitudes the partial pressure of oxygen is less than that at\nthe ground level This leads to low concentrations of oxygen in the\nblood and tissues of people living at high altitudes or climbers"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "845-848", "Text": "1% oxygen) \u00b7 At high altitudes the partial pressure of oxygen is less than that at\nthe ground level This leads to low concentrations of oxygen in the\nblood and tissues of people living at high altitudes or climbers Low\nblood oxygen causes climbers to become weak and unable to think\nclearly, symptoms of a condition known as anoxia"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "846-849", "Text": "\u00b7 At high altitudes the partial pressure of oxygen is less than that at\nthe ground level This leads to low concentrations of oxygen in the\nblood and tissues of people living at high altitudes or climbers Low\nblood oxygen causes climbers to become weak and unable to think\nclearly, symptoms of a condition known as anoxia Effect of Temperature\nSolubility of gases in liquids decreases with rise in temperature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "847-850", "Text": "This leads to low concentrations of oxygen in the\nblood and tissues of people living at high altitudes or climbers Low\nblood oxygen causes climbers to become weak and unable to think\nclearly, symptoms of a condition known as anoxia Effect of Temperature\nSolubility of gases in liquids decreases with rise in temperature When\ndissolved, the gas molecules are present in liquid phase and the process\nof dissolution can be considered similar to condensation and heat\nis evolved in this process"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "848-851", "Text": "Low\nblood oxygen causes climbers to become weak and unable to think\nclearly, symptoms of a condition known as anoxia Effect of Temperature\nSolubility of gases in liquids decreases with rise in temperature When\ndissolved, the gas molecules are present in liquid phase and the process\nof dissolution can be considered similar to condensation and heat\nis evolved in this process We have learnt in the last Section that\ndissolution process involves dynamic equilibrium and thus must\nfollow Le Chatelier\u2019s Principle"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "849-852", "Text": "Effect of Temperature\nSolubility of gases in liquids decreases with rise in temperature When\ndissolved, the gas molecules are present in liquid phase and the process\nof dissolution can be considered similar to condensation and heat\nis evolved in this process We have learnt in the last Section that\ndissolution process involves dynamic equilibrium and thus must\nfollow Le Chatelier\u2019s Principle As dissolution is an exothermic\nprocess, the solubility should decrease with increase of\ntemperature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "850-853", "Text": "When\ndissolved, the gas molecules are present in liquid phase and the process\nof dissolution can be considered similar to condensation and heat\nis evolved in this process We have learnt in the last Section that\ndissolution process involves dynamic equilibrium and thus must\nfollow Le Chatelier\u2019s Principle As dissolution is an exothermic\nprocess, the solubility should decrease with increase of\ntemperature Liquid solutions are formed when solvent is a liquid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "851-854", "Text": "We have learnt in the last Section that\ndissolution process involves dynamic equilibrium and thus must\nfollow Le Chatelier\u2019s Principle As dissolution is an exothermic\nprocess, the solubility should decrease with increase of\ntemperature Liquid solutions are formed when solvent is a liquid The solute can be\na gas, a liquid or a solid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "852-855", "Text": "As dissolution is an exothermic\nprocess, the solubility should decrease with increase of\ntemperature Liquid solutions are formed when solvent is a liquid The solute can be\na gas, a liquid or a solid Solutions of gases in liquids have already\nbeen discussed in Section 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "853-856", "Text": "Liquid solutions are formed when solvent is a liquid The solute can be\na gas, a liquid or a solid Solutions of gases in liquids have already\nbeen discussed in Section 1 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "854-857", "Text": "The solute can be\na gas, a liquid or a solid Solutions of gases in liquids have already\nbeen discussed in Section 1 3 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "855-858", "Text": "Solutions of gases in liquids have already\nbeen discussed in Section 1 3 2 In this Section, we shall discuss the\nsolutions of liquids and solids in a liquid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "856-859", "Text": "3 2 In this Section, we shall discuss the\nsolutions of liquids and solids in a liquid Such solutions may contain\none or more volatile components"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "857-860", "Text": "2 In this Section, we shall discuss the\nsolutions of liquids and solids in a liquid Such solutions may contain\none or more volatile components Generally, the liquid solvent is volatile"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "858-861", "Text": "In this Section, we shall discuss the\nsolutions of liquids and solids in a liquid Such solutions may contain\none or more volatile components Generally, the liquid solvent is volatile The solute may or may not be volatile"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "859-862", "Text": "Such solutions may contain\none or more volatile components Generally, the liquid solvent is volatile The solute may or may not be volatile We shall discuss the properties\nof only binary solutions, that is, the solutions containing two\ncomponents, namely, the solutions of (i) liquids in liquids and (ii) solids\nin liquids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "860-863", "Text": "Generally, the liquid solvent is volatile The solute may or may not be volatile We shall discuss the properties\nof only binary solutions, that is, the solutions containing two\ncomponents, namely, the solutions of (i) liquids in liquids and (ii) solids\nin liquids Let us consider a binary solution of two volatile liquids and denote the\ntwo components as 1 and 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "861-864", "Text": "The solute may or may not be volatile We shall discuss the properties\nof only binary solutions, that is, the solutions containing two\ncomponents, namely, the solutions of (i) liquids in liquids and (ii) solids\nin liquids Let us consider a binary solution of two volatile liquids and denote the\ntwo components as 1 and 2 When taken in a closed vessel, both the\ncomponents would evaporate and eventually an equilibrium would be\nestablished between vapour phase and the liquid phase"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "862-865", "Text": "We shall discuss the properties\nof only binary solutions, that is, the solutions containing two\ncomponents, namely, the solutions of (i) liquids in liquids and (ii) solids\nin liquids Let us consider a binary solution of two volatile liquids and denote the\ntwo components as 1 and 2 When taken in a closed vessel, both the\ncomponents would evaporate and eventually an equilibrium would be\nestablished between vapour phase and the liquid phase Let the total\nvapour pressure at this stage be ptotal and p1 and p2 be the partial\nvapour pressures of the two components 1 and 2 respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "863-866", "Text": "Let us consider a binary solution of two volatile liquids and denote the\ntwo components as 1 and 2 When taken in a closed vessel, both the\ncomponents would evaporate and eventually an equilibrium would be\nestablished between vapour phase and the liquid phase Let the total\nvapour pressure at this stage be ptotal and p1 and p2 be the partial\nvapour pressures of the two components 1 and 2 respectively These\npartial pressures are related to the mole fractions x1 and x2 of the two\ncomponents 1 and 2 respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "864-867", "Text": "When taken in a closed vessel, both the\ncomponents would evaporate and eventually an equilibrium would be\nestablished between vapour phase and the liquid phase Let the total\nvapour pressure at this stage be ptotal and p1 and p2 be the partial\nvapour pressures of the two components 1 and 2 respectively These\npartial pressures are related to the mole fractions x1 and x2 of the two\ncomponents 1 and 2 respectively The French chemist, Francois Marte Raoult (1886) gave the\nquantitative relationship between them"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "865-868", "Text": "Let the total\nvapour pressure at this stage be ptotal and p1 and p2 be the partial\nvapour pressures of the two components 1 and 2 respectively These\npartial pressures are related to the mole fractions x1 and x2 of the two\ncomponents 1 and 2 respectively The French chemist, Francois Marte Raoult (1886) gave the\nquantitative relationship between them The relationship is known as\nthe Raoult\u2019s law which states that for a solution of volatile liquids,\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "866-869", "Text": "These\npartial pressures are related to the mole fractions x1 and x2 of the two\ncomponents 1 and 2 respectively The French chemist, Francois Marte Raoult (1886) gave the\nquantitative relationship between them The relationship is known as\nthe Raoult\u2019s law which states that for a solution of volatile liquids,\n1 4\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "867-870", "Text": "The French chemist, Francois Marte Raoult (1886) gave the\nquantitative relationship between them The relationship is known as\nthe Raoult\u2019s law which states that for a solution of volatile liquids,\n1 4\n1 4\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "868-871", "Text": "The relationship is known as\nthe Raoult\u2019s law which states that for a solution of volatile liquids,\n1 4\n1 4\n1 4\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "869-872", "Text": "4\n1 4\n1 4\n1 4\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "870-873", "Text": "4\n1 4\n1 4\n1 4 Vapour\nVapour\nVapour\nVapour\nVapour\nPressure of\nPressure of\nPressure of\nPressure of\nPressure of\nLiquid\nLiquid\nLiquid\nLiquid\nLiquid\nSolutions\nSolutions\nSolutions\nSolutions\nSolutions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "871-874", "Text": "4\n1 4\n1 4 Vapour\nVapour\nVapour\nVapour\nVapour\nPressure of\nPressure of\nPressure of\nPressure of\nPressure of\nLiquid\nLiquid\nLiquid\nLiquid\nLiquid\nSolutions\nSolutions\nSolutions\nSolutions\nSolutions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n1 6 H2S, a toxic gas with rotten egg like smell, is used for the qualitative analysis"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "872-875", "Text": "4\n1 4 Vapour\nVapour\nVapour\nVapour\nVapour\nPressure of\nPressure of\nPressure of\nPressure of\nPressure of\nLiquid\nLiquid\nLiquid\nLiquid\nLiquid\nSolutions\nSolutions\nSolutions\nSolutions\nSolutions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n1 6 H2S, a toxic gas with rotten egg like smell, is used for the qualitative analysis If\nthe solubility of H2S in water at STP is 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "873-876", "Text": "4 Vapour\nVapour\nVapour\nVapour\nVapour\nPressure of\nPressure of\nPressure of\nPressure of\nPressure of\nLiquid\nLiquid\nLiquid\nLiquid\nLiquid\nSolutions\nSolutions\nSolutions\nSolutions\nSolutions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n1 6 H2S, a toxic gas with rotten egg like smell, is used for the qualitative analysis If\nthe solubility of H2S in water at STP is 0 195 m, calculate Henry\u2019s law constant"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "874-877", "Text": "6 H2S, a toxic gas with rotten egg like smell, is used for the qualitative analysis If\nthe solubility of H2S in water at STP is 0 195 m, calculate Henry\u2019s law constant 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "875-878", "Text": "If\nthe solubility of H2S in water at STP is 0 195 m, calculate Henry\u2019s law constant 1 7 Henry\u2019s law constant for CO2 in water is 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "876-879", "Text": "195 m, calculate Henry\u2019s law constant 1 7 Henry\u2019s law constant for CO2 in water is 1 67\u00d7108 Pa at 298 K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "877-880", "Text": "1 7 Henry\u2019s law constant for CO2 in water is 1 67\u00d7108 Pa at 298 K Calculate\nthe quantity of CO2 in 500 mL of soda water when packed under 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "878-881", "Text": "7 Henry\u2019s law constant for CO2 in water is 1 67\u00d7108 Pa at 298 K Calculate\nthe quantity of CO2 in 500 mL of soda water when packed under 2 5 atm\nCO2 pressure at 298 K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "879-882", "Text": "67\u00d7108 Pa at 298 K Calculate\nthe quantity of CO2 in 500 mL of soda water when packed under 2 5 atm\nCO2 pressure at 298 K 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "880-883", "Text": "Calculate\nthe quantity of CO2 in 500 mL of soda water when packed under 2 5 atm\nCO2 pressure at 298 K 1 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "881-884", "Text": "5 atm\nCO2 pressure at 298 K 1 4 1 Vapour\nPressure of\nLiquid-\nLiquid\nSolutions\nRationalised 2023-24\n10\nChemistry\nthe partial vapour pressure of each component of the solution\nis directly proportional to its mole fraction present in solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "882-885", "Text": "1 4 1 Vapour\nPressure of\nLiquid-\nLiquid\nSolutions\nRationalised 2023-24\n10\nChemistry\nthe partial vapour pressure of each component of the solution\nis directly proportional to its mole fraction present in solution Thus, for component 1\np1 \u00b5 x1\nand p1 = \n10\np x1\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "883-886", "Text": "4 1 Vapour\nPressure of\nLiquid-\nLiquid\nSolutions\nRationalised 2023-24\n10\nChemistry\nthe partial vapour pressure of each component of the solution\nis directly proportional to its mole fraction present in solution Thus, for component 1\np1 \u00b5 x1\nand p1 = \n10\np x1\n(1 12)\nwhere \n10\np is the vapour pressure of pure component 1 at the same\ntemperature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "884-887", "Text": "1 Vapour\nPressure of\nLiquid-\nLiquid\nSolutions\nRationalised 2023-24\n10\nChemistry\nthe partial vapour pressure of each component of the solution\nis directly proportional to its mole fraction present in solution Thus, for component 1\np1 \u00b5 x1\nand p1 = \n10\np x1\n(1 12)\nwhere \n10\np is the vapour pressure of pure component 1 at the same\ntemperature Similarly, for component 2\np2 = p2\n0 x2\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "885-888", "Text": "Thus, for component 1\np1 \u00b5 x1\nand p1 = \n10\np x1\n(1 12)\nwhere \n10\np is the vapour pressure of pure component 1 at the same\ntemperature Similarly, for component 2\np2 = p2\n0 x2\n(1 13)\nwhere p2\n0 represents the vapour pressure of the pure component 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "886-889", "Text": "12)\nwhere \n10\np is the vapour pressure of pure component 1 at the same\ntemperature Similarly, for component 2\np2 = p2\n0 x2\n(1 13)\nwhere p2\n0 represents the vapour pressure of the pure component 2 According to Dalton\u2019s law of partial pressures, the total pressure\n(\nptotal\n) over the solution phase in the container will be the sum of the\n partial pressures of the components of the solution and is given as:\nptotal = p1 + p2\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "887-890", "Text": "Similarly, for component 2\np2 = p2\n0 x2\n(1 13)\nwhere p2\n0 represents the vapour pressure of the pure component 2 According to Dalton\u2019s law of partial pressures, the total pressure\n(\nptotal\n) over the solution phase in the container will be the sum of the\n partial pressures of the components of the solution and is given as:\nptotal = p1 + p2\n(1 14)\nSubstituting the values of p1 and p2, we get\nptotal = x1 p1\n0 + x2 p2\n0\n= (1 \u2013 x2) p1\n0 + x2 p2\n0\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "888-891", "Text": "13)\nwhere p2\n0 represents the vapour pressure of the pure component 2 According to Dalton\u2019s law of partial pressures, the total pressure\n(\nptotal\n) over the solution phase in the container will be the sum of the\n partial pressures of the components of the solution and is given as:\nptotal = p1 + p2\n(1 14)\nSubstituting the values of p1 and p2, we get\nptotal = x1 p1\n0 + x2 p2\n0\n= (1 \u2013 x2) p1\n0 + x2 p2\n0\n(1 15)\n= p1\n0 + (p2\n0 \u2013 p1\n0) x2\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "889-892", "Text": "According to Dalton\u2019s law of partial pressures, the total pressure\n(\nptotal\n) over the solution phase in the container will be the sum of the\n partial pressures of the components of the solution and is given as:\nptotal = p1 + p2\n(1 14)\nSubstituting the values of p1 and p2, we get\nptotal = x1 p1\n0 + x2 p2\n0\n= (1 \u2013 x2) p1\n0 + x2 p2\n0\n(1 15)\n= p1\n0 + (p2\n0 \u2013 p1\n0) x2\n(1 16)\nFollowing conclusions can be drawn from equation (1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "890-893", "Text": "14)\nSubstituting the values of p1 and p2, we get\nptotal = x1 p1\n0 + x2 p2\n0\n= (1 \u2013 x2) p1\n0 + x2 p2\n0\n(1 15)\n= p1\n0 + (p2\n0 \u2013 p1\n0) x2\n(1 16)\nFollowing conclusions can be drawn from equation (1 16)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "891-894", "Text": "15)\n= p1\n0 + (p2\n0 \u2013 p1\n0) x2\n(1 16)\nFollowing conclusions can be drawn from equation (1 16) (i) Total vapour pressure over the solution can be related to the mole\nfraction of any one component"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "892-895", "Text": "16)\nFollowing conclusions can be drawn from equation (1 16) (i) Total vapour pressure over the solution can be related to the mole\nfraction of any one component (ii) Total vapour pressure over the solution varies linearly with the\nmole fraction of component 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "893-896", "Text": "16) (i) Total vapour pressure over the solution can be related to the mole\nfraction of any one component (ii) Total vapour pressure over the solution varies linearly with the\nmole fraction of component 2 (iii) Depending on the vapour pressures\nof the pure components 1 and 2,\ntotal vapour pressure over the\nsolution decreases or increases with\nthe increase of the mole fraction of\ncomponent 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "894-897", "Text": "(i) Total vapour pressure over the solution can be related to the mole\nfraction of any one component (ii) Total vapour pressure over the solution varies linearly with the\nmole fraction of component 2 (iii) Depending on the vapour pressures\nof the pure components 1 and 2,\ntotal vapour pressure over the\nsolution decreases or increases with\nthe increase of the mole fraction of\ncomponent 1 A plot of p1 or p2 versus the mole\nfractions x1 and x2 for a solution gives a\nlinear plot as shown in Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "895-898", "Text": "(ii) Total vapour pressure over the solution varies linearly with the\nmole fraction of component 2 (iii) Depending on the vapour pressures\nof the pure components 1 and 2,\ntotal vapour pressure over the\nsolution decreases or increases with\nthe increase of the mole fraction of\ncomponent 1 A plot of p1 or p2 versus the mole\nfractions x1 and x2 for a solution gives a\nlinear plot as shown in Fig 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "896-899", "Text": "(iii) Depending on the vapour pressures\nof the pure components 1 and 2,\ntotal vapour pressure over the\nsolution decreases or increases with\nthe increase of the mole fraction of\ncomponent 1 A plot of p1 or p2 versus the mole\nfractions x1 and x2 for a solution gives a\nlinear plot as shown in Fig 1 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "897-900", "Text": "A plot of p1 or p2 versus the mole\nfractions x1 and x2 for a solution gives a\nlinear plot as shown in Fig 1 3 These\nlines (I and II) pass through the points for\nwhich x1 and x2 are equal to unity"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "898-901", "Text": "1 3 These\nlines (I and II) pass through the points for\nwhich x1 and x2 are equal to unity Similarly the plot (line III) of ptotal versus\nx2 is also linear (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "899-902", "Text": "3 These\nlines (I and II) pass through the points for\nwhich x1 and x2 are equal to unity Similarly the plot (line III) of ptotal versus\nx2 is also linear (Fig 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "900-903", "Text": "These\nlines (I and II) pass through the points for\nwhich x1 and x2 are equal to unity Similarly the plot (line III) of ptotal versus\nx2 is also linear (Fig 1 3)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "901-904", "Text": "Similarly the plot (line III) of ptotal versus\nx2 is also linear (Fig 1 3) The minimum\nvalue of ptotal is p1\n0\n and the maximum value\nis p2\n0, assuming that component 1 is less\nvolatile than component 2, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "902-905", "Text": "1 3) The minimum\nvalue of ptotal is p1\n0\n and the maximum value\nis p2\n0, assuming that component 1 is less\nvolatile than component 2, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "903-906", "Text": "3) The minimum\nvalue of ptotal is p1\n0\n and the maximum value\nis p2\n0, assuming that component 1 is less\nvolatile than component 2, i e , p1\n0 < p2\nThe composition of vapour phase in0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "904-907", "Text": "The minimum\nvalue of ptotal is p1\n0\n and the maximum value\nis p2\n0, assuming that component 1 is less\nvolatile than component 2, i e , p1\n0 < p2\nThe composition of vapour phase in0 equilibrium with the solution is determined\nby the partial pressures of the components"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "905-908", "Text": "e , p1\n0 < p2\nThe composition of vapour phase in0 equilibrium with the solution is determined\nby the partial pressures of the components If y1 and y2 are the mole fractions of the\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "906-909", "Text": ", p1\n0 < p2\nThe composition of vapour phase in0 equilibrium with the solution is determined\nby the partial pressures of the components If y1 and y2 are the mole fractions of the\nFig 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "907-910", "Text": "equilibrium with the solution is determined\nby the partial pressures of the components If y1 and y2 are the mole fractions of the\nFig 1 3: The plot of vapour pressure and mole\nfraction of an ideal solution at constant\ntemperature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "908-911", "Text": "If y1 and y2 are the mole fractions of the\nFig 1 3: The plot of vapour pressure and mole\nfraction of an ideal solution at constant\ntemperature The dashed lines I and II\nrepresent the partial pressure of the\ncomponents"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "909-912", "Text": "1 3: The plot of vapour pressure and mole\nfraction of an ideal solution at constant\ntemperature The dashed lines I and II\nrepresent the partial pressure of the\ncomponents (It can be seen from the plot\nthat p1 and p2 are directly proportional to x1\nand x2, respectively)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "910-913", "Text": "3: The plot of vapour pressure and mole\nfraction of an ideal solution at constant\ntemperature The dashed lines I and II\nrepresent the partial pressure of the\ncomponents (It can be seen from the plot\nthat p1 and p2 are directly proportional to x1\nand x2, respectively) The total vapour\npressure is given by line marked III in the\nfigure"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "911-914", "Text": "The dashed lines I and II\nrepresent the partial pressure of the\ncomponents (It can be seen from the plot\nthat p1 and p2 are directly proportional to x1\nand x2, respectively) The total vapour\npressure is given by line marked III in the\nfigure Rationalised 2023-24\n11\nSolutions\ncomponents 1 and 2 respectively in the vapour phase then, using Dalton\u2019s\nlaw of partial pressures:\np1 = y1 ptotal\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "912-915", "Text": "(It can be seen from the plot\nthat p1 and p2 are directly proportional to x1\nand x2, respectively) The total vapour\npressure is given by line marked III in the\nfigure Rationalised 2023-24\n11\nSolutions\ncomponents 1 and 2 respectively in the vapour phase then, using Dalton\u2019s\nlaw of partial pressures:\np1 = y1 ptotal\n(1 17)\np2 = y2 ptotal\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "913-916", "Text": "The total vapour\npressure is given by line marked III in the\nfigure Rationalised 2023-24\n11\nSolutions\ncomponents 1 and 2 respectively in the vapour phase then, using Dalton\u2019s\nlaw of partial pressures:\np1 = y1 ptotal\n(1 17)\np2 = y2 ptotal\n(1 18)\nIn general\npi = yi ptotal\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "914-917", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n11\nSolutions\ncomponents 1 and 2 respectively in the vapour phase then, using Dalton\u2019s\nlaw of partial pressures:\np1 = y1 ptotal\n(1 17)\np2 = y2 ptotal\n(1 18)\nIn general\npi = yi ptotal\n(1 19)\nVapour pressure of chloroform (CHCl3) and dichloromethane (CH2Cl2)\nat 298 K are 200 mm Hg and 415 mm Hg respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "915-918", "Text": "17)\np2 = y2 ptotal\n(1 18)\nIn general\npi = yi ptotal\n(1 19)\nVapour pressure of chloroform (CHCl3) and dichloromethane (CH2Cl2)\nat 298 K are 200 mm Hg and 415 mm Hg respectively (i) Calculate\nthe vapour pressure of the solution prepared by mixing 25"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "916-919", "Text": "18)\nIn general\npi = yi ptotal\n(1 19)\nVapour pressure of chloroform (CHCl3) and dichloromethane (CH2Cl2)\nat 298 K are 200 mm Hg and 415 mm Hg respectively (i) Calculate\nthe vapour pressure of the solution prepared by mixing 25 5 g of\nCHCl3 and 40 g of CH2Cl2 at 298 K and, (ii) mole fractions of each\ncomponent in vapour phase"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "917-920", "Text": "19)\nVapour pressure of chloroform (CHCl3) and dichloromethane (CH2Cl2)\nat 298 K are 200 mm Hg and 415 mm Hg respectively (i) Calculate\nthe vapour pressure of the solution prepared by mixing 25 5 g of\nCHCl3 and 40 g of CH2Cl2 at 298 K and, (ii) mole fractions of each\ncomponent in vapour phase (i) Molar mass of CH2Cl2 = 12 \u00d7 1 + 1 \u00d7 2 + 35"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "918-921", "Text": "(i) Calculate\nthe vapour pressure of the solution prepared by mixing 25 5 g of\nCHCl3 and 40 g of CH2Cl2 at 298 K and, (ii) mole fractions of each\ncomponent in vapour phase (i) Molar mass of CH2Cl2 = 12 \u00d7 1 + 1 \u00d7 2 + 35 5 \u00d7 2 = 85 g mol\u20131\nMolar mass of CHCl3\n= 12 \u00d7 1 + 1 \u00d7 1 + 35"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "919-922", "Text": "5 g of\nCHCl3 and 40 g of CH2Cl2 at 298 K and, (ii) mole fractions of each\ncomponent in vapour phase (i) Molar mass of CH2Cl2 = 12 \u00d7 1 + 1 \u00d7 2 + 35 5 \u00d7 2 = 85 g mol\u20131\nMolar mass of CHCl3\n= 12 \u00d7 1 + 1 \u00d7 1 + 35 5 \u00d7 3 = 119"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "920-923", "Text": "(i) Molar mass of CH2Cl2 = 12 \u00d7 1 + 1 \u00d7 2 + 35 5 \u00d7 2 = 85 g mol\u20131\nMolar mass of CHCl3\n= 12 \u00d7 1 + 1 \u00d7 1 + 35 5 \u00d7 3 = 119 5 g mol-1\nMoles of CH2Cl2\n= \n1\n40 g\n85 g mol\uf02d = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "921-924", "Text": "5 \u00d7 2 = 85 g mol\u20131\nMolar mass of CHCl3\n= 12 \u00d7 1 + 1 \u00d7 1 + 35 5 \u00d7 3 = 119 5 g mol-1\nMoles of CH2Cl2\n= \n1\n40 g\n85 g mol\uf02d = 0 47 mol\nMoles of CHCl3\n= \n1\n25"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "922-925", "Text": "5 \u00d7 3 = 119 5 g mol-1\nMoles of CH2Cl2\n= \n1\n40 g\n85 g mol\uf02d = 0 47 mol\nMoles of CHCl3\n= \n1\n25 5 g\n119"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "923-926", "Text": "5 g mol-1\nMoles of CH2Cl2\n= \n1\n40 g\n85 g mol\uf02d = 0 47 mol\nMoles of CHCl3\n= \n1\n25 5 g\n119 5 g mol\uf02d = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "924-927", "Text": "47 mol\nMoles of CHCl3\n= \n1\n25 5 g\n119 5 g mol\uf02d = 0 213 mol\nTotal number of moles = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "925-928", "Text": "5 g\n119 5 g mol\uf02d = 0 213 mol\nTotal number of moles = 0 47 + 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "926-929", "Text": "5 g mol\uf02d = 0 213 mol\nTotal number of moles = 0 47 + 0 213 = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "927-930", "Text": "213 mol\nTotal number of moles = 0 47 + 0 213 = 0 683 mol\n2\nxCH Cl2\n = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "928-931", "Text": "47 + 0 213 = 0 683 mol\n2\nxCH Cl2\n = 0 47 mol\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "929-932", "Text": "213 = 0 683 mol\n2\nxCH Cl2\n = 0 47 mol\n0 683 mol\n= 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "930-933", "Text": "683 mol\n2\nxCH Cl2\n = 0 47 mol\n0 683 mol\n= 0 688\nxCHCl3\n = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "931-934", "Text": "47 mol\n0 683 mol\n= 0 688\nxCHCl3\n = 1 00 \u2013 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "932-935", "Text": "683 mol\n= 0 688\nxCHCl3\n = 1 00 \u2013 0 688 = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "933-936", "Text": "688\nxCHCl3\n = 1 00 \u2013 0 688 = 0 312\nUsing equation (2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "934-937", "Text": "00 \u2013 0 688 = 0 312\nUsing equation (2 16),\nptotal\n= p1\n0 + (p2\n0 \u2013 p1\n0) x2 = 200 + (415 \u2013 200) \u00d7 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "935-938", "Text": "688 = 0 312\nUsing equation (2 16),\nptotal\n= p1\n0 + (p2\n0 \u2013 p1\n0) x2 = 200 + (415 \u2013 200) \u00d7 0 688\n= 200 + 147"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "936-939", "Text": "312\nUsing equation (2 16),\nptotal\n= p1\n0 + (p2\n0 \u2013 p1\n0) x2 = 200 + (415 \u2013 200) \u00d7 0 688\n= 200 + 147 9 = 347"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "937-940", "Text": "16),\nptotal\n= p1\n0 + (p2\n0 \u2013 p1\n0) x2 = 200 + (415 \u2013 200) \u00d7 0 688\n= 200 + 147 9 = 347 9 mm Hg\n(ii) Using the relation (2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "938-941", "Text": "688\n= 200 + 147 9 = 347 9 mm Hg\n(ii) Using the relation (2 19), yi = pi/ptotal, we can calculate the mole\nfraction of the components in gas phase (yi)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "939-942", "Text": "9 = 347 9 mm Hg\n(ii) Using the relation (2 19), yi = pi/ptotal, we can calculate the mole\nfraction of the components in gas phase (yi) 2\npCH Cl2\n= 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "940-943", "Text": "9 mm Hg\n(ii) Using the relation (2 19), yi = pi/ptotal, we can calculate the mole\nfraction of the components in gas phase (yi) 2\npCH Cl2\n= 0 688 \u00d7 415 mm Hg = 285"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "941-944", "Text": "19), yi = pi/ptotal, we can calculate the mole\nfraction of the components in gas phase (yi) 2\npCH Cl2\n= 0 688 \u00d7 415 mm Hg = 285 5 mm Hg\npCHCl3\n= 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "942-945", "Text": "2\npCH Cl2\n= 0 688 \u00d7 415 mm Hg = 285 5 mm Hg\npCHCl3\n= 0 312 \u00d7 200 mm Hg = 62"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "943-946", "Text": "688 \u00d7 415 mm Hg = 285 5 mm Hg\npCHCl3\n= 0 312 \u00d7 200 mm Hg = 62 4 mm Hg\n2\nyCH Cl2\n= 285"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "944-947", "Text": "5 mm Hg\npCHCl3\n= 0 312 \u00d7 200 mm Hg = 62 4 mm Hg\n2\nyCH Cl2\n= 285 5 mm Hg/347"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "945-948", "Text": "312 \u00d7 200 mm Hg = 62 4 mm Hg\n2\nyCH Cl2\n= 285 5 mm Hg/347 9 mm Hg = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "946-949", "Text": "4 mm Hg\n2\nyCH Cl2\n= 285 5 mm Hg/347 9 mm Hg = 0 82\nyCHCl3\n= 62"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "947-950", "Text": "5 mm Hg/347 9 mm Hg = 0 82\nyCHCl3\n= 62 4 mm Hg/347"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "948-951", "Text": "9 mm Hg = 0 82\nyCHCl3\n= 62 4 mm Hg/347 9 mm Hg = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "949-952", "Text": "82\nyCHCl3\n= 62 4 mm Hg/347 9 mm Hg = 0 18\nNote: Since, CH2Cl2 is a more volatile component than CHCl3, [\n2\np0CH Cl2\n=\n415 mm Hg and \np0CHCl3\n= 200 mm Hg] and the vapour phase is also richer\nin CH2Cl2 [\n2\nyCH Cl2\n= 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "950-953", "Text": "4 mm Hg/347 9 mm Hg = 0 18\nNote: Since, CH2Cl2 is a more volatile component than CHCl3, [\n2\np0CH Cl2\n=\n415 mm Hg and \np0CHCl3\n= 200 mm Hg] and the vapour phase is also richer\nin CH2Cl2 [\n2\nyCH Cl2\n= 0 82 and \nyCHCl3\n= 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "951-954", "Text": "9 mm Hg = 0 18\nNote: Since, CH2Cl2 is a more volatile component than CHCl3, [\n2\np0CH Cl2\n=\n415 mm Hg and \np0CHCl3\n= 200 mm Hg] and the vapour phase is also richer\nin CH2Cl2 [\n2\nyCH Cl2\n= 0 82 and \nyCHCl3\n= 0 18], it may thus be concluded\nthat at equilibrium, vapour phase will be always rich in the component\nwhich is more volatile"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "952-955", "Text": "18\nNote: Since, CH2Cl2 is a more volatile component than CHCl3, [\n2\np0CH Cl2\n=\n415 mm Hg and \np0CHCl3\n= 200 mm Hg] and the vapour phase is also richer\nin CH2Cl2 [\n2\nyCH Cl2\n= 0 82 and \nyCHCl3\n= 0 18], it may thus be concluded\nthat at equilibrium, vapour phase will be always rich in the component\nwhich is more volatile Example 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "953-956", "Text": "82 and \nyCHCl3\n= 0 18], it may thus be concluded\nthat at equilibrium, vapour phase will be always rich in the component\nwhich is more volatile Example 1 5\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "954-957", "Text": "18], it may thus be concluded\nthat at equilibrium, vapour phase will be always rich in the component\nwhich is more volatile Example 1 5\nExample 1 5\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "955-958", "Text": "Example 1 5\nExample 1 5\nExample 1 5\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "956-959", "Text": "5\nExample 1 5\nExample 1 5\nExample 1 5\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "957-960", "Text": "5\nExample 1 5\nExample 1 5\nExample 1 5\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n12\nChemistry\nAccording to Raoult\u2019s law, the vapour pressure of a volatile component\nin a given solution is given by pi = xi pi\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "958-961", "Text": "5\nExample 1 5\nExample 1 5\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n12\nChemistry\nAccording to Raoult\u2019s law, the vapour pressure of a volatile component\nin a given solution is given by pi = xi pi\n0 In the solution of a gas in a\nliquid, one of the components is so volatile that it exists as a gas and\nwe have already seen that its solubility is given by Henry\u2019s law which\nstates that\np = KH x"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "959-962", "Text": "5\nExample 1 5\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n12\nChemistry\nAccording to Raoult\u2019s law, the vapour pressure of a volatile component\nin a given solution is given by pi = xi pi\n0 In the solution of a gas in a\nliquid, one of the components is so volatile that it exists as a gas and\nwe have already seen that its solubility is given by Henry\u2019s law which\nstates that\np = KH x If we compare the equations for Raoult\u2019s law and Henry\u2019s law, it\ncan be seen that the partial pressure of the volatile component or gas\nis directly proportional to its mole fraction in solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "960-963", "Text": "5\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n12\nChemistry\nAccording to Raoult\u2019s law, the vapour pressure of a volatile component\nin a given solution is given by pi = xi pi\n0 In the solution of a gas in a\nliquid, one of the components is so volatile that it exists as a gas and\nwe have already seen that its solubility is given by Henry\u2019s law which\nstates that\np = KH x If we compare the equations for Raoult\u2019s law and Henry\u2019s law, it\ncan be seen that the partial pressure of the volatile component or gas\nis directly proportional to its mole fraction in solution Only the\nproportionality constant KH differs from p1\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "961-964", "Text": "In the solution of a gas in a\nliquid, one of the components is so volatile that it exists as a gas and\nwe have already seen that its solubility is given by Henry\u2019s law which\nstates that\np = KH x If we compare the equations for Raoult\u2019s law and Henry\u2019s law, it\ncan be seen that the partial pressure of the volatile component or gas\nis directly proportional to its mole fraction in solution Only the\nproportionality constant KH differs from p1\n0 Thus, Raoult\u2019s law becomes\na special case of Henry\u2019s law in which KH becomes equal to p1\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "962-965", "Text": "If we compare the equations for Raoult\u2019s law and Henry\u2019s law, it\ncan be seen that the partial pressure of the volatile component or gas\nis directly proportional to its mole fraction in solution Only the\nproportionality constant KH differs from p1\n0 Thus, Raoult\u2019s law becomes\na special case of Henry\u2019s law in which KH becomes equal to p1\n0 Another important class of solutions consists of solids dissolved in\nliquid, for example, sodium chloride, glucose, urea and cane sugar in\nwater and iodine and sulphur dissolved in carbon disulphide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "963-966", "Text": "Only the\nproportionality constant KH differs from p1\n0 Thus, Raoult\u2019s law becomes\na special case of Henry\u2019s law in which KH becomes equal to p1\n0 Another important class of solutions consists of solids dissolved in\nliquid, for example, sodium chloride, glucose, urea and cane sugar in\nwater and iodine and sulphur dissolved in carbon disulphide Some\nphysical properties of these solutions are quite different from those of\npure solvents"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "964-967", "Text": "Thus, Raoult\u2019s law becomes\na special case of Henry\u2019s law in which KH becomes equal to p1\n0 Another important class of solutions consists of solids dissolved in\nliquid, for example, sodium chloride, glucose, urea and cane sugar in\nwater and iodine and sulphur dissolved in carbon disulphide Some\nphysical properties of these solutions are quite different from those of\npure solvents For example, vapour pressure"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "965-968", "Text": "Another important class of solutions consists of solids dissolved in\nliquid, for example, sodium chloride, glucose, urea and cane sugar in\nwater and iodine and sulphur dissolved in carbon disulphide Some\nphysical properties of these solutions are quite different from those of\npure solvents For example, vapour pressure Liquids at a given\ntemperature \nvapourise \nand \nunder\nequilibrium conditions the pressure exerted\nby the vapours of the liquid over the liquid\nphase is called vapour pressure [Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "966-969", "Text": "Some\nphysical properties of these solutions are quite different from those of\npure solvents For example, vapour pressure Liquids at a given\ntemperature \nvapourise \nand \nunder\nequilibrium conditions the pressure exerted\nby the vapours of the liquid over the liquid\nphase is called vapour pressure [Fig 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "967-970", "Text": "For example, vapour pressure Liquids at a given\ntemperature \nvapourise \nand \nunder\nequilibrium conditions the pressure exerted\nby the vapours of the liquid over the liquid\nphase is called vapour pressure [Fig 1 4 (a)]"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "968-971", "Text": "Liquids at a given\ntemperature \nvapourise \nand \nunder\nequilibrium conditions the pressure exerted\nby the vapours of the liquid over the liquid\nphase is called vapour pressure [Fig 1 4 (a)] In a pure liquid the entire surface is\noccupied by the molecules of the liquid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "969-972", "Text": "1 4 (a)] In a pure liquid the entire surface is\noccupied by the molecules of the liquid If a\nnon-volatile solute is added to a solvent to\ngive a solution [Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "970-973", "Text": "4 (a)] In a pure liquid the entire surface is\noccupied by the molecules of the liquid If a\nnon-volatile solute is added to a solvent to\ngive a solution [Fig 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "971-974", "Text": "In a pure liquid the entire surface is\noccupied by the molecules of the liquid If a\nnon-volatile solute is added to a solvent to\ngive a solution [Fig 1 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "972-975", "Text": "If a\nnon-volatile solute is added to a solvent to\ngive a solution [Fig 1 4 (b)], the vapour\npressure of the solution is solely from the\nsolvent alone"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "973-976", "Text": "1 4 (b)], the vapour\npressure of the solution is solely from the\nsolvent alone This vapour pressure of the\nsolution at a given temperature is found to\nbe lower than the vapour pressure of the\npure solvent at the same temperature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "974-977", "Text": "4 (b)], the vapour\npressure of the solution is solely from the\nsolvent alone This vapour pressure of the\nsolution at a given temperature is found to\nbe lower than the vapour pressure of the\npure solvent at the same temperature In\nthe solution, the surface has both solute and\nsolvent molecules; thereby the fraction of the\nsurface covered by the solvent molecules gets\nreduced"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "975-978", "Text": "(b)], the vapour\npressure of the solution is solely from the\nsolvent alone This vapour pressure of the\nsolution at a given temperature is found to\nbe lower than the vapour pressure of the\npure solvent at the same temperature In\nthe solution, the surface has both solute and\nsolvent molecules; thereby the fraction of the\nsurface covered by the solvent molecules gets\nreduced Consequently, the number of\nsolvent molecules escaping from the surface\nis correspondingly reduced, thus, the vapour\npressure is also reduced"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "976-979", "Text": "This vapour pressure of the\nsolution at a given temperature is found to\nbe lower than the vapour pressure of the\npure solvent at the same temperature In\nthe solution, the surface has both solute and\nsolvent molecules; thereby the fraction of the\nsurface covered by the solvent molecules gets\nreduced Consequently, the number of\nsolvent molecules escaping from the surface\nis correspondingly reduced, thus, the vapour\npressure is also reduced The decrease in the vapour pressure of solvent depends on the\nquantity of non-volatile solute present in the solution, irrespective of\nits nature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "977-980", "Text": "In\nthe solution, the surface has both solute and\nsolvent molecules; thereby the fraction of the\nsurface covered by the solvent molecules gets\nreduced Consequently, the number of\nsolvent molecules escaping from the surface\nis correspondingly reduced, thus, the vapour\npressure is also reduced The decrease in the vapour pressure of solvent depends on the\nquantity of non-volatile solute present in the solution, irrespective of\nits nature For example, decrease in the vapour pressure of water by\nadding 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "978-981", "Text": "Consequently, the number of\nsolvent molecules escaping from the surface\nis correspondingly reduced, thus, the vapour\npressure is also reduced The decrease in the vapour pressure of solvent depends on the\nquantity of non-volatile solute present in the solution, irrespective of\nits nature For example, decrease in the vapour pressure of water by\nadding 1 0 mol of sucrose to one kg of water is nearly similar to that\nproduced by adding 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "979-982", "Text": "The decrease in the vapour pressure of solvent depends on the\nquantity of non-volatile solute present in the solution, irrespective of\nits nature For example, decrease in the vapour pressure of water by\nadding 1 0 mol of sucrose to one kg of water is nearly similar to that\nproduced by adding 1 0 mol of urea to the same quantity of water at\nthe same temperature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "980-983", "Text": "For example, decrease in the vapour pressure of water by\nadding 1 0 mol of sucrose to one kg of water is nearly similar to that\nproduced by adding 1 0 mol of urea to the same quantity of water at\nthe same temperature Raoult\u2019s law in its general form can be stated as, for any solution\nthe partial vapour pressure of each volatile component in the\nsolution is directly proportional to its mole fraction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "981-984", "Text": "0 mol of sucrose to one kg of water is nearly similar to that\nproduced by adding 1 0 mol of urea to the same quantity of water at\nthe same temperature Raoult\u2019s law in its general form can be stated as, for any solution\nthe partial vapour pressure of each volatile component in the\nsolution is directly proportional to its mole fraction In a binary solution, let us denote the solvent by 1 and solute by\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "982-985", "Text": "0 mol of urea to the same quantity of water at\nthe same temperature Raoult\u2019s law in its general form can be stated as, for any solution\nthe partial vapour pressure of each volatile component in the\nsolution is directly proportional to its mole fraction In a binary solution, let us denote the solvent by 1 and solute by\n2 When the solute is non-volatile, only the solvent molecules are\npresent in vapour phase and contribute to vapour pressure"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "983-986", "Text": "Raoult\u2019s law in its general form can be stated as, for any solution\nthe partial vapour pressure of each volatile component in the\nsolution is directly proportional to its mole fraction In a binary solution, let us denote the solvent by 1 and solute by\n2 When the solute is non-volatile, only the solvent molecules are\npresent in vapour phase and contribute to vapour pressure Let p1 be\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "984-987", "Text": "In a binary solution, let us denote the solvent by 1 and solute by\n2 When the solute is non-volatile, only the solvent molecules are\npresent in vapour phase and contribute to vapour pressure Let p1 be\n1 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "985-988", "Text": "When the solute is non-volatile, only the solvent molecules are\npresent in vapour phase and contribute to vapour pressure Let p1 be\n1 4 2 Raoult\u2019s\nLaw as a\nspecial case\nof Henry\u2019s\nLaw\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "986-989", "Text": "Let p1 be\n1 4 2 Raoult\u2019s\nLaw as a\nspecial case\nof Henry\u2019s\nLaw\n1 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "987-990", "Text": "4 2 Raoult\u2019s\nLaw as a\nspecial case\nof Henry\u2019s\nLaw\n1 4 3 Vapour\nPressure of\nSolutions of\nSolids in\nLiquids\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "988-991", "Text": "2 Raoult\u2019s\nLaw as a\nspecial case\nof Henry\u2019s\nLaw\n1 4 3 Vapour\nPressure of\nSolutions of\nSolids in\nLiquids\nFig 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "989-992", "Text": "4 3 Vapour\nPressure of\nSolutions of\nSolids in\nLiquids\nFig 1 4: Decrease in the vapour pressure of the\nsolvent on account of the presence of\nsolute in the solvent (a) evaporation of the\nmolecules of the solvent from its surface\nis denoted by \n, (b) in a solution, solute\nparticles have been denoted by and they\nalso occupy part of the surface area"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "990-993", "Text": "3 Vapour\nPressure of\nSolutions of\nSolids in\nLiquids\nFig 1 4: Decrease in the vapour pressure of the\nsolvent on account of the presence of\nsolute in the solvent (a) evaporation of the\nmolecules of the solvent from its surface\nis denoted by \n, (b) in a solution, solute\nparticles have been denoted by and they\nalso occupy part of the surface area Rationalised 2023-24\n13\nSolutions\nthe vapour pressure of the solvent, x1 be\nits mole fraction, pi\n0 be its vapour pressure\nin the pure state"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "991-994", "Text": "1 4: Decrease in the vapour pressure of the\nsolvent on account of the presence of\nsolute in the solvent (a) evaporation of the\nmolecules of the solvent from its surface\nis denoted by \n, (b) in a solution, solute\nparticles have been denoted by and they\nalso occupy part of the surface area Rationalised 2023-24\n13\nSolutions\nthe vapour pressure of the solvent, x1 be\nits mole fraction, pi\n0 be its vapour pressure\nin the pure state Then according to\nRaoult\u2019s law\np1 \u00b5 x1\nand\np1 = x1 \np10\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "992-995", "Text": "4: Decrease in the vapour pressure of the\nsolvent on account of the presence of\nsolute in the solvent (a) evaporation of the\nmolecules of the solvent from its surface\nis denoted by \n, (b) in a solution, solute\nparticles have been denoted by and they\nalso occupy part of the surface area Rationalised 2023-24\n13\nSolutions\nthe vapour pressure of the solvent, x1 be\nits mole fraction, pi\n0 be its vapour pressure\nin the pure state Then according to\nRaoult\u2019s law\np1 \u00b5 x1\nand\np1 = x1 \np10\n(1 20)\nThe proportionality constant is equal\nto the vapour pressure of pure solvent, \n0\n1\np"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "993-996", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n13\nSolutions\nthe vapour pressure of the solvent, x1 be\nits mole fraction, pi\n0 be its vapour pressure\nin the pure state Then according to\nRaoult\u2019s law\np1 \u00b5 x1\nand\np1 = x1 \np10\n(1 20)\nThe proportionality constant is equal\nto the vapour pressure of pure solvent, \n0\n1\np A plot between the vapour pressure and\nthe mole fraction of the solvent is linear\n(Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "994-997", "Text": "Then according to\nRaoult\u2019s law\np1 \u00b5 x1\nand\np1 = x1 \np10\n(1 20)\nThe proportionality constant is equal\nto the vapour pressure of pure solvent, \n0\n1\np A plot between the vapour pressure and\nthe mole fraction of the solvent is linear\n(Fig 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "995-998", "Text": "20)\nThe proportionality constant is equal\nto the vapour pressure of pure solvent, \n0\n1\np A plot between the vapour pressure and\nthe mole fraction of the solvent is linear\n(Fig 1 5)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "996-999", "Text": "A plot between the vapour pressure and\nthe mole fraction of the solvent is linear\n(Fig 1 5) Liquid-liquid solutions can be classified into ideal and non-ideal\nsolutions on the basis of Raoult\u2019s law"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "997-1000", "Text": "1 5) Liquid-liquid solutions can be classified into ideal and non-ideal\nsolutions on the basis of Raoult\u2019s law The solutions which obey Raoult\u2019s law over the entire range of\nconcentration are known as ideal solutions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "998-1001", "Text": "5) Liquid-liquid solutions can be classified into ideal and non-ideal\nsolutions on the basis of Raoult\u2019s law The solutions which obey Raoult\u2019s law over the entire range of\nconcentration are known as ideal solutions The ideal solutions have\ntwo other important properties"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "999-1002", "Text": "Liquid-liquid solutions can be classified into ideal and non-ideal\nsolutions on the basis of Raoult\u2019s law The solutions which obey Raoult\u2019s law over the entire range of\nconcentration are known as ideal solutions The ideal solutions have\ntwo other important properties The enthalpy of mixing of the\npure components to form the solution is zero and the volume\nof mixing is also zero, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1000-1003", "Text": "The solutions which obey Raoult\u2019s law over the entire range of\nconcentration are known as ideal solutions The ideal solutions have\ntwo other important properties The enthalpy of mixing of the\npure components to form the solution is zero and the volume\nof mixing is also zero, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1001-1004", "Text": "The ideal solutions have\ntwo other important properties The enthalpy of mixing of the\npure components to form the solution is zero and the volume\nof mixing is also zero, i e ,\nDmixH = 0,\nDmixV = 0\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1002-1005", "Text": "The enthalpy of mixing of the\npure components to form the solution is zero and the volume\nof mixing is also zero, i e ,\nDmixH = 0,\nDmixV = 0\n(1 21)\nIt means that no heat is absorbed or evolved when the components\nare mixed"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1003-1006", "Text": "e ,\nDmixH = 0,\nDmixV = 0\n(1 21)\nIt means that no heat is absorbed or evolved when the components\nare mixed Also, the volume of solution would be equal to the sum of\nvolumes of the two components"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1004-1007", "Text": ",\nDmixH = 0,\nDmixV = 0\n(1 21)\nIt means that no heat is absorbed or evolved when the components\nare mixed Also, the volume of solution would be equal to the sum of\nvolumes of the two components At molecular level, ideal behaviour of\nthe solutions can be explained by considering two components A and\nB"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1005-1008", "Text": "21)\nIt means that no heat is absorbed or evolved when the components\nare mixed Also, the volume of solution would be equal to the sum of\nvolumes of the two components At molecular level, ideal behaviour of\nthe solutions can be explained by considering two components A and\nB In pure components, the intermolecular attractive interactions will\nbe of types A-A and B-B, whereas in the binary solutions in addition\nto these two interactions, A-B type of interactions will also be present"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1006-1009", "Text": "Also, the volume of solution would be equal to the sum of\nvolumes of the two components At molecular level, ideal behaviour of\nthe solutions can be explained by considering two components A and\nB In pure components, the intermolecular attractive interactions will\nbe of types A-A and B-B, whereas in the binary solutions in addition\nto these two interactions, A-B type of interactions will also be present If the intermolecular attractive forces between the A-A and B-B are\nnearly equal to those between A-B, this leads to the formation of ideal\nsolution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1007-1010", "Text": "At molecular level, ideal behaviour of\nthe solutions can be explained by considering two components A and\nB In pure components, the intermolecular attractive interactions will\nbe of types A-A and B-B, whereas in the binary solutions in addition\nto these two interactions, A-B type of interactions will also be present If the intermolecular attractive forces between the A-A and B-B are\nnearly equal to those between A-B, this leads to the formation of ideal\nsolution A perfectly ideal solution is rare but some solutions are nearly\nideal in behaviour"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1008-1011", "Text": "In pure components, the intermolecular attractive interactions will\nbe of types A-A and B-B, whereas in the binary solutions in addition\nto these two interactions, A-B type of interactions will also be present If the intermolecular attractive forces between the A-A and B-B are\nnearly equal to those between A-B, this leads to the formation of ideal\nsolution A perfectly ideal solution is rare but some solutions are nearly\nideal in behaviour Solution of n-hexane and n-heptane, bromoethane\nand chloroethane, benzene and toluene, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1009-1012", "Text": "If the intermolecular attractive forces between the A-A and B-B are\nnearly equal to those between A-B, this leads to the formation of ideal\nsolution A perfectly ideal solution is rare but some solutions are nearly\nideal in behaviour Solution of n-hexane and n-heptane, bromoethane\nand chloroethane, benzene and toluene, etc fall into this category"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1010-1013", "Text": "A perfectly ideal solution is rare but some solutions are nearly\nideal in behaviour Solution of n-hexane and n-heptane, bromoethane\nand chloroethane, benzene and toluene, etc fall into this category When a solution does not obey Raoult\u2019s law over the entire range of\nconcentration, then it is called non-ideal solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1011-1014", "Text": "Solution of n-hexane and n-heptane, bromoethane\nand chloroethane, benzene and toluene, etc fall into this category When a solution does not obey Raoult\u2019s law over the entire range of\nconcentration, then it is called non-ideal solution The vapour pressure\nof such a solution is either higher or lower than that predicted by\nRaoult\u2019s law (equation 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1012-1015", "Text": "fall into this category When a solution does not obey Raoult\u2019s law over the entire range of\nconcentration, then it is called non-ideal solution The vapour pressure\nof such a solution is either higher or lower than that predicted by\nRaoult\u2019s law (equation 1 16)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1013-1016", "Text": "When a solution does not obey Raoult\u2019s law over the entire range of\nconcentration, then it is called non-ideal solution The vapour pressure\nof such a solution is either higher or lower than that predicted by\nRaoult\u2019s law (equation 1 16) If it is higher, the solution exhibits positive\ndeviation and if it is lower, it exhibits negative deviation from Raoult\u2019s\nlaw"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1014-1017", "Text": "The vapour pressure\nof such a solution is either higher or lower than that predicted by\nRaoult\u2019s law (equation 1 16) If it is higher, the solution exhibits positive\ndeviation and if it is lower, it exhibits negative deviation from Raoult\u2019s\nlaw The plots of vapour pressure as a function of mole fractions\nfor such solutions are shown in Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1015-1018", "Text": "16) If it is higher, the solution exhibits positive\ndeviation and if it is lower, it exhibits negative deviation from Raoult\u2019s\nlaw The plots of vapour pressure as a function of mole fractions\nfor such solutions are shown in Fig 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1016-1019", "Text": "If it is higher, the solution exhibits positive\ndeviation and if it is lower, it exhibits negative deviation from Raoult\u2019s\nlaw The plots of vapour pressure as a function of mole fractions\nfor such solutions are shown in Fig 1 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1017-1020", "Text": "The plots of vapour pressure as a function of mole fractions\nfor such solutions are shown in Fig 1 6 The cause for these deviations lie in the nature of interactions at the\nmolecular level"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1018-1021", "Text": "1 6 The cause for these deviations lie in the nature of interactions at the\nmolecular level In case of positive deviation from Raoult\u2019s law, A-B\ninteractions are weaker than those between A-A or B-B, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1019-1022", "Text": "6 The cause for these deviations lie in the nature of interactions at the\nmolecular level In case of positive deviation from Raoult\u2019s law, A-B\ninteractions are weaker than those between A-A or B-B, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1020-1023", "Text": "The cause for these deviations lie in the nature of interactions at the\nmolecular level In case of positive deviation from Raoult\u2019s law, A-B\ninteractions are weaker than those between A-A or B-B, i e , in this case\nthe intermolecular attractive forces between the solute-solvent molecules\nare weaker than those between the solute-solute and solvent-solvent\nmolecules"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1021-1024", "Text": "In case of positive deviation from Raoult\u2019s law, A-B\ninteractions are weaker than those between A-A or B-B, i e , in this case\nthe intermolecular attractive forces between the solute-solvent molecules\nare weaker than those between the solute-solute and solvent-solvent\nmolecules This means that in such solutions, molecules of A (or B) will\nfind it easier to escape than in pure state"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1022-1025", "Text": "e , in this case\nthe intermolecular attractive forces between the solute-solvent molecules\nare weaker than those between the solute-solute and solvent-solvent\nmolecules This means that in such solutions, molecules of A (or B) will\nfind it easier to escape than in pure state This will increase the vapour\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1023-1026", "Text": ", in this case\nthe intermolecular attractive forces between the solute-solvent molecules\nare weaker than those between the solute-solute and solvent-solvent\nmolecules This means that in such solutions, molecules of A (or B) will\nfind it easier to escape than in pure state This will increase the vapour\nFig 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1024-1027", "Text": "This means that in such solutions, molecules of A (or B) will\nfind it easier to escape than in pure state This will increase the vapour\nFig 1 5\nIf a solution obeys\nRaoult's law for all\nconcentrations, its\nvapour pressure\nwould vary linearly\nfrom zero to the\nvapour pressure of\nthe pure solvent"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1025-1028", "Text": "This will increase the vapour\nFig 1 5\nIf a solution obeys\nRaoult's law for all\nconcentrations, its\nvapour pressure\nwould vary linearly\nfrom zero to the\nvapour pressure of\nthe pure solvent 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1026-1029", "Text": "1 5\nIf a solution obeys\nRaoult's law for all\nconcentrations, its\nvapour pressure\nwould vary linearly\nfrom zero to the\nvapour pressure of\nthe pure solvent 1 5\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1027-1030", "Text": "5\nIf a solution obeys\nRaoult's law for all\nconcentrations, its\nvapour pressure\nwould vary linearly\nfrom zero to the\nvapour pressure of\nthe pure solvent 1 5\n1 5\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1028-1031", "Text": "1 5\n1 5\n1 5\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1029-1032", "Text": "5\n1 5\n1 5\n1 5\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1030-1033", "Text": "5\n1 5\n1 5\n1 5 Ideal and Non-\nIdeal and Non-\nIdeal and Non-\nIdeal and Non-\nIdeal and Non-\nideal Solutions\nideal Solutions\nideal Solutions\nideal Solutions\nideal Solutions\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1031-1034", "Text": "5\n1 5\n1 5 Ideal and Non-\nIdeal and Non-\nIdeal and Non-\nIdeal and Non-\nIdeal and Non-\nideal Solutions\nideal Solutions\nideal Solutions\nideal Solutions\nideal Solutions\n1 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1032-1035", "Text": "5\n1 5 Ideal and Non-\nIdeal and Non-\nIdeal and Non-\nIdeal and Non-\nIdeal and Non-\nideal Solutions\nideal Solutions\nideal Solutions\nideal Solutions\nideal Solutions\n1 5 1 Ideal\nSolutions\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1033-1036", "Text": "5 Ideal and Non-\nIdeal and Non-\nIdeal and Non-\nIdeal and Non-\nIdeal and Non-\nideal Solutions\nideal Solutions\nideal Solutions\nideal Solutions\nideal Solutions\n1 5 1 Ideal\nSolutions\n1 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1034-1037", "Text": "5 1 Ideal\nSolutions\n1 5 2 Non-ideal\nSolutions\nRationalised 2023-24\n14\nChemistry\npressure and result in positive deviation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1035-1038", "Text": "1 Ideal\nSolutions\n1 5 2 Non-ideal\nSolutions\nRationalised 2023-24\n14\nChemistry\npressure and result in positive deviation Mixtures of ethanol and acetone\nbehave in this manner"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1036-1039", "Text": "5 2 Non-ideal\nSolutions\nRationalised 2023-24\n14\nChemistry\npressure and result in positive deviation Mixtures of ethanol and acetone\nbehave in this manner In pure ethanol, molecules are hydrogen bonded"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1037-1040", "Text": "2 Non-ideal\nSolutions\nRationalised 2023-24\n14\nChemistry\npressure and result in positive deviation Mixtures of ethanol and acetone\nbehave in this manner In pure ethanol, molecules are hydrogen bonded On adding acetone, its molecules get in between the host molecules and\nbreak some of the hydrogen bonds between them"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1038-1041", "Text": "Mixtures of ethanol and acetone\nbehave in this manner In pure ethanol, molecules are hydrogen bonded On adding acetone, its molecules get in between the host molecules and\nbreak some of the hydrogen bonds between them Due to weakening of\ninteractions, the solution shows positive deviation from Raoult\u2019s law\n[Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1039-1042", "Text": "In pure ethanol, molecules are hydrogen bonded On adding acetone, its molecules get in between the host molecules and\nbreak some of the hydrogen bonds between them Due to weakening of\ninteractions, the solution shows positive deviation from Raoult\u2019s law\n[Fig 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1040-1043", "Text": "On adding acetone, its molecules get in between the host molecules and\nbreak some of the hydrogen bonds between them Due to weakening of\ninteractions, the solution shows positive deviation from Raoult\u2019s law\n[Fig 1 6 (a)]"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1041-1044", "Text": "Due to weakening of\ninteractions, the solution shows positive deviation from Raoult\u2019s law\n[Fig 1 6 (a)] In a solution formed by adding carbon disulphide to\nacetone, the dipolar interactions between solute-solvent molecules are\nweaker than the respective interactions among the solute-solute and\nsolvent-solvent molecules"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1042-1045", "Text": "1 6 (a)] In a solution formed by adding carbon disulphide to\nacetone, the dipolar interactions between solute-solvent molecules are\nweaker than the respective interactions among the solute-solute and\nsolvent-solvent molecules This solution also shows positive deviation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1043-1046", "Text": "6 (a)] In a solution formed by adding carbon disulphide to\nacetone, the dipolar interactions between solute-solvent molecules are\nweaker than the respective interactions among the solute-solute and\nsolvent-solvent molecules This solution also shows positive deviation In case of negative deviations from Raoult\u2019s law, the intermolecular\nattractive forces between A-A and B-B are weaker than those between\nA-B and leads to decrease in vapour pressure resulting in negative\ndeviations"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1044-1047", "Text": "In a solution formed by adding carbon disulphide to\nacetone, the dipolar interactions between solute-solvent molecules are\nweaker than the respective interactions among the solute-solute and\nsolvent-solvent molecules This solution also shows positive deviation In case of negative deviations from Raoult\u2019s law, the intermolecular\nattractive forces between A-A and B-B are weaker than those between\nA-B and leads to decrease in vapour pressure resulting in negative\ndeviations An example of this type is a mixture of phenol and aniline"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1045-1048", "Text": "This solution also shows positive deviation In case of negative deviations from Raoult\u2019s law, the intermolecular\nattractive forces between A-A and B-B are weaker than those between\nA-B and leads to decrease in vapour pressure resulting in negative\ndeviations An example of this type is a mixture of phenol and aniline In this case the intermolecular hydrogen bonding between phenolic\nproton and lone pair on nitrogen atom of aniline is stronger than the\nrespective intermolecular hydrogen bonding between similar\nmolecules"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1046-1049", "Text": "In case of negative deviations from Raoult\u2019s law, the intermolecular\nattractive forces between A-A and B-B are weaker than those between\nA-B and leads to decrease in vapour pressure resulting in negative\ndeviations An example of this type is a mixture of phenol and aniline In this case the intermolecular hydrogen bonding between phenolic\nproton and lone pair on nitrogen atom of aniline is stronger than the\nrespective intermolecular hydrogen bonding between similar\nmolecules Similarly, a mixture of chloroform and acetone\nforms a solution with negative deviation from Raoult\u2019s law"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1047-1050", "Text": "An example of this type is a mixture of phenol and aniline In this case the intermolecular hydrogen bonding between phenolic\nproton and lone pair on nitrogen atom of aniline is stronger than the\nrespective intermolecular hydrogen bonding between similar\nmolecules Similarly, a mixture of chloroform and acetone\nforms a solution with negative deviation from Raoult\u2019s law This is because chloroform molecule is able to form hydrogen\nbond with acetone molecule as shown"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1048-1051", "Text": "In this case the intermolecular hydrogen bonding between phenolic\nproton and lone pair on nitrogen atom of aniline is stronger than the\nrespective intermolecular hydrogen bonding between similar\nmolecules Similarly, a mixture of chloroform and acetone\nforms a solution with negative deviation from Raoult\u2019s law This is because chloroform molecule is able to form hydrogen\nbond with acetone molecule as shown This decreases the escaping tendency of molecules for each\ncomponent and consequently the vapour pressure decreases resulting\nin negative deviation from Raoult\u2019s law [Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1049-1052", "Text": "Similarly, a mixture of chloroform and acetone\nforms a solution with negative deviation from Raoult\u2019s law This is because chloroform molecule is able to form hydrogen\nbond with acetone molecule as shown This decreases the escaping tendency of molecules for each\ncomponent and consequently the vapour pressure decreases resulting\nin negative deviation from Raoult\u2019s law [Fig 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1050-1053", "Text": "This is because chloroform molecule is able to form hydrogen\nbond with acetone molecule as shown This decreases the escaping tendency of molecules for each\ncomponent and consequently the vapour pressure decreases resulting\nin negative deviation from Raoult\u2019s law [Fig 1 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1051-1054", "Text": "This decreases the escaping tendency of molecules for each\ncomponent and consequently the vapour pressure decreases resulting\nin negative deviation from Raoult\u2019s law [Fig 1 6 (b)]"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1052-1055", "Text": "1 6 (b)] Some liquids on mixing, form azeotropes which are binary mixtures\nhaving the same composition in liquid and vapour phase and boil at\na constant temperature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1053-1056", "Text": "6 (b)] Some liquids on mixing, form azeotropes which are binary mixtures\nhaving the same composition in liquid and vapour phase and boil at\na constant temperature In such cases, it is not possible to separate the\ncomponents by fractional distillation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1054-1057", "Text": "(b)] Some liquids on mixing, form azeotropes which are binary mixtures\nhaving the same composition in liquid and vapour phase and boil at\na constant temperature In such cases, it is not possible to separate the\ncomponents by fractional distillation There are two types of azeotropes\ncalled minimum boiling azeotrope and maximum boiling\nazeotrope"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1055-1058", "Text": "Some liquids on mixing, form azeotropes which are binary mixtures\nhaving the same composition in liquid and vapour phase and boil at\na constant temperature In such cases, it is not possible to separate the\ncomponents by fractional distillation There are two types of azeotropes\ncalled minimum boiling azeotrope and maximum boiling\nazeotrope The solutions which show a large positive deviation from\nRaoult\u2019s law form minimum boiling azeotrope at a specific composition"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1056-1059", "Text": "In such cases, it is not possible to separate the\ncomponents by fractional distillation There are two types of azeotropes\ncalled minimum boiling azeotrope and maximum boiling\nazeotrope The solutions which show a large positive deviation from\nRaoult\u2019s law form minimum boiling azeotrope at a specific composition Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1057-1060", "Text": "There are two types of azeotropes\ncalled minimum boiling azeotrope and maximum boiling\nazeotrope The solutions which show a large positive deviation from\nRaoult\u2019s law form minimum boiling azeotrope at a specific composition Fig 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1058-1061", "Text": "The solutions which show a large positive deviation from\nRaoult\u2019s law form minimum boiling azeotrope at a specific composition Fig 1 6\nThe vapour\npressures of two\ncomponent systems\nas a function of\ncomposition (a) a\nsolution that shows\npositive deviation\nfrom Raoult's law\nand (b) a solution\nthat shows negative\ndeviation from\nRaoult's law"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1059-1062", "Text": "Fig 1 6\nThe vapour\npressures of two\ncomponent systems\nas a function of\ncomposition (a) a\nsolution that shows\npositive deviation\nfrom Raoult's law\nand (b) a solution\nthat shows negative\ndeviation from\nRaoult's law Rationalised 2023-24\n15\nSolutions\nFor example, ethanol-water mixture (obtained by fermentation of sugars)\non fractional distillation gives a solution containing approximately 95%\nby volume of ethanol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1060-1063", "Text": "1 6\nThe vapour\npressures of two\ncomponent systems\nas a function of\ncomposition (a) a\nsolution that shows\npositive deviation\nfrom Raoult's law\nand (b) a solution\nthat shows negative\ndeviation from\nRaoult's law Rationalised 2023-24\n15\nSolutions\nFor example, ethanol-water mixture (obtained by fermentation of sugars)\non fractional distillation gives a solution containing approximately 95%\nby volume of ethanol Once this composition, known as azeotrope\ncomposition, has been achieved, the liquid and vapour have the same\ncomposition, and no further separation occurs"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1061-1064", "Text": "6\nThe vapour\npressures of two\ncomponent systems\nas a function of\ncomposition (a) a\nsolution that shows\npositive deviation\nfrom Raoult's law\nand (b) a solution\nthat shows negative\ndeviation from\nRaoult's law Rationalised 2023-24\n15\nSolutions\nFor example, ethanol-water mixture (obtained by fermentation of sugars)\non fractional distillation gives a solution containing approximately 95%\nby volume of ethanol Once this composition, known as azeotrope\ncomposition, has been achieved, the liquid and vapour have the same\ncomposition, and no further separation occurs The solutions that show large negative deviation from Raoult\u2019s law\nform maximum boiling azeotrope at a specific composition"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1062-1065", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n15\nSolutions\nFor example, ethanol-water mixture (obtained by fermentation of sugars)\non fractional distillation gives a solution containing approximately 95%\nby volume of ethanol Once this composition, known as azeotrope\ncomposition, has been achieved, the liquid and vapour have the same\ncomposition, and no further separation occurs The solutions that show large negative deviation from Raoult\u2019s law\nform maximum boiling azeotrope at a specific composition Nitric acid\nand water is an example of this class of azeotrope"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1063-1066", "Text": "Once this composition, known as azeotrope\ncomposition, has been achieved, the liquid and vapour have the same\ncomposition, and no further separation occurs The solutions that show large negative deviation from Raoult\u2019s law\nform maximum boiling azeotrope at a specific composition Nitric acid\nand water is an example of this class of azeotrope This azeotrope has\nthe approximate composition, 68% nitric acid and 32% water by mass,\nwith a boiling point of 393"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1064-1067", "Text": "The solutions that show large negative deviation from Raoult\u2019s law\nform maximum boiling azeotrope at a specific composition Nitric acid\nand water is an example of this class of azeotrope This azeotrope has\nthe approximate composition, 68% nitric acid and 32% water by mass,\nwith a boiling point of 393 5 K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1065-1068", "Text": "Nitric acid\nand water is an example of this class of azeotrope This azeotrope has\nthe approximate composition, 68% nitric acid and 32% water by mass,\nwith a boiling point of 393 5 K 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1066-1069", "Text": "This azeotrope has\nthe approximate composition, 68% nitric acid and 32% water by mass,\nwith a boiling point of 393 5 K 1 6\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1067-1070", "Text": "5 K 1 6\n1 6\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1068-1071", "Text": "1 6\n1 6\n1 6\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1069-1072", "Text": "6\n1 6\n1 6\n1 6\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1070-1073", "Text": "6\n1 6\n1 6\n1 6 Colligative\nColligative\nColligative\nColligative\nColligative\nProperties and\nProperties and\nProperties and\nProperties and\nProperties and\nDetermination\nDetermination\nDetermination\nDetermination\nDetermination\nof Molar Mass\nof Molar Mass\nof Molar Mass\nof Molar Mass\nof Molar Mass\nWe have learnt in Section 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1071-1074", "Text": "6\n1 6\n1 6 Colligative\nColligative\nColligative\nColligative\nColligative\nProperties and\nProperties and\nProperties and\nProperties and\nProperties and\nDetermination\nDetermination\nDetermination\nDetermination\nDetermination\nof Molar Mass\nof Molar Mass\nof Molar Mass\nof Molar Mass\nof Molar Mass\nWe have learnt in Section 1 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1072-1075", "Text": "6\n1 6 Colligative\nColligative\nColligative\nColligative\nColligative\nProperties and\nProperties and\nProperties and\nProperties and\nProperties and\nDetermination\nDetermination\nDetermination\nDetermination\nDetermination\nof Molar Mass\nof Molar Mass\nof Molar Mass\nof Molar Mass\nof Molar Mass\nWe have learnt in Section 1 4 3 that the vapour pressure of solution\ndecreases when a non-volatile solute is added to a volatile solvent"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1073-1076", "Text": "6 Colligative\nColligative\nColligative\nColligative\nColligative\nProperties and\nProperties and\nProperties and\nProperties and\nProperties and\nDetermination\nDetermination\nDetermination\nDetermination\nDetermination\nof Molar Mass\nof Molar Mass\nof Molar Mass\nof Molar Mass\nof Molar Mass\nWe have learnt in Section 1 4 3 that the vapour pressure of solution\ndecreases when a non-volatile solute is added to a volatile solvent There are many properties of solutions which are connected with this\ndecrease of vapour pressure"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1074-1077", "Text": "4 3 that the vapour pressure of solution\ndecreases when a non-volatile solute is added to a volatile solvent There are many properties of solutions which are connected with this\ndecrease of vapour pressure These are: (1) relative lowering of vapour\npressure of the solvent (2) depression of freezing point of the solvent\n(3) elevation of boiling point of the solvent and (4) osmotic pressure of\nthe solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1075-1078", "Text": "3 that the vapour pressure of solution\ndecreases when a non-volatile solute is added to a volatile solvent There are many properties of solutions which are connected with this\ndecrease of vapour pressure These are: (1) relative lowering of vapour\npressure of the solvent (2) depression of freezing point of the solvent\n(3) elevation of boiling point of the solvent and (4) osmotic pressure of\nthe solution All these properties depend on the number of solute\nparticles irrespective of their nature relative to the total number\nof particles present in the solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1076-1079", "Text": "There are many properties of solutions which are connected with this\ndecrease of vapour pressure These are: (1) relative lowering of vapour\npressure of the solvent (2) depression of freezing point of the solvent\n(3) elevation of boiling point of the solvent and (4) osmotic pressure of\nthe solution All these properties depend on the number of solute\nparticles irrespective of their nature relative to the total number\nof particles present in the solution Such properties are called\ncolligative properties (colligative: from Latin: co means together, ligare\nmeans to bind)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1077-1080", "Text": "These are: (1) relative lowering of vapour\npressure of the solvent (2) depression of freezing point of the solvent\n(3) elevation of boiling point of the solvent and (4) osmotic pressure of\nthe solution All these properties depend on the number of solute\nparticles irrespective of their nature relative to the total number\nof particles present in the solution Such properties are called\ncolligative properties (colligative: from Latin: co means together, ligare\nmeans to bind) In the following Sections we will discuss these\nproperties one by one"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1078-1081", "Text": "All these properties depend on the number of solute\nparticles irrespective of their nature relative to the total number\nof particles present in the solution Such properties are called\ncolligative properties (colligative: from Latin: co means together, ligare\nmeans to bind) In the following Sections we will discuss these\nproperties one by one We have learnt in Section 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1079-1082", "Text": "Such properties are called\ncolligative properties (colligative: from Latin: co means together, ligare\nmeans to bind) In the following Sections we will discuss these\nproperties one by one We have learnt in Section 1 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1080-1083", "Text": "In the following Sections we will discuss these\nproperties one by one We have learnt in Section 1 4 3 that the vapour pressure of a solvent in\nsolution is less than that of the pure solvent"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1081-1084", "Text": "We have learnt in Section 1 4 3 that the vapour pressure of a solvent in\nsolution is less than that of the pure solvent Raoult established that the\nlowering of vapour pressure depends only on the concentration of the\nsolute particles and it is independent of their identity"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1082-1085", "Text": "4 3 that the vapour pressure of a solvent in\nsolution is less than that of the pure solvent Raoult established that the\nlowering of vapour pressure depends only on the concentration of the\nsolute particles and it is independent of their identity The equation (1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1083-1086", "Text": "3 that the vapour pressure of a solvent in\nsolution is less than that of the pure solvent Raoult established that the\nlowering of vapour pressure depends only on the concentration of the\nsolute particles and it is independent of their identity The equation (1 20)\ngiven in Section 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1084-1087", "Text": "Raoult established that the\nlowering of vapour pressure depends only on the concentration of the\nsolute particles and it is independent of their identity The equation (1 20)\ngiven in Section 1 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1085-1088", "Text": "The equation (1 20)\ngiven in Section 1 4 3 establishes a relation between vapour pressure of\nthe solution, mole fraction and vapour pressure of the solvent, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1086-1089", "Text": "20)\ngiven in Section 1 4 3 establishes a relation between vapour pressure of\nthe solution, mole fraction and vapour pressure of the solvent, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1087-1090", "Text": "4 3 establishes a relation between vapour pressure of\nthe solution, mole fraction and vapour pressure of the solvent, i e ,\np1\n= x1 p1\n0\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1088-1091", "Text": "3 establishes a relation between vapour pressure of\nthe solution, mole fraction and vapour pressure of the solvent, i e ,\np1\n= x1 p1\n0\n(1 22)\nThe reduction in the vapour pressure of solvent (Dp1) is given as:\nDp1 = p1\n0 \u2013 p1 = p1\n0 \u2013 p1\n0 x1\n= p1\n0 (1 \u2013 x1)\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1089-1092", "Text": "e ,\np1\n= x1 p1\n0\n(1 22)\nThe reduction in the vapour pressure of solvent (Dp1) is given as:\nDp1 = p1\n0 \u2013 p1 = p1\n0 \u2013 p1\n0 x1\n= p1\n0 (1 \u2013 x1)\n(1 23)\nKnowing that x2 = 1 \u2013 x1, equation (1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1090-1093", "Text": ",\np1\n= x1 p1\n0\n(1 22)\nThe reduction in the vapour pressure of solvent (Dp1) is given as:\nDp1 = p1\n0 \u2013 p1 = p1\n0 \u2013 p1\n0 x1\n= p1\n0 (1 \u2013 x1)\n(1 23)\nKnowing that x2 = 1 \u2013 x1, equation (1 23) reduces to\nDp1 = x2 p1\n0\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1091-1094", "Text": "22)\nThe reduction in the vapour pressure of solvent (Dp1) is given as:\nDp1 = p1\n0 \u2013 p1 = p1\n0 \u2013 p1\n0 x1\n= p1\n0 (1 \u2013 x1)\n(1 23)\nKnowing that x2 = 1 \u2013 x1, equation (1 23) reduces to\nDp1 = x2 p1\n0\n(1 24)\nIn a solution containing several non-volatile solutes, the lowering of the\nvapour pressure depends on the sum of the mole fraction of different solutes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1092-1095", "Text": "23)\nKnowing that x2 = 1 \u2013 x1, equation (1 23) reduces to\nDp1 = x2 p1\n0\n(1 24)\nIn a solution containing several non-volatile solutes, the lowering of the\nvapour pressure depends on the sum of the mole fraction of different solutes Equation (1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1093-1096", "Text": "23) reduces to\nDp1 = x2 p1\n0\n(1 24)\nIn a solution containing several non-volatile solutes, the lowering of the\nvapour pressure depends on the sum of the mole fraction of different solutes Equation (1 24) can be written as\n01\n1\n\uf044p\np\n= \n10\n1\n0\n1\n\uf02d\np\np\np\n = x2\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1094-1097", "Text": "24)\nIn a solution containing several non-volatile solutes, the lowering of the\nvapour pressure depends on the sum of the mole fraction of different solutes Equation (1 24) can be written as\n01\n1\n\uf044p\np\n= \n10\n1\n0\n1\n\uf02d\np\np\np\n = x2\n(1 25)\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1095-1098", "Text": "Equation (1 24) can be written as\n01\n1\n\uf044p\np\n= \n10\n1\n0\n1\n\uf02d\np\np\np\n = x2\n(1 25)\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n1 8 The vapour pressure of pure liquids A and B are 450 and 700 mm Hg\nrespectively, at 350 K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1096-1099", "Text": "24) can be written as\n01\n1\n\uf044p\np\n= \n10\n1\n0\n1\n\uf02d\np\np\np\n = x2\n(1 25)\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n1 8 The vapour pressure of pure liquids A and B are 450 and 700 mm Hg\nrespectively, at 350 K Find out the composition of the liquid mixture if total\nvapour pressure is 600 mm Hg"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1097-1100", "Text": "25)\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n1 8 The vapour pressure of pure liquids A and B are 450 and 700 mm Hg\nrespectively, at 350 K Find out the composition of the liquid mixture if total\nvapour pressure is 600 mm Hg Also find the composition of the vapour phase"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1098-1101", "Text": "8 The vapour pressure of pure liquids A and B are 450 and 700 mm Hg\nrespectively, at 350 K Find out the composition of the liquid mixture if total\nvapour pressure is 600 mm Hg Also find the composition of the vapour phase 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1099-1102", "Text": "Find out the composition of the liquid mixture if total\nvapour pressure is 600 mm Hg Also find the composition of the vapour phase 1 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1100-1103", "Text": "Also find the composition of the vapour phase 1 6 1 Relative\nLowering of\nVapour\nPressure\nRationalised 2023-24\n16\nChemistry\nThe expression on the left hand side of the equation as mentioned\nearlier is called relative lowering of vapour pressure and is equal to\nthe mole fraction of the solute"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1101-1104", "Text": "1 6 1 Relative\nLowering of\nVapour\nPressure\nRationalised 2023-24\n16\nChemistry\nThe expression on the left hand side of the equation as mentioned\nearlier is called relative lowering of vapour pressure and is equal to\nthe mole fraction of the solute The above equation can be written as:\n10\n01\n1\np \u2013 p \np\n = \n2\n1\n2\n \n \n\uf02b\nn\nn\nn\n \n2\n2\n1\n2\n\uf0e6since \n\uf0f6\n\uf03d\n\uf0e7\n\uf0f7\n\uf02b\n\uf0e8\n\uf0f8\nn\nx\nn\nn\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1102-1105", "Text": "6 1 Relative\nLowering of\nVapour\nPressure\nRationalised 2023-24\n16\nChemistry\nThe expression on the left hand side of the equation as mentioned\nearlier is called relative lowering of vapour pressure and is equal to\nthe mole fraction of the solute The above equation can be written as:\n10\n01\n1\np \u2013 p \np\n = \n2\n1\n2\n \n \n\uf02b\nn\nn\nn\n \n2\n2\n1\n2\n\uf0e6since \n\uf0f6\n\uf03d\n\uf0e7\n\uf0f7\n\uf02b\n\uf0e8\n\uf0f8\nn\nx\nn\nn\n(1 26)\nHere n1 and n2 are the number of moles of solvent and solute\nrespectively present in the solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1103-1106", "Text": "1 Relative\nLowering of\nVapour\nPressure\nRationalised 2023-24\n16\nChemistry\nThe expression on the left hand side of the equation as mentioned\nearlier is called relative lowering of vapour pressure and is equal to\nthe mole fraction of the solute The above equation can be written as:\n10\n01\n1\np \u2013 p \np\n = \n2\n1\n2\n \n \n\uf02b\nn\nn\nn\n \n2\n2\n1\n2\n\uf0e6since \n\uf0f6\n\uf03d\n\uf0e7\n\uf0f7\n\uf02b\n\uf0e8\n\uf0f8\nn\nx\nn\nn\n(1 26)\nHere n1 and n2 are the number of moles of solvent and solute\nrespectively present in the solution For dilute solutions n2 < < n1,\nhence neglecting n2 in the denominator we have\n10\n1\n0\n1\np\np\np\n\uf02d\n= \n2\n1\nn\nn\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1104-1107", "Text": "The above equation can be written as:\n10\n01\n1\np \u2013 p \np\n = \n2\n1\n2\n \n \n\uf02b\nn\nn\nn\n \n2\n2\n1\n2\n\uf0e6since \n\uf0f6\n\uf03d\n\uf0e7\n\uf0f7\n\uf02b\n\uf0e8\n\uf0f8\nn\nx\nn\nn\n(1 26)\nHere n1 and n2 are the number of moles of solvent and solute\nrespectively present in the solution For dilute solutions n2 < < n1,\nhence neglecting n2 in the denominator we have\n10\n1\n0\n1\np\np\np\n\uf02d\n= \n2\n1\nn\nn\n(1 27)\nor\n10\n1\n0\n1\n - \n \np\np\np\n= \n2\n1\n2\n1\nw \u00d7 \n \u00d7 w\nM\nM\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1105-1108", "Text": "26)\nHere n1 and n2 are the number of moles of solvent and solute\nrespectively present in the solution For dilute solutions n2 < < n1,\nhence neglecting n2 in the denominator we have\n10\n1\n0\n1\np\np\np\n\uf02d\n= \n2\n1\nn\nn\n(1 27)\nor\n10\n1\n0\n1\n - \n \np\np\np\n= \n2\n1\n2\n1\nw \u00d7 \n \u00d7 w\nM\nM\n(1 28)\nHere w1 and w2 are the masses and M1 and M2 are the molar masses\nof the solvent and solute respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1106-1109", "Text": "For dilute solutions n2 < < n1,\nhence neglecting n2 in the denominator we have\n10\n1\n0\n1\np\np\np\n\uf02d\n= \n2\n1\nn\nn\n(1 27)\nor\n10\n1\n0\n1\n - \n \np\np\np\n= \n2\n1\n2\n1\nw \u00d7 \n \u00d7 w\nM\nM\n(1 28)\nHere w1 and w2 are the masses and M1 and M2 are the molar masses\nof the solvent and solute respectively From this equation (1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1107-1110", "Text": "27)\nor\n10\n1\n0\n1\n - \n \np\np\np\n= \n2\n1\n2\n1\nw \u00d7 \n \u00d7 w\nM\nM\n(1 28)\nHere w1 and w2 are the masses and M1 and M2 are the molar masses\nof the solvent and solute respectively From this equation (1 28), knowing all other quantities, the molar\nmass of solute (M2) can be calculated"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1108-1111", "Text": "28)\nHere w1 and w2 are the masses and M1 and M2 are the molar masses\nof the solvent and solute respectively From this equation (1 28), knowing all other quantities, the molar\nmass of solute (M2) can be calculated Example 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1109-1112", "Text": "From this equation (1 28), knowing all other quantities, the molar\nmass of solute (M2) can be calculated Example 1 6\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1110-1113", "Text": "28), knowing all other quantities, the molar\nmass of solute (M2) can be calculated Example 1 6\nExample 1 6\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1111-1114", "Text": "Example 1 6\nExample 1 6\nExample 1 6\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1112-1115", "Text": "6\nExample 1 6\nExample 1 6\nExample 1 6\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1113-1116", "Text": "6\nExample 1 6\nExample 1 6\nExample 1 6\nThe vapour pressure of pure benzene at a certain temperature is 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1114-1117", "Text": "6\nExample 1 6\nExample 1 6\nThe vapour pressure of pure benzene at a certain temperature is 0 850\nbar"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1115-1118", "Text": "6\nExample 1 6\nThe vapour pressure of pure benzene at a certain temperature is 0 850\nbar A non-volatile, non-electrolyte solid weighing 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1116-1119", "Text": "6\nThe vapour pressure of pure benzene at a certain temperature is 0 850\nbar A non-volatile, non-electrolyte solid weighing 0 5 g when added to\n39"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1117-1120", "Text": "850\nbar A non-volatile, non-electrolyte solid weighing 0 5 g when added to\n39 0 g of benzene (molar mass 78 g mol-1)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1118-1121", "Text": "A non-volatile, non-electrolyte solid weighing 0 5 g when added to\n39 0 g of benzene (molar mass 78 g mol-1) Vapour pressure of the solution,\nthen, is 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1119-1122", "Text": "5 g when added to\n39 0 g of benzene (molar mass 78 g mol-1) Vapour pressure of the solution,\nthen, is 0 845 bar"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1120-1123", "Text": "0 g of benzene (molar mass 78 g mol-1) Vapour pressure of the solution,\nthen, is 0 845 bar What is the molar mass of the solid substance"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1121-1124", "Text": "Vapour pressure of the solution,\nthen, is 0 845 bar What is the molar mass of the solid substance The various quantities known to us are as follows:\np1\n0 = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1122-1125", "Text": "845 bar What is the molar mass of the solid substance The various quantities known to us are as follows:\np1\n0 = 0 850 bar; p = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1123-1126", "Text": "What is the molar mass of the solid substance The various quantities known to us are as follows:\np1\n0 = 0 850 bar; p = 0 845 bar; M1 = 78 g mol\u20131; w2 = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1124-1127", "Text": "The various quantities known to us are as follows:\np1\n0 = 0 850 bar; p = 0 845 bar; M1 = 78 g mol\u20131; w2 = 0 5 g; w1 = 39 g\nSubstituting these values in equation (2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1125-1128", "Text": "850 bar; p = 0 845 bar; M1 = 78 g mol\u20131; w2 = 0 5 g; w1 = 39 g\nSubstituting these values in equation (2 28), we get\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1126-1129", "Text": "845 bar; M1 = 78 g mol\u20131; w2 = 0 5 g; w1 = 39 g\nSubstituting these values in equation (2 28), we get\n0 850 bar \u2013 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1127-1130", "Text": "5 g; w1 = 39 g\nSubstituting these values in equation (2 28), we get\n0 850 bar \u2013 0 845 bar \n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1128-1131", "Text": "28), we get\n0 850 bar \u2013 0 845 bar \n0 850 bar\n= \n\u20131\n2\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1129-1132", "Text": "850 bar \u2013 0 845 bar \n0 850 bar\n= \n\u20131\n2\n0 5 g \u00d7 78 g mol\n \n \u00d7 39 g\nM\nTherefore, M2 = 170 g mol\u20131\nThe vapour pressure of a liquid increases with increase of\ntemperature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1130-1133", "Text": "845 bar \n0 850 bar\n= \n\u20131\n2\n0 5 g \u00d7 78 g mol\n \n \u00d7 39 g\nM\nTherefore, M2 = 170 g mol\u20131\nThe vapour pressure of a liquid increases with increase of\ntemperature It boils at the temperature at which its vapour pressure\nis equal to the atmospheric pressure"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1131-1134", "Text": "850 bar\n= \n\u20131\n2\n0 5 g \u00d7 78 g mol\n \n \u00d7 39 g\nM\nTherefore, M2 = 170 g mol\u20131\nThe vapour pressure of a liquid increases with increase of\ntemperature It boils at the temperature at which its vapour pressure\nis equal to the atmospheric pressure For example, water boils at\n373"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1132-1135", "Text": "5 g \u00d7 78 g mol\n \n \u00d7 39 g\nM\nTherefore, M2 = 170 g mol\u20131\nThe vapour pressure of a liquid increases with increase of\ntemperature It boils at the temperature at which its vapour pressure\nis equal to the atmospheric pressure For example, water boils at\n373 15 K (100\u00b0 C) because at this temperature the vapour pressure\nof water is 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1133-1136", "Text": "It boils at the temperature at which its vapour pressure\nis equal to the atmospheric pressure For example, water boils at\n373 15 K (100\u00b0 C) because at this temperature the vapour pressure\nof water is 1 013 bar (1 atmosphere)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1134-1137", "Text": "For example, water boils at\n373 15 K (100\u00b0 C) because at this temperature the vapour pressure\nof water is 1 013 bar (1 atmosphere) We have also learnt in the last\nsection that vapour pressure of the solvent decreases in the presence\nof non-volatile solute"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1135-1138", "Text": "15 K (100\u00b0 C) because at this temperature the vapour pressure\nof water is 1 013 bar (1 atmosphere) We have also learnt in the last\nsection that vapour pressure of the solvent decreases in the presence\nof non-volatile solute Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1136-1139", "Text": "013 bar (1 atmosphere) We have also learnt in the last\nsection that vapour pressure of the solvent decreases in the presence\nof non-volatile solute Fig 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1137-1140", "Text": "We have also learnt in the last\nsection that vapour pressure of the solvent decreases in the presence\nof non-volatile solute Fig 1 7 depicts the variation of vapour pressure\nof the pure solvent and solution as a function of temperature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1138-1141", "Text": "Fig 1 7 depicts the variation of vapour pressure\nof the pure solvent and solution as a function of temperature For\nexample, the vapour pressure of an aqueous solution of sucrose is\nless than 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1139-1142", "Text": "1 7 depicts the variation of vapour pressure\nof the pure solvent and solution as a function of temperature For\nexample, the vapour pressure of an aqueous solution of sucrose is\nless than 1 013 bar at 373"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1140-1143", "Text": "7 depicts the variation of vapour pressure\nof the pure solvent and solution as a function of temperature For\nexample, the vapour pressure of an aqueous solution of sucrose is\nless than 1 013 bar at 373 15 K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1141-1144", "Text": "For\nexample, the vapour pressure of an aqueous solution of sucrose is\nless than 1 013 bar at 373 15 K In order to make this solution\nboil, its vapour pressure must be increased to 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1142-1145", "Text": "013 bar at 373 15 K In order to make this solution\nboil, its vapour pressure must be increased to 1 013 bar by\nraising the temperature above the boiling temperature of\nthe pure solvent (water)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1143-1146", "Text": "15 K In order to make this solution\nboil, its vapour pressure must be increased to 1 013 bar by\nraising the temperature above the boiling temperature of\nthe pure solvent (water) Thus, the boiling point of a solution is\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1144-1147", "Text": "In order to make this solution\nboil, its vapour pressure must be increased to 1 013 bar by\nraising the temperature above the boiling temperature of\nthe pure solvent (water) Thus, the boiling point of a solution is\n1 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1145-1148", "Text": "013 bar by\nraising the temperature above the boiling temperature of\nthe pure solvent (water) Thus, the boiling point of a solution is\n1 6 2 Elevation of\nBoiling Point\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n17\nSolutions\nalways higher than that of the boiling point of\nthe pure solvent in which the solution is prepared\nas shown in Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1146-1149", "Text": "Thus, the boiling point of a solution is\n1 6 2 Elevation of\nBoiling Point\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n17\nSolutions\nalways higher than that of the boiling point of\nthe pure solvent in which the solution is prepared\nas shown in Fig 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1147-1150", "Text": "6 2 Elevation of\nBoiling Point\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n17\nSolutions\nalways higher than that of the boiling point of\nthe pure solvent in which the solution is prepared\nas shown in Fig 1 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1148-1151", "Text": "2 Elevation of\nBoiling Point\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n17\nSolutions\nalways higher than that of the boiling point of\nthe pure solvent in which the solution is prepared\nas shown in Fig 1 7 Similar to lowering of vapour\npressure, the elevation of boiling point also\ndepends on the number of solute molecules\nrather than their nature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1149-1152", "Text": "1 7 Similar to lowering of vapour\npressure, the elevation of boiling point also\ndepends on the number of solute molecules\nrather than their nature A solution of 1 mol of\nsucrose in 1000 g of water boils at 373"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1150-1153", "Text": "7 Similar to lowering of vapour\npressure, the elevation of boiling point also\ndepends on the number of solute molecules\nrather than their nature A solution of 1 mol of\nsucrose in 1000 g of water boils at 373 52 K at\none atmospheric pressure"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1151-1154", "Text": "Similar to lowering of vapour\npressure, the elevation of boiling point also\ndepends on the number of solute molecules\nrather than their nature A solution of 1 mol of\nsucrose in 1000 g of water boils at 373 52 K at\none atmospheric pressure Let \nb0\nT be the boiling point of pure solvent and\nb\nT be the boiling point of solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1152-1155", "Text": "A solution of 1 mol of\nsucrose in 1000 g of water boils at 373 52 K at\none atmospheric pressure Let \nb0\nT be the boiling point of pure solvent and\nb\nT be the boiling point of solution The increase in\nthe boiling point \n0\nb\nb\nb\n\uf044\n\uf03d\n\uf02d\nT\nT\nT is known as\nelevation of boiling point"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1153-1156", "Text": "52 K at\none atmospheric pressure Let \nb0\nT be the boiling point of pure solvent and\nb\nT be the boiling point of solution The increase in\nthe boiling point \n0\nb\nb\nb\n\uf044\n\uf03d\n\uf02d\nT\nT\nT is known as\nelevation of boiling point Experiments have shown that for dilute\nsolutions the elevation of boiling point (DTb) is\ndirectly proportional to the molal concentration of\nthe solute in a solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1154-1157", "Text": "Let \nb0\nT be the boiling point of pure solvent and\nb\nT be the boiling point of solution The increase in\nthe boiling point \n0\nb\nb\nb\n\uf044\n\uf03d\n\uf02d\nT\nT\nT is known as\nelevation of boiling point Experiments have shown that for dilute\nsolutions the elevation of boiling point (DTb) is\ndirectly proportional to the molal concentration of\nthe solute in a solution Thus\nDTb \u00b5 m\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1155-1158", "Text": "The increase in\nthe boiling point \n0\nb\nb\nb\n\uf044\n\uf03d\n\uf02d\nT\nT\nT is known as\nelevation of boiling point Experiments have shown that for dilute\nsolutions the elevation of boiling point (DTb) is\ndirectly proportional to the molal concentration of\nthe solute in a solution Thus\nDTb \u00b5 m\n(1 29)\nor\nDTb = Kb m\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1156-1159", "Text": "Experiments have shown that for dilute\nsolutions the elevation of boiling point (DTb) is\ndirectly proportional to the molal concentration of\nthe solute in a solution Thus\nDTb \u00b5 m\n(1 29)\nor\nDTb = Kb m\n(1 30)\nHere m (molality) is the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 kg\nof solvent and the constant of proportionality, Kb is called Boiling Point\nElevation Constant or Molal Elevation Constant (Ebullioscopic\nConstant)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1157-1160", "Text": "Thus\nDTb \u00b5 m\n(1 29)\nor\nDTb = Kb m\n(1 30)\nHere m (molality) is the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 kg\nof solvent and the constant of proportionality, Kb is called Boiling Point\nElevation Constant or Molal Elevation Constant (Ebullioscopic\nConstant) The unit of Kb is K kg mol-1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1158-1161", "Text": "29)\nor\nDTb = Kb m\n(1 30)\nHere m (molality) is the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 kg\nof solvent and the constant of proportionality, Kb is called Boiling Point\nElevation Constant or Molal Elevation Constant (Ebullioscopic\nConstant) The unit of Kb is K kg mol-1 Values of Kb for some common\nsolvents are given in Table 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1159-1162", "Text": "30)\nHere m (molality) is the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 kg\nof solvent and the constant of proportionality, Kb is called Boiling Point\nElevation Constant or Molal Elevation Constant (Ebullioscopic\nConstant) The unit of Kb is K kg mol-1 Values of Kb for some common\nsolvents are given in Table 1 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1160-1163", "Text": "The unit of Kb is K kg mol-1 Values of Kb for some common\nsolvents are given in Table 1 3 If w2 gram of solute of molar mass M2\nis dissolved in w1 gram of solvent, then molality, m of the solution is\ngiven by the expression:\nm\n= \n2\n2\n1\n/M \n/1000\nww\n = \n2\n2\n1\n1000 \u00d7 \n \u00d7 \nM\nww\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1161-1164", "Text": "Values of Kb for some common\nsolvents are given in Table 1 3 If w2 gram of solute of molar mass M2\nis dissolved in w1 gram of solvent, then molality, m of the solution is\ngiven by the expression:\nm\n= \n2\n2\n1\n/M \n/1000\nww\n = \n2\n2\n1\n1000 \u00d7 \n \u00d7 \nM\nww\n(1 31)\nSubstituting the value of molality in equation (1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1162-1165", "Text": "3 If w2 gram of solute of molar mass M2\nis dissolved in w1 gram of solvent, then molality, m of the solution is\ngiven by the expression:\nm\n= \n2\n2\n1\n/M \n/1000\nww\n = \n2\n2\n1\n1000 \u00d7 \n \u00d7 \nM\nww\n(1 31)\nSubstituting the value of molality in equation (1 30) we get\nDTb = \nb\n2\n2\n1\n \u00d7 1000 \u00d7 \n \u00d7 \nK\nM\nw\nw\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1163-1166", "Text": "If w2 gram of solute of molar mass M2\nis dissolved in w1 gram of solvent, then molality, m of the solution is\ngiven by the expression:\nm\n= \n2\n2\n1\n/M \n/1000\nww\n = \n2\n2\n1\n1000 \u00d7 \n \u00d7 \nM\nww\n(1 31)\nSubstituting the value of molality in equation (1 30) we get\nDTb = \nb\n2\n2\n1\n \u00d7 1000 \u00d7 \n \u00d7 \nK\nM\nw\nw\n(1 32)\n M2 = \n2\nb\nb\n1\n1000 \u00d7 \n \u00d7 \n \u00d7 \n\uf044\nK\nT\nw\nw\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1164-1167", "Text": "31)\nSubstituting the value of molality in equation (1 30) we get\nDTb = \nb\n2\n2\n1\n \u00d7 1000 \u00d7 \n \u00d7 \nK\nM\nw\nw\n(1 32)\n M2 = \n2\nb\nb\n1\n1000 \u00d7 \n \u00d7 \n \u00d7 \n\uf044\nK\nT\nw\nw\n(1 33)\nThus, in order to determine M2, molar mass of the solute, known\nmass of solute in a known mass of the solvent is taken and DTb is\ndetermined experimentally for a known solvent whose Kb value is known"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1165-1168", "Text": "30) we get\nDTb = \nb\n2\n2\n1\n \u00d7 1000 \u00d7 \n \u00d7 \nK\nM\nw\nw\n(1 32)\n M2 = \n2\nb\nb\n1\n1000 \u00d7 \n \u00d7 \n \u00d7 \n\uf044\nK\nT\nw\nw\n(1 33)\nThus, in order to determine M2, molar mass of the solute, known\nmass of solute in a known mass of the solvent is taken and DTb is\ndetermined experimentally for a known solvent whose Kb value is known 18 g of glucose, C6H12O6, is dissolved in 1 kg of water in a saucepan"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1166-1169", "Text": "32)\n M2 = \n2\nb\nb\n1\n1000 \u00d7 \n \u00d7 \n \u00d7 \n\uf044\nK\nT\nw\nw\n(1 33)\nThus, in order to determine M2, molar mass of the solute, known\nmass of solute in a known mass of the solvent is taken and DTb is\ndetermined experimentally for a known solvent whose Kb value is known 18 g of glucose, C6H12O6, is dissolved in 1 kg of water in a saucepan At what temperature will water boil at 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1167-1170", "Text": "33)\nThus, in order to determine M2, molar mass of the solute, known\nmass of solute in a known mass of the solvent is taken and DTb is\ndetermined experimentally for a known solvent whose Kb value is known 18 g of glucose, C6H12O6, is dissolved in 1 kg of water in a saucepan At what temperature will water boil at 1 013 bar"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1168-1171", "Text": "18 g of glucose, C6H12O6, is dissolved in 1 kg of water in a saucepan At what temperature will water boil at 1 013 bar Kb for water is 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1169-1172", "Text": "At what temperature will water boil at 1 013 bar Kb for water is 0 52\nK kg mol-1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1170-1173", "Text": "013 bar Kb for water is 0 52\nK kg mol-1 Moles of glucose = 18 g/ 180 g mol\u20131 = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1171-1174", "Text": "Kb for water is 0 52\nK kg mol-1 Moles of glucose = 18 g/ 180 g mol\u20131 = 0 1 mol\nNumber of kilograms of solvent = 1 kg\nThus molality of glucose solution = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1172-1175", "Text": "52\nK kg mol-1 Moles of glucose = 18 g/ 180 g mol\u20131 = 0 1 mol\nNumber of kilograms of solvent = 1 kg\nThus molality of glucose solution = 0 1 mol kg-1\nFor water, change in boiling point\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1173-1176", "Text": "Moles of glucose = 18 g/ 180 g mol\u20131 = 0 1 mol\nNumber of kilograms of solvent = 1 kg\nThus molality of glucose solution = 0 1 mol kg-1\nFor water, change in boiling point\nExample 1 7\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1174-1177", "Text": "1 mol\nNumber of kilograms of solvent = 1 kg\nThus molality of glucose solution = 0 1 mol kg-1\nFor water, change in boiling point\nExample 1 7\nExample 1 7\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1175-1178", "Text": "1 mol kg-1\nFor water, change in boiling point\nExample 1 7\nExample 1 7\nExample 1 7\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1176-1179", "Text": "7\nExample 1 7\nExample 1 7\nExample 1 7\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1177-1180", "Text": "7\nExample 1 7\nExample 1 7\nExample 1 7\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1178-1181", "Text": "7\nExample 1 7\nExample 1 7\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nFig 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1179-1182", "Text": "7\nExample 1 7\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nFig 1 7: The vapour pressure curve for\nsolution lies below the curve for pure\nwater"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1180-1183", "Text": "7\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nFig 1 7: The vapour pressure curve for\nsolution lies below the curve for pure\nwater The diagram shows that DTb\ndenotes the elevation of boiling\npoint of a solvent in solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1181-1184", "Text": "1 7: The vapour pressure curve for\nsolution lies below the curve for pure\nwater The diagram shows that DTb\ndenotes the elevation of boiling\npoint of a solvent in solution 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1182-1185", "Text": "7: The vapour pressure curve for\nsolution lies below the curve for pure\nwater The diagram shows that DTb\ndenotes the elevation of boiling\npoint of a solvent in solution 1 013 bar\n or\nRationalised 2023-24\n18\nChemistry\nThe lowering of vapour pressure of a solution causes a lowering of the\nfreezing point compared to that of the pure solvent (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1183-1186", "Text": "The diagram shows that DTb\ndenotes the elevation of boiling\npoint of a solvent in solution 1 013 bar\n or\nRationalised 2023-24\n18\nChemistry\nThe lowering of vapour pressure of a solution causes a lowering of the\nfreezing point compared to that of the pure solvent (Fig 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1184-1187", "Text": "1 013 bar\n or\nRationalised 2023-24\n18\nChemistry\nThe lowering of vapour pressure of a solution causes a lowering of the\nfreezing point compared to that of the pure solvent (Fig 1 8)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1185-1188", "Text": "013 bar\n or\nRationalised 2023-24\n18\nChemistry\nThe lowering of vapour pressure of a solution causes a lowering of the\nfreezing point compared to that of the pure solvent (Fig 1 8) We know\nthat at the freezing point of a substance, the solid phase is in dynamic\nequilibrium with the liquid phase"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1186-1189", "Text": "1 8) We know\nthat at the freezing point of a substance, the solid phase is in dynamic\nequilibrium with the liquid phase Thus, the\nfreezing point of a substance may be defined as\nthe temperature at which the vapour pressure of\nthe substance in its liquid phase is equal to its\nvapour pressure in the solid phase"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1187-1190", "Text": "8) We know\nthat at the freezing point of a substance, the solid phase is in dynamic\nequilibrium with the liquid phase Thus, the\nfreezing point of a substance may be defined as\nthe temperature at which the vapour pressure of\nthe substance in its liquid phase is equal to its\nvapour pressure in the solid phase A solution\nwill freeze when its vapour pressure equals the\nvapour pressure of the pure solid solvent as is\nclear from Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1188-1191", "Text": "We know\nthat at the freezing point of a substance, the solid phase is in dynamic\nequilibrium with the liquid phase Thus, the\nfreezing point of a substance may be defined as\nthe temperature at which the vapour pressure of\nthe substance in its liquid phase is equal to its\nvapour pressure in the solid phase A solution\nwill freeze when its vapour pressure equals the\nvapour pressure of the pure solid solvent as is\nclear from Fig 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1189-1192", "Text": "Thus, the\nfreezing point of a substance may be defined as\nthe temperature at which the vapour pressure of\nthe substance in its liquid phase is equal to its\nvapour pressure in the solid phase A solution\nwill freeze when its vapour pressure equals the\nvapour pressure of the pure solid solvent as is\nclear from Fig 1 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1190-1193", "Text": "A solution\nwill freeze when its vapour pressure equals the\nvapour pressure of the pure solid solvent as is\nclear from Fig 1 8 According to Raoult\u2019s law,\nwhen a non-volatile solid is added to the solvent\nits vapour pressure decreases and now it would\nbecome equal to that of solid solvent at lower\ntemperature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1191-1194", "Text": "1 8 According to Raoult\u2019s law,\nwhen a non-volatile solid is added to the solvent\nits vapour pressure decreases and now it would\nbecome equal to that of solid solvent at lower\ntemperature Thus, the freezing point of the\nsolvent decreases"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1192-1195", "Text": "8 According to Raoult\u2019s law,\nwhen a non-volatile solid is added to the solvent\nits vapour pressure decreases and now it would\nbecome equal to that of solid solvent at lower\ntemperature Thus, the freezing point of the\nsolvent decreases Let \n0\nfT be the freezing point of pure solvent\nand \nfT be its freezing point when non-volatile\nsolute is dissolved in it"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1193-1196", "Text": "According to Raoult\u2019s law,\nwhen a non-volatile solid is added to the solvent\nits vapour pressure decreases and now it would\nbecome equal to that of solid solvent at lower\ntemperature Thus, the freezing point of the\nsolvent decreases Let \n0\nfT be the freezing point of pure solvent\nand \nfT be its freezing point when non-volatile\nsolute is dissolved in it The decrease in freezing\npoint"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1194-1197", "Text": "Thus, the freezing point of the\nsolvent decreases Let \n0\nfT be the freezing point of pure solvent\nand \nfT be its freezing point when non-volatile\nsolute is dissolved in it The decrease in freezing\npoint 0\nf\nf\nf\n\uf044\n\uf03d\n\uf02d\nT\nT\nT is known as depression in\nfreezing point"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1195-1198", "Text": "Let \n0\nfT be the freezing point of pure solvent\nand \nfT be its freezing point when non-volatile\nsolute is dissolved in it The decrease in freezing\npoint 0\nf\nf\nf\n\uf044\n\uf03d\n\uf02d\nT\nT\nT is known as depression in\nfreezing point Similar to elevation of boiling point, depression of freezing point (DTf)\nfor dilute solution (ideal solution) is directly proportional to molality,\nm of the solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1196-1199", "Text": "The decrease in freezing\npoint 0\nf\nf\nf\n\uf044\n\uf03d\n\uf02d\nT\nT\nT is known as depression in\nfreezing point Similar to elevation of boiling point, depression of freezing point (DTf)\nfor dilute solution (ideal solution) is directly proportional to molality,\nm of the solution Thus,\nDTf \u00b5 m\nor\n DTf = Kf m\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1197-1200", "Text": "0\nf\nf\nf\n\uf044\n\uf03d\n\uf02d\nT\nT\nT is known as depression in\nfreezing point Similar to elevation of boiling point, depression of freezing point (DTf)\nfor dilute solution (ideal solution) is directly proportional to molality,\nm of the solution Thus,\nDTf \u00b5 m\nor\n DTf = Kf m\n(1 34)\nThe proportionality constant, Kf, which depends on the nature of the\nsolvent is known as Freezing Point Depression Constant or Molal\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1198-1201", "Text": "Similar to elevation of boiling point, depression of freezing point (DTf)\nfor dilute solution (ideal solution) is directly proportional to molality,\nm of the solution Thus,\nDTf \u00b5 m\nor\n DTf = Kf m\n(1 34)\nThe proportionality constant, Kf, which depends on the nature of the\nsolvent is known as Freezing Point Depression Constant or Molal\nExample 1 8\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1199-1202", "Text": "Thus,\nDTf \u00b5 m\nor\n DTf = Kf m\n(1 34)\nThe proportionality constant, Kf, which depends on the nature of the\nsolvent is known as Freezing Point Depression Constant or Molal\nExample 1 8\nExample 1 8\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1200-1203", "Text": "34)\nThe proportionality constant, Kf, which depends on the nature of the\nsolvent is known as Freezing Point Depression Constant or Molal\nExample 1 8\nExample 1 8\nExample 1 8\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1201-1204", "Text": "8\nExample 1 8\nExample 1 8\nExample 1 8\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1202-1205", "Text": "8\nExample 1 8\nExample 1 8\nExample 1 8\nDTb = Kb \u00d7 m = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1203-1206", "Text": "8\nExample 1 8\nExample 1 8\nDTb = Kb \u00d7 m = 0 52 K kg mol\u20131 \u00d7 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1204-1207", "Text": "8\nExample 1 8\nDTb = Kb \u00d7 m = 0 52 K kg mol\u20131 \u00d7 0 1 mol kg\u20131 = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1205-1208", "Text": "8\nDTb = Kb \u00d7 m = 0 52 K kg mol\u20131 \u00d7 0 1 mol kg\u20131 = 0 052 K\nSince water boils at 373"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1206-1209", "Text": "52 K kg mol\u20131 \u00d7 0 1 mol kg\u20131 = 0 052 K\nSince water boils at 373 15 K at 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1207-1210", "Text": "1 mol kg\u20131 = 0 052 K\nSince water boils at 373 15 K at 1 013 bar pressure, therefore, the\nboiling point of solution will be 373"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1208-1211", "Text": "052 K\nSince water boils at 373 15 K at 1 013 bar pressure, therefore, the\nboiling point of solution will be 373 15 + 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1209-1212", "Text": "15 K at 1 013 bar pressure, therefore, the\nboiling point of solution will be 373 15 + 0 052 = 373"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1210-1213", "Text": "013 bar pressure, therefore, the\nboiling point of solution will be 373 15 + 0 052 = 373 202 K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1211-1214", "Text": "15 + 0 052 = 373 202 K The boiling point of benzene is 353"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1212-1215", "Text": "052 = 373 202 K The boiling point of benzene is 353 23 K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1213-1216", "Text": "202 K The boiling point of benzene is 353 23 K When 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1214-1217", "Text": "The boiling point of benzene is 353 23 K When 1 80 g of a non-volatile\nsolute was dissolved in 90 g of benzene, the boiling point is raised to\n354"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1215-1218", "Text": "23 K When 1 80 g of a non-volatile\nsolute was dissolved in 90 g of benzene, the boiling point is raised to\n354 11 K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1216-1219", "Text": "When 1 80 g of a non-volatile\nsolute was dissolved in 90 g of benzene, the boiling point is raised to\n354 11 K Calculate the molar mass of the solute"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1217-1220", "Text": "80 g of a non-volatile\nsolute was dissolved in 90 g of benzene, the boiling point is raised to\n354 11 K Calculate the molar mass of the solute Kb for benzene is 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1218-1221", "Text": "11 K Calculate the molar mass of the solute Kb for benzene is 2 53\nK kg mol\u20131\nThe elevation (DTb) in the boiling point = 354"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1219-1222", "Text": "Calculate the molar mass of the solute Kb for benzene is 2 53\nK kg mol\u20131\nThe elevation (DTb) in the boiling point = 354 11 K \u2013 353"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1220-1223", "Text": "Kb for benzene is 2 53\nK kg mol\u20131\nThe elevation (DTb) in the boiling point = 354 11 K \u2013 353 23 K = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1221-1224", "Text": "53\nK kg mol\u20131\nThe elevation (DTb) in the boiling point = 354 11 K \u2013 353 23 K = 0 88 K\nSubstituting these values in expression (2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1222-1225", "Text": "11 K \u2013 353 23 K = 0 88 K\nSubstituting these values in expression (2 33) we get\nM2 = \n\u20131\n\u20131\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1223-1226", "Text": "23 K = 0 88 K\nSubstituting these values in expression (2 33) we get\nM2 = \n\u20131\n\u20131\n2 53 K kg mol\n \u00d7 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1224-1227", "Text": "88 K\nSubstituting these values in expression (2 33) we get\nM2 = \n\u20131\n\u20131\n2 53 K kg mol\n \u00d7 1 8 g \u00d7 1000 g kg\n \n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1225-1228", "Text": "33) we get\nM2 = \n\u20131\n\u20131\n2 53 K kg mol\n \u00d7 1 8 g \u00d7 1000 g kg\n \n0 88 K \u00d7 90 g\n = 58 g mol\u20131\nTherefore, molar mass of the solute, M2 = 58 g mol\u20131\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1226-1229", "Text": "53 K kg mol\n \u00d7 1 8 g \u00d7 1000 g kg\n \n0 88 K \u00d7 90 g\n = 58 g mol\u20131\nTherefore, molar mass of the solute, M2 = 58 g mol\u20131\nFig 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1227-1230", "Text": "8 g \u00d7 1000 g kg\n \n0 88 K \u00d7 90 g\n = 58 g mol\u20131\nTherefore, molar mass of the solute, M2 = 58 g mol\u20131\nFig 1 8: Diagram showing DTf, depression\nof the freezing point of a solvent in\na solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1228-1231", "Text": "88 K \u00d7 90 g\n = 58 g mol\u20131\nTherefore, molar mass of the solute, M2 = 58 g mol\u20131\nFig 1 8: Diagram showing DTf, depression\nof the freezing point of a solvent in\na solution Solution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1229-1232", "Text": "1 8: Diagram showing DTf, depression\nof the freezing point of a solvent in\na solution Solution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n1 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1230-1233", "Text": "8: Diagram showing DTf, depression\nof the freezing point of a solvent in\na solution Solution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n1 6 3 Depression\nof Freezing\nPoint\nRationalised 2023-24\n19\nSolutions\nDepression Constant or Cryoscopic Constant"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1231-1234", "Text": "Solution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n1 6 3 Depression\nof Freezing\nPoint\nRationalised 2023-24\n19\nSolutions\nDepression Constant or Cryoscopic Constant The unit of Kf is K kg\nmol-1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1232-1235", "Text": "6 3 Depression\nof Freezing\nPoint\nRationalised 2023-24\n19\nSolutions\nDepression Constant or Cryoscopic Constant The unit of Kf is K kg\nmol-1 Values of Kf for some common solvents are listed in Table 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1233-1236", "Text": "3 Depression\nof Freezing\nPoint\nRationalised 2023-24\n19\nSolutions\nDepression Constant or Cryoscopic Constant The unit of Kf is K kg\nmol-1 Values of Kf for some common solvents are listed in Table 1 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1234-1237", "Text": "The unit of Kf is K kg\nmol-1 Values of Kf for some common solvents are listed in Table 1 3 If w2 gram of the solute having molar mass as M2, present in w1\ngram of solvent, produces the depression in freezing point DTf of the\nsolvent then molality of the solute is given by the equation (1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1235-1238", "Text": "Values of Kf for some common solvents are listed in Table 1 3 If w2 gram of the solute having molar mass as M2, present in w1\ngram of solvent, produces the depression in freezing point DTf of the\nsolvent then molality of the solute is given by the equation (1 31)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1236-1239", "Text": "3 If w2 gram of the solute having molar mass as M2, present in w1\ngram of solvent, produces the depression in freezing point DTf of the\nsolvent then molality of the solute is given by the equation (1 31) m\n= w\nw\n2\n2\n1\n / \n \n/1000\nM\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1237-1240", "Text": "If w2 gram of the solute having molar mass as M2, present in w1\ngram of solvent, produces the depression in freezing point DTf of the\nsolvent then molality of the solute is given by the equation (1 31) m\n= w\nw\n2\n2\n1\n / \n \n/1000\nM\n(1 31)\nSubstituting this value of molality in equation (1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1238-1241", "Text": "31) m\n= w\nw\n2\n2\n1\n / \n \n/1000\nM\n(1 31)\nSubstituting this value of molality in equation (1 34) we get:\nDTf = \nf\n2\n2\n1\n \n \n/\n\uf0b4/1000\nK\nM\nw\nw\nDTf = \nf\n2\n2\n1\n \u00d7 \n \u00d7 1000\n \u00d7 \nK\nM\nw\nw\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1239-1242", "Text": "m\n= w\nw\n2\n2\n1\n / \n \n/1000\nM\n(1 31)\nSubstituting this value of molality in equation (1 34) we get:\nDTf = \nf\n2\n2\n1\n \n \n/\n\uf0b4/1000\nK\nM\nw\nw\nDTf = \nf\n2\n2\n1\n \u00d7 \n \u00d7 1000\n \u00d7 \nK\nM\nw\nw\n(1 35)\nM2 = \nf\n2\nf\n1\n \u00d7 \n \u00d7 1000 \n \n \u00d7 \n\uf044\nK\nT\nw\nw\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1240-1243", "Text": "31)\nSubstituting this value of molality in equation (1 34) we get:\nDTf = \nf\n2\n2\n1\n \n \n/\n\uf0b4/1000\nK\nM\nw\nw\nDTf = \nf\n2\n2\n1\n \u00d7 \n \u00d7 1000\n \u00d7 \nK\nM\nw\nw\n(1 35)\nM2 = \nf\n2\nf\n1\n \u00d7 \n \u00d7 1000 \n \n \u00d7 \n\uf044\nK\nT\nw\nw\n(1 36)\nThus for determining the molar mass of the solute we should know\nthe quantities w1, w2, DTf, along with the molal freezing point depression\nconstant"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1241-1244", "Text": "34) we get:\nDTf = \nf\n2\n2\n1\n \n \n/\n\uf0b4/1000\nK\nM\nw\nw\nDTf = \nf\n2\n2\n1\n \u00d7 \n \u00d7 1000\n \u00d7 \nK\nM\nw\nw\n(1 35)\nM2 = \nf\n2\nf\n1\n \u00d7 \n \u00d7 1000 \n \n \u00d7 \n\uf044\nK\nT\nw\nw\n(1 36)\nThus for determining the molar mass of the solute we should know\nthe quantities w1, w2, DTf, along with the molal freezing point depression\nconstant The values of Kf and Kb, which depend upon the nature of the\nsolvent, can be ascertained from the following relations"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1242-1245", "Text": "35)\nM2 = \nf\n2\nf\n1\n \u00d7 \n \u00d7 1000 \n \n \u00d7 \n\uf044\nK\nT\nw\nw\n(1 36)\nThus for determining the molar mass of the solute we should know\nthe quantities w1, w2, DTf, along with the molal freezing point depression\nconstant The values of Kf and Kb, which depend upon the nature of the\nsolvent, can be ascertained from the following relations Kf\n=\n2\n1\nf\nfus\n \u00d7 \n \u00d7 \n1000 \u00d7 \uf044\nR\nM\nT\nH\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1243-1246", "Text": "36)\nThus for determining the molar mass of the solute we should know\nthe quantities w1, w2, DTf, along with the molal freezing point depression\nconstant The values of Kf and Kb, which depend upon the nature of the\nsolvent, can be ascertained from the following relations Kf\n=\n2\n1\nf\nfus\n \u00d7 \n \u00d7 \n1000 \u00d7 \uf044\nR\nM\nT\nH\n(1 37)\nKb\n=\n2\n1\nb\nvap\n \u00d7 \n1000 \u00d7 \uf044 \u00d7 \nR\nM\nT\nH\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1244-1247", "Text": "The values of Kf and Kb, which depend upon the nature of the\nsolvent, can be ascertained from the following relations Kf\n=\n2\n1\nf\nfus\n \u00d7 \n \u00d7 \n1000 \u00d7 \uf044\nR\nM\nT\nH\n(1 37)\nKb\n=\n2\n1\nb\nvap\n \u00d7 \n1000 \u00d7 \uf044 \u00d7 \nR\nM\nT\nH\n(1 38)\nHere the symbols R and M1 stand for the gas constant and molar\nmass of the solvent, respectively and Tf and Tb denote the freezing point\nand the boiling point of the pure solvent respectively in kelvin"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1245-1248", "Text": "Kf\n=\n2\n1\nf\nfus\n \u00d7 \n \u00d7 \n1000 \u00d7 \uf044\nR\nM\nT\nH\n(1 37)\nKb\n=\n2\n1\nb\nvap\n \u00d7 \n1000 \u00d7 \uf044 \u00d7 \nR\nM\nT\nH\n(1 38)\nHere the symbols R and M1 stand for the gas constant and molar\nmass of the solvent, respectively and Tf and Tb denote the freezing point\nand the boiling point of the pure solvent respectively in kelvin Further,\nDfusH and DvapH represent the enthalpies for the fusion and vapourisation\nof the solvent, respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1246-1249", "Text": "37)\nKb\n=\n2\n1\nb\nvap\n \u00d7 \n1000 \u00d7 \uf044 \u00d7 \nR\nM\nT\nH\n(1 38)\nHere the symbols R and M1 stand for the gas constant and molar\nmass of the solvent, respectively and Tf and Tb denote the freezing point\nand the boiling point of the pure solvent respectively in kelvin Further,\nDfusH and DvapH represent the enthalpies for the fusion and vapourisation\nof the solvent, respectively Solvent\nb"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1247-1250", "Text": "38)\nHere the symbols R and M1 stand for the gas constant and molar\nmass of the solvent, respectively and Tf and Tb denote the freezing point\nand the boiling point of the pure solvent respectively in kelvin Further,\nDfusH and DvapH represent the enthalpies for the fusion and vapourisation\nof the solvent, respectively Solvent\nb p"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1248-1251", "Text": "Further,\nDfusH and DvapH represent the enthalpies for the fusion and vapourisation\nof the solvent, respectively Solvent\nb p /K\nKb/K kg mol-1\nf"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1249-1252", "Text": "Solvent\nb p /K\nKb/K kg mol-1\nf p"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1250-1253", "Text": "p /K\nKb/K kg mol-1\nf p /K\nKf/K kg mol-1\nWater\n373"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1251-1254", "Text": "/K\nKb/K kg mol-1\nf p /K\nKf/K kg mol-1\nWater\n373 15\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1252-1255", "Text": "p /K\nKf/K kg mol-1\nWater\n373 15\n0 52\n273"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1253-1256", "Text": "/K\nKf/K kg mol-1\nWater\n373 15\n0 52\n273 0\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1254-1257", "Text": "15\n0 52\n273 0\n1 86\nEthanol\n351"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1255-1258", "Text": "52\n273 0\n1 86\nEthanol\n351 5\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1256-1259", "Text": "0\n1 86\nEthanol\n351 5\n1 20\n155"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1257-1260", "Text": "86\nEthanol\n351 5\n1 20\n155 7\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1258-1261", "Text": "5\n1 20\n155 7\n1 99\nCyclohexane\n353"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1259-1262", "Text": "20\n155 7\n1 99\nCyclohexane\n353 74\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1260-1263", "Text": "7\n1 99\nCyclohexane\n353 74\n2 79\n279"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1261-1264", "Text": "99\nCyclohexane\n353 74\n2 79\n279 55\n20"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1262-1265", "Text": "74\n2 79\n279 55\n20 00\nBenzene\n353"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1263-1266", "Text": "79\n279 55\n20 00\nBenzene\n353 3\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1264-1267", "Text": "55\n20 00\nBenzene\n353 3\n2 53\n278"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1265-1268", "Text": "00\nBenzene\n353 3\n2 53\n278 6\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1266-1269", "Text": "3\n2 53\n278 6\n5 12\nChloroform\n334"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1267-1270", "Text": "53\n278 6\n5 12\nChloroform\n334 4\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1268-1271", "Text": "6\n5 12\nChloroform\n334 4\n3 63\n209"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1269-1272", "Text": "12\nChloroform\n334 4\n3 63\n209 6\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1270-1273", "Text": "4\n3 63\n209 6\n4 79\nCarbon tetrachloride\n350"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1271-1274", "Text": "63\n209 6\n4 79\nCarbon tetrachloride\n350 0\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1272-1275", "Text": "6\n4 79\nCarbon tetrachloride\n350 0\n5 03\n250"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1273-1276", "Text": "79\nCarbon tetrachloride\n350 0\n5 03\n250 5\n31"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1274-1277", "Text": "0\n5 03\n250 5\n31 8\nCarbon disulphide\n319"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1275-1278", "Text": "03\n250 5\n31 8\nCarbon disulphide\n319 4\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1276-1279", "Text": "5\n31 8\nCarbon disulphide\n319 4\n2 34\n164"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1277-1280", "Text": "8\nCarbon disulphide\n319 4\n2 34\n164 2\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1278-1281", "Text": "4\n2 34\n164 2\n3 83\nDiethyl ether\n307"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1279-1282", "Text": "34\n164 2\n3 83\nDiethyl ether\n307 8\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1280-1283", "Text": "2\n3 83\nDiethyl ether\n307 8\n2 02\n156"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1281-1284", "Text": "83\nDiethyl ether\n307 8\n2 02\n156 9\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1282-1285", "Text": "8\n2 02\n156 9\n1 79\nAcetic acid\n391"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1283-1286", "Text": "02\n156 9\n1 79\nAcetic acid\n391 1\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1284-1287", "Text": "9\n1 79\nAcetic acid\n391 1\n2 93\n290"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1285-1288", "Text": "79\nAcetic acid\n391 1\n2 93\n290 0\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1286-1289", "Text": "1\n2 93\n290 0\n3 90\nTable 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1287-1290", "Text": "93\n290 0\n3 90\nTable 1 3: Molal Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing Point\nDepression Constants for Some Solvents\nRationalised 2023-24\n20\nChemistry\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1288-1291", "Text": "0\n3 90\nTable 1 3: Molal Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing Point\nDepression Constants for Some Solvents\nRationalised 2023-24\n20\nChemistry\nFig 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1289-1292", "Text": "90\nTable 1 3: Molal Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing Point\nDepression Constants for Some Solvents\nRationalised 2023-24\n20\nChemistry\nFig 1 9\nLevel of solution\nrises in the thistle\nfunnel due to\nosmosis of solvent"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1290-1293", "Text": "3: Molal Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing Point\nDepression Constants for Some Solvents\nRationalised 2023-24\n20\nChemistry\nFig 1 9\nLevel of solution\nrises in the thistle\nfunnel due to\nosmosis of solvent 45 g of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) is mixed with 600 g of water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1291-1294", "Text": "1 9\nLevel of solution\nrises in the thistle\nfunnel due to\nosmosis of solvent 45 g of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) is mixed with 600 g of water Calculate\n(a) the freezing point depression and (b) the freezing point of the solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1292-1295", "Text": "9\nLevel of solution\nrises in the thistle\nfunnel due to\nosmosis of solvent 45 g of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) is mixed with 600 g of water Calculate\n(a) the freezing point depression and (b) the freezing point of the solution Depression in freezing point is related to the molality, therefore, the molality\nof the solution with respect to ethylene glycol =\nmoles of ethylene glycol\nmass of water in kilogram\nMoles of ethylene glycol = \n1\n45 g\n62 g mol\uf02d = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1293-1296", "Text": "45 g of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) is mixed with 600 g of water Calculate\n(a) the freezing point depression and (b) the freezing point of the solution Depression in freezing point is related to the molality, therefore, the molality\nof the solution with respect to ethylene glycol =\nmoles of ethylene glycol\nmass of water in kilogram\nMoles of ethylene glycol = \n1\n45 g\n62 g mol\uf02d = 0 73 mol\nMass of water in kg = \n1\n600g\n1000g kg\uf02d = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1294-1297", "Text": "Calculate\n(a) the freezing point depression and (b) the freezing point of the solution Depression in freezing point is related to the molality, therefore, the molality\nof the solution with respect to ethylene glycol =\nmoles of ethylene glycol\nmass of water in kilogram\nMoles of ethylene glycol = \n1\n45 g\n62 g mol\uf02d = 0 73 mol\nMass of water in kg = \n1\n600g\n1000g kg\uf02d = 0 6 kg\nHence molality of ethylene glycol = \n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1295-1298", "Text": "Depression in freezing point is related to the molality, therefore, the molality\nof the solution with respect to ethylene glycol =\nmoles of ethylene glycol\nmass of water in kilogram\nMoles of ethylene glycol = \n1\n45 g\n62 g mol\uf02d = 0 73 mol\nMass of water in kg = \n1\n600g\n1000g kg\uf02d = 0 6 kg\nHence molality of ethylene glycol = \n0 73 mol\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1296-1299", "Text": "73 mol\nMass of water in kg = \n1\n600g\n1000g kg\uf02d = 0 6 kg\nHence molality of ethylene glycol = \n0 73 mol\n0 60 kg = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1297-1300", "Text": "6 kg\nHence molality of ethylene glycol = \n0 73 mol\n0 60 kg = 1 2 mol kg \u20131\nTherefore freezing point depression,\n\u00c4Tf = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1298-1301", "Text": "73 mol\n0 60 kg = 1 2 mol kg \u20131\nTherefore freezing point depression,\n\u00c4Tf = 1 86 K kg mol\u20131 \u00d7 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1299-1302", "Text": "60 kg = 1 2 mol kg \u20131\nTherefore freezing point depression,\n\u00c4Tf = 1 86 K kg mol\u20131 \u00d7 1 2 mol kg \u20131 = 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1300-1303", "Text": "2 mol kg \u20131\nTherefore freezing point depression,\n\u00c4Tf = 1 86 K kg mol\u20131 \u00d7 1 2 mol kg \u20131 = 2 2 K\nFreezing point of the aqueous solution = 273"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1301-1304", "Text": "86 K kg mol\u20131 \u00d7 1 2 mol kg \u20131 = 2 2 K\nFreezing point of the aqueous solution = 273 15 K \u2013 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1302-1305", "Text": "2 mol kg \u20131 = 2 2 K\nFreezing point of the aqueous solution = 273 15 K \u2013 2 2 K = 270"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1303-1306", "Text": "2 K\nFreezing point of the aqueous solution = 273 15 K \u2013 2 2 K = 270 95 K\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1304-1307", "Text": "15 K \u2013 2 2 K = 270 95 K\n1 00 g of a non-electrolyte solute dissolved in 50 g of benzene lowered the\nfreezing point of benzene by 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1305-1308", "Text": "2 K = 270 95 K\n1 00 g of a non-electrolyte solute dissolved in 50 g of benzene lowered the\nfreezing point of benzene by 0 40 K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1306-1309", "Text": "95 K\n1 00 g of a non-electrolyte solute dissolved in 50 g of benzene lowered the\nfreezing point of benzene by 0 40 K The freezing point depression constant\nof benzene is 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1307-1310", "Text": "00 g of a non-electrolyte solute dissolved in 50 g of benzene lowered the\nfreezing point of benzene by 0 40 K The freezing point depression constant\nof benzene is 5 12 K kg mol\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1308-1311", "Text": "40 K The freezing point depression constant\nof benzene is 5 12 K kg mol\u20131 Find the molar mass of the solute"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1309-1312", "Text": "The freezing point depression constant\nof benzene is 5 12 K kg mol\u20131 Find the molar mass of the solute Substituting the values of various terms involved in equation (1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1310-1313", "Text": "12 K kg mol\u20131 Find the molar mass of the solute Substituting the values of various terms involved in equation (1 36) we get,\nM2 = \n1\n1\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1311-1314", "Text": "Find the molar mass of the solute Substituting the values of various terms involved in equation (1 36) we get,\nM2 = \n1\n1\n5 12 K kg mol\n \u00d7 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1312-1315", "Text": "Substituting the values of various terms involved in equation (1 36) we get,\nM2 = \n1\n1\n5 12 K kg mol\n \u00d7 1 00 g \u00d7 1000 g kg\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1313-1316", "Text": "36) we get,\nM2 = \n1\n1\n5 12 K kg mol\n \u00d7 1 00 g \u00d7 1000 g kg\n0 40 \u00d7 50 g\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n = 256 g mol-1\nThus, molar mass of the solute = 256 g mol-1\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1314-1317", "Text": "12 K kg mol\n \u00d7 1 00 g \u00d7 1000 g kg\n0 40 \u00d7 50 g\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n = 256 g mol-1\nThus, molar mass of the solute = 256 g mol-1\nExample 1 9\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1315-1318", "Text": "00 g \u00d7 1000 g kg\n0 40 \u00d7 50 g\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n = 256 g mol-1\nThus, molar mass of the solute = 256 g mol-1\nExample 1 9\nExample 1 9\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1316-1319", "Text": "40 \u00d7 50 g\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n = 256 g mol-1\nThus, molar mass of the solute = 256 g mol-1\nExample 1 9\nExample 1 9\nExample 1 9\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1317-1320", "Text": "9\nExample 1 9\nExample 1 9\nExample 1 9\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1318-1321", "Text": "9\nExample 1 9\nExample 1 9\nExample 1 9\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1319-1322", "Text": "9\nExample 1 9\nExample 1 9\nExample 1 10\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1320-1323", "Text": "9\nExample 1 9\nExample 1 10\nExample 1 10\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1321-1324", "Text": "9\nExample 1 10\nExample 1 10\nExample 1 10\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1322-1325", "Text": "10\nExample 1 10\nExample 1 10\nExample 1 10\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1323-1326", "Text": "10\nExample 1 10\nExample 1 10\nExample 1 10\nThere are many phenomena which we observe in nature or at home"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1324-1327", "Text": "10\nExample 1 10\nExample 1 10\nThere are many phenomena which we observe in nature or at home For example, raw mangoes shrivel when pickled in brine (salt water);\nwilted flowers revive when placed in fresh water, blood cells collapse\nwhen suspended in saline water, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1325-1328", "Text": "10\nExample 1 10\nThere are many phenomena which we observe in nature or at home For example, raw mangoes shrivel when pickled in brine (salt water);\nwilted flowers revive when placed in fresh water, blood cells collapse\nwhen suspended in saline water, etc If we look into these processes we\nfind one thing common in all,\nthat is, all these substances\nare bound by membranes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1326-1329", "Text": "10\nThere are many phenomena which we observe in nature or at home For example, raw mangoes shrivel when pickled in brine (salt water);\nwilted flowers revive when placed in fresh water, blood cells collapse\nwhen suspended in saline water, etc If we look into these processes we\nfind one thing common in all,\nthat is, all these substances\nare bound by membranes These membranes can be of\nanimal or vegetable origin\nand these occur naturally\nsuch as pig\u2019s bladder or\nparchment or can be\nsynthetic such as cellophane"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1327-1330", "Text": "For example, raw mangoes shrivel when pickled in brine (salt water);\nwilted flowers revive when placed in fresh water, blood cells collapse\nwhen suspended in saline water, etc If we look into these processes we\nfind one thing common in all,\nthat is, all these substances\nare bound by membranes These membranes can be of\nanimal or vegetable origin\nand these occur naturally\nsuch as pig\u2019s bladder or\nparchment or can be\nsynthetic such as cellophane These membranes appear to\nbe continuous sheets or\nfilms, yet they contain a\nnetwork of submicroscopic\nholes or pores"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1328-1331", "Text": "If we look into these processes we\nfind one thing common in all,\nthat is, all these substances\nare bound by membranes These membranes can be of\nanimal or vegetable origin\nand these occur naturally\nsuch as pig\u2019s bladder or\nparchment or can be\nsynthetic such as cellophane These membranes appear to\nbe continuous sheets or\nfilms, yet they contain a\nnetwork of submicroscopic\nholes or pores Small solvent\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1329-1332", "Text": "These membranes can be of\nanimal or vegetable origin\nand these occur naturally\nsuch as pig\u2019s bladder or\nparchment or can be\nsynthetic such as cellophane These membranes appear to\nbe continuous sheets or\nfilms, yet they contain a\nnetwork of submicroscopic\nholes or pores Small solvent\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n1 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1330-1333", "Text": "These membranes appear to\nbe continuous sheets or\nfilms, yet they contain a\nnetwork of submicroscopic\nholes or pores Small solvent\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n1 6 4 Osmosis\nand Osmotic\nPressure\nRationalised 2023-24\n21\nSolutions\nmolecules, like water, can pass through these holes but the passage of\nbigger molecules like solute is hindered"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1331-1334", "Text": "Small solvent\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n1 6 4 Osmosis\nand Osmotic\nPressure\nRationalised 2023-24\n21\nSolutions\nmolecules, like water, can pass through these holes but the passage of\nbigger molecules like solute is hindered Membranes having this kind\nof properties are known as semipermeable membranes (SPM)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1332-1335", "Text": "6 4 Osmosis\nand Osmotic\nPressure\nRationalised 2023-24\n21\nSolutions\nmolecules, like water, can pass through these holes but the passage of\nbigger molecules like solute is hindered Membranes having this kind\nof properties are known as semipermeable membranes (SPM) Assume that only solvent molecules can pass through these semi-\npermeable membranes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1333-1336", "Text": "4 Osmosis\nand Osmotic\nPressure\nRationalised 2023-24\n21\nSolutions\nmolecules, like water, can pass through these holes but the passage of\nbigger molecules like solute is hindered Membranes having this kind\nof properties are known as semipermeable membranes (SPM) Assume that only solvent molecules can pass through these semi-\npermeable membranes If this membrane is placed between the solvent\nand solution as shown in Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1334-1337", "Text": "Membranes having this kind\nof properties are known as semipermeable membranes (SPM) Assume that only solvent molecules can pass through these semi-\npermeable membranes If this membrane is placed between the solvent\nand solution as shown in Fig 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1335-1338", "Text": "Assume that only solvent molecules can pass through these semi-\npermeable membranes If this membrane is placed between the solvent\nand solution as shown in Fig 1 9, the solvent molecules will flow through\nthe membrane from pure solvent to the solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1336-1339", "Text": "If this membrane is placed between the solvent\nand solution as shown in Fig 1 9, the solvent molecules will flow through\nthe membrane from pure solvent to the solution This process of flow\nof the solvent is called osmosis"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1337-1340", "Text": "1 9, the solvent molecules will flow through\nthe membrane from pure solvent to the solution This process of flow\nof the solvent is called osmosis The flow will continue till the equilibrium is attained"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1338-1341", "Text": "9, the solvent molecules will flow through\nthe membrane from pure solvent to the solution This process of flow\nof the solvent is called osmosis The flow will continue till the equilibrium is attained The flow of the\nsolvent from its side to solution side across a semipermeable membrane\ncan be stopped if some extra pressure is applied on the solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1339-1342", "Text": "This process of flow\nof the solvent is called osmosis The flow will continue till the equilibrium is attained The flow of the\nsolvent from its side to solution side across a semipermeable membrane\ncan be stopped if some extra pressure is applied on the solution This\npressure that just stops the flow of solvent is called osmotic\npressure of the solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1340-1343", "Text": "The flow will continue till the equilibrium is attained The flow of the\nsolvent from its side to solution side across a semipermeable membrane\ncan be stopped if some extra pressure is applied on the solution This\npressure that just stops the flow of solvent is called osmotic\npressure of the solution The flow of solvent from dilute solution to\nthe concentrated solution across a semipermeable membrane is due to\nosmosis"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1341-1344", "Text": "The flow of the\nsolvent from its side to solution side across a semipermeable membrane\ncan be stopped if some extra pressure is applied on the solution This\npressure that just stops the flow of solvent is called osmotic\npressure of the solution The flow of solvent from dilute solution to\nthe concentrated solution across a semipermeable membrane is due to\nosmosis The important point to be kept in mind is that solvent molecules\nalways flow from lower concentration to higher concentration of solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1342-1345", "Text": "This\npressure that just stops the flow of solvent is called osmotic\npressure of the solution The flow of solvent from dilute solution to\nthe concentrated solution across a semipermeable membrane is due to\nosmosis The important point to be kept in mind is that solvent molecules\nalways flow from lower concentration to higher concentration of solution The osmotic pressure has been found to depend on the concentration\nof the solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1343-1346", "Text": "The flow of solvent from dilute solution to\nthe concentrated solution across a semipermeable membrane is due to\nosmosis The important point to be kept in mind is that solvent molecules\nalways flow from lower concentration to higher concentration of solution The osmotic pressure has been found to depend on the concentration\nof the solution The osmotic pressure of a solution is the\nexcess pressure that must be applied to a\nsolution to prevent osmosis, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1344-1347", "Text": "The important point to be kept in mind is that solvent molecules\nalways flow from lower concentration to higher concentration of solution The osmotic pressure has been found to depend on the concentration\nof the solution The osmotic pressure of a solution is the\nexcess pressure that must be applied to a\nsolution to prevent osmosis, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1345-1348", "Text": "The osmotic pressure has been found to depend on the concentration\nof the solution The osmotic pressure of a solution is the\nexcess pressure that must be applied to a\nsolution to prevent osmosis, i e , to stop the\npassage of solvent molecules through a\nsemipermeable membrane into the solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1346-1349", "Text": "The osmotic pressure of a solution is the\nexcess pressure that must be applied to a\nsolution to prevent osmosis, i e , to stop the\npassage of solvent molecules through a\nsemipermeable membrane into the solution This\nis illustrated in Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1347-1350", "Text": "e , to stop the\npassage of solvent molecules through a\nsemipermeable membrane into the solution This\nis illustrated in Fig 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1348-1351", "Text": ", to stop the\npassage of solvent molecules through a\nsemipermeable membrane into the solution This\nis illustrated in Fig 1 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1349-1352", "Text": "This\nis illustrated in Fig 1 10 Osmotic pressure is a\ncolligative property as it depends on the number\nof solute molecules and not on their identity"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1350-1353", "Text": "1 10 Osmotic pressure is a\ncolligative property as it depends on the number\nof solute molecules and not on their identity For dilute solutions, it has been found\nexperimentally that osmotic pressure is\nproportional to the molarity, C of the\nsolution at a given temperature T"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1351-1354", "Text": "10 Osmotic pressure is a\ncolligative property as it depends on the number\nof solute molecules and not on their identity For dilute solutions, it has been found\nexperimentally that osmotic pressure is\nproportional to the molarity, C of the\nsolution at a given temperature T Thus:\nP = C R T\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1352-1355", "Text": "Osmotic pressure is a\ncolligative property as it depends on the number\nof solute molecules and not on their identity For dilute solutions, it has been found\nexperimentally that osmotic pressure is\nproportional to the molarity, C of the\nsolution at a given temperature T Thus:\nP = C R T\n(1 39)\nHere P is the osmotic pressure and R is the\ngas constant"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1353-1356", "Text": "For dilute solutions, it has been found\nexperimentally that osmotic pressure is\nproportional to the molarity, C of the\nsolution at a given temperature T Thus:\nP = C R T\n(1 39)\nHere P is the osmotic pressure and R is the\ngas constant P = (n2 /V) R T\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1354-1357", "Text": "Thus:\nP = C R T\n(1 39)\nHere P is the osmotic pressure and R is the\ngas constant P = (n2 /V) R T\n(1 40)\nHere V is volume of a solution in litres containing n2 moles of solute"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1355-1358", "Text": "39)\nHere P is the osmotic pressure and R is the\ngas constant P = (n2 /V) R T\n(1 40)\nHere V is volume of a solution in litres containing n2 moles of solute If w2 grams of solute, of molar mass, M2 is present in the solution, then\nn2 = w2 / M2 and we can write,\nP V =\n2\n2\n \n \n \nw\nMR T\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1356-1359", "Text": "P = (n2 /V) R T\n(1 40)\nHere V is volume of a solution in litres containing n2 moles of solute If w2 grams of solute, of molar mass, M2 is present in the solution, then\nn2 = w2 / M2 and we can write,\nP V =\n2\n2\n \n \n \nw\nMR T\n(1 41)\nor M2 =\n\u220f\nw2 \nR T\nV\n(1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1357-1360", "Text": "40)\nHere V is volume of a solution in litres containing n2 moles of solute If w2 grams of solute, of molar mass, M2 is present in the solution, then\nn2 = w2 / M2 and we can write,\nP V =\n2\n2\n \n \n \nw\nMR T\n(1 41)\nor M2 =\n\u220f\nw2 \nR T\nV\n(1 42)\nThus, knowing the quantities w2, T, P and V we can calculate the\nmolar mass of the solute"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1358-1361", "Text": "If w2 grams of solute, of molar mass, M2 is present in the solution, then\nn2 = w2 / M2 and we can write,\nP V =\n2\n2\n \n \n \nw\nMR T\n(1 41)\nor M2 =\n\u220f\nw2 \nR T\nV\n(1 42)\nThus, knowing the quantities w2, T, P and V we can calculate the\nmolar mass of the solute Measurement of osmotic pressure provides another method of\ndetermining molar masses of solutes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1359-1362", "Text": "41)\nor M2 =\n\u220f\nw2 \nR T\nV\n(1 42)\nThus, knowing the quantities w2, T, P and V we can calculate the\nmolar mass of the solute Measurement of osmotic pressure provides another method of\ndetermining molar masses of solutes This method is widely used to\ndetermine molar masses of proteins, polymers and other\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1360-1363", "Text": "42)\nThus, knowing the quantities w2, T, P and V we can calculate the\nmolar mass of the solute Measurement of osmotic pressure provides another method of\ndetermining molar masses of solutes This method is widely used to\ndetermine molar masses of proteins, polymers and other\nFig 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1361-1364", "Text": "Measurement of osmotic pressure provides another method of\ndetermining molar masses of solutes This method is widely used to\ndetermine molar masses of proteins, polymers and other\nFig 1 10: The excess pressure equal to the\nosmotic pressure must be applied on\nthe solution side to prevent osmosis"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1362-1365", "Text": "This method is widely used to\ndetermine molar masses of proteins, polymers and other\nFig 1 10: The excess pressure equal to the\nosmotic pressure must be applied on\nthe solution side to prevent osmosis Rationalised 2023-24\n22\nChemistry\nmacromolecules"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1363-1366", "Text": "1 10: The excess pressure equal to the\nosmotic pressure must be applied on\nthe solution side to prevent osmosis Rationalised 2023-24\n22\nChemistry\nmacromolecules The osmotic pressure method has the advantage over\nother methods as pressure measurement is around the room\ntemperature and the molarity of the solution is used instead of molality"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1364-1367", "Text": "10: The excess pressure equal to the\nosmotic pressure must be applied on\nthe solution side to prevent osmosis Rationalised 2023-24\n22\nChemistry\nmacromolecules The osmotic pressure method has the advantage over\nother methods as pressure measurement is around the room\ntemperature and the molarity of the solution is used instead of molality As compared to other colligative properties, its magnitude is large\neven for very dilute solutions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1365-1368", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n22\nChemistry\nmacromolecules The osmotic pressure method has the advantage over\nother methods as pressure measurement is around the room\ntemperature and the molarity of the solution is used instead of molality As compared to other colligative properties, its magnitude is large\neven for very dilute solutions The technique of osmotic pressure for\ndetermination of molar mass of solutes is particularly useful for\nbiomolecules as they are generally not stable at higher temperatures\nand polymers have poor solubility"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1366-1369", "Text": "The osmotic pressure method has the advantage over\nother methods as pressure measurement is around the room\ntemperature and the molarity of the solution is used instead of molality As compared to other colligative properties, its magnitude is large\neven for very dilute solutions The technique of osmotic pressure for\ndetermination of molar mass of solutes is particularly useful for\nbiomolecules as they are generally not stable at higher temperatures\nand polymers have poor solubility Two solutions having same osmotic pressure at a given\ntemperature are called isotonic solutions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1367-1370", "Text": "As compared to other colligative properties, its magnitude is large\neven for very dilute solutions The technique of osmotic pressure for\ndetermination of molar mass of solutes is particularly useful for\nbiomolecules as they are generally not stable at higher temperatures\nand polymers have poor solubility Two solutions having same osmotic pressure at a given\ntemperature are called isotonic solutions When such solutions\nare separated by semipermeable membrane no osmosis occurs\nbetween them"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1368-1371", "Text": "The technique of osmotic pressure for\ndetermination of molar mass of solutes is particularly useful for\nbiomolecules as they are generally not stable at higher temperatures\nand polymers have poor solubility Two solutions having same osmotic pressure at a given\ntemperature are called isotonic solutions When such solutions\nare separated by semipermeable membrane no osmosis occurs\nbetween them For example, the osmotic pressure associated\nwith the fluid inside the blood cell is equivalent to that of\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1369-1372", "Text": "Two solutions having same osmotic pressure at a given\ntemperature are called isotonic solutions When such solutions\nare separated by semipermeable membrane no osmosis occurs\nbetween them For example, the osmotic pressure associated\nwith the fluid inside the blood cell is equivalent to that of\n0 9% (mass/volume) sodium chloride solution, called normal saline\nsolution and it is safe to inject intravenously"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1370-1373", "Text": "When such solutions\nare separated by semipermeable membrane no osmosis occurs\nbetween them For example, the osmotic pressure associated\nwith the fluid inside the blood cell is equivalent to that of\n0 9% (mass/volume) sodium chloride solution, called normal saline\nsolution and it is safe to inject intravenously On the other hand, if\nwe place the cells in a solution containing more than 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1371-1374", "Text": "For example, the osmotic pressure associated\nwith the fluid inside the blood cell is equivalent to that of\n0 9% (mass/volume) sodium chloride solution, called normal saline\nsolution and it is safe to inject intravenously On the other hand, if\nwe place the cells in a solution containing more than 0 9% (mass/\nvolume) sodium chloride, water will flow out of the cells and they\nwould shrink"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1372-1375", "Text": "9% (mass/volume) sodium chloride solution, called normal saline\nsolution and it is safe to inject intravenously On the other hand, if\nwe place the cells in a solution containing more than 0 9% (mass/\nvolume) sodium chloride, water will flow out of the cells and they\nwould shrink Such a solution is called hypertonic"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1373-1376", "Text": "On the other hand, if\nwe place the cells in a solution containing more than 0 9% (mass/\nvolume) sodium chloride, water will flow out of the cells and they\nwould shrink Such a solution is called hypertonic If the salt\nconcentration is less than 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1374-1377", "Text": "9% (mass/\nvolume) sodium chloride, water will flow out of the cells and they\nwould shrink Such a solution is called hypertonic If the salt\nconcentration is less than 0 9% (mass/volume), the solution is said\nto be hypotonic"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1375-1378", "Text": "Such a solution is called hypertonic If the salt\nconcentration is less than 0 9% (mass/volume), the solution is said\nto be hypotonic In this case, water will flow into the cells if placed\nin this solution and they would swell"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1376-1379", "Text": "If the salt\nconcentration is less than 0 9% (mass/volume), the solution is said\nto be hypotonic In this case, water will flow into the cells if placed\nin this solution and they would swell 200 cm3 of an aqueous solution of a protein contains 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1377-1380", "Text": "9% (mass/volume), the solution is said\nto be hypotonic In this case, water will flow into the cells if placed\nin this solution and they would swell 200 cm3 of an aqueous solution of a protein contains 1 26 g of the\nprotein"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1378-1381", "Text": "In this case, water will flow into the cells if placed\nin this solution and they would swell 200 cm3 of an aqueous solution of a protein contains 1 26 g of the\nprotein The osmotic pressure of such a solution at 300 K is found to\nbe 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1379-1382", "Text": "200 cm3 of an aqueous solution of a protein contains 1 26 g of the\nprotein The osmotic pressure of such a solution at 300 K is found to\nbe 2 57 \u00d7 10-3 bar"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1380-1383", "Text": "26 g of the\nprotein The osmotic pressure of such a solution at 300 K is found to\nbe 2 57 \u00d7 10-3 bar Calculate the molar mass of the protein"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1381-1384", "Text": "The osmotic pressure of such a solution at 300 K is found to\nbe 2 57 \u00d7 10-3 bar Calculate the molar mass of the protein The various quantities known to us are as follows: P = 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1382-1385", "Text": "57 \u00d7 10-3 bar Calculate the molar mass of the protein The various quantities known to us are as follows: P = 2 57 \u00d7 10\u20133 bar,\nV = 200 cm3 = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1383-1386", "Text": "Calculate the molar mass of the protein The various quantities known to us are as follows: P = 2 57 \u00d7 10\u20133 bar,\nV = 200 cm3 = 0 200 litre\nT = 300 K\nR = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1384-1387", "Text": "The various quantities known to us are as follows: P = 2 57 \u00d7 10\u20133 bar,\nV = 200 cm3 = 0 200 litre\nT = 300 K\nR = 0 083 L bar mol-1 K-1\nSubstituting these values in equation (2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1385-1388", "Text": "57 \u00d7 10\u20133 bar,\nV = 200 cm3 = 0 200 litre\nT = 300 K\nR = 0 083 L bar mol-1 K-1\nSubstituting these values in equation (2 42) we get\nM2 = \n1\n1\n3\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1386-1389", "Text": "200 litre\nT = 300 K\nR = 0 083 L bar mol-1 K-1\nSubstituting these values in equation (2 42) we get\nM2 = \n1\n1\n3\n1 26 g \u00d7 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1387-1390", "Text": "083 L bar mol-1 K-1\nSubstituting these values in equation (2 42) we get\nM2 = \n1\n1\n3\n1 26 g \u00d7 0 083 L bar K\n mol\n \u00d7 300 K\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1388-1391", "Text": "42) we get\nM2 = \n1\n1\n3\n1 26 g \u00d7 0 083 L bar K\n mol\n \u00d7 300 K\n2 57\u00d710\nbar \u00d7 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1389-1392", "Text": "26 g \u00d7 0 083 L bar K\n mol\n \u00d7 300 K\n2 57\u00d710\nbar \u00d7 0 200 L\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n = 61,022 g mol-1\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1390-1393", "Text": "083 L bar K\n mol\n \u00d7 300 K\n2 57\u00d710\nbar \u00d7 0 200 L\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n = 61,022 g mol-1\nExample 1 11\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1391-1394", "Text": "57\u00d710\nbar \u00d7 0 200 L\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n = 61,022 g mol-1\nExample 1 11\nExample 1 11\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1392-1395", "Text": "200 L\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n = 61,022 g mol-1\nExample 1 11\nExample 1 11\nExample 1 11\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1393-1396", "Text": "11\nExample 1 11\nExample 1 11\nExample 1 11\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1394-1397", "Text": "11\nExample 1 11\nExample 1 11\nExample 1 11\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nThe phenomena mentioned in the beginning of this section can be\nexplained on the basis of osmosis"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1395-1398", "Text": "11\nExample 1 11\nExample 1 11\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nThe phenomena mentioned in the beginning of this section can be\nexplained on the basis of osmosis A raw mango placed in concentrated\nsalt solution loses water via osmosis and shrivel into pickle"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1396-1399", "Text": "11\nExample 1 11\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nThe phenomena mentioned in the beginning of this section can be\nexplained on the basis of osmosis A raw mango placed in concentrated\nsalt solution loses water via osmosis and shrivel into pickle Wilted\nflowers revive when placed in fresh water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1397-1400", "Text": "11\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nThe phenomena mentioned in the beginning of this section can be\nexplained on the basis of osmosis A raw mango placed in concentrated\nsalt solution loses water via osmosis and shrivel into pickle Wilted\nflowers revive when placed in fresh water A carrot that has become\nlimp because of water loss into the atmosphere can be placed into the\nwater making it firm once again"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1398-1401", "Text": "A raw mango placed in concentrated\nsalt solution loses water via osmosis and shrivel into pickle Wilted\nflowers revive when placed in fresh water A carrot that has become\nlimp because of water loss into the atmosphere can be placed into the\nwater making it firm once again Water will move into its cells through\nosmosis"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1399-1402", "Text": "Wilted\nflowers revive when placed in fresh water A carrot that has become\nlimp because of water loss into the atmosphere can be placed into the\nwater making it firm once again Water will move into its cells through\nosmosis When placed in water containing less than 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1400-1403", "Text": "A carrot that has become\nlimp because of water loss into the atmosphere can be placed into the\nwater making it firm once again Water will move into its cells through\nosmosis When placed in water containing less than 0 9% (mass/\nvolume) salt, blood cells swell due to flow of water in them by osmosis"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1401-1404", "Text": "Water will move into its cells through\nosmosis When placed in water containing less than 0 9% (mass/\nvolume) salt, blood cells swell due to flow of water in them by osmosis People taking a lot of salt or salty food experience water retention in\ntissue cells and intercellular spaces because of osmosis"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1402-1405", "Text": "When placed in water containing less than 0 9% (mass/\nvolume) salt, blood cells swell due to flow of water in them by osmosis People taking a lot of salt or salty food experience water retention in\ntissue cells and intercellular spaces because of osmosis The resulting\nRationalised 2023-24\n23\nSolutions\npuffiness or swelling is called edema"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1403-1406", "Text": "9% (mass/\nvolume) salt, blood cells swell due to flow of water in them by osmosis People taking a lot of salt or salty food experience water retention in\ntissue cells and intercellular spaces because of osmosis The resulting\nRationalised 2023-24\n23\nSolutions\npuffiness or swelling is called edema Water movement from soil into\nplant roots and subsequently into upper portion of the plant is partly\ndue to osmosis"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1404-1407", "Text": "People taking a lot of salt or salty food experience water retention in\ntissue cells and intercellular spaces because of osmosis The resulting\nRationalised 2023-24\n23\nSolutions\npuffiness or swelling is called edema Water movement from soil into\nplant roots and subsequently into upper portion of the plant is partly\ndue to osmosis The preservation of meat by salting and of fruits by\nadding sugar protects against bacterial action"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1405-1408", "Text": "The resulting\nRationalised 2023-24\n23\nSolutions\npuffiness or swelling is called edema Water movement from soil into\nplant roots and subsequently into upper portion of the plant is partly\ndue to osmosis The preservation of meat by salting and of fruits by\nadding sugar protects against bacterial action Through the process\nof osmosis, a bacterium on salted meat or candid fruit loses water,\nshrivels and dies"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1406-1409", "Text": "Water movement from soil into\nplant roots and subsequently into upper portion of the plant is partly\ndue to osmosis The preservation of meat by salting and of fruits by\nadding sugar protects against bacterial action Through the process\nof osmosis, a bacterium on salted meat or candid fruit loses water,\nshrivels and dies The direction of osmosis can be reversed if a pressure larger than the\nosmotic pressure is applied to the solution side"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1407-1410", "Text": "The preservation of meat by salting and of fruits by\nadding sugar protects against bacterial action Through the process\nof osmosis, a bacterium on salted meat or candid fruit loses water,\nshrivels and dies The direction of osmosis can be reversed if a pressure larger than the\nosmotic pressure is applied to the solution side That is, now the\npure solvent flows out of the solution through the semi permeable\nmembrane"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1408-1411", "Text": "Through the process\nof osmosis, a bacterium on salted meat or candid fruit loses water,\nshrivels and dies The direction of osmosis can be reversed if a pressure larger than the\nosmotic pressure is applied to the solution side That is, now the\npure solvent flows out of the solution through the semi permeable\nmembrane This phenomenon is called reverse osmosis and is of\ngreat practical utility"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1409-1412", "Text": "The direction of osmosis can be reversed if a pressure larger than the\nosmotic pressure is applied to the solution side That is, now the\npure solvent flows out of the solution through the semi permeable\nmembrane This phenomenon is called reverse osmosis and is of\ngreat practical utility Reverse osmosis is used in desalination of sea\nwater"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1410-1413", "Text": "That is, now the\npure solvent flows out of the solution through the semi permeable\nmembrane This phenomenon is called reverse osmosis and is of\ngreat practical utility Reverse osmosis is used in desalination of sea\nwater A schematic set up for the process is shown in Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1411-1414", "Text": "This phenomenon is called reverse osmosis and is of\ngreat practical utility Reverse osmosis is used in desalination of sea\nwater A schematic set up for the process is shown in Fig 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1412-1415", "Text": "Reverse osmosis is used in desalination of sea\nwater A schematic set up for the process is shown in Fig 1 11"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1413-1416", "Text": "A schematic set up for the process is shown in Fig 1 11 When pressure more than osmotic pressure is\napplied, pure water is squeezed out of the sea\nwater through the membrane"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1414-1417", "Text": "1 11 When pressure more than osmotic pressure is\napplied, pure water is squeezed out of the sea\nwater through the membrane A variety of\npolymer membranes are available for this\npurpose"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1415-1418", "Text": "11 When pressure more than osmotic pressure is\napplied, pure water is squeezed out of the sea\nwater through the membrane A variety of\npolymer membranes are available for this\npurpose The pressure required for the reverse osmosis\nis quite high"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1416-1419", "Text": "When pressure more than osmotic pressure is\napplied, pure water is squeezed out of the sea\nwater through the membrane A variety of\npolymer membranes are available for this\npurpose The pressure required for the reverse osmosis\nis quite high A workable porous membrane is a\nfilm of cellulose acetate placed over a suitable\nsupport"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1417-1420", "Text": "A variety of\npolymer membranes are available for this\npurpose The pressure required for the reverse osmosis\nis quite high A workable porous membrane is a\nfilm of cellulose acetate placed over a suitable\nsupport Cellulose acetate is permeable to water\nbut impermeable to impurities and ions present\nin sea water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1418-1421", "Text": "The pressure required for the reverse osmosis\nis quite high A workable porous membrane is a\nfilm of cellulose acetate placed over a suitable\nsupport Cellulose acetate is permeable to water\nbut impermeable to impurities and ions present\nin sea water These days many countries use\ndesalination plants to meet their potable water\nrequirements"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1419-1422", "Text": "A workable porous membrane is a\nfilm of cellulose acetate placed over a suitable\nsupport Cellulose acetate is permeable to water\nbut impermeable to impurities and ions present\nin sea water These days many countries use\ndesalination plants to meet their potable water\nrequirements 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1420-1423", "Text": "Cellulose acetate is permeable to water\nbut impermeable to impurities and ions present\nin sea water These days many countries use\ndesalination plants to meet their potable water\nrequirements 1 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1421-1424", "Text": "These days many countries use\ndesalination plants to meet their potable water\nrequirements 1 6 5 Reverse\nOsmosis and\nWater\nPurification\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1422-1425", "Text": "1 6 5 Reverse\nOsmosis and\nWater\nPurification\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n1 9\nVapour pressure of pure water at 298 K is 23"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1423-1426", "Text": "6 5 Reverse\nOsmosis and\nWater\nPurification\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n1 9\nVapour pressure of pure water at 298 K is 23 8 mm Hg"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1424-1427", "Text": "5 Reverse\nOsmosis and\nWater\nPurification\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n1 9\nVapour pressure of pure water at 298 K is 23 8 mm Hg 50 g of urea\n(NH2CONH2) is dissolved in 850 g of water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1425-1428", "Text": "9\nVapour pressure of pure water at 298 K is 23 8 mm Hg 50 g of urea\n(NH2CONH2) is dissolved in 850 g of water Calculate the vapour pressure\nof water for this solution and its relative lowering"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1426-1429", "Text": "8 mm Hg 50 g of urea\n(NH2CONH2) is dissolved in 850 g of water Calculate the vapour pressure\nof water for this solution and its relative lowering 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1427-1430", "Text": "50 g of urea\n(NH2CONH2) is dissolved in 850 g of water Calculate the vapour pressure\nof water for this solution and its relative lowering 1 10 Boiling point of water at 750 mm Hg is 99"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1428-1431", "Text": "Calculate the vapour pressure\nof water for this solution and its relative lowering 1 10 Boiling point of water at 750 mm Hg is 99 63\u00b0C"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1429-1432", "Text": "1 10 Boiling point of water at 750 mm Hg is 99 63\u00b0C How much sucrose is to\nbe added to 500 g of water such that it boils at 100\u00b0C"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1430-1433", "Text": "10 Boiling point of water at 750 mm Hg is 99 63\u00b0C How much sucrose is to\nbe added to 500 g of water such that it boils at 100\u00b0C 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1431-1434", "Text": "63\u00b0C How much sucrose is to\nbe added to 500 g of water such that it boils at 100\u00b0C 1 11 Calculate the mass of ascorbic acid (Vitamin C, C6H8O6) to be dissolved in\n75 g of acetic acid to lower its melting point by 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1432-1435", "Text": "How much sucrose is to\nbe added to 500 g of water such that it boils at 100\u00b0C 1 11 Calculate the mass of ascorbic acid (Vitamin C, C6H8O6) to be dissolved in\n75 g of acetic acid to lower its melting point by 1 5\u00b0C"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1433-1436", "Text": "1 11 Calculate the mass of ascorbic acid (Vitamin C, C6H8O6) to be dissolved in\n75 g of acetic acid to lower its melting point by 1 5\u00b0C Kf = 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1434-1437", "Text": "11 Calculate the mass of ascorbic acid (Vitamin C, C6H8O6) to be dissolved in\n75 g of acetic acid to lower its melting point by 1 5\u00b0C Kf = 3 9 K kg mol-1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1435-1438", "Text": "5\u00b0C Kf = 3 9 K kg mol-1 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1436-1439", "Text": "Kf = 3 9 K kg mol-1 1 12 Calculate the osmotic pressure in pascals exerted by a solution prepared\nby dissolving 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1437-1440", "Text": "9 K kg mol-1 1 12 Calculate the osmotic pressure in pascals exerted by a solution prepared\nby dissolving 1 0 g of polymer of molar mass 185,000 in 450 mL of water\nat 37\u00b0C"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1438-1441", "Text": "1 12 Calculate the osmotic pressure in pascals exerted by a solution prepared\nby dissolving 1 0 g of polymer of molar mass 185,000 in 450 mL of water\nat 37\u00b0C We know that ionic compounds when dissolved in water dissociate into\ncations and anions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1439-1442", "Text": "12 Calculate the osmotic pressure in pascals exerted by a solution prepared\nby dissolving 1 0 g of polymer of molar mass 185,000 in 450 mL of water\nat 37\u00b0C We know that ionic compounds when dissolved in water dissociate into\ncations and anions For example, if we dissolve one mole of KCl (74"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1440-1443", "Text": "0 g of polymer of molar mass 185,000 in 450 mL of water\nat 37\u00b0C We know that ionic compounds when dissolved in water dissociate into\ncations and anions For example, if we dissolve one mole of KCl (74 5 g)\nin water, we expect one mole each of K+ and Cl\u2013 ions to be released in\nthe solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1441-1444", "Text": "We know that ionic compounds when dissolved in water dissociate into\ncations and anions For example, if we dissolve one mole of KCl (74 5 g)\nin water, we expect one mole each of K+ and Cl\u2013 ions to be released in\nthe solution If this happens, there would be two moles of particles in\nthe solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1442-1445", "Text": "For example, if we dissolve one mole of KCl (74 5 g)\nin water, we expect one mole each of K+ and Cl\u2013 ions to be released in\nthe solution If this happens, there would be two moles of particles in\nthe solution If we ignore interionic attractions, one mole of KCl in\none kg of water would be expected to increase the boiling point by\n2 \u00d7 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1443-1446", "Text": "5 g)\nin water, we expect one mole each of K+ and Cl\u2013 ions to be released in\nthe solution If this happens, there would be two moles of particles in\nthe solution If we ignore interionic attractions, one mole of KCl in\none kg of water would be expected to increase the boiling point by\n2 \u00d7 0 52 K = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1444-1447", "Text": "If this happens, there would be two moles of particles in\nthe solution If we ignore interionic attractions, one mole of KCl in\none kg of water would be expected to increase the boiling point by\n2 \u00d7 0 52 K = 1 04 K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1445-1448", "Text": "If we ignore interionic attractions, one mole of KCl in\none kg of water would be expected to increase the boiling point by\n2 \u00d7 0 52 K = 1 04 K Now if we did not know about the degree of\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1446-1449", "Text": "52 K = 1 04 K Now if we did not know about the degree of\n1 7\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1447-1450", "Text": "04 K Now if we did not know about the degree of\n1 7\n1 7\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1448-1451", "Text": "Now if we did not know about the degree of\n1 7\n1 7\n1 7\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1449-1452", "Text": "7\n1 7\n1 7\n1 7\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1450-1453", "Text": "7\n1 7\n1 7\n1 7\nAbnormal\nAbnormal\nAbnormal\nAbnormal\nAbnormal\nMolar\nMolar\nMolar\nMolar\nMolar\nMasses\nMasses\nMasses\nMasses\nMasses\n\u03a0\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1451-1454", "Text": "7\n1 7\n1 7\nAbnormal\nAbnormal\nAbnormal\nAbnormal\nAbnormal\nMolar\nMolar\nMolar\nMolar\nMolar\nMasses\nMasses\nMasses\nMasses\nMasses\n\u03a0\nFig 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1452-1455", "Text": "7\n1 7\nAbnormal\nAbnormal\nAbnormal\nAbnormal\nAbnormal\nMolar\nMolar\nMolar\nMolar\nMolar\nMasses\nMasses\nMasses\nMasses\nMasses\n\u03a0\nFig 1 11: Reverse osmosis occurs when a\npressure larger than the osmotic\npressure is applied to the solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1453-1456", "Text": "7\nAbnormal\nAbnormal\nAbnormal\nAbnormal\nAbnormal\nMolar\nMolar\nMolar\nMolar\nMolar\nMasses\nMasses\nMasses\nMasses\nMasses\n\u03a0\nFig 1 11: Reverse osmosis occurs when a\npressure larger than the osmotic\npressure is applied to the solution Rationalised 2023-24\n24\nChemistry\n2 CH3COOH \u21cc (CH3COOH)2\ndissociation, we could be led to conclude that the mass of 2 mol particles\nis 74"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1454-1457", "Text": "1 11: Reverse osmosis occurs when a\npressure larger than the osmotic\npressure is applied to the solution Rationalised 2023-24\n24\nChemistry\n2 CH3COOH \u21cc (CH3COOH)2\ndissociation, we could be led to conclude that the mass of 2 mol particles\nis 74 5 g and the mass of one mole of KCl would be 37"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1455-1458", "Text": "11: Reverse osmosis occurs when a\npressure larger than the osmotic\npressure is applied to the solution Rationalised 2023-24\n24\nChemistry\n2 CH3COOH \u21cc (CH3COOH)2\ndissociation, we could be led to conclude that the mass of 2 mol particles\nis 74 5 g and the mass of one mole of KCl would be 37 25 g"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1456-1459", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n24\nChemistry\n2 CH3COOH \u21cc (CH3COOH)2\ndissociation, we could be led to conclude that the mass of 2 mol particles\nis 74 5 g and the mass of one mole of KCl would be 37 25 g This\nbrings into light the rule that, when there is dissociation of solute into\nions, the experimentally determined molar mass is always lower than\nthe true value"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1457-1460", "Text": "5 g and the mass of one mole of KCl would be 37 25 g This\nbrings into light the rule that, when there is dissociation of solute into\nions, the experimentally determined molar mass is always lower than\nthe true value Molecules of ethanoic acid (acetic acid) dimerise in\nbenzene due to hydrogen bonding"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1458-1461", "Text": "25 g This\nbrings into light the rule that, when there is dissociation of solute into\nions, the experimentally determined molar mass is always lower than\nthe true value Molecules of ethanoic acid (acetic acid) dimerise in\nbenzene due to hydrogen bonding This normally happens\nin solvents of low dielectric constant"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1459-1462", "Text": "This\nbrings into light the rule that, when there is dissociation of solute into\nions, the experimentally determined molar mass is always lower than\nthe true value Molecules of ethanoic acid (acetic acid) dimerise in\nbenzene due to hydrogen bonding This normally happens\nin solvents of low dielectric constant In this case the number\nof particles is reduced due to dimerisation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1460-1463", "Text": "Molecules of ethanoic acid (acetic acid) dimerise in\nbenzene due to hydrogen bonding This normally happens\nin solvents of low dielectric constant In this case the number\nof particles is reduced due to dimerisation Association of\nmolecules is depicted as follows:\nIt can be undoubtedly stated here that if all the molecules of ethanoic\nacid associate in benzene, then DTb or DTf for ethanoic acid will be half\nof the normal value"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1461-1464", "Text": "This normally happens\nin solvents of low dielectric constant In this case the number\nof particles is reduced due to dimerisation Association of\nmolecules is depicted as follows:\nIt can be undoubtedly stated here that if all the molecules of ethanoic\nacid associate in benzene, then DTb or DTf for ethanoic acid will be half\nof the normal value The molar mass calculated on the basis of this DTb\nor DTf will, therefore, be twice the expected value"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1462-1465", "Text": "In this case the number\nof particles is reduced due to dimerisation Association of\nmolecules is depicted as follows:\nIt can be undoubtedly stated here that if all the molecules of ethanoic\nacid associate in benzene, then DTb or DTf for ethanoic acid will be half\nof the normal value The molar mass calculated on the basis of this DTb\nor DTf will, therefore, be twice the expected value Such a molar mass\nthat is either lower or higher than the expected or normal value is called\nas abnormal molar mass"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1463-1466", "Text": "Association of\nmolecules is depicted as follows:\nIt can be undoubtedly stated here that if all the molecules of ethanoic\nacid associate in benzene, then DTb or DTf for ethanoic acid will be half\nof the normal value The molar mass calculated on the basis of this DTb\nor DTf will, therefore, be twice the expected value Such a molar mass\nthat is either lower or higher than the expected or normal value is called\nas abnormal molar mass In 1880 van\u2019t Hoff introduced a factor i, known as the van\u2019t Hoff\nfactor, to account for the extent of dissociation or association"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1464-1467", "Text": "The molar mass calculated on the basis of this DTb\nor DTf will, therefore, be twice the expected value Such a molar mass\nthat is either lower or higher than the expected or normal value is called\nas abnormal molar mass In 1880 van\u2019t Hoff introduced a factor i, known as the van\u2019t Hoff\nfactor, to account for the extent of dissociation or association This\nfactor i is defined as:\nNormal molar mass\nAbnormal molar mass\n\uf03d\ni\n \nObserved colligative property\nCalculated colligative property\n\uf03d\nTotal number of moles of particles after association/dissociation\nNumber of moles of particles before association/dissociation\n\uf03d\ni\nHere abnormal molar mass is the experimentally determined molar\nmass and calculated colligative properties are obtained by assuming\nthat the non-volatile solute is neither associated nor dissociated"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1465-1468", "Text": "Such a molar mass\nthat is either lower or higher than the expected or normal value is called\nas abnormal molar mass In 1880 van\u2019t Hoff introduced a factor i, known as the van\u2019t Hoff\nfactor, to account for the extent of dissociation or association This\nfactor i is defined as:\nNormal molar mass\nAbnormal molar mass\n\uf03d\ni\n \nObserved colligative property\nCalculated colligative property\n\uf03d\nTotal number of moles of particles after association/dissociation\nNumber of moles of particles before association/dissociation\n\uf03d\ni\nHere abnormal molar mass is the experimentally determined molar\nmass and calculated colligative properties are obtained by assuming\nthat the non-volatile solute is neither associated nor dissociated In\ncase of association, value of i is less than unity while for dissociation it\nis greater than unity"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1466-1469", "Text": "In 1880 van\u2019t Hoff introduced a factor i, known as the van\u2019t Hoff\nfactor, to account for the extent of dissociation or association This\nfactor i is defined as:\nNormal molar mass\nAbnormal molar mass\n\uf03d\ni\n \nObserved colligative property\nCalculated colligative property\n\uf03d\nTotal number of moles of particles after association/dissociation\nNumber of moles of particles before association/dissociation\n\uf03d\ni\nHere abnormal molar mass is the experimentally determined molar\nmass and calculated colligative properties are obtained by assuming\nthat the non-volatile solute is neither associated nor dissociated In\ncase of association, value of i is less than unity while for dissociation it\nis greater than unity For example, the value of i for aqueous KCl\nsolution is close to 2, while the value for ethanoic acid in benzene is\nnearly 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1467-1470", "Text": "This\nfactor i is defined as:\nNormal molar mass\nAbnormal molar mass\n\uf03d\ni\n \nObserved colligative property\nCalculated colligative property\n\uf03d\nTotal number of moles of particles after association/dissociation\nNumber of moles of particles before association/dissociation\n\uf03d\ni\nHere abnormal molar mass is the experimentally determined molar\nmass and calculated colligative properties are obtained by assuming\nthat the non-volatile solute is neither associated nor dissociated In\ncase of association, value of i is less than unity while for dissociation it\nis greater than unity For example, the value of i for aqueous KCl\nsolution is close to 2, while the value for ethanoic acid in benzene is\nnearly 0 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1468-1471", "Text": "In\ncase of association, value of i is less than unity while for dissociation it\nis greater than unity For example, the value of i for aqueous KCl\nsolution is close to 2, while the value for ethanoic acid in benzene is\nnearly 0 5 Inclusion of van\u2019t Hoff factor modifies the equations for colligative\nproperties as follows:\nRelative lowering of vapour pressure of solvent,\n1o\n1\n2\no\n1\n1\n \u2013 \n \n\uf03d"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1469-1472", "Text": "For example, the value of i for aqueous KCl\nsolution is close to 2, while the value for ethanoic acid in benzene is\nnearly 0 5 Inclusion of van\u2019t Hoff factor modifies the equations for colligative\nproperties as follows:\nRelative lowering of vapour pressure of solvent,\n1o\n1\n2\no\n1\n1\n \u2013 \n \n\uf03d p\np\ni nn\np\nElevation of Boiling point, DTb = i Kb m\nDepression of Freezing point, DTf = i Kf m\nOsmotic pressure of solution, P\n= i n2 R T / V\nRationalised 2023-24\n25\nSolutions\n2 g of benzoic acid (C6H5COOH) dissolved in 25 g of benzene shows a\ndepression in freezing point equal to 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1470-1473", "Text": "5 Inclusion of van\u2019t Hoff factor modifies the equations for colligative\nproperties as follows:\nRelative lowering of vapour pressure of solvent,\n1o\n1\n2\no\n1\n1\n \u2013 \n \n\uf03d p\np\ni nn\np\nElevation of Boiling point, DTb = i Kb m\nDepression of Freezing point, DTf = i Kf m\nOsmotic pressure of solution, P\n= i n2 R T / V\nRationalised 2023-24\n25\nSolutions\n2 g of benzoic acid (C6H5COOH) dissolved in 25 g of benzene shows a\ndepression in freezing point equal to 1 62 K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1471-1474", "Text": "Inclusion of van\u2019t Hoff factor modifies the equations for colligative\nproperties as follows:\nRelative lowering of vapour pressure of solvent,\n1o\n1\n2\no\n1\n1\n \u2013 \n \n\uf03d p\np\ni nn\np\nElevation of Boiling point, DTb = i Kb m\nDepression of Freezing point, DTf = i Kf m\nOsmotic pressure of solution, P\n= i n2 R T / V\nRationalised 2023-24\n25\nSolutions\n2 g of benzoic acid (C6H5COOH) dissolved in 25 g of benzene shows a\ndepression in freezing point equal to 1 62 K Molal depression constant\nfor benzene is 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1472-1475", "Text": "p\np\ni nn\np\nElevation of Boiling point, DTb = i Kb m\nDepression of Freezing point, DTf = i Kf m\nOsmotic pressure of solution, P\n= i n2 R T / V\nRationalised 2023-24\n25\nSolutions\n2 g of benzoic acid (C6H5COOH) dissolved in 25 g of benzene shows a\ndepression in freezing point equal to 1 62 K Molal depression constant\nfor benzene is 4 9 K kg mol\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1473-1476", "Text": "62 K Molal depression constant\nfor benzene is 4 9 K kg mol\u20131 What is the percentage association of acid\nif it forms dimer in solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1474-1477", "Text": "Molal depression constant\nfor benzene is 4 9 K kg mol\u20131 What is the percentage association of acid\nif it forms dimer in solution The given quantities are: w2 = 2 g; Kf = 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1475-1478", "Text": "9 K kg mol\u20131 What is the percentage association of acid\nif it forms dimer in solution The given quantities are: w2 = 2 g; Kf = 4 9 K kg mol\u20131; w1 = 25 g,\nDTf = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1476-1479", "Text": "What is the percentage association of acid\nif it forms dimer in solution The given quantities are: w2 = 2 g; Kf = 4 9 K kg mol\u20131; w1 = 25 g,\nDTf = 1 62 K\nSubstituting these values in equation (1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1477-1480", "Text": "The given quantities are: w2 = 2 g; Kf = 4 9 K kg mol\u20131; w1 = 25 g,\nDTf = 1 62 K\nSubstituting these values in equation (1 36) we get:\nM2 = \n\u20131\n\u20131\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1478-1481", "Text": "9 K kg mol\u20131; w1 = 25 g,\nDTf = 1 62 K\nSubstituting these values in equation (1 36) we get:\nM2 = \n\u20131\n\u20131\n4 9 K kg mol\n \u00d7 2 g \u00d7 1000 g kg\n25 g \u00d7 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1479-1482", "Text": "62 K\nSubstituting these values in equation (1 36) we get:\nM2 = \n\u20131\n\u20131\n4 9 K kg mol\n \u00d7 2 g \u00d7 1000 g kg\n25 g \u00d7 1 62 K\n= 241"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1480-1483", "Text": "36) we get:\nM2 = \n\u20131\n\u20131\n4 9 K kg mol\n \u00d7 2 g \u00d7 1000 g kg\n25 g \u00d7 1 62 K\n= 241 98 g mol\u20131\nThus, experimental molar mass of benzoic acid in benzene is\n= 241"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1481-1484", "Text": "9 K kg mol\n \u00d7 2 g \u00d7 1000 g kg\n25 g \u00d7 1 62 K\n= 241 98 g mol\u20131\nThus, experimental molar mass of benzoic acid in benzene is\n= 241 98 g mol\u20131\nNow consider the following equilibrium for the acid:\n2 C6H5COOH \u21cc (C6H5COOH)2\nIf x represents the degree of association of the solute then we would\nhave (1 \u2013 x ) mol of benzoic acid left in unassociated form and\ncorrespondingly 2\nx as associated moles of benzoic acid at equilibrium"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1482-1485", "Text": "62 K\n= 241 98 g mol\u20131\nThus, experimental molar mass of benzoic acid in benzene is\n= 241 98 g mol\u20131\nNow consider the following equilibrium for the acid:\n2 C6H5COOH \u21cc (C6H5COOH)2\nIf x represents the degree of association of the solute then we would\nhave (1 \u2013 x ) mol of benzoic acid left in unassociated form and\ncorrespondingly 2\nx as associated moles of benzoic acid at equilibrium Therefore, total number of moles of particles at equilibrium is:\n1\n1\n2\n2\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf03d\n\uf02d\nx\nx\nx\nThus, total number of moles of particles at equilibrium equals van\u2019t Hoff\nfactor i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1483-1486", "Text": "98 g mol\u20131\nThus, experimental molar mass of benzoic acid in benzene is\n= 241 98 g mol\u20131\nNow consider the following equilibrium for the acid:\n2 C6H5COOH \u21cc (C6H5COOH)2\nIf x represents the degree of association of the solute then we would\nhave (1 \u2013 x ) mol of benzoic acid left in unassociated form and\ncorrespondingly 2\nx as associated moles of benzoic acid at equilibrium Therefore, total number of moles of particles at equilibrium is:\n1\n1\n2\n2\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf03d\n\uf02d\nx\nx\nx\nThus, total number of moles of particles at equilibrium equals van\u2019t Hoff\nfactor i But \nNormal molar mass\n\uf03dAbnormal molar mass\ni\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1484-1487", "Text": "98 g mol\u20131\nNow consider the following equilibrium for the acid:\n2 C6H5COOH \u21cc (C6H5COOH)2\nIf x represents the degree of association of the solute then we would\nhave (1 \u2013 x ) mol of benzoic acid left in unassociated form and\ncorrespondingly 2\nx as associated moles of benzoic acid at equilibrium Therefore, total number of moles of particles at equilibrium is:\n1\n1\n2\n2\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf03d\n\uf02d\nx\nx\nx\nThus, total number of moles of particles at equilibrium equals van\u2019t Hoff\nfactor i But \nNormal molar mass\n\uf03dAbnormal molar mass\ni\nExample 1 12\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1485-1488", "Text": "Therefore, total number of moles of particles at equilibrium is:\n1\n1\n2\n2\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf03d\n\uf02d\nx\nx\nx\nThus, total number of moles of particles at equilibrium equals van\u2019t Hoff\nfactor i But \nNormal molar mass\n\uf03dAbnormal molar mass\ni\nExample 1 12\nExample 1 12\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1486-1489", "Text": "But \nNormal molar mass\n\uf03dAbnormal molar mass\ni\nExample 1 12\nExample 1 12\nExample 1 12\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1487-1490", "Text": "12\nExample 1 12\nExample 1 12\nExample 1 12\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1488-1491", "Text": "12\nExample 1 12\nExample 1 12\nExample 1 12\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nTable 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1489-1492", "Text": "12\nExample 1 12\nExample 1 12\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nTable 1 4 depicts values of the factor, i for several strong electrolytes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1490-1493", "Text": "12\nExample 1 12\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nTable 1 4 depicts values of the factor, i for several strong electrolytes For KCl, NaCl and MgSO4, i values approach 2 as the solution becomes\nvery dilute"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1491-1494", "Text": "12\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nTable 1 4 depicts values of the factor, i for several strong electrolytes For KCl, NaCl and MgSO4, i values approach 2 as the solution becomes\nvery dilute As expected, the value of i gets close to 3 for K2SO4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1492-1495", "Text": "4 depicts values of the factor, i for several strong electrolytes For KCl, NaCl and MgSO4, i values approach 2 as the solution becomes\nvery dilute As expected, the value of i gets close to 3 for K2SO4 Salt\n *Values of i\n van\u2019t Hoff Factor i for complete\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1493-1496", "Text": "For KCl, NaCl and MgSO4, i values approach 2 as the solution becomes\nvery dilute As expected, the value of i gets close to 3 for K2SO4 Salt\n *Values of i\n van\u2019t Hoff Factor i for complete\n0 1 m 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1494-1497", "Text": "As expected, the value of i gets close to 3 for K2SO4 Salt\n *Values of i\n van\u2019t Hoff Factor i for complete\n0 1 m 0 01 m\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1495-1498", "Text": "Salt\n *Values of i\n van\u2019t Hoff Factor i for complete\n0 1 m 0 01 m\n0 001 m \ndissociation of solute\nNaCl\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1496-1499", "Text": "1 m 0 01 m\n0 001 m \ndissociation of solute\nNaCl\n1 87\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1497-1500", "Text": "01 m\n0 001 m \ndissociation of solute\nNaCl\n1 87\n1 94\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1498-1501", "Text": "001 m \ndissociation of solute\nNaCl\n1 87\n1 94\n1 97\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1499-1502", "Text": "87\n1 94\n1 97\n2 00\nKCl\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1500-1503", "Text": "94\n1 97\n2 00\nKCl\n1 85\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1501-1504", "Text": "97\n2 00\nKCl\n1 85\n1 94\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1502-1505", "Text": "00\nKCl\n1 85\n1 94\n1 98\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1503-1506", "Text": "85\n1 94\n1 98\n2 00\nMgSO4\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1504-1507", "Text": "94\n1 98\n2 00\nMgSO4\n1 21\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1505-1508", "Text": "98\n2 00\nMgSO4\n1 21\n1 53\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1506-1509", "Text": "00\nMgSO4\n1 21\n1 53\n1 82\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1507-1510", "Text": "21\n1 53\n1 82\n2 00\nK2SO4\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1508-1511", "Text": "53\n1 82\n2 00\nK2SO4\n2 32\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1509-1512", "Text": "82\n2 00\nK2SO4\n2 32\n2 70\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1510-1513", "Text": "00\nK2SO4\n2 32\n2 70\n2 84\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1511-1514", "Text": "32\n2 70\n2 84\n3 00\n* represent i values for incomplete dissociation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1512-1515", "Text": "70\n2 84\n3 00\n* represent i values for incomplete dissociation Table 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1513-1516", "Text": "84\n3 00\n* represent i values for incomplete dissociation Table 1 4: Values of van\u2019t Hoff factor, i, at Various Concentrations\nfor NaCl, KCl, MgSO4 and K2SO4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1514-1517", "Text": "00\n* represent i values for incomplete dissociation Table 1 4: Values of van\u2019t Hoff factor, i, at Various Concentrations\nfor NaCl, KCl, MgSO4 and K2SO4 Rationalised 2023-24\n26\nChemistry\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1515-1518", "Text": "Table 1 4: Values of van\u2019t Hoff factor, i, at Various Concentrations\nfor NaCl, KCl, MgSO4 and K2SO4 Rationalised 2023-24\n26\nChemistry\nExample 1 13\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1516-1519", "Text": "4: Values of van\u2019t Hoff factor, i, at Various Concentrations\nfor NaCl, KCl, MgSO4 and K2SO4 Rationalised 2023-24\n26\nChemistry\nExample 1 13\nExample 1 13\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1517-1520", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n26\nChemistry\nExample 1 13\nExample 1 13\nExample 1 13\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1518-1521", "Text": "13\nExample 1 13\nExample 1 13\nExample 1 13\nExample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1519-1522", "Text": "13\nExample 1 13\nExample 1 13\nExample 1 13\n= \n1\n1\n122 g mol\n241"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1520-1523", "Text": "13\nExample 1 13\nExample 1 13\n= \n1\n1\n122 g mol\n241 98 g mol\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\nor\n2\nx = \n122\n1\n1\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1521-1524", "Text": "13\nExample 1 13\n= \n1\n1\n122 g mol\n241 98 g mol\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\nor\n2\nx = \n122\n1\n1\n0 504\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1522-1525", "Text": "13\n= \n1\n1\n122 g mol\n241 98 g mol\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\nor\n2\nx = \n122\n1\n1\n0 504\n0 496\n\uf02d241"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1523-1526", "Text": "98 g mol\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\nor\n2\nx = \n122\n1\n1\n0 504\n0 496\n\uf02d241 98\n\uf03d\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\nor\nx\n= 2 \u00d7 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1524-1527", "Text": "504\n0 496\n\uf02d241 98\n\uf03d\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\nor\nx\n= 2 \u00d7 0 496 = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1525-1528", "Text": "496\n\uf02d241 98\n\uf03d\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\nor\nx\n= 2 \u00d7 0 496 = 0 992\nTherefore, degree of association of benzoic acid in benzene is 99"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1526-1529", "Text": "98\n\uf03d\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\nor\nx\n= 2 \u00d7 0 496 = 0 992\nTherefore, degree of association of benzoic acid in benzene is 99 2 %"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1527-1530", "Text": "496 = 0 992\nTherefore, degree of association of benzoic acid in benzene is 99 2 % 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1528-1531", "Text": "992\nTherefore, degree of association of benzoic acid in benzene is 99 2 % 0 6 mL of acetic acid (CH3COOH), having density 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1529-1532", "Text": "2 % 0 6 mL of acetic acid (CH3COOH), having density 1 06 g mL\u20131, is\ndissolved in 1 litre of water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1530-1533", "Text": "0 6 mL of acetic acid (CH3COOH), having density 1 06 g mL\u20131, is\ndissolved in 1 litre of water The depression in freezing point\nobserved for this strength of acid was 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1531-1534", "Text": "6 mL of acetic acid (CH3COOH), having density 1 06 g mL\u20131, is\ndissolved in 1 litre of water The depression in freezing point\nobserved for this strength of acid was 0 0205\u00b0C"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1532-1535", "Text": "06 g mL\u20131, is\ndissolved in 1 litre of water The depression in freezing point\nobserved for this strength of acid was 0 0205\u00b0C Calculate the van\u2019t\nHoff factor and the dissociation constant of acid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1533-1536", "Text": "The depression in freezing point\nobserved for this strength of acid was 0 0205\u00b0C Calculate the van\u2019t\nHoff factor and the dissociation constant of acid Number of moles of acetic acid\n=\n1\n1\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1534-1537", "Text": "0205\u00b0C Calculate the van\u2019t\nHoff factor and the dissociation constant of acid Number of moles of acetic acid\n=\n1\n1\n0 6 mL \n 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1535-1538", "Text": "Calculate the van\u2019t\nHoff factor and the dissociation constant of acid Number of moles of acetic acid\n=\n1\n1\n0 6 mL \n 1 06 g mL\n60 g mol\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf0b4\n= 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1536-1539", "Text": "Number of moles of acetic acid\n=\n1\n1\n0 6 mL \n 1 06 g mL\n60 g mol\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf0b4\n= 0 0106 mol = n\nMolality = \n1\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1537-1540", "Text": "6 mL \n 1 06 g mL\n60 g mol\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf0b4\n= 0 0106 mol = n\nMolality = \n1\n0 0106 mol\n1000 mL \n\uf0b4 1 g mL\uf02d\n= 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1538-1541", "Text": "06 g mL\n60 g mol\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf0b4\n= 0 0106 mol = n\nMolality = \n1\n0 0106 mol\n1000 mL \n\uf0b4 1 g mL\uf02d\n= 0 0106 mol kg\u20131\nUsing equation (1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1539-1542", "Text": "0106 mol = n\nMolality = \n1\n0 0106 mol\n1000 mL \n\uf0b4 1 g mL\uf02d\n= 0 0106 mol kg\u20131\nUsing equation (1 35)\nDTf = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1540-1543", "Text": "0106 mol\n1000 mL \n\uf0b4 1 g mL\uf02d\n= 0 0106 mol kg\u20131\nUsing equation (1 35)\nDTf = 1 86 K kg mol\u20131 \u00d7 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1541-1544", "Text": "0106 mol kg\u20131\nUsing equation (1 35)\nDTf = 1 86 K kg mol\u20131 \u00d7 0 0106 mol kg\u20131 = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1542-1545", "Text": "35)\nDTf = 1 86 K kg mol\u20131 \u00d7 0 0106 mol kg\u20131 = 0 0197 K\nvan\u2019t Hoff Factor (i) = \nObserved freezing point \n Calculated freezing point = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1543-1546", "Text": "86 K kg mol\u20131 \u00d7 0 0106 mol kg\u20131 = 0 0197 K\nvan\u2019t Hoff Factor (i) = \nObserved freezing point \n Calculated freezing point = 0 0205 K\n 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1544-1547", "Text": "0106 mol kg\u20131 = 0 0197 K\nvan\u2019t Hoff Factor (i) = \nObserved freezing point \n Calculated freezing point = 0 0205 K\n 0 0197 K = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1545-1548", "Text": "0197 K\nvan\u2019t Hoff Factor (i) = \nObserved freezing point \n Calculated freezing point = 0 0205 K\n 0 0197 K = 1 041\nAcetic acid is a weak electrolyte and will dissociate into two ions:\nacetate and hydrogen ions per molecule of acetic acid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1546-1549", "Text": "0205 K\n 0 0197 K = 1 041\nAcetic acid is a weak electrolyte and will dissociate into two ions:\nacetate and hydrogen ions per molecule of acetic acid If x is the\ndegree of dissociation of acetic acid, then we would have n (1 \u2013 x)\nmoles of undissociated acetic acid, nx moles of CH3COO\u2013 and nx\nmoles of H+ ions,\n(\n)\n+\n\u2212\n+\n\u2212\n\u21cc\n3\n3\nCH COOH\nH\nCH COO\nmol\n0\n0\nmol\nmol\nnn1\nnx\nnx\nx\nThus total moles of particles are: n(1 \u2013 x + x + x) = n(1 + x )\n\uf028\n\uf029\n1\n1\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1547-1550", "Text": "0197 K = 1 041\nAcetic acid is a weak electrolyte and will dissociate into two ions:\nacetate and hydrogen ions per molecule of acetic acid If x is the\ndegree of dissociation of acetic acid, then we would have n (1 \u2013 x)\nmoles of undissociated acetic acid, nx moles of CH3COO\u2013 and nx\nmoles of H+ ions,\n(\n)\n+\n\u2212\n+\n\u2212\n\u21cc\n3\n3\nCH COOH\nH\nCH COO\nmol\n0\n0\nmol\nmol\nnn1\nnx\nnx\nx\nThus total moles of particles are: n(1 \u2013 x + x + x) = n(1 + x )\n\uf028\n\uf029\n1\n1\n1 041\n\uf02b\n\uf03d\n\uf03d\n\uf02b\n\uf03d\nn\nx\ni\nx\nn\nThus degree of dissociation of acetic acid = x = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1548-1551", "Text": "041\nAcetic acid is a weak electrolyte and will dissociate into two ions:\nacetate and hydrogen ions per molecule of acetic acid If x is the\ndegree of dissociation of acetic acid, then we would have n (1 \u2013 x)\nmoles of undissociated acetic acid, nx moles of CH3COO\u2013 and nx\nmoles of H+ ions,\n(\n)\n+\n\u2212\n+\n\u2212\n\u21cc\n3\n3\nCH COOH\nH\nCH COO\nmol\n0\n0\nmol\nmol\nnn1\nnx\nnx\nx\nThus total moles of particles are: n(1 \u2013 x + x + x) = n(1 + x )\n\uf028\n\uf029\n1\n1\n1 041\n\uf02b\n\uf03d\n\uf03d\n\uf02b\n\uf03d\nn\nx\ni\nx\nn\nThus degree of dissociation of acetic acid = x = 1 041\u2013 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1549-1552", "Text": "If x is the\ndegree of dissociation of acetic acid, then we would have n (1 \u2013 x)\nmoles of undissociated acetic acid, nx moles of CH3COO\u2013 and nx\nmoles of H+ ions,\n(\n)\n+\n\u2212\n+\n\u2212\n\u21cc\n3\n3\nCH COOH\nH\nCH COO\nmol\n0\n0\nmol\nmol\nnn1\nnx\nnx\nx\nThus total moles of particles are: n(1 \u2013 x + x + x) = n(1 + x )\n\uf028\n\uf029\n1\n1\n1 041\n\uf02b\n\uf03d\n\uf03d\n\uf02b\n\uf03d\nn\nx\ni\nx\nn\nThus degree of dissociation of acetic acid = x = 1 041\u2013 1 000 = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1550-1553", "Text": "041\n\uf02b\n\uf03d\n\uf03d\n\uf02b\n\uf03d\nn\nx\ni\nx\nn\nThus degree of dissociation of acetic acid = x = 1 041\u2013 1 000 = 0 041\nThen\n[CH3COOH] = n(1 \u2013 x) = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1551-1554", "Text": "041\u2013 1 000 = 0 041\nThen\n[CH3COOH] = n(1 \u2013 x) = 0 0106 (1 \u2013 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1552-1555", "Text": "000 = 0 041\nThen\n[CH3COOH] = n(1 \u2013 x) = 0 0106 (1 \u2013 0 041),\n[CH3COO\u2013] = nx = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1553-1556", "Text": "041\nThen\n[CH3COOH] = n(1 \u2013 x) = 0 0106 (1 \u2013 0 041),\n[CH3COO\u2013] = nx = 0 0106 \u00d7 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1554-1557", "Text": "0106 (1 \u2013 0 041),\n[CH3COO\u2013] = nx = 0 0106 \u00d7 0 041, [H+] = nx = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1555-1558", "Text": "041),\n[CH3COO\u2013] = nx = 0 0106 \u00d7 0 041, [H+] = nx = 0 0106 \u00d7 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1556-1559", "Text": "0106 \u00d7 0 041, [H+] = nx = 0 0106 \u00d7 0 041"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1557-1560", "Text": "041, [H+] = nx = 0 0106 \u00d7 0 041 Ka = \n3\n3\n[\n][\n]\n[\n]\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\nCH COO\nH\nCH COOH\n = \n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1558-1561", "Text": "0106 \u00d7 0 041 Ka = \n3\n3\n[\n][\n]\n[\n]\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\nCH COO\nH\nCH COOH\n = \n0 0106 \u00d7 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1559-1562", "Text": "041 Ka = \n3\n3\n[\n][\n]\n[\n]\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\nCH COO\nH\nCH COOH\n = \n0 0106 \u00d7 0 041 \u00d7 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1560-1563", "Text": "Ka = \n3\n3\n[\n][\n]\n[\n]\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\nCH COO\nH\nCH COOH\n = \n0 0106 \u00d7 0 041 \u00d7 0 0106 \u00d7 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1561-1564", "Text": "0106 \u00d7 0 041 \u00d7 0 0106 \u00d7 0 041\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1562-1565", "Text": "041 \u00d7 0 0106 \u00d7 0 041\n0 0106 (1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1563-1566", "Text": "0106 \u00d7 0 041\n0 0106 (1 00 \n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1564-1567", "Text": "041\n0 0106 (1 00 \n0 041)\n\uf02d\n = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1565-1568", "Text": "0106 (1 00 \n0 041)\n\uf02d\n = 1 86 \u00d7 10\u20135\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n27\nSolutions\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nA solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1566-1569", "Text": "00 \n0 041)\n\uf02d\n = 1 86 \u00d7 10\u20135\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n27\nSolutions\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nA solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances Solutions are\nclassified as solid, liquid and gaseous solutions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1567-1570", "Text": "041)\n\uf02d\n = 1 86 \u00d7 10\u20135\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n27\nSolutions\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nA solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances Solutions are\nclassified as solid, liquid and gaseous solutions The concentration of a solution is\nexpressed in terms of mole fraction, molarity, molality and in percentages"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1568-1571", "Text": "86 \u00d7 10\u20135\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n27\nSolutions\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nA solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances Solutions are\nclassified as solid, liquid and gaseous solutions The concentration of a solution is\nexpressed in terms of mole fraction, molarity, molality and in percentages The\ndissolution of a gas in a liquid is governed by Henry\u2019s law, according to which, at a\ngiven temperature, the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to\nthe partial pressure of the gas"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1569-1572", "Text": "Solutions are\nclassified as solid, liquid and gaseous solutions The concentration of a solution is\nexpressed in terms of mole fraction, molarity, molality and in percentages The\ndissolution of a gas in a liquid is governed by Henry\u2019s law, according to which, at a\ngiven temperature, the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to\nthe partial pressure of the gas The vapour pressure of the solvent is lowered by\nthe presence of a non-volatile solute in the solution and this lowering of vapour\npressure of the solvent is governed by Raoult\u2019s law, according to which the relative\nlowering of vapour pressure of the solvent over a solution is equal to the mole\nfraction of a non-volatile solute present in the solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1570-1573", "Text": "The concentration of a solution is\nexpressed in terms of mole fraction, molarity, molality and in percentages The\ndissolution of a gas in a liquid is governed by Henry\u2019s law, according to which, at a\ngiven temperature, the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to\nthe partial pressure of the gas The vapour pressure of the solvent is lowered by\nthe presence of a non-volatile solute in the solution and this lowering of vapour\npressure of the solvent is governed by Raoult\u2019s law, according to which the relative\nlowering of vapour pressure of the solvent over a solution is equal to the mole\nfraction of a non-volatile solute present in the solution However, in a binary\nliquid solution, if both the components of the solution are volatile then another\nform of Raoult\u2019s law is used"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1571-1574", "Text": "The\ndissolution of a gas in a liquid is governed by Henry\u2019s law, according to which, at a\ngiven temperature, the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to\nthe partial pressure of the gas The vapour pressure of the solvent is lowered by\nthe presence of a non-volatile solute in the solution and this lowering of vapour\npressure of the solvent is governed by Raoult\u2019s law, according to which the relative\nlowering of vapour pressure of the solvent over a solution is equal to the mole\nfraction of a non-volatile solute present in the solution However, in a binary\nliquid solution, if both the components of the solution are volatile then another\nform of Raoult\u2019s law is used Mathematically, this form of the Raoult\u2019s law is stated\nas:\n0\n0\ntotal\n1\n2\n2\n1\n\uf03d\n\uf02b\np\np x\np x"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1572-1575", "Text": "The vapour pressure of the solvent is lowered by\nthe presence of a non-volatile solute in the solution and this lowering of vapour\npressure of the solvent is governed by Raoult\u2019s law, according to which the relative\nlowering of vapour pressure of the solvent over a solution is equal to the mole\nfraction of a non-volatile solute present in the solution However, in a binary\nliquid solution, if both the components of the solution are volatile then another\nform of Raoult\u2019s law is used Mathematically, this form of the Raoult\u2019s law is stated\nas:\n0\n0\ntotal\n1\n2\n2\n1\n\uf03d\n\uf02b\np\np x\np x Solutions which obey Raoult\u2019s law over the entire range\nof concentration are called ideal solutions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1573-1576", "Text": "However, in a binary\nliquid solution, if both the components of the solution are volatile then another\nform of Raoult\u2019s law is used Mathematically, this form of the Raoult\u2019s law is stated\nas:\n0\n0\ntotal\n1\n2\n2\n1\n\uf03d\n\uf02b\np\np x\np x Solutions which obey Raoult\u2019s law over the entire range\nof concentration are called ideal solutions Two types of deviations from Raoult\u2019s\nlaw, called positive and negative deviations are observed"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1574-1577", "Text": "Mathematically, this form of the Raoult\u2019s law is stated\nas:\n0\n0\ntotal\n1\n2\n2\n1\n\uf03d\n\uf02b\np\np x\np x Solutions which obey Raoult\u2019s law over the entire range\nof concentration are called ideal solutions Two types of deviations from Raoult\u2019s\nlaw, called positive and negative deviations are observed Azeotropes arise due to\nvery large deviations from Raoult\u2019s law"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1575-1578", "Text": "Solutions which obey Raoult\u2019s law over the entire range\nof concentration are called ideal solutions Two types of deviations from Raoult\u2019s\nlaw, called positive and negative deviations are observed Azeotropes arise due to\nvery large deviations from Raoult\u2019s law The properties of solutions which depend on the number of solute particles and\nare independent of their chemical identity are called colligative properties"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1576-1579", "Text": "Two types of deviations from Raoult\u2019s\nlaw, called positive and negative deviations are observed Azeotropes arise due to\nvery large deviations from Raoult\u2019s law The properties of solutions which depend on the number of solute particles and\nare independent of their chemical identity are called colligative properties These\nare lowering of vapour pressure, elevation of boiling point, depression of freezing\npoint and osmotic pressure"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1577-1580", "Text": "Azeotropes arise due to\nvery large deviations from Raoult\u2019s law The properties of solutions which depend on the number of solute particles and\nare independent of their chemical identity are called colligative properties These\nare lowering of vapour pressure, elevation of boiling point, depression of freezing\npoint and osmotic pressure The process of osmosis can be reversed if a pressure\nhigher than the osmotic pressure is applied to the solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1578-1581", "Text": "The properties of solutions which depend on the number of solute particles and\nare independent of their chemical identity are called colligative properties These\nare lowering of vapour pressure, elevation of boiling point, depression of freezing\npoint and osmotic pressure The process of osmosis can be reversed if a pressure\nhigher than the osmotic pressure is applied to the solution Colligative properties\nhave been used to determine the molar mass of solutes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1579-1582", "Text": "These\nare lowering of vapour pressure, elevation of boiling point, depression of freezing\npoint and osmotic pressure The process of osmosis can be reversed if a pressure\nhigher than the osmotic pressure is applied to the solution Colligative properties\nhave been used to determine the molar mass of solutes Solutes which dissociate in\nsolution exhibit molar mass lower than the actual molar mass and those which\nassociate show higher molar mass than their actual values"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1580-1583", "Text": "The process of osmosis can be reversed if a pressure\nhigher than the osmotic pressure is applied to the solution Colligative properties\nhave been used to determine the molar mass of solutes Solutes which dissociate in\nsolution exhibit molar mass lower than the actual molar mass and those which\nassociate show higher molar mass than their actual values Quantitatively, the extent to which a solute is dissociated or associated can be\nexpressed by van\u2019t Hoff factor i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1581-1584", "Text": "Colligative properties\nhave been used to determine the molar mass of solutes Solutes which dissociate in\nsolution exhibit molar mass lower than the actual molar mass and those which\nassociate show higher molar mass than their actual values Quantitatively, the extent to which a solute is dissociated or associated can be\nexpressed by van\u2019t Hoff factor i This factor has been defined as ratio of normal\nmolar mass to experimentally determined molar mass or as the ratio of observed\ncolligative property to the calculated colligative property"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1582-1585", "Text": "Solutes which dissociate in\nsolution exhibit molar mass lower than the actual molar mass and those which\nassociate show higher molar mass than their actual values Quantitatively, the extent to which a solute is dissociated or associated can be\nexpressed by van\u2019t Hoff factor i This factor has been defined as ratio of normal\nmolar mass to experimentally determined molar mass or as the ratio of observed\ncolligative property to the calculated colligative property 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1583-1586", "Text": "Quantitatively, the extent to which a solute is dissociated or associated can be\nexpressed by van\u2019t Hoff factor i This factor has been defined as ratio of normal\nmolar mass to experimentally determined molar mass or as the ratio of observed\ncolligative property to the calculated colligative property 1 1\nDefine the term solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1584-1587", "Text": "This factor has been defined as ratio of normal\nmolar mass to experimentally determined molar mass or as the ratio of observed\ncolligative property to the calculated colligative property 1 1\nDefine the term solution How many types of solutions are formed"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1585-1588", "Text": "1 1\nDefine the term solution How many types of solutions are formed Write briefly\nabout each type with an example"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1586-1589", "Text": "1\nDefine the term solution How many types of solutions are formed Write briefly\nabout each type with an example 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1587-1590", "Text": "How many types of solutions are formed Write briefly\nabout each type with an example 1 2\nGive an example of a solid solution in which the solute is a gas"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1588-1591", "Text": "Write briefly\nabout each type with an example 1 2\nGive an example of a solid solution in which the solute is a gas 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1589-1592", "Text": "1 2\nGive an example of a solid solution in which the solute is a gas 1 3\nDefine the following terms:\n(i) Mole fraction\n(ii) Molality\n(iii) Molarity\n(iv) Mass percentage"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1590-1593", "Text": "2\nGive an example of a solid solution in which the solute is a gas 1 3\nDefine the following terms:\n(i) Mole fraction\n(ii) Molality\n(iii) Molarity\n(iv) Mass percentage 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1591-1594", "Text": "1 3\nDefine the following terms:\n(i) Mole fraction\n(ii) Molality\n(iii) Molarity\n(iv) Mass percentage 1 4\nConcentrated nitric acid used in laboratory work is 68% nitric acid by mass in\naqueous solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1592-1595", "Text": "3\nDefine the following terms:\n(i) Mole fraction\n(ii) Molality\n(iii) Molarity\n(iv) Mass percentage 1 4\nConcentrated nitric acid used in laboratory work is 68% nitric acid by mass in\naqueous solution What should be the molarity of such a sample of the acid if\nthe density of the solution is 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1593-1596", "Text": "1 4\nConcentrated nitric acid used in laboratory work is 68% nitric acid by mass in\naqueous solution What should be the molarity of such a sample of the acid if\nthe density of the solution is 1 504 g mL\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1594-1597", "Text": "4\nConcentrated nitric acid used in laboratory work is 68% nitric acid by mass in\naqueous solution What should be the molarity of such a sample of the acid if\nthe density of the solution is 1 504 g mL\u20131 Exercises\nExercises\nExercises\nExercises\nExercises\nRationalised 2023-24\n28\nChemistry\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1595-1598", "Text": "What should be the molarity of such a sample of the acid if\nthe density of the solution is 1 504 g mL\u20131 Exercises\nExercises\nExercises\nExercises\nExercises\nRationalised 2023-24\n28\nChemistry\n1 5\nA solution of glucose in water is labelled as 10% w/w, what would be the\nmolality and mole fraction of each component in the solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1596-1599", "Text": "504 g mL\u20131 Exercises\nExercises\nExercises\nExercises\nExercises\nRationalised 2023-24\n28\nChemistry\n1 5\nA solution of glucose in water is labelled as 10% w/w, what would be the\nmolality and mole fraction of each component in the solution If the density of\nsolution is 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1597-1600", "Text": "Exercises\nExercises\nExercises\nExercises\nExercises\nRationalised 2023-24\n28\nChemistry\n1 5\nA solution of glucose in water is labelled as 10% w/w, what would be the\nmolality and mole fraction of each component in the solution If the density of\nsolution is 1 2 g mL\u20131, then what shall be the molarity of the solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1598-1601", "Text": "5\nA solution of glucose in water is labelled as 10% w/w, what would be the\nmolality and mole fraction of each component in the solution If the density of\nsolution is 1 2 g mL\u20131, then what shall be the molarity of the solution 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1599-1602", "Text": "If the density of\nsolution is 1 2 g mL\u20131, then what shall be the molarity of the solution 1 6\nHow many mL of 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1600-1603", "Text": "2 g mL\u20131, then what shall be the molarity of the solution 1 6\nHow many mL of 0 1 M HCl are required to react completely with 1 g mixture\nof Na2CO3 and NaHCO3 containing equimolar amounts of both"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1601-1604", "Text": "1 6\nHow many mL of 0 1 M HCl are required to react completely with 1 g mixture\nof Na2CO3 and NaHCO3 containing equimolar amounts of both 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1602-1605", "Text": "6\nHow many mL of 0 1 M HCl are required to react completely with 1 g mixture\nof Na2CO3 and NaHCO3 containing equimolar amounts of both 1 7\nA solution is obtained by mixing 300 g of 25% solution and 400 g of 40%\nsolution by mass"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1603-1606", "Text": "1 M HCl are required to react completely with 1 g mixture\nof Na2CO3 and NaHCO3 containing equimolar amounts of both 1 7\nA solution is obtained by mixing 300 g of 25% solution and 400 g of 40%\nsolution by mass Calculate the mass percentage of the resulting solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1604-1607", "Text": "1 7\nA solution is obtained by mixing 300 g of 25% solution and 400 g of 40%\nsolution by mass Calculate the mass percentage of the resulting solution 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1605-1608", "Text": "7\nA solution is obtained by mixing 300 g of 25% solution and 400 g of 40%\nsolution by mass Calculate the mass percentage of the resulting solution 1 8\nAn antifreeze solution is prepared from 222"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1606-1609", "Text": "Calculate the mass percentage of the resulting solution 1 8\nAn antifreeze solution is prepared from 222 6 g of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) and\n200 g of water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1607-1610", "Text": "1 8\nAn antifreeze solution is prepared from 222 6 g of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) and\n200 g of water Calculate the molality of the solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1608-1611", "Text": "8\nAn antifreeze solution is prepared from 222 6 g of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) and\n200 g of water Calculate the molality of the solution If the density of the\nsolution is 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1609-1612", "Text": "6 g of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) and\n200 g of water Calculate the molality of the solution If the density of the\nsolution is 1 072 g mL\u20131, then what shall be the molarity of the solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1610-1613", "Text": "Calculate the molality of the solution If the density of the\nsolution is 1 072 g mL\u20131, then what shall be the molarity of the solution 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1611-1614", "Text": "If the density of the\nsolution is 1 072 g mL\u20131, then what shall be the molarity of the solution 1 9\nA sample of drinking water was found to be severely contaminated with\nchloroform (CHCl3) supposed to be a carcinogen"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1612-1615", "Text": "072 g mL\u20131, then what shall be the molarity of the solution 1 9\nA sample of drinking water was found to be severely contaminated with\nchloroform (CHCl3) supposed to be a carcinogen The level of contamination\nwas 15 ppm (by mass):\n(i) express this in percent by mass\n(ii) determine the molality of chloroform in the water sample"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1613-1616", "Text": "1 9\nA sample of drinking water was found to be severely contaminated with\nchloroform (CHCl3) supposed to be a carcinogen The level of contamination\nwas 15 ppm (by mass):\n(i) express this in percent by mass\n(ii) determine the molality of chloroform in the water sample 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1614-1617", "Text": "9\nA sample of drinking water was found to be severely contaminated with\nchloroform (CHCl3) supposed to be a carcinogen The level of contamination\nwas 15 ppm (by mass):\n(i) express this in percent by mass\n(ii) determine the molality of chloroform in the water sample 1 10\nWhat role does the molecular interaction play in a solution of alcohol and water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1615-1618", "Text": "The level of contamination\nwas 15 ppm (by mass):\n(i) express this in percent by mass\n(ii) determine the molality of chloroform in the water sample 1 10\nWhat role does the molecular interaction play in a solution of alcohol and water 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1616-1619", "Text": "1 10\nWhat role does the molecular interaction play in a solution of alcohol and water 1 11\nWhy do gases always tend to be less soluble in liquids as the temperature\nis raised"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1617-1620", "Text": "10\nWhat role does the molecular interaction play in a solution of alcohol and water 1 11\nWhy do gases always tend to be less soluble in liquids as the temperature\nis raised 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1618-1621", "Text": "1 11\nWhy do gases always tend to be less soluble in liquids as the temperature\nis raised 1 12\nState Henry\u2019s law and mention some important applications"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1619-1622", "Text": "11\nWhy do gases always tend to be less soluble in liquids as the temperature\nis raised 1 12\nState Henry\u2019s law and mention some important applications 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1620-1623", "Text": "1 12\nState Henry\u2019s law and mention some important applications 1 13\nThe partial pressure of ethane over a solution containing 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1621-1624", "Text": "12\nState Henry\u2019s law and mention some important applications 1 13\nThe partial pressure of ethane over a solution containing 6 56 \u00d7 10\u20133 g of ethane\nis 1 bar"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1622-1625", "Text": "1 13\nThe partial pressure of ethane over a solution containing 6 56 \u00d7 10\u20133 g of ethane\nis 1 bar If the solution contains 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1623-1626", "Text": "13\nThe partial pressure of ethane over a solution containing 6 56 \u00d7 10\u20133 g of ethane\nis 1 bar If the solution contains 5 00 \u00d7 10\u20132 g of ethane, then what shall be the\npartial pressure of the gas"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1624-1627", "Text": "56 \u00d7 10\u20133 g of ethane\nis 1 bar If the solution contains 5 00 \u00d7 10\u20132 g of ethane, then what shall be the\npartial pressure of the gas 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1625-1628", "Text": "If the solution contains 5 00 \u00d7 10\u20132 g of ethane, then what shall be the\npartial pressure of the gas 1 14\nWhat is meant by positive and negative deviations from Raoult's law and how is\nthe sign of DmixH related to positive and negative deviations from Raoult's law"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1626-1629", "Text": "00 \u00d7 10\u20132 g of ethane, then what shall be the\npartial pressure of the gas 1 14\nWhat is meant by positive and negative deviations from Raoult's law and how is\nthe sign of DmixH related to positive and negative deviations from Raoult's law 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1627-1630", "Text": "1 14\nWhat is meant by positive and negative deviations from Raoult's law and how is\nthe sign of DmixH related to positive and negative deviations from Raoult's law 1 15\nAn aqueous solution of 2% non-volatile solute exerts a pressure of 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1628-1631", "Text": "14\nWhat is meant by positive and negative deviations from Raoult's law and how is\nthe sign of DmixH related to positive and negative deviations from Raoult's law 1 15\nAn aqueous solution of 2% non-volatile solute exerts a pressure of 1 004 bar\nat the normal boiling point of the solvent"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1629-1632", "Text": "1 15\nAn aqueous solution of 2% non-volatile solute exerts a pressure of 1 004 bar\nat the normal boiling point of the solvent What is the molar mass of the solute"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1630-1633", "Text": "15\nAn aqueous solution of 2% non-volatile solute exerts a pressure of 1 004 bar\nat the normal boiling point of the solvent What is the molar mass of the solute 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1631-1634", "Text": "004 bar\nat the normal boiling point of the solvent What is the molar mass of the solute 1 16\nHeptane and octane form an ideal solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1632-1635", "Text": "What is the molar mass of the solute 1 16\nHeptane and octane form an ideal solution At 373 K, the vapour pressures of\nthe two liquid components are 105"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1633-1636", "Text": "1 16\nHeptane and octane form an ideal solution At 373 K, the vapour pressures of\nthe two liquid components are 105 2 kPa and 46"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1634-1637", "Text": "16\nHeptane and octane form an ideal solution At 373 K, the vapour pressures of\nthe two liquid components are 105 2 kPa and 46 8 kPa respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1635-1638", "Text": "At 373 K, the vapour pressures of\nthe two liquid components are 105 2 kPa and 46 8 kPa respectively What will\nbe the vapour pressure of a mixture of 26"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1636-1639", "Text": "2 kPa and 46 8 kPa respectively What will\nbe the vapour pressure of a mixture of 26 0 g of heptane and 35 g of octane"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1637-1640", "Text": "8 kPa respectively What will\nbe the vapour pressure of a mixture of 26 0 g of heptane and 35 g of octane 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1638-1641", "Text": "What will\nbe the vapour pressure of a mixture of 26 0 g of heptane and 35 g of octane 1 17\nThe vapour pressure of water is 12"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1639-1642", "Text": "0 g of heptane and 35 g of octane 1 17\nThe vapour pressure of water is 12 3 kPa at 300 K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1640-1643", "Text": "1 17\nThe vapour pressure of water is 12 3 kPa at 300 K Calculate vapour pressure\nof 1 molal solution of a non-volatile solute in it"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1641-1644", "Text": "17\nThe vapour pressure of water is 12 3 kPa at 300 K Calculate vapour pressure\nof 1 molal solution of a non-volatile solute in it 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1642-1645", "Text": "3 kPa at 300 K Calculate vapour pressure\nof 1 molal solution of a non-volatile solute in it 1 18\nCalculate the mass of a non-volatile solute (molar mass 40 g mol\u20131) which\nshould be dissolved in 114 g octane to reduce its vapour pressure to 80%"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1643-1646", "Text": "Calculate vapour pressure\nof 1 molal solution of a non-volatile solute in it 1 18\nCalculate the mass of a non-volatile solute (molar mass 40 g mol\u20131) which\nshould be dissolved in 114 g octane to reduce its vapour pressure to 80% 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1644-1647", "Text": "1 18\nCalculate the mass of a non-volatile solute (molar mass 40 g mol\u20131) which\nshould be dissolved in 114 g octane to reduce its vapour pressure to 80% 1 19\nA solution containing 30 g of non-volatile solute exactly in 90 g of water has a\nvapour pressure of 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1645-1648", "Text": "18\nCalculate the mass of a non-volatile solute (molar mass 40 g mol\u20131) which\nshould be dissolved in 114 g octane to reduce its vapour pressure to 80% 1 19\nA solution containing 30 g of non-volatile solute exactly in 90 g of water has a\nvapour pressure of 2 8 kPa at 298 K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1646-1649", "Text": "1 19\nA solution containing 30 g of non-volatile solute exactly in 90 g of water has a\nvapour pressure of 2 8 kPa at 298 K Further, 18 g of water is then added to\nthe solution and the new vapour pressure becomes 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1647-1650", "Text": "19\nA solution containing 30 g of non-volatile solute exactly in 90 g of water has a\nvapour pressure of 2 8 kPa at 298 K Further, 18 g of water is then added to\nthe solution and the new vapour pressure becomes 2 9 kPa at 298 K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1648-1651", "Text": "8 kPa at 298 K Further, 18 g of water is then added to\nthe solution and the new vapour pressure becomes 2 9 kPa at 298 K Calculate:\n(i) molar mass of the solute\n(ii) vapour pressure of water at 298 K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1649-1652", "Text": "Further, 18 g of water is then added to\nthe solution and the new vapour pressure becomes 2 9 kPa at 298 K Calculate:\n(i) molar mass of the solute\n(ii) vapour pressure of water at 298 K 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1650-1653", "Text": "9 kPa at 298 K Calculate:\n(i) molar mass of the solute\n(ii) vapour pressure of water at 298 K 1 20\nA 5% solution (by mass) of cane sugar in water has freezing point of 271K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1651-1654", "Text": "Calculate:\n(i) molar mass of the solute\n(ii) vapour pressure of water at 298 K 1 20\nA 5% solution (by mass) of cane sugar in water has freezing point of 271K Calculate the freezing point of 5% glucose in water if freezing point of pure\nwater is 273"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1652-1655", "Text": "1 20\nA 5% solution (by mass) of cane sugar in water has freezing point of 271K Calculate the freezing point of 5% glucose in water if freezing point of pure\nwater is 273 15 K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1653-1656", "Text": "20\nA 5% solution (by mass) of cane sugar in water has freezing point of 271K Calculate the freezing point of 5% glucose in water if freezing point of pure\nwater is 273 15 K 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1654-1657", "Text": "Calculate the freezing point of 5% glucose in water if freezing point of pure\nwater is 273 15 K 1 21\nTwo elements A and B form compounds having formula AB2 and AB4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1655-1658", "Text": "15 K 1 21\nTwo elements A and B form compounds having formula AB2 and AB4 When\ndissolved in 20 g of benzene (C6H6), 1 g of AB2 lowers the freezing point by\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1656-1659", "Text": "1 21\nTwo elements A and B form compounds having formula AB2 and AB4 When\ndissolved in 20 g of benzene (C6H6), 1 g of AB2 lowers the freezing point by\n2 3 K whereas 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1657-1660", "Text": "21\nTwo elements A and B form compounds having formula AB2 and AB4 When\ndissolved in 20 g of benzene (C6H6), 1 g of AB2 lowers the freezing point by\n2 3 K whereas 1 0 g of AB4 lowers it by 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1658-1661", "Text": "When\ndissolved in 20 g of benzene (C6H6), 1 g of AB2 lowers the freezing point by\n2 3 K whereas 1 0 g of AB4 lowers it by 1 3 K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1659-1662", "Text": "3 K whereas 1 0 g of AB4 lowers it by 1 3 K The molar depression constant\nfor benzene is 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1660-1663", "Text": "0 g of AB4 lowers it by 1 3 K The molar depression constant\nfor benzene is 5 1 K kg mol\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1661-1664", "Text": "3 K The molar depression constant\nfor benzene is 5 1 K kg mol\u20131 Calculate atomic masses of A and B"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1662-1665", "Text": "The molar depression constant\nfor benzene is 5 1 K kg mol\u20131 Calculate atomic masses of A and B Rationalised 2023-24\n29\nSolutions\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1663-1666", "Text": "1 K kg mol\u20131 Calculate atomic masses of A and B Rationalised 2023-24\n29\nSolutions\n1 22\nAt 300 K, 36 g of glucose present in a litre of its solution has an osmotic pressure\nof 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1664-1667", "Text": "Calculate atomic masses of A and B Rationalised 2023-24\n29\nSolutions\n1 22\nAt 300 K, 36 g of glucose present in a litre of its solution has an osmotic pressure\nof 4 98 bar"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1665-1668", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n29\nSolutions\n1 22\nAt 300 K, 36 g of glucose present in a litre of its solution has an osmotic pressure\nof 4 98 bar If the osmotic pressure of the solution is 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1666-1669", "Text": "22\nAt 300 K, 36 g of glucose present in a litre of its solution has an osmotic pressure\nof 4 98 bar If the osmotic pressure of the solution is 1 52 bars at the same\ntemperature, what would be its concentration"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1667-1670", "Text": "98 bar If the osmotic pressure of the solution is 1 52 bars at the same\ntemperature, what would be its concentration 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1668-1671", "Text": "If the osmotic pressure of the solution is 1 52 bars at the same\ntemperature, what would be its concentration 1 23\nSuggest the most important type of intermolecular attractive interaction in\nthe following pairs"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1669-1672", "Text": "52 bars at the same\ntemperature, what would be its concentration 1 23\nSuggest the most important type of intermolecular attractive interaction in\nthe following pairs (i) n-hexane and n-octane\n(ii) I2 and CCl4\n(iii) NaClO4 and water\n(iv) methanol and acetone\n(v) acetonitrile (CH3CN) and acetone (C3H6O)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1670-1673", "Text": "1 23\nSuggest the most important type of intermolecular attractive interaction in\nthe following pairs (i) n-hexane and n-octane\n(ii) I2 and CCl4\n(iii) NaClO4 and water\n(iv) methanol and acetone\n(v) acetonitrile (CH3CN) and acetone (C3H6O) 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1671-1674", "Text": "23\nSuggest the most important type of intermolecular attractive interaction in\nthe following pairs (i) n-hexane and n-octane\n(ii) I2 and CCl4\n(iii) NaClO4 and water\n(iv) methanol and acetone\n(v) acetonitrile (CH3CN) and acetone (C3H6O) 1 24\nBased on solute-solvent interactions, arrange the following in order of increasing\nsolubility in n-octane and explain"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1672-1675", "Text": "(i) n-hexane and n-octane\n(ii) I2 and CCl4\n(iii) NaClO4 and water\n(iv) methanol and acetone\n(v) acetonitrile (CH3CN) and acetone (C3H6O) 1 24\nBased on solute-solvent interactions, arrange the following in order of increasing\nsolubility in n-octane and explain Cyclohexane, KCl, CH3OH, CH3CN"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1673-1676", "Text": "1 24\nBased on solute-solvent interactions, arrange the following in order of increasing\nsolubility in n-octane and explain Cyclohexane, KCl, CH3OH, CH3CN 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1674-1677", "Text": "24\nBased on solute-solvent interactions, arrange the following in order of increasing\nsolubility in n-octane and explain Cyclohexane, KCl, CH3OH, CH3CN 1 25\nAmongst the following compounds, identify which are insoluble, partially\nsoluble and highly soluble in water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1675-1678", "Text": "Cyclohexane, KCl, CH3OH, CH3CN 1 25\nAmongst the following compounds, identify which are insoluble, partially\nsoluble and highly soluble in water (i) phenol\n(ii) toluene\n(iii) formic acid\n(iv) ethylene glycol\n(v) chloroform\n(vi) pentanol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1676-1679", "Text": "1 25\nAmongst the following compounds, identify which are insoluble, partially\nsoluble and highly soluble in water (i) phenol\n(ii) toluene\n(iii) formic acid\n(iv) ethylene glycol\n(v) chloroform\n(vi) pentanol 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1677-1680", "Text": "25\nAmongst the following compounds, identify which are insoluble, partially\nsoluble and highly soluble in water (i) phenol\n(ii) toluene\n(iii) formic acid\n(iv) ethylene glycol\n(v) chloroform\n(vi) pentanol 1 26\nIf the density of some lake water is 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1678-1681", "Text": "(i) phenol\n(ii) toluene\n(iii) formic acid\n(iv) ethylene glycol\n(v) chloroform\n(vi) pentanol 1 26\nIf the density of some lake water is 1 25g mL\u20131 and contains 92 g of Na+ ions per\nkg of water, calculate the molarity of Na+ ions in the lake"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1679-1682", "Text": "1 26\nIf the density of some lake water is 1 25g mL\u20131 and contains 92 g of Na+ ions per\nkg of water, calculate the molarity of Na+ ions in the lake 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1680-1683", "Text": "26\nIf the density of some lake water is 1 25g mL\u20131 and contains 92 g of Na+ ions per\nkg of water, calculate the molarity of Na+ ions in the lake 1 27\nIf the solubility product of CuS is 6 \u00d7 10\u201316, calculate the maximum molarity of\nCuS in aqueous solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1681-1684", "Text": "25g mL\u20131 and contains 92 g of Na+ ions per\nkg of water, calculate the molarity of Na+ ions in the lake 1 27\nIf the solubility product of CuS is 6 \u00d7 10\u201316, calculate the maximum molarity of\nCuS in aqueous solution 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1682-1685", "Text": "1 27\nIf the solubility product of CuS is 6 \u00d7 10\u201316, calculate the maximum molarity of\nCuS in aqueous solution 1 28\nCalculate the mass percentage of aspirin (C9H8O4) in acetonitrile (CH3CN) when\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1683-1686", "Text": "27\nIf the solubility product of CuS is 6 \u00d7 10\u201316, calculate the maximum molarity of\nCuS in aqueous solution 1 28\nCalculate the mass percentage of aspirin (C9H8O4) in acetonitrile (CH3CN) when\n6 5 g of C9H8O4 is dissolved in 450 g of CH3CN"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1684-1687", "Text": "1 28\nCalculate the mass percentage of aspirin (C9H8O4) in acetonitrile (CH3CN) when\n6 5 g of C9H8O4 is dissolved in 450 g of CH3CN 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1685-1688", "Text": "28\nCalculate the mass percentage of aspirin (C9H8O4) in acetonitrile (CH3CN) when\n6 5 g of C9H8O4 is dissolved in 450 g of CH3CN 1 29\nNalorphene (C19H21NO3), similar to morphine, is used to combat withdrawal\nsymptoms in narcotic users"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1686-1689", "Text": "5 g of C9H8O4 is dissolved in 450 g of CH3CN 1 29\nNalorphene (C19H21NO3), similar to morphine, is used to combat withdrawal\nsymptoms in narcotic users Dose of nalorphene generally given is 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1687-1690", "Text": "1 29\nNalorphene (C19H21NO3), similar to morphine, is used to combat withdrawal\nsymptoms in narcotic users Dose of nalorphene generally given is 1 5 mg"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1688-1691", "Text": "29\nNalorphene (C19H21NO3), similar to morphine, is used to combat withdrawal\nsymptoms in narcotic users Dose of nalorphene generally given is 1 5 mg Calculate the mass of 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1689-1692", "Text": "Dose of nalorphene generally given is 1 5 mg Calculate the mass of 1 5 \u00b4 10\u20133 m aqueous solution required for the above dose"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1690-1693", "Text": "5 mg Calculate the mass of 1 5 \u00b4 10\u20133 m aqueous solution required for the above dose 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1691-1694", "Text": "Calculate the mass of 1 5 \u00b4 10\u20133 m aqueous solution required for the above dose 1 30\nCalculate the amount of benzoic acid (C6H5COOH) required for preparing 250\nmL of 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1692-1695", "Text": "5 \u00b4 10\u20133 m aqueous solution required for the above dose 1 30\nCalculate the amount of benzoic acid (C6H5COOH) required for preparing 250\nmL of 0 15 M solution in methanol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1693-1696", "Text": "1 30\nCalculate the amount of benzoic acid (C6H5COOH) required for preparing 250\nmL of 0 15 M solution in methanol 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1694-1697", "Text": "30\nCalculate the amount of benzoic acid (C6H5COOH) required for preparing 250\nmL of 0 15 M solution in methanol 1 31\nThe depression in freezing point of water observed for the same amount of\nacetic acid, trichloroacetic acid and trifluoroacetic acid increases in the order\ngiven above"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1695-1698", "Text": "15 M solution in methanol 1 31\nThe depression in freezing point of water observed for the same amount of\nacetic acid, trichloroacetic acid and trifluoroacetic acid increases in the order\ngiven above Explain briefly"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1696-1699", "Text": "1 31\nThe depression in freezing point of water observed for the same amount of\nacetic acid, trichloroacetic acid and trifluoroacetic acid increases in the order\ngiven above Explain briefly 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1697-1700", "Text": "31\nThe depression in freezing point of water observed for the same amount of\nacetic acid, trichloroacetic acid and trifluoroacetic acid increases in the order\ngiven above Explain briefly 1 32\nCalculate the depression in the freezing point of water when 10 g of\nCH3CH2CHClCOOH is added to 250 g of water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1698-1701", "Text": "Explain briefly 1 32\nCalculate the depression in the freezing point of water when 10 g of\nCH3CH2CHClCOOH is added to 250 g of water Ka = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1699-1702", "Text": "1 32\nCalculate the depression in the freezing point of water when 10 g of\nCH3CH2CHClCOOH is added to 250 g of water Ka = 1 4 \u00d7 10\u20133, Kf = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1700-1703", "Text": "32\nCalculate the depression in the freezing point of water when 10 g of\nCH3CH2CHClCOOH is added to 250 g of water Ka = 1 4 \u00d7 10\u20133, Kf = 1 86\nK kg mol\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1701-1704", "Text": "Ka = 1 4 \u00d7 10\u20133, Kf = 1 86\nK kg mol\u20131 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1702-1705", "Text": "4 \u00d7 10\u20133, Kf = 1 86\nK kg mol\u20131 1 33\n19"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1703-1706", "Text": "86\nK kg mol\u20131 1 33\n19 5 g of CH2FCOOH is dissolved in 500 g of water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1704-1707", "Text": "1 33\n19 5 g of CH2FCOOH is dissolved in 500 g of water The depression in the freezing\npoint of water observed is 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1705-1708", "Text": "33\n19 5 g of CH2FCOOH is dissolved in 500 g of water The depression in the freezing\npoint of water observed is 1 00 C"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1706-1709", "Text": "5 g of CH2FCOOH is dissolved in 500 g of water The depression in the freezing\npoint of water observed is 1 00 C Calculate the van\u2019t Hoff factor and dissociation\nconstant of fluoroacetic acid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1707-1710", "Text": "The depression in the freezing\npoint of water observed is 1 00 C Calculate the van\u2019t Hoff factor and dissociation\nconstant of fluoroacetic acid 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1708-1711", "Text": "00 C Calculate the van\u2019t Hoff factor and dissociation\nconstant of fluoroacetic acid 1 34\nVapour pressure of water at 293 K is 17"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1709-1712", "Text": "Calculate the van\u2019t Hoff factor and dissociation\nconstant of fluoroacetic acid 1 34\nVapour pressure of water at 293 K is 17 535 mm Hg"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1710-1713", "Text": "1 34\nVapour pressure of water at 293 K is 17 535 mm Hg Calculate the vapour\npressure of water at 293 K when 25 g of glucose is dissolved in 450 g of water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1711-1714", "Text": "34\nVapour pressure of water at 293 K is 17 535 mm Hg Calculate the vapour\npressure of water at 293 K when 25 g of glucose is dissolved in 450 g of water 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1712-1715", "Text": "535 mm Hg Calculate the vapour\npressure of water at 293 K when 25 g of glucose is dissolved in 450 g of water 1 35\nHenry\u2019s law constant for the molality of methane in benzene at 298 K is\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1713-1716", "Text": "Calculate the vapour\npressure of water at 293 K when 25 g of glucose is dissolved in 450 g of water 1 35\nHenry\u2019s law constant for the molality of methane in benzene at 298 K is\n4 27 \u00d7 105 mm Hg"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1714-1717", "Text": "1 35\nHenry\u2019s law constant for the molality of methane in benzene at 298 K is\n4 27 \u00d7 105 mm Hg Calculate the solubility of methane in benzene at 298 K\nunder 760 mm Hg"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1715-1718", "Text": "35\nHenry\u2019s law constant for the molality of methane in benzene at 298 K is\n4 27 \u00d7 105 mm Hg Calculate the solubility of methane in benzene at 298 K\nunder 760 mm Hg 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1716-1719", "Text": "27 \u00d7 105 mm Hg Calculate the solubility of methane in benzene at 298 K\nunder 760 mm Hg 1 36\n100 g of liquid A (molar mass 140 g mol\u20131) was dissolved in 1000 g of liquid B\n(molar mass 180 g mol\u20131)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1717-1720", "Text": "Calculate the solubility of methane in benzene at 298 K\nunder 760 mm Hg 1 36\n100 g of liquid A (molar mass 140 g mol\u20131) was dissolved in 1000 g of liquid B\n(molar mass 180 g mol\u20131) The vapour pressure of pure liquid B was found to be\n500 torr"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1718-1721", "Text": "1 36\n100 g of liquid A (molar mass 140 g mol\u20131) was dissolved in 1000 g of liquid B\n(molar mass 180 g mol\u20131) The vapour pressure of pure liquid B was found to be\n500 torr Calculate the vapour pressure of pure liquid A and its vapour pressure\nin the solution if the total vapour pressure of the solution is 475 Torr"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1719-1722", "Text": "36\n100 g of liquid A (molar mass 140 g mol\u20131) was dissolved in 1000 g of liquid B\n(molar mass 180 g mol\u20131) The vapour pressure of pure liquid B was found to be\n500 torr Calculate the vapour pressure of pure liquid A and its vapour pressure\nin the solution if the total vapour pressure of the solution is 475 Torr Rationalised 2023-24\n30\nChemistry\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1720-1723", "Text": "The vapour pressure of pure liquid B was found to be\n500 torr Calculate the vapour pressure of pure liquid A and its vapour pressure\nin the solution if the total vapour pressure of the solution is 475 Torr Rationalised 2023-24\n30\nChemistry\n1 37\nVapour pressures of pure acetone and chloroform at 328 K are 741"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1721-1724", "Text": "Calculate the vapour pressure of pure liquid A and its vapour pressure\nin the solution if the total vapour pressure of the solution is 475 Torr Rationalised 2023-24\n30\nChemistry\n1 37\nVapour pressures of pure acetone and chloroform at 328 K are 741 8 mm\nHg and 632"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1722-1725", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n30\nChemistry\n1 37\nVapour pressures of pure acetone and chloroform at 328 K are 741 8 mm\nHg and 632 8 mm Hg respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1723-1726", "Text": "37\nVapour pressures of pure acetone and chloroform at 328 K are 741 8 mm\nHg and 632 8 mm Hg respectively Assuming that they form ideal solution\nover the entire range of composition, plot ptotal, pchloroform, and pacetone as a\nfunction of xacetone"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1724-1727", "Text": "8 mm\nHg and 632 8 mm Hg respectively Assuming that they form ideal solution\nover the entire range of composition, plot ptotal, pchloroform, and pacetone as a\nfunction of xacetone The experimental data observed for different compositions\nof mixture is:\n100 x xacetone\n0\n11"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1725-1728", "Text": "8 mm Hg respectively Assuming that they form ideal solution\nover the entire range of composition, plot ptotal, pchloroform, and pacetone as a\nfunction of xacetone The experimental data observed for different compositions\nof mixture is:\n100 x xacetone\n0\n11 8\n23"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1726-1729", "Text": "Assuming that they form ideal solution\nover the entire range of composition, plot ptotal, pchloroform, and pacetone as a\nfunction of xacetone The experimental data observed for different compositions\nof mixture is:\n100 x xacetone\n0\n11 8\n23 4\n36"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1727-1730", "Text": "The experimental data observed for different compositions\nof mixture is:\n100 x xacetone\n0\n11 8\n23 4\n36 0\n50"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1728-1731", "Text": "8\n23 4\n36 0\n50 8\n58"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1729-1732", "Text": "4\n36 0\n50 8\n58 2\n64"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1730-1733", "Text": "0\n50 8\n58 2\n64 5\n72"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1731-1734", "Text": "8\n58 2\n64 5\n72 1\npacetone /mm Hg\n0\n54"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1732-1735", "Text": "2\n64 5\n72 1\npacetone /mm Hg\n0\n54 9 110"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1733-1736", "Text": "5\n72 1\npacetone /mm Hg\n0\n54 9 110 1 202"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1734-1737", "Text": "1\npacetone /mm Hg\n0\n54 9 110 1 202 4 322"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1735-1738", "Text": "9 110 1 202 4 322 7 405"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1736-1739", "Text": "1 202 4 322 7 405 9 454"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1737-1740", "Text": "4 322 7 405 9 454 1 521"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1738-1741", "Text": "7 405 9 454 1 521 1\npchloroform /mm Hg\n632"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1739-1742", "Text": "9 454 1 521 1\npchloroform /mm Hg\n632 8 548"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1740-1743", "Text": "1 521 1\npchloroform /mm Hg\n632 8 548 1 469"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1741-1744", "Text": "1\npchloroform /mm Hg\n632 8 548 1 469 4 359"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1742-1745", "Text": "8 548 1 469 4 359 7 257"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1743-1746", "Text": "1 469 4 359 7 257 7 193"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1744-1747", "Text": "4 359 7 257 7 193 6 161"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1745-1748", "Text": "7 257 7 193 6 161 2 120"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1746-1749", "Text": "7 193 6 161 2 120 7\nPlot this data also on the same graph paper"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1747-1750", "Text": "6 161 2 120 7\nPlot this data also on the same graph paper Indicate whether it has positive\ndeviation or negative deviation from the ideal solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1748-1751", "Text": "2 120 7\nPlot this data also on the same graph paper Indicate whether it has positive\ndeviation or negative deviation from the ideal solution 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1749-1752", "Text": "7\nPlot this data also on the same graph paper Indicate whether it has positive\ndeviation or negative deviation from the ideal solution 1 38\nBenzene and toluene form ideal solution over the entire range of composition"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1750-1753", "Text": "Indicate whether it has positive\ndeviation or negative deviation from the ideal solution 1 38\nBenzene and toluene form ideal solution over the entire range of composition The vapour pressure of pure benzene and toluene at 300 K are 50"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1751-1754", "Text": "1 38\nBenzene and toluene form ideal solution over the entire range of composition The vapour pressure of pure benzene and toluene at 300 K are 50 71 mm Hg\nand 32"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1752-1755", "Text": "38\nBenzene and toluene form ideal solution over the entire range of composition The vapour pressure of pure benzene and toluene at 300 K are 50 71 mm Hg\nand 32 06 mm Hg respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1753-1756", "Text": "The vapour pressure of pure benzene and toluene at 300 K are 50 71 mm Hg\nand 32 06 mm Hg respectively Calculate the mole fraction of benzene in vapour\nphase if 80 g of benzene is mixed with 100 g of toluene"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1754-1757", "Text": "71 mm Hg\nand 32 06 mm Hg respectively Calculate the mole fraction of benzene in vapour\nphase if 80 g of benzene is mixed with 100 g of toluene 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1755-1758", "Text": "06 mm Hg respectively Calculate the mole fraction of benzene in vapour\nphase if 80 g of benzene is mixed with 100 g of toluene 1 39\nThe air is a mixture of a number of gases"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1756-1759", "Text": "Calculate the mole fraction of benzene in vapour\nphase if 80 g of benzene is mixed with 100 g of toluene 1 39\nThe air is a mixture of a number of gases The major components are oxygen\nand nitrogen with approximate proportion of 20% is to 79% by volume at 298\nK"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1757-1760", "Text": "1 39\nThe air is a mixture of a number of gases The major components are oxygen\nand nitrogen with approximate proportion of 20% is to 79% by volume at 298\nK The water is in equilibrium with air at a pressure of 10 atm"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1758-1761", "Text": "39\nThe air is a mixture of a number of gases The major components are oxygen\nand nitrogen with approximate proportion of 20% is to 79% by volume at 298\nK The water is in equilibrium with air at a pressure of 10 atm At 298 K if the\nHenry\u2019s law constants for oxygen and nitrogen at 298 K are 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1759-1762", "Text": "The major components are oxygen\nand nitrogen with approximate proportion of 20% is to 79% by volume at 298\nK The water is in equilibrium with air at a pressure of 10 atm At 298 K if the\nHenry\u2019s law constants for oxygen and nitrogen at 298 K are 3 30 \u00d7 107 mm and\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1760-1763", "Text": "The water is in equilibrium with air at a pressure of 10 atm At 298 K if the\nHenry\u2019s law constants for oxygen and nitrogen at 298 K are 3 30 \u00d7 107 mm and\n6 51 \u00d7 107 mm respectively, calculate the composition of these gases in water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1761-1764", "Text": "At 298 K if the\nHenry\u2019s law constants for oxygen and nitrogen at 298 K are 3 30 \u00d7 107 mm and\n6 51 \u00d7 107 mm respectively, calculate the composition of these gases in water 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1762-1765", "Text": "30 \u00d7 107 mm and\n6 51 \u00d7 107 mm respectively, calculate the composition of these gases in water 1 40\nDetermine the amount of CaCl2 (i = 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1763-1766", "Text": "51 \u00d7 107 mm respectively, calculate the composition of these gases in water 1 40\nDetermine the amount of CaCl2 (i = 2 47) dissolved in 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1764-1767", "Text": "1 40\nDetermine the amount of CaCl2 (i = 2 47) dissolved in 2 5 litre of water such\nthat its osmotic pressure is 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1765-1768", "Text": "40\nDetermine the amount of CaCl2 (i = 2 47) dissolved in 2 5 litre of water such\nthat its osmotic pressure is 0 75 atm at 27\u00b0 C"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1766-1769", "Text": "47) dissolved in 2 5 litre of water such\nthat its osmotic pressure is 0 75 atm at 27\u00b0 C 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1767-1770", "Text": "5 litre of water such\nthat its osmotic pressure is 0 75 atm at 27\u00b0 C 1 41\nDetermine the osmotic pressure of a solution prepared by dissolving 25 mg of\nK2SO4 in 2 litre of water at 25\u00b0 C, assuming that it is completely dissociated"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1768-1771", "Text": "75 atm at 27\u00b0 C 1 41\nDetermine the osmotic pressure of a solution prepared by dissolving 25 mg of\nK2SO4 in 2 litre of water at 25\u00b0 C, assuming that it is completely dissociated Answers to Some Intext Questions\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1769-1772", "Text": "1 41\nDetermine the osmotic pressure of a solution prepared by dissolving 25 mg of\nK2SO4 in 2 litre of water at 25\u00b0 C, assuming that it is completely dissociated Answers to Some Intext Questions\n1 1\nC6H6 = 15"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1770-1773", "Text": "41\nDetermine the osmotic pressure of a solution prepared by dissolving 25 mg of\nK2SO4 in 2 litre of water at 25\u00b0 C, assuming that it is completely dissociated Answers to Some Intext Questions\n1 1\nC6H6 = 15 28%, CCl4 = 84"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1771-1774", "Text": "Answers to Some Intext Questions\n1 1\nC6H6 = 15 28%, CCl4 = 84 72%\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1772-1775", "Text": "1\nC6H6 = 15 28%, CCl4 = 84 72%\n1 2\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1773-1776", "Text": "28%, CCl4 = 84 72%\n1 2\n0 459, 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1774-1777", "Text": "72%\n1 2\n0 459, 0 541\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1775-1778", "Text": "2\n0 459, 0 541\n1 3\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1776-1779", "Text": "459, 0 541\n1 3\n0 024 M, 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1777-1780", "Text": "541\n1 3\n0 024 M, 0 03 M\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1778-1781", "Text": "3\n0 024 M, 0 03 M\n1 4\n36"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1779-1782", "Text": "024 M, 0 03 M\n1 4\n36 946 g\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1780-1783", "Text": "03 M\n1 4\n36 946 g\n1 5\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1781-1784", "Text": "4\n36 946 g\n1 5\n1 5 mol kg\u20131 , 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1782-1785", "Text": "946 g\n1 5\n1 5 mol kg\u20131 , 1 45 mol L\u20131 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1783-1786", "Text": "5\n1 5 mol kg\u20131 , 1 45 mol L\u20131 0 0263\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1784-1787", "Text": "5 mol kg\u20131 , 1 45 mol L\u20131 0 0263\n1 9\n23"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1785-1788", "Text": "45 mol L\u20131 0 0263\n1 9\n23 4 mm Hg\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1786-1789", "Text": "0263\n1 9\n23 4 mm Hg\n1 10 121"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1787-1790", "Text": "9\n23 4 mm Hg\n1 10 121 67 g\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1788-1791", "Text": "4 mm Hg\n1 10 121 67 g\n1 11 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1789-1792", "Text": "10 121 67 g\n1 11 5 077 g\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1790-1793", "Text": "67 g\n1 11 5 077 g\n1 12 30"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1791-1794", "Text": "11 5 077 g\n1 12 30 96 Pa\nRationalised 2023-24\nElectrochemistry is the study of production of\nelectricity from energy released during spontaneous\nchemical reactions and the use of electrical energy\nto bring about non-spontaneous chemical\ntransformations"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1792-1795", "Text": "077 g\n1 12 30 96 Pa\nRationalised 2023-24\nElectrochemistry is the study of production of\nelectricity from energy released during spontaneous\nchemical reactions and the use of electrical energy\nto bring about non-spontaneous chemical\ntransformations The subject is of importance both\nfor theoretical and practical considerations"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1793-1796", "Text": "12 30 96 Pa\nRationalised 2023-24\nElectrochemistry is the study of production of\nelectricity from energy released during spontaneous\nchemical reactions and the use of electrical energy\nto bring about non-spontaneous chemical\ntransformations The subject is of importance both\nfor theoretical and practical considerations A large\nnumber of metals, sodium hydroxide, chlorine,\nfluorine and many other chemicals are produced by\nelectrochemical methods"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1794-1797", "Text": "96 Pa\nRationalised 2023-24\nElectrochemistry is the study of production of\nelectricity from energy released during spontaneous\nchemical reactions and the use of electrical energy\nto bring about non-spontaneous chemical\ntransformations The subject is of importance both\nfor theoretical and practical considerations A large\nnumber of metals, sodium hydroxide, chlorine,\nfluorine and many other chemicals are produced by\nelectrochemical methods Batteries and fuel cells\nconvert chemical energy into electrical energy and are\nused on a large scale in various instruments and\ndevices"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1795-1798", "Text": "The subject is of importance both\nfor theoretical and practical considerations A large\nnumber of metals, sodium hydroxide, chlorine,\nfluorine and many other chemicals are produced by\nelectrochemical methods Batteries and fuel cells\nconvert chemical energy into electrical energy and are\nused on a large scale in various instruments and\ndevices The reactions carried out electrochemically\ncan be energy efficient and less polluting"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1796-1799", "Text": "A large\nnumber of metals, sodium hydroxide, chlorine,\nfluorine and many other chemicals are produced by\nelectrochemical methods Batteries and fuel cells\nconvert chemical energy into electrical energy and are\nused on a large scale in various instruments and\ndevices The reactions carried out electrochemically\ncan be energy efficient and less polluting Therefore,\nstudy of electrochemistry is important for creating new\ntechnologies that are ecofriendly"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1797-1800", "Text": "Batteries and fuel cells\nconvert chemical energy into electrical energy and are\nused on a large scale in various instruments and\ndevices The reactions carried out electrochemically\ncan be energy efficient and less polluting Therefore,\nstudy of electrochemistry is important for creating new\ntechnologies that are ecofriendly The transmission of\nsensory signals through cells to brain and vice versa\nand communication between the cells are known to\nhave electrochemical origin"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1798-1801", "Text": "The reactions carried out electrochemically\ncan be energy efficient and less polluting Therefore,\nstudy of electrochemistry is important for creating new\ntechnologies that are ecofriendly The transmission of\nsensory signals through cells to brain and vice versa\nand communication between the cells are known to\nhave electrochemical origin Electrochemistry, is\ntherefore, a very vast and interdisciplinary subject"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1799-1802", "Text": "Therefore,\nstudy of electrochemistry is important for creating new\ntechnologies that are ecofriendly The transmission of\nsensory signals through cells to brain and vice versa\nand communication between the cells are known to\nhave electrochemical origin Electrochemistry, is\ntherefore, a very vast and interdisciplinary subject In\nthis Unit, we will cover only some of its important\nelementary aspects"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1800-1803", "Text": "The transmission of\nsensory signals through cells to brain and vice versa\nand communication between the cells are known to\nhave electrochemical origin Electrochemistry, is\ntherefore, a very vast and interdisciplinary subject In\nthis Unit, we will cover only some of its important\nelementary aspects After studying this Unit, you will be\n\u00b7able to\ndescribe an electrochemical cell\nand differentiate between galvanic\nand electrolytic cells;\n\u00b7\napply \nNernst \nequation \nfor\ncalculating the emf of galvanic cell\nand define standard potential of\nthe cell;\n\u00b7\nderive relation between standard\npotential of the cell, Gibbs energy\nof cell reaction and its equilibrium\nconstant;\n\u00b7\ndefine resistivity (r), conductivity\n(k) and molar conductivity (\u2706m) of\nionic solutions;\n\u00b7\ndifferentiate \nbetween \nionic\n(electrolytic) \nand \nelectronic\nconductivity;\n\u00b7\ndescribe \nthe \nmethod \nfor\nmeasurement of conductivity of\nelectrolytic \nsolutions \nand\ncalculation \nof \ntheir \nmolar\nconductivity;\n\u00b7\njustify \nthe \nvariation \nof\nconductivity \nand \nmolar\nconductivity of solutions with\nchange in their concentration and\ndefine \n\uf04c\uf0b0m\n(molar conductivity at\nzero concentration or infinite\ndilution);\n\u00b7\nenunciate Kohlrausch law and\nlearn its applications;\n\u00b7\nunderstand quantitative aspects\nof electrolysis;\n\u00b7\ndescribe the construction of some\nprimary and secondary batteries\nand fuel cells;\n\u00b7\nexplain \ncorrosion \nas \nan\nelectrochemical process"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1801-1804", "Text": "Electrochemistry, is\ntherefore, a very vast and interdisciplinary subject In\nthis Unit, we will cover only some of its important\nelementary aspects After studying this Unit, you will be\n\u00b7able to\ndescribe an electrochemical cell\nand differentiate between galvanic\nand electrolytic cells;\n\u00b7\napply \nNernst \nequation \nfor\ncalculating the emf of galvanic cell\nand define standard potential of\nthe cell;\n\u00b7\nderive relation between standard\npotential of the cell, Gibbs energy\nof cell reaction and its equilibrium\nconstant;\n\u00b7\ndefine resistivity (r), conductivity\n(k) and molar conductivity (\u2706m) of\nionic solutions;\n\u00b7\ndifferentiate \nbetween \nionic\n(electrolytic) \nand \nelectronic\nconductivity;\n\u00b7\ndescribe \nthe \nmethod \nfor\nmeasurement of conductivity of\nelectrolytic \nsolutions \nand\ncalculation \nof \ntheir \nmolar\nconductivity;\n\u00b7\njustify \nthe \nvariation \nof\nconductivity \nand \nmolar\nconductivity of solutions with\nchange in their concentration and\ndefine \n\uf04c\uf0b0m\n(molar conductivity at\nzero concentration or infinite\ndilution);\n\u00b7\nenunciate Kohlrausch law and\nlearn its applications;\n\u00b7\nunderstand quantitative aspects\nof electrolysis;\n\u00b7\ndescribe the construction of some\nprimary and secondary batteries\nand fuel cells;\n\u00b7\nexplain \ncorrosion \nas \nan\nelectrochemical process Objectives\nChemical reactions can be used to produce electrical energy,\nconversely, electrical energy can be used to carry out chemical\nreactions that do not proceed spontaneously"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1802-1805", "Text": "In\nthis Unit, we will cover only some of its important\nelementary aspects After studying this Unit, you will be\n\u00b7able to\ndescribe an electrochemical cell\nand differentiate between galvanic\nand electrolytic cells;\n\u00b7\napply \nNernst \nequation \nfor\ncalculating the emf of galvanic cell\nand define standard potential of\nthe cell;\n\u00b7\nderive relation between standard\npotential of the cell, Gibbs energy\nof cell reaction and its equilibrium\nconstant;\n\u00b7\ndefine resistivity (r), conductivity\n(k) and molar conductivity (\u2706m) of\nionic solutions;\n\u00b7\ndifferentiate \nbetween \nionic\n(electrolytic) \nand \nelectronic\nconductivity;\n\u00b7\ndescribe \nthe \nmethod \nfor\nmeasurement of conductivity of\nelectrolytic \nsolutions \nand\ncalculation \nof \ntheir \nmolar\nconductivity;\n\u00b7\njustify \nthe \nvariation \nof\nconductivity \nand \nmolar\nconductivity of solutions with\nchange in their concentration and\ndefine \n\uf04c\uf0b0m\n(molar conductivity at\nzero concentration or infinite\ndilution);\n\u00b7\nenunciate Kohlrausch law and\nlearn its applications;\n\u00b7\nunderstand quantitative aspects\nof electrolysis;\n\u00b7\ndescribe the construction of some\nprimary and secondary batteries\nand fuel cells;\n\u00b7\nexplain \ncorrosion \nas \nan\nelectrochemical process Objectives\nChemical reactions can be used to produce electrical energy,\nconversely, electrical energy can be used to carry out chemical\nreactions that do not proceed spontaneously 2\nElectrochemistry\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit2Unit\nElectrochemistry\nRationalised 2023-24\n32\nChemistry\nCu\nEext >1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1803-1806", "Text": "After studying this Unit, you will be\n\u00b7able to\ndescribe an electrochemical cell\nand differentiate between galvanic\nand electrolytic cells;\n\u00b7\napply \nNernst \nequation \nfor\ncalculating the emf of galvanic cell\nand define standard potential of\nthe cell;\n\u00b7\nderive relation between standard\npotential of the cell, Gibbs energy\nof cell reaction and its equilibrium\nconstant;\n\u00b7\ndefine resistivity (r), conductivity\n(k) and molar conductivity (\u2706m) of\nionic solutions;\n\u00b7\ndifferentiate \nbetween \nionic\n(electrolytic) \nand \nelectronic\nconductivity;\n\u00b7\ndescribe \nthe \nmethod \nfor\nmeasurement of conductivity of\nelectrolytic \nsolutions \nand\ncalculation \nof \ntheir \nmolar\nconductivity;\n\u00b7\njustify \nthe \nvariation \nof\nconductivity \nand \nmolar\nconductivity of solutions with\nchange in their concentration and\ndefine \n\uf04c\uf0b0m\n(molar conductivity at\nzero concentration or infinite\ndilution);\n\u00b7\nenunciate Kohlrausch law and\nlearn its applications;\n\u00b7\nunderstand quantitative aspects\nof electrolysis;\n\u00b7\ndescribe the construction of some\nprimary and secondary batteries\nand fuel cells;\n\u00b7\nexplain \ncorrosion \nas \nan\nelectrochemical process Objectives\nChemical reactions can be used to produce electrical energy,\nconversely, electrical energy can be used to carry out chemical\nreactions that do not proceed spontaneously 2\nElectrochemistry\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit2Unit\nElectrochemistry\nRationalised 2023-24\n32\nChemistry\nCu\nEext >1 1\ne\n\u2013\nCurrent\nCathode\n+ve\nAnode\n\u2013ve\nZn\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1804-1807", "Text": "Objectives\nChemical reactions can be used to produce electrical energy,\nconversely, electrical energy can be used to carry out chemical\nreactions that do not proceed spontaneously 2\nElectrochemistry\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit2Unit\nElectrochemistry\nRationalised 2023-24\n32\nChemistry\nCu\nEext >1 1\ne\n\u2013\nCurrent\nCathode\n+ve\nAnode\n\u2013ve\nZn\nFig 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1805-1808", "Text": "2\nElectrochemistry\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit2Unit\nElectrochemistry\nRationalised 2023-24\n32\nChemistry\nCu\nEext >1 1\ne\n\u2013\nCurrent\nCathode\n+ve\nAnode\n\u2013ve\nZn\nFig 2 2\nFunctioning of Daniell\ncell \nwhen \nexternal\nvoltage Eext opposing the\ncell potential is applied"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1806-1809", "Text": "1\ne\n\u2013\nCurrent\nCathode\n+ve\nAnode\n\u2013ve\nZn\nFig 2 2\nFunctioning of Daniell\ncell \nwhen \nexternal\nvoltage Eext opposing the\ncell potential is applied We had studied the construction and functioning of Daniell cell\n(Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1807-1810", "Text": "2 2\nFunctioning of Daniell\ncell \nwhen \nexternal\nvoltage Eext opposing the\ncell potential is applied We had studied the construction and functioning of Daniell cell\n(Fig 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1808-1811", "Text": "2\nFunctioning of Daniell\ncell \nwhen \nexternal\nvoltage Eext opposing the\ncell potential is applied We had studied the construction and functioning of Daniell cell\n(Fig 2 1)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1809-1812", "Text": "We had studied the construction and functioning of Daniell cell\n(Fig 2 1) This cell converts the chemical energy liberated during the\nredox reaction\nZn(s) + Cu2+(aq) \u00ae Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1810-1813", "Text": "2 1) This cell converts the chemical energy liberated during the\nredox reaction\nZn(s) + Cu2+(aq) \u00ae Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)\n(2 1)\nto electrical energy and has an electrical\npotential equal to 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1811-1814", "Text": "1) This cell converts the chemical energy liberated during the\nredox reaction\nZn(s) + Cu2+(aq) \u00ae Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)\n(2 1)\nto electrical energy and has an electrical\npotential equal to 1 1 V when concentration\nof Zn2+ and Cu2+ ions is unity (1 mol dm\u20133)*"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1812-1815", "Text": "This cell converts the chemical energy liberated during the\nredox reaction\nZn(s) + Cu2+(aq) \u00ae Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)\n(2 1)\nto electrical energy and has an electrical\npotential equal to 1 1 V when concentration\nof Zn2+ and Cu2+ ions is unity (1 mol dm\u20133)* Such a device is called a galvanic or a\nvoltaic cell"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1813-1816", "Text": "1)\nto electrical energy and has an electrical\npotential equal to 1 1 V when concentration\nof Zn2+ and Cu2+ ions is unity (1 mol dm\u20133)* Such a device is called a galvanic or a\nvoltaic cell If an external opposite potential is applied\nin the galvanic cell [Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1814-1817", "Text": "1 V when concentration\nof Zn2+ and Cu2+ ions is unity (1 mol dm\u20133)* Such a device is called a galvanic or a\nvoltaic cell If an external opposite potential is applied\nin the galvanic cell [Fig 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1815-1818", "Text": "Such a device is called a galvanic or a\nvoltaic cell If an external opposite potential is applied\nin the galvanic cell [Fig 2 2(a)] and increased\nslowly, we find that the reaction continues to\ntake place till the opposing voltage reaches\nthe value 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1816-1819", "Text": "If an external opposite potential is applied\nin the galvanic cell [Fig 2 2(a)] and increased\nslowly, we find that the reaction continues to\ntake place till the opposing voltage reaches\nthe value 1 1 V [Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1817-1820", "Text": "2 2(a)] and increased\nslowly, we find that the reaction continues to\ntake place till the opposing voltage reaches\nthe value 1 1 V [Fig 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1818-1821", "Text": "2(a)] and increased\nslowly, we find that the reaction continues to\ntake place till the opposing voltage reaches\nthe value 1 1 V [Fig 2 2(b)] when, the reaction\nstops altogether and no current flows through\nthe cell"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1819-1822", "Text": "1 V [Fig 2 2(b)] when, the reaction\nstops altogether and no current flows through\nthe cell Any further increase in the external\npotential again starts the reaction but in the\nopposite direction [Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1820-1823", "Text": "2 2(b)] when, the reaction\nstops altogether and no current flows through\nthe cell Any further increase in the external\npotential again starts the reaction but in the\nopposite direction [Fig 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1821-1824", "Text": "2(b)] when, the reaction\nstops altogether and no current flows through\nthe cell Any further increase in the external\npotential again starts the reaction but in the\nopposite direction [Fig 2 2(c)]"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1822-1825", "Text": "Any further increase in the external\npotential again starts the reaction but in the\nopposite direction [Fig 2 2(c)] It now functions\nas an electrolytic cell, a device for using\nelectrical energy to carry non-spontaneous\nchemical reactions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1823-1826", "Text": "2 2(c)] It now functions\nas an electrolytic cell, a device for using\nelectrical energy to carry non-spontaneous\nchemical reactions Both types of cells are\nquite important and we shall study some of\ntheir salient features in the following pages"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1824-1827", "Text": "2(c)] It now functions\nas an electrolytic cell, a device for using\nelectrical energy to carry non-spontaneous\nchemical reactions Both types of cells are\nquite important and we shall study some of\ntheir salient features in the following pages *Strictly speaking activity should be used instead of concentration"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1825-1828", "Text": "It now functions\nas an electrolytic cell, a device for using\nelectrical energy to carry non-spontaneous\nchemical reactions Both types of cells are\nquite important and we shall study some of\ntheir salient features in the following pages *Strictly speaking activity should be used instead of concentration It is directly proportional to concentration"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1826-1829", "Text": "Both types of cells are\nquite important and we shall study some of\ntheir salient features in the following pages *Strictly speaking activity should be used instead of concentration It is directly proportional to concentration In dilute\nsolutions, it is equal to concentration"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1827-1830", "Text": "*Strictly speaking activity should be used instead of concentration It is directly proportional to concentration In dilute\nsolutions, it is equal to concentration You will study more about it in higher classes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1828-1831", "Text": "It is directly proportional to concentration In dilute\nsolutions, it is equal to concentration You will study more about it in higher classes 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1829-1832", "Text": "In dilute\nsolutions, it is equal to concentration You will study more about it in higher classes 2 1\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1830-1833", "Text": "You will study more about it in higher classes 2 1\n2 1\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1831-1834", "Text": "2 1\n2 1\n2 1\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1832-1835", "Text": "1\n2 1\n2 1\n2 1\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1833-1836", "Text": "1\n2 1\n2 1\n2 1 Electrochemical\nElectrochemical\nElectrochemical\nElectrochemical\nElectrochemical\nCells\nCells\nCells\nCells\nCells\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1834-1837", "Text": "1\n2 1\n2 1 Electrochemical\nElectrochemical\nElectrochemical\nElectrochemical\nElectrochemical\nCells\nCells\nCells\nCells\nCells\nFig 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1835-1838", "Text": "1\n2 1 Electrochemical\nElectrochemical\nElectrochemical\nElectrochemical\nElectrochemical\nCells\nCells\nCells\nCells\nCells\nFig 2 1: Daniell cell having electrodes of zinc and\ncopper dipping in the solutions of their\nrespective salts"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1836-1839", "Text": "1 Electrochemical\nElectrochemical\nElectrochemical\nElectrochemical\nElectrochemical\nCells\nCells\nCells\nCells\nCells\nFig 2 1: Daniell cell having electrodes of zinc and\ncopper dipping in the solutions of their\nrespective salts salt\nbridge\nZn\nCu\nanode\ncathode\ncurrent\nZnSO4\nCuSO4\nE\n<\next 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1837-1840", "Text": "2 1: Daniell cell having electrodes of zinc and\ncopper dipping in the solutions of their\nrespective salts salt\nbridge\nZn\nCu\nanode\ncathode\ncurrent\nZnSO4\nCuSO4\nE\n<\next 1 1V\ne\n-ve\n+ve\nI=0\nZn\nCu\nZnSO4\nCuSO4\nE\next=\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1838-1841", "Text": "1: Daniell cell having electrodes of zinc and\ncopper dipping in the solutions of their\nrespective salts salt\nbridge\nZn\nCu\nanode\ncathode\ncurrent\nZnSO4\nCuSO4\nE\n<\next 1 1V\ne\n-ve\n+ve\nI=0\nZn\nCu\nZnSO4\nCuSO4\nE\next=\n1 1V\nWhen Eext < 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1839-1842", "Text": "salt\nbridge\nZn\nCu\nanode\ncathode\ncurrent\nZnSO4\nCuSO4\nE\n<\next 1 1V\ne\n-ve\n+ve\nI=0\nZn\nCu\nZnSO4\nCuSO4\nE\next=\n1 1V\nWhen Eext < 1 1 V\n(i) Electrons flow from Zn rod to\nCu rod hence current flows\nfrom Cu to Zn"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1840-1843", "Text": "1V\ne\n-ve\n+ve\nI=0\nZn\nCu\nZnSO4\nCuSO4\nE\next=\n1 1V\nWhen Eext < 1 1 V\n(i) Electrons flow from Zn rod to\nCu rod hence current flows\nfrom Cu to Zn (ii) Zn dissolves at anode and\ncopper deposits at cathode"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1841-1844", "Text": "1V\nWhen Eext < 1 1 V\n(i) Electrons flow from Zn rod to\nCu rod hence current flows\nfrom Cu to Zn (ii) Zn dissolves at anode and\ncopper deposits at cathode When Eext = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1842-1845", "Text": "1 V\n(i) Electrons flow from Zn rod to\nCu rod hence current flows\nfrom Cu to Zn (ii) Zn dissolves at anode and\ncopper deposits at cathode When Eext = 1 1 V\n(i) No flow of\nelectrons or\ncurrent"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1843-1846", "Text": "(ii) Zn dissolves at anode and\ncopper deposits at cathode When Eext = 1 1 V\n(i) No flow of\nelectrons or\ncurrent (ii) No chemical\nreaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1844-1847", "Text": "When Eext = 1 1 V\n(i) No flow of\nelectrons or\ncurrent (ii) No chemical\nreaction When Eext > 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1845-1848", "Text": "1 V\n(i) No flow of\nelectrons or\ncurrent (ii) No chemical\nreaction When Eext > 1 1 V\n(i) Electrons flow\nfrom Cu to Zn\nand current flows\nfrom Zn to Cu"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1846-1849", "Text": "(ii) No chemical\nreaction When Eext > 1 1 V\n(i) Electrons flow\nfrom Cu to Zn\nand current flows\nfrom Zn to Cu (ii) Zinc is deposited\nat the zinc\nelectrode and\ncopper dissolves at\ncopper electrode"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1847-1850", "Text": "When Eext > 1 1 V\n(i) Electrons flow\nfrom Cu to Zn\nand current flows\nfrom Zn to Cu (ii) Zinc is deposited\nat the zinc\nelectrode and\ncopper dissolves at\ncopper electrode (a)\n(b)\n(c)\nRationalised 2023-24\n33\nElectrochemistry\nAs mentioned earlier a galvanic cell is an electrochemical cell that\nconverts the chemical energy of a spontaneous redox reaction into\nelectrical energy"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1848-1851", "Text": "1 V\n(i) Electrons flow\nfrom Cu to Zn\nand current flows\nfrom Zn to Cu (ii) Zinc is deposited\nat the zinc\nelectrode and\ncopper dissolves at\ncopper electrode (a)\n(b)\n(c)\nRationalised 2023-24\n33\nElectrochemistry\nAs mentioned earlier a galvanic cell is an electrochemical cell that\nconverts the chemical energy of a spontaneous redox reaction into\nelectrical energy In this device the Gibbs energy of the spontaneous\nredox reaction is converted into electrical work which may be used for\nrunning a motor or other electrical gadgets like heater, fan,\ngeyser, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1849-1852", "Text": "(ii) Zinc is deposited\nat the zinc\nelectrode and\ncopper dissolves at\ncopper electrode (a)\n(b)\n(c)\nRationalised 2023-24\n33\nElectrochemistry\nAs mentioned earlier a galvanic cell is an electrochemical cell that\nconverts the chemical energy of a spontaneous redox reaction into\nelectrical energy In this device the Gibbs energy of the spontaneous\nredox reaction is converted into electrical work which may be used for\nrunning a motor or other electrical gadgets like heater, fan,\ngeyser, etc Daniell cell discussed earlier is one such cell in which the following\nredox reaction occurs"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1850-1853", "Text": "(a)\n(b)\n(c)\nRationalised 2023-24\n33\nElectrochemistry\nAs mentioned earlier a galvanic cell is an electrochemical cell that\nconverts the chemical energy of a spontaneous redox reaction into\nelectrical energy In this device the Gibbs energy of the spontaneous\nredox reaction is converted into electrical work which may be used for\nrunning a motor or other electrical gadgets like heater, fan,\ngeyser, etc Daniell cell discussed earlier is one such cell in which the following\nredox reaction occurs Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) \u00ae Zn2+ (aq) + Cu(s)\nThis reaction is a combination of two half reactions whose addition\ngives the overall cell reaction:\n(i) Cu2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00ae Cu(s)\n(reduction half reaction)\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1851-1854", "Text": "In this device the Gibbs energy of the spontaneous\nredox reaction is converted into electrical work which may be used for\nrunning a motor or other electrical gadgets like heater, fan,\ngeyser, etc Daniell cell discussed earlier is one such cell in which the following\nredox reaction occurs Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) \u00ae Zn2+ (aq) + Cu(s)\nThis reaction is a combination of two half reactions whose addition\ngives the overall cell reaction:\n(i) Cu2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00ae Cu(s)\n(reduction half reaction)\n(2 2)\n(ii) Zn(s) \u00ae Zn2+ + 2e\u2013\n(oxidation half reaction)\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1852-1855", "Text": "Daniell cell discussed earlier is one such cell in which the following\nredox reaction occurs Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) \u00ae Zn2+ (aq) + Cu(s)\nThis reaction is a combination of two half reactions whose addition\ngives the overall cell reaction:\n(i) Cu2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00ae Cu(s)\n(reduction half reaction)\n(2 2)\n(ii) Zn(s) \u00ae Zn2+ + 2e\u2013\n(oxidation half reaction)\n(2 3)\nThese reactions occur in two different portions of the Daniell cell"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1853-1856", "Text": "Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) \u00ae Zn2+ (aq) + Cu(s)\nThis reaction is a combination of two half reactions whose addition\ngives the overall cell reaction:\n(i) Cu2+ + 2e\u2013 \u00ae Cu(s)\n(reduction half reaction)\n(2 2)\n(ii) Zn(s) \u00ae Zn2+ + 2e\u2013\n(oxidation half reaction)\n(2 3)\nThese reactions occur in two different portions of the Daniell cell The reduction half reaction occurs on the copper electrode while the\noxidation half reaction occurs on the zinc electrode"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1854-1857", "Text": "2)\n(ii) Zn(s) \u00ae Zn2+ + 2e\u2013\n(oxidation half reaction)\n(2 3)\nThese reactions occur in two different portions of the Daniell cell The reduction half reaction occurs on the copper electrode while the\noxidation half reaction occurs on the zinc electrode These two portions\nof the cell are also called half-cells or redox couples"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1855-1858", "Text": "3)\nThese reactions occur in two different portions of the Daniell cell The reduction half reaction occurs on the copper electrode while the\noxidation half reaction occurs on the zinc electrode These two portions\nof the cell are also called half-cells or redox couples The copper\nelectrode may be called the reduction half cell and the zinc electrode,\nthe oxidation half-cell"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1856-1859", "Text": "The reduction half reaction occurs on the copper electrode while the\noxidation half reaction occurs on the zinc electrode These two portions\nof the cell are also called half-cells or redox couples The copper\nelectrode may be called the reduction half cell and the zinc electrode,\nthe oxidation half-cell We can construct innumerable number of galvanic cells on the pattern\nof Daniell cell by taking combinations of different half-cells"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1857-1860", "Text": "These two portions\nof the cell are also called half-cells or redox couples The copper\nelectrode may be called the reduction half cell and the zinc electrode,\nthe oxidation half-cell We can construct innumerable number of galvanic cells on the pattern\nof Daniell cell by taking combinations of different half-cells Each half-\ncell consists of a metallic electrode dipped into an electrolyte"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1858-1861", "Text": "The copper\nelectrode may be called the reduction half cell and the zinc electrode,\nthe oxidation half-cell We can construct innumerable number of galvanic cells on the pattern\nof Daniell cell by taking combinations of different half-cells Each half-\ncell consists of a metallic electrode dipped into an electrolyte The two\nhalf-cells are connected by a metallic wire through a voltmeter and a\nswitch externally"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1859-1862", "Text": "We can construct innumerable number of galvanic cells on the pattern\nof Daniell cell by taking combinations of different half-cells Each half-\ncell consists of a metallic electrode dipped into an electrolyte The two\nhalf-cells are connected by a metallic wire through a voltmeter and a\nswitch externally The electrolytes of the two half-cells are connected\ninternally through a salt bridge as shown in Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1860-1863", "Text": "Each half-\ncell consists of a metallic electrode dipped into an electrolyte The two\nhalf-cells are connected by a metallic wire through a voltmeter and a\nswitch externally The electrolytes of the two half-cells are connected\ninternally through a salt bridge as shown in Fig 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1861-1864", "Text": "The two\nhalf-cells are connected by a metallic wire through a voltmeter and a\nswitch externally The electrolytes of the two half-cells are connected\ninternally through a salt bridge as shown in Fig 2 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1862-1865", "Text": "The electrolytes of the two half-cells are connected\ninternally through a salt bridge as shown in Fig 2 1 Sometimes, both\nthe electrodes dip in the same electrolyte solution and in such cases we\ndo not require a salt bridge"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1863-1866", "Text": "2 1 Sometimes, both\nthe electrodes dip in the same electrolyte solution and in such cases we\ndo not require a salt bridge At each electrode-electrolyte interface there is a tendency of metal\nions from the solution to deposit on the metal electrode trying to make\nit positively charged"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1864-1867", "Text": "1 Sometimes, both\nthe electrodes dip in the same electrolyte solution and in such cases we\ndo not require a salt bridge At each electrode-electrolyte interface there is a tendency of metal\nions from the solution to deposit on the metal electrode trying to make\nit positively charged At the same time, metal atoms of the electrode\nhave a tendency to go into the solution as ions and leave behind the\nelectrons at the electrode trying to make it negatively charged"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1865-1868", "Text": "Sometimes, both\nthe electrodes dip in the same electrolyte solution and in such cases we\ndo not require a salt bridge At each electrode-electrolyte interface there is a tendency of metal\nions from the solution to deposit on the metal electrode trying to make\nit positively charged At the same time, metal atoms of the electrode\nhave a tendency to go into the solution as ions and leave behind the\nelectrons at the electrode trying to make it negatively charged At\nequilibrium, there is a separation of charges and depending on the\ntendencies of the two opposing reactions, the electrode may be positively\nor negatively charged with respect to the solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1866-1869", "Text": "At each electrode-electrolyte interface there is a tendency of metal\nions from the solution to deposit on the metal electrode trying to make\nit positively charged At the same time, metal atoms of the electrode\nhave a tendency to go into the solution as ions and leave behind the\nelectrons at the electrode trying to make it negatively charged At\nequilibrium, there is a separation of charges and depending on the\ntendencies of the two opposing reactions, the electrode may be positively\nor negatively charged with respect to the solution A potential difference\ndevelops between the electrode and the electrolyte which is called\nelectrode potential"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1867-1870", "Text": "At the same time, metal atoms of the electrode\nhave a tendency to go into the solution as ions and leave behind the\nelectrons at the electrode trying to make it negatively charged At\nequilibrium, there is a separation of charges and depending on the\ntendencies of the two opposing reactions, the electrode may be positively\nor negatively charged with respect to the solution A potential difference\ndevelops between the electrode and the electrolyte which is called\nelectrode potential When the concentrations of all the species involved\nin a half-cell is unity then the electrode potential is known as standard\nelectrode potential"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1868-1871", "Text": "At\nequilibrium, there is a separation of charges and depending on the\ntendencies of the two opposing reactions, the electrode may be positively\nor negatively charged with respect to the solution A potential difference\ndevelops between the electrode and the electrolyte which is called\nelectrode potential When the concentrations of all the species involved\nin a half-cell is unity then the electrode potential is known as standard\nelectrode potential According to IUPAC convention, standard\nreduction potentials are now called standard electrode potentials"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1869-1872", "Text": "A potential difference\ndevelops between the electrode and the electrolyte which is called\nelectrode potential When the concentrations of all the species involved\nin a half-cell is unity then the electrode potential is known as standard\nelectrode potential According to IUPAC convention, standard\nreduction potentials are now called standard electrode potentials In a\ngalvanic cell, the half-cell in which oxidation takes place is called anode\nand it has a negative potential with respect to the solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1870-1873", "Text": "When the concentrations of all the species involved\nin a half-cell is unity then the electrode potential is known as standard\nelectrode potential According to IUPAC convention, standard\nreduction potentials are now called standard electrode potentials In a\ngalvanic cell, the half-cell in which oxidation takes place is called anode\nand it has a negative potential with respect to the solution The other\nhalf-cell in which reduction takes place is called cathode and it has a\npositive potential with respect to the solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1871-1874", "Text": "According to IUPAC convention, standard\nreduction potentials are now called standard electrode potentials In a\ngalvanic cell, the half-cell in which oxidation takes place is called anode\nand it has a negative potential with respect to the solution The other\nhalf-cell in which reduction takes place is called cathode and it has a\npositive potential with respect to the solution Thus, there exists a\npotential difference between the two electrodes and as soon as the\nswitch is in the on position the electrons flow from negative electrode\nto positive electrode"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1872-1875", "Text": "In a\ngalvanic cell, the half-cell in which oxidation takes place is called anode\nand it has a negative potential with respect to the solution The other\nhalf-cell in which reduction takes place is called cathode and it has a\npositive potential with respect to the solution Thus, there exists a\npotential difference between the two electrodes and as soon as the\nswitch is in the on position the electrons flow from negative electrode\nto positive electrode The direction of current flow is opposite to that of\nelectron flow"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1873-1876", "Text": "The other\nhalf-cell in which reduction takes place is called cathode and it has a\npositive potential with respect to the solution Thus, there exists a\npotential difference between the two electrodes and as soon as the\nswitch is in the on position the electrons flow from negative electrode\nto positive electrode The direction of current flow is opposite to that of\nelectron flow 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1874-1877", "Text": "Thus, there exists a\npotential difference between the two electrodes and as soon as the\nswitch is in the on position the electrons flow from negative electrode\nto positive electrode The direction of current flow is opposite to that of\nelectron flow 2 2 Galvanic Cells\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1875-1878", "Text": "The direction of current flow is opposite to that of\nelectron flow 2 2 Galvanic Cells\n2 2 Galvanic Cells\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1876-1879", "Text": "2 2 Galvanic Cells\n2 2 Galvanic Cells\n2 2 Galvanic Cells\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1877-1880", "Text": "2 Galvanic Cells\n2 2 Galvanic Cells\n2 2 Galvanic Cells\n2 2 Galvanic Cells\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1878-1881", "Text": "2 Galvanic Cells\n2 2 Galvanic Cells\n2 2 Galvanic Cells\n2 2 Galvanic Cells\nRationalised 2023-24\n34\nChemistry\nThe potential difference between the two electrodes of a galvanic\ncell is called the cell potential and is measured in volts"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1879-1882", "Text": "2 Galvanic Cells\n2 2 Galvanic Cells\n2 2 Galvanic Cells\nRationalised 2023-24\n34\nChemistry\nThe potential difference between the two electrodes of a galvanic\ncell is called the cell potential and is measured in volts The cell\npotential is the difference between the electrode potentials (reduction\npotentials) of the cathode and anode"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1880-1883", "Text": "2 Galvanic Cells\n2 2 Galvanic Cells\nRationalised 2023-24\n34\nChemistry\nThe potential difference between the two electrodes of a galvanic\ncell is called the cell potential and is measured in volts The cell\npotential is the difference between the electrode potentials (reduction\npotentials) of the cathode and anode It is called the cell electromotive\nforce (emf) of the cell when no current is drawn through the cell"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1881-1884", "Text": "2 Galvanic Cells\nRationalised 2023-24\n34\nChemistry\nThe potential difference between the two electrodes of a galvanic\ncell is called the cell potential and is measured in volts The cell\npotential is the difference between the electrode potentials (reduction\npotentials) of the cathode and anode It is called the cell electromotive\nforce (emf) of the cell when no current is drawn through the cell It\nis now an accepted convention that we keep the anode on the left and\nthe cathode on the right while representing the galvanic cell"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1882-1885", "Text": "The cell\npotential is the difference between the electrode potentials (reduction\npotentials) of the cathode and anode It is called the cell electromotive\nforce (emf) of the cell when no current is drawn through the cell It\nis now an accepted convention that we keep the anode on the left and\nthe cathode on the right while representing the galvanic cell A galvanic\ncell is generally represented by putting a vertical line between metal\nand electrolyte solution and putting a double vertical line between\nthe two electrolytes connected by a salt bridge"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1883-1886", "Text": "It is called the cell electromotive\nforce (emf) of the cell when no current is drawn through the cell It\nis now an accepted convention that we keep the anode on the left and\nthe cathode on the right while representing the galvanic cell A galvanic\ncell is generally represented by putting a vertical line between metal\nand electrolyte solution and putting a double vertical line between\nthe two electrolytes connected by a salt bridge Under this convention\nthe emf of the cell is positive and is given by the potential of the half-\ncell on the right hand side minus the potential of the half-cell on the\nleft hand side i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1884-1887", "Text": "It\nis now an accepted convention that we keep the anode on the left and\nthe cathode on the right while representing the galvanic cell A galvanic\ncell is generally represented by putting a vertical line between metal\nand electrolyte solution and putting a double vertical line between\nthe two electrolytes connected by a salt bridge Under this convention\nthe emf of the cell is positive and is given by the potential of the half-\ncell on the right hand side minus the potential of the half-cell on the\nleft hand side i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1885-1888", "Text": "A galvanic\ncell is generally represented by putting a vertical line between metal\nand electrolyte solution and putting a double vertical line between\nthe two electrolytes connected by a salt bridge Under this convention\nthe emf of the cell is positive and is given by the potential of the half-\ncell on the right hand side minus the potential of the half-cell on the\nleft hand side i e ,\nEcell = Eright \u2013 Eleft\nThis is illustrated by the following example:\nCell reaction:\nCu(s) + 2Ag+(aq) \u00be\u00ae Cu2+(aq) + 2 Ag(s)\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1886-1889", "Text": "Under this convention\nthe emf of the cell is positive and is given by the potential of the half-\ncell on the right hand side minus the potential of the half-cell on the\nleft hand side i e ,\nEcell = Eright \u2013 Eleft\nThis is illustrated by the following example:\nCell reaction:\nCu(s) + 2Ag+(aq) \u00be\u00ae Cu2+(aq) + 2 Ag(s)\n(2 4)\nHalf-cell reactions:\nCathode (reduction): 2Ag+(aq) + 2e\u2013 \u00ae 2Ag(s)\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1887-1890", "Text": "e ,\nEcell = Eright \u2013 Eleft\nThis is illustrated by the following example:\nCell reaction:\nCu(s) + 2Ag+(aq) \u00be\u00ae Cu2+(aq) + 2 Ag(s)\n(2 4)\nHalf-cell reactions:\nCathode (reduction): 2Ag+(aq) + 2e\u2013 \u00ae 2Ag(s)\n(2 5)\nAnode (oxidation): Cu(s) \u00ae Cu2+(aq) + 2e\u2013\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1888-1891", "Text": ",\nEcell = Eright \u2013 Eleft\nThis is illustrated by the following example:\nCell reaction:\nCu(s) + 2Ag+(aq) \u00be\u00ae Cu2+(aq) + 2 Ag(s)\n(2 4)\nHalf-cell reactions:\nCathode (reduction): 2Ag+(aq) + 2e\u2013 \u00ae 2Ag(s)\n(2 5)\nAnode (oxidation): Cu(s) \u00ae Cu2+(aq) + 2e\u2013\n(2 6)\nIt can be seen that the sum of (3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1889-1892", "Text": "4)\nHalf-cell reactions:\nCathode (reduction): 2Ag+(aq) + 2e\u2013 \u00ae 2Ag(s)\n(2 5)\nAnode (oxidation): Cu(s) \u00ae Cu2+(aq) + 2e\u2013\n(2 6)\nIt can be seen that the sum of (3 5) and (3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1890-1893", "Text": "5)\nAnode (oxidation): Cu(s) \u00ae Cu2+(aq) + 2e\u2013\n(2 6)\nIt can be seen that the sum of (3 5) and (3 6) leads to overall reaction\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1891-1894", "Text": "6)\nIt can be seen that the sum of (3 5) and (3 6) leads to overall reaction\n(2 4) in the cell and that silver electrode acts as a cathode and copper\nelectrode acts as an anode"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1892-1895", "Text": "5) and (3 6) leads to overall reaction\n(2 4) in the cell and that silver electrode acts as a cathode and copper\nelectrode acts as an anode The cell can be represented as:\nCu(s)|Cu2+(aq)||Ag+(aq)|Ag(s)\nand we have Ecell = Eright \u2013 Eleft = EAg+\u00faAg \u2013 ECu2+\u00faCu\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1893-1896", "Text": "6) leads to overall reaction\n(2 4) in the cell and that silver electrode acts as a cathode and copper\nelectrode acts as an anode The cell can be represented as:\nCu(s)|Cu2+(aq)||Ag+(aq)|Ag(s)\nand we have Ecell = Eright \u2013 Eleft = EAg+\u00faAg \u2013 ECu2+\u00faCu\n(2 7)\nThe potential of individual half-cell cannot be measured"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1894-1897", "Text": "4) in the cell and that silver electrode acts as a cathode and copper\nelectrode acts as an anode The cell can be represented as:\nCu(s)|Cu2+(aq)||Ag+(aq)|Ag(s)\nand we have Ecell = Eright \u2013 Eleft = EAg+\u00faAg \u2013 ECu2+\u00faCu\n(2 7)\nThe potential of individual half-cell cannot be measured We can\nmeasure only the difference between the two half-cell potentials that\ngives the emf of the cell"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1895-1898", "Text": "The cell can be represented as:\nCu(s)|Cu2+(aq)||Ag+(aq)|Ag(s)\nand we have Ecell = Eright \u2013 Eleft = EAg+\u00faAg \u2013 ECu2+\u00faCu\n(2 7)\nThe potential of individual half-cell cannot be measured We can\nmeasure only the difference between the two half-cell potentials that\ngives the emf of the cell If we arbitrarily choose the potential of one\nelectrode (half-cell) then that of the other can be determined with respect\nto this"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1896-1899", "Text": "7)\nThe potential of individual half-cell cannot be measured We can\nmeasure only the difference between the two half-cell potentials that\ngives the emf of the cell If we arbitrarily choose the potential of one\nelectrode (half-cell) then that of the other can be determined with respect\nto this According to convention, a half-cell\ncalled standard hydrogen electrode (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1897-1900", "Text": "We can\nmeasure only the difference between the two half-cell potentials that\ngives the emf of the cell If we arbitrarily choose the potential of one\nelectrode (half-cell) then that of the other can be determined with respect\nto this According to convention, a half-cell\ncalled standard hydrogen electrode (Fig 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1898-1901", "Text": "If we arbitrarily choose the potential of one\nelectrode (half-cell) then that of the other can be determined with respect\nto this According to convention, a half-cell\ncalled standard hydrogen electrode (Fig 3 3)\nrepresented by Pt(s)\u00fa H2(g)\u00fa H+(aq), is assigned\na zero potential at all temperatures\ncorresponding to the reaction\n H+ (aq) + e\u2013 \u00ae 1\n2 H2(g)\nThe standard hydrogen electrode consists\nof a platinum electrode coated with platinum\nblack"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1899-1902", "Text": "According to convention, a half-cell\ncalled standard hydrogen electrode (Fig 3 3)\nrepresented by Pt(s)\u00fa H2(g)\u00fa H+(aq), is assigned\na zero potential at all temperatures\ncorresponding to the reaction\n H+ (aq) + e\u2013 \u00ae 1\n2 H2(g)\nThe standard hydrogen electrode consists\nof a platinum electrode coated with platinum\nblack The electrode is dipped in an acidic\nsolution and pure hydrogen gas is bubbled\nthrough it"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1900-1903", "Text": "3 3)\nrepresented by Pt(s)\u00fa H2(g)\u00fa H+(aq), is assigned\na zero potential at all temperatures\ncorresponding to the reaction\n H+ (aq) + e\u2013 \u00ae 1\n2 H2(g)\nThe standard hydrogen electrode consists\nof a platinum electrode coated with platinum\nblack The electrode is dipped in an acidic\nsolution and pure hydrogen gas is bubbled\nthrough it The concentration of both the\nreduced and oxidised forms of hydrogen is\nmaintained at unity (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1901-1904", "Text": "3)\nrepresented by Pt(s)\u00fa H2(g)\u00fa H+(aq), is assigned\na zero potential at all temperatures\ncorresponding to the reaction\n H+ (aq) + e\u2013 \u00ae 1\n2 H2(g)\nThe standard hydrogen electrode consists\nof a platinum electrode coated with platinum\nblack The electrode is dipped in an acidic\nsolution and pure hydrogen gas is bubbled\nthrough it The concentration of both the\nreduced and oxidised forms of hydrogen is\nmaintained at unity (Fig 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1902-1905", "Text": "The electrode is dipped in an acidic\nsolution and pure hydrogen gas is bubbled\nthrough it The concentration of both the\nreduced and oxidised forms of hydrogen is\nmaintained at unity (Fig 2 3)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1903-1906", "Text": "The concentration of both the\nreduced and oxidised forms of hydrogen is\nmaintained at unity (Fig 2 3) This implies\nthat the pressure of hydrogen gas is one bar\nand the concentration of hydrogen ion in the\nsolution is one molar"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1904-1907", "Text": "2 3) This implies\nthat the pressure of hydrogen gas is one bar\nand the concentration of hydrogen ion in the\nsolution is one molar 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1905-1908", "Text": "3) This implies\nthat the pressure of hydrogen gas is one bar\nand the concentration of hydrogen ion in the\nsolution is one molar 2 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1906-1909", "Text": "This implies\nthat the pressure of hydrogen gas is one bar\nand the concentration of hydrogen ion in the\nsolution is one molar 2 2 1\nMeasurement\nof Electrode\nPotential\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1907-1910", "Text": "2 2 1\nMeasurement\nof Electrode\nPotential\nFig 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1908-1911", "Text": "2 1\nMeasurement\nof Electrode\nPotential\nFig 2 3: Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1909-1912", "Text": "1\nMeasurement\nof Electrode\nPotential\nFig 2 3: Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE) Rationalised 2023-24\n35\nElectrochemistry\nAt 298 K the emf of the cell, standard hydrogen electrode \u00e7\u00e7second\nhalf-cell constructed by taking standard hydrogen electrode as anode\n(reference half-cell) and the other half-cell as cathode, gives the reduction\npotential of the other half-cell"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1910-1913", "Text": "2 3: Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE) Rationalised 2023-24\n35\nElectrochemistry\nAt 298 K the emf of the cell, standard hydrogen electrode \u00e7\u00e7second\nhalf-cell constructed by taking standard hydrogen electrode as anode\n(reference half-cell) and the other half-cell as cathode, gives the reduction\npotential of the other half-cell If the concentrations of the oxidised and\nthe reduced forms of the species in the right hand half-cell are unity,\nthen the cell potential is equal to standard electrode potential, Eo\nR of\nthe given half-cell"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1911-1914", "Text": "3: Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE) Rationalised 2023-24\n35\nElectrochemistry\nAt 298 K the emf of the cell, standard hydrogen electrode \u00e7\u00e7second\nhalf-cell constructed by taking standard hydrogen electrode as anode\n(reference half-cell) and the other half-cell as cathode, gives the reduction\npotential of the other half-cell If the concentrations of the oxidised and\nthe reduced forms of the species in the right hand half-cell are unity,\nthen the cell potential is equal to standard electrode potential, Eo\nR of\nthe given half-cell Eo = Eo\nR \u2013 Eo\nL\nAs Eo\nL for standard hydrogen electrode is zero"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1912-1915", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n35\nElectrochemistry\nAt 298 K the emf of the cell, standard hydrogen electrode \u00e7\u00e7second\nhalf-cell constructed by taking standard hydrogen electrode as anode\n(reference half-cell) and the other half-cell as cathode, gives the reduction\npotential of the other half-cell If the concentrations of the oxidised and\nthe reduced forms of the species in the right hand half-cell are unity,\nthen the cell potential is equal to standard electrode potential, Eo\nR of\nthe given half-cell Eo = Eo\nR \u2013 Eo\nL\nAs Eo\nL for standard hydrogen electrode is zero Eo = Eo\nR \u2013 0 = Eo\nR\nThe measured emf of the cell:\nPt(s) \u00e7 H2(g, 1 bar) \u00e7 H\n+ (aq, 1 M) \u00e7\u00e7 Cu\n2+ (aq, 1 M) \u00fa Cu\nis 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1913-1916", "Text": "If the concentrations of the oxidised and\nthe reduced forms of the species in the right hand half-cell are unity,\nthen the cell potential is equal to standard electrode potential, Eo\nR of\nthe given half-cell Eo = Eo\nR \u2013 Eo\nL\nAs Eo\nL for standard hydrogen electrode is zero Eo = Eo\nR \u2013 0 = Eo\nR\nThe measured emf of the cell:\nPt(s) \u00e7 H2(g, 1 bar) \u00e7 H\n+ (aq, 1 M) \u00e7\u00e7 Cu\n2+ (aq, 1 M) \u00fa Cu\nis 0 34 V and it is also the value for the standard electrode potential\nof the half-cell corresponding to the reaction:\nCu\n2+ (aq, 1M) + 2 e\n\u2013 \u00ae Cu(s)\nSimilarly, the measured emf of the cell:\nPt(s) \u00e7 H2(g, 1 bar) \u00e7 H\n+ (aq, 1 M) \u00e7\u00e7 Zn\n2+ (aq, 1M) \u00e7 Zn\nis -0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1914-1917", "Text": "Eo = Eo\nR \u2013 Eo\nL\nAs Eo\nL for standard hydrogen electrode is zero Eo = Eo\nR \u2013 0 = Eo\nR\nThe measured emf of the cell:\nPt(s) \u00e7 H2(g, 1 bar) \u00e7 H\n+ (aq, 1 M) \u00e7\u00e7 Cu\n2+ (aq, 1 M) \u00fa Cu\nis 0 34 V and it is also the value for the standard electrode potential\nof the half-cell corresponding to the reaction:\nCu\n2+ (aq, 1M) + 2 e\n\u2013 \u00ae Cu(s)\nSimilarly, the measured emf of the cell:\nPt(s) \u00e7 H2(g, 1 bar) \u00e7 H\n+ (aq, 1 M) \u00e7\u00e7 Zn\n2+ (aq, 1M) \u00e7 Zn\nis -0 76 V corresponding to the standard electrode potential of the\nhalf-cell reaction:\nZn\n2+ (aq, 1 M) + 2e\n\u2013 \u00ae Zn(s)\nThe positive value of the standard electrode potential in the first\ncase indicates that Cu\n2+ ions get reduced more easily than H\n+ ions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1915-1918", "Text": "Eo = Eo\nR \u2013 0 = Eo\nR\nThe measured emf of the cell:\nPt(s) \u00e7 H2(g, 1 bar) \u00e7 H\n+ (aq, 1 M) \u00e7\u00e7 Cu\n2+ (aq, 1 M) \u00fa Cu\nis 0 34 V and it is also the value for the standard electrode potential\nof the half-cell corresponding to the reaction:\nCu\n2+ (aq, 1M) + 2 e\n\u2013 \u00ae Cu(s)\nSimilarly, the measured emf of the cell:\nPt(s) \u00e7 H2(g, 1 bar) \u00e7 H\n+ (aq, 1 M) \u00e7\u00e7 Zn\n2+ (aq, 1M) \u00e7 Zn\nis -0 76 V corresponding to the standard electrode potential of the\nhalf-cell reaction:\nZn\n2+ (aq, 1 M) + 2e\n\u2013 \u00ae Zn(s)\nThe positive value of the standard electrode potential in the first\ncase indicates that Cu\n2+ ions get reduced more easily than H\n+ ions The\nreverse process cannot occur, that is, hydrogen ions cannot oxidise Cu\n(or alternatively we can say that hydrogen gas can reduce copper ion)\nunder the standard conditions described above"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1916-1919", "Text": "34 V and it is also the value for the standard electrode potential\nof the half-cell corresponding to the reaction:\nCu\n2+ (aq, 1M) + 2 e\n\u2013 \u00ae Cu(s)\nSimilarly, the measured emf of the cell:\nPt(s) \u00e7 H2(g, 1 bar) \u00e7 H\n+ (aq, 1 M) \u00e7\u00e7 Zn\n2+ (aq, 1M) \u00e7 Zn\nis -0 76 V corresponding to the standard electrode potential of the\nhalf-cell reaction:\nZn\n2+ (aq, 1 M) + 2e\n\u2013 \u00ae Zn(s)\nThe positive value of the standard electrode potential in the first\ncase indicates that Cu\n2+ ions get reduced more easily than H\n+ ions The\nreverse process cannot occur, that is, hydrogen ions cannot oxidise Cu\n(or alternatively we can say that hydrogen gas can reduce copper ion)\nunder the standard conditions described above Thus, Cu does not\ndissolve in HCl"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1917-1920", "Text": "76 V corresponding to the standard electrode potential of the\nhalf-cell reaction:\nZn\n2+ (aq, 1 M) + 2e\n\u2013 \u00ae Zn(s)\nThe positive value of the standard electrode potential in the first\ncase indicates that Cu\n2+ ions get reduced more easily than H\n+ ions The\nreverse process cannot occur, that is, hydrogen ions cannot oxidise Cu\n(or alternatively we can say that hydrogen gas can reduce copper ion)\nunder the standard conditions described above Thus, Cu does not\ndissolve in HCl In nitric acid it is oxidised by nitrate ion and not by\nhydrogen ion"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1918-1921", "Text": "The\nreverse process cannot occur, that is, hydrogen ions cannot oxidise Cu\n(or alternatively we can say that hydrogen gas can reduce copper ion)\nunder the standard conditions described above Thus, Cu does not\ndissolve in HCl In nitric acid it is oxidised by nitrate ion and not by\nhydrogen ion The negative value of the standard electrode potential\nin the second case indicates that hydrogen ions can oxidise zinc (or\nzinc can reduce hydrogen ions)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1919-1922", "Text": "Thus, Cu does not\ndissolve in HCl In nitric acid it is oxidised by nitrate ion and not by\nhydrogen ion The negative value of the standard electrode potential\nin the second case indicates that hydrogen ions can oxidise zinc (or\nzinc can reduce hydrogen ions) In view of this convention, the half reaction for the Daniell cell in\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1920-1923", "Text": "In nitric acid it is oxidised by nitrate ion and not by\nhydrogen ion The negative value of the standard electrode potential\nin the second case indicates that hydrogen ions can oxidise zinc (or\nzinc can reduce hydrogen ions) In view of this convention, the half reaction for the Daniell cell in\nFig 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1921-1924", "Text": "The negative value of the standard electrode potential\nin the second case indicates that hydrogen ions can oxidise zinc (or\nzinc can reduce hydrogen ions) In view of this convention, the half reaction for the Daniell cell in\nFig 2 1 can be written as:\nLeft electrode: Zn(s) \u00ae Zn\n2+ (aq, 1 M) + 2 e\n\u2013\nRight electrode: Cu\n2+ (aq, 1 M) + 2 e\n\u2013 \u00ae Cu(s)\nThe overall reaction of the cell is the sum of above two reactions\nand we obtain the equation:\nZn(s) + Cu\n2+ (aq) \u00ae Zn\n2+ (aq) + Cu(s)\nemf of the cell = Eo\ncell = Eo\nR \u2013 Eo\nL\n= 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1922-1925", "Text": "In view of this convention, the half reaction for the Daniell cell in\nFig 2 1 can be written as:\nLeft electrode: Zn(s) \u00ae Zn\n2+ (aq, 1 M) + 2 e\n\u2013\nRight electrode: Cu\n2+ (aq, 1 M) + 2 e\n\u2013 \u00ae Cu(s)\nThe overall reaction of the cell is the sum of above two reactions\nand we obtain the equation:\nZn(s) + Cu\n2+ (aq) \u00ae Zn\n2+ (aq) + Cu(s)\nemf of the cell = Eo\ncell = Eo\nR \u2013 Eo\nL\n= 0 34V \u2013 (\u2013 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1923-1926", "Text": "2 1 can be written as:\nLeft electrode: Zn(s) \u00ae Zn\n2+ (aq, 1 M) + 2 e\n\u2013\nRight electrode: Cu\n2+ (aq, 1 M) + 2 e\n\u2013 \u00ae Cu(s)\nThe overall reaction of the cell is the sum of above two reactions\nand we obtain the equation:\nZn(s) + Cu\n2+ (aq) \u00ae Zn\n2+ (aq) + Cu(s)\nemf of the cell = Eo\ncell = Eo\nR \u2013 Eo\nL\n= 0 34V \u2013 (\u2013 0 76)V = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1924-1927", "Text": "1 can be written as:\nLeft electrode: Zn(s) \u00ae Zn\n2+ (aq, 1 M) + 2 e\n\u2013\nRight electrode: Cu\n2+ (aq, 1 M) + 2 e\n\u2013 \u00ae Cu(s)\nThe overall reaction of the cell is the sum of above two reactions\nand we obtain the equation:\nZn(s) + Cu\n2+ (aq) \u00ae Zn\n2+ (aq) + Cu(s)\nemf of the cell = Eo\ncell = Eo\nR \u2013 Eo\nL\n= 0 34V \u2013 (\u2013 0 76)V = 1 10 V\nSometimes metals like platinum or gold are used as inert electrodes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1925-1928", "Text": "34V \u2013 (\u2013 0 76)V = 1 10 V\nSometimes metals like platinum or gold are used as inert electrodes They do not participate in the reaction but provide their surface for\noxidation or reduction reactions and for the conduction of electrons"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1926-1929", "Text": "76)V = 1 10 V\nSometimes metals like platinum or gold are used as inert electrodes They do not participate in the reaction but provide their surface for\noxidation or reduction reactions and for the conduction of electrons For example, Pt is used in the following half-cells:\nHydrogen electrode: Pt(s)|H2(g)| H+(aq)\nWith half-cell reaction: H+ (aq)+ e\u2013 \u00ae \u00bd H2(g)\nBromine electrode: Pt(s)|Br2(aq)| Br\u2013(aq)\nRationalised 2023-24\n36\nChemistry\nWith half-cell reaction: \u00bd Br2(aq) + e\u2013 \u00ae Br\u2013(aq)\nThe standard electrode potentials are very important and we can\nextract a lot of useful information from them"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1927-1930", "Text": "10 V\nSometimes metals like platinum or gold are used as inert electrodes They do not participate in the reaction but provide their surface for\noxidation or reduction reactions and for the conduction of electrons For example, Pt is used in the following half-cells:\nHydrogen electrode: Pt(s)|H2(g)| H+(aq)\nWith half-cell reaction: H+ (aq)+ e\u2013 \u00ae \u00bd H2(g)\nBromine electrode: Pt(s)|Br2(aq)| Br\u2013(aq)\nRationalised 2023-24\n36\nChemistry\nWith half-cell reaction: \u00bd Br2(aq) + e\u2013 \u00ae Br\u2013(aq)\nThe standard electrode potentials are very important and we can\nextract a lot of useful information from them The values of standard\nelectrode potentials for some selected half-cell reduction reactions are\ngiven in Table 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1928-1931", "Text": "They do not participate in the reaction but provide their surface for\noxidation or reduction reactions and for the conduction of electrons For example, Pt is used in the following half-cells:\nHydrogen electrode: Pt(s)|H2(g)| H+(aq)\nWith half-cell reaction: H+ (aq)+ e\u2013 \u00ae \u00bd H2(g)\nBromine electrode: Pt(s)|Br2(aq)| Br\u2013(aq)\nRationalised 2023-24\n36\nChemistry\nWith half-cell reaction: \u00bd Br2(aq) + e\u2013 \u00ae Br\u2013(aq)\nThe standard electrode potentials are very important and we can\nextract a lot of useful information from them The values of standard\nelectrode potentials for some selected half-cell reduction reactions are\ngiven in Table 2 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1929-1932", "Text": "For example, Pt is used in the following half-cells:\nHydrogen electrode: Pt(s)|H2(g)| H+(aq)\nWith half-cell reaction: H+ (aq)+ e\u2013 \u00ae \u00bd H2(g)\nBromine electrode: Pt(s)|Br2(aq)| Br\u2013(aq)\nRationalised 2023-24\n36\nChemistry\nWith half-cell reaction: \u00bd Br2(aq) + e\u2013 \u00ae Br\u2013(aq)\nThe standard electrode potentials are very important and we can\nextract a lot of useful information from them The values of standard\nelectrode potentials for some selected half-cell reduction reactions are\ngiven in Table 2 1 If the standard electrode potential of an electrode\nis greater than zero then its reduced form is more stable compared to\nhydrogen gas"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1930-1933", "Text": "The values of standard\nelectrode potentials for some selected half-cell reduction reactions are\ngiven in Table 2 1 If the standard electrode potential of an electrode\nis greater than zero then its reduced form is more stable compared to\nhydrogen gas Similarly, if the standard electrode potential is negative\nthen hydrogen gas is more stable than the reduced form of the species"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1931-1934", "Text": "1 If the standard electrode potential of an electrode\nis greater than zero then its reduced form is more stable compared to\nhydrogen gas Similarly, if the standard electrode potential is negative\nthen hydrogen gas is more stable than the reduced form of the species It can be seen that the standard electrode potential for fluorine is the\nhighest in the Table indicating that fluorine gas (F2) has the maximum\ntendency to get reduced to fluoride ions (F\u2013) and therefore fluorine\ngas is the strongest oxidising agent and fluoride ion is the weakest\nreducing agent"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1932-1935", "Text": "If the standard electrode potential of an electrode\nis greater than zero then its reduced form is more stable compared to\nhydrogen gas Similarly, if the standard electrode potential is negative\nthen hydrogen gas is more stable than the reduced form of the species It can be seen that the standard electrode potential for fluorine is the\nhighest in the Table indicating that fluorine gas (F2) has the maximum\ntendency to get reduced to fluoride ions (F\u2013) and therefore fluorine\ngas is the strongest oxidising agent and fluoride ion is the weakest\nreducing agent Lithium has the lowest electrode potential indicating\nthat lithium ion is the weakest oxidising agent while lithium metal is\nthe most powerful reducing agent in an aqueous solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1933-1936", "Text": "Similarly, if the standard electrode potential is negative\nthen hydrogen gas is more stable than the reduced form of the species It can be seen that the standard electrode potential for fluorine is the\nhighest in the Table indicating that fluorine gas (F2) has the maximum\ntendency to get reduced to fluoride ions (F\u2013) and therefore fluorine\ngas is the strongest oxidising agent and fluoride ion is the weakest\nreducing agent Lithium has the lowest electrode potential indicating\nthat lithium ion is the weakest oxidising agent while lithium metal is\nthe most powerful reducing agent in an aqueous solution It may be\nseen that as we go from top to bottom in Table 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1934-1937", "Text": "It can be seen that the standard electrode potential for fluorine is the\nhighest in the Table indicating that fluorine gas (F2) has the maximum\ntendency to get reduced to fluoride ions (F\u2013) and therefore fluorine\ngas is the strongest oxidising agent and fluoride ion is the weakest\nreducing agent Lithium has the lowest electrode potential indicating\nthat lithium ion is the weakest oxidising agent while lithium metal is\nthe most powerful reducing agent in an aqueous solution It may be\nseen that as we go from top to bottom in Table 2 1 the standard\nelectrode potential decreases and with this, decreases the oxidising\npower of the species on the left and increases the reducing power of\nthe species on the right hand side of the reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1935-1938", "Text": "Lithium has the lowest electrode potential indicating\nthat lithium ion is the weakest oxidising agent while lithium metal is\nthe most powerful reducing agent in an aqueous solution It may be\nseen that as we go from top to bottom in Table 2 1 the standard\nelectrode potential decreases and with this, decreases the oxidising\npower of the species on the left and increases the reducing power of\nthe species on the right hand side of the reaction Electrochemical\ncells are extensively used for determining the pH of solutions, solubility\nproduct, equilibrium constant and other thermodynamic properties\nand for potentiometric titrations"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1936-1939", "Text": "It may be\nseen that as we go from top to bottom in Table 2 1 the standard\nelectrode potential decreases and with this, decreases the oxidising\npower of the species on the left and increases the reducing power of\nthe species on the right hand side of the reaction Electrochemical\ncells are extensively used for determining the pH of solutions, solubility\nproduct, equilibrium constant and other thermodynamic properties\nand for potentiometric titrations Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1937-1940", "Text": "1 the standard\nelectrode potential decreases and with this, decreases the oxidising\npower of the species on the left and increases the reducing power of\nthe species on the right hand side of the reaction Electrochemical\ncells are extensively used for determining the pH of solutions, solubility\nproduct, equilibrium constant and other thermodynamic properties\nand for potentiometric titrations Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n2 1 How would you determine the standard electrode potential of the system\nMg2+|Mg"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1938-1941", "Text": "Electrochemical\ncells are extensively used for determining the pH of solutions, solubility\nproduct, equilibrium constant and other thermodynamic properties\nand for potentiometric titrations Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n2 1 How would you determine the standard electrode potential of the system\nMg2+|Mg 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1939-1942", "Text": "Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n2 1 How would you determine the standard electrode potential of the system\nMg2+|Mg 2 2 Can you store copper sulphate solutions in a zinc pot"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1940-1943", "Text": "1 How would you determine the standard electrode potential of the system\nMg2+|Mg 2 2 Can you store copper sulphate solutions in a zinc pot 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1941-1944", "Text": "2 2 Can you store copper sulphate solutions in a zinc pot 2 3 Consult the table of standard electrode potentials and suggest three\nsubstances that can oxidise ferrous ions under suitable conditions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1942-1945", "Text": "2 Can you store copper sulphate solutions in a zinc pot 2 3 Consult the table of standard electrode potentials and suggest three\nsubstances that can oxidise ferrous ions under suitable conditions 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1943-1946", "Text": "2 3 Consult the table of standard electrode potentials and suggest three\nsubstances that can oxidise ferrous ions under suitable conditions 2 3\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1944-1947", "Text": "3 Consult the table of standard electrode potentials and suggest three\nsubstances that can oxidise ferrous ions under suitable conditions 2 3\n2 3\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1945-1948", "Text": "2 3\n2 3\n2 3\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1946-1949", "Text": "3\n2 3\n2 3\n2 3\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1947-1950", "Text": "3\n2 3\n2 3\n2 3 Nernst\nNernst\nNernst\nNernst\nNernst\nEquation\nEquation\nEquation\nEquation\nEquation\nWe have assumed in the previous section that the concentration of all\nthe species involved in the electrode reaction is unity"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1948-1951", "Text": "3\n2 3\n2 3 Nernst\nNernst\nNernst\nNernst\nNernst\nEquation\nEquation\nEquation\nEquation\nEquation\nWe have assumed in the previous section that the concentration of all\nthe species involved in the electrode reaction is unity This need not be\nalways true"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1949-1952", "Text": "3\n2 3 Nernst\nNernst\nNernst\nNernst\nNernst\nEquation\nEquation\nEquation\nEquation\nEquation\nWe have assumed in the previous section that the concentration of all\nthe species involved in the electrode reaction is unity This need not be\nalways true Nernst showed that for the electrode reaction:\nMn+(aq) + ne\u2013\u00ae M(s)\nthe electrode potential at any concentration measured with respect to\nstandard hydrogen electrode can be represented by:\n(\n)\n(\n)\n+\n+\n=\nn\nn\no\nM\n/ M\nM\n/ M\nE\nE\n \u2013 RT\nnF ln [M]\n[M\n]\nn+\nbut concentration of solid M is taken as unity and we have\n(\n)\n(\n)\n+\n+\n=\nn\nn\no\nM\n/ M\nM\n/M\nE\nE\n \u2013 \nRT\nnF ln\nn+\n1\n[M\n]\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1950-1953", "Text": "3 Nernst\nNernst\nNernst\nNernst\nNernst\nEquation\nEquation\nEquation\nEquation\nEquation\nWe have assumed in the previous section that the concentration of all\nthe species involved in the electrode reaction is unity This need not be\nalways true Nernst showed that for the electrode reaction:\nMn+(aq) + ne\u2013\u00ae M(s)\nthe electrode potential at any concentration measured with respect to\nstandard hydrogen electrode can be represented by:\n(\n)\n(\n)\n+\n+\n=\nn\nn\no\nM\n/ M\nM\n/ M\nE\nE\n \u2013 RT\nnF ln [M]\n[M\n]\nn+\nbut concentration of solid M is taken as unity and we have\n(\n)\n(\n)\n+\n+\n=\nn\nn\no\nM\n/ M\nM\n/M\nE\nE\n \u2013 \nRT\nnF ln\nn+\n1\n[M\n]\n(2 8)\n(\n)\nn+\no\nM\n/ M\nE\nhas already been defined, R is gas constant (8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1951-1954", "Text": "This need not be\nalways true Nernst showed that for the electrode reaction:\nMn+(aq) + ne\u2013\u00ae M(s)\nthe electrode potential at any concentration measured with respect to\nstandard hydrogen electrode can be represented by:\n(\n)\n(\n)\n+\n+\n=\nn\nn\no\nM\n/ M\nM\n/ M\nE\nE\n \u2013 RT\nnF ln [M]\n[M\n]\nn+\nbut concentration of solid M is taken as unity and we have\n(\n)\n(\n)\n+\n+\n=\nn\nn\no\nM\n/ M\nM\n/M\nE\nE\n \u2013 \nRT\nnF ln\nn+\n1\n[M\n]\n(2 8)\n(\n)\nn+\no\nM\n/ M\nE\nhas already been defined, R is gas constant (8 314 JK\u20131 mol\u20131),\nF is Faraday constant (96487 C mol\u20131), T is temperature in kelvin and\n[Mn+] is the concentration of the species, Mn+"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1952-1955", "Text": "Nernst showed that for the electrode reaction:\nMn+(aq) + ne\u2013\u00ae M(s)\nthe electrode potential at any concentration measured with respect to\nstandard hydrogen electrode can be represented by:\n(\n)\n(\n)\n+\n+\n=\nn\nn\no\nM\n/ M\nM\n/ M\nE\nE\n \u2013 RT\nnF ln [M]\n[M\n]\nn+\nbut concentration of solid M is taken as unity and we have\n(\n)\n(\n)\n+\n+\n=\nn\nn\no\nM\n/ M\nM\n/M\nE\nE\n \u2013 \nRT\nnF ln\nn+\n1\n[M\n]\n(2 8)\n(\n)\nn+\no\nM\n/ M\nE\nhas already been defined, R is gas constant (8 314 JK\u20131 mol\u20131),\nF is Faraday constant (96487 C mol\u20131), T is temperature in kelvin and\n[Mn+] is the concentration of the species, Mn+ Rationalised 2023-24\n37\nElectrochemistry\nF2(g) + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae 2F\u2013\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1953-1956", "Text": "8)\n(\n)\nn+\no\nM\n/ M\nE\nhas already been defined, R is gas constant (8 314 JK\u20131 mol\u20131),\nF is Faraday constant (96487 C mol\u20131), T is temperature in kelvin and\n[Mn+] is the concentration of the species, Mn+ Rationalised 2023-24\n37\nElectrochemistry\nF2(g) + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae 2F\u2013\n2 87\nCo3+ + e\u2013\n\u00ae Co2+\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1954-1957", "Text": "314 JK\u20131 mol\u20131),\nF is Faraday constant (96487 C mol\u20131), T is temperature in kelvin and\n[Mn+] is the concentration of the species, Mn+ Rationalised 2023-24\n37\nElectrochemistry\nF2(g) + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae 2F\u2013\n2 87\nCo3+ + e\u2013\n\u00ae Co2+\n1 81\nH2O2 + 2H+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae 2H2O\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1955-1958", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n37\nElectrochemistry\nF2(g) + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae 2F\u2013\n2 87\nCo3+ + e\u2013\n\u00ae Co2+\n1 81\nH2O2 + 2H+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae 2H2O\n1 78\nMnO4\n\u2013 + 8H+ + 5e\u2013\n\u00ae Mn2+ + 4H2O\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1956-1959", "Text": "87\nCo3+ + e\u2013\n\u00ae Co2+\n1 81\nH2O2 + 2H+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae 2H2O\n1 78\nMnO4\n\u2013 + 8H+ + 5e\u2013\n\u00ae Mn2+ + 4H2O\n1 51\nAu3+ + 3e\u2013\n\u00ae Au(s)\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1957-1960", "Text": "81\nH2O2 + 2H+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae 2H2O\n1 78\nMnO4\n\u2013 + 8H+ + 5e\u2013\n\u00ae Mn2+ + 4H2O\n1 51\nAu3+ + 3e\u2013\n\u00ae Au(s)\n1 40\nCl2(g) + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae 2Cl\u2013\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1958-1961", "Text": "78\nMnO4\n\u2013 + 8H+ + 5e\u2013\n\u00ae Mn2+ + 4H2O\n1 51\nAu3+ + 3e\u2013\n\u00ae Au(s)\n1 40\nCl2(g) + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae 2Cl\u2013\n1 36\nCr2O7\n2\u2013 + 14H+ + 6e\u2013\n\u00ae 2Cr3+ + 7H2O\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1959-1962", "Text": "51\nAu3+ + 3e\u2013\n\u00ae Au(s)\n1 40\nCl2(g) + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae 2Cl\u2013\n1 36\nCr2O7\n2\u2013 + 14H+ + 6e\u2013\n\u00ae 2Cr3+ + 7H2O\n1 33\nO2(g) + 4H+ + 4e\u2013\n\u00ae 2H2O\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1960-1963", "Text": "40\nCl2(g) + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae 2Cl\u2013\n1 36\nCr2O7\n2\u2013 + 14H+ + 6e\u2013\n\u00ae 2Cr3+ + 7H2O\n1 33\nO2(g) + 4H+ + 4e\u2013\n\u00ae 2H2O\n1 23\nMnO2(s) + 4H+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Mn2+ + 2H2O\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1961-1964", "Text": "36\nCr2O7\n2\u2013 + 14H+ + 6e\u2013\n\u00ae 2Cr3+ + 7H2O\n1 33\nO2(g) + 4H+ + 4e\u2013\n\u00ae 2H2O\n1 23\nMnO2(s) + 4H+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Mn2+ + 2H2O\n1 23\nBr2 + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae 2Br\u2013\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1962-1965", "Text": "33\nO2(g) + 4H+ + 4e\u2013\n\u00ae 2H2O\n1 23\nMnO2(s) + 4H+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Mn2+ + 2H2O\n1 23\nBr2 + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae 2Br\u2013\n1 09\nNO3\n\u2013 + 4H+ + 3e\u2013\n\u00ae NO(g) + 2H2O\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1963-1966", "Text": "23\nMnO2(s) + 4H+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Mn2+ + 2H2O\n1 23\nBr2 + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae 2Br\u2013\n1 09\nNO3\n\u2013 + 4H+ + 3e\u2013\n\u00ae NO(g) + 2H2O\n0 97\n2Hg2+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Hg2\n2+\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1964-1967", "Text": "23\nBr2 + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae 2Br\u2013\n1 09\nNO3\n\u2013 + 4H+ + 3e\u2013\n\u00ae NO(g) + 2H2O\n0 97\n2Hg2+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Hg2\n2+\n0 92\nAg+ + e\u2013\n\u00ae Ag(s)\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1965-1968", "Text": "09\nNO3\n\u2013 + 4H+ + 3e\u2013\n\u00ae NO(g) + 2H2O\n0 97\n2Hg2+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Hg2\n2+\n0 92\nAg+ + e\u2013\n\u00ae Ag(s)\n0 80\nFe3+ + e\u2013\n\u00ae Fe2+\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1966-1969", "Text": "97\n2Hg2+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Hg2\n2+\n0 92\nAg+ + e\u2013\n\u00ae Ag(s)\n0 80\nFe3+ + e\u2013\n\u00ae Fe2+\n0 77\nO2(g) + 2H+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae H2O2\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1967-1970", "Text": "92\nAg+ + e\u2013\n\u00ae Ag(s)\n0 80\nFe3+ + e\u2013\n\u00ae Fe2+\n0 77\nO2(g) + 2H+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae H2O2\n0 68\nI2 + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae 2I\u2013\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1968-1971", "Text": "80\nFe3+ + e\u2013\n\u00ae Fe2+\n0 77\nO2(g) + 2H+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae H2O2\n0 68\nI2 + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae 2I\u2013\n0 54\nCu+ + e\u2013\n\u00ae Cu(s)\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1969-1972", "Text": "77\nO2(g) + 2H+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae H2O2\n0 68\nI2 + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae 2I\u2013\n0 54\nCu+ + e\u2013\n\u00ae Cu(s)\n0 52\nCu2+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Cu(s)\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1970-1973", "Text": "68\nI2 + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae 2I\u2013\n0 54\nCu+ + e\u2013\n\u00ae Cu(s)\n0 52\nCu2+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Cu(s)\n0 34\nAgCl(s) + e\u2013\n\u00ae Ag(s) + Cl\u2013\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1971-1974", "Text": "54\nCu+ + e\u2013\n\u00ae Cu(s)\n0 52\nCu2+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Cu(s)\n0 34\nAgCl(s) + e\u2013\n\u00ae Ag(s) + Cl\u2013\n0 22\nAgBr(s) + e\u2013\n\u00ae Ag(s) + Br\u2013\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1972-1975", "Text": "52\nCu2+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Cu(s)\n0 34\nAgCl(s) + e\u2013\n\u00ae Ag(s) + Cl\u2013\n0 22\nAgBr(s) + e\u2013\n\u00ae Ag(s) + Br\u2013\n0 10\n2H+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae H2(g)\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1973-1976", "Text": "34\nAgCl(s) + e\u2013\n\u00ae Ag(s) + Cl\u2013\n0 22\nAgBr(s) + e\u2013\n\u00ae Ag(s) + Br\u2013\n0 10\n2H+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae H2(g)\n0 00\nPb2+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Pb(s)\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1974-1977", "Text": "22\nAgBr(s) + e\u2013\n\u00ae Ag(s) + Br\u2013\n0 10\n2H+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae H2(g)\n0 00\nPb2+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Pb(s)\n\u20130 13\nSn2+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Sn(s)\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1975-1978", "Text": "10\n2H+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae H2(g)\n0 00\nPb2+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Pb(s)\n\u20130 13\nSn2+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Sn(s)\n\u20130 14\nNi2+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Ni(s)\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1976-1979", "Text": "00\nPb2+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Pb(s)\n\u20130 13\nSn2+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Sn(s)\n\u20130 14\nNi2+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Ni(s)\n\u20130 25\nFe2+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Fe(s)\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1977-1980", "Text": "13\nSn2+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Sn(s)\n\u20130 14\nNi2+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Ni(s)\n\u20130 25\nFe2+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Fe(s)\n\u20130 44\nCr3+ + 3e\u2013\n\u00ae Cr(s)\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1978-1981", "Text": "14\nNi2+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Ni(s)\n\u20130 25\nFe2+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Fe(s)\n\u20130 44\nCr3+ + 3e\u2013\n\u00ae Cr(s)\n\u20130 74\nZn2+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Zn(s)\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1979-1982", "Text": "25\nFe2+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Fe(s)\n\u20130 44\nCr3+ + 3e\u2013\n\u00ae Cr(s)\n\u20130 74\nZn2+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Zn(s)\n\u20130 76\n2H2O + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae H2(g) + 2OH\u2013(aq)\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1980-1983", "Text": "44\nCr3+ + 3e\u2013\n\u00ae Cr(s)\n\u20130 74\nZn2+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Zn(s)\n\u20130 76\n2H2O + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae H2(g) + 2OH\u2013(aq)\n\u20130 83\nAl3+ + 3e\u2013\n\u00ae Al(s)\n\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1981-1984", "Text": "74\nZn2+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Zn(s)\n\u20130 76\n2H2O + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae H2(g) + 2OH\u2013(aq)\n\u20130 83\nAl3+ + 3e\u2013\n\u00ae Al(s)\n\u20131 66\nMg2+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Mg(s)\n\u20132"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1982-1985", "Text": "76\n2H2O + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae H2(g) + 2OH\u2013(aq)\n\u20130 83\nAl3+ + 3e\u2013\n\u00ae Al(s)\n\u20131 66\nMg2+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Mg(s)\n\u20132 36\nNa+ + e\u2013\n\u00ae Na(s)\n\u20132"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1983-1986", "Text": "83\nAl3+ + 3e\u2013\n\u00ae Al(s)\n\u20131 66\nMg2+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Mg(s)\n\u20132 36\nNa+ + e\u2013\n\u00ae Na(s)\n\u20132 71\nCa2+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Ca(s)\n\u20132"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1984-1987", "Text": "66\nMg2+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Mg(s)\n\u20132 36\nNa+ + e\u2013\n\u00ae Na(s)\n\u20132 71\nCa2+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Ca(s)\n\u20132 87\nK+ + e\u2013\n\u00ae K(s)\n\u20132"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1985-1988", "Text": "36\nNa+ + e\u2013\n\u00ae Na(s)\n\u20132 71\nCa2+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Ca(s)\n\u20132 87\nK+ + e\u2013\n\u00ae K(s)\n\u20132 93\nLi+ + e\u2013\n\u00ae Li(s)\n\u20133"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1986-1989", "Text": "71\nCa2+ + 2e\u2013\n\u00ae Ca(s)\n\u20132 87\nK+ + e\u2013\n\u00ae K(s)\n\u20132 93\nLi+ + e\u2013\n\u00ae Li(s)\n\u20133 05\nTable 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1987-1990", "Text": "87\nK+ + e\u2013\n\u00ae K(s)\n\u20132 93\nLi+ + e\u2013\n\u00ae Li(s)\n\u20133 05\nTable 2 1: Standard Electrode Potentials at 298 K\nIons are present as aqueous species and H2O as liquid; gases and solids are shown by g and s"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1988-1991", "Text": "93\nLi+ + e\u2013\n\u00ae Li(s)\n\u20133 05\nTable 2 1: Standard Electrode Potentials at 298 K\nIons are present as aqueous species and H2O as liquid; gases and solids are shown by g and s Reaction (Oxidised form + ne\u2013\n\u00ae\n\u00ae\n\u00ae\n\u00ae\n\u00ae Reduced form)\nE o/V\n Increasing strength of oxidising agent\n Increasing strength of reducing agent\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1989-1992", "Text": "05\nTable 2 1: Standard Electrode Potentials at 298 K\nIons are present as aqueous species and H2O as liquid; gases and solids are shown by g and s Reaction (Oxidised form + ne\u2013\n\u00ae\n\u00ae\n\u00ae\n\u00ae\n\u00ae Reduced form)\nE o/V\n Increasing strength of oxidising agent\n Increasing strength of reducing agent\n1 A negative Eo means that the redox couple is a stronger reducing agent than the H+/H2 couple"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1990-1993", "Text": "1: Standard Electrode Potentials at 298 K\nIons are present as aqueous species and H2O as liquid; gases and solids are shown by g and s Reaction (Oxidised form + ne\u2013\n\u00ae\n\u00ae\n\u00ae\n\u00ae\n\u00ae Reduced form)\nE o/V\n Increasing strength of oxidising agent\n Increasing strength of reducing agent\n1 A negative Eo means that the redox couple is a stronger reducing agent than the H+/H2 couple 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1991-1994", "Text": "Reaction (Oxidised form + ne\u2013\n\u00ae\n\u00ae\n\u00ae\n\u00ae\n\u00ae Reduced form)\nE o/V\n Increasing strength of oxidising agent\n Increasing strength of reducing agent\n1 A negative Eo means that the redox couple is a stronger reducing agent than the H+/H2 couple 2 A positive Eo means that the redox couple is a weaker reducing agent than the H+/H2 couple"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1992-1995", "Text": "A negative Eo means that the redox couple is a stronger reducing agent than the H+/H2 couple 2 A positive Eo means that the redox couple is a weaker reducing agent than the H+/H2 couple Rationalised 2023-24\n38\nChemistry\nIn Daniell cell, the electrode potential for any given concentration of\nCu2+ and Zn2+ ions, we write\nFor Cathode:\n\uf028\n\uf029\nCu2\n/Cu\nE\n\uf02b\n = \n(\n)\n2+\no\nCu\n/Cu\nE\n \u2013 RT\nF\n2 ln\n\uf028\n\uf029\n2\n1\nCu\naq\n\uf02b\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1993-1996", "Text": "2 A positive Eo means that the redox couple is a weaker reducing agent than the H+/H2 couple Rationalised 2023-24\n38\nChemistry\nIn Daniell cell, the electrode potential for any given concentration of\nCu2+ and Zn2+ ions, we write\nFor Cathode:\n\uf028\n\uf029\nCu2\n/Cu\nE\n\uf02b\n = \n(\n)\n2+\no\nCu\n/Cu\nE\n \u2013 RT\nF\n2 ln\n\uf028\n\uf029\n2\n1\nCu\naq\n\uf02b\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n(2 9)\nFor Anode:\n\uf028\n\uf029\nZn2\n/Zn\nE\n\uf02b\n = \n(\n)\n2+\no\nZn\n/ Zn\nE\n \u2013 RT\nF\n2 ln\n\uf028\n\uf029\n2\n1\nZn\naq\n\uf02b\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1994-1997", "Text": "A positive Eo means that the redox couple is a weaker reducing agent than the H+/H2 couple Rationalised 2023-24\n38\nChemistry\nIn Daniell cell, the electrode potential for any given concentration of\nCu2+ and Zn2+ ions, we write\nFor Cathode:\n\uf028\n\uf029\nCu2\n/Cu\nE\n\uf02b\n = \n(\n)\n2+\no\nCu\n/Cu\nE\n \u2013 RT\nF\n2 ln\n\uf028\n\uf029\n2\n1\nCu\naq\n\uf02b\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n(2 9)\nFor Anode:\n\uf028\n\uf029\nZn2\n/Zn\nE\n\uf02b\n = \n(\n)\n2+\no\nZn\n/ Zn\nE\n \u2013 RT\nF\n2 ln\n\uf028\n\uf029\n2\n1\nZn\naq\n\uf02b\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n(2 10)\nThe cell potential, E(cell) = \n\uf028\n\uf029\nCu2\n/Cu\nE\n\uf02b\n \u2013 \n\uf028\n\uf029\nZn2\n/Zn\nE\n\uf02b\n=\n(\n)\n2+\no\nCu\n/ Cu\nE\n \u2013 RT\nF\n2 ln \n2+\n1\nCu\n(aq)\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n \u2013 \n(\n)\n2+\no\nZn\n/ Zn\nE\n + RT\n2F\n ln\n2+\n1\nZn\n(aq)\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n=\n(\n)\n2+\no\nCu\n/ Cu\nE\n\u2013\n(\n)\n2+\no\nZn\n/ Zn\nE\n\u2013 RT\nF\n2 \n\uf028\n\uf029\n\uf028\n\uf029\n2+\n2+\n1\n1\nln\n \u2013 ln\nCu\naq\nZn\naq\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\nE(cell) = \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n \u2013 RT\n2F\n ln [\n]\n+\n[\n]\nZn2\n2\nCu\n\uf02b\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1995-1998", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n38\nChemistry\nIn Daniell cell, the electrode potential for any given concentration of\nCu2+ and Zn2+ ions, we write\nFor Cathode:\n\uf028\n\uf029\nCu2\n/Cu\nE\n\uf02b\n = \n(\n)\n2+\no\nCu\n/Cu\nE\n \u2013 RT\nF\n2 ln\n\uf028\n\uf029\n2\n1\nCu\naq\n\uf02b\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n(2 9)\nFor Anode:\n\uf028\n\uf029\nZn2\n/Zn\nE\n\uf02b\n = \n(\n)\n2+\no\nZn\n/ Zn\nE\n \u2013 RT\nF\n2 ln\n\uf028\n\uf029\n2\n1\nZn\naq\n\uf02b\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n(2 10)\nThe cell potential, E(cell) = \n\uf028\n\uf029\nCu2\n/Cu\nE\n\uf02b\n \u2013 \n\uf028\n\uf029\nZn2\n/Zn\nE\n\uf02b\n=\n(\n)\n2+\no\nCu\n/ Cu\nE\n \u2013 RT\nF\n2 ln \n2+\n1\nCu\n(aq)\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n \u2013 \n(\n)\n2+\no\nZn\n/ Zn\nE\n + RT\n2F\n ln\n2+\n1\nZn\n(aq)\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n=\n(\n)\n2+\no\nCu\n/ Cu\nE\n\u2013\n(\n)\n2+\no\nZn\n/ Zn\nE\n\u2013 RT\nF\n2 \n\uf028\n\uf029\n\uf028\n\uf029\n2+\n2+\n1\n1\nln\n \u2013 ln\nCu\naq\nZn\naq\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\nE(cell) = \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n \u2013 RT\n2F\n ln [\n]\n+\n[\n]\nZn2\n2\nCu\n\uf02b\n(2 11)\nIt can be seen that E(cell) depends on the concentration of both Cu2+\nand Zn2+ ions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1996-1999", "Text": "9)\nFor Anode:\n\uf028\n\uf029\nZn2\n/Zn\nE\n\uf02b\n = \n(\n)\n2+\no\nZn\n/ Zn\nE\n \u2013 RT\nF\n2 ln\n\uf028\n\uf029\n2\n1\nZn\naq\n\uf02b\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n(2 10)\nThe cell potential, E(cell) = \n\uf028\n\uf029\nCu2\n/Cu\nE\n\uf02b\n \u2013 \n\uf028\n\uf029\nZn2\n/Zn\nE\n\uf02b\n=\n(\n)\n2+\no\nCu\n/ Cu\nE\n \u2013 RT\nF\n2 ln \n2+\n1\nCu\n(aq)\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n \u2013 \n(\n)\n2+\no\nZn\n/ Zn\nE\n + RT\n2F\n ln\n2+\n1\nZn\n(aq)\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n=\n(\n)\n2+\no\nCu\n/ Cu\nE\n\u2013\n(\n)\n2+\no\nZn\n/ Zn\nE\n\u2013 RT\nF\n2 \n\uf028\n\uf029\n\uf028\n\uf029\n2+\n2+\n1\n1\nln\n \u2013 ln\nCu\naq\nZn\naq\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\nE(cell) = \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n \u2013 RT\n2F\n ln [\n]\n+\n[\n]\nZn2\n2\nCu\n\uf02b\n(2 11)\nIt can be seen that E(cell) depends on the concentration of both Cu2+\nand Zn2+ ions It increases with increase in the concentration of Cu2+\nions and decrease in the concentration of Zn2+ ions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1997-2000", "Text": "10)\nThe cell potential, E(cell) = \n\uf028\n\uf029\nCu2\n/Cu\nE\n\uf02b\n \u2013 \n\uf028\n\uf029\nZn2\n/Zn\nE\n\uf02b\n=\n(\n)\n2+\no\nCu\n/ Cu\nE\n \u2013 RT\nF\n2 ln \n2+\n1\nCu\n(aq)\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n \u2013 \n(\n)\n2+\no\nZn\n/ Zn\nE\n + RT\n2F\n ln\n2+\n1\nZn\n(aq)\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n=\n(\n)\n2+\no\nCu\n/ Cu\nE\n\u2013\n(\n)\n2+\no\nZn\n/ Zn\nE\n\u2013 RT\nF\n2 \n\uf028\n\uf029\n\uf028\n\uf029\n2+\n2+\n1\n1\nln\n \u2013 ln\nCu\naq\nZn\naq\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\nE(cell) = \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n \u2013 RT\n2F\n ln [\n]\n+\n[\n]\nZn2\n2\nCu\n\uf02b\n(2 11)\nIt can be seen that E(cell) depends on the concentration of both Cu2+\nand Zn2+ ions It increases with increase in the concentration of Cu2+\nions and decrease in the concentration of Zn2+ ions By converting the natural logarithm in Eq"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1998-2001", "Text": "11)\nIt can be seen that E(cell) depends on the concentration of both Cu2+\nand Zn2+ ions It increases with increase in the concentration of Cu2+\nions and decrease in the concentration of Zn2+ ions By converting the natural logarithm in Eq (2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "1999-2002", "Text": "It increases with increase in the concentration of Cu2+\nions and decrease in the concentration of Zn2+ ions By converting the natural logarithm in Eq (2 11) to the base 10 and\nsubstituting the values of R, F and T = 298 K, it reduces to\nE(cell) = \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n \u2013 \n0 059\n2\n2\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2000-2003", "Text": "By converting the natural logarithm in Eq (2 11) to the base 10 and\nsubstituting the values of R, F and T = 298 K, it reduces to\nE(cell) = \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n \u2013 \n0 059\n2\n2\n2 [\n]\n[\n]\nlog Zn\nCu\n+\n+\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2001-2004", "Text": "(2 11) to the base 10 and\nsubstituting the values of R, F and T = 298 K, it reduces to\nE(cell) = \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n \u2013 \n0 059\n2\n2\n2 [\n]\n[\n]\nlog Zn\nCu\n+\n+\n(2 12)\nWe should use the same number of electrons (n) for both the\nelectrodes and thus for the following cell\nNi(s)\u00fa Ni2+(aq) \u00fa\u00fa Ag+(aq)\u00fa Ag\nThe cell reaction is Ni(s) + 2Ag+(aq) \u00ae Ni2+(aq) + 2Ag(s)\nThe Nernst equation can be written as\nE(cell) = \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n \u2013 RT\nF\n2 ln [Ni\n]\n[Ag ]\n2+\n2\n+\nand for a general electrochemical reaction of the type:\na A + bB \nne\u2013\n cC + dD\nNernst equation can be written as:\nE(cell) = \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n \u2013 \nRT\nnF 1nQ\n= \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n \u2013 \nRT\nnF ln\n[C] [D]\n[A] [B]\nc\nd\na\nb\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2002-2005", "Text": "11) to the base 10 and\nsubstituting the values of R, F and T = 298 K, it reduces to\nE(cell) = \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n \u2013 \n0 059\n2\n2\n2 [\n]\n[\n]\nlog Zn\nCu\n+\n+\n(2 12)\nWe should use the same number of electrons (n) for both the\nelectrodes and thus for the following cell\nNi(s)\u00fa Ni2+(aq) \u00fa\u00fa Ag+(aq)\u00fa Ag\nThe cell reaction is Ni(s) + 2Ag+(aq) \u00ae Ni2+(aq) + 2Ag(s)\nThe Nernst equation can be written as\nE(cell) = \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n \u2013 RT\nF\n2 ln [Ni\n]\n[Ag ]\n2+\n2\n+\nand for a general electrochemical reaction of the type:\na A + bB \nne\u2013\n cC + dD\nNernst equation can be written as:\nE(cell) = \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n \u2013 \nRT\nnF 1nQ\n= \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n \u2013 \nRT\nnF ln\n[C] [D]\n[A] [B]\nc\nd\na\nb\n(2 13)\nRationalised 2023-24\n39\nElectrochemistry\nIf the circuit in Daniell cell (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2003-2006", "Text": "[\n]\n[\n]\nlog Zn\nCu\n+\n+\n(2 12)\nWe should use the same number of electrons (n) for both the\nelectrodes and thus for the following cell\nNi(s)\u00fa Ni2+(aq) \u00fa\u00fa Ag+(aq)\u00fa Ag\nThe cell reaction is Ni(s) + 2Ag+(aq) \u00ae Ni2+(aq) + 2Ag(s)\nThe Nernst equation can be written as\nE(cell) = \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n \u2013 RT\nF\n2 ln [Ni\n]\n[Ag ]\n2+\n2\n+\nand for a general electrochemical reaction of the type:\na A + bB \nne\u2013\n cC + dD\nNernst equation can be written as:\nE(cell) = \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n \u2013 \nRT\nnF 1nQ\n= \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n \u2013 \nRT\nnF ln\n[C] [D]\n[A] [B]\nc\nd\na\nb\n(2 13)\nRationalised 2023-24\n39\nElectrochemistry\nIf the circuit in Daniell cell (Fig 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2004-2007", "Text": "12)\nWe should use the same number of electrons (n) for both the\nelectrodes and thus for the following cell\nNi(s)\u00fa Ni2+(aq) \u00fa\u00fa Ag+(aq)\u00fa Ag\nThe cell reaction is Ni(s) + 2Ag+(aq) \u00ae Ni2+(aq) + 2Ag(s)\nThe Nernst equation can be written as\nE(cell) = \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n \u2013 RT\nF\n2 ln [Ni\n]\n[Ag ]\n2+\n2\n+\nand for a general electrochemical reaction of the type:\na A + bB \nne\u2013\n cC + dD\nNernst equation can be written as:\nE(cell) = \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n \u2013 \nRT\nnF 1nQ\n= \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n \u2013 \nRT\nnF ln\n[C] [D]\n[A] [B]\nc\nd\na\nb\n(2 13)\nRationalised 2023-24\n39\nElectrochemistry\nIf the circuit in Daniell cell (Fig 2 1) is closed then we note that the reaction\nZn(s) + Cu2+(aq) \u00ae Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2005-2008", "Text": "13)\nRationalised 2023-24\n39\nElectrochemistry\nIf the circuit in Daniell cell (Fig 2 1) is closed then we note that the reaction\nZn(s) + Cu2+(aq) \u00ae Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)\n(2 1)\ntakes place and as time passes, the concentration of Zn2+ keeps\non increasing while the concentration of Cu2+ keeps on decreasing"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2006-2009", "Text": "2 1) is closed then we note that the reaction\nZn(s) + Cu2+(aq) \u00ae Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)\n(2 1)\ntakes place and as time passes, the concentration of Zn2+ keeps\non increasing while the concentration of Cu2+ keeps on decreasing At the same time voltage of the cell as read on the voltmeter keeps\non decreasing"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2007-2010", "Text": "1) is closed then we note that the reaction\nZn(s) + Cu2+(aq) \u00ae Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)\n(2 1)\ntakes place and as time passes, the concentration of Zn2+ keeps\non increasing while the concentration of Cu2+ keeps on decreasing At the same time voltage of the cell as read on the voltmeter keeps\non decreasing After some time, we shall note that there is no change\nin the concentration of Cu2+ and Zn2+ ions and at the same time,\nvoltmeter gives zero reading"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2008-2011", "Text": "1)\ntakes place and as time passes, the concentration of Zn2+ keeps\non increasing while the concentration of Cu2+ keeps on decreasing At the same time voltage of the cell as read on the voltmeter keeps\non decreasing After some time, we shall note that there is no change\nin the concentration of Cu2+ and Zn2+ ions and at the same time,\nvoltmeter gives zero reading This indicates that equilibrium has been\nattained"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2009-2012", "Text": "At the same time voltage of the cell as read on the voltmeter keeps\non decreasing After some time, we shall note that there is no change\nin the concentration of Cu2+ and Zn2+ ions and at the same time,\nvoltmeter gives zero reading This indicates that equilibrium has been\nattained In this situation the Nernst equation may be written as:\nE(cell) = 0 = \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n \u2013 \n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2010-2013", "Text": "After some time, we shall note that there is no change\nin the concentration of Cu2+ and Zn2+ ions and at the same time,\nvoltmeter gives zero reading This indicates that equilibrium has been\nattained In this situation the Nernst equation may be written as:\nE(cell) = 0 = \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n \u2013 \n2 303\n2\nlog [Zn\n]\n[Cu\n]\n2\n2\nRT\nF\n+\n+\nor \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = \n2\n2\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2011-2014", "Text": "This indicates that equilibrium has been\nattained In this situation the Nernst equation may be written as:\nE(cell) = 0 = \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n \u2013 \n2 303\n2\nlog [Zn\n]\n[Cu\n]\n2\n2\nRT\nF\n+\n+\nor \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = \n2\n2\n2 303\n[Zn\n]\nlog\n2\n[Cu\n]\nRT\nF\n\uf02b\n\uf02b\nBut at equilibrium,\n[\n]\n[\n]\nZn\nCu\n2\n2\n+\n+ = Kc for the reaction 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2012-2015", "Text": "In this situation the Nernst equation may be written as:\nE(cell) = 0 = \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n \u2013 \n2 303\n2\nlog [Zn\n]\n[Cu\n]\n2\n2\nRT\nF\n+\n+\nor \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = \n2\n2\n2 303\n[Zn\n]\nlog\n2\n[Cu\n]\nRT\nF\n\uf02b\n\uf02b\nBut at equilibrium,\n[\n]\n[\n]\nZn\nCu\n2\n2\n+\n+ = Kc for the reaction 2 1\nand at T = 298K the above equation can be written as\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = 0 059\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2013-2016", "Text": "303\n2\nlog [Zn\n]\n[Cu\n]\n2\n2\nRT\nF\n+\n+\nor \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = \n2\n2\n2 303\n[Zn\n]\nlog\n2\n[Cu\n]\nRT\nF\n\uf02b\n\uf02b\nBut at equilibrium,\n[\n]\n[\n]\nZn\nCu\n2\n2\n+\n+ = Kc for the reaction 2 1\nand at T = 298K the above equation can be written as\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = 0 059\n2 V log KC = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2014-2017", "Text": "303\n[Zn\n]\nlog\n2\n[Cu\n]\nRT\nF\n\uf02b\n\uf02b\nBut at equilibrium,\n[\n]\n[\n]\nZn\nCu\n2\n2\n+\n+ = Kc for the reaction 2 1\nand at T = 298K the above equation can be written as\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = 0 059\n2 V log KC = 1 1 V (\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2015-2018", "Text": "1\nand at T = 298K the above equation can be written as\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = 0 059\n2 V log KC = 1 1 V (\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = 1 1V)\nlog KC = (1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2016-2019", "Text": "V log KC = 1 1 V (\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = 1 1V)\nlog KC = (1 1V \u00d7 2) \n37"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2017-2020", "Text": "1 V (\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = 1 1V)\nlog KC = (1 1V \u00d7 2) \n37 288\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2018-2021", "Text": "1V)\nlog KC = (1 1V \u00d7 2) \n37 288\n0 059 V\n\uf03d\nKC = 2 \u00d7 1037 at 298K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2019-2022", "Text": "1V \u00d7 2) \n37 288\n0 059 V\n\uf03d\nKC = 2 \u00d7 1037 at 298K In general,\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2020-2023", "Text": "288\n0 059 V\n\uf03d\nKC = 2 \u00d7 1037 at 298K In general,\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = 2 303RT\nnF\n log KC\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2021-2024", "Text": "059 V\n\uf03d\nKC = 2 \u00d7 1037 at 298K In general,\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = 2 303RT\nnF\n log KC\n(2 14)\nThus, Eq"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2022-2025", "Text": "In general,\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = 2 303RT\nnF\n log KC\n(2 14)\nThus, Eq (2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2023-2026", "Text": "303RT\nnF\n log KC\n(2 14)\nThus, Eq (2 14) gives a relationship between equilibrium constant\nof the reaction and standard potential of the cell in which that reaction\ntakes place"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2024-2027", "Text": "14)\nThus, Eq (2 14) gives a relationship between equilibrium constant\nof the reaction and standard potential of the cell in which that reaction\ntakes place Thus, equilibrium constants of the reaction, difficult to\nmeasure otherwise, can be calculated from the corresponding Eo value\nof the cell"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2025-2028", "Text": "(2 14) gives a relationship between equilibrium constant\nof the reaction and standard potential of the cell in which that reaction\ntakes place Thus, equilibrium constants of the reaction, difficult to\nmeasure otherwise, can be calculated from the corresponding Eo value\nof the cell 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2026-2029", "Text": "14) gives a relationship between equilibrium constant\nof the reaction and standard potential of the cell in which that reaction\ntakes place Thus, equilibrium constants of the reaction, difficult to\nmeasure otherwise, can be calculated from the corresponding Eo value\nof the cell 2 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2027-2030", "Text": "Thus, equilibrium constants of the reaction, difficult to\nmeasure otherwise, can be calculated from the corresponding Eo value\nof the cell 2 3 1 Equilibrium\nConstant\nfrom Nernst\nEquation\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2028-2031", "Text": "2 3 1 Equilibrium\nConstant\nfrom Nernst\nEquation\nExample 2 1\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2029-2032", "Text": "3 1 Equilibrium\nConstant\nfrom Nernst\nEquation\nExample 2 1\nExample 2 1\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2030-2033", "Text": "1 Equilibrium\nConstant\nfrom Nernst\nEquation\nExample 2 1\nExample 2 1\nExample 2 1\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2031-2034", "Text": "1\nExample 2 1\nExample 2 1\nExample 2 1\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2032-2035", "Text": "1\nExample 2 1\nExample 2 1\nExample 2 1\nRepresent the cell in which the following reaction takes place\nMg(s) + 2Ag+(0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2033-2036", "Text": "1\nExample 2 1\nExample 2 1\nRepresent the cell in which the following reaction takes place\nMg(s) + 2Ag+(0 0001M) \u00ae Mg2+(0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2034-2037", "Text": "1\nExample 2 1\nRepresent the cell in which the following reaction takes place\nMg(s) + 2Ag+(0 0001M) \u00ae Mg2+(0 130M) + 2Ag(s)\nCalculate its E(cell) if \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2035-2038", "Text": "1\nRepresent the cell in which the following reaction takes place\nMg(s) + 2Ag+(0 0001M) \u00ae Mg2+(0 130M) + 2Ag(s)\nCalculate its E(cell) if \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = 3 17 V"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2036-2039", "Text": "0001M) \u00ae Mg2+(0 130M) + 2Ag(s)\nCalculate its E(cell) if \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = 3 17 V The cell can be written as Mg\u00fa Mg2+(0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2037-2040", "Text": "130M) + 2Ag(s)\nCalculate its E(cell) if \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = 3 17 V The cell can be written as Mg\u00fa Mg2+(0 130M)\u00fa\u00fa Ag+(0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2038-2041", "Text": "17 V The cell can be written as Mg\u00fa Mg2+(0 130M)\u00fa\u00fa Ag+(0 0001M)\u00fa Ag\n\uf028\nEcell\uf029\n = \n(\n)\n+\n+\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n2\no\ncell\n2\nMg\n\u2013RT\n2Fln\nAg\nE\n= 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2039-2042", "Text": "The cell can be written as Mg\u00fa Mg2+(0 130M)\u00fa\u00fa Ag+(0 0001M)\u00fa Ag\n\uf028\nEcell\uf029\n = \n(\n)\n+\n+\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n2\no\ncell\n2\nMg\n\u2013RT\n2Fln\nAg\nE\n= 3 17 V \u2013 \n0 059\n2\n0 0001 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2040-2043", "Text": "130M)\u00fa\u00fa Ag+(0 0001M)\u00fa Ag\n\uf028\nEcell\uf029\n = \n(\n)\n+\n+\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n2\no\ncell\n2\nMg\n\u2013RT\n2Fln\nAg\nE\n= 3 17 V \u2013 \n0 059\n2\n0 0001 2 log\n("}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2041-2044", "Text": "0001M)\u00fa Ag\n\uf028\nEcell\uf029\n = \n(\n)\n+\n+\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n2\no\ncell\n2\nMg\n\u2013RT\n2Fln\nAg\nE\n= 3 17 V \u2013 \n0 059\n2\n0 0001 2 log\n( )\nV\n \n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2042-2045", "Text": "17 V \u2013 \n0 059\n2\n0 0001 2 log\n( )\nV\n \n0 130\n = 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2043-2046", "Text": "log\n( )\nV\n \n0 130\n = 3 17 V \u2013 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2044-2047", "Text": ")\nV\n \n0 130\n = 3 17 V \u2013 0 21V = 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2045-2048", "Text": "130\n = 3 17 V \u2013 0 21V = 2 96 V"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2046-2049", "Text": "17 V \u2013 0 21V = 2 96 V Solution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n40\nChemistry\nThe standard electrode potential for Daniell cell is 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2047-2050", "Text": "21V = 2 96 V Solution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n40\nChemistry\nThe standard electrode potential for Daniell cell is 1 1V"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2048-2051", "Text": "96 V Solution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n40\nChemistry\nThe standard electrode potential for Daniell cell is 1 1V Calculate\nthe standard Gibbs energy for the reaction:\nZn(s) + Cu2+(aq) \u00be\u00ae Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)\nDrGo = \u2013 nF\no\n(cell)\nE\nn in the above equation is 2, F = 96487 C mol\u20131 and \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n= 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2049-2052", "Text": "Solution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n40\nChemistry\nThe standard electrode potential for Daniell cell is 1 1V Calculate\nthe standard Gibbs energy for the reaction:\nZn(s) + Cu2+(aq) \u00be\u00ae Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)\nDrGo = \u2013 nF\no\n(cell)\nE\nn in the above equation is 2, F = 96487 C mol\u20131 and \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n= 1 1 V\nTherefore, DrGo = \u2013 2 \u00d7 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2050-2053", "Text": "1V Calculate\nthe standard Gibbs energy for the reaction:\nZn(s) + Cu2+(aq) \u00be\u00ae Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)\nDrGo = \u2013 nF\no\n(cell)\nE\nn in the above equation is 2, F = 96487 C mol\u20131 and \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n= 1 1 V\nTherefore, DrGo = \u2013 2 \u00d7 1 1V \u00d7 96487 C mol\u20131\n= \u2013 21227 J mol\u20131\n= \u2013 212"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2051-2054", "Text": "Calculate\nthe standard Gibbs energy for the reaction:\nZn(s) + Cu2+(aq) \u00be\u00ae Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)\nDrGo = \u2013 nF\no\n(cell)\nE\nn in the above equation is 2, F = 96487 C mol\u20131 and \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n= 1 1 V\nTherefore, DrGo = \u2013 2 \u00d7 1 1V \u00d7 96487 C mol\u20131\n= \u2013 21227 J mol\u20131\n= \u2013 212 27 kJ mol\u20131\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2052-2055", "Text": "1 V\nTherefore, DrGo = \u2013 2 \u00d7 1 1V \u00d7 96487 C mol\u20131\n= \u2013 21227 J mol\u20131\n= \u2013 212 27 kJ mol\u20131\nExample 2 3\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2053-2056", "Text": "1V \u00d7 96487 C mol\u20131\n= \u2013 21227 J mol\u20131\n= \u2013 212 27 kJ mol\u20131\nExample 2 3\nExample 2 3\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2054-2057", "Text": "27 kJ mol\u20131\nExample 2 3\nExample 2 3\nExample 2 3\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2055-2058", "Text": "3\nExample 2 3\nExample 2 3\nExample 2 3\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2056-2059", "Text": "3\nExample 2 3\nExample 2 3\nExample 2 3\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nElectrical work done in one second is equal to electrical potential\nmultiplied by total charge passed"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2057-2060", "Text": "3\nExample 2 3\nExample 2 3\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nElectrical work done in one second is equal to electrical potential\nmultiplied by total charge passed If we want to obtain maximum work\nfrom a galvanic cell then charge has to be passed reversibly"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2058-2061", "Text": "3\nExample 2 3\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nElectrical work done in one second is equal to electrical potential\nmultiplied by total charge passed If we want to obtain maximum work\nfrom a galvanic cell then charge has to be passed reversibly The\nreversible work done by a galvanic cell is equal to decrease in its Gibbs\nenergy and therefore, if the emf of the cell is E and nF is the amount\nof charge passed and DrG is the Gibbs energy of the reaction, then\nDrG = \u2013 nFE(cell)\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2059-2062", "Text": "3\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nElectrical work done in one second is equal to electrical potential\nmultiplied by total charge passed If we want to obtain maximum work\nfrom a galvanic cell then charge has to be passed reversibly The\nreversible work done by a galvanic cell is equal to decrease in its Gibbs\nenergy and therefore, if the emf of the cell is E and nF is the amount\nof charge passed and DrG is the Gibbs energy of the reaction, then\nDrG = \u2013 nFE(cell)\n(2 15)\nIt may be remembered that E(cell) is an intensive parameter but DrG\nis an extensive thermodynamic property and the value depends on n"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2060-2063", "Text": "If we want to obtain maximum work\nfrom a galvanic cell then charge has to be passed reversibly The\nreversible work done by a galvanic cell is equal to decrease in its Gibbs\nenergy and therefore, if the emf of the cell is E and nF is the amount\nof charge passed and DrG is the Gibbs energy of the reaction, then\nDrG = \u2013 nFE(cell)\n(2 15)\nIt may be remembered that E(cell) is an intensive parameter but DrG\nis an extensive thermodynamic property and the value depends on n Thus, if we write the reaction\nZn(s) + Cu2+(aq) \u00be\u00ae Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2061-2064", "Text": "The\nreversible work done by a galvanic cell is equal to decrease in its Gibbs\nenergy and therefore, if the emf of the cell is E and nF is the amount\nof charge passed and DrG is the Gibbs energy of the reaction, then\nDrG = \u2013 nFE(cell)\n(2 15)\nIt may be remembered that E(cell) is an intensive parameter but DrG\nis an extensive thermodynamic property and the value depends on n Thus, if we write the reaction\nZn(s) + Cu2+(aq) \u00be\u00ae Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)\n(2 1)\nDrG = \u2013 2FE(cell)\nbut when we write the reaction\n2 Zn (s) + 2 Cu2+(aq) \u00be\u00ae2 Zn2+(aq) + 2Cu(s)\nDrG = \u2013 4FE(cell)\nIf the concentration of all the reacting species is unity, then\nE(cell) = \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n and we have\nDrGo = \u2013 nF\no\nE(cell)\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2062-2065", "Text": "15)\nIt may be remembered that E(cell) is an intensive parameter but DrG\nis an extensive thermodynamic property and the value depends on n Thus, if we write the reaction\nZn(s) + Cu2+(aq) \u00be\u00ae Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)\n(2 1)\nDrG = \u2013 2FE(cell)\nbut when we write the reaction\n2 Zn (s) + 2 Cu2+(aq) \u00be\u00ae2 Zn2+(aq) + 2Cu(s)\nDrG = \u2013 4FE(cell)\nIf the concentration of all the reacting species is unity, then\nE(cell) = \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n and we have\nDrGo = \u2013 nF\no\nE(cell)\n(2 16)\nThus, from the measurement of \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n we can obtain an important\nthermodynamic quantity, DrGo, standard Gibbs energy of the reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2063-2066", "Text": "Thus, if we write the reaction\nZn(s) + Cu2+(aq) \u00be\u00ae Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)\n(2 1)\nDrG = \u2013 2FE(cell)\nbut when we write the reaction\n2 Zn (s) + 2 Cu2+(aq) \u00be\u00ae2 Zn2+(aq) + 2Cu(s)\nDrG = \u2013 4FE(cell)\nIf the concentration of all the reacting species is unity, then\nE(cell) = \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n and we have\nDrGo = \u2013 nF\no\nE(cell)\n(2 16)\nThus, from the measurement of \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n we can obtain an important\nthermodynamic quantity, DrGo, standard Gibbs energy of the reaction From the latter we can calculate equilibrium constant by the equation:\nDrGo = \u2013RT ln K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2064-2067", "Text": "1)\nDrG = \u2013 2FE(cell)\nbut when we write the reaction\n2 Zn (s) + 2 Cu2+(aq) \u00be\u00ae2 Zn2+(aq) + 2Cu(s)\nDrG = \u2013 4FE(cell)\nIf the concentration of all the reacting species is unity, then\nE(cell) = \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n and we have\nDrGo = \u2013 nF\no\nE(cell)\n(2 16)\nThus, from the measurement of \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n we can obtain an important\nthermodynamic quantity, DrGo, standard Gibbs energy of the reaction From the latter we can calculate equilibrium constant by the equation:\nDrGo = \u2013RT ln K 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2065-2068", "Text": "16)\nThus, from the measurement of \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n we can obtain an important\nthermodynamic quantity, DrGo, standard Gibbs energy of the reaction From the latter we can calculate equilibrium constant by the equation:\nDrGo = \u2013RT ln K 2 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2066-2069", "Text": "From the latter we can calculate equilibrium constant by the equation:\nDrGo = \u2013RT ln K 2 3 2 Electro-\nchemical\nCell and\nGibbs\nEnergy of\nthe Reaction\nCalculate the equilibrium constant of the reaction:\nCu(s) + 2Ag+(aq) \u00ae Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(s)\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2067-2070", "Text": "2 3 2 Electro-\nchemical\nCell and\nGibbs\nEnergy of\nthe Reaction\nCalculate the equilibrium constant of the reaction:\nCu(s) + 2Ag+(aq) \u00ae Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(s)\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = 0 46 V\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n= 0 059\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2068-2071", "Text": "3 2 Electro-\nchemical\nCell and\nGibbs\nEnergy of\nthe Reaction\nCalculate the equilibrium constant of the reaction:\nCu(s) + 2Ag+(aq) \u00ae Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(s)\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = 0 46 V\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n= 0 059\n2 V log KC = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2069-2072", "Text": "2 Electro-\nchemical\nCell and\nGibbs\nEnergy of\nthe Reaction\nCalculate the equilibrium constant of the reaction:\nCu(s) + 2Ag+(aq) \u00ae Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(s)\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = 0 46 V\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n= 0 059\n2 V log KC = 0 46 V or\nlog\nKC = \n0 46"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2070-2073", "Text": "46 V\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n= 0 059\n2 V log KC = 0 46 V or\nlog\nKC = \n0 46 0 0592\n V\nV\n\u00d7\n = 15"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2071-2074", "Text": "V log KC = 0 46 V or\nlog\nKC = \n0 46 0 0592\n V\nV\n\u00d7\n = 15 6\nKC = 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2072-2075", "Text": "46 V or\nlog\nKC = \n0 46 0 0592\n V\nV\n\u00d7\n = 15 6\nKC = 3 92 \u00d7 1015\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2073-2076", "Text": "0 0592\n V\nV\n\u00d7\n = 15 6\nKC = 3 92 \u00d7 1015\nExample 2 2\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2074-2077", "Text": "6\nKC = 3 92 \u00d7 1015\nExample 2 2\nExample 2 2\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2075-2078", "Text": "92 \u00d7 1015\nExample 2 2\nExample 2 2\nExample 2 2\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2076-2079", "Text": "2\nExample 2 2\nExample 2 2\nExample 2 2\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2077-2080", "Text": "2\nExample 2 2\nExample 2 2\nExample 2 2\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n41\nElectrochemistry\nIt is necessary to define a few terms before we consider the subject of\nconductance of electricity through electrolytic solutions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2078-2081", "Text": "2\nExample 2 2\nExample 2 2\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n41\nElectrochemistry\nIt is necessary to define a few terms before we consider the subject of\nconductance of electricity through electrolytic solutions The electrical\nresistance is represented by the symbol \u2018R\u2019 and it is measured in ohm (W)\nwhich in terms of SI base units is equal to (kg m2)/(S3 A2)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2079-2082", "Text": "2\nExample 2 2\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n41\nElectrochemistry\nIt is necessary to define a few terms before we consider the subject of\nconductance of electricity through electrolytic solutions The electrical\nresistance is represented by the symbol \u2018R\u2019 and it is measured in ohm (W)\nwhich in terms of SI base units is equal to (kg m2)/(S3 A2) It can be\nmeasured with the help of a Wheatstone bridge with which you are\nfamiliar from your study of physics"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2080-2083", "Text": "2\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n41\nElectrochemistry\nIt is necessary to define a few terms before we consider the subject of\nconductance of electricity through electrolytic solutions The electrical\nresistance is represented by the symbol \u2018R\u2019 and it is measured in ohm (W)\nwhich in terms of SI base units is equal to (kg m2)/(S3 A2) It can be\nmeasured with the help of a Wheatstone bridge with which you are\nfamiliar from your study of physics The electrical resistance of any object\nis directly proportional to its length, l, and inversely proportional to its\narea of cross section, A"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2081-2084", "Text": "The electrical\nresistance is represented by the symbol \u2018R\u2019 and it is measured in ohm (W)\nwhich in terms of SI base units is equal to (kg m2)/(S3 A2) It can be\nmeasured with the help of a Wheatstone bridge with which you are\nfamiliar from your study of physics The electrical resistance of any object\nis directly proportional to its length, l, and inversely proportional to its\narea of cross section, A That is,\nR \u00b5 l\nA or R = r l\nA\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2082-2085", "Text": "It can be\nmeasured with the help of a Wheatstone bridge with which you are\nfamiliar from your study of physics The electrical resistance of any object\nis directly proportional to its length, l, and inversely proportional to its\narea of cross section, A That is,\nR \u00b5 l\nA or R = r l\nA\n(2 17)\nThe constant of proportionality, r (Greek, rho), is called resistivity\n(specific resistance)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2083-2086", "Text": "The electrical resistance of any object\nis directly proportional to its length, l, and inversely proportional to its\narea of cross section, A That is,\nR \u00b5 l\nA or R = r l\nA\n(2 17)\nThe constant of proportionality, r (Greek, rho), is called resistivity\n(specific resistance) Its SI units are ohm metre (W m) and quite often\nits submultiple, ohm centimetre (W cm) is also used"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2084-2087", "Text": "That is,\nR \u00b5 l\nA or R = r l\nA\n(2 17)\nThe constant of proportionality, r (Greek, rho), is called resistivity\n(specific resistance) Its SI units are ohm metre (W m) and quite often\nits submultiple, ohm centimetre (W cm) is also used IUPAC recommends\nthe use of the term resistivity over specific resistance and hence in the\nrest of the book we shall use the term resistivity"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2085-2088", "Text": "17)\nThe constant of proportionality, r (Greek, rho), is called resistivity\n(specific resistance) Its SI units are ohm metre (W m) and quite often\nits submultiple, ohm centimetre (W cm) is also used IUPAC recommends\nthe use of the term resistivity over specific resistance and hence in the\nrest of the book we shall use the term resistivity Physically, the resistivity\nfor a substance is its resistance when it is one metre long and its area\nof cross section is one m2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2086-2089", "Text": "Its SI units are ohm metre (W m) and quite often\nits submultiple, ohm centimetre (W cm) is also used IUPAC recommends\nthe use of the term resistivity over specific resistance and hence in the\nrest of the book we shall use the term resistivity Physically, the resistivity\nfor a substance is its resistance when it is one metre long and its area\nof cross section is one m2 It can be seen that:\n1 W m = 100 W cm or 1 W cm = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2087-2090", "Text": "IUPAC recommends\nthe use of the term resistivity over specific resistance and hence in the\nrest of the book we shall use the term resistivity Physically, the resistivity\nfor a substance is its resistance when it is one metre long and its area\nof cross section is one m2 It can be seen that:\n1 W m = 100 W cm or 1 W cm = 0 01 W m\nThe inverse of resistance, R, is called conductance, G, and we have\nthe relation:\nG = 1\nR = \u03c1\nA=\u03ba\nA\nl\nl\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2088-2091", "Text": "Physically, the resistivity\nfor a substance is its resistance when it is one metre long and its area\nof cross section is one m2 It can be seen that:\n1 W m = 100 W cm or 1 W cm = 0 01 W m\nThe inverse of resistance, R, is called conductance, G, and we have\nthe relation:\nG = 1\nR = \u03c1\nA=\u03ba\nA\nl\nl\n(2 18)\nThe SI unit of conductance is siemens, represented by the symbol\n\u2018S\u2019 and is equal to ohm\u20131 (also known as mho) or W\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2089-2092", "Text": "It can be seen that:\n1 W m = 100 W cm or 1 W cm = 0 01 W m\nThe inverse of resistance, R, is called conductance, G, and we have\nthe relation:\nG = 1\nR = \u03c1\nA=\u03ba\nA\nl\nl\n(2 18)\nThe SI unit of conductance is siemens, represented by the symbol\n\u2018S\u2019 and is equal to ohm\u20131 (also known as mho) or W\u20131 The inverse of\nresistivity, called conductivity (specific conductance) is represented by\nthe symbol, k (Greek, kappa)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2090-2093", "Text": "01 W m\nThe inverse of resistance, R, is called conductance, G, and we have\nthe relation:\nG = 1\nR = \u03c1\nA=\u03ba\nA\nl\nl\n(2 18)\nThe SI unit of conductance is siemens, represented by the symbol\n\u2018S\u2019 and is equal to ohm\u20131 (also known as mho) or W\u20131 The inverse of\nresistivity, called conductivity (specific conductance) is represented by\nthe symbol, k (Greek, kappa) IUPAC has recommended the use of term\nconductivity over specific conductance and hence we shall use the term\nconductivity in the rest of the book"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2091-2094", "Text": "18)\nThe SI unit of conductance is siemens, represented by the symbol\n\u2018S\u2019 and is equal to ohm\u20131 (also known as mho) or W\u20131 The inverse of\nresistivity, called conductivity (specific conductance) is represented by\nthe symbol, k (Greek, kappa) IUPAC has recommended the use of term\nconductivity over specific conductance and hence we shall use the term\nconductivity in the rest of the book The SI units of conductivity are\nS m\u20131 but quite often, k is expressed in S cm\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2092-2095", "Text": "The inverse of\nresistivity, called conductivity (specific conductance) is represented by\nthe symbol, k (Greek, kappa) IUPAC has recommended the use of term\nconductivity over specific conductance and hence we shall use the term\nconductivity in the rest of the book The SI units of conductivity are\nS m\u20131 but quite often, k is expressed in S cm\u20131 Conductivity of a\nmaterial in S m\u20131 is its conductance when it is 1 m long and its area\nof cross section is 1 m2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2093-2096", "Text": "IUPAC has recommended the use of term\nconductivity over specific conductance and hence we shall use the term\nconductivity in the rest of the book The SI units of conductivity are\nS m\u20131 but quite often, k is expressed in S cm\u20131 Conductivity of a\nmaterial in S m\u20131 is its conductance when it is 1 m long and its area\nof cross section is 1 m2 It may be noted that 1 S cm\u20131 = 100 S m\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2094-2097", "Text": "The SI units of conductivity are\nS m\u20131 but quite often, k is expressed in S cm\u20131 Conductivity of a\nmaterial in S m\u20131 is its conductance when it is 1 m long and its area\nof cross section is 1 m2 It may be noted that 1 S cm\u20131 = 100 S m\u20131 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2095-2098", "Text": "Conductivity of a\nmaterial in S m\u20131 is its conductance when it is 1 m long and its area\nof cross section is 1 m2 It may be noted that 1 S cm\u20131 = 100 S m\u20131 2 4\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2096-2099", "Text": "It may be noted that 1 S cm\u20131 = 100 S m\u20131 2 4\n2 4\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2097-2100", "Text": "2 4\n2 4\n2 4\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2098-2101", "Text": "4\n2 4\n2 4\n2 4\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2099-2102", "Text": "4\n2 4\n2 4\n2 4 Conductance\nConductance\nConductance\nConductance\nConductance\nof Electrolytic\nof Electrolytic\nof Electrolytic\nof Electrolytic\nof Electrolytic\nSolutions\nSolutions\nSolutions\nSolutions\nSolutions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2100-2103", "Text": "4\n2 4\n2 4 Conductance\nConductance\nConductance\nConductance\nConductance\nof Electrolytic\nof Electrolytic\nof Electrolytic\nof Electrolytic\nof Electrolytic\nSolutions\nSolutions\nSolutions\nSolutions\nSolutions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n2 4 Calculate the potential of hydrogen electrode in contact with a solution\nwhose pH is 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2101-2104", "Text": "4\n2 4 Conductance\nConductance\nConductance\nConductance\nConductance\nof Electrolytic\nof Electrolytic\nof Electrolytic\nof Electrolytic\nof Electrolytic\nSolutions\nSolutions\nSolutions\nSolutions\nSolutions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n2 4 Calculate the potential of hydrogen electrode in contact with a solution\nwhose pH is 10 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2102-2105", "Text": "4 Conductance\nConductance\nConductance\nConductance\nConductance\nof Electrolytic\nof Electrolytic\nof Electrolytic\nof Electrolytic\nof Electrolytic\nSolutions\nSolutions\nSolutions\nSolutions\nSolutions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n2 4 Calculate the potential of hydrogen electrode in contact with a solution\nwhose pH is 10 2 5 Calculate the emf of the cell in which the following reaction takes place:\nNi(s) + 2Ag+ (0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2103-2106", "Text": "4 Calculate the potential of hydrogen electrode in contact with a solution\nwhose pH is 10 2 5 Calculate the emf of the cell in which the following reaction takes place:\nNi(s) + 2Ag+ (0 002 M) \u00ae Ni2+ (0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2104-2107", "Text": "2 5 Calculate the emf of the cell in which the following reaction takes place:\nNi(s) + 2Ag+ (0 002 M) \u00ae Ni2+ (0 160 M) + 2Ag(s)\nGiven that \no\nEcell\n = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2105-2108", "Text": "5 Calculate the emf of the cell in which the following reaction takes place:\nNi(s) + 2Ag+ (0 002 M) \u00ae Ni2+ (0 160 M) + 2Ag(s)\nGiven that \no\nEcell\n = 1 05 V\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2106-2109", "Text": "002 M) \u00ae Ni2+ (0 160 M) + 2Ag(s)\nGiven that \no\nEcell\n = 1 05 V\n2 6 The cell in which the following reaction occurs:\n(\n)\n(\n)\n(\n)\n( )\n+\n\u2212\n+\n+\n\u2192\n+\n3\n2\n2\naq\naq\naq\n2Fe\n2I\n2Fe\nI\ns has \no\nEcell\n = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2107-2110", "Text": "160 M) + 2Ag(s)\nGiven that \no\nEcell\n = 1 05 V\n2 6 The cell in which the following reaction occurs:\n(\n)\n(\n)\n(\n)\n( )\n+\n\u2212\n+\n+\n\u2192\n+\n3\n2\n2\naq\naq\naq\n2Fe\n2I\n2Fe\nI\ns has \no\nEcell\n = 0 236 V at 298 K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2108-2111", "Text": "05 V\n2 6 The cell in which the following reaction occurs:\n(\n)\n(\n)\n(\n)\n( )\n+\n\u2212\n+\n+\n\u2192\n+\n3\n2\n2\naq\naq\naq\n2Fe\n2I\n2Fe\nI\ns has \no\nEcell\n = 0 236 V at 298 K Calculate the standard Gibbs energy and the equilibrium constant of the\ncell reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2109-2112", "Text": "6 The cell in which the following reaction occurs:\n(\n)\n(\n)\n(\n)\n( )\n+\n\u2212\n+\n+\n\u2192\n+\n3\n2\n2\naq\naq\naq\n2Fe\n2I\n2Fe\nI\ns has \no\nEcell\n = 0 236 V at 298 K Calculate the standard Gibbs energy and the equilibrium constant of the\ncell reaction Rationalised 2023-24\n42\nChemistry\n*\nElectronically conducting polymers \u2013 In 1977 MacDiarmid, Heeger and Shirakawa discovered that acetylene gas can be\npolymerised to produce a polymer, polyacetylene when exposed to vapours of iodine acquires metallic lustre and\nconductivity"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2110-2113", "Text": "236 V at 298 K Calculate the standard Gibbs energy and the equilibrium constant of the\ncell reaction Rationalised 2023-24\n42\nChemistry\n*\nElectronically conducting polymers \u2013 In 1977 MacDiarmid, Heeger and Shirakawa discovered that acetylene gas can be\npolymerised to produce a polymer, polyacetylene when exposed to vapours of iodine acquires metallic lustre and\nconductivity Since then several organic conducting polymers have been made such as polyaniline, polypyrrole and\npolythiophene"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2111-2114", "Text": "Calculate the standard Gibbs energy and the equilibrium constant of the\ncell reaction Rationalised 2023-24\n42\nChemistry\n*\nElectronically conducting polymers \u2013 In 1977 MacDiarmid, Heeger and Shirakawa discovered that acetylene gas can be\npolymerised to produce a polymer, polyacetylene when exposed to vapours of iodine acquires metallic lustre and\nconductivity Since then several organic conducting polymers have been made such as polyaniline, polypyrrole and\npolythiophene These organic polymers which have properties like metals, being composed wholly of elements like\ncarbon, hydrogen and occasionally nitrogen, oxygen or sulphur, are much lighter than normal metals and can be used\nfor making light-weight batteries"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2112-2115", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n42\nChemistry\n*\nElectronically conducting polymers \u2013 In 1977 MacDiarmid, Heeger and Shirakawa discovered that acetylene gas can be\npolymerised to produce a polymer, polyacetylene when exposed to vapours of iodine acquires metallic lustre and\nconductivity Since then several organic conducting polymers have been made such as polyaniline, polypyrrole and\npolythiophene These organic polymers which have properties like metals, being composed wholly of elements like\ncarbon, hydrogen and occasionally nitrogen, oxygen or sulphur, are much lighter than normal metals and can be used\nfor making light-weight batteries Besides, they have the mechanical properties of polymers such as flexibility so that\none can make electronic devices such as transistors that can bend like a sheet of plastic"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2113-2116", "Text": "Since then several organic conducting polymers have been made such as polyaniline, polypyrrole and\npolythiophene These organic polymers which have properties like metals, being composed wholly of elements like\ncarbon, hydrogen and occasionally nitrogen, oxygen or sulphur, are much lighter than normal metals and can be used\nfor making light-weight batteries Besides, they have the mechanical properties of polymers such as flexibility so that\none can make electronic devices such as transistors that can bend like a sheet of plastic For the discovery of conducting\npolymers, MacDiarmid, Heeger and Shirakawa were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the year 2000"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2114-2117", "Text": "These organic polymers which have properties like metals, being composed wholly of elements like\ncarbon, hydrogen and occasionally nitrogen, oxygen or sulphur, are much lighter than normal metals and can be used\nfor making light-weight batteries Besides, they have the mechanical properties of polymers such as flexibility so that\none can make electronic devices such as transistors that can bend like a sheet of plastic For the discovery of conducting\npolymers, MacDiarmid, Heeger and Shirakawa were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the year 2000 It can be seen from Table 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2115-2118", "Text": "Besides, they have the mechanical properties of polymers such as flexibility so that\none can make electronic devices such as transistors that can bend like a sheet of plastic For the discovery of conducting\npolymers, MacDiarmid, Heeger and Shirakawa were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the year 2000 It can be seen from Table 2 2 that the magnitude of conductivity\nvaries a great deal and depends on the nature of the material"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2116-2119", "Text": "For the discovery of conducting\npolymers, MacDiarmid, Heeger and Shirakawa were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the year 2000 It can be seen from Table 2 2 that the magnitude of conductivity\nvaries a great deal and depends on the nature of the material It also\ndepends on the temperature and pressure at which the measurements\nare made"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2117-2120", "Text": "It can be seen from Table 2 2 that the magnitude of conductivity\nvaries a great deal and depends on the nature of the material It also\ndepends on the temperature and pressure at which the measurements\nare made Materials are classified into conductors, insulators and\nsemiconductors depending on the magnitude of their conductivity"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2118-2121", "Text": "2 that the magnitude of conductivity\nvaries a great deal and depends on the nature of the material It also\ndepends on the temperature and pressure at which the measurements\nare made Materials are classified into conductors, insulators and\nsemiconductors depending on the magnitude of their conductivity Metals\nand their alloys have very large conductivity and are known as conductors"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2119-2122", "Text": "It also\ndepends on the temperature and pressure at which the measurements\nare made Materials are classified into conductors, insulators and\nsemiconductors depending on the magnitude of their conductivity Metals\nand their alloys have very large conductivity and are known as conductors Certain non-metals like carbon-black, graphite and some organic\npolymers* are also electronically conducting"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2120-2123", "Text": "Materials are classified into conductors, insulators and\nsemiconductors depending on the magnitude of their conductivity Metals\nand their alloys have very large conductivity and are known as conductors Certain non-metals like carbon-black, graphite and some organic\npolymers* are also electronically conducting Substances like glass,\nceramics, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2121-2124", "Text": "Metals\nand their alloys have very large conductivity and are known as conductors Certain non-metals like carbon-black, graphite and some organic\npolymers* are also electronically conducting Substances like glass,\nceramics, etc , having very low conductivity are known as insulators"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2122-2125", "Text": "Certain non-metals like carbon-black, graphite and some organic\npolymers* are also electronically conducting Substances like glass,\nceramics, etc , having very low conductivity are known as insulators Substances like silicon, doped silicon and gallium arsenide having\nconductivity between conductors and insulators are called\nsemiconductors and are important electronic materials"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2123-2126", "Text": "Substances like glass,\nceramics, etc , having very low conductivity are known as insulators Substances like silicon, doped silicon and gallium arsenide having\nconductivity between conductors and insulators are called\nsemiconductors and are important electronic materials Certain materials\ncalled superconductors by definition have zero resistivity or infinite\nconductivity"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2124-2127", "Text": ", having very low conductivity are known as insulators Substances like silicon, doped silicon and gallium arsenide having\nconductivity between conductors and insulators are called\nsemiconductors and are important electronic materials Certain materials\ncalled superconductors by definition have zero resistivity or infinite\nconductivity Earlier, only metals and their alloys at very low temperatures\n(0 to 15 K) were known to behave as superconductors, but nowadays a\nnumber of ceramic materials and mixed oxides are also known to show\nsuperconductivity at temperatures as high as 150 K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2125-2128", "Text": "Substances like silicon, doped silicon and gallium arsenide having\nconductivity between conductors and insulators are called\nsemiconductors and are important electronic materials Certain materials\ncalled superconductors by definition have zero resistivity or infinite\nconductivity Earlier, only metals and their alloys at very low temperatures\n(0 to 15 K) were known to behave as superconductors, but nowadays a\nnumber of ceramic materials and mixed oxides are also known to show\nsuperconductivity at temperatures as high as 150 K Electrical conductance through metals is called metallic or electronic\nconductance and is due to the movement of electrons"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2126-2129", "Text": "Certain materials\ncalled superconductors by definition have zero resistivity or infinite\nconductivity Earlier, only metals and their alloys at very low temperatures\n(0 to 15 K) were known to behave as superconductors, but nowadays a\nnumber of ceramic materials and mixed oxides are also known to show\nsuperconductivity at temperatures as high as 150 K Electrical conductance through metals is called metallic or electronic\nconductance and is due to the movement of electrons The electronic\nconductance depends on\n(i) the nature and structure of the metal\n(ii) the number of valence electrons per atom\n(iii) temperature (it decreases with increase of temperature)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2127-2130", "Text": "Earlier, only metals and their alloys at very low temperatures\n(0 to 15 K) were known to behave as superconductors, but nowadays a\nnumber of ceramic materials and mixed oxides are also known to show\nsuperconductivity at temperatures as high as 150 K Electrical conductance through metals is called metallic or electronic\nconductance and is due to the movement of electrons The electronic\nconductance depends on\n(i) the nature and structure of the metal\n(ii) the number of valence electrons per atom\n(iii) temperature (it decreases with increase of temperature) Table 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2128-2131", "Text": "Electrical conductance through metals is called metallic or electronic\nconductance and is due to the movement of electrons The electronic\nconductance depends on\n(i) the nature and structure of the metal\n(ii) the number of valence electrons per atom\n(iii) temperature (it decreases with increase of temperature) Table 2 2: The values of Conductivity of some Selected\nMaterials at 298"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2129-2132", "Text": "The electronic\nconductance depends on\n(i) the nature and structure of the metal\n(ii) the number of valence electrons per atom\n(iii) temperature (it decreases with increase of temperature) Table 2 2: The values of Conductivity of some Selected\nMaterials at 298 15 K\nMaterial\nConductivity/\nMaterial\nConductivity/\nS m\u20131\nS m\u20131\nConductors\nAqueous Solutions\nSodium\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2130-2133", "Text": "Table 2 2: The values of Conductivity of some Selected\nMaterials at 298 15 K\nMaterial\nConductivity/\nMaterial\nConductivity/\nS m\u20131\nS m\u20131\nConductors\nAqueous Solutions\nSodium\n2 1\u00d7103\nPure water\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2131-2134", "Text": "2: The values of Conductivity of some Selected\nMaterials at 298 15 K\nMaterial\nConductivity/\nMaterial\nConductivity/\nS m\u20131\nS m\u20131\nConductors\nAqueous Solutions\nSodium\n2 1\u00d7103\nPure water\n3 5\u00d710\u20135\nCopper\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2132-2135", "Text": "15 K\nMaterial\nConductivity/\nMaterial\nConductivity/\nS m\u20131\nS m\u20131\nConductors\nAqueous Solutions\nSodium\n2 1\u00d7103\nPure water\n3 5\u00d710\u20135\nCopper\n5 9\u00d7103\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2133-2136", "Text": "1\u00d7103\nPure water\n3 5\u00d710\u20135\nCopper\n5 9\u00d7103\n0 1 M HCl\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2134-2137", "Text": "5\u00d710\u20135\nCopper\n5 9\u00d7103\n0 1 M HCl\n3 91\nSilver\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2135-2138", "Text": "9\u00d7103\n0 1 M HCl\n3 91\nSilver\n6 2\u00d7103\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2136-2139", "Text": "1 M HCl\n3 91\nSilver\n6 2\u00d7103\n0 01M KCl\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2137-2140", "Text": "91\nSilver\n6 2\u00d7103\n0 01M KCl\n0 14\nGold\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2138-2141", "Text": "2\u00d7103\n0 01M KCl\n0 14\nGold\n4 5\u00d7103\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2139-2142", "Text": "01M KCl\n0 14\nGold\n4 5\u00d7103\n0 01M NaCl\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2140-2143", "Text": "14\nGold\n4 5\u00d7103\n0 01M NaCl\n0 12\nIron\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2141-2144", "Text": "5\u00d7103\n0 01M NaCl\n0 12\nIron\n1 0\u00d7103\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2142-2145", "Text": "01M NaCl\n0 12\nIron\n1 0\u00d7103\n0 1 M HAc\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2143-2146", "Text": "12\nIron\n1 0\u00d7103\n0 1 M HAc\n0 047\nGraphite\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2144-2147", "Text": "0\u00d7103\n0 1 M HAc\n0 047\nGraphite\n1 2\u00d710\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2145-2148", "Text": "1 M HAc\n0 047\nGraphite\n1 2\u00d710\n0 01M HAc\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2146-2149", "Text": "047\nGraphite\n1 2\u00d710\n0 01M HAc\n0 016\nInsulators\nSemiconductors\nGlass\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2147-2150", "Text": "2\u00d710\n0 01M HAc\n0 016\nInsulators\nSemiconductors\nGlass\n1 0\u00d710\u201316\nCuO\n1\u00d710\u20137\nTeflon\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2148-2151", "Text": "01M HAc\n0 016\nInsulators\nSemiconductors\nGlass\n1 0\u00d710\u201316\nCuO\n1\u00d710\u20137\nTeflon\n1 0\u00d710\u201318\nSi\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2149-2152", "Text": "016\nInsulators\nSemiconductors\nGlass\n1 0\u00d710\u201316\nCuO\n1\u00d710\u20137\nTeflon\n1 0\u00d710\u201318\nSi\n1 5\u00d710\u20132\nGe\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2150-2153", "Text": "0\u00d710\u201316\nCuO\n1\u00d710\u20137\nTeflon\n1 0\u00d710\u201318\nSi\n1 5\u00d710\u20132\nGe\n2 0\nRationalised 2023-24\n43\nElectrochemistry\nAs the electrons enter at one end and go out through the other end,\nthe composition of the metallic conductor remains unchanged"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2151-2154", "Text": "0\u00d710\u201318\nSi\n1 5\u00d710\u20132\nGe\n2 0\nRationalised 2023-24\n43\nElectrochemistry\nAs the electrons enter at one end and go out through the other end,\nthe composition of the metallic conductor remains unchanged The\nmechanism of conductance through semiconductors is more complex"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2152-2155", "Text": "5\u00d710\u20132\nGe\n2 0\nRationalised 2023-24\n43\nElectrochemistry\nAs the electrons enter at one end and go out through the other end,\nthe composition of the metallic conductor remains unchanged The\nmechanism of conductance through semiconductors is more complex We already know that even very pure water has small amounts of\nhydrogen and hydroxyl ions (~10\u20137M) which lend it very low conductivity\n(3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2153-2156", "Text": "0\nRationalised 2023-24\n43\nElectrochemistry\nAs the electrons enter at one end and go out through the other end,\nthe composition of the metallic conductor remains unchanged The\nmechanism of conductance through semiconductors is more complex We already know that even very pure water has small amounts of\nhydrogen and hydroxyl ions (~10\u20137M) which lend it very low conductivity\n(3 5 \u00d7 10\u20135 S m\u20131)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2154-2157", "Text": "The\nmechanism of conductance through semiconductors is more complex We already know that even very pure water has small amounts of\nhydrogen and hydroxyl ions (~10\u20137M) which lend it very low conductivity\n(3 5 \u00d7 10\u20135 S m\u20131) When electrolytes are dissolved in water, they furnish\ntheir own ions in the solution hence its conductivity also increases"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2155-2158", "Text": "We already know that even very pure water has small amounts of\nhydrogen and hydroxyl ions (~10\u20137M) which lend it very low conductivity\n(3 5 \u00d7 10\u20135 S m\u20131) When electrolytes are dissolved in water, they furnish\ntheir own ions in the solution hence its conductivity also increases The\nconductance of electricity by ions present in the solutions is called\nelectrolytic or ionic conductance"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2156-2159", "Text": "5 \u00d7 10\u20135 S m\u20131) When electrolytes are dissolved in water, they furnish\ntheir own ions in the solution hence its conductivity also increases The\nconductance of electricity by ions present in the solutions is called\nelectrolytic or ionic conductance The conductivity of electrolytic (ionic)\nsolutions depends on:\n(i) the nature of the electrolyte added\n(ii) size of the ions produced and their solvation\n(iii) the nature of the solvent and its viscosity\n(iv) concentration of the electrolyte\n(v) temperature (it increases with the increase of temperature)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2157-2160", "Text": "When electrolytes are dissolved in water, they furnish\ntheir own ions in the solution hence its conductivity also increases The\nconductance of electricity by ions present in the solutions is called\nelectrolytic or ionic conductance The conductivity of electrolytic (ionic)\nsolutions depends on:\n(i) the nature of the electrolyte added\n(ii) size of the ions produced and their solvation\n(iii) the nature of the solvent and its viscosity\n(iv) concentration of the electrolyte\n(v) temperature (it increases with the increase of temperature) Passage of direct current through ionic solution over a prolonged\nperiod can lead to change in its composition due to electrochemical\nreactions (Section 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2158-2161", "Text": "The\nconductance of electricity by ions present in the solutions is called\nelectrolytic or ionic conductance The conductivity of electrolytic (ionic)\nsolutions depends on:\n(i) the nature of the electrolyte added\n(ii) size of the ions produced and their solvation\n(iii) the nature of the solvent and its viscosity\n(iv) concentration of the electrolyte\n(v) temperature (it increases with the increase of temperature) Passage of direct current through ionic solution over a prolonged\nperiod can lead to change in its composition due to electrochemical\nreactions (Section 2 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2159-2162", "Text": "The conductivity of electrolytic (ionic)\nsolutions depends on:\n(i) the nature of the electrolyte added\n(ii) size of the ions produced and their solvation\n(iii) the nature of the solvent and its viscosity\n(iv) concentration of the electrolyte\n(v) temperature (it increases with the increase of temperature) Passage of direct current through ionic solution over a prolonged\nperiod can lead to change in its composition due to electrochemical\nreactions (Section 2 4 1)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2160-2163", "Text": "Passage of direct current through ionic solution over a prolonged\nperiod can lead to change in its composition due to electrochemical\nreactions (Section 2 4 1) We know that accurate measurement of an unknown resistance can be\nperformed on a Wheatstone bridge"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2161-2164", "Text": "4 1) We know that accurate measurement of an unknown resistance can be\nperformed on a Wheatstone bridge However, for measuring the resistance\nof an ionic solution we face two problems"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2162-2165", "Text": "1) We know that accurate measurement of an unknown resistance can be\nperformed on a Wheatstone bridge However, for measuring the resistance\nof an ionic solution we face two problems Firstly, passing direct current\n(DC) changes the composition of the solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2163-2166", "Text": "We know that accurate measurement of an unknown resistance can be\nperformed on a Wheatstone bridge However, for measuring the resistance\nof an ionic solution we face two problems Firstly, passing direct current\n(DC) changes the composition of the solution Secondly, a solution cannot\nbe connected to the bridge like a metallic wire or other solid conductor"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2164-2167", "Text": "However, for measuring the resistance\nof an ionic solution we face two problems Firstly, passing direct current\n(DC) changes the composition of the solution Secondly, a solution cannot\nbe connected to the bridge like a metallic wire or other solid conductor The first difficulty is resolved by using an alternating current (AC) source\nof power"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2165-2168", "Text": "Firstly, passing direct current\n(DC) changes the composition of the solution Secondly, a solution cannot\nbe connected to the bridge like a metallic wire or other solid conductor The first difficulty is resolved by using an alternating current (AC) source\nof power The second problem is solved by using a specially designed\nvessel called conductivity cell"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2166-2169", "Text": "Secondly, a solution cannot\nbe connected to the bridge like a metallic wire or other solid conductor The first difficulty is resolved by using an alternating current (AC) source\nof power The second problem is solved by using a specially designed\nvessel called conductivity cell It is available in several designs and two\nsimple ones are shown in Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2167-2170", "Text": "The first difficulty is resolved by using an alternating current (AC) source\nof power The second problem is solved by using a specially designed\nvessel called conductivity cell It is available in several designs and two\nsimple ones are shown in Fig 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2168-2171", "Text": "The second problem is solved by using a specially designed\nvessel called conductivity cell It is available in several designs and two\nsimple ones are shown in Fig 2 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2169-2172", "Text": "It is available in several designs and two\nsimple ones are shown in Fig 2 4 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2170-2173", "Text": "2 4 2 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2171-2174", "Text": "4 2 4 1 Measurement\nof the\nConductivity\nof Ionic\nSolutions\nConnecting\nwires\nPlatinized Pt\nelectrodes\nPlatinized Pt electrode\nPlatinized Pt electrode\nConnecting\nwires\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2172-2175", "Text": "2 4 1 Measurement\nof the\nConductivity\nof Ionic\nSolutions\nConnecting\nwires\nPlatinized Pt\nelectrodes\nPlatinized Pt electrode\nPlatinized Pt electrode\nConnecting\nwires\nFig 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2173-2176", "Text": "4 1 Measurement\nof the\nConductivity\nof Ionic\nSolutions\nConnecting\nwires\nPlatinized Pt\nelectrodes\nPlatinized Pt electrode\nPlatinized Pt electrode\nConnecting\nwires\nFig 2 4\nTwo different types of\nconductivity cells"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2174-2177", "Text": "1 Measurement\nof the\nConductivity\nof Ionic\nSolutions\nConnecting\nwires\nPlatinized Pt\nelectrodes\nPlatinized Pt electrode\nPlatinized Pt electrode\nConnecting\nwires\nFig 2 4\nTwo different types of\nconductivity cells Basically it consists of two platinum electrodes coated with platinum\nblack (finely divided metallic Pt is deposited on the electrodes\nelectrochemically)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2175-2178", "Text": "2 4\nTwo different types of\nconductivity cells Basically it consists of two platinum electrodes coated with platinum\nblack (finely divided metallic Pt is deposited on the electrodes\nelectrochemically) These have area of cross section equal to \u2018A\u2019 and are\nseparated by distance \u2018l\u2019"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2176-2179", "Text": "4\nTwo different types of\nconductivity cells Basically it consists of two platinum electrodes coated with platinum\nblack (finely divided metallic Pt is deposited on the electrodes\nelectrochemically) These have area of cross section equal to \u2018A\u2019 and are\nseparated by distance \u2018l\u2019 Therefore, solution confined between these\nelectrodes is a column of length l and area of cross section A"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2177-2180", "Text": "Basically it consists of two platinum electrodes coated with platinum\nblack (finely divided metallic Pt is deposited on the electrodes\nelectrochemically) These have area of cross section equal to \u2018A\u2019 and are\nseparated by distance \u2018l\u2019 Therefore, solution confined between these\nelectrodes is a column of length l and area of cross section A The\nresistance of such a column of solution is then given by the equation:\nR = r l\nA = \uf06b\nl\nA\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2178-2181", "Text": "These have area of cross section equal to \u2018A\u2019 and are\nseparated by distance \u2018l\u2019 Therefore, solution confined between these\nelectrodes is a column of length l and area of cross section A The\nresistance of such a column of solution is then given by the equation:\nR = r l\nA = \uf06b\nl\nA\n(2 17)\nRationalised 2023-24\n44\nChemistry\nTable 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2179-2182", "Text": "Therefore, solution confined between these\nelectrodes is a column of length l and area of cross section A The\nresistance of such a column of solution is then given by the equation:\nR = r l\nA = \uf06b\nl\nA\n(2 17)\nRationalised 2023-24\n44\nChemistry\nTable 2 3: Conductivity and Molar conductivity of KCl solutions\nat 298"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2180-2183", "Text": "The\nresistance of such a column of solution is then given by the equation:\nR = r l\nA = \uf06b\nl\nA\n(2 17)\nRationalised 2023-24\n44\nChemistry\nTable 2 3: Conductivity and Molar conductivity of KCl solutions\nat 298 15K\nmol L\u20131\nmol m\u20133\nS cm\u20131\nS m\u20131\nS cm2mol\u20131\nS m2 mol\u20131\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2181-2184", "Text": "17)\nRationalised 2023-24\n44\nChemistry\nTable 2 3: Conductivity and Molar conductivity of KCl solutions\nat 298 15K\nmol L\u20131\nmol m\u20133\nS cm\u20131\nS m\u20131\nS cm2mol\u20131\nS m2 mol\u20131\n1 000\n1000\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2182-2185", "Text": "3: Conductivity and Molar conductivity of KCl solutions\nat 298 15K\nmol L\u20131\nmol m\u20133\nS cm\u20131\nS m\u20131\nS cm2mol\u20131\nS m2 mol\u20131\n1 000\n1000\n0 1113\n11"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2183-2186", "Text": "15K\nmol L\u20131\nmol m\u20133\nS cm\u20131\nS m\u20131\nS cm2mol\u20131\nS m2 mol\u20131\n1 000\n1000\n0 1113\n11 13\n111"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2184-2187", "Text": "000\n1000\n0 1113\n11 13\n111 3\n111"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2185-2188", "Text": "1113\n11 13\n111 3\n111 3\u00d710\u20134\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2186-2189", "Text": "13\n111 3\n111 3\u00d710\u20134\n0 100\n100"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2187-2190", "Text": "3\n111 3\u00d710\u20134\n0 100\n100 0\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2188-2191", "Text": "3\u00d710\u20134\n0 100\n100 0\n0 0129\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2189-2192", "Text": "100\n100 0\n0 0129\n1 29\n129"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2190-2193", "Text": "0\n0 0129\n1 29\n129 0\n129"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2191-2194", "Text": "0129\n1 29\n129 0\n129 0\u00d710\u20134\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2192-2195", "Text": "29\n129 0\n129 0\u00d710\u20134\n0 010\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2193-2196", "Text": "0\n129 0\u00d710\u20134\n0 010\n10 00\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2194-2197", "Text": "0\u00d710\u20134\n0 010\n10 00\n0 00141\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2195-2198", "Text": "010\n10 00\n0 00141\n0 141\n141"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2196-2199", "Text": "00\n0 00141\n0 141\n141 0\n141"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2197-2200", "Text": "00141\n0 141\n141 0\n141 0\u00d710\u20134\nConcentration/Molarity\nConductivity\nMolar Conductivity\nThe quantity l/A is called cell constant denoted by the symbol, G*"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2198-2201", "Text": "141\n141 0\n141 0\u00d710\u20134\nConcentration/Molarity\nConductivity\nMolar Conductivity\nThe quantity l/A is called cell constant denoted by the symbol, G* It depends on the distance between the electrodes and their area of\ncross-section and has the dimension of length\u20131 and can be calculated\nif we know l and A"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2199-2202", "Text": "0\n141 0\u00d710\u20134\nConcentration/Molarity\nConductivity\nMolar Conductivity\nThe quantity l/A is called cell constant denoted by the symbol, G* It depends on the distance between the electrodes and their area of\ncross-section and has the dimension of length\u20131 and can be calculated\nif we know l and A Measurement of l and A is not only inconvenient\nbut also unreliable"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2200-2203", "Text": "0\u00d710\u20134\nConcentration/Molarity\nConductivity\nMolar Conductivity\nThe quantity l/A is called cell constant denoted by the symbol, G* It depends on the distance between the electrodes and their area of\ncross-section and has the dimension of length\u20131 and can be calculated\nif we know l and A Measurement of l and A is not only inconvenient\nbut also unreliable The cell constant is usually determined by measuring\nthe resistance of the cell containing a solution whose conductivity is\nalready known"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2201-2204", "Text": "It depends on the distance between the electrodes and their area of\ncross-section and has the dimension of length\u20131 and can be calculated\nif we know l and A Measurement of l and A is not only inconvenient\nbut also unreliable The cell constant is usually determined by measuring\nthe resistance of the cell containing a solution whose conductivity is\nalready known For this purpose, we generally use KCl solutions whose\nconductivity is known accurately at various concentrations (Table 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2202-2205", "Text": "Measurement of l and A is not only inconvenient\nbut also unreliable The cell constant is usually determined by measuring\nthe resistance of the cell containing a solution whose conductivity is\nalready known For this purpose, we generally use KCl solutions whose\nconductivity is known accurately at various concentrations (Table 2 3)\nand at different temperatures"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2203-2206", "Text": "The cell constant is usually determined by measuring\nthe resistance of the cell containing a solution whose conductivity is\nalready known For this purpose, we generally use KCl solutions whose\nconductivity is known accurately at various concentrations (Table 2 3)\nand at different temperatures The cell constant, G*, is then given by\nthe equation:\nG* = l\nA = R k\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2204-2207", "Text": "For this purpose, we generally use KCl solutions whose\nconductivity is known accurately at various concentrations (Table 2 3)\nand at different temperatures The cell constant, G*, is then given by\nthe equation:\nG* = l\nA = R k\n(2 18)\nOnce the cell constant is determined, we can\nuse it for measuring the resistance or conductivity\nof any solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2205-2208", "Text": "3)\nand at different temperatures The cell constant, G*, is then given by\nthe equation:\nG* = l\nA = R k\n(2 18)\nOnce the cell constant is determined, we can\nuse it for measuring the resistance or conductivity\nof any solution The set up for the measurement\nof the resistance is shown in Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2206-2209", "Text": "The cell constant, G*, is then given by\nthe equation:\nG* = l\nA = R k\n(2 18)\nOnce the cell constant is determined, we can\nuse it for measuring the resistance or conductivity\nof any solution The set up for the measurement\nof the resistance is shown in Fig 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2207-2210", "Text": "18)\nOnce the cell constant is determined, we can\nuse it for measuring the resistance or conductivity\nof any solution The set up for the measurement\nof the resistance is shown in Fig 2 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2208-2211", "Text": "The set up for the measurement\nof the resistance is shown in Fig 2 5 It consists of two resistances R3 and R4, a\nvariable resistance R1 and the conductivity cell\nhaving the unknown resistance R2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2209-2212", "Text": "2 5 It consists of two resistances R3 and R4, a\nvariable resistance R1 and the conductivity cell\nhaving the unknown resistance R2 The\nWheatstone bridge is fed by an oscillator O (a\nsource of a"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2210-2213", "Text": "5 It consists of two resistances R3 and R4, a\nvariable resistance R1 and the conductivity cell\nhaving the unknown resistance R2 The\nWheatstone bridge is fed by an oscillator O (a\nsource of a c"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2211-2214", "Text": "It consists of two resistances R3 and R4, a\nvariable resistance R1 and the conductivity cell\nhaving the unknown resistance R2 The\nWheatstone bridge is fed by an oscillator O (a\nsource of a c power in the audio frequency range\n550 to 5000 cycles per second)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2212-2215", "Text": "The\nWheatstone bridge is fed by an oscillator O (a\nsource of a c power in the audio frequency range\n550 to 5000 cycles per second) P is a suitable\ndetector (a headphone or other electronic device)\nand the bridge is balanced when no current passes\nthrough the detector"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2213-2216", "Text": "c power in the audio frequency range\n550 to 5000 cycles per second) P is a suitable\ndetector (a headphone or other electronic device)\nand the bridge is balanced when no current passes\nthrough the detector Under these conditions:\nUnknown resistance R2 = \n1\n4\n3\nR R\nR\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2214-2217", "Text": "power in the audio frequency range\n550 to 5000 cycles per second) P is a suitable\ndetector (a headphone or other electronic device)\nand the bridge is balanced when no current passes\nthrough the detector Under these conditions:\nUnknown resistance R2 = \n1\n4\n3\nR R\nR\n(2 19)\nThese days, inexpensive conductivity meters are\navailable which can directly read the conductance or resistance of the\nsolution in the conductivity cell"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2215-2218", "Text": "P is a suitable\ndetector (a headphone or other electronic device)\nand the bridge is balanced when no current passes\nthrough the detector Under these conditions:\nUnknown resistance R2 = \n1\n4\n3\nR R\nR\n(2 19)\nThese days, inexpensive conductivity meters are\navailable which can directly read the conductance or resistance of the\nsolution in the conductivity cell Once the cell constant and the resistance\nof the solution in the cell is determined, the conductivity of the solution\nis given by the equation:\ncell constant\nG*\nR\nR\n\uf06b \uf03d\n\uf03d\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2216-2219", "Text": "Under these conditions:\nUnknown resistance R2 = \n1\n4\n3\nR R\nR\n(2 19)\nThese days, inexpensive conductivity meters are\navailable which can directly read the conductance or resistance of the\nsolution in the conductivity cell Once the cell constant and the resistance\nof the solution in the cell is determined, the conductivity of the solution\nis given by the equation:\ncell constant\nG*\nR\nR\n\uf06b \uf03d\n\uf03d\n(2 20)\nThe conductivity of solutions of different electrolytes in the same\nsolvent and at a given temperature differs due to charge and size of the\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2217-2220", "Text": "19)\nThese days, inexpensive conductivity meters are\navailable which can directly read the conductance or resistance of the\nsolution in the conductivity cell Once the cell constant and the resistance\nof the solution in the cell is determined, the conductivity of the solution\nis given by the equation:\ncell constant\nG*\nR\nR\n\uf06b \uf03d\n\uf03d\n(2 20)\nThe conductivity of solutions of different electrolytes in the same\nsolvent and at a given temperature differs due to charge and size of the\nFig 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2218-2221", "Text": "Once the cell constant and the resistance\nof the solution in the cell is determined, the conductivity of the solution\nis given by the equation:\ncell constant\nG*\nR\nR\n\uf06b \uf03d\n\uf03d\n(2 20)\nThe conductivity of solutions of different electrolytes in the same\nsolvent and at a given temperature differs due to charge and size of the\nFig 2 5: Arrangement for measurement of\nresistance of a solution of an\nelectrolyte"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2219-2222", "Text": "20)\nThe conductivity of solutions of different electrolytes in the same\nsolvent and at a given temperature differs due to charge and size of the\nFig 2 5: Arrangement for measurement of\nresistance of a solution of an\nelectrolyte Rationalised 2023-24\n45\nElectrochemistry\nions in which they dissociate, the concentration of ions or ease with\nwhich the ions move under a potential gradient"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2220-2223", "Text": "2 5: Arrangement for measurement of\nresistance of a solution of an\nelectrolyte Rationalised 2023-24\n45\nElectrochemistry\nions in which they dissociate, the concentration of ions or ease with\nwhich the ions move under a potential gradient It, therefore, becomes\nnecessary to define a physically more meaningful quantity called molar\nconductivity denoted by the symbol Lm (Greek, lambda)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2221-2224", "Text": "5: Arrangement for measurement of\nresistance of a solution of an\nelectrolyte Rationalised 2023-24\n45\nElectrochemistry\nions in which they dissociate, the concentration of ions or ease with\nwhich the ions move under a potential gradient It, therefore, becomes\nnecessary to define a physically more meaningful quantity called molar\nconductivity denoted by the symbol Lm (Greek, lambda) It is related\nto the conductivity of the solution by the equation:\nMolar conductivity = Lm = c\n\uf06b\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2222-2225", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n45\nElectrochemistry\nions in which they dissociate, the concentration of ions or ease with\nwhich the ions move under a potential gradient It, therefore, becomes\nnecessary to define a physically more meaningful quantity called molar\nconductivity denoted by the symbol Lm (Greek, lambda) It is related\nto the conductivity of the solution by the equation:\nMolar conductivity = Lm = c\n\uf06b\n(2 21)\nIn the above equation, if k is expressed in S m\u20131 and the concentration,\nc in mol m\u20133 then the units of Lm are in S m2 mol\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2223-2226", "Text": "It, therefore, becomes\nnecessary to define a physically more meaningful quantity called molar\nconductivity denoted by the symbol Lm (Greek, lambda) It is related\nto the conductivity of the solution by the equation:\nMolar conductivity = Lm = c\n\uf06b\n(2 21)\nIn the above equation, if k is expressed in S m\u20131 and the concentration,\nc in mol m\u20133 then the units of Lm are in S m2 mol\u20131 It may be noted that:\n1 mol m\u20133 = 1000(L/m3) \u00d7 molarity (mol/L), and hence\nLm(S cm2 mol\u20131) = \n\uf06b\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n1\n3\n1\n (S cm\n)\n1000 L m\n \u00d7 molarity (mol L )\nIf we use S cm\u20131 as the units for k and mol cm\u20133, the units of\nconcentration, then the units for Lm are S cm2 mol\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2224-2227", "Text": "It is related\nto the conductivity of the solution by the equation:\nMolar conductivity = Lm = c\n\uf06b\n(2 21)\nIn the above equation, if k is expressed in S m\u20131 and the concentration,\nc in mol m\u20133 then the units of Lm are in S m2 mol\u20131 It may be noted that:\n1 mol m\u20133 = 1000(L/m3) \u00d7 molarity (mol/L), and hence\nLm(S cm2 mol\u20131) = \n\uf06b\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n1\n3\n1\n (S cm\n)\n1000 L m\n \u00d7 molarity (mol L )\nIf we use S cm\u20131 as the units for k and mol cm\u20133, the units of\nconcentration, then the units for Lm are S cm2 mol\u20131 It can be calculated\nby using the equation:\nLm (S cm2 mol\u20131) = \n1\n3\n (S cm\n) \u00d7 1000 (cm /L)\nmolarity (mol/L)\n\uf02d\n\uf06b\nBoth type of units are used in literature and are related to each\nother by the equations:\n1 S m2mol\u20131\n= 104 S cm2mol\u20131 or\n1 S cm2mol\u20131 = 10\u20134 S m2mol\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2225-2228", "Text": "21)\nIn the above equation, if k is expressed in S m\u20131 and the concentration,\nc in mol m\u20133 then the units of Lm are in S m2 mol\u20131 It may be noted that:\n1 mol m\u20133 = 1000(L/m3) \u00d7 molarity (mol/L), and hence\nLm(S cm2 mol\u20131) = \n\uf06b\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n1\n3\n1\n (S cm\n)\n1000 L m\n \u00d7 molarity (mol L )\nIf we use S cm\u20131 as the units for k and mol cm\u20133, the units of\nconcentration, then the units for Lm are S cm2 mol\u20131 It can be calculated\nby using the equation:\nLm (S cm2 mol\u20131) = \n1\n3\n (S cm\n) \u00d7 1000 (cm /L)\nmolarity (mol/L)\n\uf02d\n\uf06b\nBoth type of units are used in literature and are related to each\nother by the equations:\n1 S m2mol\u20131\n= 104 S cm2mol\u20131 or\n1 S cm2mol\u20131 = 10\u20134 S m2mol\u20131 Resistance of a conductivity cell filled with 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2226-2229", "Text": "It may be noted that:\n1 mol m\u20133 = 1000(L/m3) \u00d7 molarity (mol/L), and hence\nLm(S cm2 mol\u20131) = \n\uf06b\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n1\n3\n1\n (S cm\n)\n1000 L m\n \u00d7 molarity (mol L )\nIf we use S cm\u20131 as the units for k and mol cm\u20133, the units of\nconcentration, then the units for Lm are S cm2 mol\u20131 It can be calculated\nby using the equation:\nLm (S cm2 mol\u20131) = \n1\n3\n (S cm\n) \u00d7 1000 (cm /L)\nmolarity (mol/L)\n\uf02d\n\uf06b\nBoth type of units are used in literature and are related to each\nother by the equations:\n1 S m2mol\u20131\n= 104 S cm2mol\u20131 or\n1 S cm2mol\u20131 = 10\u20134 S m2mol\u20131 Resistance of a conductivity cell filled with 0 1 mol L\u20131 KCl solution is\n100 W"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2227-2230", "Text": "It can be calculated\nby using the equation:\nLm (S cm2 mol\u20131) = \n1\n3\n (S cm\n) \u00d7 1000 (cm /L)\nmolarity (mol/L)\n\uf02d\n\uf06b\nBoth type of units are used in literature and are related to each\nother by the equations:\n1 S m2mol\u20131\n= 104 S cm2mol\u20131 or\n1 S cm2mol\u20131 = 10\u20134 S m2mol\u20131 Resistance of a conductivity cell filled with 0 1 mol L\u20131 KCl solution is\n100 W If the resistance of the same cell when filled with 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2228-2231", "Text": "Resistance of a conductivity cell filled with 0 1 mol L\u20131 KCl solution is\n100 W If the resistance of the same cell when filled with 0 02 mol L\u20131\nKCl solution is 520 W , calculate the conductivity and molar conductivity\nof 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2229-2232", "Text": "1 mol L\u20131 KCl solution is\n100 W If the resistance of the same cell when filled with 0 02 mol L\u20131\nKCl solution is 520 W , calculate the conductivity and molar conductivity\nof 0 02 mol L\u20131 KCl solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2230-2233", "Text": "If the resistance of the same cell when filled with 0 02 mol L\u20131\nKCl solution is 520 W , calculate the conductivity and molar conductivity\nof 0 02 mol L\u20131 KCl solution The conductivity of 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2231-2234", "Text": "02 mol L\u20131\nKCl solution is 520 W , calculate the conductivity and molar conductivity\nof 0 02 mol L\u20131 KCl solution The conductivity of 0 1 mol L\u20131 KCl\nsolution is 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2232-2235", "Text": "02 mol L\u20131 KCl solution The conductivity of 0 1 mol L\u20131 KCl\nsolution is 1 29 S/m"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2233-2236", "Text": "The conductivity of 0 1 mol L\u20131 KCl\nsolution is 1 29 S/m The cell constant is given by the equation:\nCell constant = G* = conductivity \u00d7 resistance\n= 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2234-2237", "Text": "1 mol L\u20131 KCl\nsolution is 1 29 S/m The cell constant is given by the equation:\nCell constant = G* = conductivity \u00d7 resistance\n= 1 29 S/m \u00d7 100 W = 129 m\u20131 = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2235-2238", "Text": "29 S/m The cell constant is given by the equation:\nCell constant = G* = conductivity \u00d7 resistance\n= 1 29 S/m \u00d7 100 W = 129 m\u20131 = 1 29 cm\u20131\nConductivity of 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2236-2239", "Text": "The cell constant is given by the equation:\nCell constant = G* = conductivity \u00d7 resistance\n= 1 29 S/m \u00d7 100 W = 129 m\u20131 = 1 29 cm\u20131\nConductivity of 0 02 mol L\u20131 KCl solution = cell constant / resistance\n=\nG*\nR = \n129 m\u20131\n \n520 \uf057\n= 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2237-2240", "Text": "29 S/m \u00d7 100 W = 129 m\u20131 = 1 29 cm\u20131\nConductivity of 0 02 mol L\u20131 KCl solution = cell constant / resistance\n=\nG*\nR = \n129 m\u20131\n \n520 \uf057\n= 0 248 S m\u20131\nConcentration\n= 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2238-2241", "Text": "29 cm\u20131\nConductivity of 0 02 mol L\u20131 KCl solution = cell constant / resistance\n=\nG*\nR = \n129 m\u20131\n \n520 \uf057\n= 0 248 S m\u20131\nConcentration\n= 0 02 mol L\u20131\n= 1000 \u00d7 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2239-2242", "Text": "02 mol L\u20131 KCl solution = cell constant / resistance\n=\nG*\nR = \n129 m\u20131\n \n520 \uf057\n= 0 248 S m\u20131\nConcentration\n= 0 02 mol L\u20131\n= 1000 \u00d7 0 02 mol m\u20133 = 20 mol m\u20133\nMolar conductivity\n=\n\uf03d\nm\n\uf06bc\n\uf04c\n=\n\u20133\n\u20131\n\u20133\n248 \u00d7 10\n S m\n20 mol m\n = 124 \u00d7 10\u20134 S m2mol\u20131\nAlternatively,\nk =\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2240-2243", "Text": "248 S m\u20131\nConcentration\n= 0 02 mol L\u20131\n= 1000 \u00d7 0 02 mol m\u20133 = 20 mol m\u20133\nMolar conductivity\n=\n\uf03d\nm\n\uf06bc\n\uf04c\n=\n\u20133\n\u20131\n\u20133\n248 \u00d7 10\n S m\n20 mol m\n = 124 \u00d7 10\u20134 S m2mol\u20131\nAlternatively,\nk =\n1 29 cm\u20131\n520 \uf057\n = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2241-2244", "Text": "02 mol L\u20131\n= 1000 \u00d7 0 02 mol m\u20133 = 20 mol m\u20133\nMolar conductivity\n=\n\uf03d\nm\n\uf06bc\n\uf04c\n=\n\u20133\n\u20131\n\u20133\n248 \u00d7 10\n S m\n20 mol m\n = 124 \u00d7 10\u20134 S m2mol\u20131\nAlternatively,\nk =\n1 29 cm\u20131\n520 \uf057\n = 0 248 \u00d7 10\u20132 S cm\u20131\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2242-2245", "Text": "02 mol m\u20133 = 20 mol m\u20133\nMolar conductivity\n=\n\uf03d\nm\n\uf06bc\n\uf04c\n=\n\u20133\n\u20131\n\u20133\n248 \u00d7 10\n S m\n20 mol m\n = 124 \u00d7 10\u20134 S m2mol\u20131\nAlternatively,\nk =\n1 29 cm\u20131\n520 \uf057\n = 0 248 \u00d7 10\u20132 S cm\u20131\nExample 2 4\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2243-2246", "Text": "29 cm\u20131\n520 \uf057\n = 0 248 \u00d7 10\u20132 S cm\u20131\nExample 2 4\nExample 2 4\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2244-2247", "Text": "248 \u00d7 10\u20132 S cm\u20131\nExample 2 4\nExample 2 4\nExample 2 4\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2245-2248", "Text": "4\nExample 2 4\nExample 2 4\nExample 2 4\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2246-2249", "Text": "4\nExample 2 4\nExample 2 4\nExample 2 4\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n46\nChemistry\nand\nLm = k \u00d7 1000 cm3 L\u20131 molarity\u20131\n\u20132\n\u20131\n3\n\u20131\n\u20131\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2247-2250", "Text": "4\nExample 2 4\nExample 2 4\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n46\nChemistry\nand\nLm = k \u00d7 1000 cm3 L\u20131 molarity\u20131\n\u20132\n\u20131\n3\n\u20131\n\u20131\n0 248\u00d710\n S cm\n\u00d71000 cm L\n=\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2248-2251", "Text": "4\nExample 2 4\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n46\nChemistry\nand\nLm = k \u00d7 1000 cm3 L\u20131 molarity\u20131\n\u20132\n\u20131\n3\n\u20131\n\u20131\n0 248\u00d710\n S cm\n\u00d71000 cm L\n=\n0 02 mol L\n= 124 S cm2 mol\u20131\nThe electrical resistance of a column of 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2249-2252", "Text": "4\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n46\nChemistry\nand\nLm = k \u00d7 1000 cm3 L\u20131 molarity\u20131\n\u20132\n\u20131\n3\n\u20131\n\u20131\n0 248\u00d710\n S cm\n\u00d71000 cm L\n=\n0 02 mol L\n= 124 S cm2 mol\u20131\nThe electrical resistance of a column of 0 05 mol L\u20131 NaOH solution of\ndiameter 1 cm and length 50 cm is 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2250-2253", "Text": "248\u00d710\n S cm\n\u00d71000 cm L\n=\n0 02 mol L\n= 124 S cm2 mol\u20131\nThe electrical resistance of a column of 0 05 mol L\u20131 NaOH solution of\ndiameter 1 cm and length 50 cm is 5 55 \u00d7 103 ohm"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2251-2254", "Text": "02 mol L\n= 124 S cm2 mol\u20131\nThe electrical resistance of a column of 0 05 mol L\u20131 NaOH solution of\ndiameter 1 cm and length 50 cm is 5 55 \u00d7 103 ohm Calculate its\nresistivity, conductivity and molar conductivity"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2252-2255", "Text": "05 mol L\u20131 NaOH solution of\ndiameter 1 cm and length 50 cm is 5 55 \u00d7 103 ohm Calculate its\nresistivity, conductivity and molar conductivity A = p r2 = 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2253-2256", "Text": "55 \u00d7 103 ohm Calculate its\nresistivity, conductivity and molar conductivity A = p r2 = 3 14 \u00d7 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2254-2257", "Text": "Calculate its\nresistivity, conductivity and molar conductivity A = p r2 = 3 14 \u00d7 0 52 cm2 = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2255-2258", "Text": "A = p r2 = 3 14 \u00d7 0 52 cm2 = 0 785 cm2 = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2256-2259", "Text": "14 \u00d7 0 52 cm2 = 0 785 cm2 = 0 785 \u00d7 10\u20134 m2\nl = 50 cm = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2257-2260", "Text": "52 cm2 = 0 785 cm2 = 0 785 \u00d7 10\u20134 m2\nl = 50 cm = 0 5 m\n \n = \nl\nR\n\uf072A\n or \uf072\n\uf0b4\n\uf057 \uf0b4\n\uf03d\n\uf03d\n3\n2\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2258-2261", "Text": "785 cm2 = 0 785 \u00d7 10\u20134 m2\nl = 50 cm = 0 5 m\n \n = \nl\nR\n\uf072A\n or \uf072\n\uf0b4\n\uf057 \uf0b4\n\uf03d\n\uf03d\n3\n2\n5 55\n10\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2259-2262", "Text": "785 \u00d7 10\u20134 m2\nl = 50 cm = 0 5 m\n \n = \nl\nR\n\uf072A\n or \uf072\n\uf0b4\n\uf057 \uf0b4\n\uf03d\n\uf03d\n3\n2\n5 55\n10\n0 785cm\n50cm\nRA \nl\n = 87"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2260-2263", "Text": "5 m\n \n = \nl\nR\n\uf072A\n or \uf072\n\uf0b4\n\uf057 \uf0b4\n\uf03d\n\uf03d\n3\n2\n5 55\n10\n0 785cm\n50cm\nRA \nl\n = 87 135 W cm\nConductivity = \uf06b\n = 1\uf072\n= \n1\n87"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2261-2264", "Text": "55\n10\n0 785cm\n50cm\nRA \nl\n = 87 135 W cm\nConductivity = \uf06b\n = 1\uf072\n= \n1\n87 135\n\uf0e6\n\uf0f6\n\uf0e7\n\uf0f7\n\uf0e8\n\uf0f8 S cm\u20131\n= 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2262-2265", "Text": "785cm\n50cm\nRA \nl\n = 87 135 W cm\nConductivity = \uf06b\n = 1\uf072\n= \n1\n87 135\n\uf0e6\n\uf0f6\n\uf0e7\n\uf0f7\n\uf0e8\n\uf0f8 S cm\u20131\n= 0 01148 S cm\u20131\nMolar conductivity, \n\uf04cm\n= \n \u00d7 1000\nc\n\uf06b\n cm3 L\u20131\n= \n\u20131\n3\n\u20131\n\u20131\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2263-2266", "Text": "135 W cm\nConductivity = \uf06b\n = 1\uf072\n= \n1\n87 135\n\uf0e6\n\uf0f6\n\uf0e7\n\uf0f7\n\uf0e8\n\uf0f8 S cm\u20131\n= 0 01148 S cm\u20131\nMolar conductivity, \n\uf04cm\n= \n \u00d7 1000\nc\n\uf06b\n cm3 L\u20131\n= \n\u20131\n3\n\u20131\n\u20131\n0 01148 S cm\n \u00d71000 cm L\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2264-2267", "Text": "135\n\uf0e6\n\uf0f6\n\uf0e7\n\uf0f7\n\uf0e8\n\uf0f8 S cm\u20131\n= 0 01148 S cm\u20131\nMolar conductivity, \n\uf04cm\n= \n \u00d7 1000\nc\n\uf06b\n cm3 L\u20131\n= \n\u20131\n3\n\u20131\n\u20131\n0 01148 S cm\n \u00d71000 cm L\n0 05 mol L\n= 229"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2265-2268", "Text": "01148 S cm\u20131\nMolar conductivity, \n\uf04cm\n= \n \u00d7 1000\nc\n\uf06b\n cm3 L\u20131\n= \n\u20131\n3\n\u20131\n\u20131\n0 01148 S cm\n \u00d71000 cm L\n0 05 mol L\n= 229 6 S cm2 mol\u20131\nIf we want to calculate the values of different quantities in terms of \u2018m\u2019\ninstead of \u2018cm\u2019,\n \uf072 = RA\nl\n= \n3\n\u20134\n2\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2266-2269", "Text": "01148 S cm\n \u00d71000 cm L\n0 05 mol L\n= 229 6 S cm2 mol\u20131\nIf we want to calculate the values of different quantities in terms of \u2018m\u2019\ninstead of \u2018cm\u2019,\n \uf072 = RA\nl\n= \n3\n\u20134\n2\n5 55 \u00d7 10 \u00d7 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2267-2270", "Text": "05 mol L\n= 229 6 S cm2 mol\u20131\nIf we want to calculate the values of different quantities in terms of \u2018m\u2019\ninstead of \u2018cm\u2019,\n \uf072 = RA\nl\n= \n3\n\u20134\n2\n5 55 \u00d7 10 \u00d7 0 785\u00d710\n m\n\uf0570"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2268-2271", "Text": "6 S cm2 mol\u20131\nIf we want to calculate the values of different quantities in terms of \u2018m\u2019\ninstead of \u2018cm\u2019,\n \uf072 = RA\nl\n= \n3\n\u20134\n2\n5 55 \u00d7 10 \u00d7 0 785\u00d710\n m\n\uf0570 5 m\n = 87"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2269-2272", "Text": "55 \u00d7 10 \u00d7 0 785\u00d710\n m\n\uf0570 5 m\n = 87 135 \u00d710\u20132 W m\n\uf06b = 1\n\uf072 = \n100\n87"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2270-2273", "Text": "785\u00d710\n m\n\uf0570 5 m\n = 87 135 \u00d710\u20132 W m\n\uf06b = 1\n\uf072 = \n100\n87 135 \uf057 m\n = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2271-2274", "Text": "5 m\n = 87 135 \u00d710\u20132 W m\n\uf06b = 1\n\uf072 = \n100\n87 135 \uf057 m\n = 1 148 S m\u20131\nand \nm = \n\uf06bc\n\uf04c\n = \n\u20131\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2272-2275", "Text": "135 \u00d710\u20132 W m\n\uf06b = 1\n\uf072 = \n100\n87 135 \uf057 m\n = 1 148 S m\u20131\nand \nm = \n\uf06bc\n\uf04c\n = \n\u20131\n1 148 S m\u20133\n \n50 mol m\n = 229"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2273-2276", "Text": "135 \uf057 m\n = 1 148 S m\u20131\nand \nm = \n\uf06bc\n\uf04c\n = \n\u20131\n1 148 S m\u20133\n \n50 mol m\n = 229 6 \u00d7 10\u20134 S m2 mol\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2274-2277", "Text": "148 S m\u20131\nand \nm = \n\uf06bc\n\uf04c\n = \n\u20131\n1 148 S m\u20133\n \n50 mol m\n = 229 6 \u00d7 10\u20134 S m2 mol\u20131 Example 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2275-2278", "Text": "148 S m\u20133\n \n50 mol m\n = 229 6 \u00d7 10\u20134 S m2 mol\u20131 Example 2 5\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2276-2279", "Text": "6 \u00d7 10\u20134 S m2 mol\u20131 Example 2 5\nExample 2 5\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2277-2280", "Text": "Example 2 5\nExample 2 5\nExample 2 5\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2278-2281", "Text": "5\nExample 2 5\nExample 2 5\nExample 2 5\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2279-2282", "Text": "5\nExample 2 5\nExample 2 5\nExample 2 5\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nBoth conductivity and molar conductivity change with the\nconcentration of the electrolyte"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2280-2283", "Text": "5\nExample 2 5\nExample 2 5\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nBoth conductivity and molar conductivity change with the\nconcentration of the electrolyte Conductivity always decreases with\ndecrease in concentration both, for weak and strong electrolytes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2281-2284", "Text": "5\nExample 2 5\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nBoth conductivity and molar conductivity change with the\nconcentration of the electrolyte Conductivity always decreases with\ndecrease in concentration both, for weak and strong electrolytes This can be explained by the fact that the number of ions per unit\nvolume that carry the current in a solution decreases on dilution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2282-2285", "Text": "5\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nBoth conductivity and molar conductivity change with the\nconcentration of the electrolyte Conductivity always decreases with\ndecrease in concentration both, for weak and strong electrolytes This can be explained by the fact that the number of ions per unit\nvolume that carry the current in a solution decreases on dilution The conductivity of a solution at any given concentration is the\nconductance of one unit volume of solution kept between two\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2283-2286", "Text": "Conductivity always decreases with\ndecrease in concentration both, for weak and strong electrolytes This can be explained by the fact that the number of ions per unit\nvolume that carry the current in a solution decreases on dilution The conductivity of a solution at any given concentration is the\nconductance of one unit volume of solution kept between two\n2 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2284-2287", "Text": "This can be explained by the fact that the number of ions per unit\nvolume that carry the current in a solution decreases on dilution The conductivity of a solution at any given concentration is the\nconductance of one unit volume of solution kept between two\n2 4 2 Variation of\nConductivity\nand Molar\nConductivity\nwith\nConcentration\nRationalised 2023-24\n47\nElectrochemistry\nplatinum electrodes with unit area of cross section and at a distance\nof unit length"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2285-2288", "Text": "The conductivity of a solution at any given concentration is the\nconductance of one unit volume of solution kept between two\n2 4 2 Variation of\nConductivity\nand Molar\nConductivity\nwith\nConcentration\nRationalised 2023-24\n47\nElectrochemistry\nplatinum electrodes with unit area of cross section and at a distance\nof unit length This is clear from the equation:\n = \nA = \nG\n\uf06b\n\uf06b\nl\n (both A and l are unity in their appropriate units in\nm or cm)\nMolar conductivity of a solution at a given concentration is the\nconductance of the volume V of solution containing one mole of\nelectrolyte kept between two electrodes with area of cross section A and\ndistance of unit length"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2286-2289", "Text": "4 2 Variation of\nConductivity\nand Molar\nConductivity\nwith\nConcentration\nRationalised 2023-24\n47\nElectrochemistry\nplatinum electrodes with unit area of cross section and at a distance\nof unit length This is clear from the equation:\n = \nA = \nG\n\uf06b\n\uf06b\nl\n (both A and l are unity in their appropriate units in\nm or cm)\nMolar conductivity of a solution at a given concentration is the\nconductance of the volume V of solution containing one mole of\nelectrolyte kept between two electrodes with area of cross section A and\ndistance of unit length Therefore,\n\u03ba\n\u039b\n\u03ba\n=\n=\nm\nA\nl\nSince l = 1 and A = V ( volume containing 1 mole of electrolyte)\nLm = k V\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2287-2290", "Text": "2 Variation of\nConductivity\nand Molar\nConductivity\nwith\nConcentration\nRationalised 2023-24\n47\nElectrochemistry\nplatinum electrodes with unit area of cross section and at a distance\nof unit length This is clear from the equation:\n = \nA = \nG\n\uf06b\n\uf06b\nl\n (both A and l are unity in their appropriate units in\nm or cm)\nMolar conductivity of a solution at a given concentration is the\nconductance of the volume V of solution containing one mole of\nelectrolyte kept between two electrodes with area of cross section A and\ndistance of unit length Therefore,\n\u03ba\n\u039b\n\u03ba\n=\n=\nm\nA\nl\nSince l = 1 and A = V ( volume containing 1 mole of electrolyte)\nLm = k V\n(2 22)\nMolar conductivity increases with\ndecrease in concentration"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2288-2291", "Text": "This is clear from the equation:\n = \nA = \nG\n\uf06b\n\uf06b\nl\n (both A and l are unity in their appropriate units in\nm or cm)\nMolar conductivity of a solution at a given concentration is the\nconductance of the volume V of solution containing one mole of\nelectrolyte kept between two electrodes with area of cross section A and\ndistance of unit length Therefore,\n\u03ba\n\u039b\n\u03ba\n=\n=\nm\nA\nl\nSince l = 1 and A = V ( volume containing 1 mole of electrolyte)\nLm = k V\n(2 22)\nMolar conductivity increases with\ndecrease in concentration This is\nbecause the total volume, V, of solution\ncontaining one mole of electrolyte also\nincreases"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2289-2292", "Text": "Therefore,\n\u03ba\n\u039b\n\u03ba\n=\n=\nm\nA\nl\nSince l = 1 and A = V ( volume containing 1 mole of electrolyte)\nLm = k V\n(2 22)\nMolar conductivity increases with\ndecrease in concentration This is\nbecause the total volume, V, of solution\ncontaining one mole of electrolyte also\nincreases It has been found that decrease\nin k on dilution of a solution is more\nthan compensated by increase in its\nvolume"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2290-2293", "Text": "22)\nMolar conductivity increases with\ndecrease in concentration This is\nbecause the total volume, V, of solution\ncontaining one mole of electrolyte also\nincreases It has been found that decrease\nin k on dilution of a solution is more\nthan compensated by increase in its\nvolume Physically, it means that at a\ngiven concentration, Lm can be defined\nas the conductance of the electrolytic\nsolution kept between the electrodes of a\nconductivity cell at unit distance but\nhaving area of cross section large enough\nto accommodate sufficient volume of\nsolution that contains one mole of the\nelectrolyte"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2291-2294", "Text": "This is\nbecause the total volume, V, of solution\ncontaining one mole of electrolyte also\nincreases It has been found that decrease\nin k on dilution of a solution is more\nthan compensated by increase in its\nvolume Physically, it means that at a\ngiven concentration, Lm can be defined\nas the conductance of the electrolytic\nsolution kept between the electrodes of a\nconductivity cell at unit distance but\nhaving area of cross section large enough\nto accommodate sufficient volume of\nsolution that contains one mole of the\nelectrolyte When \nconcentration\napproaches zero, the molar conductivity\nis \nknown \nas \nlimiting \nmolar\nconductivity and is represented by the\nsymbol L\u00b0m"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2292-2295", "Text": "It has been found that decrease\nin k on dilution of a solution is more\nthan compensated by increase in its\nvolume Physically, it means that at a\ngiven concentration, Lm can be defined\nas the conductance of the electrolytic\nsolution kept between the electrodes of a\nconductivity cell at unit distance but\nhaving area of cross section large enough\nto accommodate sufficient volume of\nsolution that contains one mole of the\nelectrolyte When \nconcentration\napproaches zero, the molar conductivity\nis \nknown \nas \nlimiting \nmolar\nconductivity and is represented by the\nsymbol L\u00b0m The variation in Lm with\nconcentration is different (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2293-2296", "Text": "Physically, it means that at a\ngiven concentration, Lm can be defined\nas the conductance of the electrolytic\nsolution kept between the electrodes of a\nconductivity cell at unit distance but\nhaving area of cross section large enough\nto accommodate sufficient volume of\nsolution that contains one mole of the\nelectrolyte When \nconcentration\napproaches zero, the molar conductivity\nis \nknown \nas \nlimiting \nmolar\nconductivity and is represented by the\nsymbol L\u00b0m The variation in Lm with\nconcentration is different (Fig 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2294-2297", "Text": "When \nconcentration\napproaches zero, the molar conductivity\nis \nknown \nas \nlimiting \nmolar\nconductivity and is represented by the\nsymbol L\u00b0m The variation in Lm with\nconcentration is different (Fig 2 6) for\nstrong and weak electrolytes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2295-2298", "Text": "The variation in Lm with\nconcentration is different (Fig 2 6) for\nstrong and weak electrolytes Strong Electrolytes\nFor strong electrolytes, Lm increases slowly with dilution and can be\nrepresented by the equation:\nLm = L\u00b0m \u2013 A c \u00bd\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2296-2299", "Text": "2 6) for\nstrong and weak electrolytes Strong Electrolytes\nFor strong electrolytes, Lm increases slowly with dilution and can be\nrepresented by the equation:\nLm = L\u00b0m \u2013 A c \u00bd\n(2 23)\nIt can be seen that if we plot (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2297-2300", "Text": "6) for\nstrong and weak electrolytes Strong Electrolytes\nFor strong electrolytes, Lm increases slowly with dilution and can be\nrepresented by the equation:\nLm = L\u00b0m \u2013 A c \u00bd\n(2 23)\nIt can be seen that if we plot (Fig 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2298-2301", "Text": "Strong Electrolytes\nFor strong electrolytes, Lm increases slowly with dilution and can be\nrepresented by the equation:\nLm = L\u00b0m \u2013 A c \u00bd\n(2 23)\nIt can be seen that if we plot (Fig 2 6) Lm against\nc1/2, we obtain a straight line with intercept equal to L\u00b0m and slope\nequal to \u2018\u2013A\u2019"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2299-2302", "Text": "23)\nIt can be seen that if we plot (Fig 2 6) Lm against\nc1/2, we obtain a straight line with intercept equal to L\u00b0m and slope\nequal to \u2018\u2013A\u2019 The value of the constant \u2018A\u2019 for a given solvent and\ntemperature depends on the type of electrolyte i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2300-2303", "Text": "2 6) Lm against\nc1/2, we obtain a straight line with intercept equal to L\u00b0m and slope\nequal to \u2018\u2013A\u2019 The value of the constant \u2018A\u2019 for a given solvent and\ntemperature depends on the type of electrolyte i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2301-2304", "Text": "6) Lm against\nc1/2, we obtain a straight line with intercept equal to L\u00b0m and slope\nequal to \u2018\u2013A\u2019 The value of the constant \u2018A\u2019 for a given solvent and\ntemperature depends on the type of electrolyte i e , the charges on the\ncation and anion produced on the dissociation of the electrolyte in the\nsolution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2302-2305", "Text": "The value of the constant \u2018A\u2019 for a given solvent and\ntemperature depends on the type of electrolyte i e , the charges on the\ncation and anion produced on the dissociation of the electrolyte in the\nsolution Thus, NaCl, CaCl2, MgSO4 are known as 1-1, 2-1 and 2-2\nelectrolytes respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2303-2306", "Text": "e , the charges on the\ncation and anion produced on the dissociation of the electrolyte in the\nsolution Thus, NaCl, CaCl2, MgSO4 are known as 1-1, 2-1 and 2-2\nelectrolytes respectively All electrolytes of a particular type have the\nsame value for \u2018A\u2019"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2304-2307", "Text": ", the charges on the\ncation and anion produced on the dissociation of the electrolyte in the\nsolution Thus, NaCl, CaCl2, MgSO4 are known as 1-1, 2-1 and 2-2\nelectrolytes respectively All electrolytes of a particular type have the\nsame value for \u2018A\u2019 Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2305-2308", "Text": "Thus, NaCl, CaCl2, MgSO4 are known as 1-1, 2-1 and 2-2\nelectrolytes respectively All electrolytes of a particular type have the\nsame value for \u2018A\u2019 Fig 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2306-2309", "Text": "All electrolytes of a particular type have the\nsame value for \u2018A\u2019 Fig 2 6: Molar conductivity versus c\u00bd for acetic\nacid (weak electrolyte) and potassium\nchloride (strong electrolyte) in aqueous\nsolutions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2307-2310", "Text": "Fig 2 6: Molar conductivity versus c\u00bd for acetic\nacid (weak electrolyte) and potassium\nchloride (strong electrolyte) in aqueous\nsolutions Rationalised 2023-24\n48\nChemistry\nThe molar conductivity of KCl solutions at different concentrations at\n298 K are given below:\nc/mol L\u20131\n LLLLLm/S cm2 mol\u20131\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2308-2311", "Text": "2 6: Molar conductivity versus c\u00bd for acetic\nacid (weak electrolyte) and potassium\nchloride (strong electrolyte) in aqueous\nsolutions Rationalised 2023-24\n48\nChemistry\nThe molar conductivity of KCl solutions at different concentrations at\n298 K are given below:\nc/mol L\u20131\n LLLLLm/S cm2 mol\u20131\n0 000198\n148"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2309-2312", "Text": "6: Molar conductivity versus c\u00bd for acetic\nacid (weak electrolyte) and potassium\nchloride (strong electrolyte) in aqueous\nsolutions Rationalised 2023-24\n48\nChemistry\nThe molar conductivity of KCl solutions at different concentrations at\n298 K are given below:\nc/mol L\u20131\n LLLLLm/S cm2 mol\u20131\n0 000198\n148 61\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2310-2313", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n48\nChemistry\nThe molar conductivity of KCl solutions at different concentrations at\n298 K are given below:\nc/mol L\u20131\n LLLLLm/S cm2 mol\u20131\n0 000198\n148 61\n0 000309\n148"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2311-2314", "Text": "000198\n148 61\n0 000309\n148 29\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2312-2315", "Text": "61\n0 000309\n148 29\n0 000521\n147"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2313-2316", "Text": "000309\n148 29\n0 000521\n147 81\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2314-2317", "Text": "29\n0 000521\n147 81\n0 000989\n147"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2315-2318", "Text": "000521\n147 81\n0 000989\n147 09\nShow that a plot between Lm and c1/2 is a straight line"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2316-2319", "Text": "81\n0 000989\n147 09\nShow that a plot between Lm and c1/2 is a straight line Determine the\nvalues of L\u00b0m\n and A for KCl"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2317-2320", "Text": "000989\n147 09\nShow that a plot between Lm and c1/2 is a straight line Determine the\nvalues of L\u00b0m\n and A for KCl Taking the square root of concentration we obtain:\nc1/2/(mol L\u20131 )1/2 \nLLLLLm/S cm2mol\u20131\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2318-2321", "Text": "09\nShow that a plot between Lm and c1/2 is a straight line Determine the\nvalues of L\u00b0m\n and A for KCl Taking the square root of concentration we obtain:\nc1/2/(mol L\u20131 )1/2 \nLLLLLm/S cm2mol\u20131\n0 01407\n148"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2319-2322", "Text": "Determine the\nvalues of L\u00b0m\n and A for KCl Taking the square root of concentration we obtain:\nc1/2/(mol L\u20131 )1/2 \nLLLLLm/S cm2mol\u20131\n0 01407\n148 61\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2320-2323", "Text": "Taking the square root of concentration we obtain:\nc1/2/(mol L\u20131 )1/2 \nLLLLLm/S cm2mol\u20131\n0 01407\n148 61\n0 01758\n148"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2321-2324", "Text": "01407\n148 61\n0 01758\n148 29\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2322-2325", "Text": "61\n0 01758\n148 29\n0 02283\n147"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2323-2326", "Text": "01758\n148 29\n0 02283\n147 81\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2324-2327", "Text": "29\n0 02283\n147 81\n0 03145\n147"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2325-2328", "Text": "02283\n147 81\n0 03145\n147 09\nA plot of Lm ( y-axis) and c1/2 (x-axis) is shown in (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2326-2329", "Text": "81\n0 03145\n147 09\nA plot of Lm ( y-axis) and c1/2 (x-axis) is shown in (Fig 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2327-2330", "Text": "03145\n147 09\nA plot of Lm ( y-axis) and c1/2 (x-axis) is shown in (Fig 3 7)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2328-2331", "Text": "09\nA plot of Lm ( y-axis) and c1/2 (x-axis) is shown in (Fig 3 7) It can be seen that it is nearly a straight line"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2329-2332", "Text": "3 7) It can be seen that it is nearly a straight line From the intercept\n(c1/2 = 0), we find that\nL\u00b0m = 150"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2330-2333", "Text": "7) It can be seen that it is nearly a straight line From the intercept\n(c1/2 = 0), we find that\nL\u00b0m = 150 0 S cm2 mol\u20131 and\nA = \u2013 slope = 87"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2331-2334", "Text": "It can be seen that it is nearly a straight line From the intercept\n(c1/2 = 0), we find that\nL\u00b0m = 150 0 S cm2 mol\u20131 and\nA = \u2013 slope = 87 46 S cm2 mol\u20131/(mol/L\u20131)1/2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2332-2335", "Text": "From the intercept\n(c1/2 = 0), we find that\nL\u00b0m = 150 0 S cm2 mol\u20131 and\nA = \u2013 slope = 87 46 S cm2 mol\u20131/(mol/L\u20131)1/2 Example 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2333-2336", "Text": "0 S cm2 mol\u20131 and\nA = \u2013 slope = 87 46 S cm2 mol\u20131/(mol/L\u20131)1/2 Example 2 6\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2334-2337", "Text": "46 S cm2 mol\u20131/(mol/L\u20131)1/2 Example 2 6\nExample 2 6\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2335-2338", "Text": "Example 2 6\nExample 2 6\nExample 2 6\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2336-2339", "Text": "6\nExample 2 6\nExample 2 6\nExample 2 6\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2337-2340", "Text": "6\nExample 2 6\nExample 2 6\nExample 2 6\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2338-2341", "Text": "6\nExample 2 6\nExample 2 6\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nFig 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2339-2342", "Text": "6\nExample 2 6\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nFig 2 7: Variation of Lm against c\u00bd"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2340-2343", "Text": "6\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nFig 2 7: Variation of Lm against c\u00bd Rationalised 2023-24\n49\nElectrochemistry\nKohlrausch examined L\u00b0m values for a number of strong electrolytes\nand observed certain regularities"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2341-2344", "Text": "2 7: Variation of Lm against c\u00bd Rationalised 2023-24\n49\nElectrochemistry\nKohlrausch examined L\u00b0m values for a number of strong electrolytes\nand observed certain regularities He noted that the difference in L\u00b0m of\nthe electrolytes NaX and KX for any X is nearly constant"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2342-2345", "Text": "7: Variation of Lm against c\u00bd Rationalised 2023-24\n49\nElectrochemistry\nKohlrausch examined L\u00b0m values for a number of strong electrolytes\nand observed certain regularities He noted that the difference in L\u00b0m of\nthe electrolytes NaX and KX for any X is nearly constant For example\nat 298 K:\nL\u00b0\nm (KCl) \u2013 L\u00b0\nm (NaCl) = L\u00b0\nm (KBr) \u2013 L\u00b0\nm (NaBr)\n= L\u00b0\nm (KI) \u2013 L\u00b0\nm (NaI) \u2243 23"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2343-2346", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n49\nElectrochemistry\nKohlrausch examined L\u00b0m values for a number of strong electrolytes\nand observed certain regularities He noted that the difference in L\u00b0m of\nthe electrolytes NaX and KX for any X is nearly constant For example\nat 298 K:\nL\u00b0\nm (KCl) \u2013 L\u00b0\nm (NaCl) = L\u00b0\nm (KBr) \u2013 L\u00b0\nm (NaBr)\n= L\u00b0\nm (KI) \u2013 L\u00b0\nm (NaI) \u2243 23 4 S cm2 mol\u20131\nand similarly it was found that\nL\u00b0\nm (NaBr)\u2013 L\u00b0\nm (NaCl) = L\u00b0\nm (KBr) \u2013 L\u00b0\nm (KCl) \u2243 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2344-2347", "Text": "He noted that the difference in L\u00b0m of\nthe electrolytes NaX and KX for any X is nearly constant For example\nat 298 K:\nL\u00b0\nm (KCl) \u2013 L\u00b0\nm (NaCl) = L\u00b0\nm (KBr) \u2013 L\u00b0\nm (NaBr)\n= L\u00b0\nm (KI) \u2013 L\u00b0\nm (NaI) \u2243 23 4 S cm2 mol\u20131\nand similarly it was found that\nL\u00b0\nm (NaBr)\u2013 L\u00b0\nm (NaCl) = L\u00b0\nm (KBr) \u2013 L\u00b0\nm (KCl) \u2243 1 8 S cm2 mol\u20131\nOn the basis of the above observations he enunciated Kohlrausch\nlaw of independent migration of ions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2345-2348", "Text": "For example\nat 298 K:\nL\u00b0\nm (KCl) \u2013 L\u00b0\nm (NaCl) = L\u00b0\nm (KBr) \u2013 L\u00b0\nm (NaBr)\n= L\u00b0\nm (KI) \u2013 L\u00b0\nm (NaI) \u2243 23 4 S cm2 mol\u20131\nand similarly it was found that\nL\u00b0\nm (NaBr)\u2013 L\u00b0\nm (NaCl) = L\u00b0\nm (KBr) \u2013 L\u00b0\nm (KCl) \u2243 1 8 S cm2 mol\u20131\nOn the basis of the above observations he enunciated Kohlrausch\nlaw of independent migration of ions The law states that limiting\nmolar conductivity of an electrolyte can be represented as the sum of the\nindividual contributions of the anion and cation of the electrolyte"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2346-2349", "Text": "4 S cm2 mol\u20131\nand similarly it was found that\nL\u00b0\nm (NaBr)\u2013 L\u00b0\nm (NaCl) = L\u00b0\nm (KBr) \u2013 L\u00b0\nm (KCl) \u2243 1 8 S cm2 mol\u20131\nOn the basis of the above observations he enunciated Kohlrausch\nlaw of independent migration of ions The law states that limiting\nmolar conductivity of an electrolyte can be represented as the sum of the\nindividual contributions of the anion and cation of the electrolyte Thus,\nif l\u00b0\nNa+ and l\u00b0\nCl\n\u2013 are limiting molar conductivity of the sodium and chloride\nions respectively, then the limiting molar conductivity for sodium chloride\nis given by the equation:\nL\u00b0m (NaCl) = l\u00b0\nNa+ + l\u00b0\nCl\n\u2013\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2347-2350", "Text": "8 S cm2 mol\u20131\nOn the basis of the above observations he enunciated Kohlrausch\nlaw of independent migration of ions The law states that limiting\nmolar conductivity of an electrolyte can be represented as the sum of the\nindividual contributions of the anion and cation of the electrolyte Thus,\nif l\u00b0\nNa+ and l\u00b0\nCl\n\u2013 are limiting molar conductivity of the sodium and chloride\nions respectively, then the limiting molar conductivity for sodium chloride\nis given by the equation:\nL\u00b0m (NaCl) = l\u00b0\nNa+ + l\u00b0\nCl\n\u2013\n(2 24)\nIn general, if an electrolyte on dissociation gives n+ cations and n\u2013\nanions then its limiting molar conductivity is given by:\nL\u00b0m = n+ l\u00b0\n+ + n\u2013 l\u00b0\n\u2013\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2348-2351", "Text": "The law states that limiting\nmolar conductivity of an electrolyte can be represented as the sum of the\nindividual contributions of the anion and cation of the electrolyte Thus,\nif l\u00b0\nNa+ and l\u00b0\nCl\n\u2013 are limiting molar conductivity of the sodium and chloride\nions respectively, then the limiting molar conductivity for sodium chloride\nis given by the equation:\nL\u00b0m (NaCl) = l\u00b0\nNa+ + l\u00b0\nCl\n\u2013\n(2 24)\nIn general, if an electrolyte on dissociation gives n+ cations and n\u2013\nanions then its limiting molar conductivity is given by:\nL\u00b0m = n+ l\u00b0\n+ + n\u2013 l\u00b0\n\u2013\n(2 25)\nHere, l\u00b0\n+ and l\u00b0\n\u2013 are the limiting molar conductivities of the cation\nand anion respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2349-2352", "Text": "Thus,\nif l\u00b0\nNa+ and l\u00b0\nCl\n\u2013 are limiting molar conductivity of the sodium and chloride\nions respectively, then the limiting molar conductivity for sodium chloride\nis given by the equation:\nL\u00b0m (NaCl) = l\u00b0\nNa+ + l\u00b0\nCl\n\u2013\n(2 24)\nIn general, if an electrolyte on dissociation gives n+ cations and n\u2013\nanions then its limiting molar conductivity is given by:\nL\u00b0m = n+ l\u00b0\n+ + n\u2013 l\u00b0\n\u2013\n(2 25)\nHere, l\u00b0\n+ and l\u00b0\n\u2013 are the limiting molar conductivities of the cation\nand anion respectively The values of l\u00b0 for some cations and anions at\n298 K are given in Table 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2350-2353", "Text": "24)\nIn general, if an electrolyte on dissociation gives n+ cations and n\u2013\nanions then its limiting molar conductivity is given by:\nL\u00b0m = n+ l\u00b0\n+ + n\u2013 l\u00b0\n\u2013\n(2 25)\nHere, l\u00b0\n+ and l\u00b0\n\u2013 are the limiting molar conductivities of the cation\nand anion respectively The values of l\u00b0 for some cations and anions at\n298 K are given in Table 2 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2351-2354", "Text": "25)\nHere, l\u00b0\n+ and l\u00b0\n\u2013 are the limiting molar conductivities of the cation\nand anion respectively The values of l\u00b0 for some cations and anions at\n298 K are given in Table 2 4 Table 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2352-2355", "Text": "The values of l\u00b0 for some cations and anions at\n298 K are given in Table 2 4 Table 2 4:\nLimiting Molar Conductivity for some\nIons in Water at 298 K\nWeak Electrolytes\nWeak electrolytes like acetic acid have lower degree of dissociation at\nhigher concentrations and hence for such electrolytes, the change in Lm\nwith dilution is due to increase in the degree of dissociation and\nconsequently the number of ions in total volume of solution that contains\n1 mol of electrolyte"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2353-2356", "Text": "4 Table 2 4:\nLimiting Molar Conductivity for some\nIons in Water at 298 K\nWeak Electrolytes\nWeak electrolytes like acetic acid have lower degree of dissociation at\nhigher concentrations and hence for such electrolytes, the change in Lm\nwith dilution is due to increase in the degree of dissociation and\nconsequently the number of ions in total volume of solution that contains\n1 mol of electrolyte In such cases Lm increases steeply (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2354-2357", "Text": "Table 2 4:\nLimiting Molar Conductivity for some\nIons in Water at 298 K\nWeak Electrolytes\nWeak electrolytes like acetic acid have lower degree of dissociation at\nhigher concentrations and hence for such electrolytes, the change in Lm\nwith dilution is due to increase in the degree of dissociation and\nconsequently the number of ions in total volume of solution that contains\n1 mol of electrolyte In such cases Lm increases steeply (Fig 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2355-2358", "Text": "4:\nLimiting Molar Conductivity for some\nIons in Water at 298 K\nWeak Electrolytes\nWeak electrolytes like acetic acid have lower degree of dissociation at\nhigher concentrations and hence for such electrolytes, the change in Lm\nwith dilution is due to increase in the degree of dissociation and\nconsequently the number of ions in total volume of solution that contains\n1 mol of electrolyte In such cases Lm increases steeply (Fig 2 6) on\ndilution, especially near lower concentrations"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2356-2359", "Text": "In such cases Lm increases steeply (Fig 2 6) on\ndilution, especially near lower concentrations Therefore, L\u00b0m cannot be\nobtained by extrapolation of Lm to zero concentration"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2357-2360", "Text": "2 6) on\ndilution, especially near lower concentrations Therefore, L\u00b0m cannot be\nobtained by extrapolation of Lm to zero concentration At infinite dilution\n(i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2358-2361", "Text": "6) on\ndilution, especially near lower concentrations Therefore, L\u00b0m cannot be\nobtained by extrapolation of Lm to zero concentration At infinite dilution\n(i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2359-2362", "Text": "Therefore, L\u00b0m cannot be\nobtained by extrapolation of Lm to zero concentration At infinite dilution\n(i e , concentration c \u00ae zero) electrolyte dissociates completely (a =1),\nbut at such low concentration the conductivity of the solution is so low\nthat it cannot be measured accurately"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2360-2363", "Text": "At infinite dilution\n(i e , concentration c \u00ae zero) electrolyte dissociates completely (a =1),\nbut at such low concentration the conductivity of the solution is so low\nthat it cannot be measured accurately Therefore, L\u00b0m for weak electrolytes\nis obtained by using Kohlrausch law of independent migration of ions\n(Example 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2361-2364", "Text": "e , concentration c \u00ae zero) electrolyte dissociates completely (a =1),\nbut at such low concentration the conductivity of the solution is so low\nthat it cannot be measured accurately Therefore, L\u00b0m for weak electrolytes\nis obtained by using Kohlrausch law of independent migration of ions\n(Example 2 8)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2362-2365", "Text": ", concentration c \u00ae zero) electrolyte dissociates completely (a =1),\nbut at such low concentration the conductivity of the solution is so low\nthat it cannot be measured accurately Therefore, L\u00b0m for weak electrolytes\nis obtained by using Kohlrausch law of independent migration of ions\n(Example 2 8) At any concentration c, if a is the degree of dissociation\nIon\nlllll0/(S cm2mol\u20131)\nIon\nlllll 0/(S cm2 mol\u20131)\nH+\n349"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2363-2366", "Text": "Therefore, L\u00b0m for weak electrolytes\nis obtained by using Kohlrausch law of independent migration of ions\n(Example 2 8) At any concentration c, if a is the degree of dissociation\nIon\nlllll0/(S cm2mol\u20131)\nIon\nlllll 0/(S cm2 mol\u20131)\nH+\n349 6\nOH\u2013\n199"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2364-2367", "Text": "8) At any concentration c, if a is the degree of dissociation\nIon\nlllll0/(S cm2mol\u20131)\nIon\nlllll 0/(S cm2 mol\u20131)\nH+\n349 6\nOH\u2013\n199 1\nNa+\n50"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2365-2368", "Text": "At any concentration c, if a is the degree of dissociation\nIon\nlllll0/(S cm2mol\u20131)\nIon\nlllll 0/(S cm2 mol\u20131)\nH+\n349 6\nOH\u2013\n199 1\nNa+\n50 1\nCl\u2013\n76"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2366-2369", "Text": "6\nOH\u2013\n199 1\nNa+\n50 1\nCl\u2013\n76 3\nK+\n73"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2367-2370", "Text": "1\nNa+\n50 1\nCl\u2013\n76 3\nK+\n73 5\nBr\u2013\n78"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2368-2371", "Text": "1\nCl\u2013\n76 3\nK+\n73 5\nBr\u2013\n78 1\nCa2+\n119"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2369-2372", "Text": "3\nK+\n73 5\nBr\u2013\n78 1\nCa2+\n119 0\nCH3COO\u2013\n40"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2370-2373", "Text": "5\nBr\u2013\n78 1\nCa2+\n119 0\nCH3COO\u2013\n40 9\nMg2+\n106"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2371-2374", "Text": "1\nCa2+\n119 0\nCH3COO\u2013\n40 9\nMg2+\n106 0\nSO4\n2\uf02d\n160"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2372-2375", "Text": "0\nCH3COO\u2013\n40 9\nMg2+\n106 0\nSO4\n2\uf02d\n160 0\nRationalised 2023-24\n50\nChemistry\nthen it can be approximated to the ratio of molar conductivity Lm at the\nconcentration c to limiting molar conductivity, L\n0\nm"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2373-2376", "Text": "9\nMg2+\n106 0\nSO4\n2\uf02d\n160 0\nRationalised 2023-24\n50\nChemistry\nthen it can be approximated to the ratio of molar conductivity Lm at the\nconcentration c to limiting molar conductivity, L\n0\nm Thus we have:\n\u00b0\n=\nm\nm\n\uf04c\n\uf061\n\uf04c\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2374-2377", "Text": "0\nSO4\n2\uf02d\n160 0\nRationalised 2023-24\n50\nChemistry\nthen it can be approximated to the ratio of molar conductivity Lm at the\nconcentration c to limiting molar conductivity, L\n0\nm Thus we have:\n\u00b0\n=\nm\nm\n\uf04c\n\uf061\n\uf04c\n(2 26)\nBut we know that for a weak electrolyte like acetic acid (Class XI,\nUnit 7),\n\uf028\n\uf029\n\uf028\n\uf029\n2\n2\n2\n2\n=\n=\n=\na\n1\n1\nm\nm\nm\nm\nm\nm\nm\nm\nc\nc\nc\nK\n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf061\n\uf02d \uf061\n\uf0e6\n\uf0f6\n\uf02d\n\uf0e7\uf02d\n\uf0f7\n\uf0e8\n\uf0f8\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2375-2378", "Text": "0\nRationalised 2023-24\n50\nChemistry\nthen it can be approximated to the ratio of molar conductivity Lm at the\nconcentration c to limiting molar conductivity, L\n0\nm Thus we have:\n\u00b0\n=\nm\nm\n\uf04c\n\uf061\n\uf04c\n(2 26)\nBut we know that for a weak electrolyte like acetic acid (Class XI,\nUnit 7),\n\uf028\n\uf029\n\uf028\n\uf029\n2\n2\n2\n2\n=\n=\n=\na\n1\n1\nm\nm\nm\nm\nm\nm\nm\nm\nc\nc\nc\nK\n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf061\n\uf02d \uf061\n\uf0e6\n\uf0f6\n\uf02d\n\uf0e7\uf02d\n\uf0f7\n\uf0e8\n\uf0f8\n(2 27)\nApplications of Kohlrausch law\nUsing Kohlrausch law of independent migration of ions, it is possible to\ncalculate L\n0\nm for any electrolyte from the lo of individual ions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2376-2379", "Text": "Thus we have:\n\u00b0\n=\nm\nm\n\uf04c\n\uf061\n\uf04c\n(2 26)\nBut we know that for a weak electrolyte like acetic acid (Class XI,\nUnit 7),\n\uf028\n\uf029\n\uf028\n\uf029\n2\n2\n2\n2\n=\n=\n=\na\n1\n1\nm\nm\nm\nm\nm\nm\nm\nm\nc\nc\nc\nK\n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf061\n\uf02d \uf061\n\uf0e6\n\uf0f6\n\uf02d\n\uf0e7\uf02d\n\uf0f7\n\uf0e8\n\uf0f8\n(2 27)\nApplications of Kohlrausch law\nUsing Kohlrausch law of independent migration of ions, it is possible to\ncalculate L\n0\nm for any electrolyte from the lo of individual ions Moreover,\nfor weak electrolytes like acetic acid it is possible to determine the value\nof its dissociation constant once we know the L\n0\nm and Lm at a given\nconcentration c"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2377-2380", "Text": "26)\nBut we know that for a weak electrolyte like acetic acid (Class XI,\nUnit 7),\n\uf028\n\uf029\n\uf028\n\uf029\n2\n2\n2\n2\n=\n=\n=\na\n1\n1\nm\nm\nm\nm\nm\nm\nm\nm\nc\nc\nc\nK\n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf061\n\uf02d \uf061\n\uf0e6\n\uf0f6\n\uf02d\n\uf0e7\uf02d\n\uf0f7\n\uf0e8\n\uf0f8\n(2 27)\nApplications of Kohlrausch law\nUsing Kohlrausch law of independent migration of ions, it is possible to\ncalculate L\n0\nm for any electrolyte from the lo of individual ions Moreover,\nfor weak electrolytes like acetic acid it is possible to determine the value\nof its dissociation constant once we know the L\n0\nm and Lm at a given\nconcentration c Calculate L\n0\nm for CaCl2 and MgSO4 from the data given in Table 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2378-2381", "Text": "27)\nApplications of Kohlrausch law\nUsing Kohlrausch law of independent migration of ions, it is possible to\ncalculate L\n0\nm for any electrolyte from the lo of individual ions Moreover,\nfor weak electrolytes like acetic acid it is possible to determine the value\nof its dissociation constant once we know the L\n0\nm and Lm at a given\nconcentration c Calculate L\n0\nm for CaCl2 and MgSO4 from the data given in Table 3 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2379-2382", "Text": "Moreover,\nfor weak electrolytes like acetic acid it is possible to determine the value\nof its dissociation constant once we know the L\n0\nm and Lm at a given\nconcentration c Calculate L\n0\nm for CaCl2 and MgSO4 from the data given in Table 3 4 We know from Kohlrausch law that\n\uf028\nmCaCl2\uf029\n\uf04c \uf06f\n= \n2+\n\u2013\nCa\n2Cl\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06c\n\uf02b\n\uf06c\n= 119"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2380-2383", "Text": "Calculate L\n0\nm for CaCl2 and MgSO4 from the data given in Table 3 4 We know from Kohlrausch law that\n\uf028\nmCaCl2\uf029\n\uf04c \uf06f\n= \n2+\n\u2013\nCa\n2Cl\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06c\n\uf02b\n\uf06c\n= 119 0 S cm2 mol\u20131 + 2(76"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2381-2384", "Text": "4 We know from Kohlrausch law that\n\uf028\nmCaCl2\uf029\n\uf04c \uf06f\n= \n2+\n\u2013\nCa\n2Cl\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06c\n\uf02b\n\uf06c\n= 119 0 S cm2 mol\u20131 + 2(76 3) S cm2 mol\u20131\n= (119"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2382-2385", "Text": "We know from Kohlrausch law that\n\uf028\nmCaCl2\uf029\n\uf04c \uf06f\n= \n2+\n\u2013\nCa\n2Cl\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06c\n\uf02b\n\uf06c\n= 119 0 S cm2 mol\u20131 + 2(76 3) S cm2 mol\u20131\n= (119 0 + 152"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2383-2386", "Text": "0 S cm2 mol\u20131 + 2(76 3) S cm2 mol\u20131\n= (119 0 + 152 6) S cm2 mol\u20131\n= 271"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2384-2387", "Text": "3) S cm2 mol\u20131\n= (119 0 + 152 6) S cm2 mol\u20131\n= 271 6 S cm2 mol\u20131\n\uf028\nmMgSO4\uf029\n\uf04c\uf06f\n= \n2\u2013\n2+\n4\nMg\nSO\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06c\n\uf02b \uf06c\n= 106"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2385-2388", "Text": "0 + 152 6) S cm2 mol\u20131\n= 271 6 S cm2 mol\u20131\n\uf028\nmMgSO4\uf029\n\uf04c\uf06f\n= \n2\u2013\n2+\n4\nMg\nSO\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06c\n\uf02b \uf06c\n= 106 0 S cm2 mol\u20131 + 160"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2386-2389", "Text": "6) S cm2 mol\u20131\n= 271 6 S cm2 mol\u20131\n\uf028\nmMgSO4\uf029\n\uf04c\uf06f\n= \n2\u2013\n2+\n4\nMg\nSO\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06c\n\uf02b \uf06c\n= 106 0 S cm2 mol\u20131 + 160 0 S cm2 mol\u20131\n= 266 S cm2 mol\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2387-2390", "Text": "6 S cm2 mol\u20131\n\uf028\nmMgSO4\uf029\n\uf04c\uf06f\n= \n2\u2013\n2+\n4\nMg\nSO\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06c\n\uf02b \uf06c\n= 106 0 S cm2 mol\u20131 + 160 0 S cm2 mol\u20131\n= 266 S cm2 mol\u20131 L\n0\nm for NaCl, HCl and NaAc are 126"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2388-2391", "Text": "0 S cm2 mol\u20131 + 160 0 S cm2 mol\u20131\n= 266 S cm2 mol\u20131 L\n0\nm for NaCl, HCl and NaAc are 126 4, 425"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2389-2392", "Text": "0 S cm2 mol\u20131\n= 266 S cm2 mol\u20131 L\n0\nm for NaCl, HCl and NaAc are 126 4, 425 9 and 91"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2390-2393", "Text": "L\n0\nm for NaCl, HCl and NaAc are 126 4, 425 9 and 91 0 S cm2 mol\u20131\nrespectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2391-2394", "Text": "4, 425 9 and 91 0 S cm2 mol\u20131\nrespectively Calculate L\n0 for HAc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2392-2395", "Text": "9 and 91 0 S cm2 mol\u20131\nrespectively Calculate L\n0 for HAc \uf028\nmHAc\uf029\n\uf04c \uf06f\n= \n+\n\u2013\nH\nAc\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06c\n\uf02b \uf06c\n+\n\u2013\n\u2013\n+\n\u2013\n+\nH\nCl\nAc\nNa\nCl\nNa\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf03d \uf06c\n\uf02b \uf06c\n\uf02b \uf06c\n\uf02b \uf06c\n\uf02d \uf06c\n\uf02d \uf06c\n= \n\uf028\n\uf029\n\uf028\n\uf029\n\uf028\n\uf029\nHCl\nNaAc\nNaCl\nm\nm\nm\n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf02b\n\uf02d\n= (425"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2393-2396", "Text": "0 S cm2 mol\u20131\nrespectively Calculate L\n0 for HAc \uf028\nmHAc\uf029\n\uf04c \uf06f\n= \n+\n\u2013\nH\nAc\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06c\n\uf02b \uf06c\n+\n\u2013\n\u2013\n+\n\u2013\n+\nH\nCl\nAc\nNa\nCl\nNa\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf03d \uf06c\n\uf02b \uf06c\n\uf02b \uf06c\n\uf02b \uf06c\n\uf02d \uf06c\n\uf02d \uf06c\n= \n\uf028\n\uf029\n\uf028\n\uf029\n\uf028\n\uf029\nHCl\nNaAc\nNaCl\nm\nm\nm\n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf02b\n\uf02d\n= (425 9 + 91"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2394-2397", "Text": "Calculate L\n0 for HAc \uf028\nmHAc\uf029\n\uf04c \uf06f\n= \n+\n\u2013\nH\nAc\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06c\n\uf02b \uf06c\n+\n\u2013\n\u2013\n+\n\u2013\n+\nH\nCl\nAc\nNa\nCl\nNa\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf03d \uf06c\n\uf02b \uf06c\n\uf02b \uf06c\n\uf02b \uf06c\n\uf02d \uf06c\n\uf02d \uf06c\n= \n\uf028\n\uf029\n\uf028\n\uf029\n\uf028\n\uf029\nHCl\nNaAc\nNaCl\nm\nm\nm\n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf02b\n\uf02d\n= (425 9 + 91 0 \u2013 126"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2395-2398", "Text": "\uf028\nmHAc\uf029\n\uf04c \uf06f\n= \n+\n\u2013\nH\nAc\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06c\n\uf02b \uf06c\n+\n\u2013\n\u2013\n+\n\u2013\n+\nH\nCl\nAc\nNa\nCl\nNa\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf03d \uf06c\n\uf02b \uf06c\n\uf02b \uf06c\n\uf02b \uf06c\n\uf02d \uf06c\n\uf02d \uf06c\n= \n\uf028\n\uf029\n\uf028\n\uf029\n\uf028\n\uf029\nHCl\nNaAc\nNaCl\nm\nm\nm\n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf06f\n\uf02b\n\uf02d\n= (425 9 + 91 0 \u2013 126 4 ) S cm2 mol \u20131\n= 390"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2396-2399", "Text": "9 + 91 0 \u2013 126 4 ) S cm2 mol \u20131\n= 390 5 S cm2 mol\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2397-2400", "Text": "0 \u2013 126 4 ) S cm2 mol \u20131\n= 390 5 S cm2 mol\u20131 The conductivity of 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2398-2401", "Text": "4 ) S cm2 mol \u20131\n= 390 5 S cm2 mol\u20131 The conductivity of 0 001028 mol L\u20131 acetic acid is 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2399-2402", "Text": "5 S cm2 mol\u20131 The conductivity of 0 001028 mol L\u20131 acetic acid is 4 95 \u00d7 10\u20135 S cm\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2400-2403", "Text": "The conductivity of 0 001028 mol L\u20131 acetic acid is 4 95 \u00d7 10\u20135 S cm\u20131 Calculate its dissociation constant if L\n0\nm for acetic acid is\n390"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2401-2404", "Text": "001028 mol L\u20131 acetic acid is 4 95 \u00d7 10\u20135 S cm\u20131 Calculate its dissociation constant if L\n0\nm for acetic acid is\n390 5 S cm2 mol\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2402-2405", "Text": "95 \u00d7 10\u20135 S cm\u20131 Calculate its dissociation constant if L\n0\nm for acetic acid is\n390 5 S cm2 mol\u20131 m\n\uf04c \uf020 ="}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2403-2406", "Text": "Calculate its dissociation constant if L\n0\nm for acetic acid is\n390 5 S cm2 mol\u20131 m\n\uf04c \uf020 = 5\n1\n3\n1\n4 95 10\nScm\n1000cm\n0 001028 mol L\nL\n\uf06bc\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf0b4\n\uf03d\n\uf0b4\n = 48"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2404-2407", "Text": "5 S cm2 mol\u20131 m\n\uf04c \uf020 = 5\n1\n3\n1\n4 95 10\nScm\n1000cm\n0 001028 mol L\nL\n\uf06bc\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf0b4\n\uf03d\n\uf0b4\n = 48 15 S cm3 mol\u20131\na\n= \n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf02d\n\uf06f\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\n2\n1\n2\n1\n48"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2405-2408", "Text": "m\n\uf04c \uf020 = 5\n1\n3\n1\n4 95 10\nScm\n1000cm\n0 001028 mol L\nL\n\uf06bc\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf0b4\n\uf03d\n\uf0b4\n = 48 15 S cm3 mol\u20131\na\n= \n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf02d\n\uf06f\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\n2\n1\n2\n1\n48 15 Scm mol\n390"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2406-2409", "Text": "5\n1\n3\n1\n4 95 10\nScm\n1000cm\n0 001028 mol L\nL\n\uf06bc\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf0b4\n\uf03d\n\uf0b4\n = 48 15 S cm3 mol\u20131\na\n= \n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf02d\n\uf06f\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\n2\n1\n2\n1\n48 15 Scm mol\n390 5 Scm mol\nm\nm\n = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2407-2410", "Text": "15 S cm3 mol\u20131\na\n= \n\uf04c\n\uf04c\n\uf02d\n\uf06f\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\n2\n1\n2\n1\n48 15 Scm mol\n390 5 Scm mol\nm\nm\n = 0 1233\nk\n= \n\uf028\n\uf029"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2408-2411", "Text": "15 Scm mol\n390 5 Scm mol\nm\nm\n = 0 1233\nk\n= \n\uf028\n\uf029 ("}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2409-2412", "Text": "5 Scm mol\nm\nm\n = 0 1233\nk\n= \n\uf028\n\uf029 ( )\n1c"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2410-2413", "Text": "1233\nk\n= \n\uf028\n\uf029 ( )\n1c \u20131\n2\n2\n0 001028molL\n0 1233\n1 0 1233\n\uf061\n\uf061\n\uf0b4\n\uf03d\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2411-2414", "Text": "( )\n1c \u20131\n2\n2\n0 001028molL\n0 1233\n1 0 1233\n\uf061\n\uf061\n\uf0b4\n\uf03d\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n = 1 78 \u00d7 10\u20135 mol L\u20131\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2412-2415", "Text": ")\n1c \u20131\n2\n2\n0 001028molL\n0 1233\n1 0 1233\n\uf061\n\uf061\n\uf0b4\n\uf03d\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n = 1 78 \u00d7 10\u20135 mol L\u20131\nExample 2 8\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2413-2416", "Text": "\u20131\n2\n2\n0 001028molL\n0 1233\n1 0 1233\n\uf061\n\uf061\n\uf0b4\n\uf03d\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n = 1 78 \u00d7 10\u20135 mol L\u20131\nExample 2 8\nExample 2 8\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2414-2417", "Text": "78 \u00d7 10\u20135 mol L\u20131\nExample 2 8\nExample 2 8\nExample 2 8\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2415-2418", "Text": "8\nExample 2 8\nExample 2 8\nExample 2 8\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2416-2419", "Text": "8\nExample 2 8\nExample 2 8\nExample 2 8\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2417-2420", "Text": "8\nExample 2 8\nExample 2 8\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nExample 2 9\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2418-2421", "Text": "8\nExample 2 8\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nExample 2 9\nExample 2 9\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2419-2422", "Text": "8\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nExample 2 9\nExample 2 9\nExample 2 9\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2420-2423", "Text": "9\nExample 2 9\nExample 2 9\nExample 2 9\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2421-2424", "Text": "9\nExample 2 9\nExample 2 9\nExample 2 9\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2422-2425", "Text": "9\nExample 2 9\nExample 2 9\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nExample 2 7\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2423-2426", "Text": "9\nExample 2 9\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nExample 2 7\nExample 2 7\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2424-2427", "Text": "9\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nExample 2 7\nExample 2 7\nExample 2 7\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2425-2428", "Text": "7\nExample 2 7\nExample 2 7\nExample 2 7\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2426-2429", "Text": "7\nExample 2 7\nExample 2 7\nExample 2 7\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n51\nElectrochemistry\nIn an electrolytic cell external source of voltage is used to bring about\na chemical reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2427-2430", "Text": "7\nExample 2 7\nExample 2 7\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n51\nElectrochemistry\nIn an electrolytic cell external source of voltage is used to bring about\na chemical reaction The electrochemical processes are of great importance\nin the laboratory and the chemical industry"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2428-2431", "Text": "7\nExample 2 7\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n51\nElectrochemistry\nIn an electrolytic cell external source of voltage is used to bring about\na chemical reaction The electrochemical processes are of great importance\nin the laboratory and the chemical industry One of the simplest electrolytic\ncell consists of two copper strips dipping in an aqueous solution of\ncopper sulphate"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2429-2432", "Text": "7\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n51\nElectrochemistry\nIn an electrolytic cell external source of voltage is used to bring about\na chemical reaction The electrochemical processes are of great importance\nin the laboratory and the chemical industry One of the simplest electrolytic\ncell consists of two copper strips dipping in an aqueous solution of\ncopper sulphate If a DC voltage is applied to the two electrodes, then\nCu 2+ ions discharge at the cathode (negatively charged) and the following\nreaction takes place:\nCu2+(aq) + 2e\u2013 \u00ae Cu (s)\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2430-2433", "Text": "The electrochemical processes are of great importance\nin the laboratory and the chemical industry One of the simplest electrolytic\ncell consists of two copper strips dipping in an aqueous solution of\ncopper sulphate If a DC voltage is applied to the two electrodes, then\nCu 2+ ions discharge at the cathode (negatively charged) and the following\nreaction takes place:\nCu2+(aq) + 2e\u2013 \u00ae Cu (s)\n(2 28)\nCopper metal is deposited on the cathode"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2431-2434", "Text": "One of the simplest electrolytic\ncell consists of two copper strips dipping in an aqueous solution of\ncopper sulphate If a DC voltage is applied to the two electrodes, then\nCu 2+ ions discharge at the cathode (negatively charged) and the following\nreaction takes place:\nCu2+(aq) + 2e\u2013 \u00ae Cu (s)\n(2 28)\nCopper metal is deposited on the cathode At the anode, copper is\nconverted into Cu2+ ions by the reaction:\nCu(s) \u00ae Cu2+(s) + 2e\u2013\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2432-2435", "Text": "If a DC voltage is applied to the two electrodes, then\nCu 2+ ions discharge at the cathode (negatively charged) and the following\nreaction takes place:\nCu2+(aq) + 2e\u2013 \u00ae Cu (s)\n(2 28)\nCopper metal is deposited on the cathode At the anode, copper is\nconverted into Cu2+ ions by the reaction:\nCu(s) \u00ae Cu2+(s) + 2e\u2013\n(2 29)\nThus copper is dissolved (oxidised) at anode and deposited\n(reduced) at cathode"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2433-2436", "Text": "28)\nCopper metal is deposited on the cathode At the anode, copper is\nconverted into Cu2+ ions by the reaction:\nCu(s) \u00ae Cu2+(s) + 2e\u2013\n(2 29)\nThus copper is dissolved (oxidised) at anode and deposited\n(reduced) at cathode This is the basis for an industrial process in\nwhich impure copper is converted into copper of high purity"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2434-2437", "Text": "At the anode, copper is\nconverted into Cu2+ ions by the reaction:\nCu(s) \u00ae Cu2+(s) + 2e\u2013\n(2 29)\nThus copper is dissolved (oxidised) at anode and deposited\n(reduced) at cathode This is the basis for an industrial process in\nwhich impure copper is converted into copper of high purity The\nimpure copper is made an anode that dissolves on passing current\nand pure copper is deposited at the cathode"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2435-2438", "Text": "29)\nThus copper is dissolved (oxidised) at anode and deposited\n(reduced) at cathode This is the basis for an industrial process in\nwhich impure copper is converted into copper of high purity The\nimpure copper is made an anode that dissolves on passing current\nand pure copper is deposited at the cathode Many metals like Na, Mg,\nAl, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2436-2439", "Text": "This is the basis for an industrial process in\nwhich impure copper is converted into copper of high purity The\nimpure copper is made an anode that dissolves on passing current\nand pure copper is deposited at the cathode Many metals like Na, Mg,\nAl, etc are produced on large scale by electrochemical reduction of\ntheir respective cations where no suitable chemical reducing agents\nare available for this purpose"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2437-2440", "Text": "The\nimpure copper is made an anode that dissolves on passing current\nand pure copper is deposited at the cathode Many metals like Na, Mg,\nAl, etc are produced on large scale by electrochemical reduction of\ntheir respective cations where no suitable chemical reducing agents\nare available for this purpose Sodium and magnesium metals are produced by the electrolysis of\ntheir fused chlorides and aluminium is produced by electrolysis of\naluminium oxide in presence of cryolite"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2438-2441", "Text": "Many metals like Na, Mg,\nAl, etc are produced on large scale by electrochemical reduction of\ntheir respective cations where no suitable chemical reducing agents\nare available for this purpose Sodium and magnesium metals are produced by the electrolysis of\ntheir fused chlorides and aluminium is produced by electrolysis of\naluminium oxide in presence of cryolite Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis\nMichael Faraday was the first scientist who described the quantitative\naspects of electrolysis"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2439-2442", "Text": "are produced on large scale by electrochemical reduction of\ntheir respective cations where no suitable chemical reducing agents\nare available for this purpose Sodium and magnesium metals are produced by the electrolysis of\ntheir fused chlorides and aluminium is produced by electrolysis of\naluminium oxide in presence of cryolite Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis\nMichael Faraday was the first scientist who described the quantitative\naspects of electrolysis Now Faraday\u2019s laws also flow from what has\nbeen discussed earlier"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2440-2443", "Text": "Sodium and magnesium metals are produced by the electrolysis of\ntheir fused chlorides and aluminium is produced by electrolysis of\naluminium oxide in presence of cryolite Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis\nMichael Faraday was the first scientist who described the quantitative\naspects of electrolysis Now Faraday\u2019s laws also flow from what has\nbeen discussed earlier Faraday\u2019s Laws of Electrolysis\nAfter his extensive investigations on electrolysis of solutions and melts\nof electrolytes, Faraday published his results during 1833-34 in the\nform of the following well known Faraday\u2019s two laws of electrolysis:\n(i) First Law: The amount of chemical reaction which occurs at any\nelectrode during electrolysis by a current is proportional to the\nquantity of electricity passed through the electrolyte (solution or\nmelt)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2441-2444", "Text": "Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis\nMichael Faraday was the first scientist who described the quantitative\naspects of electrolysis Now Faraday\u2019s laws also flow from what has\nbeen discussed earlier Faraday\u2019s Laws of Electrolysis\nAfter his extensive investigations on electrolysis of solutions and melts\nof electrolytes, Faraday published his results during 1833-34 in the\nform of the following well known Faraday\u2019s two laws of electrolysis:\n(i) First Law: The amount of chemical reaction which occurs at any\nelectrode during electrolysis by a current is proportional to the\nquantity of electricity passed through the electrolyte (solution or\nmelt) (ii) Second Law: The amounts of different substances liberated by the\nsame quantity of electricity passing through the electrolytic solution\nare proportional to their chemical equivalent weights (Atomic Mass\nof Metal \u00f7 Number of electrons required to reduce the cation)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2442-2445", "Text": "Now Faraday\u2019s laws also flow from what has\nbeen discussed earlier Faraday\u2019s Laws of Electrolysis\nAfter his extensive investigations on electrolysis of solutions and melts\nof electrolytes, Faraday published his results during 1833-34 in the\nform of the following well known Faraday\u2019s two laws of electrolysis:\n(i) First Law: The amount of chemical reaction which occurs at any\nelectrode during electrolysis by a current is proportional to the\nquantity of electricity passed through the electrolyte (solution or\nmelt) (ii) Second Law: The amounts of different substances liberated by the\nsame quantity of electricity passing through the electrolytic solution\nare proportional to their chemical equivalent weights (Atomic Mass\nof Metal \u00f7 Number of electrons required to reduce the cation) 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2443-2446", "Text": "Faraday\u2019s Laws of Electrolysis\nAfter his extensive investigations on electrolysis of solutions and melts\nof electrolytes, Faraday published his results during 1833-34 in the\nform of the following well known Faraday\u2019s two laws of electrolysis:\n(i) First Law: The amount of chemical reaction which occurs at any\nelectrode during electrolysis by a current is proportional to the\nquantity of electricity passed through the electrolyte (solution or\nmelt) (ii) Second Law: The amounts of different substances liberated by the\nsame quantity of electricity passing through the electrolytic solution\nare proportional to their chemical equivalent weights (Atomic Mass\nof Metal \u00f7 Number of electrons required to reduce the cation) 2 5\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2444-2447", "Text": "(ii) Second Law: The amounts of different substances liberated by the\nsame quantity of electricity passing through the electrolytic solution\nare proportional to their chemical equivalent weights (Atomic Mass\nof Metal \u00f7 Number of electrons required to reduce the cation) 2 5\n2 5\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2445-2448", "Text": "2 5\n2 5\n2 5\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2446-2449", "Text": "5\n2 5\n2 5\n2 5\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2447-2450", "Text": "5\n2 5\n2 5\n2 5 Electrolytic\nElectrolytic\nElectrolytic\nElectrolytic\nElectrolytic\nCells and\nCells and\nCells and\nCells and\nCells and\nElectrolysis\nElectrolysis\nElectrolysis\nElectrolysis\nElectrolysis\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2448-2451", "Text": "5\n2 5\n2 5 Electrolytic\nElectrolytic\nElectrolytic\nElectrolytic\nElectrolytic\nCells and\nCells and\nCells and\nCells and\nCells and\nElectrolysis\nElectrolysis\nElectrolysis\nElectrolysis\nElectrolysis\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n2 7 Why does the conductivity of a solution decrease with dilution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2449-2452", "Text": "5\n2 5 Electrolytic\nElectrolytic\nElectrolytic\nElectrolytic\nElectrolytic\nCells and\nCells and\nCells and\nCells and\nCells and\nElectrolysis\nElectrolysis\nElectrolysis\nElectrolysis\nElectrolysis\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n2 7 Why does the conductivity of a solution decrease with dilution 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2450-2453", "Text": "5 Electrolytic\nElectrolytic\nElectrolytic\nElectrolytic\nElectrolytic\nCells and\nCells and\nCells and\nCells and\nCells and\nElectrolysis\nElectrolysis\nElectrolysis\nElectrolysis\nElectrolysis\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n2 7 Why does the conductivity of a solution decrease with dilution 2 8 Suggest a way to determine the L\u00b0m value of water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2451-2454", "Text": "7 Why does the conductivity of a solution decrease with dilution 2 8 Suggest a way to determine the L\u00b0m value of water 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2452-2455", "Text": "2 8 Suggest a way to determine the L\u00b0m value of water 2 9 The molar conductivity of 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2453-2456", "Text": "8 Suggest a way to determine the L\u00b0m value of water 2 9 The molar conductivity of 0 025 mol L\u20131 methanoic acid is 46"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2454-2457", "Text": "2 9 The molar conductivity of 0 025 mol L\u20131 methanoic acid is 46 1 S cm2 mol\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2455-2458", "Text": "9 The molar conductivity of 0 025 mol L\u20131 methanoic acid is 46 1 S cm2 mol\u20131 Calculate its degree of dissociation and dissociation constant"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2456-2459", "Text": "025 mol L\u20131 methanoic acid is 46 1 S cm2 mol\u20131 Calculate its degree of dissociation and dissociation constant Given l0(H+)\n= 349"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2457-2460", "Text": "1 S cm2 mol\u20131 Calculate its degree of dissociation and dissociation constant Given l0(H+)\n= 349 6 S cm2 mol\u20131 and l0 (HCOO\u2013) = 54"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2458-2461", "Text": "Calculate its degree of dissociation and dissociation constant Given l0(H+)\n= 349 6 S cm2 mol\u20131 and l0 (HCOO\u2013) = 54 6 S cm2 mol\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2459-2462", "Text": "Given l0(H+)\n= 349 6 S cm2 mol\u20131 and l0 (HCOO\u2013) = 54 6 S cm2 mol\u20131 Rationalised 2023-24\n52\nChemistry\nThere were no constant current sources available during Faraday\u2019s\ntimes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2460-2463", "Text": "6 S cm2 mol\u20131 and l0 (HCOO\u2013) = 54 6 S cm2 mol\u20131 Rationalised 2023-24\n52\nChemistry\nThere were no constant current sources available during Faraday\u2019s\ntimes The general practice was to put a coulometer (a standard electrolytic\ncell) for determining the quantity of electricity passed from the amount\nof metal (generally silver or copper) deposited or consumed"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2461-2464", "Text": "6 S cm2 mol\u20131 Rationalised 2023-24\n52\nChemistry\nThere were no constant current sources available during Faraday\u2019s\ntimes The general practice was to put a coulometer (a standard electrolytic\ncell) for determining the quantity of electricity passed from the amount\nof metal (generally silver or copper) deposited or consumed However,\ncoulometers are now obsolete and we now have constant current (I)\nsources available and the quantity of electricity Q, passed is given by\nQ = It\nQ is in coloumbs when I is in ampere and t is in second"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2462-2465", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n52\nChemistry\nThere were no constant current sources available during Faraday\u2019s\ntimes The general practice was to put a coulometer (a standard electrolytic\ncell) for determining the quantity of electricity passed from the amount\nof metal (generally silver or copper) deposited or consumed However,\ncoulometers are now obsolete and we now have constant current (I)\nsources available and the quantity of electricity Q, passed is given by\nQ = It\nQ is in coloumbs when I is in ampere and t is in second The amount of electricity (or charge) required for oxidation or\nreduction depends on the stoichiometry of the electrode reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2463-2466", "Text": "The general practice was to put a coulometer (a standard electrolytic\ncell) for determining the quantity of electricity passed from the amount\nof metal (generally silver or copper) deposited or consumed However,\ncoulometers are now obsolete and we now have constant current (I)\nsources available and the quantity of electricity Q, passed is given by\nQ = It\nQ is in coloumbs when I is in ampere and t is in second The amount of electricity (or charge) required for oxidation or\nreduction depends on the stoichiometry of the electrode reaction For\nexample, in the reaction:\nAg +(aq) + e\u2013 \u00ae Ag(s)\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2464-2467", "Text": "However,\ncoulometers are now obsolete and we now have constant current (I)\nsources available and the quantity of electricity Q, passed is given by\nQ = It\nQ is in coloumbs when I is in ampere and t is in second The amount of electricity (or charge) required for oxidation or\nreduction depends on the stoichiometry of the electrode reaction For\nexample, in the reaction:\nAg +(aq) + e\u2013 \u00ae Ag(s)\n(2 30)\nOne mole of the electron is required for the reduction of one mole\nof silver ions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2465-2468", "Text": "The amount of electricity (or charge) required for oxidation or\nreduction depends on the stoichiometry of the electrode reaction For\nexample, in the reaction:\nAg +(aq) + e\u2013 \u00ae Ag(s)\n(2 30)\nOne mole of the electron is required for the reduction of one mole\nof silver ions We know that charge on one electron is equal to 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2466-2469", "Text": "For\nexample, in the reaction:\nAg +(aq) + e\u2013 \u00ae Ag(s)\n(2 30)\nOne mole of the electron is required for the reduction of one mole\nof silver ions We know that charge on one electron is equal to 1 6021 \u00d7 10\u201319C"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2467-2470", "Text": "30)\nOne mole of the electron is required for the reduction of one mole\nof silver ions We know that charge on one electron is equal to 1 6021 \u00d7 10\u201319C Therefore, the charge on one mole of electrons is equal to:\nNA \u00d7 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2468-2471", "Text": "We know that charge on one electron is equal to 1 6021 \u00d7 10\u201319C Therefore, the charge on one mole of electrons is equal to:\nNA \u00d7 1 6021 \u00d7 10\u201319 C = 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2469-2472", "Text": "6021 \u00d7 10\u201319C Therefore, the charge on one mole of electrons is equal to:\nNA \u00d7 1 6021 \u00d7 10\u201319 C = 6 02 \u00d7 1023 mol\u20131 \u00d7 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2470-2473", "Text": "Therefore, the charge on one mole of electrons is equal to:\nNA \u00d7 1 6021 \u00d7 10\u201319 C = 6 02 \u00d7 1023 mol\u20131 \u00d7 1 6021 \u00d7 10\u201319\nC = 96487 C mol\u20131\nThis quantity of electricity is called Faraday and is represented by\nthe symbol F"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2471-2474", "Text": "6021 \u00d7 10\u201319 C = 6 02 \u00d7 1023 mol\u20131 \u00d7 1 6021 \u00d7 10\u201319\nC = 96487 C mol\u20131\nThis quantity of electricity is called Faraday and is represented by\nthe symbol F For approximate calculations we use 1F \u2243 96500 C mol\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2472-2475", "Text": "02 \u00d7 1023 mol\u20131 \u00d7 1 6021 \u00d7 10\u201319\nC = 96487 C mol\u20131\nThis quantity of electricity is called Faraday and is represented by\nthe symbol F For approximate calculations we use 1F \u2243 96500 C mol\u20131 For the electrode reactions:\nMg2+(l) + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Mg(s)\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2473-2476", "Text": "6021 \u00d7 10\u201319\nC = 96487 C mol\u20131\nThis quantity of electricity is called Faraday and is represented by\nthe symbol F For approximate calculations we use 1F \u2243 96500 C mol\u20131 For the electrode reactions:\nMg2+(l) + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Mg(s)\n(2 31)\nAl3+(l) + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Al(s)\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2474-2477", "Text": "For approximate calculations we use 1F \u2243 96500 C mol\u20131 For the electrode reactions:\nMg2+(l) + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Mg(s)\n(2 31)\nAl3+(l) + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Al(s)\n(2 32)\nIt is obvious that one mole of Mg2+ and Al3+ require 2 mol of electrons\n(2F) and 3 mol of electrons (3F) respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2475-2478", "Text": "For the electrode reactions:\nMg2+(l) + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Mg(s)\n(2 31)\nAl3+(l) + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Al(s)\n(2 32)\nIt is obvious that one mole of Mg2+ and Al3+ require 2 mol of electrons\n(2F) and 3 mol of electrons (3F) respectively The charge passed through\nthe electrolytic cell during electrolysis is equal to the product of current\nin amperes and time in seconds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2476-2479", "Text": "31)\nAl3+(l) + 3e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Al(s)\n(2 32)\nIt is obvious that one mole of Mg2+ and Al3+ require 2 mol of electrons\n(2F) and 3 mol of electrons (3F) respectively The charge passed through\nthe electrolytic cell during electrolysis is equal to the product of current\nin amperes and time in seconds In commercial production of metals,\ncurrent as high as 50,000 amperes are used that amounts to about\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2477-2480", "Text": "32)\nIt is obvious that one mole of Mg2+ and Al3+ require 2 mol of electrons\n(2F) and 3 mol of electrons (3F) respectively The charge passed through\nthe electrolytic cell during electrolysis is equal to the product of current\nin amperes and time in seconds In commercial production of metals,\ncurrent as high as 50,000 amperes are used that amounts to about\n0 518 F per second"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2478-2481", "Text": "The charge passed through\nthe electrolytic cell during electrolysis is equal to the product of current\nin amperes and time in seconds In commercial production of metals,\ncurrent as high as 50,000 amperes are used that amounts to about\n0 518 F per second A solution of CuSO4 is electrolysed for 10 minutes with a current of\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2479-2482", "Text": "In commercial production of metals,\ncurrent as high as 50,000 amperes are used that amounts to about\n0 518 F per second A solution of CuSO4 is electrolysed for 10 minutes with a current of\n1 5 amperes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2480-2483", "Text": "518 F per second A solution of CuSO4 is electrolysed for 10 minutes with a current of\n1 5 amperes What is the mass of copper deposited at the cathode"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2481-2484", "Text": "A solution of CuSO4 is electrolysed for 10 minutes with a current of\n1 5 amperes What is the mass of copper deposited at the cathode t = 600 s charge = current \u00d7 time = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2482-2485", "Text": "5 amperes What is the mass of copper deposited at the cathode t = 600 s charge = current \u00d7 time = 1 5 A \u00d7 600 s = 900 C\nAccording to the reaction:\nCu2+(aq) + 2e\u2013 = Cu(s)\nWe require 2F or 2 \u00d7 96487 C to deposit 1 mol or 63 g of Cu"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2483-2486", "Text": "What is the mass of copper deposited at the cathode t = 600 s charge = current \u00d7 time = 1 5 A \u00d7 600 s = 900 C\nAccording to the reaction:\nCu2+(aq) + 2e\u2013 = Cu(s)\nWe require 2F or 2 \u00d7 96487 C to deposit 1 mol or 63 g of Cu For 900 C, the mass of Cu deposited\n= (63 g mol\u20131 \u00d7 900 C)/(2 \u00d7 96487 C mol\u20131) = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2484-2487", "Text": "t = 600 s charge = current \u00d7 time = 1 5 A \u00d7 600 s = 900 C\nAccording to the reaction:\nCu2+(aq) + 2e\u2013 = Cu(s)\nWe require 2F or 2 \u00d7 96487 C to deposit 1 mol or 63 g of Cu For 900 C, the mass of Cu deposited\n= (63 g mol\u20131 \u00d7 900 C)/(2 \u00d7 96487 C mol\u20131) = 0 2938 g"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2485-2488", "Text": "5 A \u00d7 600 s = 900 C\nAccording to the reaction:\nCu2+(aq) + 2e\u2013 = Cu(s)\nWe require 2F or 2 \u00d7 96487 C to deposit 1 mol or 63 g of Cu For 900 C, the mass of Cu deposited\n= (63 g mol\u20131 \u00d7 900 C)/(2 \u00d7 96487 C mol\u20131) = 0 2938 g Example 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2486-2489", "Text": "For 900 C, the mass of Cu deposited\n= (63 g mol\u20131 \u00d7 900 C)/(2 \u00d7 96487 C mol\u20131) = 0 2938 g Example 2 10\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2487-2490", "Text": "2938 g Example 2 10\nExample 2 10\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2488-2491", "Text": "Example 2 10\nExample 2 10\nExample 2 10\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2489-2492", "Text": "10\nExample 2 10\nExample 2 10\nExample 2 10\nExample 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2490-2493", "Text": "10\nExample 2 10\nExample 2 10\nExample 2 10\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nProducts of electrolysis depend on the nature of material being\nelectrolysed and the type of electrodes being used"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2491-2494", "Text": "10\nExample 2 10\nExample 2 10\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nProducts of electrolysis depend on the nature of material being\nelectrolysed and the type of electrodes being used If the electrode is\ninert (e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2492-2495", "Text": "10\nExample 2 10\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nProducts of electrolysis depend on the nature of material being\nelectrolysed and the type of electrodes being used If the electrode is\ninert (e g"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2493-2496", "Text": "10\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nProducts of electrolysis depend on the nature of material being\nelectrolysed and the type of electrodes being used If the electrode is\ninert (e g , platinum or gold), it does not participate in the chemical\nreaction and acts only as source or sink for electrons"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2494-2497", "Text": "If the electrode is\ninert (e g , platinum or gold), it does not participate in the chemical\nreaction and acts only as source or sink for electrons On the other\nhand, if the electrode is reactive, it participates in the electrode reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2495-2498", "Text": "g , platinum or gold), it does not participate in the chemical\nreaction and acts only as source or sink for electrons On the other\nhand, if the electrode is reactive, it participates in the electrode reaction Thus, the products of electrolysis may be different for reactive and inert\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2496-2499", "Text": ", platinum or gold), it does not participate in the chemical\nreaction and acts only as source or sink for electrons On the other\nhand, if the electrode is reactive, it participates in the electrode reaction Thus, the products of electrolysis may be different for reactive and inert\n2 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2497-2500", "Text": "On the other\nhand, if the electrode is reactive, it participates in the electrode reaction Thus, the products of electrolysis may be different for reactive and inert\n2 5 1 Products of\nElectrolysis\nRationalised 2023-24\n53\nElectrochemistry\nelectrodes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2498-2501", "Text": "Thus, the products of electrolysis may be different for reactive and inert\n2 5 1 Products of\nElectrolysis\nRationalised 2023-24\n53\nElectrochemistry\nelectrodes The products of electrolysis depend on the different oxidising\nand reducing species present in the electrolytic cell and their standard\nelectrode potentials"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2499-2502", "Text": "5 1 Products of\nElectrolysis\nRationalised 2023-24\n53\nElectrochemistry\nelectrodes The products of electrolysis depend on the different oxidising\nand reducing species present in the electrolytic cell and their standard\nelectrode potentials Moreover, some of the electrochemical processes\nalthough feasible, are so slow kinetically that at lower voltages these do\nnot seem to take place and extra potential (called overpotential) has to\nbe applied, which makes such process more difficult to occur"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2500-2503", "Text": "1 Products of\nElectrolysis\nRationalised 2023-24\n53\nElectrochemistry\nelectrodes The products of electrolysis depend on the different oxidising\nand reducing species present in the electrolytic cell and their standard\nelectrode potentials Moreover, some of the electrochemical processes\nalthough feasible, are so slow kinetically that at lower voltages these do\nnot seem to take place and extra potential (called overpotential) has to\nbe applied, which makes such process more difficult to occur For example, if we use molten NaCl, the products of electrolysis are\nsodium metal and Cl2 gas"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2501-2504", "Text": "The products of electrolysis depend on the different oxidising\nand reducing species present in the electrolytic cell and their standard\nelectrode potentials Moreover, some of the electrochemical processes\nalthough feasible, are so slow kinetically that at lower voltages these do\nnot seem to take place and extra potential (called overpotential) has to\nbe applied, which makes such process more difficult to occur For example, if we use molten NaCl, the products of electrolysis are\nsodium metal and Cl2 gas Here we have only one cation (Na+) which is\nreduced at the cathode (Na+ + e\u2013 \u00ae Na) and one anion (Cl\u2013) which is\noxidised at the anode (Cl\u2013 \u00ae \u00bdCl2 + e\u2013 )"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2502-2505", "Text": "Moreover, some of the electrochemical processes\nalthough feasible, are so slow kinetically that at lower voltages these do\nnot seem to take place and extra potential (called overpotential) has to\nbe applied, which makes such process more difficult to occur For example, if we use molten NaCl, the products of electrolysis are\nsodium metal and Cl2 gas Here we have only one cation (Na+) which is\nreduced at the cathode (Na+ + e\u2013 \u00ae Na) and one anion (Cl\u2013) which is\noxidised at the anode (Cl\u2013 \u00ae \u00bdCl2 + e\u2013 ) During the electrolysis of aqueous\nsodium chloride solution, the products are NaOH, Cl2 and H2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2503-2506", "Text": "For example, if we use molten NaCl, the products of electrolysis are\nsodium metal and Cl2 gas Here we have only one cation (Na+) which is\nreduced at the cathode (Na+ + e\u2013 \u00ae Na) and one anion (Cl\u2013) which is\noxidised at the anode (Cl\u2013 \u00ae \u00bdCl2 + e\u2013 ) During the electrolysis of aqueous\nsodium chloride solution, the products are NaOH, Cl2 and H2 In this\ncase besides Na+ and Cl\u2013 ions we also have H+ and OH\u2013 ions along with\nthe solvent molecules, H2O"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2504-2507", "Text": "Here we have only one cation (Na+) which is\nreduced at the cathode (Na+ + e\u2013 \u00ae Na) and one anion (Cl\u2013) which is\noxidised at the anode (Cl\u2013 \u00ae \u00bdCl2 + e\u2013 ) During the electrolysis of aqueous\nsodium chloride solution, the products are NaOH, Cl2 and H2 In this\ncase besides Na+ and Cl\u2013 ions we also have H+ and OH\u2013 ions along with\nthe solvent molecules, H2O At the cathode there is competition between the following reduction\nreactions:\nNa+ (aq) + e\u2013 \u00ae Na (s)\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = \u2013 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2505-2508", "Text": "During the electrolysis of aqueous\nsodium chloride solution, the products are NaOH, Cl2 and H2 In this\ncase besides Na+ and Cl\u2013 ions we also have H+ and OH\u2013 ions along with\nthe solvent molecules, H2O At the cathode there is competition between the following reduction\nreactions:\nNa+ (aq) + e\u2013 \u00ae Na (s)\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = \u2013 2 71 V\nH+ (aq) + e\u2013 \u00ae \u00bd H2 (g)\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2506-2509", "Text": "In this\ncase besides Na+ and Cl\u2013 ions we also have H+ and OH\u2013 ions along with\nthe solvent molecules, H2O At the cathode there is competition between the following reduction\nreactions:\nNa+ (aq) + e\u2013 \u00ae Na (s)\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = \u2013 2 71 V\nH+ (aq) + e\u2013 \u00ae \u00bd H2 (g)\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = 0 00 V\nThe reaction with higher value of Eo is preferred and therefore, the\nreaction at the cathode during electrolysis is:\nH+ (aq) + e\u2013 \u00ae \u00bd H2 (g)\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2507-2510", "Text": "At the cathode there is competition between the following reduction\nreactions:\nNa+ (aq) + e\u2013 \u00ae Na (s)\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = \u2013 2 71 V\nH+ (aq) + e\u2013 \u00ae \u00bd H2 (g)\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = 0 00 V\nThe reaction with higher value of Eo is preferred and therefore, the\nreaction at the cathode during electrolysis is:\nH+ (aq) + e\u2013 \u00ae \u00bd H2 (g)\n(2 33)\nbut H+ (aq) is produced by the dissociation of H2O, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2508-2511", "Text": "71 V\nH+ (aq) + e\u2013 \u00ae \u00bd H2 (g)\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = 0 00 V\nThe reaction with higher value of Eo is preferred and therefore, the\nreaction at the cathode during electrolysis is:\nH+ (aq) + e\u2013 \u00ae \u00bd H2 (g)\n(2 33)\nbut H+ (aq) is produced by the dissociation of H2O, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2509-2512", "Text": "00 V\nThe reaction with higher value of Eo is preferred and therefore, the\nreaction at the cathode during electrolysis is:\nH+ (aq) + e\u2013 \u00ae \u00bd H2 (g)\n(2 33)\nbut H+ (aq) is produced by the dissociation of H2O, i e ,\nH2O (l ) \u00ae H+ (aq) + OH\u2013 (aq)\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2510-2513", "Text": "33)\nbut H+ (aq) is produced by the dissociation of H2O, i e ,\nH2O (l ) \u00ae H+ (aq) + OH\u2013 (aq)\n(2 34)\nTherefore, the net reaction at the cathode may be written as the sum\nof (2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2511-2514", "Text": "e ,\nH2O (l ) \u00ae H+ (aq) + OH\u2013 (aq)\n(2 34)\nTherefore, the net reaction at the cathode may be written as the sum\nof (2 33) and (2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2512-2515", "Text": ",\nH2O (l ) \u00ae H+ (aq) + OH\u2013 (aq)\n(2 34)\nTherefore, the net reaction at the cathode may be written as the sum\nof (2 33) and (2 34) and we have\nH2O (l ) + e\u2013 \u00ae \u00bdH2(g) + OH\u2013\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2513-2516", "Text": "34)\nTherefore, the net reaction at the cathode may be written as the sum\nof (2 33) and (2 34) and we have\nH2O (l ) + e\u2013 \u00ae \u00bdH2(g) + OH\u2013\n(2 35)\nAt the anode the following oxidation reactions are possible:\nCl\u2013 (aq) \u00ae \u00bd Cl2 (g) + e\u2013\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2514-2517", "Text": "33) and (2 34) and we have\nH2O (l ) + e\u2013 \u00ae \u00bdH2(g) + OH\u2013\n(2 35)\nAt the anode the following oxidation reactions are possible:\nCl\u2013 (aq) \u00ae \u00bd Cl2 (g) + e\u2013\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = 1 36 V\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2515-2518", "Text": "34) and we have\nH2O (l ) + e\u2013 \u00ae \u00bdH2(g) + OH\u2013\n(2 35)\nAt the anode the following oxidation reactions are possible:\nCl\u2013 (aq) \u00ae \u00bd Cl2 (g) + e\u2013\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = 1 36 V\n(2 36)\n2H2O (l ) \u00ae O2 (g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e\u2013\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2516-2519", "Text": "35)\nAt the anode the following oxidation reactions are possible:\nCl\u2013 (aq) \u00ae \u00bd Cl2 (g) + e\u2013\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = 1 36 V\n(2 36)\n2H2O (l ) \u00ae O2 (g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e\u2013\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = 1 23 V\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2517-2520", "Text": "36 V\n(2 36)\n2H2O (l ) \u00ae O2 (g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e\u2013\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = 1 23 V\n(2 37)\nThe reaction at anode with lower value of E o is preferred and\ntherefore, water should get oxidised in preference to Cl\u2013 (aq)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2518-2521", "Text": "36)\n2H2O (l ) \u00ae O2 (g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e\u2013\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = 1 23 V\n(2 37)\nThe reaction at anode with lower value of E o is preferred and\ntherefore, water should get oxidised in preference to Cl\u2013 (aq) However,\non account of overpotential of oxygen, reaction (2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2519-2522", "Text": "23 V\n(2 37)\nThe reaction at anode with lower value of E o is preferred and\ntherefore, water should get oxidised in preference to Cl\u2013 (aq) However,\non account of overpotential of oxygen, reaction (2 36) is preferred"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2520-2523", "Text": "37)\nThe reaction at anode with lower value of E o is preferred and\ntherefore, water should get oxidised in preference to Cl\u2013 (aq) However,\non account of overpotential of oxygen, reaction (2 36) is preferred Thus,\nthe net reactions may be summarised as:\nNaCl (aq) \nH O\n2\n\uf8e7\n\u2192\n\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7 Na+ (aq) + Cl\u2013 (aq)\nCathode:\nH2O(l ) + e\u2013 \u00ae \u00bd H2(g) + OH\u2013 (aq)\nAnode:\nCl\u2013 (aq) \u00ae \u00bd Cl2(g) + e\u2013\nNet reaction:\nNaCl(aq) + H2O(l) \u00ae Na+(aq) + OH\u2013(aq) + \u00bdH2(g) + \u00bdCl2(g)\nThe standard electrode potentials are replaced by electrode potentials\ngiven by Nernst equation (Eq"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2521-2524", "Text": "However,\non account of overpotential of oxygen, reaction (2 36) is preferred Thus,\nthe net reactions may be summarised as:\nNaCl (aq) \nH O\n2\n\uf8e7\n\u2192\n\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7 Na+ (aq) + Cl\u2013 (aq)\nCathode:\nH2O(l ) + e\u2013 \u00ae \u00bd H2(g) + OH\u2013 (aq)\nAnode:\nCl\u2013 (aq) \u00ae \u00bd Cl2(g) + e\u2013\nNet reaction:\nNaCl(aq) + H2O(l) \u00ae Na+(aq) + OH\u2013(aq) + \u00bdH2(g) + \u00bdCl2(g)\nThe standard electrode potentials are replaced by electrode potentials\ngiven by Nernst equation (Eq 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2522-2525", "Text": "36) is preferred Thus,\nthe net reactions may be summarised as:\nNaCl (aq) \nH O\n2\n\uf8e7\n\u2192\n\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7 Na+ (aq) + Cl\u2013 (aq)\nCathode:\nH2O(l ) + e\u2013 \u00ae \u00bd H2(g) + OH\u2013 (aq)\nAnode:\nCl\u2013 (aq) \u00ae \u00bd Cl2(g) + e\u2013\nNet reaction:\nNaCl(aq) + H2O(l) \u00ae Na+(aq) + OH\u2013(aq) + \u00bdH2(g) + \u00bdCl2(g)\nThe standard electrode potentials are replaced by electrode potentials\ngiven by Nernst equation (Eq 2 8) to take into account the concentration\neffects"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2523-2526", "Text": "Thus,\nthe net reactions may be summarised as:\nNaCl (aq) \nH O\n2\n\uf8e7\n\u2192\n\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7 Na+ (aq) + Cl\u2013 (aq)\nCathode:\nH2O(l ) + e\u2013 \u00ae \u00bd H2(g) + OH\u2013 (aq)\nAnode:\nCl\u2013 (aq) \u00ae \u00bd Cl2(g) + e\u2013\nNet reaction:\nNaCl(aq) + H2O(l) \u00ae Na+(aq) + OH\u2013(aq) + \u00bdH2(g) + \u00bdCl2(g)\nThe standard electrode potentials are replaced by electrode potentials\ngiven by Nernst equation (Eq 2 8) to take into account the concentration\neffects During the electrolysis of sulphuric acid, the following processes\nare possible at the anode:\n2H2O(l) \u00ae O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e\u2013 \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n= +1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2524-2527", "Text": "2 8) to take into account the concentration\neffects During the electrolysis of sulphuric acid, the following processes\nare possible at the anode:\n2H2O(l) \u00ae O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e\u2013 \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n= +1 23 V\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2525-2528", "Text": "8) to take into account the concentration\neffects During the electrolysis of sulphuric acid, the following processes\nare possible at the anode:\n2H2O(l) \u00ae O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e\u2013 \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n= +1 23 V\n(2 38)\nRationalised 2023-24\n54\nChemistry\n2SO4\n2\u2013 (aq) \u00ae S2O8\n2\u2013 (aq) + 2e\u2013 \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2526-2529", "Text": "During the electrolysis of sulphuric acid, the following processes\nare possible at the anode:\n2H2O(l) \u00ae O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e\u2013 \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n= +1 23 V\n(2 38)\nRationalised 2023-24\n54\nChemistry\n2SO4\n2\u2013 (aq) \u00ae S2O8\n2\u2013 (aq) + 2e\u2013 \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = 1 96 V\n(2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2527-2530", "Text": "23 V\n(2 38)\nRationalised 2023-24\n54\nChemistry\n2SO4\n2\u2013 (aq) \u00ae S2O8\n2\u2013 (aq) + 2e\u2013 \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = 1 96 V\n(2 39)\nFor dilute sulphuric acid, reaction (2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2528-2531", "Text": "38)\nRationalised 2023-24\n54\nChemistry\n2SO4\n2\u2013 (aq) \u00ae S2O8\n2\u2013 (aq) + 2e\u2013 \n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = 1 96 V\n(2 39)\nFor dilute sulphuric acid, reaction (2 38) is preferred but at higher\nconcentrations of H2SO4, reaction (2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2529-2532", "Text": "96 V\n(2 39)\nFor dilute sulphuric acid, reaction (2 38) is preferred but at higher\nconcentrations of H2SO4, reaction (2 39) is preferred"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2530-2533", "Text": "39)\nFor dilute sulphuric acid, reaction (2 38) is preferred but at higher\nconcentrations of H2SO4, reaction (2 39) is preferred Any battery (actually it may have one or more than one cell connected\nin series) or cell that we use as a source of electrical energy is basically\na galvanic cell where the chemical energy of the redox reaction is\nconverted into electrical energy"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2531-2534", "Text": "38) is preferred but at higher\nconcentrations of H2SO4, reaction (2 39) is preferred Any battery (actually it may have one or more than one cell connected\nin series) or cell that we use as a source of electrical energy is basically\na galvanic cell where the chemical energy of the redox reaction is\nconverted into electrical energy However, for a battery to be of practical\nuse it should be reasonably light, compact and its voltage should not\nvary appreciably during its use"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2532-2535", "Text": "39) is preferred Any battery (actually it may have one or more than one cell connected\nin series) or cell that we use as a source of electrical energy is basically\na galvanic cell where the chemical energy of the redox reaction is\nconverted into electrical energy However, for a battery to be of practical\nuse it should be reasonably light, compact and its voltage should not\nvary appreciably during its use There are mainly two types of batteries"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2533-2536", "Text": "Any battery (actually it may have one or more than one cell connected\nin series) or cell that we use as a source of electrical energy is basically\na galvanic cell where the chemical energy of the redox reaction is\nconverted into electrical energy However, for a battery to be of practical\nuse it should be reasonably light, compact and its voltage should not\nvary appreciably during its use There are mainly two types of batteries In the primary batteries, the reaction occurs only once and after use\nover a period of time battery becomes dead and cannot be reused\nagain"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2534-2537", "Text": "However, for a battery to be of practical\nuse it should be reasonably light, compact and its voltage should not\nvary appreciably during its use There are mainly two types of batteries In the primary batteries, the reaction occurs only once and after use\nover a period of time battery becomes dead and cannot be reused\nagain The most familiar example of this type is the dry\ncell (known as Leclanche cell after its discoverer) which is\nused commonly in our transistors and clocks"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2535-2538", "Text": "There are mainly two types of batteries In the primary batteries, the reaction occurs only once and after use\nover a period of time battery becomes dead and cannot be reused\nagain The most familiar example of this type is the dry\ncell (known as Leclanche cell after its discoverer) which is\nused commonly in our transistors and clocks The cell\nconsists of a zinc container that also acts as anode and\nthe cathode is a carbon (graphite) rod surrounded by\npowdered manganese dioxide and carbon (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2536-2539", "Text": "In the primary batteries, the reaction occurs only once and after use\nover a period of time battery becomes dead and cannot be reused\nagain The most familiar example of this type is the dry\ncell (known as Leclanche cell after its discoverer) which is\nused commonly in our transistors and clocks The cell\nconsists of a zinc container that also acts as anode and\nthe cathode is a carbon (graphite) rod surrounded by\npowdered manganese dioxide and carbon (Fig 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2537-2540", "Text": "The most familiar example of this type is the dry\ncell (known as Leclanche cell after its discoverer) which is\nused commonly in our transistors and clocks The cell\nconsists of a zinc container that also acts as anode and\nthe cathode is a carbon (graphite) rod surrounded by\npowdered manganese dioxide and carbon (Fig 2 8)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2538-2541", "Text": "The cell\nconsists of a zinc container that also acts as anode and\nthe cathode is a carbon (graphite) rod surrounded by\npowdered manganese dioxide and carbon (Fig 2 8) The\nspace between the electrodes is filled by a moist paste of\nammonium chloride (NH4Cl) and zinc chloride (ZnCl2)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2539-2542", "Text": "2 8) The\nspace between the electrodes is filled by a moist paste of\nammonium chloride (NH4Cl) and zinc chloride (ZnCl2) The\nelectrode reactions are complex, but they can be written\napproximately as follows :\nAnode:\nZn(s) \u00be\u00ae Zn2+ + 2e\u2013\nCathode:\nMnO2+ NH4\n++ e\u2013\u00be\u00ae MnO(OH) + NH3\nIn the reaction at cathode, manganese is reduced\nfrom the + 4 oxidation state to the +3 state"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2540-2543", "Text": "8) The\nspace between the electrodes is filled by a moist paste of\nammonium chloride (NH4Cl) and zinc chloride (ZnCl2) The\nelectrode reactions are complex, but they can be written\napproximately as follows :\nAnode:\nZn(s) \u00be\u00ae Zn2+ + 2e\u2013\nCathode:\nMnO2+ NH4\n++ e\u2013\u00be\u00ae MnO(OH) + NH3\nIn the reaction at cathode, manganese is reduced\nfrom the + 4 oxidation state to the +3 state Ammonia\nproduced in the reaction forms a complex with Zn2+ to give\n[Zn (NH3)4]2+"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2541-2544", "Text": "The\nspace between the electrodes is filled by a moist paste of\nammonium chloride (NH4Cl) and zinc chloride (ZnCl2) The\nelectrode reactions are complex, but they can be written\napproximately as follows :\nAnode:\nZn(s) \u00be\u00ae Zn2+ + 2e\u2013\nCathode:\nMnO2+ NH4\n++ e\u2013\u00be\u00ae MnO(OH) + NH3\nIn the reaction at cathode, manganese is reduced\nfrom the + 4 oxidation state to the +3 state Ammonia\nproduced in the reaction forms a complex with Zn2+ to give\n[Zn (NH3)4]2+ The cell has a potential of nearly 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2542-2545", "Text": "The\nelectrode reactions are complex, but they can be written\napproximately as follows :\nAnode:\nZn(s) \u00be\u00ae Zn2+ + 2e\u2013\nCathode:\nMnO2+ NH4\n++ e\u2013\u00be\u00ae MnO(OH) + NH3\nIn the reaction at cathode, manganese is reduced\nfrom the + 4 oxidation state to the +3 state Ammonia\nproduced in the reaction forms a complex with Zn2+ to give\n[Zn (NH3)4]2+ The cell has a potential of nearly 1 5 V"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2543-2546", "Text": "Ammonia\nproduced in the reaction forms a complex with Zn2+ to give\n[Zn (NH3)4]2+ The cell has a potential of nearly 1 5 V Mercury cell, (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2544-2547", "Text": "The cell has a potential of nearly 1 5 V Mercury cell, (Fig 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2545-2548", "Text": "5 V Mercury cell, (Fig 2 9) suitable for low current devices\nlike hearing aids, watches, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2546-2549", "Text": "Mercury cell, (Fig 2 9) suitable for low current devices\nlike hearing aids, watches, etc consists of zinc \u2013 mercury\namalgam as anode and a paste of HgO and carbon as the\ncathode"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2547-2550", "Text": "2 9) suitable for low current devices\nlike hearing aids, watches, etc consists of zinc \u2013 mercury\namalgam as anode and a paste of HgO and carbon as the\ncathode The electrolyte is a paste of KOH and ZnO"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2548-2551", "Text": "9) suitable for low current devices\nlike hearing aids, watches, etc consists of zinc \u2013 mercury\namalgam as anode and a paste of HgO and carbon as the\ncathode The electrolyte is a paste of KOH and ZnO The\nelectrode reactions for the cell are given below:\nAnode:\nZn(Hg) + 2OH\u2013 \u00be\u00ae ZnO(s) + H2O + 2e\u2013\nCathode:\nHgO + H2O + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Hg(l) + 2OH\u2013\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2549-2552", "Text": "consists of zinc \u2013 mercury\namalgam as anode and a paste of HgO and carbon as the\ncathode The electrolyte is a paste of KOH and ZnO The\nelectrode reactions for the cell are given below:\nAnode:\nZn(Hg) + 2OH\u2013 \u00be\u00ae ZnO(s) + H2O + 2e\u2013\nCathode:\nHgO + H2O + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Hg(l) + 2OH\u2013\n2 6 Batteries\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2550-2553", "Text": "The electrolyte is a paste of KOH and ZnO The\nelectrode reactions for the cell are given below:\nAnode:\nZn(Hg) + 2OH\u2013 \u00be\u00ae ZnO(s) + H2O + 2e\u2013\nCathode:\nHgO + H2O + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Hg(l) + 2OH\u2013\n2 6 Batteries\n2 6 Batteries\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2551-2554", "Text": "The\nelectrode reactions for the cell are given below:\nAnode:\nZn(Hg) + 2OH\u2013 \u00be\u00ae ZnO(s) + H2O + 2e\u2013\nCathode:\nHgO + H2O + 2e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae Hg(l) + 2OH\u2013\n2 6 Batteries\n2 6 Batteries\n2 6 Batteries\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2552-2555", "Text": "6 Batteries\n2 6 Batteries\n2 6 Batteries\n2 6 Batteries\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2553-2556", "Text": "6 Batteries\n2 6 Batteries\n2 6 Batteries\n2 6 Batteries\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2554-2557", "Text": "6 Batteries\n2 6 Batteries\n2 6 Batteries\n2 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2555-2558", "Text": "6 Batteries\n2 6 Batteries\n2 6 1 Primary\nBatteries\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2556-2559", "Text": "6 Batteries\n2 6 1 Primary\nBatteries\nFig 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2557-2560", "Text": "6 1 Primary\nBatteries\nFig 2 8: A commercial dry cell\nconsists of a graphite\n(carbon) cathode in a\nzinc container; the latter\nacts as the anode"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2558-2561", "Text": "1 Primary\nBatteries\nFig 2 8: A commercial dry cell\nconsists of a graphite\n(carbon) cathode in a\nzinc container; the latter\nacts as the anode Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2559-2562", "Text": "2 8: A commercial dry cell\nconsists of a graphite\n(carbon) cathode in a\nzinc container; the latter\nacts as the anode Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n2 10 If a current of 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2560-2563", "Text": "8: A commercial dry cell\nconsists of a graphite\n(carbon) cathode in a\nzinc container; the latter\nacts as the anode Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n2 10 If a current of 0 5 ampere flows through a metallic wire for 2 hours,\nthen how many electrons would flow through the wire"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2561-2564", "Text": "Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n2 10 If a current of 0 5 ampere flows through a metallic wire for 2 hours,\nthen how many electrons would flow through the wire 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2562-2565", "Text": "10 If a current of 0 5 ampere flows through a metallic wire for 2 hours,\nthen how many electrons would flow through the wire 2 11 Suggest a list of metals that are extracted electrolytically"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2563-2566", "Text": "5 ampere flows through a metallic wire for 2 hours,\nthen how many electrons would flow through the wire 2 11 Suggest a list of metals that are extracted electrolytically 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2564-2567", "Text": "2 11 Suggest a list of metals that are extracted electrolytically 2 12 Consider the reaction: Cr2O7\n2\u2013 + 14H+ + 6e\u2013 \u00ae 2Cr3+ + 7H2O\nWhat is the quantity of electricity in coulombs needed to reduce 1 mol\nof Cr2O7\n2\u2013"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2565-2568", "Text": "11 Suggest a list of metals that are extracted electrolytically 2 12 Consider the reaction: Cr2O7\n2\u2013 + 14H+ + 6e\u2013 \u00ae 2Cr3+ + 7H2O\nWhat is the quantity of electricity in coulombs needed to reduce 1 mol\nof Cr2O7\n2\u2013 Rationalised 2023-24\n55\nElectrochemistry\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2566-2569", "Text": "2 12 Consider the reaction: Cr2O7\n2\u2013 + 14H+ + 6e\u2013 \u00ae 2Cr3+ + 7H2O\nWhat is the quantity of electricity in coulombs needed to reduce 1 mol\nof Cr2O7\n2\u2013 Rationalised 2023-24\n55\nElectrochemistry\nFig 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2567-2570", "Text": "12 Consider the reaction: Cr2O7\n2\u2013 + 14H+ + 6e\u2013 \u00ae 2Cr3+ + 7H2O\nWhat is the quantity of electricity in coulombs needed to reduce 1 mol\nof Cr2O7\n2\u2013 Rationalised 2023-24\n55\nElectrochemistry\nFig 2 10: The Lead storage battery"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2568-2571", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n55\nElectrochemistry\nFig 2 10: The Lead storage battery The overall reaction is represented by\nZn(Hg) + HgO(s) \u00be\u00ae ZnO(s) + Hg(l)\nThe cell potential is approximately\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2569-2572", "Text": "2 10: The Lead storage battery The overall reaction is represented by\nZn(Hg) + HgO(s) \u00be\u00ae ZnO(s) + Hg(l)\nThe cell potential is approximately\n1 35 V and remains constant during its\nlife as the overall reaction does not\ninvolve any ion in solution whose\nconcentration can change during its life\ntime"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2570-2573", "Text": "10: The Lead storage battery The overall reaction is represented by\nZn(Hg) + HgO(s) \u00be\u00ae ZnO(s) + Hg(l)\nThe cell potential is approximately\n1 35 V and remains constant during its\nlife as the overall reaction does not\ninvolve any ion in solution whose\nconcentration can change during its life\ntime A secondary cell after use can be recharged by passing current\nthrough it in the opposite direction so that it can be used again"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2571-2574", "Text": "The overall reaction is represented by\nZn(Hg) + HgO(s) \u00be\u00ae ZnO(s) + Hg(l)\nThe cell potential is approximately\n1 35 V and remains constant during its\nlife as the overall reaction does not\ninvolve any ion in solution whose\nconcentration can change during its life\ntime A secondary cell after use can be recharged by passing current\nthrough it in the opposite direction so that it can be used again A\ngood secondary cell can undergo a large number of discharging\nand charging cycles"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2572-2575", "Text": "35 V and remains constant during its\nlife as the overall reaction does not\ninvolve any ion in solution whose\nconcentration can change during its life\ntime A secondary cell after use can be recharged by passing current\nthrough it in the opposite direction so that it can be used again A\ngood secondary cell can undergo a large number of discharging\nand charging cycles The most important secondary cell is the lead\nstorage battery (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2573-2576", "Text": "A secondary cell after use can be recharged by passing current\nthrough it in the opposite direction so that it can be used again A\ngood secondary cell can undergo a large number of discharging\nand charging cycles The most important secondary cell is the lead\nstorage battery (Fig 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2574-2577", "Text": "A\ngood secondary cell can undergo a large number of discharging\nand charging cycles The most important secondary cell is the lead\nstorage battery (Fig 2 10) commonly used in automobiles and\ninvertors"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2575-2578", "Text": "The most important secondary cell is the lead\nstorage battery (Fig 2 10) commonly used in automobiles and\ninvertors It consists of a lead anode and a grid of lead packed with\nlead dioxide (PbO2 ) as cathode"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2576-2579", "Text": "2 10) commonly used in automobiles and\ninvertors It consists of a lead anode and a grid of lead packed with\nlead dioxide (PbO2 ) as cathode A 38% solution of sulphuric acid\nis used as an electrolyte"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2577-2580", "Text": "10) commonly used in automobiles and\ninvertors It consists of a lead anode and a grid of lead packed with\nlead dioxide (PbO2 ) as cathode A 38% solution of sulphuric acid\nis used as an electrolyte The cell reactions when the battery is in use are given below:\nAnode:\nPb(s) + SO4\n2\u2013(aq) \u00ae PbSO4(s) + 2e\u2013\nCathode:\nPbO2(s) + SO4\n2\u2013(aq) + 4H+(aq) + 2e\u2013 \u00ae PbSO4 (s) + 2H2O (l)\ni"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2578-2581", "Text": "It consists of a lead anode and a grid of lead packed with\nlead dioxide (PbO2 ) as cathode A 38% solution of sulphuric acid\nis used as an electrolyte The cell reactions when the battery is in use are given below:\nAnode:\nPb(s) + SO4\n2\u2013(aq) \u00ae PbSO4(s) + 2e\u2013\nCathode:\nPbO2(s) + SO4\n2\u2013(aq) + 4H+(aq) + 2e\u2013 \u00ae PbSO4 (s) + 2H2O (l)\ni e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2579-2582", "Text": "A 38% solution of sulphuric acid\nis used as an electrolyte The cell reactions when the battery is in use are given below:\nAnode:\nPb(s) + SO4\n2\u2013(aq) \u00ae PbSO4(s) + 2e\u2013\nCathode:\nPbO2(s) + SO4\n2\u2013(aq) + 4H+(aq) + 2e\u2013 \u00ae PbSO4 (s) + 2H2O (l)\ni e , overall cell reaction consisting of cathode and anode reactions is:\nPb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) \u00ae 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)\nOn charging the battery the reaction is reversed and PbSO4(s) on\nanode and cathode is converted into Pb and PbO2, respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2580-2583", "Text": "The cell reactions when the battery is in use are given below:\nAnode:\nPb(s) + SO4\n2\u2013(aq) \u00ae PbSO4(s) + 2e\u2013\nCathode:\nPbO2(s) + SO4\n2\u2013(aq) + 4H+(aq) + 2e\u2013 \u00ae PbSO4 (s) + 2H2O (l)\ni e , overall cell reaction consisting of cathode and anode reactions is:\nPb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) \u00ae 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)\nOn charging the battery the reaction is reversed and PbSO4(s) on\nanode and cathode is converted into Pb and PbO2, respectively Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2581-2584", "Text": "e , overall cell reaction consisting of cathode and anode reactions is:\nPb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) \u00ae 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)\nOn charging the battery the reaction is reversed and PbSO4(s) on\nanode and cathode is converted into Pb and PbO2, respectively Fig 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2582-2585", "Text": ", overall cell reaction consisting of cathode and anode reactions is:\nPb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) \u00ae 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)\nOn charging the battery the reaction is reversed and PbSO4(s) on\nanode and cathode is converted into Pb and PbO2, respectively Fig 2 9\nCommonly used\nmercury cell"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2583-2586", "Text": "Fig 2 9\nCommonly used\nmercury cell The\nreducing agent is\nzinc and the\noxidising agent is\nmercury (II) oxide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2584-2587", "Text": "2 9\nCommonly used\nmercury cell The\nreducing agent is\nzinc and the\noxidising agent is\nmercury (II) oxide 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2585-2588", "Text": "9\nCommonly used\nmercury cell The\nreducing agent is\nzinc and the\noxidising agent is\nmercury (II) oxide 2 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2586-2589", "Text": "The\nreducing agent is\nzinc and the\noxidising agent is\nmercury (II) oxide 2 6 2 Secondary\nBatteries\nRationalised 2023-24\n56\nChemistry\nPositive plate\nSeparator\nNegative plate\nAnother important secondary\ncell is the nickel-cadmium cell\n(Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2587-2590", "Text": "2 6 2 Secondary\nBatteries\nRationalised 2023-24\n56\nChemistry\nPositive plate\nSeparator\nNegative plate\nAnother important secondary\ncell is the nickel-cadmium cell\n(Fig 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2588-2591", "Text": "6 2 Secondary\nBatteries\nRationalised 2023-24\n56\nChemistry\nPositive plate\nSeparator\nNegative plate\nAnother important secondary\ncell is the nickel-cadmium cell\n(Fig 2 11) which has longer life\nthan the lead storage cell but\nmore expensive to manufacture"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2589-2592", "Text": "2 Secondary\nBatteries\nRationalised 2023-24\n56\nChemistry\nPositive plate\nSeparator\nNegative plate\nAnother important secondary\ncell is the nickel-cadmium cell\n(Fig 2 11) which has longer life\nthan the lead storage cell but\nmore expensive to manufacture We shall not go into details of\nworking of the cell and the\nelectrode reactions during\ncharging and discharging"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2590-2593", "Text": "2 11) which has longer life\nthan the lead storage cell but\nmore expensive to manufacture We shall not go into details of\nworking of the cell and the\nelectrode reactions during\ncharging and discharging The overall reaction during\ndischarge is:\nCd (s) + 2Ni(OH)3 (s) \u00ae CdO (s) + 2Ni(OH)2 (s) + H2O (l )\nProduction of electricity by thermal plants is not a very efficient method\nand is a major source of pollution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2591-2594", "Text": "11) which has longer life\nthan the lead storage cell but\nmore expensive to manufacture We shall not go into details of\nworking of the cell and the\nelectrode reactions during\ncharging and discharging The overall reaction during\ndischarge is:\nCd (s) + 2Ni(OH)3 (s) \u00ae CdO (s) + 2Ni(OH)2 (s) + H2O (l )\nProduction of electricity by thermal plants is not a very efficient method\nand is a major source of pollution In such plants, the chemical energy\n(heat of combustion) of fossil fuels (coal, gas or oil) is first used for\nconverting water into high pressure steam"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2592-2595", "Text": "We shall not go into details of\nworking of the cell and the\nelectrode reactions during\ncharging and discharging The overall reaction during\ndischarge is:\nCd (s) + 2Ni(OH)3 (s) \u00ae CdO (s) + 2Ni(OH)2 (s) + H2O (l )\nProduction of electricity by thermal plants is not a very efficient method\nand is a major source of pollution In such plants, the chemical energy\n(heat of combustion) of fossil fuels (coal, gas or oil) is first used for\nconverting water into high pressure steam This is then used to run\na turbine to produce electricity"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2593-2596", "Text": "The overall reaction during\ndischarge is:\nCd (s) + 2Ni(OH)3 (s) \u00ae CdO (s) + 2Ni(OH)2 (s) + H2O (l )\nProduction of electricity by thermal plants is not a very efficient method\nand is a major source of pollution In such plants, the chemical energy\n(heat of combustion) of fossil fuels (coal, gas or oil) is first used for\nconverting water into high pressure steam This is then used to run\na turbine to produce electricity We know that a galvanic cell directly\nconverts chemical energy into electricity and is highly efficient"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2594-2597", "Text": "In such plants, the chemical energy\n(heat of combustion) of fossil fuels (coal, gas or oil) is first used for\nconverting water into high pressure steam This is then used to run\na turbine to produce electricity We know that a galvanic cell directly\nconverts chemical energy into electricity and is highly efficient It is\nnow possible to make such cells in which reactants are fed continuously\nto the electrodes and products are removed continuously from the\nelectrolyte compartment"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2595-2598", "Text": "This is then used to run\na turbine to produce electricity We know that a galvanic cell directly\nconverts chemical energy into electricity and is highly efficient It is\nnow possible to make such cells in which reactants are fed continuously\nto the electrodes and products are removed continuously from the\nelectrolyte compartment Galvanic cells that are designed to convert\nthe energy of combustion of fuels like hydrogen, methane, methanol,\netc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2596-2599", "Text": "We know that a galvanic cell directly\nconverts chemical energy into electricity and is highly efficient It is\nnow possible to make such cells in which reactants are fed continuously\nto the electrodes and products are removed continuously from the\nelectrolyte compartment Galvanic cells that are designed to convert\nthe energy of combustion of fuels like hydrogen, methane, methanol,\netc directly into electrical energy are called fuel cells"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2597-2600", "Text": "It is\nnow possible to make such cells in which reactants are fed continuously\nto the electrodes and products are removed continuously from the\nelectrolyte compartment Galvanic cells that are designed to convert\nthe energy of combustion of fuels like hydrogen, methane, methanol,\netc directly into electrical energy are called fuel cells One of the most successful fuel cells\nuses the reaction of hydrogen with oxygen\nto form water (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2598-2601", "Text": "Galvanic cells that are designed to convert\nthe energy of combustion of fuels like hydrogen, methane, methanol,\netc directly into electrical energy are called fuel cells One of the most successful fuel cells\nuses the reaction of hydrogen with oxygen\nto form water (Fig 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2599-2602", "Text": "directly into electrical energy are called fuel cells One of the most successful fuel cells\nuses the reaction of hydrogen with oxygen\nto form water (Fig 2 12)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2600-2603", "Text": "One of the most successful fuel cells\nuses the reaction of hydrogen with oxygen\nto form water (Fig 2 12) The cell was\nused for providing electrical power in the\nApollo space programme"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2601-2604", "Text": "2 12) The cell was\nused for providing electrical power in the\nApollo space programme The water\nvapours produced during the reaction\nwere condensed and added to the\ndrinking water supply for the astronauts"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2602-2605", "Text": "12) The cell was\nused for providing electrical power in the\nApollo space programme The water\nvapours produced during the reaction\nwere condensed and added to the\ndrinking water supply for the astronauts In the cell, hydrogen and oxygen are\nbubbled through porous carbon\nelectrodes into concentrated aqueous\nsodium hydroxide solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2603-2606", "Text": "The cell was\nused for providing electrical power in the\nApollo space programme The water\nvapours produced during the reaction\nwere condensed and added to the\ndrinking water supply for the astronauts In the cell, hydrogen and oxygen are\nbubbled through porous carbon\nelectrodes into concentrated aqueous\nsodium hydroxide solution Catalysts like\nfinely divided platinum or palladium\nmetal are incorporated into the electrodes\nfor increasing the rate of electrode\nreactions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2604-2607", "Text": "The water\nvapours produced during the reaction\nwere condensed and added to the\ndrinking water supply for the astronauts In the cell, hydrogen and oxygen are\nbubbled through porous carbon\nelectrodes into concentrated aqueous\nsodium hydroxide solution Catalysts like\nfinely divided platinum or palladium\nmetal are incorporated into the electrodes\nfor increasing the rate of electrode\nreactions The electrode reactions are\ngiven below:\nCathode:\nO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e\u2013\u00be\u00ae 4OH\u2013(aq)\nAnode:\n2H2 (g) + 4OH\u2013(aq) \u00be\u00ae 4H2O(l) + 4e\u2013\nOverall reaction being:\n2H2(g) + O2(g) \u00be\u00ae 2H2O(l )\nThe cell runs continuously as long as the reactants are supplied"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2605-2608", "Text": "In the cell, hydrogen and oxygen are\nbubbled through porous carbon\nelectrodes into concentrated aqueous\nsodium hydroxide solution Catalysts like\nfinely divided platinum or palladium\nmetal are incorporated into the electrodes\nfor increasing the rate of electrode\nreactions The electrode reactions are\ngiven below:\nCathode:\nO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e\u2013\u00be\u00ae 4OH\u2013(aq)\nAnode:\n2H2 (g) + 4OH\u2013(aq) \u00be\u00ae 4H2O(l) + 4e\u2013\nOverall reaction being:\n2H2(g) + O2(g) \u00be\u00ae 2H2O(l )\nThe cell runs continuously as long as the reactants are supplied Fuel cells produce electricity with an efficiency of about 70 % compared\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2606-2609", "Text": "Catalysts like\nfinely divided platinum or palladium\nmetal are incorporated into the electrodes\nfor increasing the rate of electrode\nreactions The electrode reactions are\ngiven below:\nCathode:\nO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e\u2013\u00be\u00ae 4OH\u2013(aq)\nAnode:\n2H2 (g) + 4OH\u2013(aq) \u00be\u00ae 4H2O(l) + 4e\u2013\nOverall reaction being:\n2H2(g) + O2(g) \u00be\u00ae 2H2O(l )\nThe cell runs continuously as long as the reactants are supplied Fuel cells produce electricity with an efficiency of about 70 % compared\nFig 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2607-2610", "Text": "The electrode reactions are\ngiven below:\nCathode:\nO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e\u2013\u00be\u00ae 4OH\u2013(aq)\nAnode:\n2H2 (g) + 4OH\u2013(aq) \u00be\u00ae 4H2O(l) + 4e\u2013\nOverall reaction being:\n2H2(g) + O2(g) \u00be\u00ae 2H2O(l )\nThe cell runs continuously as long as the reactants are supplied Fuel cells produce electricity with an efficiency of about 70 % compared\nFig 2 11\nA rechargeable\nnickel-cadmium cell\nin a jelly roll\narrangement and\nseparated by a layer\nsoaked in moist\nsodium or potassium\nhydroxide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2608-2611", "Text": "Fuel cells produce electricity with an efficiency of about 70 % compared\nFig 2 11\nA rechargeable\nnickel-cadmium cell\nin a jelly roll\narrangement and\nseparated by a layer\nsoaked in moist\nsodium or potassium\nhydroxide 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2609-2612", "Text": "2 11\nA rechargeable\nnickel-cadmium cell\nin a jelly roll\narrangement and\nseparated by a layer\nsoaked in moist\nsodium or potassium\nhydroxide 2 7 Fuel Cells\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2610-2613", "Text": "11\nA rechargeable\nnickel-cadmium cell\nin a jelly roll\narrangement and\nseparated by a layer\nsoaked in moist\nsodium or potassium\nhydroxide 2 7 Fuel Cells\n2 7 Fuel Cells\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2611-2614", "Text": "2 7 Fuel Cells\n2 7 Fuel Cells\n2 7 Fuel Cells\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2612-2615", "Text": "7 Fuel Cells\n2 7 Fuel Cells\n2 7 Fuel Cells\n2 7 Fuel Cells\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2613-2616", "Text": "7 Fuel Cells\n2 7 Fuel Cells\n2 7 Fuel Cells\n2 7 Fuel Cells\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2614-2617", "Text": "7 Fuel Cells\n2 7 Fuel Cells\n2 7 Fuel Cells\nFig 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2615-2618", "Text": "7 Fuel Cells\n2 7 Fuel Cells\nFig 2 12: Fuel cell using H2 and O2 produces electricity"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2616-2619", "Text": "7 Fuel Cells\nFig 2 12: Fuel cell using H2 and O2 produces electricity Rationalised 2023-24\n57\nElectrochemistry\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2617-2620", "Text": "2 12: Fuel cell using H2 and O2 produces electricity Rationalised 2023-24\n57\nElectrochemistry\nFig 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2618-2621", "Text": "12: Fuel cell using H2 and O2 produces electricity Rationalised 2023-24\n57\nElectrochemistry\nFig 2 13: Corrosion of iron in atmosphere\nOxidation: Fe (s)\u00ae Fe2+ (aq) +2e\u2013\nReduction: O2\nAtomospheric (g) + 4H+(aq) +4e\u2013 \u00ae 2H2O(l)\noxidation: 2Fe2+(aq) + 2H2O(l) + \u00bdO2(g) \u00ae Fe2O3(s) + 4H+(aq)\nto thermal plants whose efficiency is about 40%"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2619-2622", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n57\nElectrochemistry\nFig 2 13: Corrosion of iron in atmosphere\nOxidation: Fe (s)\u00ae Fe2+ (aq) +2e\u2013\nReduction: O2\nAtomospheric (g) + 4H+(aq) +4e\u2013 \u00ae 2H2O(l)\noxidation: 2Fe2+(aq) + 2H2O(l) + \u00bdO2(g) \u00ae Fe2O3(s) + 4H+(aq)\nto thermal plants whose efficiency is about 40% There has been\ntremendous progress in the development of new electrode materials,\nbetter catalysts and electrolytes for increasing the efficiency of fuel cells"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2620-2623", "Text": "2 13: Corrosion of iron in atmosphere\nOxidation: Fe (s)\u00ae Fe2+ (aq) +2e\u2013\nReduction: O2\nAtomospheric (g) + 4H+(aq) +4e\u2013 \u00ae 2H2O(l)\noxidation: 2Fe2+(aq) + 2H2O(l) + \u00bdO2(g) \u00ae Fe2O3(s) + 4H+(aq)\nto thermal plants whose efficiency is about 40% There has been\ntremendous progress in the development of new electrode materials,\nbetter catalysts and electrolytes for increasing the efficiency of fuel cells These have been used in automobiles on an experimental basis"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2621-2624", "Text": "13: Corrosion of iron in atmosphere\nOxidation: Fe (s)\u00ae Fe2+ (aq) +2e\u2013\nReduction: O2\nAtomospheric (g) + 4H+(aq) +4e\u2013 \u00ae 2H2O(l)\noxidation: 2Fe2+(aq) + 2H2O(l) + \u00bdO2(g) \u00ae Fe2O3(s) + 4H+(aq)\nto thermal plants whose efficiency is about 40% There has been\ntremendous progress in the development of new electrode materials,\nbetter catalysts and electrolytes for increasing the efficiency of fuel cells These have been used in automobiles on an experimental basis Fuel\ncells are pollution free and in view of their future importance, a variety\nof fuel cells have been fabricated and tried"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2622-2625", "Text": "There has been\ntremendous progress in the development of new electrode materials,\nbetter catalysts and electrolytes for increasing the efficiency of fuel cells These have been used in automobiles on an experimental basis Fuel\ncells are pollution free and in view of their future importance, a variety\nof fuel cells have been fabricated and tried Corrosion slowly coats the surfaces of metallic objects with oxides or\nother salts of the metal"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2623-2626", "Text": "These have been used in automobiles on an experimental basis Fuel\ncells are pollution free and in view of their future importance, a variety\nof fuel cells have been fabricated and tried Corrosion slowly coats the surfaces of metallic objects with oxides or\nother salts of the metal The rusting of iron, tarnishing of silver,\ndevelopment of green coating on copper and bronze are some of the\nexamples of corrosion"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2624-2627", "Text": "Fuel\ncells are pollution free and in view of their future importance, a variety\nof fuel cells have been fabricated and tried Corrosion slowly coats the surfaces of metallic objects with oxides or\nother salts of the metal The rusting of iron, tarnishing of silver,\ndevelopment of green coating on copper and bronze are some of the\nexamples of corrosion It causes enormous damage to\nbuildings, bridges, ships and to all objects made of\nmetals especially that of iron"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2625-2628", "Text": "Corrosion slowly coats the surfaces of metallic objects with oxides or\nother salts of the metal The rusting of iron, tarnishing of silver,\ndevelopment of green coating on copper and bronze are some of the\nexamples of corrosion It causes enormous damage to\nbuildings, bridges, ships and to all objects made of\nmetals especially that of iron We lose crores of rupees\nevery year on account of corrosion"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2626-2629", "Text": "The rusting of iron, tarnishing of silver,\ndevelopment of green coating on copper and bronze are some of the\nexamples of corrosion It causes enormous damage to\nbuildings, bridges, ships and to all objects made of\nmetals especially that of iron We lose crores of rupees\nevery year on account of corrosion In corrosion, a metal is oxidised by loss of electrons\nto oxygen and formation of oxides"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2627-2630", "Text": "It causes enormous damage to\nbuildings, bridges, ships and to all objects made of\nmetals especially that of iron We lose crores of rupees\nevery year on account of corrosion In corrosion, a metal is oxidised by loss of electrons\nto oxygen and formation of oxides Corrosion of iron\n(commonly known as rusting) occurs in presence of\nwater and air"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2628-2631", "Text": "We lose crores of rupees\nevery year on account of corrosion In corrosion, a metal is oxidised by loss of electrons\nto oxygen and formation of oxides Corrosion of iron\n(commonly known as rusting) occurs in presence of\nwater and air The chemistry of corrosion is quite\ncomplex but it may be considered\nessentially as an electrochemical\nphenomenon"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2629-2632", "Text": "In corrosion, a metal is oxidised by loss of electrons\nto oxygen and formation of oxides Corrosion of iron\n(commonly known as rusting) occurs in presence of\nwater and air The chemistry of corrosion is quite\ncomplex but it may be considered\nessentially as an electrochemical\nphenomenon At a particular spot\n(Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2630-2633", "Text": "Corrosion of iron\n(commonly known as rusting) occurs in presence of\nwater and air The chemistry of corrosion is quite\ncomplex but it may be considered\nessentially as an electrochemical\nphenomenon At a particular spot\n(Fig 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2631-2634", "Text": "The chemistry of corrosion is quite\ncomplex but it may be considered\nessentially as an electrochemical\nphenomenon At a particular spot\n(Fig 2 13) of an object made of iron,\noxidation takes place and that spot\nbehaves as anode and we can write\nthe reaction\nAnode: 2 Fe (s) \u00be\u00ae 2 Fe2+ + 4 e\u2013 \no\n(Fe2+\n/Fe)\nE\n = \u2013 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2632-2635", "Text": "At a particular spot\n(Fig 2 13) of an object made of iron,\noxidation takes place and that spot\nbehaves as anode and we can write\nthe reaction\nAnode: 2 Fe (s) \u00be\u00ae 2 Fe2+ + 4 e\u2013 \no\n(Fe2+\n/Fe)\nE\n = \u2013 0 44 V\nElectrons released at anodic spot move through the metal and go\nto another spot on the metal and reduce oxygen in the presence of H+\n(which is believed to be available from H2CO3 formed due to dissolution\nof carbon dioxide from air into water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2633-2636", "Text": "2 13) of an object made of iron,\noxidation takes place and that spot\nbehaves as anode and we can write\nthe reaction\nAnode: 2 Fe (s) \u00be\u00ae 2 Fe2+ + 4 e\u2013 \no\n(Fe2+\n/Fe)\nE\n = \u2013 0 44 V\nElectrons released at anodic spot move through the metal and go\nto another spot on the metal and reduce oxygen in the presence of H+\n(which is believed to be available from H2CO3 formed due to dissolution\nof carbon dioxide from air into water Hydrogen ion in water may also\nbe available due to dissolution of other acidic oxides from the\natmosphere)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2634-2637", "Text": "13) of an object made of iron,\noxidation takes place and that spot\nbehaves as anode and we can write\nthe reaction\nAnode: 2 Fe (s) \u00be\u00ae 2 Fe2+ + 4 e\u2013 \no\n(Fe2+\n/Fe)\nE\n = \u2013 0 44 V\nElectrons released at anodic spot move through the metal and go\nto another spot on the metal and reduce oxygen in the presence of H+\n(which is believed to be available from H2CO3 formed due to dissolution\nof carbon dioxide from air into water Hydrogen ion in water may also\nbe available due to dissolution of other acidic oxides from the\natmosphere) This spot behaves as cathode with the reaction\nCathode: O2(g) + 4 H+(aq) + 4 e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2 H2O (l) \no\n|\n|\n+\n2\n2\nH\nO \nH O\n=1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2635-2638", "Text": "44 V\nElectrons released at anodic spot move through the metal and go\nto another spot on the metal and reduce oxygen in the presence of H+\n(which is believed to be available from H2CO3 formed due to dissolution\nof carbon dioxide from air into water Hydrogen ion in water may also\nbe available due to dissolution of other acidic oxides from the\natmosphere) This spot behaves as cathode with the reaction\nCathode: O2(g) + 4 H+(aq) + 4 e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2 H2O (l) \no\n|\n|\n+\n2\n2\nH\nO \nH O\n=1 23 V\nE\nThe overall reaction being:\n2Fe(s) + O2(g) + 4H+(aq) \u00be\u00ae 2Fe2 +(aq) + 2 H2O (l) \no\nE(cell)\n=1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2636-2639", "Text": "Hydrogen ion in water may also\nbe available due to dissolution of other acidic oxides from the\natmosphere) This spot behaves as cathode with the reaction\nCathode: O2(g) + 4 H+(aq) + 4 e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2 H2O (l) \no\n|\n|\n+\n2\n2\nH\nO \nH O\n=1 23 V\nE\nThe overall reaction being:\n2Fe(s) + O2(g) + 4H+(aq) \u00be\u00ae 2Fe2 +(aq) + 2 H2O (l) \no\nE(cell)\n=1 67 V\nThe ferrous ions are further oxidised by atmospheric oxygen to\nferric ions which come out as rust in the form of hydrated ferric oxide\n(Fe2O3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2637-2640", "Text": "This spot behaves as cathode with the reaction\nCathode: O2(g) + 4 H+(aq) + 4 e\u2013 \u00be\u00ae 2 H2O (l) \no\n|\n|\n+\n2\n2\nH\nO \nH O\n=1 23 V\nE\nThe overall reaction being:\n2Fe(s) + O2(g) + 4H+(aq) \u00be\u00ae 2Fe2 +(aq) + 2 H2O (l) \no\nE(cell)\n=1 67 V\nThe ferrous ions are further oxidised by atmospheric oxygen to\nferric ions which come out as rust in the form of hydrated ferric oxide\n(Fe2O3 x H2O) and with further production of hydrogen ions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2638-2641", "Text": "23 V\nE\nThe overall reaction being:\n2Fe(s) + O2(g) + 4H+(aq) \u00be\u00ae 2Fe2 +(aq) + 2 H2O (l) \no\nE(cell)\n=1 67 V\nThe ferrous ions are further oxidised by atmospheric oxygen to\nferric ions which come out as rust in the form of hydrated ferric oxide\n(Fe2O3 x H2O) and with further production of hydrogen ions Prevention of corrosion is of prime importance"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2639-2642", "Text": "67 V\nThe ferrous ions are further oxidised by atmospheric oxygen to\nferric ions which come out as rust in the form of hydrated ferric oxide\n(Fe2O3 x H2O) and with further production of hydrogen ions Prevention of corrosion is of prime importance It not only saves\nmoney but also helps in preventing accidents such as a bridge collapse\nor failure of a key component due to corrosion"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2640-2643", "Text": "x H2O) and with further production of hydrogen ions Prevention of corrosion is of prime importance It not only saves\nmoney but also helps in preventing accidents such as a bridge collapse\nor failure of a key component due to corrosion One of the simplest\nmethods of preventing corrosion is to prevent the surface of the metallic\nobject to come in contact with atmosphere"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2641-2644", "Text": "Prevention of corrosion is of prime importance It not only saves\nmoney but also helps in preventing accidents such as a bridge collapse\nor failure of a key component due to corrosion One of the simplest\nmethods of preventing corrosion is to prevent the surface of the metallic\nobject to come in contact with atmosphere This can be done by covering\nthe surface with paint or by some chemicals (e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2642-2645", "Text": "It not only saves\nmoney but also helps in preventing accidents such as a bridge collapse\nor failure of a key component due to corrosion One of the simplest\nmethods of preventing corrosion is to prevent the surface of the metallic\nobject to come in contact with atmosphere This can be done by covering\nthe surface with paint or by some chemicals (e g"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2643-2646", "Text": "One of the simplest\nmethods of preventing corrosion is to prevent the surface of the metallic\nobject to come in contact with atmosphere This can be done by covering\nthe surface with paint or by some chemicals (e g bisphenol)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2644-2647", "Text": "This can be done by covering\nthe surface with paint or by some chemicals (e g bisphenol) Another\nsimple method is to cover the surface by other metals (Sn, Zn, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2645-2648", "Text": "g bisphenol) Another\nsimple method is to cover the surface by other metals (Sn, Zn, etc ) that\nare inert or react to save the object"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2646-2649", "Text": "bisphenol) Another\nsimple method is to cover the surface by other metals (Sn, Zn, etc ) that\nare inert or react to save the object An electrochemical method is to\nprovide a sacrificial electrode of another metal (like Mg, Zn, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2647-2650", "Text": "Another\nsimple method is to cover the surface by other metals (Sn, Zn, etc ) that\nare inert or react to save the object An electrochemical method is to\nprovide a sacrificial electrode of another metal (like Mg, Zn, etc ) which\ncorrodes itself but saves the object"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2648-2651", "Text": ") that\nare inert or react to save the object An electrochemical method is to\nprovide a sacrificial electrode of another metal (like Mg, Zn, etc ) which\ncorrodes itself but saves the object 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2649-2652", "Text": "An electrochemical method is to\nprovide a sacrificial electrode of another metal (like Mg, Zn, etc ) which\ncorrodes itself but saves the object 2 8\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2650-2653", "Text": ") which\ncorrodes itself but saves the object 2 8\n2 8\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2651-2654", "Text": "2 8\n2 8\n2 8\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2652-2655", "Text": "8\n2 8\n2 8\n2 8\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2653-2656", "Text": "8\n2 8\n2 8\n2 8 Corrosion\nCorrosion\nCorrosion\nCorrosion\nCorrosion\nRationalised 2023-24\n58\nChemistry\nThe Hydrogen Economy\nThe Hydrogen Economy\nThe Hydrogen Economy\nThe Hydrogen Economy\nThe Hydrogen Economy\nAt present the main source of energy that is driving our economy is fossil fuels\nsuch as coal, oil and gas"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2654-2657", "Text": "8\n2 8\n2 8 Corrosion\nCorrosion\nCorrosion\nCorrosion\nCorrosion\nRationalised 2023-24\n58\nChemistry\nThe Hydrogen Economy\nThe Hydrogen Economy\nThe Hydrogen Economy\nThe Hydrogen Economy\nThe Hydrogen Economy\nAt present the main source of energy that is driving our economy is fossil fuels\nsuch as coal, oil and gas As more people on the planet aspire to improve their\nstandard of living, their energy requirement will increase"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2655-2658", "Text": "8\n2 8 Corrosion\nCorrosion\nCorrosion\nCorrosion\nCorrosion\nRationalised 2023-24\n58\nChemistry\nThe Hydrogen Economy\nThe Hydrogen Economy\nThe Hydrogen Economy\nThe Hydrogen Economy\nThe Hydrogen Economy\nAt present the main source of energy that is driving our economy is fossil fuels\nsuch as coal, oil and gas As more people on the planet aspire to improve their\nstandard of living, their energy requirement will increase In fact, the per\ncapita consumption of energy used is a measure of development"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2656-2659", "Text": "8 Corrosion\nCorrosion\nCorrosion\nCorrosion\nCorrosion\nRationalised 2023-24\n58\nChemistry\nThe Hydrogen Economy\nThe Hydrogen Economy\nThe Hydrogen Economy\nThe Hydrogen Economy\nThe Hydrogen Economy\nAt present the main source of energy that is driving our economy is fossil fuels\nsuch as coal, oil and gas As more people on the planet aspire to improve their\nstandard of living, their energy requirement will increase In fact, the per\ncapita consumption of energy used is a measure of development Of course, it\nis assumed that energy is used for productive purpose and not merely wasted"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2657-2660", "Text": "As more people on the planet aspire to improve their\nstandard of living, their energy requirement will increase In fact, the per\ncapita consumption of energy used is a measure of development Of course, it\nis assumed that energy is used for productive purpose and not merely wasted We are already aware that carbon dioxide produced by the combustion of fossil\nfuels is resulting in the \u2018Greenhouse Effect\u2019"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2658-2661", "Text": "In fact, the per\ncapita consumption of energy used is a measure of development Of course, it\nis assumed that energy is used for productive purpose and not merely wasted We are already aware that carbon dioxide produced by the combustion of fossil\nfuels is resulting in the \u2018Greenhouse Effect\u2019 This is leading to a rise in the\ntemperature of the Earth\u2019s surface, causing polar ice to melt and ocean levels\nto rise"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2659-2662", "Text": "Of course, it\nis assumed that energy is used for productive purpose and not merely wasted We are already aware that carbon dioxide produced by the combustion of fossil\nfuels is resulting in the \u2018Greenhouse Effect\u2019 This is leading to a rise in the\ntemperature of the Earth\u2019s surface, causing polar ice to melt and ocean levels\nto rise This will flood low-lying areas along the coast and some island nations\nsuch as Maldives face total submergence"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2660-2663", "Text": "We are already aware that carbon dioxide produced by the combustion of fossil\nfuels is resulting in the \u2018Greenhouse Effect\u2019 This is leading to a rise in the\ntemperature of the Earth\u2019s surface, causing polar ice to melt and ocean levels\nto rise This will flood low-lying areas along the coast and some island nations\nsuch as Maldives face total submergence In order to avoid such a catastrope,\nwe need to limit our use of carbonaceous fuels"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2661-2664", "Text": "This is leading to a rise in the\ntemperature of the Earth\u2019s surface, causing polar ice to melt and ocean levels\nto rise This will flood low-lying areas along the coast and some island nations\nsuch as Maldives face total submergence In order to avoid such a catastrope,\nwe need to limit our use of carbonaceous fuels Hydrogen provides an ideal\nalternative as its combustion results in water only"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2662-2665", "Text": "This will flood low-lying areas along the coast and some island nations\nsuch as Maldives face total submergence In order to avoid such a catastrope,\nwe need to limit our use of carbonaceous fuels Hydrogen provides an ideal\nalternative as its combustion results in water only Hydrogen production must\ncome from splitting water using solar energy"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2663-2666", "Text": "In order to avoid such a catastrope,\nwe need to limit our use of carbonaceous fuels Hydrogen provides an ideal\nalternative as its combustion results in water only Hydrogen production must\ncome from splitting water using solar energy Therefore, hydrogen can be used\nas a renewable and non polluting source of energy"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2664-2667", "Text": "Hydrogen provides an ideal\nalternative as its combustion results in water only Hydrogen production must\ncome from splitting water using solar energy Therefore, hydrogen can be used\nas a renewable and non polluting source of energy This is the vision of the\nHydrogen Economy"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2665-2668", "Text": "Hydrogen production must\ncome from splitting water using solar energy Therefore, hydrogen can be used\nas a renewable and non polluting source of energy This is the vision of the\nHydrogen Economy Both the production of hydrogen by electrolysis of water\nand hydrogen combustion in a fuel cell will be important in the future"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2666-2669", "Text": "Therefore, hydrogen can be used\nas a renewable and non polluting source of energy This is the vision of the\nHydrogen Economy Both the production of hydrogen by electrolysis of water\nand hydrogen combustion in a fuel cell will be important in the future And\nboth these technologies are based on electrochemical principles"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2667-2670", "Text": "This is the vision of the\nHydrogen Economy Both the production of hydrogen by electrolysis of water\nand hydrogen combustion in a fuel cell will be important in the future And\nboth these technologies are based on electrochemical principles Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2668-2671", "Text": "Both the production of hydrogen by electrolysis of water\nand hydrogen combustion in a fuel cell will be important in the future And\nboth these technologies are based on electrochemical principles Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n2 13 Write the chemistry of recharging the lead storage battery, highlighting\nall the materials that are involved during recharging"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2669-2672", "Text": "And\nboth these technologies are based on electrochemical principles Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n2 13 Write the chemistry of recharging the lead storage battery, highlighting\nall the materials that are involved during recharging 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2670-2673", "Text": "Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n2 13 Write the chemistry of recharging the lead storage battery, highlighting\nall the materials that are involved during recharging 2 14 Suggest two materials other than hydrogen that can be used as fuels in\nfuel cells"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2671-2674", "Text": "13 Write the chemistry of recharging the lead storage battery, highlighting\nall the materials that are involved during recharging 2 14 Suggest two materials other than hydrogen that can be used as fuels in\nfuel cells 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2672-2675", "Text": "2 14 Suggest two materials other than hydrogen that can be used as fuels in\nfuel cells 2 15 Explain how rusting of iron is envisaged as setting up of an\nelectrochemical cell"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2673-2676", "Text": "14 Suggest two materials other than hydrogen that can be used as fuels in\nfuel cells 2 15 Explain how rusting of iron is envisaged as setting up of an\nelectrochemical cell Summary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nAn electrochemical cell consists of two metallic electrodes dipping in electrolytic\nsolution(s)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2674-2677", "Text": "2 15 Explain how rusting of iron is envisaged as setting up of an\nelectrochemical cell Summary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nAn electrochemical cell consists of two metallic electrodes dipping in electrolytic\nsolution(s) Thus an important component of the electrochemical cell is the ionic\nconductor or electrolyte"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2675-2678", "Text": "15 Explain how rusting of iron is envisaged as setting up of an\nelectrochemical cell Summary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nAn electrochemical cell consists of two metallic electrodes dipping in electrolytic\nsolution(s) Thus an important component of the electrochemical cell is the ionic\nconductor or electrolyte Electrochemical cells are of two types"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2676-2679", "Text": "Summary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nAn electrochemical cell consists of two metallic electrodes dipping in electrolytic\nsolution(s) Thus an important component of the electrochemical cell is the ionic\nconductor or electrolyte Electrochemical cells are of two types In galvanic cell,\nthe chemical energy of a spontaneous redox reaction is converted into electrical\nwork, whereas in an electrolytic cell, electrical energy is used to carry out a non-\nspontaneous redox reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2677-2680", "Text": "Thus an important component of the electrochemical cell is the ionic\nconductor or electrolyte Electrochemical cells are of two types In galvanic cell,\nthe chemical energy of a spontaneous redox reaction is converted into electrical\nwork, whereas in an electrolytic cell, electrical energy is used to carry out a non-\nspontaneous redox reaction The standard electrode potential for any electrode\ndipping in an appropriate solution is defined with respect to standard electrode\npotential of hydrogen electrode taken as zero"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2678-2681", "Text": "Electrochemical cells are of two types In galvanic cell,\nthe chemical energy of a spontaneous redox reaction is converted into electrical\nwork, whereas in an electrolytic cell, electrical energy is used to carry out a non-\nspontaneous redox reaction The standard electrode potential for any electrode\ndipping in an appropriate solution is defined with respect to standard electrode\npotential of hydrogen electrode taken as zero The standard potential of the cell\ncan be obtained by taking the difference of the standard potentials of cathode and\nanode (\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = Eocathode \u2013 Eoanode)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2679-2682", "Text": "In galvanic cell,\nthe chemical energy of a spontaneous redox reaction is converted into electrical\nwork, whereas in an electrolytic cell, electrical energy is used to carry out a non-\nspontaneous redox reaction The standard electrode potential for any electrode\ndipping in an appropriate solution is defined with respect to standard electrode\npotential of hydrogen electrode taken as zero The standard potential of the cell\ncan be obtained by taking the difference of the standard potentials of cathode and\nanode (\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = Eocathode \u2013 Eoanode) The standard potential of the cells are\nrelated to standard Gibbs energy (DrGo = \u2013nF\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n) and equilibrium constant\n(DrGo = \u2013 RT ln K) of the reaction taking place in the cell"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2680-2683", "Text": "The standard electrode potential for any electrode\ndipping in an appropriate solution is defined with respect to standard electrode\npotential of hydrogen electrode taken as zero The standard potential of the cell\ncan be obtained by taking the difference of the standard potentials of cathode and\nanode (\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = Eocathode \u2013 Eoanode) The standard potential of the cells are\nrelated to standard Gibbs energy (DrGo = \u2013nF\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n) and equilibrium constant\n(DrGo = \u2013 RT ln K) of the reaction taking place in the cell Concentration dependence\nof the potentials of the electrodes and the cells are given by Nernst equation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2681-2684", "Text": "The standard potential of the cell\ncan be obtained by taking the difference of the standard potentials of cathode and\nanode (\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n = Eocathode \u2013 Eoanode) The standard potential of the cells are\nrelated to standard Gibbs energy (DrGo = \u2013nF\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n) and equilibrium constant\n(DrGo = \u2013 RT ln K) of the reaction taking place in the cell Concentration dependence\nof the potentials of the electrodes and the cells are given by Nernst equation The conductivity, k, of an electrolytic solution depends on the concentration\nof the electrolyte, nature of solvent and temperature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2682-2685", "Text": "The standard potential of the cells are\nrelated to standard Gibbs energy (DrGo = \u2013nF\n(\n)\no\nEcell\n) and equilibrium constant\n(DrGo = \u2013 RT ln K) of the reaction taking place in the cell Concentration dependence\nof the potentials of the electrodes and the cells are given by Nernst equation The conductivity, k, of an electrolytic solution depends on the concentration\nof the electrolyte, nature of solvent and temperature Molar conductivity, Lm, is\ndefined by = k/c where c is the concentration"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2683-2686", "Text": "Concentration dependence\nof the potentials of the electrodes and the cells are given by Nernst equation The conductivity, k, of an electrolytic solution depends on the concentration\nof the electrolyte, nature of solvent and temperature Molar conductivity, Lm, is\ndefined by = k/c where c is the concentration Conductivity decreases but molar\nconductivity increases with decrease in concentration"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2684-2687", "Text": "The conductivity, k, of an electrolytic solution depends on the concentration\nof the electrolyte, nature of solvent and temperature Molar conductivity, Lm, is\ndefined by = k/c where c is the concentration Conductivity decreases but molar\nconductivity increases with decrease in concentration It increases slowly with\ndecrease in concentration for strong electrolytes while the increase is very steep\nfor weak electrolytes in very dilute solutions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2685-2688", "Text": "Molar conductivity, Lm, is\ndefined by = k/c where c is the concentration Conductivity decreases but molar\nconductivity increases with decrease in concentration It increases slowly with\ndecrease in concentration for strong electrolytes while the increase is very steep\nfor weak electrolytes in very dilute solutions Kohlrausch found that molar\nconductivity at infinite dilution, for an electrolyte is sum of the contribution of the\nRationalised 2023-24\n59\nElectrochemistry\nmolar conductivity of the ions in which it dissociates"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2686-2689", "Text": "Conductivity decreases but molar\nconductivity increases with decrease in concentration It increases slowly with\ndecrease in concentration for strong electrolytes while the increase is very steep\nfor weak electrolytes in very dilute solutions Kohlrausch found that molar\nconductivity at infinite dilution, for an electrolyte is sum of the contribution of the\nRationalised 2023-24\n59\nElectrochemistry\nmolar conductivity of the ions in which it dissociates It is known as law of\nindependent migration of ions and has many applications"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2687-2690", "Text": "It increases slowly with\ndecrease in concentration for strong electrolytes while the increase is very steep\nfor weak electrolytes in very dilute solutions Kohlrausch found that molar\nconductivity at infinite dilution, for an electrolyte is sum of the contribution of the\nRationalised 2023-24\n59\nElectrochemistry\nmolar conductivity of the ions in which it dissociates It is known as law of\nindependent migration of ions and has many applications Ions conduct electricity\nthrough the solution but oxidation and reduction of the ions take place at the\nelectrodes in an electrochemical cell"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2688-2691", "Text": "Kohlrausch found that molar\nconductivity at infinite dilution, for an electrolyte is sum of the contribution of the\nRationalised 2023-24\n59\nElectrochemistry\nmolar conductivity of the ions in which it dissociates It is known as law of\nindependent migration of ions and has many applications Ions conduct electricity\nthrough the solution but oxidation and reduction of the ions take place at the\nelectrodes in an electrochemical cell Batteries and fuel cells are very useful\nforms of galvanic cell"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2689-2692", "Text": "It is known as law of\nindependent migration of ions and has many applications Ions conduct electricity\nthrough the solution but oxidation and reduction of the ions take place at the\nelectrodes in an electrochemical cell Batteries and fuel cells are very useful\nforms of galvanic cell Corrosion of metals is essentially an electrochemical\nphenomenon"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2690-2693", "Text": "Ions conduct electricity\nthrough the solution but oxidation and reduction of the ions take place at the\nelectrodes in an electrochemical cell Batteries and fuel cells are very useful\nforms of galvanic cell Corrosion of metals is essentially an electrochemical\nphenomenon Electrochemical principles are relevant to the Hydrogen Economy"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2691-2694", "Text": "Batteries and fuel cells are very useful\nforms of galvanic cell Corrosion of metals is essentially an electrochemical\nphenomenon Electrochemical principles are relevant to the Hydrogen Economy 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2692-2695", "Text": "Corrosion of metals is essentially an electrochemical\nphenomenon Electrochemical principles are relevant to the Hydrogen Economy 2 1\nArrange the following metals in the order in which they displace each other\nfrom the solution of their salts"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2693-2696", "Text": "Electrochemical principles are relevant to the Hydrogen Economy 2 1\nArrange the following metals in the order in which they displace each other\nfrom the solution of their salts Al, Cu, Fe, Mg and Zn"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2694-2697", "Text": "2 1\nArrange the following metals in the order in which they displace each other\nfrom the solution of their salts Al, Cu, Fe, Mg and Zn 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2695-2698", "Text": "1\nArrange the following metals in the order in which they displace each other\nfrom the solution of their salts Al, Cu, Fe, Mg and Zn 2 2\nGiven the standard electrode potentials,\nK+/K = \u20132"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2696-2699", "Text": "Al, Cu, Fe, Mg and Zn 2 2\nGiven the standard electrode potentials,\nK+/K = \u20132 93V, Ag+/Ag = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2697-2700", "Text": "2 2\nGiven the standard electrode potentials,\nK+/K = \u20132 93V, Ag+/Ag = 0 80V,\nHg2+/Hg = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2698-2701", "Text": "2\nGiven the standard electrode potentials,\nK+/K = \u20132 93V, Ag+/Ag = 0 80V,\nHg2+/Hg = 0 79V\nMg2+/Mg = \u20132"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2699-2702", "Text": "93V, Ag+/Ag = 0 80V,\nHg2+/Hg = 0 79V\nMg2+/Mg = \u20132 37 V, Cr3+/Cr = \u2013 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2700-2703", "Text": "80V,\nHg2+/Hg = 0 79V\nMg2+/Mg = \u20132 37 V, Cr3+/Cr = \u2013 0 74V\nArrange these metals in their increasing order of reducing power"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2701-2704", "Text": "79V\nMg2+/Mg = \u20132 37 V, Cr3+/Cr = \u2013 0 74V\nArrange these metals in their increasing order of reducing power 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2702-2705", "Text": "37 V, Cr3+/Cr = \u2013 0 74V\nArrange these metals in their increasing order of reducing power 2 3\nDepict the galvanic cell in which the reaction\nZn(s)+2Ag+(aq) \u00aeZn2+(aq)+2Ag(s) takes place"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2703-2706", "Text": "74V\nArrange these metals in their increasing order of reducing power 2 3\nDepict the galvanic cell in which the reaction\nZn(s)+2Ag+(aq) \u00aeZn2+(aq)+2Ag(s) takes place Further show:\n(i) Which of the electrode is negatively charged"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2704-2707", "Text": "2 3\nDepict the galvanic cell in which the reaction\nZn(s)+2Ag+(aq) \u00aeZn2+(aq)+2Ag(s) takes place Further show:\n(i) Which of the electrode is negatively charged (ii) The carriers of the current in the cell"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2705-2708", "Text": "3\nDepict the galvanic cell in which the reaction\nZn(s)+2Ag+(aq) \u00aeZn2+(aq)+2Ag(s) takes place Further show:\n(i) Which of the electrode is negatively charged (ii) The carriers of the current in the cell (iii) Individual reaction at each electrode"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2706-2709", "Text": "Further show:\n(i) Which of the electrode is negatively charged (ii) The carriers of the current in the cell (iii) Individual reaction at each electrode 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2707-2710", "Text": "(ii) The carriers of the current in the cell (iii) Individual reaction at each electrode 2 4\nCalculate the standard cell potentials of galvanic cell in which the following\nreactions take place:\n(i) 2Cr(s) + 3Cd2+(aq) \u00ae 2Cr3+(aq) + 3Cd\n(ii) Fe2+(aq) + Ag+(aq) \u00ae Fe3+(aq) + Ag(s)\nCalculate the DrGo and equilibrium constant of the reactions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2708-2711", "Text": "(iii) Individual reaction at each electrode 2 4\nCalculate the standard cell potentials of galvanic cell in which the following\nreactions take place:\n(i) 2Cr(s) + 3Cd2+(aq) \u00ae 2Cr3+(aq) + 3Cd\n(ii) Fe2+(aq) + Ag+(aq) \u00ae Fe3+(aq) + Ag(s)\nCalculate the DrGo and equilibrium constant of the reactions 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2709-2712", "Text": "2 4\nCalculate the standard cell potentials of galvanic cell in which the following\nreactions take place:\n(i) 2Cr(s) + 3Cd2+(aq) \u00ae 2Cr3+(aq) + 3Cd\n(ii) Fe2+(aq) + Ag+(aq) \u00ae Fe3+(aq) + Ag(s)\nCalculate the DrGo and equilibrium constant of the reactions 2 5\nWrite the Nernst equation and emf of the following cells at 298 K:\n(i) Mg(s)|Mg2+(0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2710-2713", "Text": "4\nCalculate the standard cell potentials of galvanic cell in which the following\nreactions take place:\n(i) 2Cr(s) + 3Cd2+(aq) \u00ae 2Cr3+(aq) + 3Cd\n(ii) Fe2+(aq) + Ag+(aq) \u00ae Fe3+(aq) + Ag(s)\nCalculate the DrGo and equilibrium constant of the reactions 2 5\nWrite the Nernst equation and emf of the following cells at 298 K:\n(i) Mg(s)|Mg2+(0 001M)||Cu2+(0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2711-2714", "Text": "2 5\nWrite the Nernst equation and emf of the following cells at 298 K:\n(i) Mg(s)|Mg2+(0 001M)||Cu2+(0 0001 M)|Cu(s)\n(ii) Fe(s)|Fe2+(0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2712-2715", "Text": "5\nWrite the Nernst equation and emf of the following cells at 298 K:\n(i) Mg(s)|Mg2+(0 001M)||Cu2+(0 0001 M)|Cu(s)\n(ii) Fe(s)|Fe2+(0 001M)||H+(1M)|H2(g)(1bar)| Pt(s)\n(iii) Sn(s)|Sn2+(0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2713-2716", "Text": "001M)||Cu2+(0 0001 M)|Cu(s)\n(ii) Fe(s)|Fe2+(0 001M)||H+(1M)|H2(g)(1bar)| Pt(s)\n(iii) Sn(s)|Sn2+(0 050 M)||H+(0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2714-2717", "Text": "0001 M)|Cu(s)\n(ii) Fe(s)|Fe2+(0 001M)||H+(1M)|H2(g)(1bar)| Pt(s)\n(iii) Sn(s)|Sn2+(0 050 M)||H+(0 020 M)|H2(g) (1 bar)|Pt(s)\n(iv) Pt(s)|Br\u2013(0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2715-2718", "Text": "001M)||H+(1M)|H2(g)(1bar)| Pt(s)\n(iii) Sn(s)|Sn2+(0 050 M)||H+(0 020 M)|H2(g) (1 bar)|Pt(s)\n(iv) Pt(s)|Br\u2013(0 010 M)|Br2(l )||H+(0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2716-2719", "Text": "050 M)||H+(0 020 M)|H2(g) (1 bar)|Pt(s)\n(iv) Pt(s)|Br\u2013(0 010 M)|Br2(l )||H+(0 030 M)| H2(g) (1 bar)|Pt(s)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2717-2720", "Text": "020 M)|H2(g) (1 bar)|Pt(s)\n(iv) Pt(s)|Br\u2013(0 010 M)|Br2(l )||H+(0 030 M)| H2(g) (1 bar)|Pt(s) 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2718-2721", "Text": "010 M)|Br2(l )||H+(0 030 M)| H2(g) (1 bar)|Pt(s) 2 6\nIn the button cells widely used in watches and other devices the following\nreaction takes place:\nZn(s) + Ag2O(s) + H2O(l) \u00ae Zn2+(aq) + 2Ag(s) + 2OH\u2013(aq)\nDetermine DrGo and Eo for the reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2719-2722", "Text": "030 M)| H2(g) (1 bar)|Pt(s) 2 6\nIn the button cells widely used in watches and other devices the following\nreaction takes place:\nZn(s) + Ag2O(s) + H2O(l) \u00ae Zn2+(aq) + 2Ag(s) + 2OH\u2013(aq)\nDetermine DrGo and Eo for the reaction 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2720-2723", "Text": "2 6\nIn the button cells widely used in watches and other devices the following\nreaction takes place:\nZn(s) + Ag2O(s) + H2O(l) \u00ae Zn2+(aq) + 2Ag(s) + 2OH\u2013(aq)\nDetermine DrGo and Eo for the reaction 2 7\nDefine conductivity and molar conductivity for the solution of an electrolyte"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2721-2724", "Text": "6\nIn the button cells widely used in watches and other devices the following\nreaction takes place:\nZn(s) + Ag2O(s) + H2O(l) \u00ae Zn2+(aq) + 2Ag(s) + 2OH\u2013(aq)\nDetermine DrGo and Eo for the reaction 2 7\nDefine conductivity and molar conductivity for the solution of an electrolyte Discuss their variation with concentration"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2722-2725", "Text": "2 7\nDefine conductivity and molar conductivity for the solution of an electrolyte Discuss their variation with concentration 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2723-2726", "Text": "7\nDefine conductivity and molar conductivity for the solution of an electrolyte Discuss their variation with concentration 2 8\nThe conductivity of 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2724-2727", "Text": "Discuss their variation with concentration 2 8\nThe conductivity of 0 20 M solution of KCl at 298 K is 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2725-2728", "Text": "2 8\nThe conductivity of 0 20 M solution of KCl at 298 K is 0 0248 S cm\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2726-2729", "Text": "8\nThe conductivity of 0 20 M solution of KCl at 298 K is 0 0248 S cm\u20131 Calculate\nits molar conductivity"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2727-2730", "Text": "20 M solution of KCl at 298 K is 0 0248 S cm\u20131 Calculate\nits molar conductivity 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2728-2731", "Text": "0248 S cm\u20131 Calculate\nits molar conductivity 2 9\nThe resistance of a conductivity cell containing 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2729-2732", "Text": "Calculate\nits molar conductivity 2 9\nThe resistance of a conductivity cell containing 0 001M KCl solution at 298\nK is 1500 W"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2730-2733", "Text": "2 9\nThe resistance of a conductivity cell containing 0 001M KCl solution at 298\nK is 1500 W What is the cell constant if conductivity of 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2731-2734", "Text": "9\nThe resistance of a conductivity cell containing 0 001M KCl solution at 298\nK is 1500 W What is the cell constant if conductivity of 0 001M KCl solution\nat 298 K is 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2732-2735", "Text": "001M KCl solution at 298\nK is 1500 W What is the cell constant if conductivity of 0 001M KCl solution\nat 298 K is 0 146 \u00d7 10\u20133 S cm\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2733-2736", "Text": "What is the cell constant if conductivity of 0 001M KCl solution\nat 298 K is 0 146 \u00d7 10\u20133 S cm\u20131 Exercises\nExercises\nExercises\nExercises\nExercises\nRationalised 2023-24\n60\nChemistry\nAnswers to Some Intext Questions\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2734-2737", "Text": "001M KCl solution\nat 298 K is 0 146 \u00d7 10\u20133 S cm\u20131 Exercises\nExercises\nExercises\nExercises\nExercises\nRationalised 2023-24\n60\nChemistry\nAnswers to Some Intext Questions\n2 5 E(cell) = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2735-2738", "Text": "146 \u00d7 10\u20133 S cm\u20131 Exercises\nExercises\nExercises\nExercises\nExercises\nRationalised 2023-24\n60\nChemistry\nAnswers to Some Intext Questions\n2 5 E(cell) = 0 91 V\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2736-2739", "Text": "Exercises\nExercises\nExercises\nExercises\nExercises\nRationalised 2023-24\n60\nChemistry\nAnswers to Some Intext Questions\n2 5 E(cell) = 0 91 V\n2 6\n\u2212\n\u2206\no= \u2212\n1\nrG\n45"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2737-2740", "Text": "5 E(cell) = 0 91 V\n2 6\n\u2212\n\u2206\no= \u2212\n1\nrG\n45 54 kJ mol\n, Kc = 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2738-2741", "Text": "91 V\n2 6\n\u2212\n\u2206\no= \u2212\n1\nrG\n45 54 kJ mol\n, Kc = 9 62 \u00d7107\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2739-2742", "Text": "6\n\u2212\n\u2206\no= \u2212\n1\nrG\n45 54 kJ mol\n, Kc = 9 62 \u00d7107\n2 9 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2740-2743", "Text": "54 kJ mol\n, Kc = 9 62 \u00d7107\n2 9 0 114, 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2741-2744", "Text": "62 \u00d7107\n2 9 0 114, 3 67 \u00d7 10\u20134 mol L\u20131\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2742-2745", "Text": "9 0 114, 3 67 \u00d7 10\u20134 mol L\u20131\n2 10\nThe conductivity of sodium chloride at 298 K has been determined at different\nconcentrations and the results are given below:\nConcentration/M\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2743-2746", "Text": "114, 3 67 \u00d7 10\u20134 mol L\u20131\n2 10\nThe conductivity of sodium chloride at 298 K has been determined at different\nconcentrations and the results are given below:\nConcentration/M\n0 001\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2744-2747", "Text": "67 \u00d7 10\u20134 mol L\u20131\n2 10\nThe conductivity of sodium chloride at 298 K has been determined at different\nconcentrations and the results are given below:\nConcentration/M\n0 001\n0 010\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2745-2748", "Text": "10\nThe conductivity of sodium chloride at 298 K has been determined at different\nconcentrations and the results are given below:\nConcentration/M\n0 001\n0 010\n0 020\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2746-2749", "Text": "001\n0 010\n0 020\n0 050\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2747-2750", "Text": "010\n0 020\n0 050\n0 100\n102 \u00d7 k/S m\u20131\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2748-2751", "Text": "020\n0 050\n0 100\n102 \u00d7 k/S m\u20131\n1 237\n11"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2749-2752", "Text": "050\n0 100\n102 \u00d7 k/S m\u20131\n1 237\n11 85\n23"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2750-2753", "Text": "100\n102 \u00d7 k/S m\u20131\n1 237\n11 85\n23 15\n55"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2751-2754", "Text": "237\n11 85\n23 15\n55 53 106"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2752-2755", "Text": "85\n23 15\n55 53 106 74\nCalculate \u039bm for all concentrations and draw a plot between \u039bm and c\u00bd"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2753-2756", "Text": "15\n55 53 106 74\nCalculate \u039bm for all concentrations and draw a plot between \u039bm and c\u00bd Find the value of \n0\n\uf04cm"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2754-2757", "Text": "53 106 74\nCalculate \u039bm for all concentrations and draw a plot between \u039bm and c\u00bd Find the value of \n0\n\uf04cm 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2755-2758", "Text": "74\nCalculate \u039bm for all concentrations and draw a plot between \u039bm and c\u00bd Find the value of \n0\n\uf04cm 2 11\nConductivity of 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2756-2759", "Text": "Find the value of \n0\n\uf04cm 2 11\nConductivity of 0 00241 M acetic acid is 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2757-2760", "Text": "2 11\nConductivity of 0 00241 M acetic acid is 7 896 \u00d7 10\u20135 S cm\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2758-2761", "Text": "11\nConductivity of 0 00241 M acetic acid is 7 896 \u00d7 10\u20135 S cm\u20131 Calculate its\nmolar conductivity"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2759-2762", "Text": "00241 M acetic acid is 7 896 \u00d7 10\u20135 S cm\u20131 Calculate its\nmolar conductivity If \n0\n\uf04cm\n for acetic acid is 390"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2760-2763", "Text": "896 \u00d7 10\u20135 S cm\u20131 Calculate its\nmolar conductivity If \n0\n\uf04cm\n for acetic acid is 390 5 S cm2 mol\u20131, what is its\ndissociation constant"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2761-2764", "Text": "Calculate its\nmolar conductivity If \n0\n\uf04cm\n for acetic acid is 390 5 S cm2 mol\u20131, what is its\ndissociation constant 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2762-2765", "Text": "If \n0\n\uf04cm\n for acetic acid is 390 5 S cm2 mol\u20131, what is its\ndissociation constant 2 12\nHow much charge is required for the following reductions:\n(i) 1 mol of Al3+ to Al"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2763-2766", "Text": "5 S cm2 mol\u20131, what is its\ndissociation constant 2 12\nHow much charge is required for the following reductions:\n(i) 1 mol of Al3+ to Al (ii) 1 mol of Cu2+ to Cu"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2764-2767", "Text": "2 12\nHow much charge is required for the following reductions:\n(i) 1 mol of Al3+ to Al (ii) 1 mol of Cu2+ to Cu (iii) 1 mol of MnO4\n\u2013 to Mn2+"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2765-2768", "Text": "12\nHow much charge is required for the following reductions:\n(i) 1 mol of Al3+ to Al (ii) 1 mol of Cu2+ to Cu (iii) 1 mol of MnO4\n\u2013 to Mn2+ 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2766-2769", "Text": "(ii) 1 mol of Cu2+ to Cu (iii) 1 mol of MnO4\n\u2013 to Mn2+ 2 13\nHow much electricity in terms of Faraday is required to produce\n(i) 20"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2767-2770", "Text": "(iii) 1 mol of MnO4\n\u2013 to Mn2+ 2 13\nHow much electricity in terms of Faraday is required to produce\n(i) 20 0 g of Ca from molten CaCl2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2768-2771", "Text": "2 13\nHow much electricity in terms of Faraday is required to produce\n(i) 20 0 g of Ca from molten CaCl2 (ii) 40"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2769-2772", "Text": "13\nHow much electricity in terms of Faraday is required to produce\n(i) 20 0 g of Ca from molten CaCl2 (ii) 40 0 g of Al from molten Al2O3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2770-2773", "Text": "0 g of Ca from molten CaCl2 (ii) 40 0 g of Al from molten Al2O3 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2771-2774", "Text": "(ii) 40 0 g of Al from molten Al2O3 2 14\nHow much electricity is required in coulomb for the oxidation of\n(i) 1 mol of H2O to O2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2772-2775", "Text": "0 g of Al from molten Al2O3 2 14\nHow much electricity is required in coulomb for the oxidation of\n(i) 1 mol of H2O to O2 (ii) 1 mol of FeO to Fe2O3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2773-2776", "Text": "2 14\nHow much electricity is required in coulomb for the oxidation of\n(i) 1 mol of H2O to O2 (ii) 1 mol of FeO to Fe2O3 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2774-2777", "Text": "14\nHow much electricity is required in coulomb for the oxidation of\n(i) 1 mol of H2O to O2 (ii) 1 mol of FeO to Fe2O3 2 15\nA solution of Ni(NO3)2 is electrolysed between platinum electrodes using a\ncurrent of 5 amperes for 20 minutes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2775-2778", "Text": "(ii) 1 mol of FeO to Fe2O3 2 15\nA solution of Ni(NO3)2 is electrolysed between platinum electrodes using a\ncurrent of 5 amperes for 20 minutes What mass of Ni is deposited at the\ncathode"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2776-2779", "Text": "2 15\nA solution of Ni(NO3)2 is electrolysed between platinum electrodes using a\ncurrent of 5 amperes for 20 minutes What mass of Ni is deposited at the\ncathode 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2777-2780", "Text": "15\nA solution of Ni(NO3)2 is electrolysed between platinum electrodes using a\ncurrent of 5 amperes for 20 minutes What mass of Ni is deposited at the\ncathode 2 16\nThree electrolytic cells A,B,C containing solutions of ZnSO4, AgNO3 and CuSO4,\nrespectively are connected in series"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2778-2781", "Text": "What mass of Ni is deposited at the\ncathode 2 16\nThree electrolytic cells A,B,C containing solutions of ZnSO4, AgNO3 and CuSO4,\nrespectively are connected in series A steady current of 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2779-2782", "Text": "2 16\nThree electrolytic cells A,B,C containing solutions of ZnSO4, AgNO3 and CuSO4,\nrespectively are connected in series A steady current of 1 5 amperes was\npassed through them until 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2780-2783", "Text": "16\nThree electrolytic cells A,B,C containing solutions of ZnSO4, AgNO3 and CuSO4,\nrespectively are connected in series A steady current of 1 5 amperes was\npassed through them until 1 45 g of silver deposited at the cathode of cell B"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2781-2784", "Text": "A steady current of 1 5 amperes was\npassed through them until 1 45 g of silver deposited at the cathode of cell B How long did the current flow"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2782-2785", "Text": "5 amperes was\npassed through them until 1 45 g of silver deposited at the cathode of cell B How long did the current flow What mass of copper and zinc were deposited"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2783-2786", "Text": "45 g of silver deposited at the cathode of cell B How long did the current flow What mass of copper and zinc were deposited 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2784-2787", "Text": "How long did the current flow What mass of copper and zinc were deposited 2 17\nUsing the standard electrode potentials given in Table 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2785-2788", "Text": "What mass of copper and zinc were deposited 2 17\nUsing the standard electrode potentials given in Table 3 1, predict if the\nreaction between the following is feasible:\n(i) Fe3+(aq) and I\u2013(aq)\n(ii) Ag+ (aq) and Cu(s)\n(iii) Fe3+ (aq) and Br\u2013 (aq)\n(iv) Ag(s) and Fe \n3+ (aq)\n(v) Br2 (aq) and Fe2+ (aq)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2786-2789", "Text": "2 17\nUsing the standard electrode potentials given in Table 3 1, predict if the\nreaction between the following is feasible:\n(i) Fe3+(aq) and I\u2013(aq)\n(ii) Ag+ (aq) and Cu(s)\n(iii) Fe3+ (aq) and Br\u2013 (aq)\n(iv) Ag(s) and Fe \n3+ (aq)\n(v) Br2 (aq) and Fe2+ (aq) 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2787-2790", "Text": "17\nUsing the standard electrode potentials given in Table 3 1, predict if the\nreaction between the following is feasible:\n(i) Fe3+(aq) and I\u2013(aq)\n(ii) Ag+ (aq) and Cu(s)\n(iii) Fe3+ (aq) and Br\u2013 (aq)\n(iv) Ag(s) and Fe \n3+ (aq)\n(v) Br2 (aq) and Fe2+ (aq) 2 18\nPredict the products of electrolysis in each of the following:\n(i) An aqueous solution of AgNO3 with silver electrodes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2788-2791", "Text": "1, predict if the\nreaction between the following is feasible:\n(i) Fe3+(aq) and I\u2013(aq)\n(ii) Ag+ (aq) and Cu(s)\n(iii) Fe3+ (aq) and Br\u2013 (aq)\n(iv) Ag(s) and Fe \n3+ (aq)\n(v) Br2 (aq) and Fe2+ (aq) 2 18\nPredict the products of electrolysis in each of the following:\n(i) An aqueous solution of AgNO3 with silver electrodes (ii) An aqueous solution of AgNO3 with platinum electrodes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2789-2792", "Text": "2 18\nPredict the products of electrolysis in each of the following:\n(i) An aqueous solution of AgNO3 with silver electrodes (ii) An aqueous solution of AgNO3 with platinum electrodes (iii) A dilute solution of H2SO4 with platinum electrodes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2790-2793", "Text": "18\nPredict the products of electrolysis in each of the following:\n(i) An aqueous solution of AgNO3 with silver electrodes (ii) An aqueous solution of AgNO3 with platinum electrodes (iii) A dilute solution of H2SO4 with platinum electrodes (iv) An aqueous solution of CuCl2 with platinum electrodes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2791-2794", "Text": "(ii) An aqueous solution of AgNO3 with platinum electrodes (iii) A dilute solution of H2SO4 with platinum electrodes (iv) An aqueous solution of CuCl2 with platinum electrodes Rationalised 2023-24\nChemistry, by its very nature, is concerned with change"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2792-2795", "Text": "(iii) A dilute solution of H2SO4 with platinum electrodes (iv) An aqueous solution of CuCl2 with platinum electrodes Rationalised 2023-24\nChemistry, by its very nature, is concerned with change Substances with well defined properties are converted\nby chemical reactions into other substances with\ndifferent properties"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2793-2796", "Text": "(iv) An aqueous solution of CuCl2 with platinum electrodes Rationalised 2023-24\nChemistry, by its very nature, is concerned with change Substances with well defined properties are converted\nby chemical reactions into other substances with\ndifferent properties For any chemical reaction, chemists\ntry to find out\n(a) the feasibility of a chemical reaction which can be\npredicted by thermodynamics ( as you know that a\nreaction with DG < 0, at constant temperature and\npressure is feasible);\n(b) extent to which a reaction will proceed can be\ndetermined from chemical equilibrium;\n(c) speed of a reaction i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2794-2797", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\nChemistry, by its very nature, is concerned with change Substances with well defined properties are converted\nby chemical reactions into other substances with\ndifferent properties For any chemical reaction, chemists\ntry to find out\n(a) the feasibility of a chemical reaction which can be\npredicted by thermodynamics ( as you know that a\nreaction with DG < 0, at constant temperature and\npressure is feasible);\n(b) extent to which a reaction will proceed can be\ndetermined from chemical equilibrium;\n(c) speed of a reaction i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2795-2798", "Text": "Substances with well defined properties are converted\nby chemical reactions into other substances with\ndifferent properties For any chemical reaction, chemists\ntry to find out\n(a) the feasibility of a chemical reaction which can be\npredicted by thermodynamics ( as you know that a\nreaction with DG < 0, at constant temperature and\npressure is feasible);\n(b) extent to which a reaction will proceed can be\ndetermined from chemical equilibrium;\n(c) speed of a reaction i e time taken by a reaction to\nreach equilibrium"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2796-2799", "Text": "For any chemical reaction, chemists\ntry to find out\n(a) the feasibility of a chemical reaction which can be\npredicted by thermodynamics ( as you know that a\nreaction with DG < 0, at constant temperature and\npressure is feasible);\n(b) extent to which a reaction will proceed can be\ndetermined from chemical equilibrium;\n(c) speed of a reaction i e time taken by a reaction to\nreach equilibrium Along with feasibility and extent, it is equally\nimportant to know the rate and the factors controlling\nthe rate of a chemical reaction for its complete\nunderstanding"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2797-2800", "Text": "e time taken by a reaction to\nreach equilibrium Along with feasibility and extent, it is equally\nimportant to know the rate and the factors controlling\nthe rate of a chemical reaction for its complete\nunderstanding For example, which parameters\ndetermine as to how rapidly food gets spoiled"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2798-2801", "Text": "time taken by a reaction to\nreach equilibrium Along with feasibility and extent, it is equally\nimportant to know the rate and the factors controlling\nthe rate of a chemical reaction for its complete\nunderstanding For example, which parameters\ndetermine as to how rapidly food gets spoiled How\nto design a rapidly setting material for dental filling"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2799-2802", "Text": "Along with feasibility and extent, it is equally\nimportant to know the rate and the factors controlling\nthe rate of a chemical reaction for its complete\nunderstanding For example, which parameters\ndetermine as to how rapidly food gets spoiled How\nto design a rapidly setting material for dental filling Or what controls the rate at which fuel burns in an\nauto engine"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2800-2803", "Text": "For example, which parameters\ndetermine as to how rapidly food gets spoiled How\nto design a rapidly setting material for dental filling Or what controls the rate at which fuel burns in an\nauto engine All these questions can be answered by\nthe branch of chemistry, which deals with the study\nof reaction rates and their mechanisms, called\nchemical kinetics"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2801-2804", "Text": "How\nto design a rapidly setting material for dental filling Or what controls the rate at which fuel burns in an\nauto engine All these questions can be answered by\nthe branch of chemistry, which deals with the study\nof reaction rates and their mechanisms, called\nchemical kinetics The word kinetics is derived from\nthe Greek word \u2018kinesis\u2019 meaning movement"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2802-2805", "Text": "Or what controls the rate at which fuel burns in an\nauto engine All these questions can be answered by\nthe branch of chemistry, which deals with the study\nof reaction rates and their mechanisms, called\nchemical kinetics The word kinetics is derived from\nthe Greek word \u2018kinesis\u2019 meaning movement Thermodynamics tells only about the feasibility of a\nreaction whereas chemical kinetics tells about the rate\nof a reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2803-2806", "Text": "All these questions can be answered by\nthe branch of chemistry, which deals with the study\nof reaction rates and their mechanisms, called\nchemical kinetics The word kinetics is derived from\nthe Greek word \u2018kinesis\u2019 meaning movement Thermodynamics tells only about the feasibility of a\nreaction whereas chemical kinetics tells about the rate\nof a reaction For example, thermodynamic data\nindicate that diamond shall convert to graphite but\nin reality the conversion rate is so slow that the change\nis not perceptible at all"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2804-2807", "Text": "The word kinetics is derived from\nthe Greek word \u2018kinesis\u2019 meaning movement Thermodynamics tells only about the feasibility of a\nreaction whereas chemical kinetics tells about the rate\nof a reaction For example, thermodynamic data\nindicate that diamond shall convert to graphite but\nin reality the conversion rate is so slow that the change\nis not perceptible at all Therefore, most people think\nAfter studying this Unit, you will be\nable to\n\u00b7\ndefine \nthe \naverage \nand\ninstantaneous rate of a reaction;\n\u00b7\nexpress the rate of a reaction in\nterms of change in concentration\nof either of the reactants or\nproducts with time;\n\u00b7\ndistinguish between elementary\nand complex reactions;\n\u00b7\ndifferentiate \nbetween \nthe\nmolecularity and order of a\nreaction;\n\u00b7\ndefine rate constant;\n\u00b7\ndiscuss the dependence of rate of\nreactions \non \nconcentration,\ntemperature and catalyst;\n\u00b7\nderive integrated rate equations\nfor the zero and first order\nreactions;\n\u00b7\ndetermine the rate constants for\nzeroth and first order reactions;\n\u00b7\ndescribe collision theory"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2805-2808", "Text": "Thermodynamics tells only about the feasibility of a\nreaction whereas chemical kinetics tells about the rate\nof a reaction For example, thermodynamic data\nindicate that diamond shall convert to graphite but\nin reality the conversion rate is so slow that the change\nis not perceptible at all Therefore, most people think\nAfter studying this Unit, you will be\nable to\n\u00b7\ndefine \nthe \naverage \nand\ninstantaneous rate of a reaction;\n\u00b7\nexpress the rate of a reaction in\nterms of change in concentration\nof either of the reactants or\nproducts with time;\n\u00b7\ndistinguish between elementary\nand complex reactions;\n\u00b7\ndifferentiate \nbetween \nthe\nmolecularity and order of a\nreaction;\n\u00b7\ndefine rate constant;\n\u00b7\ndiscuss the dependence of rate of\nreactions \non \nconcentration,\ntemperature and catalyst;\n\u00b7\nderive integrated rate equations\nfor the zero and first order\nreactions;\n\u00b7\ndetermine the rate constants for\nzeroth and first order reactions;\n\u00b7\ndescribe collision theory Objectives\nChemical Kinetics helps us to understand how chemical reactions\noccur"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2806-2809", "Text": "For example, thermodynamic data\nindicate that diamond shall convert to graphite but\nin reality the conversion rate is so slow that the change\nis not perceptible at all Therefore, most people think\nAfter studying this Unit, you will be\nable to\n\u00b7\ndefine \nthe \naverage \nand\ninstantaneous rate of a reaction;\n\u00b7\nexpress the rate of a reaction in\nterms of change in concentration\nof either of the reactants or\nproducts with time;\n\u00b7\ndistinguish between elementary\nand complex reactions;\n\u00b7\ndifferentiate \nbetween \nthe\nmolecularity and order of a\nreaction;\n\u00b7\ndefine rate constant;\n\u00b7\ndiscuss the dependence of rate of\nreactions \non \nconcentration,\ntemperature and catalyst;\n\u00b7\nderive integrated rate equations\nfor the zero and first order\nreactions;\n\u00b7\ndetermine the rate constants for\nzeroth and first order reactions;\n\u00b7\ndescribe collision theory Objectives\nChemical Kinetics helps us to understand how chemical reactions\noccur 3\nChemical Kinetics\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit3Unit\nChemical Kinetics\nRationalised 2023-24\n62\nChemistry\nthat diamond is forever"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2807-2810", "Text": "Therefore, most people think\nAfter studying this Unit, you will be\nable to\n\u00b7\ndefine \nthe \naverage \nand\ninstantaneous rate of a reaction;\n\u00b7\nexpress the rate of a reaction in\nterms of change in concentration\nof either of the reactants or\nproducts with time;\n\u00b7\ndistinguish between elementary\nand complex reactions;\n\u00b7\ndifferentiate \nbetween \nthe\nmolecularity and order of a\nreaction;\n\u00b7\ndefine rate constant;\n\u00b7\ndiscuss the dependence of rate of\nreactions \non \nconcentration,\ntemperature and catalyst;\n\u00b7\nderive integrated rate equations\nfor the zero and first order\nreactions;\n\u00b7\ndetermine the rate constants for\nzeroth and first order reactions;\n\u00b7\ndescribe collision theory Objectives\nChemical Kinetics helps us to understand how chemical reactions\noccur 3\nChemical Kinetics\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit3Unit\nChemical Kinetics\nRationalised 2023-24\n62\nChemistry\nthat diamond is forever Kinetic studies not only help us to determine\nthe speed or rate of a chemical reaction but also describe the\nconditions by which the reaction rates can be altered"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2808-2811", "Text": "Objectives\nChemical Kinetics helps us to understand how chemical reactions\noccur 3\nChemical Kinetics\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit3Unit\nChemical Kinetics\nRationalised 2023-24\n62\nChemistry\nthat diamond is forever Kinetic studies not only help us to determine\nthe speed or rate of a chemical reaction but also describe the\nconditions by which the reaction rates can be altered The factors\nsuch as concentration, temperature, pressure and catalyst affect the\nrate of a reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2809-2812", "Text": "3\nChemical Kinetics\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit3Unit\nChemical Kinetics\nRationalised 2023-24\n62\nChemistry\nthat diamond is forever Kinetic studies not only help us to determine\nthe speed or rate of a chemical reaction but also describe the\nconditions by which the reaction rates can be altered The factors\nsuch as concentration, temperature, pressure and catalyst affect the\nrate of a reaction At the macroscopic level, we are interested in\namounts reacted or formed and the rates of their consumption or\nformation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2810-2813", "Text": "Kinetic studies not only help us to determine\nthe speed or rate of a chemical reaction but also describe the\nconditions by which the reaction rates can be altered The factors\nsuch as concentration, temperature, pressure and catalyst affect the\nrate of a reaction At the macroscopic level, we are interested in\namounts reacted or formed and the rates of their consumption or\nformation At the molecular level, the reaction mechanisms involving\norientation and energy of molecules undergoing collisions,\nare discussed"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2811-2814", "Text": "The factors\nsuch as concentration, temperature, pressure and catalyst affect the\nrate of a reaction At the macroscopic level, we are interested in\namounts reacted or formed and the rates of their consumption or\nformation At the molecular level, the reaction mechanisms involving\norientation and energy of molecules undergoing collisions,\nare discussed In this Unit, we shall be dealing with average and instantaneous\nrate of reaction and the factors affecting these"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2812-2815", "Text": "At the macroscopic level, we are interested in\namounts reacted or formed and the rates of their consumption or\nformation At the molecular level, the reaction mechanisms involving\norientation and energy of molecules undergoing collisions,\nare discussed In this Unit, we shall be dealing with average and instantaneous\nrate of reaction and the factors affecting these Some elementary\nideas about the collision theory of reaction rates are also given"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2813-2816", "Text": "At the molecular level, the reaction mechanisms involving\norientation and energy of molecules undergoing collisions,\nare discussed In this Unit, we shall be dealing with average and instantaneous\nrate of reaction and the factors affecting these Some elementary\nideas about the collision theory of reaction rates are also given However, in order to understand all these, let us first learn about the\nreaction rate"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2814-2817", "Text": "In this Unit, we shall be dealing with average and instantaneous\nrate of reaction and the factors affecting these Some elementary\nideas about the collision theory of reaction rates are also given However, in order to understand all these, let us first learn about the\nreaction rate Some reactions such as ionic reactions occur very fast, for example,\nprecipitation of silver chloride occurs instantaneously by mixing of\naqueous solutions of silver nitrate and sodium chloride"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2815-2818", "Text": "Some elementary\nideas about the collision theory of reaction rates are also given However, in order to understand all these, let us first learn about the\nreaction rate Some reactions such as ionic reactions occur very fast, for example,\nprecipitation of silver chloride occurs instantaneously by mixing of\naqueous solutions of silver nitrate and sodium chloride On the other\nhand, some reactions are very slow, for example, rusting of iron in\nthe presence of air and moisture"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2816-2819", "Text": "However, in order to understand all these, let us first learn about the\nreaction rate Some reactions such as ionic reactions occur very fast, for example,\nprecipitation of silver chloride occurs instantaneously by mixing of\naqueous solutions of silver nitrate and sodium chloride On the other\nhand, some reactions are very slow, for example, rusting of iron in\nthe presence of air and moisture Also there are reactions like inversion\nof cane sugar and hydrolysis of starch, which proceed with a moderate\nspeed"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2817-2820", "Text": "Some reactions such as ionic reactions occur very fast, for example,\nprecipitation of silver chloride occurs instantaneously by mixing of\naqueous solutions of silver nitrate and sodium chloride On the other\nhand, some reactions are very slow, for example, rusting of iron in\nthe presence of air and moisture Also there are reactions like inversion\nof cane sugar and hydrolysis of starch, which proceed with a moderate\nspeed Can you think of more examples from each category"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2818-2821", "Text": "On the other\nhand, some reactions are very slow, for example, rusting of iron in\nthe presence of air and moisture Also there are reactions like inversion\nof cane sugar and hydrolysis of starch, which proceed with a moderate\nspeed Can you think of more examples from each category You must be knowing that speed of an automobile is expressed in\nterms of change in the position or distance covered by it in a certain\nperiod of time"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2819-2822", "Text": "Also there are reactions like inversion\nof cane sugar and hydrolysis of starch, which proceed with a moderate\nspeed Can you think of more examples from each category You must be knowing that speed of an automobile is expressed in\nterms of change in the position or distance covered by it in a certain\nperiod of time Similarly, the speed of a reaction or the rate of a\nreaction can be defined as the change in concentration of a reactant\nor product in unit time"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2820-2823", "Text": "Can you think of more examples from each category You must be knowing that speed of an automobile is expressed in\nterms of change in the position or distance covered by it in a certain\nperiod of time Similarly, the speed of a reaction or the rate of a\nreaction can be defined as the change in concentration of a reactant\nor product in unit time To be more specific, it can be expressed in\nterms of:\n(i) the rate of decrease in concentration of any one of the\nreactants, or\n(ii) the rate of increase in concentration of any one of the products"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2821-2824", "Text": "You must be knowing that speed of an automobile is expressed in\nterms of change in the position or distance covered by it in a certain\nperiod of time Similarly, the speed of a reaction or the rate of a\nreaction can be defined as the change in concentration of a reactant\nor product in unit time To be more specific, it can be expressed in\nterms of:\n(i) the rate of decrease in concentration of any one of the\nreactants, or\n(ii) the rate of increase in concentration of any one of the products Consider a hypothetical reaction, assuming that the volume of the\nsystem remains constant"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2822-2825", "Text": "Similarly, the speed of a reaction or the rate of a\nreaction can be defined as the change in concentration of a reactant\nor product in unit time To be more specific, it can be expressed in\nterms of:\n(i) the rate of decrease in concentration of any one of the\nreactants, or\n(ii) the rate of increase in concentration of any one of the products Consider a hypothetical reaction, assuming that the volume of the\nsystem remains constant R \u00ae P\nOne mole of the reactant R produces one mole of the product P"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2823-2826", "Text": "To be more specific, it can be expressed in\nterms of:\n(i) the rate of decrease in concentration of any one of the\nreactants, or\n(ii) the rate of increase in concentration of any one of the products Consider a hypothetical reaction, assuming that the volume of the\nsystem remains constant R \u00ae P\nOne mole of the reactant R produces one mole of the product P If\n[R]1 and [P]1 are the concentrations of R and P respectively at time t1\nand [R]2 and [P]2 are their concentrations at time t2 then,\nDt\n=\nt2 \u2013 t1\nD[R]\n=\n[R]2 \u2013 [R]1\nD [P] =\n[P]2 \u2013 [P]1\nThe square brackets in the above expressions are used to express\nmolar concentration"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2824-2827", "Text": "Consider a hypothetical reaction, assuming that the volume of the\nsystem remains constant R \u00ae P\nOne mole of the reactant R produces one mole of the product P If\n[R]1 and [P]1 are the concentrations of R and P respectively at time t1\nand [R]2 and [P]2 are their concentrations at time t2 then,\nDt\n=\nt2 \u2013 t1\nD[R]\n=\n[R]2 \u2013 [R]1\nD [P] =\n[P]2 \u2013 [P]1\nThe square brackets in the above expressions are used to express\nmolar concentration Rate of disappearance of R\n[\n]\nDecrease in concentration of R\nR\n=\nTime taken\nt\n= \u2212\u2206\n\u2206\n(3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2825-2828", "Text": "R \u00ae P\nOne mole of the reactant R produces one mole of the product P If\n[R]1 and [P]1 are the concentrations of R and P respectively at time t1\nand [R]2 and [P]2 are their concentrations at time t2 then,\nDt\n=\nt2 \u2013 t1\nD[R]\n=\n[R]2 \u2013 [R]1\nD [P] =\n[P]2 \u2013 [P]1\nThe square brackets in the above expressions are used to express\nmolar concentration Rate of disappearance of R\n[\n]\nDecrease in concentration of R\nR\n=\nTime taken\nt\n= \u2212\u2206\n\u2206\n(3 1)\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2826-2829", "Text": "If\n[R]1 and [P]1 are the concentrations of R and P respectively at time t1\nand [R]2 and [P]2 are their concentrations at time t2 then,\nDt\n=\nt2 \u2013 t1\nD[R]\n=\n[R]2 \u2013 [R]1\nD [P] =\n[P]2 \u2013 [P]1\nThe square brackets in the above expressions are used to express\nmolar concentration Rate of disappearance of R\n[\n]\nDecrease in concentration of R\nR\n=\nTime taken\nt\n= \u2212\u2206\n\u2206\n(3 1)\n3 1\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2827-2830", "Text": "Rate of disappearance of R\n[\n]\nDecrease in concentration of R\nR\n=\nTime taken\nt\n= \u2212\u2206\n\u2206\n(3 1)\n3 1\n3 1\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2828-2831", "Text": "1)\n3 1\n3 1\n3 1\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2829-2832", "Text": "1\n3 1\n3 1\n3 1\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2830-2833", "Text": "1\n3 1\n3 1\n3 1 Rate of a\nRate of a\nRate of a\nRate of a\nRate of a\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nReaction\nReaction\nReaction\nReaction\nReaction\nRationalised 2023-24\n63\nChemical Kinetics\nRate of appearance of P\n[ ]\nIncrease in concentration of P\nP\n=\nTime taken\nt\n\u2206\n= + \u2206\n(3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2831-2834", "Text": "1\n3 1\n3 1 Rate of a\nRate of a\nRate of a\nRate of a\nRate of a\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nReaction\nReaction\nReaction\nReaction\nReaction\nRationalised 2023-24\n63\nChemical Kinetics\nRate of appearance of P\n[ ]\nIncrease in concentration of P\nP\n=\nTime taken\nt\n\u2206\n= + \u2206\n(3 2)\nSince, D[R] is a negative quantity (as concentration of reactants is\ndecreasing), it is multiplied with \u20131 to make the rate of the reaction a\npositive quantity"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2832-2835", "Text": "1\n3 1 Rate of a\nRate of a\nRate of a\nRate of a\nRate of a\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nReaction\nReaction\nReaction\nReaction\nReaction\nRationalised 2023-24\n63\nChemical Kinetics\nRate of appearance of P\n[ ]\nIncrease in concentration of P\nP\n=\nTime taken\nt\n\u2206\n= + \u2206\n(3 2)\nSince, D[R] is a negative quantity (as concentration of reactants is\ndecreasing), it is multiplied with \u20131 to make the rate of the reaction a\npositive quantity Equations (3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2833-2836", "Text": "1 Rate of a\nRate of a\nRate of a\nRate of a\nRate of a\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nReaction\nReaction\nReaction\nReaction\nReaction\nRationalised 2023-24\n63\nChemical Kinetics\nRate of appearance of P\n[ ]\nIncrease in concentration of P\nP\n=\nTime taken\nt\n\u2206\n= + \u2206\n(3 2)\nSince, D[R] is a negative quantity (as concentration of reactants is\ndecreasing), it is multiplied with \u20131 to make the rate of the reaction a\npositive quantity Equations (3 1) and (3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2834-2837", "Text": "2)\nSince, D[R] is a negative quantity (as concentration of reactants is\ndecreasing), it is multiplied with \u20131 to make the rate of the reaction a\npositive quantity Equations (3 1) and (3 2) given above represent the average rate of\na reaction, rav"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2835-2838", "Text": "Equations (3 1) and (3 2) given above represent the average rate of\na reaction, rav Average rate depends upon the change in concentration of reactants\nor products and the time taken for that change to occur (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2836-2839", "Text": "1) and (3 2) given above represent the average rate of\na reaction, rav Average rate depends upon the change in concentration of reactants\nor products and the time taken for that change to occur (Fig 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2837-2840", "Text": "2) given above represent the average rate of\na reaction, rav Average rate depends upon the change in concentration of reactants\nor products and the time taken for that change to occur (Fig 3 1)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2838-2841", "Text": "Average rate depends upon the change in concentration of reactants\nor products and the time taken for that change to occur (Fig 3 1) Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2839-2842", "Text": "3 1) Fig 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2840-2843", "Text": "1) Fig 3 1: Instantaneous and average rate of a reaction\nUnits of rate of a reaction\nFrom equations (3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2841-2844", "Text": "Fig 3 1: Instantaneous and average rate of a reaction\nUnits of rate of a reaction\nFrom equations (3 1) and (3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2842-2845", "Text": "3 1: Instantaneous and average rate of a reaction\nUnits of rate of a reaction\nFrom equations (3 1) and (3 2), it is clear that units of rate are\nconcentration time\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2843-2846", "Text": "1: Instantaneous and average rate of a reaction\nUnits of rate of a reaction\nFrom equations (3 1) and (3 2), it is clear that units of rate are\nconcentration time\u20131 For example, if concentration is in mol L\u20131 and\ntime is in seconds then the units will be mol L-1s\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2844-2847", "Text": "1) and (3 2), it is clear that units of rate are\nconcentration time\u20131 For example, if concentration is in mol L\u20131 and\ntime is in seconds then the units will be mol L-1s\u20131 However, in gaseous\nreactions, when the concentration of gases is expressed in terms of their\npartial pressures, then the units of the rate equation will be atm s\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2845-2848", "Text": "2), it is clear that units of rate are\nconcentration time\u20131 For example, if concentration is in mol L\u20131 and\ntime is in seconds then the units will be mol L-1s\u20131 However, in gaseous\nreactions, when the concentration of gases is expressed in terms of their\npartial pressures, then the units of the rate equation will be atm s\u20131 From the concentrations of C4H9Cl (butyl chloride) at different times given\nbelow, calculate the average rate of the reaction:\nC4H9Cl + H2O \u00ae C4H9OH + HCl\nduring different intervals of time"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2846-2849", "Text": "For example, if concentration is in mol L\u20131 and\ntime is in seconds then the units will be mol L-1s\u20131 However, in gaseous\nreactions, when the concentration of gases is expressed in terms of their\npartial pressures, then the units of the rate equation will be atm s\u20131 From the concentrations of C4H9Cl (butyl chloride) at different times given\nbelow, calculate the average rate of the reaction:\nC4H9Cl + H2O \u00ae C4H9OH + HCl\nduring different intervals of time t/s\n0\n50\n100\n150\n200\n300\n400\n700\n800\n [C4H9Cl]/mol L\u20131 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2847-2850", "Text": "However, in gaseous\nreactions, when the concentration of gases is expressed in terms of their\npartial pressures, then the units of the rate equation will be atm s\u20131 From the concentrations of C4H9Cl (butyl chloride) at different times given\nbelow, calculate the average rate of the reaction:\nC4H9Cl + H2O \u00ae C4H9OH + HCl\nduring different intervals of time t/s\n0\n50\n100\n150\n200\n300\n400\n700\n800\n [C4H9Cl]/mol L\u20131 0 100 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2848-2851", "Text": "From the concentrations of C4H9Cl (butyl chloride) at different times given\nbelow, calculate the average rate of the reaction:\nC4H9Cl + H2O \u00ae C4H9OH + HCl\nduring different intervals of time t/s\n0\n50\n100\n150\n200\n300\n400\n700\n800\n [C4H9Cl]/mol L\u20131 0 100 0 0905 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2849-2852", "Text": "t/s\n0\n50\n100\n150\n200\n300\n400\n700\n800\n [C4H9Cl]/mol L\u20131 0 100 0 0905 0 0820 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2850-2853", "Text": "100 0 0905 0 0820 0 0741 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2851-2854", "Text": "0905 0 0820 0 0741 0 0671 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2852-2855", "Text": "0820 0 0741 0 0671 0 0549 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2853-2856", "Text": "0741 0 0671 0 0549 0 0439 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2854-2857", "Text": "0671 0 0549 0 0439 0 0210 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2855-2858", "Text": "0549 0 0439 0 0210 0 017\nWe can determine the difference in concentration over different intervals\nof time and thus determine the average rate by dividing D[R] by Dt\n(Table 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2856-2859", "Text": "0439 0 0210 0 017\nWe can determine the difference in concentration over different intervals\nof time and thus determine the average rate by dividing D[R] by Dt\n(Table 3 1)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2857-2860", "Text": "0210 0 017\nWe can determine the difference in concentration over different intervals\nof time and thus determine the average rate by dividing D[R] by Dt\n(Table 3 1) { }\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2858-2861", "Text": "017\nWe can determine the difference in concentration over different intervals\nof time and thus determine the average rate by dividing D[R] by Dt\n(Table 3 1) { }\nExample 3 1\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2859-2862", "Text": "1) { }\nExample 3 1\nExample 3 1\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2860-2863", "Text": "{ }\nExample 3 1\nExample 3 1\nExample 3 1\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2861-2864", "Text": "1\nExample 3 1\nExample 3 1\nExample 3 1\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2862-2865", "Text": "1\nExample 3 1\nExample 3 1\nExample 3 1\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n64\nChemistry\nIt can be seen (Table 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2863-2866", "Text": "1\nExample 3 1\nExample 3 1\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n64\nChemistry\nIt can be seen (Table 3 1) that the average rate falls from 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2864-2867", "Text": "1\nExample 3 1\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n64\nChemistry\nIt can be seen (Table 3 1) that the average rate falls from 1 90 \u00d7 0-4 mol L-1s-1 to\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2865-2868", "Text": "1\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n64\nChemistry\nIt can be seen (Table 3 1) that the average rate falls from 1 90 \u00d7 0-4 mol L-1s-1 to\n0 4 \u00d7 10-4 mol L-1s-1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2866-2869", "Text": "1) that the average rate falls from 1 90 \u00d7 0-4 mol L-1s-1 to\n0 4 \u00d7 10-4 mol L-1s-1 However, average rate cannot be used to predict the\nrate of a reaction at a particular instant as it would be constant for the\ntime interval for which it is calculated"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2867-2870", "Text": "90 \u00d7 0-4 mol L-1s-1 to\n0 4 \u00d7 10-4 mol L-1s-1 However, average rate cannot be used to predict the\nrate of a reaction at a particular instant as it would be constant for the\ntime interval for which it is calculated So, to express the rate at a particular\nmoment of time we determine the instantaneous rate"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2868-2871", "Text": "4 \u00d7 10-4 mol L-1s-1 However, average rate cannot be used to predict the\nrate of a reaction at a particular instant as it would be constant for the\ntime interval for which it is calculated So, to express the rate at a particular\nmoment of time we determine the instantaneous rate It is obtained\nwhen we consider the average rate at the smallest time interval say dt ( i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2869-2872", "Text": "However, average rate cannot be used to predict the\nrate of a reaction at a particular instant as it would be constant for the\ntime interval for which it is calculated So, to express the rate at a particular\nmoment of time we determine the instantaneous rate It is obtained\nwhen we consider the average rate at the smallest time interval say dt ( i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2870-2873", "Text": "So, to express the rate at a particular\nmoment of time we determine the instantaneous rate It is obtained\nwhen we consider the average rate at the smallest time interval say dt ( i e when Dt approaches zero)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2871-2874", "Text": "It is obtained\nwhen we consider the average rate at the smallest time interval say dt ( i e when Dt approaches zero) Hence, mathematically for an infinitesimally\nsmall dt instantaneous rate is given by\n[\n]\n[ ]\n\u2212\u2206\n\u2206\n=\n=\n\u2206\n\u2206\nav\nR\nP\nr\nt\nt\n(3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2872-2875", "Text": "e when Dt approaches zero) Hence, mathematically for an infinitesimally\nsmall dt instantaneous rate is given by\n[\n]\n[ ]\n\u2212\u2206\n\u2206\n=\n=\n\u2206\n\u2206\nav\nR\nP\nr\nt\nt\n(3 3)\nAs Dt \u00ae 0\nor\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n\uf05b \uf05d\ninst\nd\nd\nR\nP\nd\nd\nr\nt\nt\n\uf03d\uf02d\n\uf03d\nTable 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2873-2876", "Text": "when Dt approaches zero) Hence, mathematically for an infinitesimally\nsmall dt instantaneous rate is given by\n[\n]\n[ ]\n\u2212\u2206\n\u2206\n=\n=\n\u2206\n\u2206\nav\nR\nP\nr\nt\nt\n(3 3)\nAs Dt \u00ae 0\nor\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n\uf05b \uf05d\ninst\nd\nd\nR\nP\nd\nd\nr\nt\nt\n\uf03d\uf02d\n\uf03d\nTable 3 1: Average rates of hydrolysis of butyl chloride\n[C4H9CI]t1 /\n[C4H9CI]t2 /\nt1/s\nt2/s\nrav \u00d7 104/mol L\u20131s\u20131\n mol L\u20131\nmol L\u20131\n[\n]\n[\n]\n(\n)\n{\n}\n= \u2013 \n\u2212\n\u00d7\n2\n1\n4\n4\n9\n4\n9\n2\n1\nt\nt\nC H Cl\n\u2013 C H Cl\n/ t\nt\n10\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2874-2877", "Text": "Hence, mathematically for an infinitesimally\nsmall dt instantaneous rate is given by\n[\n]\n[ ]\n\u2212\u2206\n\u2206\n=\n=\n\u2206\n\u2206\nav\nR\nP\nr\nt\nt\n(3 3)\nAs Dt \u00ae 0\nor\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n\uf05b \uf05d\ninst\nd\nd\nR\nP\nd\nd\nr\nt\nt\n\uf03d\uf02d\n\uf03d\nTable 3 1: Average rates of hydrolysis of butyl chloride\n[C4H9CI]t1 /\n[C4H9CI]t2 /\nt1/s\nt2/s\nrav \u00d7 104/mol L\u20131s\u20131\n mol L\u20131\nmol L\u20131\n[\n]\n[\n]\n(\n)\n{\n}\n= \u2013 \n\u2212\n\u00d7\n2\n1\n4\n4\n9\n4\n9\n2\n1\nt\nt\nC H Cl\n\u2013 C H Cl\n/ t\nt\n10\n0 100\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2875-2878", "Text": "3)\nAs Dt \u00ae 0\nor\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n\uf05b \uf05d\ninst\nd\nd\nR\nP\nd\nd\nr\nt\nt\n\uf03d\uf02d\n\uf03d\nTable 3 1: Average rates of hydrolysis of butyl chloride\n[C4H9CI]t1 /\n[C4H9CI]t2 /\nt1/s\nt2/s\nrav \u00d7 104/mol L\u20131s\u20131\n mol L\u20131\nmol L\u20131\n[\n]\n[\n]\n(\n)\n{\n}\n= \u2013 \n\u2212\n\u00d7\n2\n1\n4\n4\n9\n4\n9\n2\n1\nt\nt\nC H Cl\n\u2013 C H Cl\n/ t\nt\n10\n0 100\n0 0905\n0\n50\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2876-2879", "Text": "1: Average rates of hydrolysis of butyl chloride\n[C4H9CI]t1 /\n[C4H9CI]t2 /\nt1/s\nt2/s\nrav \u00d7 104/mol L\u20131s\u20131\n mol L\u20131\nmol L\u20131\n[\n]\n[\n]\n(\n)\n{\n}\n= \u2013 \n\u2212\n\u00d7\n2\n1\n4\n4\n9\n4\n9\n2\n1\nt\nt\nC H Cl\n\u2013 C H Cl\n/ t\nt\n10\n0 100\n0 0905\n0\n50\n1 90\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2877-2880", "Text": "100\n0 0905\n0\n50\n1 90\n0 0905\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2878-2881", "Text": "0905\n0\n50\n1 90\n0 0905\n0 0820\n50\n100\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2879-2882", "Text": "90\n0 0905\n0 0820\n50\n100\n1 70\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2880-2883", "Text": "0905\n0 0820\n50\n100\n1 70\n0 0820\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2881-2884", "Text": "0820\n50\n100\n1 70\n0 0820\n0 0741\n100\n150\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2882-2885", "Text": "70\n0 0820\n0 0741\n100\n150\n1 58\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2883-2886", "Text": "0820\n0 0741\n100\n150\n1 58\n0 0741\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2884-2887", "Text": "0741\n100\n150\n1 58\n0 0741\n0 0671\n150\n200\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2885-2888", "Text": "58\n0 0741\n0 0671\n150\n200\n1 40\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2886-2889", "Text": "0741\n0 0671\n150\n200\n1 40\n0 0671\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2887-2890", "Text": "0671\n150\n200\n1 40\n0 0671\n0 0549\n200\n300\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2888-2891", "Text": "40\n0 0671\n0 0549\n200\n300\n1 22\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2889-2892", "Text": "0671\n0 0549\n200\n300\n1 22\n0 0549\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2890-2893", "Text": "0549\n200\n300\n1 22\n0 0549\n0 0439\n300\n400\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2891-2894", "Text": "22\n0 0549\n0 0439\n300\n400\n1 10\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2892-2895", "Text": "0549\n0 0439\n300\n400\n1 10\n0 0439\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2893-2896", "Text": "0439\n300\n400\n1 10\n0 0439\n0 0335\n400\n500\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2894-2897", "Text": "10\n0 0439\n0 0335\n400\n500\n1 04\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2895-2898", "Text": "0439\n0 0335\n400\n500\n1 04\n0 0210\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2896-2899", "Text": "0335\n400\n500\n1 04\n0 0210\n0 017\n700\n800\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2897-2900", "Text": "04\n0 0210\n0 017\n700\n800\n0 4\nFig 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2898-2901", "Text": "0210\n0 017\n700\n800\n0 4\nFig 3 2\nInstantaneous rate\nof hydrolysis of butyl\nchloride(C4H9Cl)\nRationalised 2023-24\n65\nChemical Kinetics\nIt can be determined graphically by drawing a tangent at time t on\neither of the curves for concentration of R and P vs time t and calculating\nits slope (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2899-2902", "Text": "017\n700\n800\n0 4\nFig 3 2\nInstantaneous rate\nof hydrolysis of butyl\nchloride(C4H9Cl)\nRationalised 2023-24\n65\nChemical Kinetics\nIt can be determined graphically by drawing a tangent at time t on\neither of the curves for concentration of R and P vs time t and calculating\nits slope (Fig 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2900-2903", "Text": "4\nFig 3 2\nInstantaneous rate\nof hydrolysis of butyl\nchloride(C4H9Cl)\nRationalised 2023-24\n65\nChemical Kinetics\nIt can be determined graphically by drawing a tangent at time t on\neither of the curves for concentration of R and P vs time t and calculating\nits slope (Fig 3 1)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2901-2904", "Text": "2\nInstantaneous rate\nof hydrolysis of butyl\nchloride(C4H9Cl)\nRationalised 2023-24\n65\nChemical Kinetics\nIt can be determined graphically by drawing a tangent at time t on\neither of the curves for concentration of R and P vs time t and calculating\nits slope (Fig 3 1) So in problem 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2902-2905", "Text": "3 1) So in problem 3 1, rinst at 600s for example, can be\ncalculated by plotting concentration of butyl chloride as a function of\ntime"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2903-2906", "Text": "1) So in problem 3 1, rinst at 600s for example, can be\ncalculated by plotting concentration of butyl chloride as a function of\ntime A tangent is drawn that touches the curve at t = 600 s (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2904-2907", "Text": "So in problem 3 1, rinst at 600s for example, can be\ncalculated by plotting concentration of butyl chloride as a function of\ntime A tangent is drawn that touches the curve at t = 600 s (Fig 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2905-2908", "Text": "1, rinst at 600s for example, can be\ncalculated by plotting concentration of butyl chloride as a function of\ntime A tangent is drawn that touches the curve at t = 600 s (Fig 3 2)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2906-2909", "Text": "A tangent is drawn that touches the curve at t = 600 s (Fig 3 2) The slope of this tangent gives the instantaneous rate"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2907-2910", "Text": "3 2) The slope of this tangent gives the instantaneous rate So, rinst at 600 s = \u2013 \n mol L\u20131 = 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2908-2911", "Text": "2) The slope of this tangent gives the instantaneous rate So, rinst at 600 s = \u2013 \n mol L\u20131 = 5 12 \u00d7 10\u20135 mol L\u20131s\u20131\nAt t = 250 s\nrinst = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2909-2912", "Text": "The slope of this tangent gives the instantaneous rate So, rinst at 600 s = \u2013 \n mol L\u20131 = 5 12 \u00d7 10\u20135 mol L\u20131s\u20131\nAt t = 250 s\nrinst = 1 22 \u00d7 10\u20134\n mol L\u20131s\u20131\n t = 350 s\nrinst = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2910-2913", "Text": "So, rinst at 600 s = \u2013 \n mol L\u20131 = 5 12 \u00d7 10\u20135 mol L\u20131s\u20131\nAt t = 250 s\nrinst = 1 22 \u00d7 10\u20134\n mol L\u20131s\u20131\n t = 350 s\nrinst = 1 0 \u00d7 10\u20134 mol L\u20131s\u20131\n t = 450 s\nrinst = 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2911-2914", "Text": "12 \u00d7 10\u20135 mol L\u20131s\u20131\nAt t = 250 s\nrinst = 1 22 \u00d7 10\u20134\n mol L\u20131s\u20131\n t = 350 s\nrinst = 1 0 \u00d7 10\u20134 mol L\u20131s\u20131\n t = 450 s\nrinst = 6 4 \u00d7\u00d7 10\u20135 mol L\u20131s\u20131\nNow consider a reaction\nHg(l) + Cl2 (g) \u00ae HgCl2(s)\nWhere stoichiometric coefficients of the reactants and products are\nsame, then rate of the reaction is given as\n[\n]\n[\n]\n[\n]\n2\n2\nHg\nCl\nHgCl\nRate of reaction = \u2013\n\u2013\nt\nt\nt\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\n=\n=\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\ni"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2912-2915", "Text": "22 \u00d7 10\u20134\n mol L\u20131s\u20131\n t = 350 s\nrinst = 1 0 \u00d7 10\u20134 mol L\u20131s\u20131\n t = 450 s\nrinst = 6 4 \u00d7\u00d7 10\u20135 mol L\u20131s\u20131\nNow consider a reaction\nHg(l) + Cl2 (g) \u00ae HgCl2(s)\nWhere stoichiometric coefficients of the reactants and products are\nsame, then rate of the reaction is given as\n[\n]\n[\n]\n[\n]\n2\n2\nHg\nCl\nHgCl\nRate of reaction = \u2013\n\u2013\nt\nt\nt\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\n=\n=\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\ni e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2913-2916", "Text": "0 \u00d7 10\u20134 mol L\u20131s\u20131\n t = 450 s\nrinst = 6 4 \u00d7\u00d7 10\u20135 mol L\u20131s\u20131\nNow consider a reaction\nHg(l) + Cl2 (g) \u00ae HgCl2(s)\nWhere stoichiometric coefficients of the reactants and products are\nsame, then rate of the reaction is given as\n[\n]\n[\n]\n[\n]\n2\n2\nHg\nCl\nHgCl\nRate of reaction = \u2013\n\u2013\nt\nt\nt\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\n=\n=\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\ni e , rate of disappearance of any of the reactants is same as the rate\nof appearance of the products"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2914-2917", "Text": "4 \u00d7\u00d7 10\u20135 mol L\u20131s\u20131\nNow consider a reaction\nHg(l) + Cl2 (g) \u00ae HgCl2(s)\nWhere stoichiometric coefficients of the reactants and products are\nsame, then rate of the reaction is given as\n[\n]\n[\n]\n[\n]\n2\n2\nHg\nCl\nHgCl\nRate of reaction = \u2013\n\u2013\nt\nt\nt\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\n=\n=\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\ni e , rate of disappearance of any of the reactants is same as the rate\nof appearance of the products But in the following reaction, two moles of\nHI decompose to produce one mole each of H2 and I2,\n2HI(g) \u00ae H2(g) + I2(g)\nFor expressing the rate of such a reaction where stoichiometric\ncoefficients of reactants or products are not equal to one, rate of\ndisappearance of any of the reactants or the rate of appearance of\nproducts is divided by their respective stoichiometric coefficients"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2915-2918", "Text": "e , rate of disappearance of any of the reactants is same as the rate\nof appearance of the products But in the following reaction, two moles of\nHI decompose to produce one mole each of H2 and I2,\n2HI(g) \u00ae H2(g) + I2(g)\nFor expressing the rate of such a reaction where stoichiometric\ncoefficients of reactants or products are not equal to one, rate of\ndisappearance of any of the reactants or the rate of appearance of\nproducts is divided by their respective stoichiometric coefficients Since\nrate of consumption of HI is twice the rate of formation of H2 or I2, to\nmake them equal, the term D[HI] is divided by 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2916-2919", "Text": ", rate of disappearance of any of the reactants is same as the rate\nof appearance of the products But in the following reaction, two moles of\nHI decompose to produce one mole each of H2 and I2,\n2HI(g) \u00ae H2(g) + I2(g)\nFor expressing the rate of such a reaction where stoichiometric\ncoefficients of reactants or products are not equal to one, rate of\ndisappearance of any of the reactants or the rate of appearance of\nproducts is divided by their respective stoichiometric coefficients Since\nrate of consumption of HI is twice the rate of formation of H2 or I2, to\nmake them equal, the term D[HI] is divided by 2 The rate of this reaction\nis given by\nRate of reaction \n[\n]\n[\n]\n[ ]\n2\n2\nH\nI\n1\nHI\n2\nt\nt\nt\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\n= \u2212\n=\n=\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\nSimilarly, for the reaction\n5 Br- (aq) + BrO3\n\u2013 (aq) + 6 H+ (aq) \u00ae 3 Br2 (aq) + 3 H2O (l)\nRate\nBr\nBrO\nH\nBr\nH\n= \u2212\n[\n] = \u2212\n\uf8ee\uf8f0\n\uf8f9\uf8fb = \u2212\n[\n] =\n[\n] =\n\u2212\n\u2212\n+\n51\n61\n31\n1\n3\n3\n2\n2\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\nt\nt\nt\nt\nOO\n[\n]\n\u2206t\nFor a gaseous reaction at constant temperature, concentration is\ndirectly proportional to the partial pressure of a species and hence, rate\ncan also be expressed as rate of change in partial pressure of the reactant\nor the product"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2917-2920", "Text": "But in the following reaction, two moles of\nHI decompose to produce one mole each of H2 and I2,\n2HI(g) \u00ae H2(g) + I2(g)\nFor expressing the rate of such a reaction where stoichiometric\ncoefficients of reactants or products are not equal to one, rate of\ndisappearance of any of the reactants or the rate of appearance of\nproducts is divided by their respective stoichiometric coefficients Since\nrate of consumption of HI is twice the rate of formation of H2 or I2, to\nmake them equal, the term D[HI] is divided by 2 The rate of this reaction\nis given by\nRate of reaction \n[\n]\n[\n]\n[ ]\n2\n2\nH\nI\n1\nHI\n2\nt\nt\nt\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\n= \u2212\n=\n=\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\nSimilarly, for the reaction\n5 Br- (aq) + BrO3\n\u2013 (aq) + 6 H+ (aq) \u00ae 3 Br2 (aq) + 3 H2O (l)\nRate\nBr\nBrO\nH\nBr\nH\n= \u2212\n[\n] = \u2212\n\uf8ee\uf8f0\n\uf8f9\uf8fb = \u2212\n[\n] =\n[\n] =\n\u2212\n\u2212\n+\n51\n61\n31\n1\n3\n3\n2\n2\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\nt\nt\nt\nt\nOO\n[\n]\n\u2206t\nFor a gaseous reaction at constant temperature, concentration is\ndirectly proportional to the partial pressure of a species and hence, rate\ncan also be expressed as rate of change in partial pressure of the reactant\nor the product Rationalised 2023-24\n66\nChemistry\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2918-2921", "Text": "Since\nrate of consumption of HI is twice the rate of formation of H2 or I2, to\nmake them equal, the term D[HI] is divided by 2 The rate of this reaction\nis given by\nRate of reaction \n[\n]\n[\n]\n[ ]\n2\n2\nH\nI\n1\nHI\n2\nt\nt\nt\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\n= \u2212\n=\n=\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\nSimilarly, for the reaction\n5 Br- (aq) + BrO3\n\u2013 (aq) + 6 H+ (aq) \u00ae 3 Br2 (aq) + 3 H2O (l)\nRate\nBr\nBrO\nH\nBr\nH\n= \u2212\n[\n] = \u2212\n\uf8ee\uf8f0\n\uf8f9\uf8fb = \u2212\n[\n] =\n[\n] =\n\u2212\n\u2212\n+\n51\n61\n31\n1\n3\n3\n2\n2\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\nt\nt\nt\nt\nOO\n[\n]\n\u2206t\nFor a gaseous reaction at constant temperature, concentration is\ndirectly proportional to the partial pressure of a species and hence, rate\ncan also be expressed as rate of change in partial pressure of the reactant\nor the product Rationalised 2023-24\n66\nChemistry\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n3 1 For the reaction R \u00ae P, the concentration of a reactant changes from 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2919-2922", "Text": "The rate of this reaction\nis given by\nRate of reaction \n[\n]\n[\n]\n[ ]\n2\n2\nH\nI\n1\nHI\n2\nt\nt\nt\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\n= \u2212\n=\n=\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\nSimilarly, for the reaction\n5 Br- (aq) + BrO3\n\u2013 (aq) + 6 H+ (aq) \u00ae 3 Br2 (aq) + 3 H2O (l)\nRate\nBr\nBrO\nH\nBr\nH\n= \u2212\n[\n] = \u2212\n\uf8ee\uf8f0\n\uf8f9\uf8fb = \u2212\n[\n] =\n[\n] =\n\u2212\n\u2212\n+\n51\n61\n31\n1\n3\n3\n2\n2\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\n\u2206\nt\nt\nt\nt\nOO\n[\n]\n\u2206t\nFor a gaseous reaction at constant temperature, concentration is\ndirectly proportional to the partial pressure of a species and hence, rate\ncan also be expressed as rate of change in partial pressure of the reactant\nor the product Rationalised 2023-24\n66\nChemistry\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n3 1 For the reaction R \u00ae P, the concentration of a reactant changes from 0 03M\nto 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2920-2923", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n66\nChemistry\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n3 1 For the reaction R \u00ae P, the concentration of a reactant changes from 0 03M\nto 0 02M in 25 minutes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2921-2924", "Text": "1 For the reaction R \u00ae P, the concentration of a reactant changes from 0 03M\nto 0 02M in 25 minutes Calculate the average rate of reaction using units\nof time both in minutes and seconds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2922-2925", "Text": "03M\nto 0 02M in 25 minutes Calculate the average rate of reaction using units\nof time both in minutes and seconds 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2923-2926", "Text": "02M in 25 minutes Calculate the average rate of reaction using units\nof time both in minutes and seconds 3 2 In a reaction, 2A \u00ae Products, the concentration of A decreases from 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2924-2927", "Text": "Calculate the average rate of reaction using units\nof time both in minutes and seconds 3 2 In a reaction, 2A \u00ae Products, the concentration of A decreases from 0 5\nmol L\u20131 to 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2925-2928", "Text": "3 2 In a reaction, 2A \u00ae Products, the concentration of A decreases from 0 5\nmol L\u20131 to 0 4 mol L\u20131 in 10 minutes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2926-2929", "Text": "2 In a reaction, 2A \u00ae Products, the concentration of A decreases from 0 5\nmol L\u20131 to 0 4 mol L\u20131 in 10 minutes Calculate the rate during this interval"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2927-2930", "Text": "5\nmol L\u20131 to 0 4 mol L\u20131 in 10 minutes Calculate the rate during this interval Rate of reaction depends upon the experimental conditions such\nas concentration of reactants (pressure in case of gases),\ntemperature and catalyst"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2928-2931", "Text": "4 mol L\u20131 in 10 minutes Calculate the rate during this interval Rate of reaction depends upon the experimental conditions such\nas concentration of reactants (pressure in case of gases),\ntemperature and catalyst The rate of a chemical reaction at a given temperature may depend on\nthe concentration of one or more reactants and products"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2929-2932", "Text": "Calculate the rate during this interval Rate of reaction depends upon the experimental conditions such\nas concentration of reactants (pressure in case of gases),\ntemperature and catalyst The rate of a chemical reaction at a given temperature may depend on\nthe concentration of one or more reactants and products The\nrepresentation of rate of reaction in terms of concentration of the\nreactants is known as rate law"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2930-2933", "Text": "Rate of reaction depends upon the experimental conditions such\nas concentration of reactants (pressure in case of gases),\ntemperature and catalyst The rate of a chemical reaction at a given temperature may depend on\nthe concentration of one or more reactants and products The\nrepresentation of rate of reaction in terms of concentration of the\nreactants is known as rate law It is also called as rate equation or\nrate expression"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2931-2934", "Text": "The rate of a chemical reaction at a given temperature may depend on\nthe concentration of one or more reactants and products The\nrepresentation of rate of reaction in terms of concentration of the\nreactants is known as rate law It is also called as rate equation or\nrate expression The results in Table 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2932-2935", "Text": "The\nrepresentation of rate of reaction in terms of concentration of the\nreactants is known as rate law It is also called as rate equation or\nrate expression The results in Table 3 1 clearly show that rate of a reaction decreases with\nthe passage of time as the concentration of reactants decrease"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2933-2936", "Text": "It is also called as rate equation or\nrate expression The results in Table 3 1 clearly show that rate of a reaction decreases with\nthe passage of time as the concentration of reactants decrease Conversely,\nrates generally increase when reactant concentrations increase"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2934-2937", "Text": "The results in Table 3 1 clearly show that rate of a reaction decreases with\nthe passage of time as the concentration of reactants decrease Conversely,\nrates generally increase when reactant concentrations increase So, rate of\na reaction depends upon the concentration of reactants"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2935-2938", "Text": "1 clearly show that rate of a reaction decreases with\nthe passage of time as the concentration of reactants decrease Conversely,\nrates generally increase when reactant concentrations increase So, rate of\na reaction depends upon the concentration of reactants Example 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2936-2939", "Text": "Conversely,\nrates generally increase when reactant concentrations increase So, rate of\na reaction depends upon the concentration of reactants Example 3 2\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2937-2940", "Text": "So, rate of\na reaction depends upon the concentration of reactants Example 3 2\nExample 3 2\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2938-2941", "Text": "Example 3 2\nExample 3 2\nExample 3 2\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2939-2942", "Text": "2\nExample 3 2\nExample 3 2\nExample 3 2\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2940-2943", "Text": "2\nExample 3 2\nExample 3 2\nExample 3 2\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2941-2944", "Text": "2\nExample 3 2\nExample 3 2\n3 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2942-2945", "Text": "2\nExample 3 2\n3 2 2 Rate\nExpression\nand Rate\nConstant\nThe decomposition of N2O5 in CCl4 at 318K has been studied by\nmonitoring the concentration of N2O5 in the solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2943-2946", "Text": "2\n3 2 2 Rate\nExpression\nand Rate\nConstant\nThe decomposition of N2O5 in CCl4 at 318K has been studied by\nmonitoring the concentration of N2O5 in the solution Initially the\nconcentration of N2O5 is 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2944-2947", "Text": "2 2 Rate\nExpression\nand Rate\nConstant\nThe decomposition of N2O5 in CCl4 at 318K has been studied by\nmonitoring the concentration of N2O5 in the solution Initially the\nconcentration of N2O5 is 2 33 mol L\u20131 and after 184 minutes, it is reduced\nto 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2945-2948", "Text": "2 Rate\nExpression\nand Rate\nConstant\nThe decomposition of N2O5 in CCl4 at 318K has been studied by\nmonitoring the concentration of N2O5 in the solution Initially the\nconcentration of N2O5 is 2 33 mol L\u20131 and after 184 minutes, it is reduced\nto 2 08 mol L\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2946-2949", "Text": "Initially the\nconcentration of N2O5 is 2 33 mol L\u20131 and after 184 minutes, it is reduced\nto 2 08 mol L\u20131 The reaction takes place according to the equation\n2 N2O5 (g) \u00ae 4 NO2 (g) + O2 (g)\nCalculate the average rate of this reaction in terms of hours, minutes\nand seconds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2947-2950", "Text": "33 mol L\u20131 and after 184 minutes, it is reduced\nto 2 08 mol L\u20131 The reaction takes place according to the equation\n2 N2O5 (g) \u00ae 4 NO2 (g) + O2 (g)\nCalculate the average rate of this reaction in terms of hours, minutes\nand seconds What is the rate of production of NO2 during this period"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2948-2951", "Text": "08 mol L\u20131 The reaction takes place according to the equation\n2 N2O5 (g) \u00ae 4 NO2 (g) + O2 (g)\nCalculate the average rate of this reaction in terms of hours, minutes\nand seconds What is the rate of production of NO2 during this period Average Rate =\n\u2212\n[\n]\n\uf8f1\uf8f2\uf8f3\n\uf8fc\uf8fd\uf8fe\n= \u2212\n\u2212\n(\n)\n\uf8ee\n\uf8f0\uf8ef\n\uf8f9\n\uf8fb\uf8fa\n\u2212\n21\n21\n2 08\n2 33\n184\n2\n5\n1\n\u2206\n\u2206\nN O\nmol L\nt"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2949-2952", "Text": "The reaction takes place according to the equation\n2 N2O5 (g) \u00ae 4 NO2 (g) + O2 (g)\nCalculate the average rate of this reaction in terms of hours, minutes\nand seconds What is the rate of production of NO2 during this period Average Rate =\n\u2212\n[\n]\n\uf8f1\uf8f2\uf8f3\n\uf8fc\uf8fd\uf8fe\n= \u2212\n\u2212\n(\n)\n\uf8ee\n\uf8f0\uf8ef\n\uf8f9\n\uf8fb\uf8fa\n\u2212\n21\n21\n2 08\n2 33\n184\n2\n5\n1\n\u2206\n\u2206\nN O\nmol L\nt min\n=\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2950-2953", "Text": "What is the rate of production of NO2 during this period Average Rate =\n\u2212\n[\n]\n\uf8f1\uf8f2\uf8f3\n\uf8fc\uf8fd\uf8fe\n= \u2212\n\u2212\n(\n)\n\uf8ee\n\uf8f0\uf8ef\n\uf8f9\n\uf8fb\uf8fa\n\u2212\n21\n21\n2 08\n2 33\n184\n2\n5\n1\n\u2206\n\u2206\nN O\nmol L\nt min\n=\n6 79 \u00d7 10\u20134 mol L\u20131/min = (6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2951-2954", "Text": "Average Rate =\n\u2212\n[\n]\n\uf8f1\uf8f2\uf8f3\n\uf8fc\uf8fd\uf8fe\n= \u2212\n\u2212\n(\n)\n\uf8ee\n\uf8f0\uf8ef\n\uf8f9\n\uf8fb\uf8fa\n\u2212\n21\n21\n2 08\n2 33\n184\n2\n5\n1\n\u2206\n\u2206\nN O\nmol L\nt min\n=\n6 79 \u00d7 10\u20134 mol L\u20131/min = (6 79 \u00d7 10\u20134 mol L\u20131 min\u20131) \u00d7 (60 min/1h)\n=\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2952-2955", "Text": "min\n=\n6 79 \u00d7 10\u20134 mol L\u20131/min = (6 79 \u00d7 10\u20134 mol L\u20131 min\u20131) \u00d7 (60 min/1h)\n=\n4 07 \u00d7 10\u20132 mol L\u20131/h\n=\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2953-2956", "Text": "79 \u00d7 10\u20134 mol L\u20131/min = (6 79 \u00d7 10\u20134 mol L\u20131 min\u20131) \u00d7 (60 min/1h)\n=\n4 07 \u00d7 10\u20132 mol L\u20131/h\n=\n6 79 \u00d7 10\u20134 mol L\u20131 \u00d7 1min/60s\n=\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2954-2957", "Text": "79 \u00d7 10\u20134 mol L\u20131 min\u20131) \u00d7 (60 min/1h)\n=\n4 07 \u00d7 10\u20132 mol L\u20131/h\n=\n6 79 \u00d7 10\u20134 mol L\u20131 \u00d7 1min/60s\n=\n1 13 \u00d7 10\u20135 mol L\u20131s\u20131\nIt may be remembered that\nRate\nNO\n=\n[\n]\n\uf8f1\uf8f2\uf8f3\n\uf8fc\uf8fd\uf8fe\n1\n4\n2\n\u2206\n\u2206t\n[\n2]\nNO\nt\n\u2206\n=\n\u2206\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2955-2958", "Text": "07 \u00d7 10\u20132 mol L\u20131/h\n=\n6 79 \u00d7 10\u20134 mol L\u20131 \u00d7 1min/60s\n=\n1 13 \u00d7 10\u20135 mol L\u20131s\u20131\nIt may be remembered that\nRate\nNO\n=\n[\n]\n\uf8f1\uf8f2\uf8f3\n\uf8fc\uf8fd\uf8fe\n1\n4\n2\n\u2206\n\u2206t\n[\n2]\nNO\nt\n\u2206\n=\n\u2206\n6 79 \u00d7 10\u20134 \u00d7 4 mol L\u20131 min\u20131 = 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2956-2959", "Text": "79 \u00d7 10\u20134 mol L\u20131 \u00d7 1min/60s\n=\n1 13 \u00d7 10\u20135 mol L\u20131s\u20131\nIt may be remembered that\nRate\nNO\n=\n[\n]\n\uf8f1\uf8f2\uf8f3\n\uf8fc\uf8fd\uf8fe\n1\n4\n2\n\u2206\n\u2206t\n[\n2]\nNO\nt\n\u2206\n=\n\u2206\n6 79 \u00d7 10\u20134 \u00d7 4 mol L\u20131 min\u20131 = 2 72 \u00d7 10\u20133 mol L\u20131min\u20131\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2957-2960", "Text": "13 \u00d7 10\u20135 mol L\u20131s\u20131\nIt may be remembered that\nRate\nNO\n=\n[\n]\n\uf8f1\uf8f2\uf8f3\n\uf8fc\uf8fd\uf8fe\n1\n4\n2\n\u2206\n\u2206t\n[\n2]\nNO\nt\n\u2206\n=\n\u2206\n6 79 \u00d7 10\u20134 \u00d7 4 mol L\u20131 min\u20131 = 2 72 \u00d7 10\u20133 mol L\u20131min\u20131\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n3 2\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2958-2961", "Text": "79 \u00d7 10\u20134 \u00d7 4 mol L\u20131 min\u20131 = 2 72 \u00d7 10\u20133 mol L\u20131min\u20131\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n3 2\n3 2\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2959-2962", "Text": "72 \u00d7 10\u20133 mol L\u20131min\u20131\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n3 2\n3 2\n3 2\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2960-2963", "Text": "2\n3 2\n3 2\n3 2\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2961-2964", "Text": "2\n3 2\n3 2\n3 2 Factors Influencing\nFactors Influencing\nFactors Influencing\nFactors Influencing\nFactors Influencing\nRate of a Reaction\nRate of a Reaction\nRate of a Reaction\nRate of a Reaction\nRate of a Reaction\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2962-2965", "Text": "2\n3 2\n3 2 Factors Influencing\nFactors Influencing\nFactors Influencing\nFactors Influencing\nFactors Influencing\nRate of a Reaction\nRate of a Reaction\nRate of a Reaction\nRate of a Reaction\nRate of a Reaction\n3 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2963-2966", "Text": "2\n3 2 Factors Influencing\nFactors Influencing\nFactors Influencing\nFactors Influencing\nFactors Influencing\nRate of a Reaction\nRate of a Reaction\nRate of a Reaction\nRate of a Reaction\nRate of a Reaction\n3 2 1 Dependence\nof Rate on\nConcentration\nRationalised 2023-24\n67\nChemical Kinetics\nConsider a general reaction\naA + bB \u00ae cC + dD\nwhere a, b, c and d are the stoichiometric coefficients of reactants\nand products"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2964-2967", "Text": "2 Factors Influencing\nFactors Influencing\nFactors Influencing\nFactors Influencing\nFactors Influencing\nRate of a Reaction\nRate of a Reaction\nRate of a Reaction\nRate of a Reaction\nRate of a Reaction\n3 2 1 Dependence\nof Rate on\nConcentration\nRationalised 2023-24\n67\nChemical Kinetics\nConsider a general reaction\naA + bB \u00ae cC + dD\nwhere a, b, c and d are the stoichiometric coefficients of reactants\nand products The rate expression for this reaction is\nRate \u00b5 [A]\nx [B]\ny\n(3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2965-2968", "Text": "2 1 Dependence\nof Rate on\nConcentration\nRationalised 2023-24\n67\nChemical Kinetics\nConsider a general reaction\naA + bB \u00ae cC + dD\nwhere a, b, c and d are the stoichiometric coefficients of reactants\nand products The rate expression for this reaction is\nRate \u00b5 [A]\nx [B]\ny\n(3 4)\nwhere exponents x and y may or may not be equal to the\nstoichiometric coefficients (a and b) of the reactants"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2966-2969", "Text": "1 Dependence\nof Rate on\nConcentration\nRationalised 2023-24\n67\nChemical Kinetics\nConsider a general reaction\naA + bB \u00ae cC + dD\nwhere a, b, c and d are the stoichiometric coefficients of reactants\nand products The rate expression for this reaction is\nRate \u00b5 [A]\nx [B]\ny\n(3 4)\nwhere exponents x and y may or may not be equal to the\nstoichiometric coefficients (a and b) of the reactants Above equation\ncan also be written as\nRate = k [A]\nx [B]\ny\n(3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2967-2970", "Text": "The rate expression for this reaction is\nRate \u00b5 [A]\nx [B]\ny\n(3 4)\nwhere exponents x and y may or may not be equal to the\nstoichiometric coefficients (a and b) of the reactants Above equation\ncan also be written as\nRate = k [A]\nx [B]\ny\n(3 4a)\n[\n]\n[\n] [ ]\nx\ny\nd R\nA\nB\nd\nk\nt\n\u2212\n=\n(3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2968-2971", "Text": "4)\nwhere exponents x and y may or may not be equal to the\nstoichiometric coefficients (a and b) of the reactants Above equation\ncan also be written as\nRate = k [A]\nx [B]\ny\n(3 4a)\n[\n]\n[\n] [ ]\nx\ny\nd R\nA\nB\nd\nk\nt\n\u2212\n=\n(3 4b)\nThis form of equation (3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2969-2972", "Text": "Above equation\ncan also be written as\nRate = k [A]\nx [B]\ny\n(3 4a)\n[\n]\n[\n] [ ]\nx\ny\nd R\nA\nB\nd\nk\nt\n\u2212\n=\n(3 4b)\nThis form of equation (3 4 b) is known as differential rate equation,\nwhere k is a proportionality constant called rate constant"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2970-2973", "Text": "4a)\n[\n]\n[\n] [ ]\nx\ny\nd R\nA\nB\nd\nk\nt\n\u2212\n=\n(3 4b)\nThis form of equation (3 4 b) is known as differential rate equation,\nwhere k is a proportionality constant called rate constant The\nequation like (3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2971-2974", "Text": "4b)\nThis form of equation (3 4 b) is known as differential rate equation,\nwhere k is a proportionality constant called rate constant The\nequation like (3 4), which relates the rate of a reaction to concentration\nof reactants is called rate law or rate expression"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2972-2975", "Text": "4 b) is known as differential rate equation,\nwhere k is a proportionality constant called rate constant The\nequation like (3 4), which relates the rate of a reaction to concentration\nof reactants is called rate law or rate expression Thus, rate law is the\nexpression in which reaction rate is given in terms of molar\nconcentration of reactants with each term raised to some\npower, which may or may not be same as the stoichiometric\ncoefficient of the reacting species in a balanced chemical\nequation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2973-2976", "Text": "The\nequation like (3 4), which relates the rate of a reaction to concentration\nof reactants is called rate law or rate expression Thus, rate law is the\nexpression in which reaction rate is given in terms of molar\nconcentration of reactants with each term raised to some\npower, which may or may not be same as the stoichiometric\ncoefficient of the reacting species in a balanced chemical\nequation For example:\n2NO(g) + O2(g) \u00ae 2NO2 (g)\nWe can measure the rate of this reaction as a function of initial\nconcentrations either by keeping the concentration of one of the reactants\nconstant and changing the concentration of the other reactant or by\nchanging the concentration of both the reactants"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2974-2977", "Text": "4), which relates the rate of a reaction to concentration\nof reactants is called rate law or rate expression Thus, rate law is the\nexpression in which reaction rate is given in terms of molar\nconcentration of reactants with each term raised to some\npower, which may or may not be same as the stoichiometric\ncoefficient of the reacting species in a balanced chemical\nequation For example:\n2NO(g) + O2(g) \u00ae 2NO2 (g)\nWe can measure the rate of this reaction as a function of initial\nconcentrations either by keeping the concentration of one of the reactants\nconstant and changing the concentration of the other reactant or by\nchanging the concentration of both the reactants The following results\nare obtained (Table 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2975-2978", "Text": "Thus, rate law is the\nexpression in which reaction rate is given in terms of molar\nconcentration of reactants with each term raised to some\npower, which may or may not be same as the stoichiometric\ncoefficient of the reacting species in a balanced chemical\nequation For example:\n2NO(g) + O2(g) \u00ae 2NO2 (g)\nWe can measure the rate of this reaction as a function of initial\nconcentrations either by keeping the concentration of one of the reactants\nconstant and changing the concentration of the other reactant or by\nchanging the concentration of both the reactants The following results\nare obtained (Table 3 2)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2976-2979", "Text": "For example:\n2NO(g) + O2(g) \u00ae 2NO2 (g)\nWe can measure the rate of this reaction as a function of initial\nconcentrations either by keeping the concentration of one of the reactants\nconstant and changing the concentration of the other reactant or by\nchanging the concentration of both the reactants The following results\nare obtained (Table 3 2) Table 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2977-2980", "Text": "The following results\nare obtained (Table 3 2) Table 3 2: Initial rate of formation of NO2\nExperiment\nInitial [NO]/ mol L-1\nInitial [O2]/ mol L-1\nInitial rate of\nformation of NO2/ mol L-1s-1\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2978-2981", "Text": "2) Table 3 2: Initial rate of formation of NO2\nExperiment\nInitial [NO]/ mol L-1\nInitial [O2]/ mol L-1\nInitial rate of\nformation of NO2/ mol L-1s-1\n1 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2979-2982", "Text": "Table 3 2: Initial rate of formation of NO2\nExperiment\nInitial [NO]/ mol L-1\nInitial [O2]/ mol L-1\nInitial rate of\nformation of NO2/ mol L-1s-1\n1 0 30\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2980-2983", "Text": "2: Initial rate of formation of NO2\nExperiment\nInitial [NO]/ mol L-1\nInitial [O2]/ mol L-1\nInitial rate of\nformation of NO2/ mol L-1s-1\n1 0 30\n0 30\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2981-2984", "Text": "0 30\n0 30\n0 096\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2982-2985", "Text": "30\n0 30\n0 096\n2 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2983-2986", "Text": "30\n0 096\n2 0 60\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2984-2987", "Text": "096\n2 0 60\n0 30\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2985-2988", "Text": "0 60\n0 30\n0 384\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2986-2989", "Text": "60\n0 30\n0 384\n3 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2987-2990", "Text": "30\n0 384\n3 0 30\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2988-2991", "Text": "384\n3 0 30\n0 60\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2989-2992", "Text": "0 30\n0 60\n0 192\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2990-2993", "Text": "30\n0 60\n0 192\n4 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2991-2994", "Text": "60\n0 192\n4 0 60\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2992-2995", "Text": "192\n4 0 60\n0 60\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2993-2996", "Text": "0 60\n0 60\n0 768\nIt is obvious, after looking at the results, that when the concentration\nof NO is doubled and that of O2 is kept constant then the initial rate\nincreases by a factor of four from 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2994-2997", "Text": "60\n0 60\n0 768\nIt is obvious, after looking at the results, that when the concentration\nof NO is doubled and that of O2 is kept constant then the initial rate\nincreases by a factor of four from 0 096 to 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2995-2998", "Text": "60\n0 768\nIt is obvious, after looking at the results, that when the concentration\nof NO is doubled and that of O2 is kept constant then the initial rate\nincreases by a factor of four from 0 096 to 0 384 mol L\u20131s\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2996-2999", "Text": "768\nIt is obvious, after looking at the results, that when the concentration\nof NO is doubled and that of O2 is kept constant then the initial rate\nincreases by a factor of four from 0 096 to 0 384 mol L\u20131s\u20131 This\nindicates that the rate depends upon the square of the concentration of\nNO"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2997-3000", "Text": "096 to 0 384 mol L\u20131s\u20131 This\nindicates that the rate depends upon the square of the concentration of\nNO When concentration of NO is kept constant and concentration of\nO2 is doubled the rate also gets doubled indicating that rate depends\non concentration of O2 to the first power"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2998-3001", "Text": "384 mol L\u20131s\u20131 This\nindicates that the rate depends upon the square of the concentration of\nNO When concentration of NO is kept constant and concentration of\nO2 is doubled the rate also gets doubled indicating that rate depends\non concentration of O2 to the first power Hence, the rate equation for\nthis reaction will be\nRate = k [NO]\n2[O2]\nRationalised 2023-24\n68\nChemistry\nThe differential form of this rate expression is given as\n[\n]\n[\n] [\n]\n2\n2\nd R\nO\nNO\nd\nk\nt\n\u2212\n=\nNow, we observe that for this reaction in the rate equation derived\nfrom the experimental data, the exponents of the concentration terms\nare the same as their stoichiometric coefficients in the balanced\nchemical equation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "2999-3002", "Text": "This\nindicates that the rate depends upon the square of the concentration of\nNO When concentration of NO is kept constant and concentration of\nO2 is doubled the rate also gets doubled indicating that rate depends\non concentration of O2 to the first power Hence, the rate equation for\nthis reaction will be\nRate = k [NO]\n2[O2]\nRationalised 2023-24\n68\nChemistry\nThe differential form of this rate expression is given as\n[\n]\n[\n] [\n]\n2\n2\nd R\nO\nNO\nd\nk\nt\n\u2212\n=\nNow, we observe that for this reaction in the rate equation derived\nfrom the experimental data, the exponents of the concentration terms\nare the same as their stoichiometric coefficients in the balanced\nchemical equation Some other examples are given below:\nReaction\nExperimental rate expression\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3000-3003", "Text": "When concentration of NO is kept constant and concentration of\nO2 is doubled the rate also gets doubled indicating that rate depends\non concentration of O2 to the first power Hence, the rate equation for\nthis reaction will be\nRate = k [NO]\n2[O2]\nRationalised 2023-24\n68\nChemistry\nThe differential form of this rate expression is given as\n[\n]\n[\n] [\n]\n2\n2\nd R\nO\nNO\nd\nk\nt\n\u2212\n=\nNow, we observe that for this reaction in the rate equation derived\nfrom the experimental data, the exponents of the concentration terms\nare the same as their stoichiometric coefficients in the balanced\nchemical equation Some other examples are given below:\nReaction\nExperimental rate expression\n1 CHCl3 + Cl2 \u00ae CCl4 + HCl\nRate = k [CHCl3 ] [Cl2]1/2\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3001-3004", "Text": "Hence, the rate equation for\nthis reaction will be\nRate = k [NO]\n2[O2]\nRationalised 2023-24\n68\nChemistry\nThe differential form of this rate expression is given as\n[\n]\n[\n] [\n]\n2\n2\nd R\nO\nNO\nd\nk\nt\n\u2212\n=\nNow, we observe that for this reaction in the rate equation derived\nfrom the experimental data, the exponents of the concentration terms\nare the same as their stoichiometric coefficients in the balanced\nchemical equation Some other examples are given below:\nReaction\nExperimental rate expression\n1 CHCl3 + Cl2 \u00ae CCl4 + HCl\nRate = k [CHCl3 ] [Cl2]1/2\n2 CH3COOC2H5 + H2O \u00ae CH3COOH + C2H5OH Rate = k [CH3COOC2H5]1 [H2O]0\nIn these reactions, the exponents of the concentration terms are not\nthe same as their stoichiometric coefficients"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3002-3005", "Text": "Some other examples are given below:\nReaction\nExperimental rate expression\n1 CHCl3 + Cl2 \u00ae CCl4 + HCl\nRate = k [CHCl3 ] [Cl2]1/2\n2 CH3COOC2H5 + H2O \u00ae CH3COOH + C2H5OH Rate = k [CH3COOC2H5]1 [H2O]0\nIn these reactions, the exponents of the concentration terms are not\nthe same as their stoichiometric coefficients Thus, we can say that:\nRate law for any reaction cannot be predicted by merely looking at\nthe balanced chemical equation, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3003-3006", "Text": "CHCl3 + Cl2 \u00ae CCl4 + HCl\nRate = k [CHCl3 ] [Cl2]1/2\n2 CH3COOC2H5 + H2O \u00ae CH3COOH + C2H5OH Rate = k [CH3COOC2H5]1 [H2O]0\nIn these reactions, the exponents of the concentration terms are not\nthe same as their stoichiometric coefficients Thus, we can say that:\nRate law for any reaction cannot be predicted by merely looking at\nthe balanced chemical equation, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3004-3007", "Text": "CH3COOC2H5 + H2O \u00ae CH3COOH + C2H5OH Rate = k [CH3COOC2H5]1 [H2O]0\nIn these reactions, the exponents of the concentration terms are not\nthe same as their stoichiometric coefficients Thus, we can say that:\nRate law for any reaction cannot be predicted by merely looking at\nthe balanced chemical equation, i e , theoretically but must be determined\nexperimentally"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3005-3008", "Text": "Thus, we can say that:\nRate law for any reaction cannot be predicted by merely looking at\nthe balanced chemical equation, i e , theoretically but must be determined\nexperimentally In the rate equation (3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3006-3009", "Text": "e , theoretically but must be determined\nexperimentally In the rate equation (3 4)\nRate = k [A]x [B]y\nx and y indicate how sensitive the rate is to the change in concentration\nof A and B"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3007-3010", "Text": ", theoretically but must be determined\nexperimentally In the rate equation (3 4)\nRate = k [A]x [B]y\nx and y indicate how sensitive the rate is to the change in concentration\nof A and B Sum of these exponents, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3008-3011", "Text": "In the rate equation (3 4)\nRate = k [A]x [B]y\nx and y indicate how sensitive the rate is to the change in concentration\nof A and B Sum of these exponents, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3009-3012", "Text": "4)\nRate = k [A]x [B]y\nx and y indicate how sensitive the rate is to the change in concentration\nof A and B Sum of these exponents, i e , x + y in (3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3010-3013", "Text": "Sum of these exponents, i e , x + y in (3 4) gives the overall\norder of a reaction whereas x and y represent the order with respect\nto the reactants A and B respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3011-3014", "Text": "e , x + y in (3 4) gives the overall\norder of a reaction whereas x and y represent the order with respect\nto the reactants A and B respectively Hence, the sum of powers of the concentration of the\nreactants in the rate law expression is called the order of that\nchemical reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3012-3015", "Text": ", x + y in (3 4) gives the overall\norder of a reaction whereas x and y represent the order with respect\nto the reactants A and B respectively Hence, the sum of powers of the concentration of the\nreactants in the rate law expression is called the order of that\nchemical reaction Order of a reaction can be 0, 1, 2, 3 and even a fraction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3013-3016", "Text": "4) gives the overall\norder of a reaction whereas x and y represent the order with respect\nto the reactants A and B respectively Hence, the sum of powers of the concentration of the\nreactants in the rate law expression is called the order of that\nchemical reaction Order of a reaction can be 0, 1, 2, 3 and even a fraction A zero\norder reaction means that the rate of reaction is independent of the\nconcentration of reactants"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3014-3017", "Text": "Hence, the sum of powers of the concentration of the\nreactants in the rate law expression is called the order of that\nchemical reaction Order of a reaction can be 0, 1, 2, 3 and even a fraction A zero\norder reaction means that the rate of reaction is independent of the\nconcentration of reactants 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3015-3018", "Text": "Order of a reaction can be 0, 1, 2, 3 and even a fraction A zero\norder reaction means that the rate of reaction is independent of the\nconcentration of reactants 3 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3016-3019", "Text": "A zero\norder reaction means that the rate of reaction is independent of the\nconcentration of reactants 3 2 3 Order of a\nReaction\nCalculate the overall order of a reaction which\nhas the rate expression\n(a) Rate = k [A]1/2 [B]3/2\n(b) Rate = k [A]3/2 [B]\u20131\n(a) Rate = k [A]x [B]y\norder = x + y\nSo order = 1/2 + 3/2 = 2, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3017-3020", "Text": "3 2 3 Order of a\nReaction\nCalculate the overall order of a reaction which\nhas the rate expression\n(a) Rate = k [A]1/2 [B]3/2\n(b) Rate = k [A]3/2 [B]\u20131\n(a) Rate = k [A]x [B]y\norder = x + y\nSo order = 1/2 + 3/2 = 2, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3018-3021", "Text": "2 3 Order of a\nReaction\nCalculate the overall order of a reaction which\nhas the rate expression\n(a) Rate = k [A]1/2 [B]3/2\n(b) Rate = k [A]3/2 [B]\u20131\n(a) Rate = k [A]x [B]y\norder = x + y\nSo order = 1/2 + 3/2 = 2, i e , second order\n(b) order = 3/2 + (\u20131) = 1/2, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3019-3022", "Text": "3 Order of a\nReaction\nCalculate the overall order of a reaction which\nhas the rate expression\n(a) Rate = k [A]1/2 [B]3/2\n(b) Rate = k [A]3/2 [B]\u20131\n(a) Rate = k [A]x [B]y\norder = x + y\nSo order = 1/2 + 3/2 = 2, i e , second order\n(b) order = 3/2 + (\u20131) = 1/2, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3020-3023", "Text": "e , second order\n(b) order = 3/2 + (\u20131) = 1/2, i e , half order"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3021-3024", "Text": ", second order\n(b) order = 3/2 + (\u20131) = 1/2, i e , half order Example 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3022-3025", "Text": "e , half order Example 3 3\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3023-3026", "Text": ", half order Example 3 3\nExample 3 3\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3024-3027", "Text": "Example 3 3\nExample 3 3\nExample 3 3\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3025-3028", "Text": "3\nExample 3 3\nExample 3 3\nExample 3 3\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3026-3029", "Text": "3\nExample 3 3\nExample 3 3\nExample 3 3\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nA balanced chemical equation never gives us a true picture of how\na reaction takes place since rarely a reaction gets completed in one\nstep"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3027-3030", "Text": "3\nExample 3 3\nExample 3 3\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nA balanced chemical equation never gives us a true picture of how\na reaction takes place since rarely a reaction gets completed in one\nstep The reactions taking place in one step are called elementary\nreactions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3028-3031", "Text": "3\nExample 3 3\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nA balanced chemical equation never gives us a true picture of how\na reaction takes place since rarely a reaction gets completed in one\nstep The reactions taking place in one step are called elementary\nreactions When a sequence of elementary reactions (called mechanism)\ngives us the products, the reactions are called complex reactions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3029-3032", "Text": "3\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nA balanced chemical equation never gives us a true picture of how\na reaction takes place since rarely a reaction gets completed in one\nstep The reactions taking place in one step are called elementary\nreactions When a sequence of elementary reactions (called mechanism)\ngives us the products, the reactions are called complex reactions Rationalised 2023-24\n69\nChemical Kinetics\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3030-3033", "Text": "The reactions taking place in one step are called elementary\nreactions When a sequence of elementary reactions (called mechanism)\ngives us the products, the reactions are called complex reactions Rationalised 2023-24\n69\nChemical Kinetics\nExample 3 4\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3031-3034", "Text": "When a sequence of elementary reactions (called mechanism)\ngives us the products, the reactions are called complex reactions Rationalised 2023-24\n69\nChemical Kinetics\nExample 3 4\nExample 3 4\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3032-3035", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n69\nChemical Kinetics\nExample 3 4\nExample 3 4\nExample 3 4\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3033-3036", "Text": "4\nExample 3 4\nExample 3 4\nExample 3 4\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3034-3037", "Text": "4\nExample 3 4\nExample 3 4\nExample 3 4\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nThese may be consecutive reactions (e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3035-3038", "Text": "4\nExample 3 4\nExample 3 4\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nThese may be consecutive reactions (e g"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3036-3039", "Text": "4\nExample 3 4\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nThese may be consecutive reactions (e g , oxidation of ethane to CO2\nand H2O passes through a series of intermediate steps in which alcohol,\naldehyde and acid are formed), reverse reactions and side reactions\n(e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3037-3040", "Text": "4\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nThese may be consecutive reactions (e g , oxidation of ethane to CO2\nand H2O passes through a series of intermediate steps in which alcohol,\naldehyde and acid are formed), reverse reactions and side reactions\n(e g"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3038-3041", "Text": "g , oxidation of ethane to CO2\nand H2O passes through a series of intermediate steps in which alcohol,\naldehyde and acid are formed), reverse reactions and side reactions\n(e g , nitration of phenol yields o-nitrophenol and p-nitrophenol)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3039-3042", "Text": ", oxidation of ethane to CO2\nand H2O passes through a series of intermediate steps in which alcohol,\naldehyde and acid are formed), reverse reactions and side reactions\n(e g , nitration of phenol yields o-nitrophenol and p-nitrophenol) Units of rate constant\nFor a general reaction\naA + bB \u00ae cC + dD\nRate = k [A]\nx [B]\ny\nWhere x + y = n = order of the reaction\nk = \nx\nRate\n[A] [B]y\n(\n)\n(\n)\n=\nn\nconcentration\n1\n=\n\u00d7\nwhere [A] [B]\ntime\nconcentration\nTaking SI units of concentration, mol L\n\u20131 and time, s, the units of\nk for different reaction order are listed in Table 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3040-3043", "Text": "g , nitration of phenol yields o-nitrophenol and p-nitrophenol) Units of rate constant\nFor a general reaction\naA + bB \u00ae cC + dD\nRate = k [A]\nx [B]\ny\nWhere x + y = n = order of the reaction\nk = \nx\nRate\n[A] [B]y\n(\n)\n(\n)\n=\nn\nconcentration\n1\n=\n\u00d7\nwhere [A] [B]\ntime\nconcentration\nTaking SI units of concentration, mol L\n\u20131 and time, s, the units of\nk for different reaction order are listed in Table 3 3\nTable 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3041-3044", "Text": ", nitration of phenol yields o-nitrophenol and p-nitrophenol) Units of rate constant\nFor a general reaction\naA + bB \u00ae cC + dD\nRate = k [A]\nx [B]\ny\nWhere x + y = n = order of the reaction\nk = \nx\nRate\n[A] [B]y\n(\n)\n(\n)\n=\nn\nconcentration\n1\n=\n\u00d7\nwhere [A] [B]\ntime\nconcentration\nTaking SI units of concentration, mol L\n\u20131 and time, s, the units of\nk for different reaction order are listed in Table 3 3\nTable 3 3: Units of rate constant\nReaction\nOrder\nUnits of rate constant\nZero order reaction\n0\n(\n)\n1\n1\n1\n10\nmol L\n1\nmol L s\ns\nmol L\n\u2212\n\u2212\n\u2212\n\u2212\n\u00d7\n=\nFirst order reaction\n1\n(\n)\n1\n1\n11\nmol L\n1\ns\ns\nmol L\n\u2212\n\u2212\n\u2212\n\u00d7\n=\nSecond order reaction\n2\n(\n)\n1\n1\n1\n12\nmol L\n1\nmol L s\ns\nmol L\n\u2212\n\u2212\n\u2212\n\u2212\n\u00d7\n=\nIdentify the reaction order from each of the following rate constants"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3042-3045", "Text": "Units of rate constant\nFor a general reaction\naA + bB \u00ae cC + dD\nRate = k [A]\nx [B]\ny\nWhere x + y = n = order of the reaction\nk = \nx\nRate\n[A] [B]y\n(\n)\n(\n)\n=\nn\nconcentration\n1\n=\n\u00d7\nwhere [A] [B]\ntime\nconcentration\nTaking SI units of concentration, mol L\n\u20131 and time, s, the units of\nk for different reaction order are listed in Table 3 3\nTable 3 3: Units of rate constant\nReaction\nOrder\nUnits of rate constant\nZero order reaction\n0\n(\n)\n1\n1\n1\n10\nmol L\n1\nmol L s\ns\nmol L\n\u2212\n\u2212\n\u2212\n\u2212\n\u00d7\n=\nFirst order reaction\n1\n(\n)\n1\n1\n11\nmol L\n1\ns\ns\nmol L\n\u2212\n\u2212\n\u2212\n\u00d7\n=\nSecond order reaction\n2\n(\n)\n1\n1\n1\n12\nmol L\n1\nmol L s\ns\nmol L\n\u2212\n\u2212\n\u2212\n\u2212\n\u00d7\n=\nIdentify the reaction order from each of the following rate constants (i) k = 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3043-3046", "Text": "3\nTable 3 3: Units of rate constant\nReaction\nOrder\nUnits of rate constant\nZero order reaction\n0\n(\n)\n1\n1\n1\n10\nmol L\n1\nmol L s\ns\nmol L\n\u2212\n\u2212\n\u2212\n\u2212\n\u00d7\n=\nFirst order reaction\n1\n(\n)\n1\n1\n11\nmol L\n1\ns\ns\nmol L\n\u2212\n\u2212\n\u2212\n\u00d7\n=\nSecond order reaction\n2\n(\n)\n1\n1\n1\n12\nmol L\n1\nmol L s\ns\nmol L\n\u2212\n\u2212\n\u2212\n\u2212\n\u00d7\n=\nIdentify the reaction order from each of the following rate constants (i) k = 2 3 \u00d7 10\u20135 L mol\u20131 s\u20131\n(ii) k = 3 \u00d7 10\u20134 s\u20131\n(i) The unit of second order rate constant is L mol\u20131 s\u20131, therefore\nk = 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3044-3047", "Text": "3: Units of rate constant\nReaction\nOrder\nUnits of rate constant\nZero order reaction\n0\n(\n)\n1\n1\n1\n10\nmol L\n1\nmol L s\ns\nmol L\n\u2212\n\u2212\n\u2212\n\u2212\n\u00d7\n=\nFirst order reaction\n1\n(\n)\n1\n1\n11\nmol L\n1\ns\ns\nmol L\n\u2212\n\u2212\n\u2212\n\u00d7\n=\nSecond order reaction\n2\n(\n)\n1\n1\n1\n12\nmol L\n1\nmol L s\ns\nmol L\n\u2212\n\u2212\n\u2212\n\u2212\n\u00d7\n=\nIdentify the reaction order from each of the following rate constants (i) k = 2 3 \u00d7 10\u20135 L mol\u20131 s\u20131\n(ii) k = 3 \u00d7 10\u20134 s\u20131\n(i) The unit of second order rate constant is L mol\u20131 s\u20131, therefore\nk = 2 3 \u00d7 10\u20135 L mol\u20131 s\u20131 represents a second order reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3045-3048", "Text": "(i) k = 2 3 \u00d7 10\u20135 L mol\u20131 s\u20131\n(ii) k = 3 \u00d7 10\u20134 s\u20131\n(i) The unit of second order rate constant is L mol\u20131 s\u20131, therefore\nk = 2 3 \u00d7 10\u20135 L mol\u20131 s\u20131 represents a second order reaction (ii) The unit of a first order rate constant is s\u20131 therefore\nk = 3 \u00d7 10\u20134 s\u20131 represents a first order reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3046-3049", "Text": "3 \u00d7 10\u20135 L mol\u20131 s\u20131\n(ii) k = 3 \u00d7 10\u20134 s\u20131\n(i) The unit of second order rate constant is L mol\u20131 s\u20131, therefore\nk = 2 3 \u00d7 10\u20135 L mol\u20131 s\u20131 represents a second order reaction (ii) The unit of a first order rate constant is s\u20131 therefore\nk = 3 \u00d7 10\u20134 s\u20131 represents a first order reaction 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3047-3050", "Text": "3 \u00d7 10\u20135 L mol\u20131 s\u20131 represents a second order reaction (ii) The unit of a first order rate constant is s\u20131 therefore\nk = 3 \u00d7 10\u20134 s\u20131 represents a first order reaction 3 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3048-3051", "Text": "(ii) The unit of a first order rate constant is s\u20131 therefore\nk = 3 \u00d7 10\u20134 s\u20131 represents a first order reaction 3 2 4 Molecularity\nof a\nReaction\nAnother property of a reaction called molecularity helps in\nunderstanding its mechanism"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3049-3052", "Text": "3 2 4 Molecularity\nof a\nReaction\nAnother property of a reaction called molecularity helps in\nunderstanding its mechanism The number of reacting species\n(atoms, ions or molecules) taking part in an elementary\nreaction, which must collide simultaneously in order to bring\nabout a chemical reaction is called molecularity of a reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3050-3053", "Text": "2 4 Molecularity\nof a\nReaction\nAnother property of a reaction called molecularity helps in\nunderstanding its mechanism The number of reacting species\n(atoms, ions or molecules) taking part in an elementary\nreaction, which must collide simultaneously in order to bring\nabout a chemical reaction is called molecularity of a reaction The reaction can be unimolecular when one reacting species is involved,\nfor example, decomposition of ammonium nitrite"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3051-3054", "Text": "4 Molecularity\nof a\nReaction\nAnother property of a reaction called molecularity helps in\nunderstanding its mechanism The number of reacting species\n(atoms, ions or molecules) taking part in an elementary\nreaction, which must collide simultaneously in order to bring\nabout a chemical reaction is called molecularity of a reaction The reaction can be unimolecular when one reacting species is involved,\nfor example, decomposition of ammonium nitrite Rationalised 2023-24\n70\nChemistry\nNH4NO2 \u00ae N2 + 2H2O\nBimolecular reactions involve simultaneous collision between two\nspecies, for example, dissociation of hydrogen iodide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3052-3055", "Text": "The number of reacting species\n(atoms, ions or molecules) taking part in an elementary\nreaction, which must collide simultaneously in order to bring\nabout a chemical reaction is called molecularity of a reaction The reaction can be unimolecular when one reacting species is involved,\nfor example, decomposition of ammonium nitrite Rationalised 2023-24\n70\nChemistry\nNH4NO2 \u00ae N2 + 2H2O\nBimolecular reactions involve simultaneous collision between two\nspecies, for example, dissociation of hydrogen iodide 2HI \u00ae H2 + I2\nTrimolecular or termolecular reactions involve simultaneous collision\nbetween three reacting species, for example,\n2NO + O2 \u00ae 2NO2\nThe probability that more than three molecules can collide and\nreact simultaneously is very small"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3053-3056", "Text": "The reaction can be unimolecular when one reacting species is involved,\nfor example, decomposition of ammonium nitrite Rationalised 2023-24\n70\nChemistry\nNH4NO2 \u00ae N2 + 2H2O\nBimolecular reactions involve simultaneous collision between two\nspecies, for example, dissociation of hydrogen iodide 2HI \u00ae H2 + I2\nTrimolecular or termolecular reactions involve simultaneous collision\nbetween three reacting species, for example,\n2NO + O2 \u00ae 2NO2\nThe probability that more than three molecules can collide and\nreact simultaneously is very small Hence, reactions with the\nmolecularity three are very rare and slow to proceed"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3054-3057", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n70\nChemistry\nNH4NO2 \u00ae N2 + 2H2O\nBimolecular reactions involve simultaneous collision between two\nspecies, for example, dissociation of hydrogen iodide 2HI \u00ae H2 + I2\nTrimolecular or termolecular reactions involve simultaneous collision\nbetween three reacting species, for example,\n2NO + O2 \u00ae 2NO2\nThe probability that more than three molecules can collide and\nreact simultaneously is very small Hence, reactions with the\nmolecularity three are very rare and slow to proceed It is, therefore, evident that complex reactions involving more than\nthree molecules in the stoichiometric equation must take place in more\nthan one step"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3055-3058", "Text": "2HI \u00ae H2 + I2\nTrimolecular or termolecular reactions involve simultaneous collision\nbetween three reacting species, for example,\n2NO + O2 \u00ae 2NO2\nThe probability that more than three molecules can collide and\nreact simultaneously is very small Hence, reactions with the\nmolecularity three are very rare and slow to proceed It is, therefore, evident that complex reactions involving more than\nthree molecules in the stoichiometric equation must take place in more\nthan one step KClO3 + 6FeSO4 + 3H2SO4 \u00ae KCl + 3Fe2(SO4)3 + 3H2O\nThis reaction which apparently seems to be of tenth order is actually\na second order reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3056-3059", "Text": "Hence, reactions with the\nmolecularity three are very rare and slow to proceed It is, therefore, evident that complex reactions involving more than\nthree molecules in the stoichiometric equation must take place in more\nthan one step KClO3 + 6FeSO4 + 3H2SO4 \u00ae KCl + 3Fe2(SO4)3 + 3H2O\nThis reaction which apparently seems to be of tenth order is actually\na second order reaction This shows that this reaction takes place in\nseveral steps"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3057-3060", "Text": "It is, therefore, evident that complex reactions involving more than\nthree molecules in the stoichiometric equation must take place in more\nthan one step KClO3 + 6FeSO4 + 3H2SO4 \u00ae KCl + 3Fe2(SO4)3 + 3H2O\nThis reaction which apparently seems to be of tenth order is actually\na second order reaction This shows that this reaction takes place in\nseveral steps Which step controls the rate of the overall reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3058-3061", "Text": "KClO3 + 6FeSO4 + 3H2SO4 \u00ae KCl + 3Fe2(SO4)3 + 3H2O\nThis reaction which apparently seems to be of tenth order is actually\na second order reaction This shows that this reaction takes place in\nseveral steps Which step controls the rate of the overall reaction The\nquestion can be answered if we go through the mechanism of reaction,\nfor example, chances to win the relay race competition by a team\ndepend upon the slowest person in the team"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3059-3062", "Text": "This shows that this reaction takes place in\nseveral steps Which step controls the rate of the overall reaction The\nquestion can be answered if we go through the mechanism of reaction,\nfor example, chances to win the relay race competition by a team\ndepend upon the slowest person in the team Similarly, the overall rate\nof the reaction is controlled by the slowest step in a reaction called the\nrate determining step"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3060-3063", "Text": "Which step controls the rate of the overall reaction The\nquestion can be answered if we go through the mechanism of reaction,\nfor example, chances to win the relay race competition by a team\ndepend upon the slowest person in the team Similarly, the overall rate\nof the reaction is controlled by the slowest step in a reaction called the\nrate determining step Consider the decomposition of hydrogen\nperoxide which is catalysed by iodide ion in an alkaline medium"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3061-3064", "Text": "The\nquestion can be answered if we go through the mechanism of reaction,\nfor example, chances to win the relay race competition by a team\ndepend upon the slowest person in the team Similarly, the overall rate\nof the reaction is controlled by the slowest step in a reaction called the\nrate determining step Consider the decomposition of hydrogen\nperoxide which is catalysed by iodide ion in an alkaline medium 2H2O2 \n-I\nAlkaline medium\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae 2H2O + O2\nThe rate equation for this reaction is found to be\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\uf05b \uf05d\n2\n2\n2\n2\nd H O\nRate\nH O\nI\nd\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\uf02d\n\uf03d k\nt\nThis reaction is first order with respect to both H2O2 and I\u2013"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3062-3065", "Text": "Similarly, the overall rate\nof the reaction is controlled by the slowest step in a reaction called the\nrate determining step Consider the decomposition of hydrogen\nperoxide which is catalysed by iodide ion in an alkaline medium 2H2O2 \n-I\nAlkaline medium\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae 2H2O + O2\nThe rate equation for this reaction is found to be\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\uf05b \uf05d\n2\n2\n2\n2\nd H O\nRate\nH O\nI\nd\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\uf02d\n\uf03d k\nt\nThis reaction is first order with respect to both H2O2 and I\u2013 Evidences\nsuggest that this reaction takes place in two steps\n(1) H2O2 + I\u2013 \u00ae H2O + IO\u2013\n(2) H2O2 + IO\u2013 \u00ae H2O + I\u2013 + O2\nBoth the steps are bimolecular elementary reactions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3063-3066", "Text": "Consider the decomposition of hydrogen\nperoxide which is catalysed by iodide ion in an alkaline medium 2H2O2 \n-I\nAlkaline medium\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae 2H2O + O2\nThe rate equation for this reaction is found to be\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\uf05b \uf05d\n2\n2\n2\n2\nd H O\nRate\nH O\nI\nd\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\uf02d\n\uf03d k\nt\nThis reaction is first order with respect to both H2O2 and I\u2013 Evidences\nsuggest that this reaction takes place in two steps\n(1) H2O2 + I\u2013 \u00ae H2O + IO\u2013\n(2) H2O2 + IO\u2013 \u00ae H2O + I\u2013 + O2\nBoth the steps are bimolecular elementary reactions Species IO- is\ncalled as an intermediate since it is formed during the course of the\nreaction but not in the overall balanced equation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3064-3067", "Text": "2H2O2 \n-I\nAlkaline medium\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae 2H2O + O2\nThe rate equation for this reaction is found to be\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\uf05b \uf05d\n2\n2\n2\n2\nd H O\nRate\nH O\nI\nd\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\uf02d\n\uf03d k\nt\nThis reaction is first order with respect to both H2O2 and I\u2013 Evidences\nsuggest that this reaction takes place in two steps\n(1) H2O2 + I\u2013 \u00ae H2O + IO\u2013\n(2) H2O2 + IO\u2013 \u00ae H2O + I\u2013 + O2\nBoth the steps are bimolecular elementary reactions Species IO- is\ncalled as an intermediate since it is formed during the course of the\nreaction but not in the overall balanced equation The first step, being\nslow, is the rate determining step"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3065-3068", "Text": "Evidences\nsuggest that this reaction takes place in two steps\n(1) H2O2 + I\u2013 \u00ae H2O + IO\u2013\n(2) H2O2 + IO\u2013 \u00ae H2O + I\u2013 + O2\nBoth the steps are bimolecular elementary reactions Species IO- is\ncalled as an intermediate since it is formed during the course of the\nreaction but not in the overall balanced equation The first step, being\nslow, is the rate determining step Thus, the rate of formation of\nintermediate will determine the rate of this reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3066-3069", "Text": "Species IO- is\ncalled as an intermediate since it is formed during the course of the\nreaction but not in the overall balanced equation The first step, being\nslow, is the rate determining step Thus, the rate of formation of\nintermediate will determine the rate of this reaction Thus, from the discussion, till now, we conclude the following:\n(i) Order of a reaction is an experimental quantity"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3067-3070", "Text": "The first step, being\nslow, is the rate determining step Thus, the rate of formation of\nintermediate will determine the rate of this reaction Thus, from the discussion, till now, we conclude the following:\n(i) Order of a reaction is an experimental quantity It can be zero and\neven a fraction but molecularity cannot be zero or a non integer"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3068-3071", "Text": "Thus, the rate of formation of\nintermediate will determine the rate of this reaction Thus, from the discussion, till now, we conclude the following:\n(i) Order of a reaction is an experimental quantity It can be zero and\neven a fraction but molecularity cannot be zero or a non integer (ii) Order is applicable to elementary as well as complex reactions\nwhereas molecularity is applicable only for elementary reactions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3069-3072", "Text": "Thus, from the discussion, till now, we conclude the following:\n(i) Order of a reaction is an experimental quantity It can be zero and\neven a fraction but molecularity cannot be zero or a non integer (ii) Order is applicable to elementary as well as complex reactions\nwhereas molecularity is applicable only for elementary reactions For complex reaction molecularity has no meaning"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3070-3073", "Text": "It can be zero and\neven a fraction but molecularity cannot be zero or a non integer (ii) Order is applicable to elementary as well as complex reactions\nwhereas molecularity is applicable only for elementary reactions For complex reaction molecularity has no meaning Rationalised 2023-24\n71\nChemical Kinetics\n(iii) For complex reaction, order is given by the slowest step and\nmolecularity of the slowest step is same as the order of the overall\nreaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3071-3074", "Text": "(ii) Order is applicable to elementary as well as complex reactions\nwhereas molecularity is applicable only for elementary reactions For complex reaction molecularity has no meaning Rationalised 2023-24\n71\nChemical Kinetics\n(iii) For complex reaction, order is given by the slowest step and\nmolecularity of the slowest step is same as the order of the overall\nreaction Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3072-3075", "Text": "For complex reaction molecularity has no meaning Rationalised 2023-24\n71\nChemical Kinetics\n(iii) For complex reaction, order is given by the slowest step and\nmolecularity of the slowest step is same as the order of the overall\nreaction Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n3 3 For a reaction, A + B \u00ae Product; the rate law is given by, r = k [ A]1/2 [B]2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3073-3076", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n71\nChemical Kinetics\n(iii) For complex reaction, order is given by the slowest step and\nmolecularity of the slowest step is same as the order of the overall\nreaction Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n3 3 For a reaction, A + B \u00ae Product; the rate law is given by, r = k [ A]1/2 [B]2 What is the order of the reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3074-3077", "Text": "Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n3 3 For a reaction, A + B \u00ae Product; the rate law is given by, r = k [ A]1/2 [B]2 What is the order of the reaction 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3075-3078", "Text": "3 For a reaction, A + B \u00ae Product; the rate law is given by, r = k [ A]1/2 [B]2 What is the order of the reaction 3 4 The conversion of molecules X to Y follows second order kinetics"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3076-3079", "Text": "What is the order of the reaction 3 4 The conversion of molecules X to Y follows second order kinetics If\nconcentration of X is increased to three times how will it affect the rate of\nformation of Y"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3077-3080", "Text": "3 4 The conversion of molecules X to Y follows second order kinetics If\nconcentration of X is increased to three times how will it affect the rate of\nformation of Y We have already noted that the concentration dependence of rate is\ncalled differential rate equation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3078-3081", "Text": "4 The conversion of molecules X to Y follows second order kinetics If\nconcentration of X is increased to three times how will it affect the rate of\nformation of Y We have already noted that the concentration dependence of rate is\ncalled differential rate equation It is not always convenient to\ndetermine the instantaneous rate, as it is measured by determination\nof slope of the tangent at point \u2018t\u2019 in concentration vs time plot\n(Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3079-3082", "Text": "If\nconcentration of X is increased to three times how will it affect the rate of\nformation of Y We have already noted that the concentration dependence of rate is\ncalled differential rate equation It is not always convenient to\ndetermine the instantaneous rate, as it is measured by determination\nof slope of the tangent at point \u2018t\u2019 in concentration vs time plot\n(Fig 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3080-3083", "Text": "We have already noted that the concentration dependence of rate is\ncalled differential rate equation It is not always convenient to\ndetermine the instantaneous rate, as it is measured by determination\nof slope of the tangent at point \u2018t\u2019 in concentration vs time plot\n(Fig 3 1)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3081-3084", "Text": "It is not always convenient to\ndetermine the instantaneous rate, as it is measured by determination\nof slope of the tangent at point \u2018t\u2019 in concentration vs time plot\n(Fig 3 1) This makes it difficult to determine the rate law and hence\nthe order of the reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3082-3085", "Text": "3 1) This makes it difficult to determine the rate law and hence\nthe order of the reaction In order to avoid this difficulty, we can\nintegrate the differential rate equation to give a relation between directly\nmeasured experimental data, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3083-3086", "Text": "1) This makes it difficult to determine the rate law and hence\nthe order of the reaction In order to avoid this difficulty, we can\nintegrate the differential rate equation to give a relation between directly\nmeasured experimental data, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3084-3087", "Text": "This makes it difficult to determine the rate law and hence\nthe order of the reaction In order to avoid this difficulty, we can\nintegrate the differential rate equation to give a relation between directly\nmeasured experimental data, i e , concentrations at different times\nand rate constant"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3085-3088", "Text": "In order to avoid this difficulty, we can\nintegrate the differential rate equation to give a relation between directly\nmeasured experimental data, i e , concentrations at different times\nand rate constant The integrated rate equations are different for the reactions of different\nreaction orders"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3086-3089", "Text": "e , concentrations at different times\nand rate constant The integrated rate equations are different for the reactions of different\nreaction orders We shall determine these equations only for zero and\nfirst order chemical reactions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3087-3090", "Text": ", concentrations at different times\nand rate constant The integrated rate equations are different for the reactions of different\nreaction orders We shall determine these equations only for zero and\nfirst order chemical reactions Zero order reaction means that the rate of the reaction is proportional\nto zero power of the concentration of reactants"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3088-3091", "Text": "The integrated rate equations are different for the reactions of different\nreaction orders We shall determine these equations only for zero and\nfirst order chemical reactions Zero order reaction means that the rate of the reaction is proportional\nto zero power of the concentration of reactants Consider the reaction,\nR \u00ae P\nRate = \n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n\uf05b\n\uf05d0\nd R\nR\nd\nk\nt\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\nAs any quantity raised to power zero is unity\nRate = \n\uf05b\nd R\uf05d\n1\nd\nk \u00d7\nt\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\nd[R] = \u2013 k dt\nIntegrating both sides\n[R]\n= \u2013 k t + I\n(3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3089-3092", "Text": "We shall determine these equations only for zero and\nfirst order chemical reactions Zero order reaction means that the rate of the reaction is proportional\nto zero power of the concentration of reactants Consider the reaction,\nR \u00ae P\nRate = \n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n\uf05b\n\uf05d0\nd R\nR\nd\nk\nt\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\nAs any quantity raised to power zero is unity\nRate = \n\uf05b\nd R\uf05d\n1\nd\nk \u00d7\nt\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\nd[R] = \u2013 k dt\nIntegrating both sides\n[R]\n= \u2013 k t + I\n(3 5)\nwhere, I is the constant of integration"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3090-3093", "Text": "Zero order reaction means that the rate of the reaction is proportional\nto zero power of the concentration of reactants Consider the reaction,\nR \u00ae P\nRate = \n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n\uf05b\n\uf05d0\nd R\nR\nd\nk\nt\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\nAs any quantity raised to power zero is unity\nRate = \n\uf05b\nd R\uf05d\n1\nd\nk \u00d7\nt\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\nd[R] = \u2013 k dt\nIntegrating both sides\n[R]\n= \u2013 k t + I\n(3 5)\nwhere, I is the constant of integration At t = 0, the concentration of the reactant R = [R]0, where [R]0 is\ninitial concentration of the reactant"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3091-3094", "Text": "Consider the reaction,\nR \u00ae P\nRate = \n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n\uf05b\n\uf05d0\nd R\nR\nd\nk\nt\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\nAs any quantity raised to power zero is unity\nRate = \n\uf05b\nd R\uf05d\n1\nd\nk \u00d7\nt\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\nd[R] = \u2013 k dt\nIntegrating both sides\n[R]\n= \u2013 k t + I\n(3 5)\nwhere, I is the constant of integration At t = 0, the concentration of the reactant R = [R]0, where [R]0 is\ninitial concentration of the reactant Substituting in equation (3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3092-3095", "Text": "5)\nwhere, I is the constant of integration At t = 0, the concentration of the reactant R = [R]0, where [R]0 is\ninitial concentration of the reactant Substituting in equation (3 5)\n[R]0\n= \u2013k \u00d7 0 + I\n[R]0\n= I\nSubstituting the value of I in the equation (3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3093-3096", "Text": "At t = 0, the concentration of the reactant R = [R]0, where [R]0 is\ninitial concentration of the reactant Substituting in equation (3 5)\n[R]0\n= \u2013k \u00d7 0 + I\n[R]0\n= I\nSubstituting the value of I in the equation (3 5)\n[R]\n= -kt + [R]0\n(3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3094-3097", "Text": "Substituting in equation (3 5)\n[R]0\n= \u2013k \u00d7 0 + I\n[R]0\n= I\nSubstituting the value of I in the equation (3 5)\n[R]\n= -kt + [R]0\n(3 6)\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3095-3098", "Text": "5)\n[R]0\n= \u2013k \u00d7 0 + I\n[R]0\n= I\nSubstituting the value of I in the equation (3 5)\n[R]\n= -kt + [R]0\n(3 6)\n3 3\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3096-3099", "Text": "5)\n[R]\n= -kt + [R]0\n(3 6)\n3 3\n3 3\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3097-3100", "Text": "6)\n3 3\n3 3\n3 3\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3098-3101", "Text": "3\n3 3\n3 3\n3 3\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3099-3102", "Text": "3\n3 3\n3 3\n3 3 Integrated\nIntegrated\nIntegrated\nIntegrated\nIntegrated\nRate\nRate\nRate\nRate\nRate\nEquations\nEquations\nEquations\nEquations\nEquations\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3100-3103", "Text": "3\n3 3\n3 3 Integrated\nIntegrated\nIntegrated\nIntegrated\nIntegrated\nRate\nRate\nRate\nRate\nRate\nEquations\nEquations\nEquations\nEquations\nEquations\n3 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3101-3104", "Text": "3\n3 3 Integrated\nIntegrated\nIntegrated\nIntegrated\nIntegrated\nRate\nRate\nRate\nRate\nRate\nEquations\nEquations\nEquations\nEquations\nEquations\n3 3 1 Zero Order\nReactions\nRationalised 2023-24\n72\nChemistry\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3102-3105", "Text": "3 Integrated\nIntegrated\nIntegrated\nIntegrated\nIntegrated\nRate\nRate\nRate\nRate\nRate\nEquations\nEquations\nEquations\nEquations\nEquations\n3 3 1 Zero Order\nReactions\nRationalised 2023-24\n72\nChemistry\nFig 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3103-3106", "Text": "3 1 Zero Order\nReactions\nRationalised 2023-24\n72\nChemistry\nFig 3 3: Variation in the concentration\nvs time plot for a zero order\nreaction\nTime\nk = -slope\nConcentration of R\n[R ]\n0\n0\nComparing (3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3104-3107", "Text": "1 Zero Order\nReactions\nRationalised 2023-24\n72\nChemistry\nFig 3 3: Variation in the concentration\nvs time plot for a zero order\nreaction\nTime\nk = -slope\nConcentration of R\n[R ]\n0\n0\nComparing (3 6) with equation of a straight line,\ny = mx + c, if we plot [R] against t, we get a straight\nline (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3105-3108", "Text": "3 3: Variation in the concentration\nvs time plot for a zero order\nreaction\nTime\nk = -slope\nConcentration of R\n[R ]\n0\n0\nComparing (3 6) with equation of a straight line,\ny = mx + c, if we plot [R] against t, we get a straight\nline (Fig 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3106-3109", "Text": "3: Variation in the concentration\nvs time plot for a zero order\nreaction\nTime\nk = -slope\nConcentration of R\n[R ]\n0\n0\nComparing (3 6) with equation of a straight line,\ny = mx + c, if we plot [R] against t, we get a straight\nline (Fig 3 3) with slope = \u2013k and intercept equal\nto [R]0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3107-3110", "Text": "6) with equation of a straight line,\ny = mx + c, if we plot [R] against t, we get a straight\nline (Fig 3 3) with slope = \u2013k and intercept equal\nto [R]0 Further simplifying equation (3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3108-3111", "Text": "3 3) with slope = \u2013k and intercept equal\nto [R]0 Further simplifying equation (3 6), we get the rate\nconstant, k as\n[\n]\n[ ]\nR0\nR\nk\nt\n\u2212\n=\n(3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3109-3112", "Text": "3) with slope = \u2013k and intercept equal\nto [R]0 Further simplifying equation (3 6), we get the rate\nconstant, k as\n[\n]\n[ ]\nR0\nR\nk\nt\n\u2212\n=\n(3 7)\nZero order reactions are relatively uncommon but\nthey occur under special conditions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3110-3113", "Text": "Further simplifying equation (3 6), we get the rate\nconstant, k as\n[\n]\n[ ]\nR0\nR\nk\nt\n\u2212\n=\n(3 7)\nZero order reactions are relatively uncommon but\nthey occur under special conditions Some enzyme\ncatalysed reactions and reactions which occur on\nmetal surfaces are a few examples of zero order\nreactions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3111-3114", "Text": "6), we get the rate\nconstant, k as\n[\n]\n[ ]\nR0\nR\nk\nt\n\u2212\n=\n(3 7)\nZero order reactions are relatively uncommon but\nthey occur under special conditions Some enzyme\ncatalysed reactions and reactions which occur on\nmetal surfaces are a few examples of zero order\nreactions The decomposition of gaseous ammonia\non a hot platinum surface is a zero order reaction at\nhigh pressure"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3112-3115", "Text": "7)\nZero order reactions are relatively uncommon but\nthey occur under special conditions Some enzyme\ncatalysed reactions and reactions which occur on\nmetal surfaces are a few examples of zero order\nreactions The decomposition of gaseous ammonia\non a hot platinum surface is a zero order reaction at\nhigh pressure ( )\n( )\n( )\n1130K\n3\n2\n2\nPt catalyst\n2NH\ng\nN\ng +3H\ng\n\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\u2192\nRate = k [NH3]0 = k\nIn this reaction, platinum metal acts as a catalyst"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3113-3116", "Text": "Some enzyme\ncatalysed reactions and reactions which occur on\nmetal surfaces are a few examples of zero order\nreactions The decomposition of gaseous ammonia\non a hot platinum surface is a zero order reaction at\nhigh pressure ( )\n( )\n( )\n1130K\n3\n2\n2\nPt catalyst\n2NH\ng\nN\ng +3H\ng\n\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\u2192\nRate = k [NH3]0 = k\nIn this reaction, platinum metal acts as a catalyst At high pressure,\nthe metal surface gets saturated with gas molecules"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3114-3117", "Text": "The decomposition of gaseous ammonia\non a hot platinum surface is a zero order reaction at\nhigh pressure ( )\n( )\n( )\n1130K\n3\n2\n2\nPt catalyst\n2NH\ng\nN\ng +3H\ng\n\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\u2192\nRate = k [NH3]0 = k\nIn this reaction, platinum metal acts as a catalyst At high pressure,\nthe metal surface gets saturated with gas molecules So, a further\nchange in reaction conditions is unable to alter the amount of ammonia\non the surface of the catalyst making rate of the reaction independent\nof its concentration"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3115-3118", "Text": "( )\n( )\n( )\n1130K\n3\n2\n2\nPt catalyst\n2NH\ng\nN\ng +3H\ng\n\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\u2192\nRate = k [NH3]0 = k\nIn this reaction, platinum metal acts as a catalyst At high pressure,\nthe metal surface gets saturated with gas molecules So, a further\nchange in reaction conditions is unable to alter the amount of ammonia\non the surface of the catalyst making rate of the reaction independent\nof its concentration The thermal decomposition of HI on gold surface\nis another example of zero order reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3116-3119", "Text": "At high pressure,\nthe metal surface gets saturated with gas molecules So, a further\nchange in reaction conditions is unable to alter the amount of ammonia\non the surface of the catalyst making rate of the reaction independent\nof its concentration The thermal decomposition of HI on gold surface\nis another example of zero order reaction In this class of reactions, the rate of the reaction is proportional to the\nfirst power of the concentration of the reactant R"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3117-3120", "Text": "So, a further\nchange in reaction conditions is unable to alter the amount of ammonia\non the surface of the catalyst making rate of the reaction independent\nof its concentration The thermal decomposition of HI on gold surface\nis another example of zero order reaction In this class of reactions, the rate of the reaction is proportional to the\nfirst power of the concentration of the reactant R For example,\nR \u00ae P\n[\n]\n[\n]\nd R\nRate\nR\nd\nk\nt\n= \u2212\n=\nor \n[ ]\n[ ]\nd R\n\u2013 d\nR\nk t\n=\nIntegrating this equation, we get\nln [R] = \u2013 kt + I\n(3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3118-3121", "Text": "The thermal decomposition of HI on gold surface\nis another example of zero order reaction In this class of reactions, the rate of the reaction is proportional to the\nfirst power of the concentration of the reactant R For example,\nR \u00ae P\n[\n]\n[\n]\nd R\nRate\nR\nd\nk\nt\n= \u2212\n=\nor \n[ ]\n[ ]\nd R\n\u2013 d\nR\nk t\n=\nIntegrating this equation, we get\nln [R] = \u2013 kt + I\n(3 8)\nAgain, I is the constant of integration and its value can be determined\neasily"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3119-3122", "Text": "In this class of reactions, the rate of the reaction is proportional to the\nfirst power of the concentration of the reactant R For example,\nR \u00ae P\n[\n]\n[\n]\nd R\nRate\nR\nd\nk\nt\n= \u2212\n=\nor \n[ ]\n[ ]\nd R\n\u2013 d\nR\nk t\n=\nIntegrating this equation, we get\nln [R] = \u2013 kt + I\n(3 8)\nAgain, I is the constant of integration and its value can be determined\neasily When t = 0, R = [R]0, where [R]0 is the initial concentration of the\nreactant"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3120-3123", "Text": "For example,\nR \u00ae P\n[\n]\n[\n]\nd R\nRate\nR\nd\nk\nt\n= \u2212\n=\nor \n[ ]\n[ ]\nd R\n\u2013 d\nR\nk t\n=\nIntegrating this equation, we get\nln [R] = \u2013 kt + I\n(3 8)\nAgain, I is the constant of integration and its value can be determined\neasily When t = 0, R = [R]0, where [R]0 is the initial concentration of the\nreactant Therefore, equation (3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3121-3124", "Text": "8)\nAgain, I is the constant of integration and its value can be determined\neasily When t = 0, R = [R]0, where [R]0 is the initial concentration of the\nreactant Therefore, equation (3 8) can be written as\nln [R]0 = \u2013k \u00d7 0 + I\nln [R]0 = I\nSubstituting the value of I in equation (3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3122-3125", "Text": "When t = 0, R = [R]0, where [R]0 is the initial concentration of the\nreactant Therefore, equation (3 8) can be written as\nln [R]0 = \u2013k \u00d7 0 + I\nln [R]0 = I\nSubstituting the value of I in equation (3 8)\nln[R] = \u2013kt + ln[R]0\n(3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3123-3126", "Text": "Therefore, equation (3 8) can be written as\nln [R]0 = \u2013k \u00d7 0 + I\nln [R]0 = I\nSubstituting the value of I in equation (3 8)\nln[R] = \u2013kt + ln[R]0\n(3 9)\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3124-3127", "Text": "8) can be written as\nln [R]0 = \u2013k \u00d7 0 + I\nln [R]0 = I\nSubstituting the value of I in equation (3 8)\nln[R] = \u2013kt + ln[R]0\n(3 9)\n3 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3125-3128", "Text": "8)\nln[R] = \u2013kt + ln[R]0\n(3 9)\n3 3 2 First Order\nReactions\nRationalised 2023-24\n73\nChemical Kinetics\nRearranging this equation\n[\n]\n[\n]0\nlnR\nR\nkt\n= \u2212\nor \n\uf05b \uf05d\n\uf05b \uf05d\n1 lnR0\nR\nk\uf03d\nt\n(3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3126-3129", "Text": "9)\n3 3 2 First Order\nReactions\nRationalised 2023-24\n73\nChemical Kinetics\nRearranging this equation\n[\n]\n[\n]0\nlnR\nR\nkt\n= \u2212\nor \n\uf05b \uf05d\n\uf05b \uf05d\n1 lnR0\nR\nk\uf03d\nt\n(3 10)\nAt time t1 from equation (3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3127-3130", "Text": "3 2 First Order\nReactions\nRationalised 2023-24\n73\nChemical Kinetics\nRearranging this equation\n[\n]\n[\n]0\nlnR\nR\nkt\n= \u2212\nor \n\uf05b \uf05d\n\uf05b \uf05d\n1 lnR0\nR\nk\uf03d\nt\n(3 10)\nAt time t1 from equation (3 8)\n*ln[R]1 = \u2013 kt1 + *ln[R]0\n(3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3128-3131", "Text": "2 First Order\nReactions\nRationalised 2023-24\n73\nChemical Kinetics\nRearranging this equation\n[\n]\n[\n]0\nlnR\nR\nkt\n= \u2212\nor \n\uf05b \uf05d\n\uf05b \uf05d\n1 lnR0\nR\nk\uf03d\nt\n(3 10)\nAt time t1 from equation (3 8)\n*ln[R]1 = \u2013 kt1 + *ln[R]0\n(3 11)\nAt time t2\nln[R]2 = \u2013 kt2 + ln[R]0\n(3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3129-3132", "Text": "10)\nAt time t1 from equation (3 8)\n*ln[R]1 = \u2013 kt1 + *ln[R]0\n(3 11)\nAt time t2\nln[R]2 = \u2013 kt2 + ln[R]0\n(3 12)\nwhere, [R]1 and [R]2 are the concentrations of the reactants at time\nt1 and t2 respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3130-3133", "Text": "8)\n*ln[R]1 = \u2013 kt1 + *ln[R]0\n(3 11)\nAt time t2\nln[R]2 = \u2013 kt2 + ln[R]0\n(3 12)\nwhere, [R]1 and [R]2 are the concentrations of the reactants at time\nt1 and t2 respectively Subtracting (3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3131-3134", "Text": "11)\nAt time t2\nln[R]2 = \u2013 kt2 + ln[R]0\n(3 12)\nwhere, [R]1 and [R]2 are the concentrations of the reactants at time\nt1 and t2 respectively Subtracting (3 12) from (3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3132-3135", "Text": "12)\nwhere, [R]1 and [R]2 are the concentrations of the reactants at time\nt1 and t2 respectively Subtracting (3 12) from (3 11)\nln[R]1\u2013 ln[R]2 = \u2013 kt1 \u2013 (\u2013kt2)\n[\n]\n[ ]\n(\n)\n\u2212\n=\n1\n2\n1\n2\nlnR\nR\nt\nt\nk\n(\n)\n[\n]\n[\n]\n1\n2\n1\n2\n1\nR\nln\nR\nk\nt\nt\n=\n\u2212\n(3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3133-3136", "Text": "Subtracting (3 12) from (3 11)\nln[R]1\u2013 ln[R]2 = \u2013 kt1 \u2013 (\u2013kt2)\n[\n]\n[ ]\n(\n)\n\u2212\n=\n1\n2\n1\n2\nlnR\nR\nt\nt\nk\n(\n)\n[\n]\n[\n]\n1\n2\n1\n2\n1\nR\nln\nR\nk\nt\nt\n=\n\u2212\n(3 13)\nEquation (3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3134-3137", "Text": "12) from (3 11)\nln[R]1\u2013 ln[R]2 = \u2013 kt1 \u2013 (\u2013kt2)\n[\n]\n[ ]\n(\n)\n\u2212\n=\n1\n2\n1\n2\nlnR\nR\nt\nt\nk\n(\n)\n[\n]\n[\n]\n1\n2\n1\n2\n1\nR\nln\nR\nk\nt\nt\n=\n\u2212\n(3 13)\nEquation (3 9) can also be written as\n[[ ]\n]\n= \u2212\n0\nR\nln\nR\nkt\nTaking antilog of both sides\n[R] = [R]0 e\u2013kt\n(3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3135-3138", "Text": "11)\nln[R]1\u2013 ln[R]2 = \u2013 kt1 \u2013 (\u2013kt2)\n[\n]\n[ ]\n(\n)\n\u2212\n=\n1\n2\n1\n2\nlnR\nR\nt\nt\nk\n(\n)\n[\n]\n[\n]\n1\n2\n1\n2\n1\nR\nln\nR\nk\nt\nt\n=\n\u2212\n(3 13)\nEquation (3 9) can also be written as\n[[ ]\n]\n= \u2212\n0\nR\nln\nR\nkt\nTaking antilog of both sides\n[R] = [R]0 e\u2013kt\n(3 14)\nComparing equation (3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3136-3139", "Text": "13)\nEquation (3 9) can also be written as\n[[ ]\n]\n= \u2212\n0\nR\nln\nR\nkt\nTaking antilog of both sides\n[R] = [R]0 e\u2013kt\n(3 14)\nComparing equation (3 9) with y = mx + c, if we plot ln [R] against\nt (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3137-3140", "Text": "9) can also be written as\n[[ ]\n]\n= \u2212\n0\nR\nln\nR\nkt\nTaking antilog of both sides\n[R] = [R]0 e\u2013kt\n(3 14)\nComparing equation (3 9) with y = mx + c, if we plot ln [R] against\nt (Fig 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3138-3141", "Text": "14)\nComparing equation (3 9) with y = mx + c, if we plot ln [R] against\nt (Fig 3 4) we get a straight line with slope = \u2013k and intercept equal to\nln [R]0\nThe first order rate equation (3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3139-3142", "Text": "9) with y = mx + c, if we plot ln [R] against\nt (Fig 3 4) we get a straight line with slope = \u2013k and intercept equal to\nln [R]0\nThe first order rate equation (3 10) can also be written in the form\n[ ]\n[ ]\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3140-3143", "Text": "3 4) we get a straight line with slope = \u2013k and intercept equal to\nln [R]0\nThe first order rate equation (3 10) can also be written in the form\n[ ]\n[ ]\n2 303 logR0\nR\nk\nt\n=\n(3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3141-3144", "Text": "4) we get a straight line with slope = \u2013k and intercept equal to\nln [R]0\nThe first order rate equation (3 10) can also be written in the form\n[ ]\n[ ]\n2 303 logR0\nR\nk\nt\n=\n(3 15)\n*\n[\n]\n[\n]\nlogR0\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3142-3145", "Text": "10) can also be written in the form\n[ ]\n[ ]\n2 303 logR0\nR\nk\nt\n=\n(3 15)\n*\n[\n]\n[\n]\nlogR0\n2 303\nR\nkt\n=\nIf we plot a graph between log [R]0/[R] vs t, (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3143-3146", "Text": "303 logR0\nR\nk\nt\n=\n(3 15)\n*\n[\n]\n[\n]\nlogR0\n2 303\nR\nkt\n=\nIf we plot a graph between log [R]0/[R] vs t, (Fig 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3144-3147", "Text": "15)\n*\n[\n]\n[\n]\nlogR0\n2 303\nR\nkt\n=\nIf we plot a graph between log [R]0/[R] vs t, (Fig 3 5),\nthe slope = k/2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3145-3148", "Text": "303\nR\nkt\n=\nIf we plot a graph between log [R]0/[R] vs t, (Fig 3 5),\nthe slope = k/2 303\nHydrogenation of ethene is an example of first order reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3146-3149", "Text": "3 5),\nthe slope = k/2 303\nHydrogenation of ethene is an example of first order reaction C2H4(g) + H2 (g) \u00ae C2H6(g)\nRate = k [C2H4]\nAll natural and artificial radioactive decay of unstable nuclei take\nplace by first order kinetics"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3147-3150", "Text": "5),\nthe slope = k/2 303\nHydrogenation of ethene is an example of first order reaction C2H4(g) + H2 (g) \u00ae C2H6(g)\nRate = k [C2H4]\nAll natural and artificial radioactive decay of unstable nuclei take\nplace by first order kinetics * Refer to Appendix-IV for ln and log (logarithms)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3148-3151", "Text": "303\nHydrogenation of ethene is an example of first order reaction C2H4(g) + H2 (g) \u00ae C2H6(g)\nRate = k [C2H4]\nAll natural and artificial radioactive decay of unstable nuclei take\nplace by first order kinetics * Refer to Appendix-IV for ln and log (logarithms) Rationalised 2023-24\n74\nChemistry\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3149-3152", "Text": "C2H4(g) + H2 (g) \u00ae C2H6(g)\nRate = k [C2H4]\nAll natural and artificial radioactive decay of unstable nuclei take\nplace by first order kinetics * Refer to Appendix-IV for ln and log (logarithms) Rationalised 2023-24\n74\nChemistry\nFig 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3150-3153", "Text": "* Refer to Appendix-IV for ln and log (logarithms) Rationalised 2023-24\n74\nChemistry\nFig 3 4: A plot between ln[R] and t\nfor a first order reaction\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3151-3154", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n74\nChemistry\nFig 3 4: A plot between ln[R] and t\nfor a first order reaction\nFig 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3152-3155", "Text": "3 4: A plot between ln[R] and t\nfor a first order reaction\nFig 3 5: Plot of log [R]0/[R] vs time for a\nfirst order reaction\nSlope =\n/2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3153-3156", "Text": "4: A plot between ln[R] and t\nfor a first order reaction\nFig 3 5: Plot of log [R]0/[R] vs time for a\nfirst order reaction\nSlope =\n/2 303\nk\nlog ([R /[R])\n0]\nTime\n0\n226\n4\n222\n88\n2\n86\nRa\nHe\nRn\n\uf0ae\n\uf02b\nRate = k [Ra]\nDecomposition of N2O5 and N2O are some more examples of first\norder reactions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3154-3157", "Text": "3 5: Plot of log [R]0/[R] vs time for a\nfirst order reaction\nSlope =\n/2 303\nk\nlog ([R /[R])\n0]\nTime\n0\n226\n4\n222\n88\n2\n86\nRa\nHe\nRn\n\uf0ae\n\uf02b\nRate = k [Ra]\nDecomposition of N2O5 and N2O are some more examples of first\norder reactions The initial concentration of N2O5 in the following first order reaction\nN2O5(g) \u00ae 2 NO2(g) + 1/2O2 (g) was 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3155-3158", "Text": "5: Plot of log [R]0/[R] vs time for a\nfirst order reaction\nSlope =\n/2 303\nk\nlog ([R /[R])\n0]\nTime\n0\n226\n4\n222\n88\n2\n86\nRa\nHe\nRn\n\uf0ae\n\uf02b\nRate = k [Ra]\nDecomposition of N2O5 and N2O are some more examples of first\norder reactions The initial concentration of N2O5 in the following first order reaction\nN2O5(g) \u00ae 2 NO2(g) + 1/2O2 (g) was 1 24 \u00d7 10\u20132 mol L\u20131 at 318 K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3156-3159", "Text": "303\nk\nlog ([R /[R])\n0]\nTime\n0\n226\n4\n222\n88\n2\n86\nRa\nHe\nRn\n\uf0ae\n\uf02b\nRate = k [Ra]\nDecomposition of N2O5 and N2O are some more examples of first\norder reactions The initial concentration of N2O5 in the following first order reaction\nN2O5(g) \u00ae 2 NO2(g) + 1/2O2 (g) was 1 24 \u00d7 10\u20132 mol L\u20131 at 318 K The\nconcentration of N2O5 after 60 minutes was 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3157-3160", "Text": "The initial concentration of N2O5 in the following first order reaction\nN2O5(g) \u00ae 2 NO2(g) + 1/2O2 (g) was 1 24 \u00d7 10\u20132 mol L\u20131 at 318 K The\nconcentration of N2O5 after 60 minutes was 0 20 \u00d7 10\u20132 mol L\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3158-3161", "Text": "24 \u00d7 10\u20132 mol L\u20131 at 318 K The\nconcentration of N2O5 after 60 minutes was 0 20 \u00d7 10\u20132 mol L\u20131 Calculate\nthe rate constant of the reaction at 318 K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3159-3162", "Text": "The\nconcentration of N2O5 after 60 minutes was 0 20 \u00d7 10\u20132 mol L\u20131 Calculate\nthe rate constant of the reaction at 318 K For a first order reaction\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n1\n2\nR\nlog\nR\n= \n\uf028\n\uf029\n2\n1\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3160-3163", "Text": "20 \u00d7 10\u20132 mol L\u20131 Calculate\nthe rate constant of the reaction at 318 K For a first order reaction\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n1\n2\nR\nlog\nR\n= \n\uf028\n\uf029\n2\n1\n2 303\nk t\nt\n\uf02d\n k\n= \uf028\n\uf029\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n1\n2\n1\n2\nt2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3161-3164", "Text": "Calculate\nthe rate constant of the reaction at 318 K For a first order reaction\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n1\n2\nR\nlog\nR\n= \n\uf028\n\uf029\n2\n1\n2 303\nk t\nt\n\uf02d\n k\n= \uf028\n\uf029\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n1\n2\n1\n2\nt2 303 log R\nt\nR\n\uf02d\n= \uf028\n\uf029\n2\n1\n2\n1\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3162-3165", "Text": "For a first order reaction\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n1\n2\nR\nlog\nR\n= \n\uf028\n\uf029\n2\n1\n2 303\nk t\nt\n\uf02d\n k\n= \uf028\n\uf029\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n1\n2\n1\n2\nt2 303 log R\nt\nR\n\uf02d\n= \uf028\n\uf029\n2\n1\n2\n1\n1 24 10\nmol L\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3163-3166", "Text": "303\nk t\nt\n\uf02d\n k\n= \uf028\n\uf029\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n1\n2\n1\n2\nt2 303 log R\nt\nR\n\uf02d\n= \uf028\n\uf029\n2\n1\n2\n1\n1 24 10\nmol L\n2 303\n60 min 0 minlog\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3164-3167", "Text": "303 log R\nt\nR\n\uf02d\n= \uf028\n\uf029\n2\n1\n2\n1\n1 24 10\nmol L\n2 303\n60 min 0 minlog\n0 20 10\nmol L\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf0b4\n\uf02d\n\uf0b4\n= \n1\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3165-3168", "Text": "24 10\nmol L\n2 303\n60 min 0 minlog\n0 20 10\nmol L\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf0b4\n\uf02d\n\uf0b4\n= \n1\n2 303 log 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3166-3169", "Text": "303\n60 min 0 minlog\n0 20 10\nmol L\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf0b4\n\uf02d\n\uf0b4\n= \n1\n2 303 log 6 2 min\n60\n\uf02d\nk\n= 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3167-3170", "Text": "20 10\nmol L\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf0b4\n\uf02d\n\uf0b4\n= \n1\n2 303 log 6 2 min\n60\n\uf02d\nk\n= 0 0304 min-1\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3168-3171", "Text": "303 log 6 2 min\n60\n\uf02d\nk\n= 0 0304 min-1\nExample 3 5\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3169-3172", "Text": "2 min\n60\n\uf02d\nk\n= 0 0304 min-1\nExample 3 5\nExample 3 5\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3170-3173", "Text": "0304 min-1\nExample 3 5\nExample 3 5\nExample 3 5\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3171-3174", "Text": "5\nExample 3 5\nExample 3 5\nExample 3 5\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3172-3175", "Text": "5\nExample 3 5\nExample 3 5\nExample 3 5\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nLet us consider a typical first order gas phase reaction\nA(g) \u00ae B(g) + C(g)\nLet pi be the initial pressure of A and pt the total pressure at\ntime \u2018t\u2019"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3173-3176", "Text": "5\nExample 3 5\nExample 3 5\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nLet us consider a typical first order gas phase reaction\nA(g) \u00ae B(g) + C(g)\nLet pi be the initial pressure of A and pt the total pressure at\ntime \u2018t\u2019 Integrated rate equation for such a reaction can be derived as\nTotal pressure pt = pA + pB + pC (pressure units)\nRationalised 2023-24\n75\nChemical Kinetics\npA, pB and pC are the partial pressures of A, B and C, respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3174-3177", "Text": "5\nExample 3 5\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nLet us consider a typical first order gas phase reaction\nA(g) \u00ae B(g) + C(g)\nLet pi be the initial pressure of A and pt the total pressure at\ntime \u2018t\u2019 Integrated rate equation for such a reaction can be derived as\nTotal pressure pt = pA + pB + pC (pressure units)\nRationalised 2023-24\n75\nChemical Kinetics\npA, pB and pC are the partial pressures of A, B and C, respectively If x atm be the decrease in pressure of A at time t and one mole each\nof B and C is being formed, the increase in pressure of B and C will also\nbe x atm each"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3175-3178", "Text": "5\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nLet us consider a typical first order gas phase reaction\nA(g) \u00ae B(g) + C(g)\nLet pi be the initial pressure of A and pt the total pressure at\ntime \u2018t\u2019 Integrated rate equation for such a reaction can be derived as\nTotal pressure pt = pA + pB + pC (pressure units)\nRationalised 2023-24\n75\nChemical Kinetics\npA, pB and pC are the partial pressures of A, B and C, respectively If x atm be the decrease in pressure of A at time t and one mole each\nof B and C is being formed, the increase in pressure of B and C will also\nbe x atm each A(g) \u00ae B(g) + C(g)\nAt t = 0\npi atm\n0 atm\n0 atm\nAt time t\n(pi\u2013x) atm\nx atm\nx atm\nwhere, pi is the initial pressure at time t = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3176-3179", "Text": "Integrated rate equation for such a reaction can be derived as\nTotal pressure pt = pA + pB + pC (pressure units)\nRationalised 2023-24\n75\nChemical Kinetics\npA, pB and pC are the partial pressures of A, B and C, respectively If x atm be the decrease in pressure of A at time t and one mole each\nof B and C is being formed, the increase in pressure of B and C will also\nbe x atm each A(g) \u00ae B(g) + C(g)\nAt t = 0\npi atm\n0 atm\n0 atm\nAt time t\n(pi\u2013x) atm\nx atm\nx atm\nwhere, pi is the initial pressure at time t = 0 pt = (pi \u2013 x) + x + x = pi + x\nx = (pt - pi)\nwhere, pA = pi \u2013 x = pi \u2013 (pt \u2013 pi)\n = 2pi \u2013 pt\n k = \ni\nA\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3177-3180", "Text": "If x atm be the decrease in pressure of A at time t and one mole each\nof B and C is being formed, the increase in pressure of B and C will also\nbe x atm each A(g) \u00ae B(g) + C(g)\nAt t = 0\npi atm\n0 atm\n0 atm\nAt time t\n(pi\u2013x) atm\nx atm\nx atm\nwhere, pi is the initial pressure at time t = 0 pt = (pi \u2013 x) + x + x = pi + x\nx = (pt - pi)\nwhere, pA = pi \u2013 x = pi \u2013 (pt \u2013 pi)\n = 2pi \u2013 pt\n k = \ni\nA\n2 303\nlog p\np\nt\n\uf0e6\n\uf0f6\n\uf0e6\n\uf0f6\n\uf0e7\n\uf0f7\uf0e7\n\uf0f7\n\uf0e8\n\uf0f8\uf0e8\n\uf0f8\n(3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3178-3181", "Text": "A(g) \u00ae B(g) + C(g)\nAt t = 0\npi atm\n0 atm\n0 atm\nAt time t\n(pi\u2013x) atm\nx atm\nx atm\nwhere, pi is the initial pressure at time t = 0 pt = (pi \u2013 x) + x + x = pi + x\nx = (pt - pi)\nwhere, pA = pi \u2013 x = pi \u2013 (pt \u2013 pi)\n = 2pi \u2013 pt\n k = \ni\nA\n2 303\nlog p\np\nt\n\uf0e6\n\uf0f6\n\uf0e6\n\uf0f6\n\uf0e7\n\uf0f7\uf0e7\n\uf0f7\n\uf0e8\n\uf0f8\uf0e8\n\uf0f8\n(3 16)\n= \n\uf028\n\uf029\ni\ni\nt\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3179-3182", "Text": "pt = (pi \u2013 x) + x + x = pi + x\nx = (pt - pi)\nwhere, pA = pi \u2013 x = pi \u2013 (pt \u2013 pi)\n = 2pi \u2013 pt\n k = \ni\nA\n2 303\nlog p\np\nt\n\uf0e6\n\uf0f6\n\uf0e6\n\uf0f6\n\uf0e7\n\uf0f7\uf0e7\n\uf0f7\n\uf0e8\n\uf0f8\uf0e8\n\uf0f8\n(3 16)\n= \n\uf028\n\uf029\ni\ni\nt\n2 303 log 2\np\np\np\nt\n\uf02d\nThe following data were obtained during the first order thermal\ndecomposition of N2O5 (g) at constant volume:\n( )\n( )\n( )\n2\n5\n2\n4\n2\ng\ng\ng\n2N O\n2N O\nO\n\u2192\n+\nS"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3180-3183", "Text": "303\nlog p\np\nt\n\uf0e6\n\uf0f6\n\uf0e6\n\uf0f6\n\uf0e7\n\uf0f7\uf0e7\n\uf0f7\n\uf0e8\n\uf0f8\uf0e8\n\uf0f8\n(3 16)\n= \n\uf028\n\uf029\ni\ni\nt\n2 303 log 2\np\np\np\nt\n\uf02d\nThe following data were obtained during the first order thermal\ndecomposition of N2O5 (g) at constant volume:\n( )\n( )\n( )\n2\n5\n2\n4\n2\ng\ng\ng\n2N O\n2N O\nO\n\u2192\n+\nS No"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3181-3184", "Text": "16)\n= \n\uf028\n\uf029\ni\ni\nt\n2 303 log 2\np\np\np\nt\n\uf02d\nThe following data were obtained during the first order thermal\ndecomposition of N2O5 (g) at constant volume:\n( )\n( )\n( )\n2\n5\n2\n4\n2\ng\ng\ng\n2N O\n2N O\nO\n\u2192\n+\nS No Time/s\nTotal Pressure/(atm)\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3182-3185", "Text": "303 log 2\np\np\np\nt\n\uf02d\nThe following data were obtained during the first order thermal\ndecomposition of N2O5 (g) at constant volume:\n( )\n( )\n( )\n2\n5\n2\n4\n2\ng\ng\ng\n2N O\n2N O\nO\n\u2192\n+\nS No Time/s\nTotal Pressure/(atm)\n1 0\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3183-3186", "Text": "No Time/s\nTotal Pressure/(atm)\n1 0\n0 5\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3184-3187", "Text": "Time/s\nTotal Pressure/(atm)\n1 0\n0 5\n2 100\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3185-3188", "Text": "0\n0 5\n2 100\n0 512\nCalculate the rate constant"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3186-3189", "Text": "5\n2 100\n0 512\nCalculate the rate constant Let the pressure of N2O5(g) decrease by 2x atm"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3187-3190", "Text": "100\n0 512\nCalculate the rate constant Let the pressure of N2O5(g) decrease by 2x atm As two moles of\nN2O5 decompose to give two moles of N2O4(g) and one mole of O2 (g),\nthe pressure of N2O4 (g) increases by 2x atm and that of O2 (g)\nincreases by x atm"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3188-3191", "Text": "512\nCalculate the rate constant Let the pressure of N2O5(g) decrease by 2x atm As two moles of\nN2O5 decompose to give two moles of N2O4(g) and one mole of O2 (g),\nthe pressure of N2O4 (g) increases by 2x atm and that of O2 (g)\nincreases by x atm ( )\n( )\n( )\n2\n5\n2\n4\n2\ng\ng\ng\n2N O\n2N O\nO\n\u2192\n+\nStart t = 0 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3189-3192", "Text": "Let the pressure of N2O5(g) decrease by 2x atm As two moles of\nN2O5 decompose to give two moles of N2O4(g) and one mole of O2 (g),\nthe pressure of N2O4 (g) increases by 2x atm and that of O2 (g)\nincreases by x atm ( )\n( )\n( )\n2\n5\n2\n4\n2\ng\ng\ng\n2N O\n2N O\nO\n\u2192\n+\nStart t = 0 0 5 atm\n0 atm\n 0 atm\nAt time t (0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3190-3193", "Text": "As two moles of\nN2O5 decompose to give two moles of N2O4(g) and one mole of O2 (g),\nthe pressure of N2O4 (g) increases by 2x atm and that of O2 (g)\nincreases by x atm ( )\n( )\n( )\n2\n5\n2\n4\n2\ng\ng\ng\n2N O\n2N O\nO\n\u2192\n+\nStart t = 0 0 5 atm\n0 atm\n 0 atm\nAt time t (0 5 \u2013 2x) atm\n 2x atm\n x atm\npt = \n2\n5\n2\n4\n2\nN O\nN O\nO\np\np\np\n\uf02b\n\uf02b\n= (0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3191-3194", "Text": "( )\n( )\n( )\n2\n5\n2\n4\n2\ng\ng\ng\n2N O\n2N O\nO\n\u2192\n+\nStart t = 0 0 5 atm\n0 atm\n 0 atm\nAt time t (0 5 \u2013 2x) atm\n 2x atm\n x atm\npt = \n2\n5\n2\n4\n2\nN O\nN O\nO\np\np\np\n\uf02b\n\uf02b\n= (0 5 \u2013 2x) + 2x + x = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3192-3195", "Text": "5 atm\n0 atm\n 0 atm\nAt time t (0 5 \u2013 2x) atm\n 2x atm\n x atm\npt = \n2\n5\n2\n4\n2\nN O\nN O\nO\np\np\np\n\uf02b\n\uf02b\n= (0 5 \u2013 2x) + 2x + x = 0 5 + x\nx\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3193-3196", "Text": "5 \u2013 2x) atm\n 2x atm\n x atm\npt = \n2\n5\n2\n4\n2\nN O\nN O\nO\np\np\np\n\uf02b\n\uf02b\n= (0 5 \u2013 2x) + 2x + x = 0 5 + x\nx\n0 5\ntp\n=\n\u2212\n2\npN O5\n= 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3194-3197", "Text": "5 \u2013 2x) + 2x + x = 0 5 + x\nx\n0 5\ntp\n=\n\u2212\n2\npN O5\n= 0 5 \u2013 2x\n= 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3195-3198", "Text": "5 + x\nx\n0 5\ntp\n=\n\u2212\n2\npN O5\n= 0 5 \u2013 2x\n= 0 5 \u2013 2 (pt \u2013 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3196-3199", "Text": "5\ntp\n=\n\u2212\n2\npN O5\n= 0 5 \u2013 2x\n= 0 5 \u2013 2 (pt \u2013 0 5) = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3197-3200", "Text": "5 \u2013 2x\n= 0 5 \u2013 2 (pt \u2013 0 5) = 1 5 \u2013 2pt\nAt t = 100 s; pt = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3198-3201", "Text": "5 \u2013 2 (pt \u2013 0 5) = 1 5 \u2013 2pt\nAt t = 100 s; pt = 0 512 atm\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3199-3202", "Text": "5) = 1 5 \u2013 2pt\nAt t = 100 s; pt = 0 512 atm\nExample 3 6\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3200-3203", "Text": "5 \u2013 2pt\nAt t = 100 s; pt = 0 512 atm\nExample 3 6\nExample 3 6\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3201-3204", "Text": "512 atm\nExample 3 6\nExample 3 6\nExample 3 6\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3202-3205", "Text": "6\nExample 3 6\nExample 3 6\nExample 3 6\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3203-3206", "Text": "6\nExample 3 6\nExample 3 6\nExample 3 6\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n76\nChemistry\nThe half-life of a reaction is the time in which the concentration of a\nreactant is reduced to one half of its initial concentration"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3204-3207", "Text": "6\nExample 3 6\nExample 3 6\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n76\nChemistry\nThe half-life of a reaction is the time in which the concentration of a\nreactant is reduced to one half of its initial concentration It is\nrepresented as t1/2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3205-3208", "Text": "6\nExample 3 6\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n76\nChemistry\nThe half-life of a reaction is the time in which the concentration of a\nreactant is reduced to one half of its initial concentration It is\nrepresented as t1/2 For a zero order reaction, rate constant is given by equation 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3206-3209", "Text": "6\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n76\nChemistry\nThe half-life of a reaction is the time in which the concentration of a\nreactant is reduced to one half of its initial concentration It is\nrepresented as t1/2 For a zero order reaction, rate constant is given by equation 3 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3207-3210", "Text": "It is\nrepresented as t1/2 For a zero order reaction, rate constant is given by equation 3 7 [\n]\n[ ]\nR0\nR\nk\nt\n\u2212\n=\n[\n]\n[\n]0\n1/2\n1 R\nAt\n,\nR\n2\nt\n=t\n=\nThe rate constant at t1/2 becomes\n[\n]\n[\n]\n0\n0\n1/2\n1/2\nR\nR\nk\n\u2212t\n=\n[ ]0\n1/2\nR\n2\nt\nk\n=\nIt is clear that t1/2 for a zero order reaction is directly proportional\nto the initial concentration of the reactants and inversely proportional\nto the rate constant"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3208-3211", "Text": "For a zero order reaction, rate constant is given by equation 3 7 [\n]\n[ ]\nR0\nR\nk\nt\n\u2212\n=\n[\n]\n[\n]0\n1/2\n1 R\nAt\n,\nR\n2\nt\n=t\n=\nThe rate constant at t1/2 becomes\n[\n]\n[\n]\n0\n0\n1/2\n1/2\nR\nR\nk\n\u2212t\n=\n[ ]0\n1/2\nR\n2\nt\nk\n=\nIt is clear that t1/2 for a zero order reaction is directly proportional\nto the initial concentration of the reactants and inversely proportional\nto the rate constant For the first order reaction,\n[\n]\n[\n]\n0\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3209-3212", "Text": "7 [\n]\n[ ]\nR0\nR\nk\nt\n\u2212\n=\n[\n]\n[\n]0\n1/2\n1 R\nAt\n,\nR\n2\nt\n=t\n=\nThe rate constant at t1/2 becomes\n[\n]\n[\n]\n0\n0\n1/2\n1/2\nR\nR\nk\n\u2212t\n=\n[ ]0\n1/2\nR\n2\nt\nk\n=\nIt is clear that t1/2 for a zero order reaction is directly proportional\nto the initial concentration of the reactants and inversely proportional\nto the rate constant For the first order reaction,\n[\n]\n[\n]\n0\n2 303\nR\nlog\nR\nk\nt\n=\n(3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3210-3213", "Text": "[\n]\n[ ]\nR0\nR\nk\nt\n\u2212\n=\n[\n]\n[\n]0\n1/2\n1 R\nAt\n,\nR\n2\nt\n=t\n=\nThe rate constant at t1/2 becomes\n[\n]\n[\n]\n0\n0\n1/2\n1/2\nR\nR\nk\n\u2212t\n=\n[ ]0\n1/2\nR\n2\nt\nk\n=\nIt is clear that t1/2 for a zero order reaction is directly proportional\nto the initial concentration of the reactants and inversely proportional\nto the rate constant For the first order reaction,\n[\n]\n[\n]\n0\n2 303\nR\nlog\nR\nk\nt\n=\n(3 15)\nat t1/2 [\n]\n[ ]0\nR\nR\n2\n=\n(3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3211-3214", "Text": "For the first order reaction,\n[\n]\n[\n]\n0\n2 303\nR\nlog\nR\nk\nt\n=\n(3 15)\nat t1/2 [\n]\n[ ]0\nR\nR\n2\n=\n(3 16)\nSo, the above equation becomes\n[\n]\n[\n]\n0\n1/2\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3212-3215", "Text": "303\nR\nlog\nR\nk\nt\n=\n(3 15)\nat t1/2 [\n]\n[ ]0\nR\nR\n2\n=\n(3 16)\nSo, the above equation becomes\n[\n]\n[\n]\n0\n1/2\n2 303\nR\nlog\nR/2\nk\nt\n=\nor\n1/2\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3213-3216", "Text": "15)\nat t1/2 [\n]\n[ ]0\nR\nR\n2\n=\n(3 16)\nSo, the above equation becomes\n[\n]\n[\n]\n0\n1/2\n2 303\nR\nlog\nR/2\nk\nt\n=\nor\n1/2\n2 303 log 2\nt\nk\n\uf03d\n1/2\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3214-3217", "Text": "16)\nSo, the above equation becomes\n[\n]\n[\n]\n0\n1/2\n2 303\nR\nlog\nR/2\nk\nt\n=\nor\n1/2\n2 303 log 2\nt\nk\n\uf03d\n1/2\n2 303\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3215-3218", "Text": "303\nR\nlog\nR/2\nk\nt\n=\nor\n1/2\n2 303 log 2\nt\nk\n\uf03d\n1/2\n2 303\n0 301\nt\nk\n=\n\u00d7\n1/2\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3216-3219", "Text": "303 log 2\nt\nk\n\uf03d\n1/2\n2 303\n0 301\nt\nk\n=\n\u00d7\n1/2\n0 693\nt\nk\n=\n(3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3217-3220", "Text": "303\n0 301\nt\nk\n=\n\u00d7\n1/2\n0 693\nt\nk\n=\n(3 17)\n \n2\npN O5\n = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3218-3221", "Text": "301\nt\nk\n=\n\u00d7\n1/2\n0 693\nt\nk\n=\n(3 17)\n \n2\npN O5\n = 1 5 \u2013 2 \u00d7 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3219-3222", "Text": "693\nt\nk\n=\n(3 17)\n \n2\npN O5\n = 1 5 \u2013 2 \u00d7 0 512 = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3220-3223", "Text": "17)\n \n2\npN O5\n = 1 5 \u2013 2 \u00d7 0 512 = 0 476 atm\nUsing equation (3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3221-3224", "Text": "5 \u2013 2 \u00d7 0 512 = 0 476 atm\nUsing equation (3 16)\ni\nA\n4\n1\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3222-3225", "Text": "512 = 0 476 atm\nUsing equation (3 16)\ni\nA\n4\n1\n0 5 atm\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3223-3226", "Text": "476 atm\nUsing equation (3 16)\ni\nA\n4\n1\n0 5 atm\n2 303\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3224-3227", "Text": "16)\ni\nA\n4\n1\n0 5 atm\n2 303\n2 303\nlog\n100slog\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3225-3228", "Text": "5 atm\n2 303\n2 303\nlog\n100slog\n0 476 atm\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3226-3229", "Text": "303\n2 303\nlog\n100slog\n0 476 atm\n2 303\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3227-3230", "Text": "303\nlog\n100slog\n0 476 atm\n2 303\n0 0216\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3228-3231", "Text": "476 atm\n2 303\n0 0216\n4 98\n10\ns\n100s\np\nk\nt\np\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\n\uf03d\n\uf03d\n\uf0b4\n\uf03d\n\uf0b4\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3229-3232", "Text": "303\n0 0216\n4 98\n10\ns\n100s\np\nk\nt\np\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\n\uf03d\n\uf03d\n\uf0b4\n\uf03d\n\uf0b4\n3 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3230-3233", "Text": "0216\n4 98\n10\ns\n100s\np\nk\nt\np\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\n\uf03d\n\uf03d\n\uf0b4\n\uf03d\n\uf0b4\n3 3 3 Half-Life of\na Reaction\nRationalised 2023-24\n77\nChemical Kinetics\nA first order reaction is found to have a rate constant, k = 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3231-3234", "Text": "98\n10\ns\n100s\np\nk\nt\np\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\n\uf03d\n\uf03d\n\uf0b4\n\uf03d\n\uf0b4\n3 3 3 Half-Life of\na Reaction\nRationalised 2023-24\n77\nChemical Kinetics\nA first order reaction is found to have a rate constant, k = 5 5 \u00d7 10-14 s-1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3232-3235", "Text": "3 3 Half-Life of\na Reaction\nRationalised 2023-24\n77\nChemical Kinetics\nA first order reaction is found to have a rate constant, k = 5 5 \u00d7 10-14 s-1 Find the half-life of the reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3233-3236", "Text": "3 Half-Life of\na Reaction\nRationalised 2023-24\n77\nChemical Kinetics\nA first order reaction is found to have a rate constant, k = 5 5 \u00d7 10-14 s-1 Find the half-life of the reaction Half-life for a first order reaction is\nt1/2\n= \n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3234-3237", "Text": "5 \u00d7 10-14 s-1 Find the half-life of the reaction Half-life for a first order reaction is\nt1/2\n= \n0 693\nk\nt1/2\n= \n\u201314\n\u20131\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3235-3238", "Text": "Find the half-life of the reaction Half-life for a first order reaction is\nt1/2\n= \n0 693\nk\nt1/2\n= \n\u201314\n\u20131\n0 693\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3236-3239", "Text": "Half-life for a first order reaction is\nt1/2\n= \n0 693\nk\nt1/2\n= \n\u201314\n\u20131\n0 693\n5 5\u00d710\ns\n = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3237-3240", "Text": "693\nk\nt1/2\n= \n\u201314\n\u20131\n0 693\n5 5\u00d710\ns\n = 1 26 \u00d7 1013s\nShow that in a first order reaction, time required for completion of\n99"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3238-3241", "Text": "693\n5 5\u00d710\ns\n = 1 26 \u00d7 1013s\nShow that in a first order reaction, time required for completion of\n99 9% is 10 times of half-life (t1/2) of the reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3239-3242", "Text": "5\u00d710\ns\n = 1 26 \u00d7 1013s\nShow that in a first order reaction, time required for completion of\n99 9% is 10 times of half-life (t1/2) of the reaction When reaction is completed 99"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3240-3243", "Text": "26 \u00d7 1013s\nShow that in a first order reaction, time required for completion of\n99 9% is 10 times of half-life (t1/2) of the reaction When reaction is completed 99 9%, [R]n = [R]0 \u2013 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3241-3244", "Text": "9% is 10 times of half-life (t1/2) of the reaction When reaction is completed 99 9%, [R]n = [R]0 \u2013 0 999[R]0\nk\n= \n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n0\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3242-3245", "Text": "When reaction is completed 99 9%, [R]n = [R]0 \u2013 0 999[R]0\nk\n= \n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n0\n2 303\nR\nlog\nR\nt\n= \n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n0\n0\n0\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3243-3246", "Text": "9%, [R]n = [R]0 \u2013 0 999[R]0\nk\n= \n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n0\n2 303\nR\nlog\nR\nt\n= \n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n0\n0\n0\n2 303\nR\nlog\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3244-3247", "Text": "999[R]0\nk\n= \n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n0\n2 303\nR\nlog\nR\nt\n= \n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n0\n0\n0\n2 303\nR\nlog\n0 999\nR\nR\nt\n\uf02d\n = \n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3245-3248", "Text": "303\nR\nlog\nR\nt\n= \n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n0\n0\n0\n2 303\nR\nlog\n0 999\nR\nR\nt\n\uf02d\n = \n2 303 log103\nt\nt\n= 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3246-3249", "Text": "303\nR\nlog\n0 999\nR\nR\nt\n\uf02d\n = \n2 303 log103\nt\nt\n= 6 909/k\nFor half-life of the reaction\nt1/2\n= 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3247-3250", "Text": "999\nR\nR\nt\n\uf02d\n = \n2 303 log103\nt\nt\n= 6 909/k\nFor half-life of the reaction\nt1/2\n= 0 693/k\n1/2\nt\nt\n= 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3248-3251", "Text": "303 log103\nt\nt\n= 6 909/k\nFor half-life of the reaction\nt1/2\n= 0 693/k\n1/2\nt\nt\n= 6 909\n10\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3249-3252", "Text": "909/k\nFor half-life of the reaction\nt1/2\n= 0 693/k\n1/2\nt\nt\n= 6 909\n10\n0 693\nk\nk\n\uf0b4\n\uf03d\nIt can be seen that for a first order reaction, half-life period is\nconstant, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3250-3253", "Text": "693/k\n1/2\nt\nt\n= 6 909\n10\n0 693\nk\nk\n\uf0b4\n\uf03d\nIt can be seen that for a first order reaction, half-life period is\nconstant, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3251-3254", "Text": "909\n10\n0 693\nk\nk\n\uf0b4\n\uf03d\nIt can be seen that for a first order reaction, half-life period is\nconstant, i e , it is independent of initial concentration of the reacting\nspecies"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3252-3255", "Text": "693\nk\nk\n\uf0b4\n\uf03d\nIt can be seen that for a first order reaction, half-life period is\nconstant, i e , it is independent of initial concentration of the reacting\nspecies The half-life of a first order equation is readily calculated from\nthe rate constant and vice versa"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3253-3256", "Text": "e , it is independent of initial concentration of the reacting\nspecies The half-life of a first order equation is readily calculated from\nthe rate constant and vice versa For zero order reaction t1/2 \u00b5\u00b5\u00b5\u00b5\u00b5 [R]0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3254-3257", "Text": ", it is independent of initial concentration of the reacting\nspecies The half-life of a first order equation is readily calculated from\nthe rate constant and vice versa For zero order reaction t1/2 \u00b5\u00b5\u00b5\u00b5\u00b5 [R]0 For first order reaction\nt1/2 is independent of [R]0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3255-3258", "Text": "The half-life of a first order equation is readily calculated from\nthe rate constant and vice versa For zero order reaction t1/2 \u00b5\u00b5\u00b5\u00b5\u00b5 [R]0 For first order reaction\nt1/2 is independent of [R]0 Example 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3256-3259", "Text": "For zero order reaction t1/2 \u00b5\u00b5\u00b5\u00b5\u00b5 [R]0 For first order reaction\nt1/2 is independent of [R]0 Example 3 7\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3257-3260", "Text": "For first order reaction\nt1/2 is independent of [R]0 Example 3 7\nExample 3 7\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3258-3261", "Text": "Example 3 7\nExample 3 7\nExample 3 7\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3259-3262", "Text": "7\nExample 3 7\nExample 3 7\nExample 3 7\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3260-3263", "Text": "7\nExample 3 7\nExample 3 7\nExample 3 7\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3261-3264", "Text": "7\nExample 3 7\nExample 3 7\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nExample 3 8\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3262-3265", "Text": "7\nExample 3 7\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nExample 3 8\nExample 3 8\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3263-3266", "Text": "7\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nExample 3 8\nExample 3 8\nExample 3 8\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3264-3267", "Text": "8\nExample 3 8\nExample 3 8\nExample 3 8\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3265-3268", "Text": "8\nExample 3 8\nExample 3 8\nExample 3 8\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nTable 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3266-3269", "Text": "8\nExample 3 8\nExample 3 8\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nTable 3 4 summarises the mathematical features of integrated laws of\nzero and first order reactions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3267-3270", "Text": "8\nExample 3 8\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nTable 3 4 summarises the mathematical features of integrated laws of\nzero and first order reactions Table 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3268-3271", "Text": "8\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nTable 3 4 summarises the mathematical features of integrated laws of\nzero and first order reactions Table 3 4: Integrated Rate Laws for the Reactions of Zero and First Order\nOrder\nReaction\nDifferential\nIntegrated\nStraight\nHalf-\nUnits of k\ntype\nrate law\nrate law\nline plot\nlife\n0\nR\u00ae P\nd[R]/dt = -k\nkt = [R]0-[R]\n[R] vs t\n[R]0/2k\nconc time-1\nor mol L\u20131s\u20131\n1\nR\u00ae P\nd[R]/dt = -k[R]\n[R] = [R]0e-kt\nln[R] vs t\nln 2/k\ntime-1 or s\u20131\nor kt =\nln{[R]0/[R]}\nRationalised 2023-24\n78\nChemistry\nMost of the chemical reactions are accelerated by increase in temperature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3269-3272", "Text": "4 summarises the mathematical features of integrated laws of\nzero and first order reactions Table 3 4: Integrated Rate Laws for the Reactions of Zero and First Order\nOrder\nReaction\nDifferential\nIntegrated\nStraight\nHalf-\nUnits of k\ntype\nrate law\nrate law\nline plot\nlife\n0\nR\u00ae P\nd[R]/dt = -k\nkt = [R]0-[R]\n[R] vs t\n[R]0/2k\nconc time-1\nor mol L\u20131s\u20131\n1\nR\u00ae P\nd[R]/dt = -k[R]\n[R] = [R]0e-kt\nln[R] vs t\nln 2/k\ntime-1 or s\u20131\nor kt =\nln{[R]0/[R]}\nRationalised 2023-24\n78\nChemistry\nMost of the chemical reactions are accelerated by increase in temperature For example, in decomposition of N2O5, the time taken for half of the\noriginal amount of material to decompose is 12 min at 50oC, 5 h at\n25oC and 10 days at 0oC"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3270-3273", "Text": "Table 3 4: Integrated Rate Laws for the Reactions of Zero and First Order\nOrder\nReaction\nDifferential\nIntegrated\nStraight\nHalf-\nUnits of k\ntype\nrate law\nrate law\nline plot\nlife\n0\nR\u00ae P\nd[R]/dt = -k\nkt = [R]0-[R]\n[R] vs t\n[R]0/2k\nconc time-1\nor mol L\u20131s\u20131\n1\nR\u00ae P\nd[R]/dt = -k[R]\n[R] = [R]0e-kt\nln[R] vs t\nln 2/k\ntime-1 or s\u20131\nor kt =\nln{[R]0/[R]}\nRationalised 2023-24\n78\nChemistry\nMost of the chemical reactions are accelerated by increase in temperature For example, in decomposition of N2O5, the time taken for half of the\noriginal amount of material to decompose is 12 min at 50oC, 5 h at\n25oC and 10 days at 0oC You also know that in a mixture of potassium\npermanganate (KMnO4) and oxalic acid (H2C2O4), potassium\npermanganate gets decolourised faster at a higher temperature than\nthat at a lower temperature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3271-3274", "Text": "4: Integrated Rate Laws for the Reactions of Zero and First Order\nOrder\nReaction\nDifferential\nIntegrated\nStraight\nHalf-\nUnits of k\ntype\nrate law\nrate law\nline plot\nlife\n0\nR\u00ae P\nd[R]/dt = -k\nkt = [R]0-[R]\n[R] vs t\n[R]0/2k\nconc time-1\nor mol L\u20131s\u20131\n1\nR\u00ae P\nd[R]/dt = -k[R]\n[R] = [R]0e-kt\nln[R] vs t\nln 2/k\ntime-1 or s\u20131\nor kt =\nln{[R]0/[R]}\nRationalised 2023-24\n78\nChemistry\nMost of the chemical reactions are accelerated by increase in temperature For example, in decomposition of N2O5, the time taken for half of the\noriginal amount of material to decompose is 12 min at 50oC, 5 h at\n25oC and 10 days at 0oC You also know that in a mixture of potassium\npermanganate (KMnO4) and oxalic acid (H2C2O4), potassium\npermanganate gets decolourised faster at a higher temperature than\nthat at a lower temperature It has been found that for a chemical reaction with rise in\ntemperature by 10\u00b0, the rate constant is nearly doubled"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3272-3275", "Text": "For example, in decomposition of N2O5, the time taken for half of the\noriginal amount of material to decompose is 12 min at 50oC, 5 h at\n25oC and 10 days at 0oC You also know that in a mixture of potassium\npermanganate (KMnO4) and oxalic acid (H2C2O4), potassium\npermanganate gets decolourised faster at a higher temperature than\nthat at a lower temperature It has been found that for a chemical reaction with rise in\ntemperature by 10\u00b0, the rate constant is nearly doubled The temperature dependence of the rate of a chemical reaction can\nbe accurately explained by Arrhenius equation (3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3273-3276", "Text": "You also know that in a mixture of potassium\npermanganate (KMnO4) and oxalic acid (H2C2O4), potassium\npermanganate gets decolourised faster at a higher temperature than\nthat at a lower temperature It has been found that for a chemical reaction with rise in\ntemperature by 10\u00b0, the rate constant is nearly doubled The temperature dependence of the rate of a chemical reaction can\nbe accurately explained by Arrhenius equation (3 18)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3274-3277", "Text": "It has been found that for a chemical reaction with rise in\ntemperature by 10\u00b0, the rate constant is nearly doubled The temperature dependence of the rate of a chemical reaction can\nbe accurately explained by Arrhenius equation (3 18) It was first\nproposed by Dutch chemist, J"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3275-3278", "Text": "The temperature dependence of the rate of a chemical reaction can\nbe accurately explained by Arrhenius equation (3 18) It was first\nproposed by Dutch chemist, J H"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3276-3279", "Text": "18) It was first\nproposed by Dutch chemist, J H van\u2019t Hoff but Swedish chemist,\nArrhenius provided its physical justification and interpretation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3277-3280", "Text": "It was first\nproposed by Dutch chemist, J H van\u2019t Hoff but Swedish chemist,\nArrhenius provided its physical justification and interpretation 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3278-3281", "Text": "H van\u2019t Hoff but Swedish chemist,\nArrhenius provided its physical justification and interpretation 3 4 Temperature\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3279-3282", "Text": "van\u2019t Hoff but Swedish chemist,\nArrhenius provided its physical justification and interpretation 3 4 Temperature\n3 4 Temperature\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3280-3283", "Text": "3 4 Temperature\n3 4 Temperature\n3 4 Temperature\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3281-3284", "Text": "4 Temperature\n3 4 Temperature\n3 4 Temperature\n3 4 Temperature\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3282-3285", "Text": "4 Temperature\n3 4 Temperature\n3 4 Temperature\n3 4 Temperature\nDependence of\nDependence of\nDependence of\nDependence of\nDependence of\nthe Rate of a\nthe Rate of a\nthe Rate of a\nthe Rate of a\nthe Rate of a\nReaction\nReaction\nReaction\nReaction\nReaction\nThe order of a reaction is sometimes altered by conditions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3283-3286", "Text": "4 Temperature\n3 4 Temperature\n3 4 Temperature\nDependence of\nDependence of\nDependence of\nDependence of\nDependence of\nthe Rate of a\nthe Rate of a\nthe Rate of a\nthe Rate of a\nthe Rate of a\nReaction\nReaction\nReaction\nReaction\nReaction\nThe order of a reaction is sometimes altered by conditions There\nare many reactions which obey first order rate law although they are\nhigher order reactions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3284-3287", "Text": "4 Temperature\n3 4 Temperature\nDependence of\nDependence of\nDependence of\nDependence of\nDependence of\nthe Rate of a\nthe Rate of a\nthe Rate of a\nthe Rate of a\nthe Rate of a\nReaction\nReaction\nReaction\nReaction\nReaction\nThe order of a reaction is sometimes altered by conditions There\nare many reactions which obey first order rate law although they are\nhigher order reactions Consider the hydrolysis of ethyl acetate which\nis a chemical reaction between ethyl acetate and water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3285-3288", "Text": "4 Temperature\nDependence of\nDependence of\nDependence of\nDependence of\nDependence of\nthe Rate of a\nthe Rate of a\nthe Rate of a\nthe Rate of a\nthe Rate of a\nReaction\nReaction\nReaction\nReaction\nReaction\nThe order of a reaction is sometimes altered by conditions There\nare many reactions which obey first order rate law although they are\nhigher order reactions Consider the hydrolysis of ethyl acetate which\nis a chemical reaction between ethyl acetate and water In reality, it\nis a second order reaction and concentration of both ethyl acetate and\nwater affect the rate of the reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3286-3289", "Text": "There\nare many reactions which obey first order rate law although they are\nhigher order reactions Consider the hydrolysis of ethyl acetate which\nis a chemical reaction between ethyl acetate and water In reality, it\nis a second order reaction and concentration of both ethyl acetate and\nwater affect the rate of the reaction But water is taken in large excess\nfor hydrolysis, therefore, concentration of water is not altered much\nduring the reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3287-3290", "Text": "Consider the hydrolysis of ethyl acetate which\nis a chemical reaction between ethyl acetate and water In reality, it\nis a second order reaction and concentration of both ethyl acetate and\nwater affect the rate of the reaction But water is taken in large excess\nfor hydrolysis, therefore, concentration of water is not altered much\nduring the reaction Thus, the rate of reaction is affected by\nconcentration of ethyl acetate only"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3288-3291", "Text": "In reality, it\nis a second order reaction and concentration of both ethyl acetate and\nwater affect the rate of the reaction But water is taken in large excess\nfor hydrolysis, therefore, concentration of water is not altered much\nduring the reaction Thus, the rate of reaction is affected by\nconcentration of ethyl acetate only For example, during the hydrolysis\nof 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3289-3292", "Text": "But water is taken in large excess\nfor hydrolysis, therefore, concentration of water is not altered much\nduring the reaction Thus, the rate of reaction is affected by\nconcentration of ethyl acetate only For example, during the hydrolysis\nof 0 01 mol of ethyl acetate with 10 mol of water, amounts of the\nreactants and products at the beginning (t = 0) and completion (t) of\nthe reaction are given as under"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3290-3293", "Text": "Thus, the rate of reaction is affected by\nconcentration of ethyl acetate only For example, during the hydrolysis\nof 0 01 mol of ethyl acetate with 10 mol of water, amounts of the\nreactants and products at the beginning (t = 0) and completion (t) of\nthe reaction are given as under CH3COOC2H5 + H2O \nH\uf02b\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae CH3COOH + C2H5OH\nt = 0\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3291-3294", "Text": "For example, during the hydrolysis\nof 0 01 mol of ethyl acetate with 10 mol of water, amounts of the\nreactants and products at the beginning (t = 0) and completion (t) of\nthe reaction are given as under CH3COOC2H5 + H2O \nH\uf02b\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae CH3COOH + C2H5OH\nt = 0\n0 01 mol\n10 mol\n0 mol\n0 mol\nt\n0 mol\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3292-3295", "Text": "01 mol of ethyl acetate with 10 mol of water, amounts of the\nreactants and products at the beginning (t = 0) and completion (t) of\nthe reaction are given as under CH3COOC2H5 + H2O \nH\uf02b\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae CH3COOH + C2H5OH\nt = 0\n0 01 mol\n10 mol\n0 mol\n0 mol\nt\n0 mol\n9 99 mol\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3293-3296", "Text": "CH3COOC2H5 + H2O \nH\uf02b\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae CH3COOH + C2H5OH\nt = 0\n0 01 mol\n10 mol\n0 mol\n0 mol\nt\n0 mol\n9 99 mol\n0 01 mol\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3294-3297", "Text": "01 mol\n10 mol\n0 mol\n0 mol\nt\n0 mol\n9 99 mol\n0 01 mol\n0 01 mol\nThe concentration of water does not get altered much during the\ncourse of the reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3295-3298", "Text": "99 mol\n0 01 mol\n0 01 mol\nThe concentration of water does not get altered much during the\ncourse of the reaction So, the reaction behaves as first order reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3296-3299", "Text": "01 mol\n0 01 mol\nThe concentration of water does not get altered much during the\ncourse of the reaction So, the reaction behaves as first order reaction Such reactions are called pseudo first order reactions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3297-3300", "Text": "01 mol\nThe concentration of water does not get altered much during the\ncourse of the reaction So, the reaction behaves as first order reaction Such reactions are called pseudo first order reactions Inversion of cane sugar is another pseudo first order reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3298-3301", "Text": "So, the reaction behaves as first order reaction Such reactions are called pseudo first order reactions Inversion of cane sugar is another pseudo first order reaction C12H22O11 + H2O \nH+\n\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\u2192 C6H12O6 + C6H12O6\nCane sugar\n Glucose Fructose\nRate = k [C12H22O11]\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3299-3302", "Text": "Such reactions are called pseudo first order reactions Inversion of cane sugar is another pseudo first order reaction C12H22O11 + H2O \nH+\n\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\u2192 C6H12O6 + C6H12O6\nCane sugar\n Glucose Fructose\nRate = k [C12H22O11]\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n3 5\nA first order reaction has a rate constant 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3300-3303", "Text": "Inversion of cane sugar is another pseudo first order reaction C12H22O11 + H2O \nH+\n\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\u2192 C6H12O6 + C6H12O6\nCane sugar\n Glucose Fructose\nRate = k [C12H22O11]\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n3 5\nA first order reaction has a rate constant 1 15 \u00d7 10-3 s-1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3301-3304", "Text": "C12H22O11 + H2O \nH+\n\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\u2192 C6H12O6 + C6H12O6\nCane sugar\n Glucose Fructose\nRate = k [C12H22O11]\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n3 5\nA first order reaction has a rate constant 1 15 \u00d7 10-3 s-1 How long will 5 g\nof this reactant take to reduce to 3 g"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3302-3305", "Text": "5\nA first order reaction has a rate constant 1 15 \u00d7 10-3 s-1 How long will 5 g\nof this reactant take to reduce to 3 g 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3303-3306", "Text": "15 \u00d7 10-3 s-1 How long will 5 g\nof this reactant take to reduce to 3 g 3 6\nTime required to decompose SO2Cl2 to half of its initial amount is 60\nminutes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3304-3307", "Text": "How long will 5 g\nof this reactant take to reduce to 3 g 3 6\nTime required to decompose SO2Cl2 to half of its initial amount is 60\nminutes If the decomposition is a first order reaction, calculate the rate\nconstant of the reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3305-3308", "Text": "3 6\nTime required to decompose SO2Cl2 to half of its initial amount is 60\nminutes If the decomposition is a first order reaction, calculate the rate\nconstant of the reaction Rationalised 2023-24\n79\nChemical Kinetics\nk = A e -Ea /RT\n(3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3306-3309", "Text": "6\nTime required to decompose SO2Cl2 to half of its initial amount is 60\nminutes If the decomposition is a first order reaction, calculate the rate\nconstant of the reaction Rationalised 2023-24\n79\nChemical Kinetics\nk = A e -Ea /RT\n(3 18)\nwhere A is the Arrhenius factor or the frequency factor"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3307-3310", "Text": "If the decomposition is a first order reaction, calculate the rate\nconstant of the reaction Rationalised 2023-24\n79\nChemical Kinetics\nk = A e -Ea /RT\n(3 18)\nwhere A is the Arrhenius factor or the frequency factor It is also called\npre-exponential factor"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3308-3311", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n79\nChemical Kinetics\nk = A e -Ea /RT\n(3 18)\nwhere A is the Arrhenius factor or the frequency factor It is also called\npre-exponential factor It is a constant specific to a particular reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3309-3312", "Text": "18)\nwhere A is the Arrhenius factor or the frequency factor It is also called\npre-exponential factor It is a constant specific to a particular reaction R is gas constant and Ea is activation energy measured in joules/mole\n(J mol \u20131)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3310-3313", "Text": "It is also called\npre-exponential factor It is a constant specific to a particular reaction R is gas constant and Ea is activation energy measured in joules/mole\n(J mol \u20131) It can be understood clearly using the following simple reaction\n\uf028 \uf029\n\uf028 \uf029\n\uf028 \uf029\n2\n2\nH\ng\nI\ng\n2HI g\n\uf02b\n\uf0ae\nAccording to Arrhenius, this reaction can take place\nonly when a molecule of hydrogen and a molecule of iodine\ncollide to form an unstable intermediate (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3311-3314", "Text": "It is a constant specific to a particular reaction R is gas constant and Ea is activation energy measured in joules/mole\n(J mol \u20131) It can be understood clearly using the following simple reaction\n\uf028 \uf029\n\uf028 \uf029\n\uf028 \uf029\n2\n2\nH\ng\nI\ng\n2HI g\n\uf02b\n\uf0ae\nAccording to Arrhenius, this reaction can take place\nonly when a molecule of hydrogen and a molecule of iodine\ncollide to form an unstable intermediate (Fig 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3312-3315", "Text": "R is gas constant and Ea is activation energy measured in joules/mole\n(J mol \u20131) It can be understood clearly using the following simple reaction\n\uf028 \uf029\n\uf028 \uf029\n\uf028 \uf029\n2\n2\nH\ng\nI\ng\n2HI g\n\uf02b\n\uf0ae\nAccording to Arrhenius, this reaction can take place\nonly when a molecule of hydrogen and a molecule of iodine\ncollide to form an unstable intermediate (Fig 3 6)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3313-3316", "Text": "It can be understood clearly using the following simple reaction\n\uf028 \uf029\n\uf028 \uf029\n\uf028 \uf029\n2\n2\nH\ng\nI\ng\n2HI g\n\uf02b\n\uf0ae\nAccording to Arrhenius, this reaction can take place\nonly when a molecule of hydrogen and a molecule of iodine\ncollide to form an unstable intermediate (Fig 3 6) It exists\nfor a very short time and then breaks up to form two\nmolecules of hydrogen iodide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3314-3317", "Text": "3 6) It exists\nfor a very short time and then breaks up to form two\nmolecules of hydrogen iodide Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3315-3318", "Text": "6) It exists\nfor a very short time and then breaks up to form two\nmolecules of hydrogen iodide Fig 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3316-3319", "Text": "It exists\nfor a very short time and then breaks up to form two\nmolecules of hydrogen iodide Fig 3 6: Formation of HI through\nthe intermediate\nIntermediate\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3317-3320", "Text": "Fig 3 6: Formation of HI through\nthe intermediate\nIntermediate\nFig 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3318-3321", "Text": "3 6: Formation of HI through\nthe intermediate\nIntermediate\nFig 3 7: Diagram showing plot of potential\nenergy vs reaction coordinate\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3319-3322", "Text": "6: Formation of HI through\nthe intermediate\nIntermediate\nFig 3 7: Diagram showing plot of potential\nenergy vs reaction coordinate\nFig 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3320-3323", "Text": "3 7: Diagram showing plot of potential\nenergy vs reaction coordinate\nFig 3 8: Distribution curve showing energies\namong gaseous molecules\nThe energy required to form this\nintermediate, called activated complex\n(C), is known as activation energy (Ea)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3321-3324", "Text": "7: Diagram showing plot of potential\nenergy vs reaction coordinate\nFig 3 8: Distribution curve showing energies\namong gaseous molecules\nThe energy required to form this\nintermediate, called activated complex\n(C), is known as activation energy (Ea) Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3322-3325", "Text": "3 8: Distribution curve showing energies\namong gaseous molecules\nThe energy required to form this\nintermediate, called activated complex\n(C), is known as activation energy (Ea) Fig 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3323-3326", "Text": "8: Distribution curve showing energies\namong gaseous molecules\nThe energy required to form this\nintermediate, called activated complex\n(C), is known as activation energy (Ea) Fig 3 7 is obtained by plotting potential\nenergy vs reaction coordinate"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3324-3327", "Text": "Fig 3 7 is obtained by plotting potential\nenergy vs reaction coordinate Reaction\ncoordinate represents the profile of energy\nchange when reactants change into\nproducts"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3325-3328", "Text": "3 7 is obtained by plotting potential\nenergy vs reaction coordinate Reaction\ncoordinate represents the profile of energy\nchange when reactants change into\nproducts Some energy is released when the\ncomplex decomposes to form products"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3326-3329", "Text": "7 is obtained by plotting potential\nenergy vs reaction coordinate Reaction\ncoordinate represents the profile of energy\nchange when reactants change into\nproducts Some energy is released when the\ncomplex decomposes to form products So, the final enthalpy of the reaction\ndepends upon the nature of reactants\nand products"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3327-3330", "Text": "Reaction\ncoordinate represents the profile of energy\nchange when reactants change into\nproducts Some energy is released when the\ncomplex decomposes to form products So, the final enthalpy of the reaction\ndepends upon the nature of reactants\nand products All the molecules in the reacting\nspecies do not have the same kinetic\nenergy"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3328-3331", "Text": "Some energy is released when the\ncomplex decomposes to form products So, the final enthalpy of the reaction\ndepends upon the nature of reactants\nand products All the molecules in the reacting\nspecies do not have the same kinetic\nenergy Since it is difficult to predict the\nbehaviour of any one molecule with\nprecision, Ludwig Boltzmann and James\nClark Maxwell used statistics to predict\nthe behaviour of large number of\nmolecules"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3329-3332", "Text": "So, the final enthalpy of the reaction\ndepends upon the nature of reactants\nand products All the molecules in the reacting\nspecies do not have the same kinetic\nenergy Since it is difficult to predict the\nbehaviour of any one molecule with\nprecision, Ludwig Boltzmann and James\nClark Maxwell used statistics to predict\nthe behaviour of large number of\nmolecules According to them, the\ndistribution of kinetic energy may be\ndescribed by plotting the fraction of\nmolecules (NE/NT) with a given kinetic\nenergy (E) vs kinetic energy (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3330-3333", "Text": "All the molecules in the reacting\nspecies do not have the same kinetic\nenergy Since it is difficult to predict the\nbehaviour of any one molecule with\nprecision, Ludwig Boltzmann and James\nClark Maxwell used statistics to predict\nthe behaviour of large number of\nmolecules According to them, the\ndistribution of kinetic energy may be\ndescribed by plotting the fraction of\nmolecules (NE/NT) with a given kinetic\nenergy (E) vs kinetic energy (Fig 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3331-3334", "Text": "Since it is difficult to predict the\nbehaviour of any one molecule with\nprecision, Ludwig Boltzmann and James\nClark Maxwell used statistics to predict\nthe behaviour of large number of\nmolecules According to them, the\ndistribution of kinetic energy may be\ndescribed by plotting the fraction of\nmolecules (NE/NT) with a given kinetic\nenergy (E) vs kinetic energy (Fig 3 8)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3332-3335", "Text": "According to them, the\ndistribution of kinetic energy may be\ndescribed by plotting the fraction of\nmolecules (NE/NT) with a given kinetic\nenergy (E) vs kinetic energy (Fig 3 8) Here, NE is the number of molecules with\nenergy E and NT is total number\nof molecules"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3333-3336", "Text": "3 8) Here, NE is the number of molecules with\nenergy E and NT is total number\nof molecules The peak of the curve corresponds to\nthe most probable kinetic energy, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3334-3337", "Text": "8) Here, NE is the number of molecules with\nenergy E and NT is total number\nof molecules The peak of the curve corresponds to\nthe most probable kinetic energy, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3335-3338", "Text": "Here, NE is the number of molecules with\nenergy E and NT is total number\nof molecules The peak of the curve corresponds to\nthe most probable kinetic energy, i e ,\nkinetic energy of maximum fraction of\nmolecules"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3336-3339", "Text": "The peak of the curve corresponds to\nthe most probable kinetic energy, i e ,\nkinetic energy of maximum fraction of\nmolecules There are decreasing number\nof molecules with energies higher or\nlower than this value"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3337-3340", "Text": "e ,\nkinetic energy of maximum fraction of\nmolecules There are decreasing number\nof molecules with energies higher or\nlower than this value When the\nRationalised 2023-24\n80\nChemistry\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3338-3341", "Text": ",\nkinetic energy of maximum fraction of\nmolecules There are decreasing number\nof molecules with energies higher or\nlower than this value When the\nRationalised 2023-24\n80\nChemistry\nFig 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3339-3342", "Text": "There are decreasing number\nof molecules with energies higher or\nlower than this value When the\nRationalised 2023-24\n80\nChemistry\nFig 3 10: A plot between ln k and 1/T\nIn Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3340-3343", "Text": "When the\nRationalised 2023-24\n80\nChemistry\nFig 3 10: A plot between ln k and 1/T\nIn Fig 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3341-3344", "Text": "3 10: A plot between ln k and 1/T\nIn Fig 3 10, slope = \u2013 \nEa\nR\n and intercept = ln\nA"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3342-3345", "Text": "10: A plot between ln k and 1/T\nIn Fig 3 10, slope = \u2013 \nEa\nR\n and intercept = ln\nA So we can calculate Ea and A using these values"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3343-3346", "Text": "3 10, slope = \u2013 \nEa\nR\n and intercept = ln\nA So we can calculate Ea and A using these values At temperature T1, equation (3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3344-3347", "Text": "10, slope = \u2013 \nEa\nR\n and intercept = ln\nA So we can calculate Ea and A using these values At temperature T1, equation (3 19) is\nln k1 = \u2013\na\n1\nE\nRT\n + ln A\n(3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3345-3348", "Text": "So we can calculate Ea and A using these values At temperature T1, equation (3 19) is\nln k1 = \u2013\na\n1\nE\nRT\n + ln A\n(3 20)\nAt temperature T2, equation (3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3346-3349", "Text": "At temperature T1, equation (3 19) is\nln k1 = \u2013\na\n1\nE\nRT\n + ln A\n(3 20)\nAt temperature T2, equation (3 19) is\nln k2 = \u2013\na\n2\nE\nRT\n + ln A\n(3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3347-3350", "Text": "19) is\nln k1 = \u2013\na\n1\nE\nRT\n + ln A\n(3 20)\nAt temperature T2, equation (3 19) is\nln k2 = \u2013\na\n2\nE\nRT\n + ln A\n(3 21)\n(since A is constant for a given reaction)\nk1 and k2 are the values of rate constants at\ntemperatures T1 and T2 respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3348-3351", "Text": "20)\nAt temperature T2, equation (3 19) is\nln k2 = \u2013\na\n2\nE\nRT\n + ln A\n(3 21)\n(since A is constant for a given reaction)\nk1 and k2 are the values of rate constants at\ntemperatures T1 and T2 respectively Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3349-3352", "Text": "19) is\nln k2 = \u2013\na\n2\nE\nRT\n + ln A\n(3 21)\n(since A is constant for a given reaction)\nk1 and k2 are the values of rate constants at\ntemperatures T1 and T2 respectively Fig 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3350-3353", "Text": "21)\n(since A is constant for a given reaction)\nk1 and k2 are the values of rate constants at\ntemperatures T1 and T2 respectively Fig 3 9: Distribution curve showing temperature\ndependence of rate of a reaction\ntemperature is raised, the maximum\nof the curve moves to the higher\nenergy value (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3351-3354", "Text": "Fig 3 9: Distribution curve showing temperature\ndependence of rate of a reaction\ntemperature is raised, the maximum\nof the curve moves to the higher\nenergy value (Fig 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3352-3355", "Text": "3 9: Distribution curve showing temperature\ndependence of rate of a reaction\ntemperature is raised, the maximum\nof the curve moves to the higher\nenergy value (Fig 3 9) and the curve\nbroadens out, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3353-3356", "Text": "9: Distribution curve showing temperature\ndependence of rate of a reaction\ntemperature is raised, the maximum\nof the curve moves to the higher\nenergy value (Fig 3 9) and the curve\nbroadens out, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3354-3357", "Text": "3 9) and the curve\nbroadens out, i e , spreads to the right\nsuch that there is a greater proportion\nof molecules with much higher\nenergies"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3355-3358", "Text": "9) and the curve\nbroadens out, i e , spreads to the right\nsuch that there is a greater proportion\nof molecules with much higher\nenergies The area under the curve\nmust \nbe \nconstant \nsince \ntotal\nprobability must be one at all times"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3356-3359", "Text": "e , spreads to the right\nsuch that there is a greater proportion\nof molecules with much higher\nenergies The area under the curve\nmust \nbe \nconstant \nsince \ntotal\nprobability must be one at all times We can mark the position of Ea on\nMaxwell Boltzmann distribution curve\n(Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3357-3360", "Text": ", spreads to the right\nsuch that there is a greater proportion\nof molecules with much higher\nenergies The area under the curve\nmust \nbe \nconstant \nsince \ntotal\nprobability must be one at all times We can mark the position of Ea on\nMaxwell Boltzmann distribution curve\n(Fig 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3358-3361", "Text": "The area under the curve\nmust \nbe \nconstant \nsince \ntotal\nprobability must be one at all times We can mark the position of Ea on\nMaxwell Boltzmann distribution curve\n(Fig 3 9)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3359-3362", "Text": "We can mark the position of Ea on\nMaxwell Boltzmann distribution curve\n(Fig 3 9) Increasing the temperature of the substance increases the fraction\nof molecules, which collide with energies greater than Ea"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3360-3363", "Text": "3 9) Increasing the temperature of the substance increases the fraction\nof molecules, which collide with energies greater than Ea It is clear\nfrom the diagram that in the curve at (t + 10), the area showing the\nfraction of molecules having energy equal to or greater than activation\nenergy gets doubled leading to doubling the rate of a reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3361-3364", "Text": "9) Increasing the temperature of the substance increases the fraction\nof molecules, which collide with energies greater than Ea It is clear\nfrom the diagram that in the curve at (t + 10), the area showing the\nfraction of molecules having energy equal to or greater than activation\nenergy gets doubled leading to doubling the rate of a reaction In the Arrhenius equation (3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3362-3365", "Text": "Increasing the temperature of the substance increases the fraction\nof molecules, which collide with energies greater than Ea It is clear\nfrom the diagram that in the curve at (t + 10), the area showing the\nfraction of molecules having energy equal to or greater than activation\nenergy gets doubled leading to doubling the rate of a reaction In the Arrhenius equation (3 18) the factor e -Ea /RT\n corresponds to\nthe fraction of molecules that have kinetic energy greater than Ea"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3363-3366", "Text": "It is clear\nfrom the diagram that in the curve at (t + 10), the area showing the\nfraction of molecules having energy equal to or greater than activation\nenergy gets doubled leading to doubling the rate of a reaction In the Arrhenius equation (3 18) the factor e -Ea /RT\n corresponds to\nthe fraction of molecules that have kinetic energy greater than Ea Taking natural logarithm of both sides of equation (3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3364-3367", "Text": "In the Arrhenius equation (3 18) the factor e -Ea /RT\n corresponds to\nthe fraction of molecules that have kinetic energy greater than Ea Taking natural logarithm of both sides of equation (3 18)\nln k = \u2013\nEa\nRT + ln A\n(3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3365-3368", "Text": "18) the factor e -Ea /RT\n corresponds to\nthe fraction of molecules that have kinetic energy greater than Ea Taking natural logarithm of both sides of equation (3 18)\nln k = \u2013\nEa\nRT + ln A\n(3 19)\nThe plot of ln k vs 1/T gives a straight line according to the equation\n(3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3366-3369", "Text": "Taking natural logarithm of both sides of equation (3 18)\nln k = \u2013\nEa\nRT + ln A\n(3 19)\nThe plot of ln k vs 1/T gives a straight line according to the equation\n(3 19) as shown in Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3367-3370", "Text": "18)\nln k = \u2013\nEa\nRT + ln A\n(3 19)\nThe plot of ln k vs 1/T gives a straight line according to the equation\n(3 19) as shown in Fig 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3368-3371", "Text": "19)\nThe plot of ln k vs 1/T gives a straight line according to the equation\n(3 19) as shown in Fig 3 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3369-3372", "Text": "19) as shown in Fig 3 10 Thus, it has been found from Arrhenius equation (3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3370-3373", "Text": "3 10 Thus, it has been found from Arrhenius equation (3 18) that\nincreasing the temperature or decreasing the activation energy will\nresult in an increase in the rate of the reaction and an exponential\nincrease in the rate constant"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3371-3374", "Text": "10 Thus, it has been found from Arrhenius equation (3 18) that\nincreasing the temperature or decreasing the activation energy will\nresult in an increase in the rate of the reaction and an exponential\nincrease in the rate constant Rationalised 2023-24\n81\nChemical Kinetics\nThe rate constants of a reaction at 500K and 700K are 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3372-3375", "Text": "Thus, it has been found from Arrhenius equation (3 18) that\nincreasing the temperature or decreasing the activation energy will\nresult in an increase in the rate of the reaction and an exponential\nincrease in the rate constant Rationalised 2023-24\n81\nChemical Kinetics\nThe rate constants of a reaction at 500K and 700K are 0 02s\u20131 and\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3373-3376", "Text": "18) that\nincreasing the temperature or decreasing the activation energy will\nresult in an increase in the rate of the reaction and an exponential\nincrease in the rate constant Rationalised 2023-24\n81\nChemical Kinetics\nThe rate constants of a reaction at 500K and 700K are 0 02s\u20131 and\n0 07s\u20131 respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3374-3377", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n81\nChemical Kinetics\nThe rate constants of a reaction at 500K and 700K are 0 02s\u20131 and\n0 07s\u20131 respectively Calculate the values of Ea and A"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3375-3378", "Text": "02s\u20131 and\n0 07s\u20131 respectively Calculate the values of Ea and A 2\n1\nlog k\nk\n= \n2\n1\na\n1\n2\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3376-3379", "Text": "07s\u20131 respectively Calculate the values of Ea and A 2\n1\nlog k\nk\n= \n2\n1\na\n1\n2\n2 303\nT\nT\nE\nT T\nR\n\uf02d\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0ea\n\uf0fa\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3377-3380", "Text": "Calculate the values of Ea and A 2\n1\nlog k\nk\n= \n2\n1\na\n1\n2\n2 303\nT\nT\nE\nT T\nR\n\uf02d\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0ea\n\uf0fa\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n0 07\nlog\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3378-3381", "Text": "2\n1\nlog k\nk\n= \n2\n1\na\n1\n2\n2 303\nT\nT\nE\nT T\nR\n\uf02d\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0ea\n\uf0fa\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n0 07\nlog\n0 02\n= \na\n1\n1\n700\n500\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3379-3382", "Text": "303\nT\nT\nE\nT T\nR\n\uf02d\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0ea\n\uf0fa\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n0 07\nlog\n0 02\n= \na\n1\n1\n700\n500\n2 303\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3380-3383", "Text": "07\nlog\n0 02\n= \na\n1\n1\n700\n500\n2 303\n8 314 J\nmol\n700\n500\nE\nK \uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf0e6\n\uf0f6\n\uf02d\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0e7\n\uf0f7 \uf0ea\n\uf0fa\n\uf0b4\n\uf0b4\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n\uf0e8\n\uf0f8\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3381-3384", "Text": "02\n= \na\n1\n1\n700\n500\n2 303\n8 314 J\nmol\n700\n500\nE\nK \uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf0e6\n\uf0f6\n\uf02d\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0e7\n\uf0f7 \uf0ea\n\uf0fa\n\uf0b4\n\uf0b4\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n\uf0e8\n\uf0f8\n0 544 = Ea \u00d7 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3382-3385", "Text": "303\n8 314 J\nmol\n700\n500\nE\nK \uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf0e6\n\uf0f6\n\uf02d\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0e7\n\uf0f7 \uf0ea\n\uf0fa\n\uf0b4\n\uf0b4\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n\uf0e8\n\uf0f8\n0 544 = Ea \u00d7 5 714 \u00d7 10-4/19"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3383-3386", "Text": "314 J\nmol\n700\n500\nE\nK \uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf0e6\n\uf0f6\n\uf02d\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0e7\n\uf0f7 \uf0ea\n\uf0fa\n\uf0b4\n\uf0b4\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n\uf0e8\n\uf0f8\n0 544 = Ea \u00d7 5 714 \u00d7 10-4/19 15\nEa = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3384-3387", "Text": "544 = Ea \u00d7 5 714 \u00d7 10-4/19 15\nEa = 0 544 \u00d7 19"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3385-3388", "Text": "714 \u00d7 10-4/19 15\nEa = 0 544 \u00d7 19 15/5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3386-3389", "Text": "15\nEa = 0 544 \u00d7 19 15/5 714 \u00d7 10\u20134 = 18230"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3387-3390", "Text": "544 \u00d7 19 15/5 714 \u00d7 10\u20134 = 18230 8 J\nSince\nk = Ae-Ea/RT\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3388-3391", "Text": "15/5 714 \u00d7 10\u20134 = 18230 8 J\nSince\nk = Ae-Ea/RT\n0 02 = Ae-18230"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3389-3392", "Text": "714 \u00d7 10\u20134 = 18230 8 J\nSince\nk = Ae-Ea/RT\n0 02 = Ae-18230 8/8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3390-3393", "Text": "8 J\nSince\nk = Ae-Ea/RT\n0 02 = Ae-18230 8/8 314 \u00d7 500\nA = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3391-3394", "Text": "02 = Ae-18230 8/8 314 \u00d7 500\nA = 0 02/0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3392-3395", "Text": "8/8 314 \u00d7 500\nA = 0 02/0 012 = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3393-3396", "Text": "314 \u00d7 500\nA = 0 02/0 012 = 1 61\nThe first order rate constant for the decomposition of ethyl iodide\nby the reaction\nC2H5I(g) \u00ae C2H4 (g) + HI(g)\nat 600K is 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3394-3397", "Text": "02/0 012 = 1 61\nThe first order rate constant for the decomposition of ethyl iodide\nby the reaction\nC2H5I(g) \u00ae C2H4 (g) + HI(g)\nat 600K is 1 60 \u00d7 10\u20135 s\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3395-3398", "Text": "012 = 1 61\nThe first order rate constant for the decomposition of ethyl iodide\nby the reaction\nC2H5I(g) \u00ae C2H4 (g) + HI(g)\nat 600K is 1 60 \u00d7 10\u20135 s\u20131 Its energy of activation is 209 kJ/mol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3396-3399", "Text": "61\nThe first order rate constant for the decomposition of ethyl iodide\nby the reaction\nC2H5I(g) \u00ae C2H4 (g) + HI(g)\nat 600K is 1 60 \u00d7 10\u20135 s\u20131 Its energy of activation is 209 kJ/mol Calculate the rate constant of the reaction at 700K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3397-3400", "Text": "60 \u00d7 10\u20135 s\u20131 Its energy of activation is 209 kJ/mol Calculate the rate constant of the reaction at 700K We know that\nlog k2 \u2013 log k1 = \na\n1\n2\n1\n1\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3398-3401", "Text": "Its energy of activation is 209 kJ/mol Calculate the rate constant of the reaction at 700K We know that\nlog k2 \u2013 log k1 = \na\n1\n2\n1\n1\n2 303\nE\nT\nT\nR\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf02d\n\uf0ea\n\uf0fa\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\nSubtracting equation (3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3399-3402", "Text": "Calculate the rate constant of the reaction at 700K We know that\nlog k2 \u2013 log k1 = \na\n1\n2\n1\n1\n2 303\nE\nT\nT\nR\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf02d\n\uf0ea\n\uf0fa\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\nSubtracting equation (3 20) from (3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3400-3403", "Text": "We know that\nlog k2 \u2013 log k1 = \na\n1\n2\n1\n1\n2 303\nE\nT\nT\nR\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf02d\n\uf0ea\n\uf0fa\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\nSubtracting equation (3 20) from (3 21), we obtain\nln k2 \u2013 ln k1 = \na\n1\nE\nRT \u2013 \na\n2\nE\nRT\nln k\nk\nE\nR\nT\nT\n2\n1\n1\n2\n1\n1\n=\n\u2212\n\uf8ee\n\uf8f0\uf8ef\n\uf8f9\n\uf8fb\uf8fa\na\nlog"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3401-3404", "Text": "303\nE\nT\nT\nR\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf02d\n\uf0ea\n\uf0fa\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\nSubtracting equation (3 20) from (3 21), we obtain\nln k2 \u2013 ln k1 = \na\n1\nE\nRT \u2013 \na\n2\nE\nRT\nln k\nk\nE\nR\nT\nT\n2\n1\n1\n2\n1\n1\n=\n\u2212\n\uf8ee\n\uf8f0\uf8ef\n\uf8f9\n\uf8fb\uf8fa\na\nlog kk\nE\nR T\nT\n2\n1\n1\n2\n2 303\n1\n1\n=\n\u2212\n\uf8ee\n\uf8f0\uf8ef\n\uf8f9\n\uf8fb\uf8fa\na\n(3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3402-3405", "Text": "20) from (3 21), we obtain\nln k2 \u2013 ln k1 = \na\n1\nE\nRT \u2013 \na\n2\nE\nRT\nln k\nk\nE\nR\nT\nT\n2\n1\n1\n2\n1\n1\n=\n\u2212\n\uf8ee\n\uf8f0\uf8ef\n\uf8f9\n\uf8fb\uf8fa\na\nlog kk\nE\nR T\nT\n2\n1\n1\n2\n2 303\n1\n1\n=\n\u2212\n\uf8ee\n\uf8f0\uf8ef\n\uf8f9\n\uf8fb\uf8fa\na\n(3 22)\nlog"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3403-3406", "Text": "21), we obtain\nln k2 \u2013 ln k1 = \na\n1\nE\nRT \u2013 \na\n2\nE\nRT\nln k\nk\nE\nR\nT\nT\n2\n1\n1\n2\n1\n1\n=\n\u2212\n\uf8ee\n\uf8f0\uf8ef\n\uf8f9\n\uf8fb\uf8fa\na\nlog kk\nE\nR T\nT\n2\n1\n1\n2\n2 303\n1\n1\n=\n\u2212\n\uf8ee\n\uf8f0\uf8ef\n\uf8f9\n\uf8fb\uf8fa\na\n(3 22)\nlog kk\nE\nT\nT\nT T\n2\n1\n2\n1\n1\n2\n=2 303\n\u2212\n\uf8ee\n\uf8f0\uf8ef\n\uf8f9\n\uf8fb\uf8fa\na\nR\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3404-3407", "Text": "kk\nE\nR T\nT\n2\n1\n1\n2\n2 303\n1\n1\n=\n\u2212\n\uf8ee\n\uf8f0\uf8ef\n\uf8f9\n\uf8fb\uf8fa\na\n(3 22)\nlog kk\nE\nT\nT\nT T\n2\n1\n2\n1\n1\n2\n=2 303\n\u2212\n\uf8ee\n\uf8f0\uf8ef\n\uf8f9\n\uf8fb\uf8fa\na\nR\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nExample 3 10\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3405-3408", "Text": "22)\nlog kk\nE\nT\nT\nT T\n2\n1\n2\n1\n1\n2\n=2 303\n\u2212\n\uf8ee\n\uf8f0\uf8ef\n\uf8f9\n\uf8fb\uf8fa\na\nR\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nExample 3 10\nExample 3 10\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3406-3409", "Text": "kk\nE\nT\nT\nT T\n2\n1\n2\n1\n1\n2\n=2 303\n\u2212\n\uf8ee\n\uf8f0\uf8ef\n\uf8f9\n\uf8fb\uf8fa\na\nR\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nExample 3 10\nExample 3 10\nExample 3 10\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3407-3410", "Text": "10\nExample 3 10\nExample 3 10\nExample 3 10\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3408-3411", "Text": "10\nExample 3 10\nExample 3 10\nExample 3 10\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3409-3412", "Text": "10\nExample 3 10\nExample 3 10\nExample 3 9\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3410-3413", "Text": "10\nExample 3 10\nExample 3 9\nExample 3 9\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3411-3414", "Text": "10\nExample 3 9\nExample 3 9\nExample 3 9\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3412-3415", "Text": "9\nExample 3 9\nExample 3 9\nExample 3 9\nExample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3413-3416", "Text": "9\nExample 3 9\nExample 3 9\nExample 3 9\nRationalised 2023-24\n82\nChemistry\nA catalyst is a substance which increases the rate of a reaction without\nitself undergoing any permanent chemical change"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3414-3417", "Text": "9\nExample 3 9\nExample 3 9\nRationalised 2023-24\n82\nChemistry\nA catalyst is a substance which increases the rate of a reaction without\nitself undergoing any permanent chemical change For example, MnO2\ncatalyses the following reaction so as to increase its rate considerably"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3415-3418", "Text": "9\nExample 3 9\nRationalised 2023-24\n82\nChemistry\nA catalyst is a substance which increases the rate of a reaction without\nitself undergoing any permanent chemical change For example, MnO2\ncatalyses the following reaction so as to increase its rate considerably 2KClO3 \nMnO2\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae 2 KCl + 3O2\nThe word catalyst should not be used when the added substance\nreduces the rate of raction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3416-3419", "Text": "9\nRationalised 2023-24\n82\nChemistry\nA catalyst is a substance which increases the rate of a reaction without\nitself undergoing any permanent chemical change For example, MnO2\ncatalyses the following reaction so as to increase its rate considerably 2KClO3 \nMnO2\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae 2 KCl + 3O2\nThe word catalyst should not be used when the added substance\nreduces the rate of raction The substance is then called inhibitor"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3417-3420", "Text": "For example, MnO2\ncatalyses the following reaction so as to increase its rate considerably 2KClO3 \nMnO2\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae 2 KCl + 3O2\nThe word catalyst should not be used when the added substance\nreduces the rate of raction The substance is then called inhibitor The\naction of the catalyst can be explained by intermediate complex theory"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3418-3421", "Text": "2KClO3 \nMnO2\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae 2 KCl + 3O2\nThe word catalyst should not be used when the added substance\nreduces the rate of raction The substance is then called inhibitor The\naction of the catalyst can be explained by intermediate complex theory According to this theory, a catalyst participates in a chemical reaction by\nforming temporary bonds with the reactants resulting in an intermediate\ncomplex"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3419-3422", "Text": "The substance is then called inhibitor The\naction of the catalyst can be explained by intermediate complex theory According to this theory, a catalyst participates in a chemical reaction by\nforming temporary bonds with the reactants resulting in an intermediate\ncomplex This has a transitory existence and decomposes to yield products\nand the catalyst"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3420-3423", "Text": "The\naction of the catalyst can be explained by intermediate complex theory According to this theory, a catalyst participates in a chemical reaction by\nforming temporary bonds with the reactants resulting in an intermediate\ncomplex This has a transitory existence and decomposes to yield products\nand the catalyst It is believed that the catalyst provides an\nalternate pathway or reaction mechanism by\nreducing the activation energy between\nreactants and products and hence lowering\nthe potential energy barrier as shown in\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3421-3424", "Text": "According to this theory, a catalyst participates in a chemical reaction by\nforming temporary bonds with the reactants resulting in an intermediate\ncomplex This has a transitory existence and decomposes to yield products\nand the catalyst It is believed that the catalyst provides an\nalternate pathway or reaction mechanism by\nreducing the activation energy between\nreactants and products and hence lowering\nthe potential energy barrier as shown in\nFig 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3422-3425", "Text": "This has a transitory existence and decomposes to yield products\nand the catalyst It is believed that the catalyst provides an\nalternate pathway or reaction mechanism by\nreducing the activation energy between\nreactants and products and hence lowering\nthe potential energy barrier as shown in\nFig 3 11"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3423-3426", "Text": "It is believed that the catalyst provides an\nalternate pathway or reaction mechanism by\nreducing the activation energy between\nreactants and products and hence lowering\nthe potential energy barrier as shown in\nFig 3 11 It is clear from Arrhenius equation (3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3424-3427", "Text": "3 11 It is clear from Arrhenius equation (3 18)\nthat lower the value of activation energy faster\nwill be the rate of a reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3425-3428", "Text": "11 It is clear from Arrhenius equation (3 18)\nthat lower the value of activation energy faster\nwill be the rate of a reaction A small amount of the catalyst can catalyse\na large amount of reactants"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3426-3429", "Text": "It is clear from Arrhenius equation (3 18)\nthat lower the value of activation energy faster\nwill be the rate of a reaction A small amount of the catalyst can catalyse\na large amount of reactants A catalyst does\nnot alter Gibbs energy, DG of a reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3427-3430", "Text": "18)\nthat lower the value of activation energy faster\nwill be the rate of a reaction A small amount of the catalyst can catalyse\na large amount of reactants A catalyst does\nnot alter Gibbs energy, DG of a reaction It\ncatalyses the spontaneous reactions but does\nnot catalyse non-spontaneous reactions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3428-3431", "Text": "A small amount of the catalyst can catalyse\na large amount of reactants A catalyst does\nnot alter Gibbs energy, DG of a reaction It\ncatalyses the spontaneous reactions but does\nnot catalyse non-spontaneous reactions It is\nalso found that a catalyst does not change the equilibrium constant of\na reaction rather, it helps in attaining the equilibrium faster, that is, it\ncatalyses the forward as well as the backward reactions to the same\nextent so that the equilibrium state remains same but is reached earlier"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3429-3432", "Text": "A catalyst does\nnot alter Gibbs energy, DG of a reaction It\ncatalyses the spontaneous reactions but does\nnot catalyse non-spontaneous reactions It is\nalso found that a catalyst does not change the equilibrium constant of\na reaction rather, it helps in attaining the equilibrium faster, that is, it\ncatalyses the forward as well as the backward reactions to the same\nextent so that the equilibrium state remains same but is reached earlier Though Arrhenius equation is applicable under a wide range of\ncircumstances, collision theory, which was developed by Max Trautz\nand William Lewis in 1916 -18, provides a greater insight into the\nenergetic and mechanistic aspects of reactions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3430-3433", "Text": "It\ncatalyses the spontaneous reactions but does\nnot catalyse non-spontaneous reactions It is\nalso found that a catalyst does not change the equilibrium constant of\na reaction rather, it helps in attaining the equilibrium faster, that is, it\ncatalyses the forward as well as the backward reactions to the same\nextent so that the equilibrium state remains same but is reached earlier Though Arrhenius equation is applicable under a wide range of\ncircumstances, collision theory, which was developed by Max Trautz\nand William Lewis in 1916 -18, provides a greater insight into the\nenergetic and mechanistic aspects of reactions It is based on kinetic\ntheory of gases"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3431-3434", "Text": "It is\nalso found that a catalyst does not change the equilibrium constant of\na reaction rather, it helps in attaining the equilibrium faster, that is, it\ncatalyses the forward as well as the backward reactions to the same\nextent so that the equilibrium state remains same but is reached earlier Though Arrhenius equation is applicable under a wide range of\ncircumstances, collision theory, which was developed by Max Trautz\nand William Lewis in 1916 -18, provides a greater insight into the\nenergetic and mechanistic aspects of reactions It is based on kinetic\ntheory of gases According to this theory, the reactant molecules are\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3432-3435", "Text": "Though Arrhenius equation is applicable under a wide range of\ncircumstances, collision theory, which was developed by Max Trautz\nand William Lewis in 1916 -18, provides a greater insight into the\nenergetic and mechanistic aspects of reactions It is based on kinetic\ntheory of gases According to this theory, the reactant molecules are\n3 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3433-3436", "Text": "It is based on kinetic\ntheory of gases According to this theory, the reactant molecules are\n3 4 1 Effect of\nCatalyst\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3434-3437", "Text": "According to this theory, the reactant molecules are\n3 4 1 Effect of\nCatalyst\n3 5 Collision\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3435-3438", "Text": "4 1 Effect of\nCatalyst\n3 5 Collision\n3 5 Collision\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3436-3439", "Text": "1 Effect of\nCatalyst\n3 5 Collision\n3 5 Collision\n3 5 Collision\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3437-3440", "Text": "5 Collision\n3 5 Collision\n3 5 Collision\n3 5 Collision\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3438-3441", "Text": "5 Collision\n3 5 Collision\n3 5 Collision\n3 5 Collision\nTheory of\nTheory of\nTheory of\nTheory of\nTheory of\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3439-3442", "Text": "5 Collision\n3 5 Collision\n3 5 Collision\nTheory of\nTheory of\nTheory of\nTheory of\nTheory of\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nFig 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3440-3443", "Text": "5 Collision\n3 5 Collision\nTheory of\nTheory of\nTheory of\nTheory of\nTheory of\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nFig 3 11: Effect of catalyst on activation\nenergy\nlog k2 = \na\n1\n1\n2\n1\n1\nlog\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3441-3444", "Text": "5 Collision\nTheory of\nTheory of\nTheory of\nTheory of\nTheory of\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nFig 3 11: Effect of catalyst on activation\nenergy\nlog k2 = \na\n1\n1\n2\n1\n1\nlog\n2 303\nE\nk\nT\nT\nR\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf0ea\n\uf0fa\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n= \n\uf028\n\uf029\n1\n5\n1\n1\n1\n1\n209000 J mol L\nlog 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3442-3445", "Text": "3 11: Effect of catalyst on activation\nenergy\nlog k2 = \na\n1\n1\n2\n1\n1\nlog\n2 303\nE\nk\nT\nT\nR\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf0ea\n\uf0fa\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n= \n\uf028\n\uf029\n1\n5\n1\n1\n1\n1\n209000 J mol L\nlog 1 60 10\n600 K\n700K\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3443-3446", "Text": "11: Effect of catalyst on activation\nenergy\nlog k2 = \na\n1\n1\n2\n1\n1\nlog\n2 303\nE\nk\nT\nT\nR\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf0ea\n\uf0fa\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n= \n\uf028\n\uf029\n1\n5\n1\n1\n1\n1\n209000 J mol L\nlog 1 60 10\n600 K\n700K\n2 303 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3444-3447", "Text": "303\nE\nk\nT\nT\nR\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf0ea\n\uf0fa\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n= \n\uf028\n\uf029\n1\n5\n1\n1\n1\n1\n209000 J mol L\nlog 1 60 10\n600 K\n700K\n2 303 8 314 J mol L K\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf0b4\n\uf0ea\n\uf0fa\n\uf0b4\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\nlog k2 = \u2013 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3445-3448", "Text": "60 10\n600 K\n700K\n2 303 8 314 J mol L K\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf0b4\n\uf0ea\n\uf0fa\n\uf0b4\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\nlog k2 = \u2013 4 796 + 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3446-3449", "Text": "303 8 314 J mol L K\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf0b4\n\uf0ea\n\uf0fa\n\uf0b4\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\nlog k2 = \u2013 4 796 + 2 599 = \u2013 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3447-3450", "Text": "314 J mol L K\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf0b4\n\uf0ea\n\uf0fa\n\uf0b4\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\nlog k2 = \u2013 4 796 + 2 599 = \u2013 2 197\nk2 = 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3448-3451", "Text": "796 + 2 599 = \u2013 2 197\nk2 = 6 36 \u00d7 10\u20133\n s\u20131\nRationalised 2023-24\n83\nChemical Kinetics\nassumed to be hard spheres and reaction is postulated to occur when\nmolecules collide with each other"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3449-3452", "Text": "599 = \u2013 2 197\nk2 = 6 36 \u00d7 10\u20133\n s\u20131\nRationalised 2023-24\n83\nChemical Kinetics\nassumed to be hard spheres and reaction is postulated to occur when\nmolecules collide with each other The number of collisions per\nsecond per unit volume of the reaction mixture is known as\ncollision frequency (Z)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3450-3453", "Text": "197\nk2 = 6 36 \u00d7 10\u20133\n s\u20131\nRationalised 2023-24\n83\nChemical Kinetics\nassumed to be hard spheres and reaction is postulated to occur when\nmolecules collide with each other The number of collisions per\nsecond per unit volume of the reaction mixture is known as\ncollision frequency (Z) Another factor which affects the rate of\nchemical reactions is activation energy (as we have already studied)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3451-3454", "Text": "36 \u00d7 10\u20133\n s\u20131\nRationalised 2023-24\n83\nChemical Kinetics\nassumed to be hard spheres and reaction is postulated to occur when\nmolecules collide with each other The number of collisions per\nsecond per unit volume of the reaction mixture is known as\ncollision frequency (Z) Another factor which affects the rate of\nchemical reactions is activation energy (as we have already studied) For a bimolecular elementary reaction\nA + B \u00ae Products\nrate of reaction can be expressed as\na /\nAB\nRate\nZ\ne E\nRT\n\u2212\n=\n(3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3452-3455", "Text": "The number of collisions per\nsecond per unit volume of the reaction mixture is known as\ncollision frequency (Z) Another factor which affects the rate of\nchemical reactions is activation energy (as we have already studied) For a bimolecular elementary reaction\nA + B \u00ae Products\nrate of reaction can be expressed as\na /\nAB\nRate\nZ\ne E\nRT\n\u2212\n=\n(3 23)\nwhere ZAB represents the collision frequency of reactants, A and B\nand e\n-Ea /RT represents the fraction of molecules with energies equal to\nor greater than Ea"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3453-3456", "Text": "Another factor which affects the rate of\nchemical reactions is activation energy (as we have already studied) For a bimolecular elementary reaction\nA + B \u00ae Products\nrate of reaction can be expressed as\na /\nAB\nRate\nZ\ne E\nRT\n\u2212\n=\n(3 23)\nwhere ZAB represents the collision frequency of reactants, A and B\nand e\n-Ea /RT represents the fraction of molecules with energies equal to\nor greater than Ea Comparing (3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3454-3457", "Text": "For a bimolecular elementary reaction\nA + B \u00ae Products\nrate of reaction can be expressed as\na /\nAB\nRate\nZ\ne E\nRT\n\u2212\n=\n(3 23)\nwhere ZAB represents the collision frequency of reactants, A and B\nand e\n-Ea /RT represents the fraction of molecules with energies equal to\nor greater than Ea Comparing (3 23) with Arrhenius equation, we can\nsay that A is related to collision frequency"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3455-3458", "Text": "23)\nwhere ZAB represents the collision frequency of reactants, A and B\nand e\n-Ea /RT represents the fraction of molecules with energies equal to\nor greater than Ea Comparing (3 23) with Arrhenius equation, we can\nsay that A is related to collision frequency Equation (3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3456-3459", "Text": "Comparing (3 23) with Arrhenius equation, we can\nsay that A is related to collision frequency Equation (3 23) predicts the value of rate constants fairly\naccurately for the reactions that involve atomic species or simple\nmolecules but for complex molecules significant deviations are\nobserved"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3457-3460", "Text": "23) with Arrhenius equation, we can\nsay that A is related to collision frequency Equation (3 23) predicts the value of rate constants fairly\naccurately for the reactions that involve atomic species or simple\nmolecules but for complex molecules significant deviations are\nobserved The reason could be that all collisions do not lead to the\nformation of products"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3458-3461", "Text": "Equation (3 23) predicts the value of rate constants fairly\naccurately for the reactions that involve atomic species or simple\nmolecules but for complex molecules significant deviations are\nobserved The reason could be that all collisions do not lead to the\nformation of products The collisions in which molecules collide with\nsufficient kinetic energy (called threshold energy*) and proper\norientation, so as to facilitate breaking of bonds between reacting\nspecies and formation of new bonds to form products are called as\neffective collisions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3459-3462", "Text": "23) predicts the value of rate constants fairly\naccurately for the reactions that involve atomic species or simple\nmolecules but for complex molecules significant deviations are\nobserved The reason could be that all collisions do not lead to the\nformation of products The collisions in which molecules collide with\nsufficient kinetic energy (called threshold energy*) and proper\norientation, so as to facilitate breaking of bonds between reacting\nspecies and formation of new bonds to form products are called as\neffective collisions For \nexample, \nformation \nof\nmethanol from bromoethane depends\nupon the orientation of reactant\nmolecules \nas \nshown \nin\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3460-3463", "Text": "The reason could be that all collisions do not lead to the\nformation of products The collisions in which molecules collide with\nsufficient kinetic energy (called threshold energy*) and proper\norientation, so as to facilitate breaking of bonds between reacting\nspecies and formation of new bonds to form products are called as\neffective collisions For \nexample, \nformation \nof\nmethanol from bromoethane depends\nupon the orientation of reactant\nmolecules \nas \nshown \nin\nFig 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3461-3464", "Text": "The collisions in which molecules collide with\nsufficient kinetic energy (called threshold energy*) and proper\norientation, so as to facilitate breaking of bonds between reacting\nspecies and formation of new bonds to form products are called as\neffective collisions For \nexample, \nformation \nof\nmethanol from bromoethane depends\nupon the orientation of reactant\nmolecules \nas \nshown \nin\nFig 3 12"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3462-3465", "Text": "For \nexample, \nformation \nof\nmethanol from bromoethane depends\nupon the orientation of reactant\nmolecules \nas \nshown \nin\nFig 3 12 The proper orientation of\nreactant molecules lead to bond\nformation \nwhereas \nimproper\norientation \nmakes \nthem \nsimply\nbounce back and no products are\nformed"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3463-3466", "Text": "3 12 The proper orientation of\nreactant molecules lead to bond\nformation \nwhereas \nimproper\norientation \nmakes \nthem \nsimply\nbounce back and no products are\nformed To account for effective collisions,\nanother factor P, called the probability\nor steric factor is introduced"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3464-3467", "Text": "12 The proper orientation of\nreactant molecules lead to bond\nformation \nwhereas \nimproper\norientation \nmakes \nthem \nsimply\nbounce back and no products are\nformed To account for effective collisions,\nanother factor P, called the probability\nor steric factor is introduced It takes into account the fact that in a\ncollision, molecules must be properly oriented i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3465-3468", "Text": "The proper orientation of\nreactant molecules lead to bond\nformation \nwhereas \nimproper\norientation \nmakes \nthem \nsimply\nbounce back and no products are\nformed To account for effective collisions,\nanother factor P, called the probability\nor steric factor is introduced It takes into account the fact that in a\ncollision, molecules must be properly oriented i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3466-3469", "Text": "To account for effective collisions,\nanother factor P, called the probability\nor steric factor is introduced It takes into account the fact that in a\ncollision, molecules must be properly oriented i e ,\na /\nAB\nRate\nZ\ne E\nRT\nP\n\u2212\n=\nThus, in collision theory activation energy and proper orientation of\nthe molecules together determine the criteria for an effective collision\nand hence the rate of a chemical reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3467-3470", "Text": "It takes into account the fact that in a\ncollision, molecules must be properly oriented i e ,\na /\nAB\nRate\nZ\ne E\nRT\nP\n\u2212\n=\nThus, in collision theory activation energy and proper orientation of\nthe molecules together determine the criteria for an effective collision\nand hence the rate of a chemical reaction Collision theory also has certain drawbacks as it considers atoms/\nmolecules to be hard spheres and ignores their structural aspect"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3468-3471", "Text": "e ,\na /\nAB\nRate\nZ\ne E\nRT\nP\n\u2212\n=\nThus, in collision theory activation energy and proper orientation of\nthe molecules together determine the criteria for an effective collision\nand hence the rate of a chemical reaction Collision theory also has certain drawbacks as it considers atoms/\nmolecules to be hard spheres and ignores their structural aspect You\nwill study details about this theory and more on other theories in your\nhigher classes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3469-3472", "Text": ",\na /\nAB\nRate\nZ\ne E\nRT\nP\n\u2212\n=\nThus, in collision theory activation energy and proper orientation of\nthe molecules together determine the criteria for an effective collision\nand hence the rate of a chemical reaction Collision theory also has certain drawbacks as it considers atoms/\nmolecules to be hard spheres and ignores their structural aspect You\nwill study details about this theory and more on other theories in your\nhigher classes * Threshold energy = Activation Energy + energy possessed by reacting species"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3470-3473", "Text": "Collision theory also has certain drawbacks as it considers atoms/\nmolecules to be hard spheres and ignores their structural aspect You\nwill study details about this theory and more on other theories in your\nhigher classes * Threshold energy = Activation Energy + energy possessed by reacting species Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3471-3474", "Text": "You\nwill study details about this theory and more on other theories in your\nhigher classes * Threshold energy = Activation Energy + energy possessed by reacting species Fig 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3472-3475", "Text": "* Threshold energy = Activation Energy + energy possessed by reacting species Fig 3 12: Diagram showing molecules having proper and\nimproper orientation\nRationalised 2023-24\n84\nChemistry\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3473-3476", "Text": "Fig 3 12: Diagram showing molecules having proper and\nimproper orientation\nRationalised 2023-24\n84\nChemistry\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n3 7\nWhat will be the effect of temperature on rate constant"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3474-3477", "Text": "3 12: Diagram showing molecules having proper and\nimproper orientation\nRationalised 2023-24\n84\nChemistry\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n3 7\nWhat will be the effect of temperature on rate constant 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3475-3478", "Text": "12: Diagram showing molecules having proper and\nimproper orientation\nRationalised 2023-24\n84\nChemistry\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n3 7\nWhat will be the effect of temperature on rate constant 3 8\nThe rate of the chemical reaction doubles for an increase of 10K in absolute\ntemperature from 298K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3476-3479", "Text": "7\nWhat will be the effect of temperature on rate constant 3 8\nThe rate of the chemical reaction doubles for an increase of 10K in absolute\ntemperature from 298K Calculate Ea"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3477-3480", "Text": "3 8\nThe rate of the chemical reaction doubles for an increase of 10K in absolute\ntemperature from 298K Calculate Ea 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3478-3481", "Text": "8\nThe rate of the chemical reaction doubles for an increase of 10K in absolute\ntemperature from 298K Calculate Ea 3 9\nThe activation energy for the reaction\n 2 HI(g) \u00ae H2 + I2 (g)\nis 209"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3479-3482", "Text": "Calculate Ea 3 9\nThe activation energy for the reaction\n 2 HI(g) \u00ae H2 + I2 (g)\nis 209 5 kJ mol\u20131 at 581K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3480-3483", "Text": "3 9\nThe activation energy for the reaction\n 2 HI(g) \u00ae H2 + I2 (g)\nis 209 5 kJ mol\u20131 at 581K Calculate the fraction of molecules of reactants\nhaving energy equal to or greater than activation energy"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3481-3484", "Text": "9\nThe activation energy for the reaction\n 2 HI(g) \u00ae H2 + I2 (g)\nis 209 5 kJ mol\u20131 at 581K Calculate the fraction of molecules of reactants\nhaving energy equal to or greater than activation energy Summary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nChemical kinetics is the study of chemical reactions with respect to reaction\nrates, effect of various variables, rearrangement of atoms and formation of\nintermediates"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3482-3485", "Text": "5 kJ mol\u20131 at 581K Calculate the fraction of molecules of reactants\nhaving energy equal to or greater than activation energy Summary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nChemical kinetics is the study of chemical reactions with respect to reaction\nrates, effect of various variables, rearrangement of atoms and formation of\nintermediates The rate of a reaction is concerned with decrease in concentration\nof reactants or increase in the concentration of products per unit time"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3483-3486", "Text": "Calculate the fraction of molecules of reactants\nhaving energy equal to or greater than activation energy Summary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nChemical kinetics is the study of chemical reactions with respect to reaction\nrates, effect of various variables, rearrangement of atoms and formation of\nintermediates The rate of a reaction is concerned with decrease in concentration\nof reactants or increase in the concentration of products per unit time It can\nbe expressed as instantaneous rate at a particular instant of time and average\nrate over a large interval of time"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3484-3487", "Text": "Summary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nChemical kinetics is the study of chemical reactions with respect to reaction\nrates, effect of various variables, rearrangement of atoms and formation of\nintermediates The rate of a reaction is concerned with decrease in concentration\nof reactants or increase in the concentration of products per unit time It can\nbe expressed as instantaneous rate at a particular instant of time and average\nrate over a large interval of time A number of factors such as temperature,\nconcentration of reactants, catalyst, affect the rate of a reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3485-3488", "Text": "The rate of a reaction is concerned with decrease in concentration\nof reactants or increase in the concentration of products per unit time It can\nbe expressed as instantaneous rate at a particular instant of time and average\nrate over a large interval of time A number of factors such as temperature,\nconcentration of reactants, catalyst, affect the rate of a reaction Mathematical\nrepresentation of rate of a reaction is given by rate law"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3486-3489", "Text": "It can\nbe expressed as instantaneous rate at a particular instant of time and average\nrate over a large interval of time A number of factors such as temperature,\nconcentration of reactants, catalyst, affect the rate of a reaction Mathematical\nrepresentation of rate of a reaction is given by rate law It has to be determined\nexperimentally and cannot be predicted"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3487-3490", "Text": "A number of factors such as temperature,\nconcentration of reactants, catalyst, affect the rate of a reaction Mathematical\nrepresentation of rate of a reaction is given by rate law It has to be determined\nexperimentally and cannot be predicted Order of a reaction with respect to\na reactant is the power of its concentration which appears in the rate law\nequation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3488-3491", "Text": "Mathematical\nrepresentation of rate of a reaction is given by rate law It has to be determined\nexperimentally and cannot be predicted Order of a reaction with respect to\na reactant is the power of its concentration which appears in the rate law\nequation The order of a reaction is the sum of all such powers of concentration\nof terms for different reactants"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3489-3492", "Text": "It has to be determined\nexperimentally and cannot be predicted Order of a reaction with respect to\na reactant is the power of its concentration which appears in the rate law\nequation The order of a reaction is the sum of all such powers of concentration\nof terms for different reactants Rate constant is the proportionality factor in\nthe rate law"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3490-3493", "Text": "Order of a reaction with respect to\na reactant is the power of its concentration which appears in the rate law\nequation The order of a reaction is the sum of all such powers of concentration\nof terms for different reactants Rate constant is the proportionality factor in\nthe rate law Rate constant and order of a reaction can be determined from rate\nlaw or its integrated rate equation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3491-3494", "Text": "The order of a reaction is the sum of all such powers of concentration\nof terms for different reactants Rate constant is the proportionality factor in\nthe rate law Rate constant and order of a reaction can be determined from rate\nlaw or its integrated rate equation Molecularity is defined only for an elementary\nreaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3492-3495", "Text": "Rate constant is the proportionality factor in\nthe rate law Rate constant and order of a reaction can be determined from rate\nlaw or its integrated rate equation Molecularity is defined only for an elementary\nreaction Its values are limited from 1 to 3 whereas order can be 0, 1, 2, 3 or\neven a fraction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3493-3496", "Text": "Rate constant and order of a reaction can be determined from rate\nlaw or its integrated rate equation Molecularity is defined only for an elementary\nreaction Its values are limited from 1 to 3 whereas order can be 0, 1, 2, 3 or\neven a fraction Molecularity and order of an elementary reaction are same"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3494-3497", "Text": "Molecularity is defined only for an elementary\nreaction Its values are limited from 1 to 3 whereas order can be 0, 1, 2, 3 or\neven a fraction Molecularity and order of an elementary reaction are same Temperature dependence of rate constants is described by Arrhenius equation\n(k = Ae\u2013Ea/RT)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3495-3498", "Text": "Its values are limited from 1 to 3 whereas order can be 0, 1, 2, 3 or\neven a fraction Molecularity and order of an elementary reaction are same Temperature dependence of rate constants is described by Arrhenius equation\n(k = Ae\u2013Ea/RT) Ea corresponds to the activation energy and is given by the\nenergy difference between activated complex and the reactant molecules, and A\n(Arrhenius factor or pre-exponential factor) corresponds to the collision frequency"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3496-3499", "Text": "Molecularity and order of an elementary reaction are same Temperature dependence of rate constants is described by Arrhenius equation\n(k = Ae\u2013Ea/RT) Ea corresponds to the activation energy and is given by the\nenergy difference between activated complex and the reactant molecules, and A\n(Arrhenius factor or pre-exponential factor) corresponds to the collision frequency The equation clearly shows that increase of temperature or lowering of Ea will\nlead to an increase in the rate of reaction and presence of a catalyst lowers the\nactivation energy by providing an alternate path for the reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3497-3500", "Text": "Temperature dependence of rate constants is described by Arrhenius equation\n(k = Ae\u2013Ea/RT) Ea corresponds to the activation energy and is given by the\nenergy difference between activated complex and the reactant molecules, and A\n(Arrhenius factor or pre-exponential factor) corresponds to the collision frequency The equation clearly shows that increase of temperature or lowering of Ea will\nlead to an increase in the rate of reaction and presence of a catalyst lowers the\nactivation energy by providing an alternate path for the reaction According to\ncollision theory, another factor P called steric factor which refers to the orientation\nof molecules which collide, is important and contributes to effective collisions,\nthus, modifying the Arrhenius equation to \na /\nZAB\ne E\nRT\nk\nP\n\uf02d\n\uf03d"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3498-3501", "Text": "Ea corresponds to the activation energy and is given by the\nenergy difference between activated complex and the reactant molecules, and A\n(Arrhenius factor or pre-exponential factor) corresponds to the collision frequency The equation clearly shows that increase of temperature or lowering of Ea will\nlead to an increase in the rate of reaction and presence of a catalyst lowers the\nactivation energy by providing an alternate path for the reaction According to\ncollision theory, another factor P called steric factor which refers to the orientation\nof molecules which collide, is important and contributes to effective collisions,\nthus, modifying the Arrhenius equation to \na /\nZAB\ne E\nRT\nk\nP\n\uf02d\n\uf03d Rationalised 2023-24\n85\nChemical Kinetics\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3499-3502", "Text": "The equation clearly shows that increase of temperature or lowering of Ea will\nlead to an increase in the rate of reaction and presence of a catalyst lowers the\nactivation energy by providing an alternate path for the reaction According to\ncollision theory, another factor P called steric factor which refers to the orientation\nof molecules which collide, is important and contributes to effective collisions,\nthus, modifying the Arrhenius equation to \na /\nZAB\ne E\nRT\nk\nP\n\uf02d\n\uf03d Rationalised 2023-24\n85\nChemical Kinetics\n3 1\nFrom the rate expression for the following reactions, determine their\norder of reaction and the dimensions of the rate constants"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3500-3503", "Text": "According to\ncollision theory, another factor P called steric factor which refers to the orientation\nof molecules which collide, is important and contributes to effective collisions,\nthus, modifying the Arrhenius equation to \na /\nZAB\ne E\nRT\nk\nP\n\uf02d\n\uf03d Rationalised 2023-24\n85\nChemical Kinetics\n3 1\nFrom the rate expression for the following reactions, determine their\norder of reaction and the dimensions of the rate constants (i) 3NO(g) \u00ae N2O (g)\nRate = k[NO]2\n(ii) H2O2 (aq) + 3I\u2013 (aq) + 2H+ \u00ae 2H2O (l) + \n3I\uf02d\nRate = k[H2O2][I-]\n(iii) CH3CHO (g) \u00ae CH4 (g) + CO(g)\nRate = k [CH3CHO]3/2\n(iv) C2H5Cl (g) \u00ae C2H4 (g) + HCl (g)\nRate = k [C2H5Cl]\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3501-3504", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n85\nChemical Kinetics\n3 1\nFrom the rate expression for the following reactions, determine their\norder of reaction and the dimensions of the rate constants (i) 3NO(g) \u00ae N2O (g)\nRate = k[NO]2\n(ii) H2O2 (aq) + 3I\u2013 (aq) + 2H+ \u00ae 2H2O (l) + \n3I\uf02d\nRate = k[H2O2][I-]\n(iii) CH3CHO (g) \u00ae CH4 (g) + CO(g)\nRate = k [CH3CHO]3/2\n(iv) C2H5Cl (g) \u00ae C2H4 (g) + HCl (g)\nRate = k [C2H5Cl]\n3 2\nFor the reaction:\n2A + B \u00ae A2B\nthe rate = k[A][B]2 with k = 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3502-3505", "Text": "1\nFrom the rate expression for the following reactions, determine their\norder of reaction and the dimensions of the rate constants (i) 3NO(g) \u00ae N2O (g)\nRate = k[NO]2\n(ii) H2O2 (aq) + 3I\u2013 (aq) + 2H+ \u00ae 2H2O (l) + \n3I\uf02d\nRate = k[H2O2][I-]\n(iii) CH3CHO (g) \u00ae CH4 (g) + CO(g)\nRate = k [CH3CHO]3/2\n(iv) C2H5Cl (g) \u00ae C2H4 (g) + HCl (g)\nRate = k [C2H5Cl]\n3 2\nFor the reaction:\n2A + B \u00ae A2B\nthe rate = k[A][B]2 with k = 2 0 \u00d7 10\u20136 mol\u20132 L2 s\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3503-3506", "Text": "(i) 3NO(g) \u00ae N2O (g)\nRate = k[NO]2\n(ii) H2O2 (aq) + 3I\u2013 (aq) + 2H+ \u00ae 2H2O (l) + \n3I\uf02d\nRate = k[H2O2][I-]\n(iii) CH3CHO (g) \u00ae CH4 (g) + CO(g)\nRate = k [CH3CHO]3/2\n(iv) C2H5Cl (g) \u00ae C2H4 (g) + HCl (g)\nRate = k [C2H5Cl]\n3 2\nFor the reaction:\n2A + B \u00ae A2B\nthe rate = k[A][B]2 with k = 2 0 \u00d7 10\u20136 mol\u20132 L2 s\u20131 Calculate the initial\nrate of the reaction when [A] = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3504-3507", "Text": "2\nFor the reaction:\n2A + B \u00ae A2B\nthe rate = k[A][B]2 with k = 2 0 \u00d7 10\u20136 mol\u20132 L2 s\u20131 Calculate the initial\nrate of the reaction when [A] = 0 1 mol L\u20131, [B] = 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3505-3508", "Text": "0 \u00d7 10\u20136 mol\u20132 L2 s\u20131 Calculate the initial\nrate of the reaction when [A] = 0 1 mol L\u20131, [B] = 0 2 mol L\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3506-3509", "Text": "Calculate the initial\nrate of the reaction when [A] = 0 1 mol L\u20131, [B] = 0 2 mol L\u20131 Calculate\nthe rate of reaction after [A] is reduced to 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3507-3510", "Text": "1 mol L\u20131, [B] = 0 2 mol L\u20131 Calculate\nthe rate of reaction after [A] is reduced to 0 06 mol L\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3508-3511", "Text": "2 mol L\u20131 Calculate\nthe rate of reaction after [A] is reduced to 0 06 mol L\u20131 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3509-3512", "Text": "Calculate\nthe rate of reaction after [A] is reduced to 0 06 mol L\u20131 3 3\nThe decomposition of NH3 on platinum surface is zero order reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3510-3513", "Text": "06 mol L\u20131 3 3\nThe decomposition of NH3 on platinum surface is zero order reaction What\nare the rates of production of N2 and H2 if k = 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3511-3514", "Text": "3 3\nThe decomposition of NH3 on platinum surface is zero order reaction What\nare the rates of production of N2 and H2 if k = 2 5 \u00d7 10\u20134 mol\u20131 L s\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3512-3515", "Text": "3\nThe decomposition of NH3 on platinum surface is zero order reaction What\nare the rates of production of N2 and H2 if k = 2 5 \u00d7 10\u20134 mol\u20131 L s\u20131 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3513-3516", "Text": "What\nare the rates of production of N2 and H2 if k = 2 5 \u00d7 10\u20134 mol\u20131 L s\u20131 3 4\nThe decomposition of dimethyl ether leads to the formation of CH4, H2\nand CO and the reaction rate is given by\nRate = k [CH3OCH3]3/2\nThe rate of reaction is followed by increase in pressure in a closed\nvessel, so the rate can also be expressed in terms of the partial pressure\nof dimethyl ether, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3514-3517", "Text": "5 \u00d7 10\u20134 mol\u20131 L s\u20131 3 4\nThe decomposition of dimethyl ether leads to the formation of CH4, H2\nand CO and the reaction rate is given by\nRate = k [CH3OCH3]3/2\nThe rate of reaction is followed by increase in pressure in a closed\nvessel, so the rate can also be expressed in terms of the partial pressure\nof dimethyl ether, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3515-3518", "Text": "3 4\nThe decomposition of dimethyl ether leads to the formation of CH4, H2\nand CO and the reaction rate is given by\nRate = k [CH3OCH3]3/2\nThe rate of reaction is followed by increase in pressure in a closed\nvessel, so the rate can also be expressed in terms of the partial pressure\nof dimethyl ether, i e ,\n(\n)\n3\n3\n3/2\nCH OCH\nRate\nkp\n=\nIf the pressure is measured in bar and time in minutes, then what are\nthe units of rate and rate constants"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3516-3519", "Text": "4\nThe decomposition of dimethyl ether leads to the formation of CH4, H2\nand CO and the reaction rate is given by\nRate = k [CH3OCH3]3/2\nThe rate of reaction is followed by increase in pressure in a closed\nvessel, so the rate can also be expressed in terms of the partial pressure\nof dimethyl ether, i e ,\n(\n)\n3\n3\n3/2\nCH OCH\nRate\nkp\n=\nIf the pressure is measured in bar and time in minutes, then what are\nthe units of rate and rate constants 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3517-3520", "Text": "e ,\n(\n)\n3\n3\n3/2\nCH OCH\nRate\nkp\n=\nIf the pressure is measured in bar and time in minutes, then what are\nthe units of rate and rate constants 3 5\nMention the factors that affect the rate of a chemical reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3518-3521", "Text": ",\n(\n)\n3\n3\n3/2\nCH OCH\nRate\nkp\n=\nIf the pressure is measured in bar and time in minutes, then what are\nthe units of rate and rate constants 3 5\nMention the factors that affect the rate of a chemical reaction 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3519-3522", "Text": "3 5\nMention the factors that affect the rate of a chemical reaction 3 6\nA reaction is second order with respect to a reactant"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3520-3523", "Text": "5\nMention the factors that affect the rate of a chemical reaction 3 6\nA reaction is second order with respect to a reactant How is the rate\nof reaction affected if the concentration of the reactant is\n(i) doubled\n(ii) reduced to half"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3521-3524", "Text": "3 6\nA reaction is second order with respect to a reactant How is the rate\nof reaction affected if the concentration of the reactant is\n(i) doubled\n(ii) reduced to half 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3522-3525", "Text": "6\nA reaction is second order with respect to a reactant How is the rate\nof reaction affected if the concentration of the reactant is\n(i) doubled\n(ii) reduced to half 3 7\nWhat is the effect of temperature on the rate constant of a reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3523-3526", "Text": "How is the rate\nof reaction affected if the concentration of the reactant is\n(i) doubled\n(ii) reduced to half 3 7\nWhat is the effect of temperature on the rate constant of a reaction How can this effect of temperature on rate constant be represented\nquantitatively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3524-3527", "Text": "3 7\nWhat is the effect of temperature on the rate constant of a reaction How can this effect of temperature on rate constant be represented\nquantitatively 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3525-3528", "Text": "7\nWhat is the effect of temperature on the rate constant of a reaction How can this effect of temperature on rate constant be represented\nquantitatively 3 8\nIn a pseudo first order reaction in water, the following results were\nobtained:\nt/s\n0\n30\n60\n90\n[A]/ mol L\u20131\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3526-3529", "Text": "How can this effect of temperature on rate constant be represented\nquantitatively 3 8\nIn a pseudo first order reaction in water, the following results were\nobtained:\nt/s\n0\n30\n60\n90\n[A]/ mol L\u20131\n0 55\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3527-3530", "Text": "3 8\nIn a pseudo first order reaction in water, the following results were\nobtained:\nt/s\n0\n30\n60\n90\n[A]/ mol L\u20131\n0 55\n0 31\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3528-3531", "Text": "8\nIn a pseudo first order reaction in water, the following results were\nobtained:\nt/s\n0\n30\n60\n90\n[A]/ mol L\u20131\n0 55\n0 31\n0 17\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3529-3532", "Text": "55\n0 31\n0 17\n0 085\nCalculate the average rate of reaction between the time interval 30\nto 60 seconds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3530-3533", "Text": "31\n0 17\n0 085\nCalculate the average rate of reaction between the time interval 30\nto 60 seconds 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3531-3534", "Text": "17\n0 085\nCalculate the average rate of reaction between the time interval 30\nto 60 seconds 3 9\nA reaction is first order in A and second order in B"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3532-3535", "Text": "085\nCalculate the average rate of reaction between the time interval 30\nto 60 seconds 3 9\nA reaction is first order in A and second order in B (i) Write the differential rate equation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3533-3536", "Text": "3 9\nA reaction is first order in A and second order in B (i) Write the differential rate equation (ii) How is the rate affected on increasing the concentration of B three\ntimes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3534-3537", "Text": "9\nA reaction is first order in A and second order in B (i) Write the differential rate equation (ii) How is the rate affected on increasing the concentration of B three\ntimes (iii) How is the rate affected when the concentrations of both A and B\nare doubled"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3535-3538", "Text": "(i) Write the differential rate equation (ii) How is the rate affected on increasing the concentration of B three\ntimes (iii) How is the rate affected when the concentrations of both A and B\nare doubled Exercises\nExercises\nExercises\nExercises\nExercises\nRationalised 2023-24\n86\nChemistry\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3536-3539", "Text": "(ii) How is the rate affected on increasing the concentration of B three\ntimes (iii) How is the rate affected when the concentrations of both A and B\nare doubled Exercises\nExercises\nExercises\nExercises\nExercises\nRationalised 2023-24\n86\nChemistry\n3 10\nIn a reaction between A and B, the initial rate of reaction (r0) was measured\nfor different initial concentrations of A and B as given below:\nA/ mol L\u20131\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3537-3540", "Text": "(iii) How is the rate affected when the concentrations of both A and B\nare doubled Exercises\nExercises\nExercises\nExercises\nExercises\nRationalised 2023-24\n86\nChemistry\n3 10\nIn a reaction between A and B, the initial rate of reaction (r0) was measured\nfor different initial concentrations of A and B as given below:\nA/ mol L\u20131\n0 20\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3538-3541", "Text": "Exercises\nExercises\nExercises\nExercises\nExercises\nRationalised 2023-24\n86\nChemistry\n3 10\nIn a reaction between A and B, the initial rate of reaction (r0) was measured\nfor different initial concentrations of A and B as given below:\nA/ mol L\u20131\n0 20\n0 20\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3539-3542", "Text": "10\nIn a reaction between A and B, the initial rate of reaction (r0) was measured\nfor different initial concentrations of A and B as given below:\nA/ mol L\u20131\n0 20\n0 20\n0 40\nB/ mol L\u20131\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3540-3543", "Text": "20\n0 20\n0 40\nB/ mol L\u20131\n0 30\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3541-3544", "Text": "20\n0 40\nB/ mol L\u20131\n0 30\n0 10\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3542-3545", "Text": "40\nB/ mol L\u20131\n0 30\n0 10\n0 05\nr0/mol L\u20131s\u20131\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3543-3546", "Text": "30\n0 10\n0 05\nr0/mol L\u20131s\u20131\n5 07 \u00d7 10\u20135\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3544-3547", "Text": "10\n0 05\nr0/mol L\u20131s\u20131\n5 07 \u00d7 10\u20135\n5 07 \u00d7 10\u20135\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3545-3548", "Text": "05\nr0/mol L\u20131s\u20131\n5 07 \u00d7 10\u20135\n5 07 \u00d7 10\u20135\n1 43 \u00d7 10\u20134\nWhat is the order of the reaction with respect to A and B"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3546-3549", "Text": "07 \u00d7 10\u20135\n5 07 \u00d7 10\u20135\n1 43 \u00d7 10\u20134\nWhat is the order of the reaction with respect to A and B 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3547-3550", "Text": "07 \u00d7 10\u20135\n1 43 \u00d7 10\u20134\nWhat is the order of the reaction with respect to A and B 3 11\nThe following results have been obtained during the kinetic studies of the reaction:\n2A + B \u00ae C + D\nExperiment\n[A]/mol L\u20131\n[B]/mol L\u20131\nInitial rate of formation\nof D/mol L\u20131 min\u20131\nI\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3548-3551", "Text": "43 \u00d7 10\u20134\nWhat is the order of the reaction with respect to A and B 3 11\nThe following results have been obtained during the kinetic studies of the reaction:\n2A + B \u00ae C + D\nExperiment\n[A]/mol L\u20131\n[B]/mol L\u20131\nInitial rate of formation\nof D/mol L\u20131 min\u20131\nI\n0 1\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3549-3552", "Text": "3 11\nThe following results have been obtained during the kinetic studies of the reaction:\n2A + B \u00ae C + D\nExperiment\n[A]/mol L\u20131\n[B]/mol L\u20131\nInitial rate of formation\nof D/mol L\u20131 min\u20131\nI\n0 1\n0 1\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3550-3553", "Text": "11\nThe following results have been obtained during the kinetic studies of the reaction:\n2A + B \u00ae C + D\nExperiment\n[A]/mol L\u20131\n[B]/mol L\u20131\nInitial rate of formation\nof D/mol L\u20131 min\u20131\nI\n0 1\n0 1\n6 0 \u00d7 10\u20133\nII\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3551-3554", "Text": "1\n0 1\n6 0 \u00d7 10\u20133\nII\n0 3\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3552-3555", "Text": "1\n6 0 \u00d7 10\u20133\nII\n0 3\n0 2\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3553-3556", "Text": "0 \u00d7 10\u20133\nII\n0 3\n0 2\n7 2 \u00d7 10\u20132\nIII\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3554-3557", "Text": "3\n0 2\n7 2 \u00d7 10\u20132\nIII\n0 3\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3555-3558", "Text": "2\n7 2 \u00d7 10\u20132\nIII\n0 3\n0 4\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3556-3559", "Text": "2 \u00d7 10\u20132\nIII\n0 3\n0 4\n2 88 \u00d7 10\u20131\nIV\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3557-3560", "Text": "3\n0 4\n2 88 \u00d7 10\u20131\nIV\n0 4\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3558-3561", "Text": "4\n2 88 \u00d7 10\u20131\nIV\n0 4\n0 1\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3559-3562", "Text": "88 \u00d7 10\u20131\nIV\n0 4\n0 1\n2 40 \u00d7 10\u20132\nDetermine the rate law and the rate constant for the reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3560-3563", "Text": "4\n0 1\n2 40 \u00d7 10\u20132\nDetermine the rate law and the rate constant for the reaction 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3561-3564", "Text": "1\n2 40 \u00d7 10\u20132\nDetermine the rate law and the rate constant for the reaction 3 12\nThe reaction between A and B is first order with respect to A and zero order\nwith respect to B"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3562-3565", "Text": "40 \u00d7 10\u20132\nDetermine the rate law and the rate constant for the reaction 3 12\nThe reaction between A and B is first order with respect to A and zero order\nwith respect to B Fill in the blanks in the following table:\nExperiment\n[A]/ mol L\u20131\n[B]/ mol L\u20131\nInitial rate/\n mol L\u20131 min\u20131\nI\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3563-3566", "Text": "3 12\nThe reaction between A and B is first order with respect to A and zero order\nwith respect to B Fill in the blanks in the following table:\nExperiment\n[A]/ mol L\u20131\n[B]/ mol L\u20131\nInitial rate/\n mol L\u20131 min\u20131\nI\n0 1\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3564-3567", "Text": "12\nThe reaction between A and B is first order with respect to A and zero order\nwith respect to B Fill in the blanks in the following table:\nExperiment\n[A]/ mol L\u20131\n[B]/ mol L\u20131\nInitial rate/\n mol L\u20131 min\u20131\nI\n0 1\n0 1\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3565-3568", "Text": "Fill in the blanks in the following table:\nExperiment\n[A]/ mol L\u20131\n[B]/ mol L\u20131\nInitial rate/\n mol L\u20131 min\u20131\nI\n0 1\n0 1\n2 0 \u00d7 10\u20132\nII\n\u2013\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3566-3569", "Text": "1\n0 1\n2 0 \u00d7 10\u20132\nII\n\u2013\n0 2\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3567-3570", "Text": "1\n2 0 \u00d7 10\u20132\nII\n\u2013\n0 2\n4 0 \u00d7 10\u20132\nIII\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3568-3571", "Text": "0 \u00d7 10\u20132\nII\n\u2013\n0 2\n4 0 \u00d7 10\u20132\nIII\n0 4\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3569-3572", "Text": "2\n4 0 \u00d7 10\u20132\nIII\n0 4\n0 4\n\u2013\nIV\n\u2013\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3570-3573", "Text": "0 \u00d7 10\u20132\nIII\n0 4\n0 4\n\u2013\nIV\n\u2013\n0 2\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3571-3574", "Text": "4\n0 4\n\u2013\nIV\n\u2013\n0 2\n2 0 \u00d7 10\u20132\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3572-3575", "Text": "4\n\u2013\nIV\n\u2013\n0 2\n2 0 \u00d7 10\u20132\n3 13\nCalculate the half-life of a first order reaction from their rate constants given\nbelow:\n(i) 200 s\u20131\n(ii) 2 min\u20131\n(iii) 4 years\u20131\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3573-3576", "Text": "2\n2 0 \u00d7 10\u20132\n3 13\nCalculate the half-life of a first order reaction from their rate constants given\nbelow:\n(i) 200 s\u20131\n(ii) 2 min\u20131\n(iii) 4 years\u20131\n3 14\nThe half-life for radioactive decay of 14C is 5730 years"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3574-3577", "Text": "0 \u00d7 10\u20132\n3 13\nCalculate the half-life of a first order reaction from their rate constants given\nbelow:\n(i) 200 s\u20131\n(ii) 2 min\u20131\n(iii) 4 years\u20131\n3 14\nThe half-life for radioactive decay of 14C is 5730 years An archaeological\nartifact containing wood had only 80% of the 14C found in a living tree"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3575-3578", "Text": "13\nCalculate the half-life of a first order reaction from their rate constants given\nbelow:\n(i) 200 s\u20131\n(ii) 2 min\u20131\n(iii) 4 years\u20131\n3 14\nThe half-life for radioactive decay of 14C is 5730 years An archaeological\nartifact containing wood had only 80% of the 14C found in a living tree Estimate\nthe age of the sample"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3576-3579", "Text": "14\nThe half-life for radioactive decay of 14C is 5730 years An archaeological\nartifact containing wood had only 80% of the 14C found in a living tree Estimate\nthe age of the sample 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3577-3580", "Text": "An archaeological\nartifact containing wood had only 80% of the 14C found in a living tree Estimate\nthe age of the sample 3 15\nThe experimental data for decomposition of N2O5\n[2N2O5 \u00ae 4NO2 + O2]\nin gas phase at 318K are given below:\n t/s\n0\n400\n800\n1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200\n102 \u00d7 [N2O5]/ 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3578-3581", "Text": "Estimate\nthe age of the sample 3 15\nThe experimental data for decomposition of N2O5\n[2N2O5 \u00ae 4NO2 + O2]\nin gas phase at 318K are given below:\n t/s\n0\n400\n800\n1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200\n102 \u00d7 [N2O5]/ 1 63\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3579-3582", "Text": "3 15\nThe experimental data for decomposition of N2O5\n[2N2O5 \u00ae 4NO2 + O2]\nin gas phase at 318K are given below:\n t/s\n0\n400\n800\n1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200\n102 \u00d7 [N2O5]/ 1 63\n1 36\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3580-3583", "Text": "15\nThe experimental data for decomposition of N2O5\n[2N2O5 \u00ae 4NO2 + O2]\nin gas phase at 318K are given below:\n t/s\n0\n400\n800\n1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200\n102 \u00d7 [N2O5]/ 1 63\n1 36\n1 14\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3581-3584", "Text": "63\n1 36\n1 14\n0 93\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3582-3585", "Text": "36\n1 14\n0 93\n0 78\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3583-3586", "Text": "14\n0 93\n0 78\n0 64\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3584-3587", "Text": "93\n0 78\n0 64\n0 53\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3585-3588", "Text": "78\n0 64\n0 53\n0 43\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3586-3589", "Text": "64\n0 53\n0 43\n0 35\nmol L\u20131\n(i) Plot [N2O5] against t"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3587-3590", "Text": "53\n0 43\n0 35\nmol L\u20131\n(i) Plot [N2O5] against t (ii) Find the half-life period for the reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3588-3591", "Text": "43\n0 35\nmol L\u20131\n(i) Plot [N2O5] against t (ii) Find the half-life period for the reaction (iii) Draw a graph between log[N2O5] and t"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3589-3592", "Text": "35\nmol L\u20131\n(i) Plot [N2O5] against t (ii) Find the half-life period for the reaction (iii) Draw a graph between log[N2O5] and t (iv) What is the rate law"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3590-3593", "Text": "(ii) Find the half-life period for the reaction (iii) Draw a graph between log[N2O5] and t (iv) What is the rate law Rationalised 2023-24\n87\nChemical Kinetics\n(v) Calculate the rate constant"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3591-3594", "Text": "(iii) Draw a graph between log[N2O5] and t (iv) What is the rate law Rationalised 2023-24\n87\nChemical Kinetics\n(v) Calculate the rate constant (vi) Calculate the half-life period from k and compare it with (ii)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3592-3595", "Text": "(iv) What is the rate law Rationalised 2023-24\n87\nChemical Kinetics\n(v) Calculate the rate constant (vi) Calculate the half-life period from k and compare it with (ii) 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3593-3596", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n87\nChemical Kinetics\n(v) Calculate the rate constant (vi) Calculate the half-life period from k and compare it with (ii) 3 16\nThe rate constant for a first order reaction is 60 s\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3594-3597", "Text": "(vi) Calculate the half-life period from k and compare it with (ii) 3 16\nThe rate constant for a first order reaction is 60 s\u20131 How much time will\nit take to reduce the initial concentration of the reactant to its 1/16th\nvalue"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3595-3598", "Text": "3 16\nThe rate constant for a first order reaction is 60 s\u20131 How much time will\nit take to reduce the initial concentration of the reactant to its 1/16th\nvalue 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3596-3599", "Text": "16\nThe rate constant for a first order reaction is 60 s\u20131 How much time will\nit take to reduce the initial concentration of the reactant to its 1/16th\nvalue 3 17\nDuring nuclear explosion, one of the products is 90Sr with half-life of\n28"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3597-3600", "Text": "How much time will\nit take to reduce the initial concentration of the reactant to its 1/16th\nvalue 3 17\nDuring nuclear explosion, one of the products is 90Sr with half-life of\n28 1 years"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3598-3601", "Text": "3 17\nDuring nuclear explosion, one of the products is 90Sr with half-life of\n28 1 years If 1mg of 90Sr was absorbed in the bones of a newly born\nbaby instead of calcium, how much of it will remain after 10 years and\n60 years if it is not lost metabolically"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3599-3602", "Text": "17\nDuring nuclear explosion, one of the products is 90Sr with half-life of\n28 1 years If 1mg of 90Sr was absorbed in the bones of a newly born\nbaby instead of calcium, how much of it will remain after 10 years and\n60 years if it is not lost metabolically 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3600-3603", "Text": "1 years If 1mg of 90Sr was absorbed in the bones of a newly born\nbaby instead of calcium, how much of it will remain after 10 years and\n60 years if it is not lost metabolically 3 18\nFor a first order reaction, show that time required for 99% completion\nis twice the time required for the completion of 90% of reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3601-3604", "Text": "If 1mg of 90Sr was absorbed in the bones of a newly born\nbaby instead of calcium, how much of it will remain after 10 years and\n60 years if it is not lost metabolically 3 18\nFor a first order reaction, show that time required for 99% completion\nis twice the time required for the completion of 90% of reaction 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3602-3605", "Text": "3 18\nFor a first order reaction, show that time required for 99% completion\nis twice the time required for the completion of 90% of reaction 3 19\nA first order reaction takes 40 min for 30% decomposition"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3603-3606", "Text": "18\nFor a first order reaction, show that time required for 99% completion\nis twice the time required for the completion of 90% of reaction 3 19\nA first order reaction takes 40 min for 30% decomposition Calculate t1/2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3604-3607", "Text": "3 19\nA first order reaction takes 40 min for 30% decomposition Calculate t1/2 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3605-3608", "Text": "19\nA first order reaction takes 40 min for 30% decomposition Calculate t1/2 3 20\nFor the decomposition of azoisopropane to hexane and nitrogen at 543\nK, the following data are obtained"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3606-3609", "Text": "Calculate t1/2 3 20\nFor the decomposition of azoisopropane to hexane and nitrogen at 543\nK, the following data are obtained t (sec)\nP(mm of Hg)\n0\n35"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3607-3610", "Text": "3 20\nFor the decomposition of azoisopropane to hexane and nitrogen at 543\nK, the following data are obtained t (sec)\nP(mm of Hg)\n0\n35 0\n360\n54"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3608-3611", "Text": "20\nFor the decomposition of azoisopropane to hexane and nitrogen at 543\nK, the following data are obtained t (sec)\nP(mm of Hg)\n0\n35 0\n360\n54 0\n720\n63"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3609-3612", "Text": "t (sec)\nP(mm of Hg)\n0\n35 0\n360\n54 0\n720\n63 0\nCalculate the rate constant"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3610-3613", "Text": "0\n360\n54 0\n720\n63 0\nCalculate the rate constant 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3611-3614", "Text": "0\n720\n63 0\nCalculate the rate constant 3 21\nThe following data were obtained during the first order thermal\ndecomposition of SO2Cl2 at a constant volume"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3612-3615", "Text": "0\nCalculate the rate constant 3 21\nThe following data were obtained during the first order thermal\ndecomposition of SO2Cl2 at a constant volume \uf028 \uf029\n\uf028 \uf029\n\uf028 \uf029\n2\n2\n2\n2\nSO Cl\ng\nSO\ng\nCl\ng\n\uf0ae\n\uf02b\nExperiment\nTime/s\u20131\nTotal pressure/atm\n1\n0\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3613-3616", "Text": "3 21\nThe following data were obtained during the first order thermal\ndecomposition of SO2Cl2 at a constant volume \uf028 \uf029\n\uf028 \uf029\n\uf028 \uf029\n2\n2\n2\n2\nSO Cl\ng\nSO\ng\nCl\ng\n\uf0ae\n\uf02b\nExperiment\nTime/s\u20131\nTotal pressure/atm\n1\n0\n0 5\n2\n100\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3614-3617", "Text": "21\nThe following data were obtained during the first order thermal\ndecomposition of SO2Cl2 at a constant volume \uf028 \uf029\n\uf028 \uf029\n\uf028 \uf029\n2\n2\n2\n2\nSO Cl\ng\nSO\ng\nCl\ng\n\uf0ae\n\uf02b\nExperiment\nTime/s\u20131\nTotal pressure/atm\n1\n0\n0 5\n2\n100\n0 6\nCalculate the rate of the reaction when total pressure is 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3615-3618", "Text": "\uf028 \uf029\n\uf028 \uf029\n\uf028 \uf029\n2\n2\n2\n2\nSO Cl\ng\nSO\ng\nCl\ng\n\uf0ae\n\uf02b\nExperiment\nTime/s\u20131\nTotal pressure/atm\n1\n0\n0 5\n2\n100\n0 6\nCalculate the rate of the reaction when total pressure is 0 65 atm"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3616-3619", "Text": "5\n2\n100\n0 6\nCalculate the rate of the reaction when total pressure is 0 65 atm 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3617-3620", "Text": "6\nCalculate the rate of the reaction when total pressure is 0 65 atm 3 22\nThe rate constant for the decomposition of N2O5 at various temperatures\nis given below:\nT/\u00b0C\n0\n20\n40\n60\n80\n105 \u00d7 k/s-1\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3618-3621", "Text": "65 atm 3 22\nThe rate constant for the decomposition of N2O5 at various temperatures\nis given below:\nT/\u00b0C\n0\n20\n40\n60\n80\n105 \u00d7 k/s-1\n0 0787\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3619-3622", "Text": "3 22\nThe rate constant for the decomposition of N2O5 at various temperatures\nis given below:\nT/\u00b0C\n0\n20\n40\n60\n80\n105 \u00d7 k/s-1\n0 0787\n1 70\n25"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3620-3623", "Text": "22\nThe rate constant for the decomposition of N2O5 at various temperatures\nis given below:\nT/\u00b0C\n0\n20\n40\n60\n80\n105 \u00d7 k/s-1\n0 0787\n1 70\n25 7\n178\n2140\nDraw a graph between ln k and 1/T and calculate the values of A and\nEa"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3621-3624", "Text": "0787\n1 70\n25 7\n178\n2140\nDraw a graph between ln k and 1/T and calculate the values of A and\nEa Predict the rate constant at 30\u00b0 and 50\u00b0C"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3622-3625", "Text": "70\n25 7\n178\n2140\nDraw a graph between ln k and 1/T and calculate the values of A and\nEa Predict the rate constant at 30\u00b0 and 50\u00b0C 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3623-3626", "Text": "7\n178\n2140\nDraw a graph between ln k and 1/T and calculate the values of A and\nEa Predict the rate constant at 30\u00b0 and 50\u00b0C 3 23\nThe rate constant for the decomposition of hydrocarbons is 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3624-3627", "Text": "Predict the rate constant at 30\u00b0 and 50\u00b0C 3 23\nThe rate constant for the decomposition of hydrocarbons is 2 418 \u00d7 10\u20135s\u20131\nat 546 K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3625-3628", "Text": "3 23\nThe rate constant for the decomposition of hydrocarbons is 2 418 \u00d7 10\u20135s\u20131\nat 546 K If the energy of activation is 179"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3626-3629", "Text": "23\nThe rate constant for the decomposition of hydrocarbons is 2 418 \u00d7 10\u20135s\u20131\nat 546 K If the energy of activation is 179 9 kJ/mol, what will be the value\nof pre-exponential factor"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3627-3630", "Text": "418 \u00d7 10\u20135s\u20131\nat 546 K If the energy of activation is 179 9 kJ/mol, what will be the value\nof pre-exponential factor 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3628-3631", "Text": "If the energy of activation is 179 9 kJ/mol, what will be the value\nof pre-exponential factor 3 24\nConsider a certain reaction A \u00ae Products with k = 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3629-3632", "Text": "9 kJ/mol, what will be the value\nof pre-exponential factor 3 24\nConsider a certain reaction A \u00ae Products with k = 2 0 \u00d7 10 \u20132s\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3630-3633", "Text": "3 24\nConsider a certain reaction A \u00ae Products with k = 2 0 \u00d7 10 \u20132s\u20131 Calculate\nthe concentration of A remaining after 100 s if the initial concentration\nof A is 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3631-3634", "Text": "24\nConsider a certain reaction A \u00ae Products with k = 2 0 \u00d7 10 \u20132s\u20131 Calculate\nthe concentration of A remaining after 100 s if the initial concentration\nof A is 1 0 mol L\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3632-3635", "Text": "0 \u00d7 10 \u20132s\u20131 Calculate\nthe concentration of A remaining after 100 s if the initial concentration\nof A is 1 0 mol L\u20131 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3633-3636", "Text": "Calculate\nthe concentration of A remaining after 100 s if the initial concentration\nof A is 1 0 mol L\u20131 3 25\nSucrose decomposes in acid solution into glucose and fructose according\nto the first order rate law, with t1/2 = 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3634-3637", "Text": "0 mol L\u20131 3 25\nSucrose decomposes in acid solution into glucose and fructose according\nto the first order rate law, with t1/2 = 3 00 hours"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3635-3638", "Text": "3 25\nSucrose decomposes in acid solution into glucose and fructose according\nto the first order rate law, with t1/2 = 3 00 hours What fraction of sample\nof sucrose remains after 8 hours"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3636-3639", "Text": "25\nSucrose decomposes in acid solution into glucose and fructose according\nto the first order rate law, with t1/2 = 3 00 hours What fraction of sample\nof sucrose remains after 8 hours 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3637-3640", "Text": "00 hours What fraction of sample\nof sucrose remains after 8 hours 3 26\nThe decomposition of hydrocarbon follows the equation\nk = (4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3638-3641", "Text": "What fraction of sample\nof sucrose remains after 8 hours 3 26\nThe decomposition of hydrocarbon follows the equation\nk = (4 5 \u00d7 1011s\u20131) e-28000K/T\nCalculate Ea"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3639-3642", "Text": "3 26\nThe decomposition of hydrocarbon follows the equation\nk = (4 5 \u00d7 1011s\u20131) e-28000K/T\nCalculate Ea Rationalised 2023-24\n88\nChemistry\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3640-3643", "Text": "26\nThe decomposition of hydrocarbon follows the equation\nk = (4 5 \u00d7 1011s\u20131) e-28000K/T\nCalculate Ea Rationalised 2023-24\n88\nChemistry\n3 27\nThe rate constant for the first order decomposition of H2O2 is given by the\nfollowing equation:\nlog k = 14"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3641-3644", "Text": "5 \u00d7 1011s\u20131) e-28000K/T\nCalculate Ea Rationalised 2023-24\n88\nChemistry\n3 27\nThe rate constant for the first order decomposition of H2O2 is given by the\nfollowing equation:\nlog k = 14 34 \u2013 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3642-3645", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n88\nChemistry\n3 27\nThe rate constant for the first order decomposition of H2O2 is given by the\nfollowing equation:\nlog k = 14 34 \u2013 1 25 \u00d7 104K/T\nCalculate Ea for this reaction and at what temperature will its half-period\nbe 256 minutes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3643-3646", "Text": "27\nThe rate constant for the first order decomposition of H2O2 is given by the\nfollowing equation:\nlog k = 14 34 \u2013 1 25 \u00d7 104K/T\nCalculate Ea for this reaction and at what temperature will its half-period\nbe 256 minutes 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3644-3647", "Text": "34 \u2013 1 25 \u00d7 104K/T\nCalculate Ea for this reaction and at what temperature will its half-period\nbe 256 minutes 3 28\nThe decomposition of A into product has value of k as 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3645-3648", "Text": "25 \u00d7 104K/T\nCalculate Ea for this reaction and at what temperature will its half-period\nbe 256 minutes 3 28\nThe decomposition of A into product has value of k as 4 5 \u00d7 103 s\u20131 at 10\u00b0C\nand energy of activation 60 kJ mol\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3646-3649", "Text": "3 28\nThe decomposition of A into product has value of k as 4 5 \u00d7 103 s\u20131 at 10\u00b0C\nand energy of activation 60 kJ mol\u20131 At what temperature would k be\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3647-3650", "Text": "28\nThe decomposition of A into product has value of k as 4 5 \u00d7 103 s\u20131 at 10\u00b0C\nand energy of activation 60 kJ mol\u20131 At what temperature would k be\n1 5 \u00d7 104s\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3648-3651", "Text": "5 \u00d7 103 s\u20131 at 10\u00b0C\nand energy of activation 60 kJ mol\u20131 At what temperature would k be\n1 5 \u00d7 104s\u20131 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3649-3652", "Text": "At what temperature would k be\n1 5 \u00d7 104s\u20131 3 29\nThe time required for 10% completion of a first order reaction at 298K is\nequal to that required for its 25% completion at 308K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3650-3653", "Text": "5 \u00d7 104s\u20131 3 29\nThe time required for 10% completion of a first order reaction at 298K is\nequal to that required for its 25% completion at 308K If the value of A is\n4 \u00d7 1010s\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3651-3654", "Text": "3 29\nThe time required for 10% completion of a first order reaction at 298K is\nequal to that required for its 25% completion at 308K If the value of A is\n4 \u00d7 1010s\u20131 Calculate k at 318K and Ea"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3652-3655", "Text": "29\nThe time required for 10% completion of a first order reaction at 298K is\nequal to that required for its 25% completion at 308K If the value of A is\n4 \u00d7 1010s\u20131 Calculate k at 318K and Ea 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3653-3656", "Text": "If the value of A is\n4 \u00d7 1010s\u20131 Calculate k at 318K and Ea 3 30\nThe rate of a reaction quadruples when the temperature changes from\n293 K to 313 K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3654-3657", "Text": "Calculate k at 318K and Ea 3 30\nThe rate of a reaction quadruples when the temperature changes from\n293 K to 313 K Calculate the energy of activation of the reaction assuming\nthat it does not change with temperature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3655-3658", "Text": "3 30\nThe rate of a reaction quadruples when the temperature changes from\n293 K to 313 K Calculate the energy of activation of the reaction assuming\nthat it does not change with temperature Answers to Some Intext Questions\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3656-3659", "Text": "30\nThe rate of a reaction quadruples when the temperature changes from\n293 K to 313 K Calculate the energy of activation of the reaction assuming\nthat it does not change with temperature Answers to Some Intext Questions\n3 1\nrav = 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3657-3660", "Text": "Calculate the energy of activation of the reaction assuming\nthat it does not change with temperature Answers to Some Intext Questions\n3 1\nrav = 6 66 \u00d7 10\u20136 Ms\u20131\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3658-3661", "Text": "Answers to Some Intext Questions\n3 1\nrav = 6 66 \u00d7 10\u20136 Ms\u20131\n3 2\nRate of reaction = rate of diappearance of A\n= 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3659-3662", "Text": "1\nrav = 6 66 \u00d7 10\u20136 Ms\u20131\n3 2\nRate of reaction = rate of diappearance of A\n= 0 005 mol litre\u20131min\u20131\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3660-3663", "Text": "66 \u00d7 10\u20136 Ms\u20131\n3 2\nRate of reaction = rate of diappearance of A\n= 0 005 mol litre\u20131min\u20131\n3 3\nOrder of the reaction is 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3661-3664", "Text": "2\nRate of reaction = rate of diappearance of A\n= 0 005 mol litre\u20131min\u20131\n3 3\nOrder of the reaction is 2 5\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3662-3665", "Text": "005 mol litre\u20131min\u20131\n3 3\nOrder of the reaction is 2 5\n3 4\nX \u00ae Y\nRate = k[X]2\nThe rate will increase 9 times\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3663-3666", "Text": "3\nOrder of the reaction is 2 5\n3 4\nX \u00ae Y\nRate = k[X]2\nThe rate will increase 9 times\n3 5\nt = 444 s\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3664-3667", "Text": "5\n3 4\nX \u00ae Y\nRate = k[X]2\nThe rate will increase 9 times\n3 5\nt = 444 s\n3 6\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3665-3668", "Text": "4\nX \u00ae Y\nRate = k[X]2\nThe rate will increase 9 times\n3 5\nt = 444 s\n3 6\n1 925 \u00d7 10\u20134 s\u20131\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3666-3669", "Text": "5\nt = 444 s\n3 6\n1 925 \u00d7 10\u20134 s\u20131\n3 8\nEa = 52"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3667-3670", "Text": "6\n1 925 \u00d7 10\u20134 s\u20131\n3 8\nEa = 52 897 kJ mol\u20131\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3668-3671", "Text": "925 \u00d7 10\u20134 s\u20131\n3 8\nEa = 52 897 kJ mol\u20131\n3 9\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3669-3672", "Text": "8\nEa = 52 897 kJ mol\u20131\n3 9\n1 471 \u00d7 10\u201319\nRationalised 2023-24\nThe d-block of the periodic table contains the elements\nof the groups 3-12 in which the d orbitals are\nprogressively filled in each of the four long periods"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3670-3673", "Text": "897 kJ mol\u20131\n3 9\n1 471 \u00d7 10\u201319\nRationalised 2023-24\nThe d-block of the periodic table contains the elements\nof the groups 3-12 in which the d orbitals are\nprogressively filled in each of the four long periods The f-block consists of elements in which 4 f and 5 f\norbitals are progressively filled"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3671-3674", "Text": "9\n1 471 \u00d7 10\u201319\nRationalised 2023-24\nThe d-block of the periodic table contains the elements\nof the groups 3-12 in which the d orbitals are\nprogressively filled in each of the four long periods The f-block consists of elements in which 4 f and 5 f\norbitals are progressively filled They are placed in a\nseparate panel at the bottom of the periodic table"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3672-3675", "Text": "471 \u00d7 10\u201319\nRationalised 2023-24\nThe d-block of the periodic table contains the elements\nof the groups 3-12 in which the d orbitals are\nprogressively filled in each of the four long periods The f-block consists of elements in which 4 f and 5 f\norbitals are progressively filled They are placed in a\nseparate panel at the bottom of the periodic table The\nnames transition metals and inner transition metals\nare often used to refer to the elements of d-and\nf-blocks respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3673-3676", "Text": "The f-block consists of elements in which 4 f and 5 f\norbitals are progressively filled They are placed in a\nseparate panel at the bottom of the periodic table The\nnames transition metals and inner transition metals\nare often used to refer to the elements of d-and\nf-blocks respectively There are mainly four series of the transition metals,\n3d series (Sc to Zn), 4d series (Y to Cd), 5d series (La\nand Hf to Hg) and 6d series which has Ac and elements\nfrom Rf to Cn"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3674-3677", "Text": "They are placed in a\nseparate panel at the bottom of the periodic table The\nnames transition metals and inner transition metals\nare often used to refer to the elements of d-and\nf-blocks respectively There are mainly four series of the transition metals,\n3d series (Sc to Zn), 4d series (Y to Cd), 5d series (La\nand Hf to Hg) and 6d series which has Ac and elements\nfrom Rf to Cn The two series of the inner transition\nmetals; 4f (Ce to Lu) and 5f (Th to Lr) are known as\nlanthanoids and actinoids respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3675-3678", "Text": "The\nnames transition metals and inner transition metals\nare often used to refer to the elements of d-and\nf-blocks respectively There are mainly four series of the transition metals,\n3d series (Sc to Zn), 4d series (Y to Cd), 5d series (La\nand Hf to Hg) and 6d series which has Ac and elements\nfrom Rf to Cn The two series of the inner transition\nmetals; 4f (Ce to Lu) and 5f (Th to Lr) are known as\nlanthanoids and actinoids respectively Originally the name transition metals was derived\nfrom the fact that their chemical properties were\ntransitional between those of s and p-block elements"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3676-3679", "Text": "There are mainly four series of the transition metals,\n3d series (Sc to Zn), 4d series (Y to Cd), 5d series (La\nand Hf to Hg) and 6d series which has Ac and elements\nfrom Rf to Cn The two series of the inner transition\nmetals; 4f (Ce to Lu) and 5f (Th to Lr) are known as\nlanthanoids and actinoids respectively Originally the name transition metals was derived\nfrom the fact that their chemical properties were\ntransitional between those of s and p-block elements Now according to IUPAC, transition metals are defined\nas metals which have incomplete d subshell either in\nneutral atom or in their ions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3677-3680", "Text": "The two series of the inner transition\nmetals; 4f (Ce to Lu) and 5f (Th to Lr) are known as\nlanthanoids and actinoids respectively Originally the name transition metals was derived\nfrom the fact that their chemical properties were\ntransitional between those of s and p-block elements Now according to IUPAC, transition metals are defined\nas metals which have incomplete d subshell either in\nneutral atom or in their ions Zinc, cadmium and\nmercury of group 12 have full d\n10 configuration in their\nground state as well as in their common oxidation states\nand hence, are not regarded as transition metals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3678-3681", "Text": "Originally the name transition metals was derived\nfrom the fact that their chemical properties were\ntransitional between those of s and p-block elements Now according to IUPAC, transition metals are defined\nas metals which have incomplete d subshell either in\nneutral atom or in their ions Zinc, cadmium and\nmercury of group 12 have full d\n10 configuration in their\nground state as well as in their common oxidation states\nand hence, are not regarded as transition metals However, being the end members of the 3d, 4d and 5d\ntransition series, respectively, their chemistry is studied\nalong with the chemistry of the transition metals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3679-3682", "Text": "Now according to IUPAC, transition metals are defined\nas metals which have incomplete d subshell either in\nneutral atom or in their ions Zinc, cadmium and\nmercury of group 12 have full d\n10 configuration in their\nground state as well as in their common oxidation states\nand hence, are not regarded as transition metals However, being the end members of the 3d, 4d and 5d\ntransition series, respectively, their chemistry is studied\nalong with the chemistry of the transition metals The presence of partly filled d or f orbitals in their\natoms makes transition elements different from that of\nThe d - and f -\nBlock Elements\nThe d- and f-\nBlock Elements\nAfter studying this Unit, you will be\n\u2022able to\nlearn the positions of the d\u2013 and\nf-block elements in the periodic\ntable;\n\u2022\nknow the electronic configurations\nof the transition (d-block) and the\ninner transition (f-block) elements;\n\u2022\nappreciate the relative stability of\nvarious oxidation states in terms\nof electrode potential values;\n\u2022\ndescribe \nthe \npreparation,\nproperties, structures and uses\nof some important compounds\nsuch as K2Cr2O7 and KMnO4;\n\u2022\nunderstand \nthe \ngeneral\ncharacteristics of the d\u2013 and\nf\u2013block elements and the general\nhorizontal and group trends in\nthem;\n\u2022\ndescribe the properties of the\nf-block elements and give a\ncomparative \naccount \nof \nthe\nlanthanoids and actinoids with\nrespect \nto \ntheir \nelectronic\nconfigurations, oxidation states\nand chemical behaviour"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3680-3683", "Text": "Zinc, cadmium and\nmercury of group 12 have full d\n10 configuration in their\nground state as well as in their common oxidation states\nand hence, are not regarded as transition metals However, being the end members of the 3d, 4d and 5d\ntransition series, respectively, their chemistry is studied\nalong with the chemistry of the transition metals The presence of partly filled d or f orbitals in their\natoms makes transition elements different from that of\nThe d - and f -\nBlock Elements\nThe d- and f-\nBlock Elements\nAfter studying this Unit, you will be\n\u2022able to\nlearn the positions of the d\u2013 and\nf-block elements in the periodic\ntable;\n\u2022\nknow the electronic configurations\nof the transition (d-block) and the\ninner transition (f-block) elements;\n\u2022\nappreciate the relative stability of\nvarious oxidation states in terms\nof electrode potential values;\n\u2022\ndescribe \nthe \npreparation,\nproperties, structures and uses\nof some important compounds\nsuch as K2Cr2O7 and KMnO4;\n\u2022\nunderstand \nthe \ngeneral\ncharacteristics of the d\u2013 and\nf\u2013block elements and the general\nhorizontal and group trends in\nthem;\n\u2022\ndescribe the properties of the\nf-block elements and give a\ncomparative \naccount \nof \nthe\nlanthanoids and actinoids with\nrespect \nto \ntheir \nelectronic\nconfigurations, oxidation states\nand chemical behaviour Objectives\nIron, copper, silver and gold are among the transition elements that\nhave played important roles in the development of human civilisation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3681-3684", "Text": "However, being the end members of the 3d, 4d and 5d\ntransition series, respectively, their chemistry is studied\nalong with the chemistry of the transition metals The presence of partly filled d or f orbitals in their\natoms makes transition elements different from that of\nThe d - and f -\nBlock Elements\nThe d- and f-\nBlock Elements\nAfter studying this Unit, you will be\n\u2022able to\nlearn the positions of the d\u2013 and\nf-block elements in the periodic\ntable;\n\u2022\nknow the electronic configurations\nof the transition (d-block) and the\ninner transition (f-block) elements;\n\u2022\nappreciate the relative stability of\nvarious oxidation states in terms\nof electrode potential values;\n\u2022\ndescribe \nthe \npreparation,\nproperties, structures and uses\nof some important compounds\nsuch as K2Cr2O7 and KMnO4;\n\u2022\nunderstand \nthe \ngeneral\ncharacteristics of the d\u2013 and\nf\u2013block elements and the general\nhorizontal and group trends in\nthem;\n\u2022\ndescribe the properties of the\nf-block elements and give a\ncomparative \naccount \nof \nthe\nlanthanoids and actinoids with\nrespect \nto \ntheir \nelectronic\nconfigurations, oxidation states\nand chemical behaviour Objectives\nIron, copper, silver and gold are among the transition elements that\nhave played important roles in the development of human civilisation The inner transition elements such as Th, Pa and U are proving\nexcellent sources of nuclear energy in modern times"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3682-3685", "Text": "The presence of partly filled d or f orbitals in their\natoms makes transition elements different from that of\nThe d - and f -\nBlock Elements\nThe d- and f-\nBlock Elements\nAfter studying this Unit, you will be\n\u2022able to\nlearn the positions of the d\u2013 and\nf-block elements in the periodic\ntable;\n\u2022\nknow the electronic configurations\nof the transition (d-block) and the\ninner transition (f-block) elements;\n\u2022\nappreciate the relative stability of\nvarious oxidation states in terms\nof electrode potential values;\n\u2022\ndescribe \nthe \npreparation,\nproperties, structures and uses\nof some important compounds\nsuch as K2Cr2O7 and KMnO4;\n\u2022\nunderstand \nthe \ngeneral\ncharacteristics of the d\u2013 and\nf\u2013block elements and the general\nhorizontal and group trends in\nthem;\n\u2022\ndescribe the properties of the\nf-block elements and give a\ncomparative \naccount \nof \nthe\nlanthanoids and actinoids with\nrespect \nto \ntheir \nelectronic\nconfigurations, oxidation states\nand chemical behaviour Objectives\nIron, copper, silver and gold are among the transition elements that\nhave played important roles in the development of human civilisation The inner transition elements such as Th, Pa and U are proving\nexcellent sources of nuclear energy in modern times 4\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit4\nRationalised 2023-24\n90\nChemistry\nthe non-transition elements"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3683-3686", "Text": "Objectives\nIron, copper, silver and gold are among the transition elements that\nhave played important roles in the development of human civilisation The inner transition elements such as Th, Pa and U are proving\nexcellent sources of nuclear energy in modern times 4\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit4\nRationalised 2023-24\n90\nChemistry\nthe non-transition elements Hence, transition elements\nand their compounds are studied separately"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3684-3687", "Text": "The inner transition elements such as Th, Pa and U are proving\nexcellent sources of nuclear energy in modern times 4\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit4\nRationalised 2023-24\n90\nChemistry\nthe non-transition elements Hence, transition elements\nand their compounds are studied separately However,\nthe usual theory of valence as applicable to the non-\ntransition elements can be applied successfully to the\ntransition elements also"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3685-3688", "Text": "4\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit4\nRationalised 2023-24\n90\nChemistry\nthe non-transition elements Hence, transition elements\nand their compounds are studied separately However,\nthe usual theory of valence as applicable to the non-\ntransition elements can be applied successfully to the\ntransition elements also Various precious metals such as silver, gold and\nplatinum and industrially important metals like iron,\ncopper and titanium belong to the transition metals series"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3686-3689", "Text": "Hence, transition elements\nand their compounds are studied separately However,\nthe usual theory of valence as applicable to the non-\ntransition elements can be applied successfully to the\ntransition elements also Various precious metals such as silver, gold and\nplatinum and industrially important metals like iron,\ncopper and titanium belong to the transition metals series In this Unit, we shall first deal with the electronic\nconfiguration, occurrence and general characteristics of\ntransition elements with special emphasis on the trends\nin the properties of the first row (3d) transition metals\nalong with the preparation and properties of some\nimportant compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3687-3690", "Text": "However,\nthe usual theory of valence as applicable to the non-\ntransition elements can be applied successfully to the\ntransition elements also Various precious metals such as silver, gold and\nplatinum and industrially important metals like iron,\ncopper and titanium belong to the transition metals series In this Unit, we shall first deal with the electronic\nconfiguration, occurrence and general characteristics of\ntransition elements with special emphasis on the trends\nin the properties of the first row (3d) transition metals\nalong with the preparation and properties of some\nimportant compounds This will be followed by\nconsideration of certain general aspects such as electronic\nconfigurations, oxidation states and chemical reactivity\nof the inner transition metals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3688-3691", "Text": "Various precious metals such as silver, gold and\nplatinum and industrially important metals like iron,\ncopper and titanium belong to the transition metals series In this Unit, we shall first deal with the electronic\nconfiguration, occurrence and general characteristics of\ntransition elements with special emphasis on the trends\nin the properties of the first row (3d) transition metals\nalong with the preparation and properties of some\nimportant compounds This will be followed by\nconsideration of certain general aspects such as electronic\nconfigurations, oxidation states and chemical reactivity\nof the inner transition metals THE TRANSITION ELEMENTS (d-BLOCK)\nThe d\u2013block occupies the large middle section of the periodic table\nflanked between s\u2013 and p\u2013 blocks in the periodic table"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3689-3692", "Text": "In this Unit, we shall first deal with the electronic\nconfiguration, occurrence and general characteristics of\ntransition elements with special emphasis on the trends\nin the properties of the first row (3d) transition metals\nalong with the preparation and properties of some\nimportant compounds This will be followed by\nconsideration of certain general aspects such as electronic\nconfigurations, oxidation states and chemical reactivity\nof the inner transition metals THE TRANSITION ELEMENTS (d-BLOCK)\nThe d\u2013block occupies the large middle section of the periodic table\nflanked between s\u2013 and p\u2013 blocks in the periodic table The d\u2013orbitals\nof the penultimate energy level of atoms receive electrons giving rise to\nfour rows of the transition metals, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3690-3693", "Text": "This will be followed by\nconsideration of certain general aspects such as electronic\nconfigurations, oxidation states and chemical reactivity\nof the inner transition metals THE TRANSITION ELEMENTS (d-BLOCK)\nThe d\u2013block occupies the large middle section of the periodic table\nflanked between s\u2013 and p\u2013 blocks in the periodic table The d\u2013orbitals\nof the penultimate energy level of atoms receive electrons giving rise to\nfour rows of the transition metals, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3691-3694", "Text": "THE TRANSITION ELEMENTS (d-BLOCK)\nThe d\u2013block occupies the large middle section of the periodic table\nflanked between s\u2013 and p\u2013 blocks in the periodic table The d\u2013orbitals\nof the penultimate energy level of atoms receive electrons giving rise to\nfour rows of the transition metals, i e , 3d, 4d, 5d and 6d"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3692-3695", "Text": "The d\u2013orbitals\nof the penultimate energy level of atoms receive electrons giving rise to\nfour rows of the transition metals, i e , 3d, 4d, 5d and 6d All these\nseries of transition elements are shown in Table 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3693-3696", "Text": "e , 3d, 4d, 5d and 6d All these\nseries of transition elements are shown in Table 4 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3694-3697", "Text": ", 3d, 4d, 5d and 6d All these\nseries of transition elements are shown in Table 4 1 In general the electronic configuration of outer orbitals of these elements\nis (n-1)d\n1\u2013 10ns\n1\u20132except for Pd where its electronic configuration is 4d105s0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3695-3698", "Text": "All these\nseries of transition elements are shown in Table 4 1 In general the electronic configuration of outer orbitals of these elements\nis (n-1)d\n1\u2013 10ns\n1\u20132except for Pd where its electronic configuration is 4d105s0 The (n\u20131) stands for the inner d orbitals which may have one to ten\nelectrons and the outermost ns orbital may have one or two electrons"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3696-3699", "Text": "1 In general the electronic configuration of outer orbitals of these elements\nis (n-1)d\n1\u2013 10ns\n1\u20132except for Pd where its electronic configuration is 4d105s0 The (n\u20131) stands for the inner d orbitals which may have one to ten\nelectrons and the outermost ns orbital may have one or two electrons However, this generalisation has several exceptions because of very\nlittle energy difference between (n-1)d and ns orbitals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3697-3700", "Text": "In general the electronic configuration of outer orbitals of these elements\nis (n-1)d\n1\u2013 10ns\n1\u20132except for Pd where its electronic configuration is 4d105s0 The (n\u20131) stands for the inner d orbitals which may have one to ten\nelectrons and the outermost ns orbital may have one or two electrons However, this generalisation has several exceptions because of very\nlittle energy difference between (n-1)d and ns orbitals Furthermore,\nhalf and completely filled sets of orbitals are relatively more stable"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3698-3701", "Text": "The (n\u20131) stands for the inner d orbitals which may have one to ten\nelectrons and the outermost ns orbital may have one or two electrons However, this generalisation has several exceptions because of very\nlittle energy difference between (n-1)d and ns orbitals Furthermore,\nhalf and completely filled sets of orbitals are relatively more stable A\nconsequence of this factor is reflected in the electronic configurations\nof Cr and Cu in the 3d series"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3699-3702", "Text": "However, this generalisation has several exceptions because of very\nlittle energy difference between (n-1)d and ns orbitals Furthermore,\nhalf and completely filled sets of orbitals are relatively more stable A\nconsequence of this factor is reflected in the electronic configurations\nof Cr and Cu in the 3d series For example, consider the case of Cr,\nwhich has 3d\n5 4s\n1 configuration instead of 3d\n44s\n2; the energy gap\nbetween the two sets (3d and 4s) of orbitals is small enough to prevent\nelectron entering the 3d orbitals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3700-3703", "Text": "Furthermore,\nhalf and completely filled sets of orbitals are relatively more stable A\nconsequence of this factor is reflected in the electronic configurations\nof Cr and Cu in the 3d series For example, consider the case of Cr,\nwhich has 3d\n5 4s\n1 configuration instead of 3d\n44s\n2; the energy gap\nbetween the two sets (3d and 4s) of orbitals is small enough to prevent\nelectron entering the 3d orbitals Similarly in case of Cu, the\nconfiguration is 3d\n104s\n1 and not 3d\n94s\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3701-3704", "Text": "A\nconsequence of this factor is reflected in the electronic configurations\nof Cr and Cu in the 3d series For example, consider the case of Cr,\nwhich has 3d\n5 4s\n1 configuration instead of 3d\n44s\n2; the energy gap\nbetween the two sets (3d and 4s) of orbitals is small enough to prevent\nelectron entering the 3d orbitals Similarly in case of Cu, the\nconfiguration is 3d\n104s\n1 and not 3d\n94s\n2 The ground state electronic\nconfigurations of the outer orbitals of transition elements are given in\nTable 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3702-3705", "Text": "For example, consider the case of Cr,\nwhich has 3d\n5 4s\n1 configuration instead of 3d\n44s\n2; the energy gap\nbetween the two sets (3d and 4s) of orbitals is small enough to prevent\nelectron entering the 3d orbitals Similarly in case of Cu, the\nconfiguration is 3d\n104s\n1 and not 3d\n94s\n2 The ground state electronic\nconfigurations of the outer orbitals of transition elements are given in\nTable 4 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3703-3706", "Text": "Similarly in case of Cu, the\nconfiguration is 3d\n104s\n1 and not 3d\n94s\n2 The ground state electronic\nconfigurations of the outer orbitals of transition elements are given in\nTable 4 1 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3704-3707", "Text": "The ground state electronic\nconfigurations of the outer orbitals of transition elements are given in\nTable 4 1 4 1\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3705-3708", "Text": "1 4 1\n4 1\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3706-3709", "Text": "4 1\n4 1\n4 1\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3707-3710", "Text": "1\n4 1\n4 1\n4 1\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3708-3711", "Text": "1\n4 1\n4 1\n4 1 Position in the\nPosition in the\nPosition in the\nPosition in the\nPosition in the\nPeriodic Table\nPeriodic Table\nPeriodic Table\nPeriodic Table\nPeriodic Table\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3709-3712", "Text": "1\n4 1\n4 1 Position in the\nPosition in the\nPosition in the\nPosition in the\nPosition in the\nPeriodic Table\nPeriodic Table\nPeriodic Table\nPeriodic Table\nPeriodic Table\n4 2\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3710-3713", "Text": "1\n4 1 Position in the\nPosition in the\nPosition in the\nPosition in the\nPosition in the\nPeriodic Table\nPeriodic Table\nPeriodic Table\nPeriodic Table\nPeriodic Table\n4 2\n4 2\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3711-3714", "Text": "1 Position in the\nPosition in the\nPosition in the\nPosition in the\nPosition in the\nPeriodic Table\nPeriodic Table\nPeriodic Table\nPeriodic Table\nPeriodic Table\n4 2\n4 2\n4 2\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3712-3715", "Text": "2\n4 2\n4 2\n4 2\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3713-3716", "Text": "2\n4 2\n4 2\n4 2 Electronic\nElectronic\nElectronic\nElectronic\nElectronic\nConfigurations\nConfigurations\nConfigurations\nConfigurations\nConfigurations\nof the d-Block\nof the d-Block\nof the d-Block\nof the d-Block\nof the d-Block\nElements\nElements\nElements\nElements\nElements\nSc\nTi\nV\nCr\nMn\nFe\nCo\nNi\nCu\nZn\nZ\n21\n22\n23\n24\n25\n26\n27\n28\n29\n30\n4s\n2\n2\n2\n1\n2\n2\n2\n2\n1\n2\n3d\n1\n2\n3\n5\n5\n6\n7\n8\n10\n10\n1st Series\nTable 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3714-3717", "Text": "2\n4 2\n4 2 Electronic\nElectronic\nElectronic\nElectronic\nElectronic\nConfigurations\nConfigurations\nConfigurations\nConfigurations\nConfigurations\nof the d-Block\nof the d-Block\nof the d-Block\nof the d-Block\nof the d-Block\nElements\nElements\nElements\nElements\nElements\nSc\nTi\nV\nCr\nMn\nFe\nCo\nNi\nCu\nZn\nZ\n21\n22\n23\n24\n25\n26\n27\n28\n29\n30\n4s\n2\n2\n2\n1\n2\n2\n2\n2\n1\n2\n3d\n1\n2\n3\n5\n5\n6\n7\n8\n10\n10\n1st Series\nTable 4 1: Electronic Configurations of outer orbitals of the Transition Elements\n(ground state)\nRationalised 2023-24\n91\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nThe electronic configurations of outer orbitals of Zn, Cd, Hg and Cn\nare represented by the general formula (n-1)d\n10ns\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3715-3718", "Text": "2\n4 2 Electronic\nElectronic\nElectronic\nElectronic\nElectronic\nConfigurations\nConfigurations\nConfigurations\nConfigurations\nConfigurations\nof the d-Block\nof the d-Block\nof the d-Block\nof the d-Block\nof the d-Block\nElements\nElements\nElements\nElements\nElements\nSc\nTi\nV\nCr\nMn\nFe\nCo\nNi\nCu\nZn\nZ\n21\n22\n23\n24\n25\n26\n27\n28\n29\n30\n4s\n2\n2\n2\n1\n2\n2\n2\n2\n1\n2\n3d\n1\n2\n3\n5\n5\n6\n7\n8\n10\n10\n1st Series\nTable 4 1: Electronic Configurations of outer orbitals of the Transition Elements\n(ground state)\nRationalised 2023-24\n91\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nThe electronic configurations of outer orbitals of Zn, Cd, Hg and Cn\nare represented by the general formula (n-1)d\n10ns\n2 The orbitals in\nthese elements are completely filled in the ground state as well as in\ntheir common oxidation states"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3716-3719", "Text": "2 Electronic\nElectronic\nElectronic\nElectronic\nElectronic\nConfigurations\nConfigurations\nConfigurations\nConfigurations\nConfigurations\nof the d-Block\nof the d-Block\nof the d-Block\nof the d-Block\nof the d-Block\nElements\nElements\nElements\nElements\nElements\nSc\nTi\nV\nCr\nMn\nFe\nCo\nNi\nCu\nZn\nZ\n21\n22\n23\n24\n25\n26\n27\n28\n29\n30\n4s\n2\n2\n2\n1\n2\n2\n2\n2\n1\n2\n3d\n1\n2\n3\n5\n5\n6\n7\n8\n10\n10\n1st Series\nTable 4 1: Electronic Configurations of outer orbitals of the Transition Elements\n(ground state)\nRationalised 2023-24\n91\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nThe electronic configurations of outer orbitals of Zn, Cd, Hg and Cn\nare represented by the general formula (n-1)d\n10ns\n2 The orbitals in\nthese elements are completely filled in the ground state as well as in\ntheir common oxidation states Therefore, they are not regarded as\ntransition elements"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3717-3720", "Text": "1: Electronic Configurations of outer orbitals of the Transition Elements\n(ground state)\nRationalised 2023-24\n91\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nThe electronic configurations of outer orbitals of Zn, Cd, Hg and Cn\nare represented by the general formula (n-1)d\n10ns\n2 The orbitals in\nthese elements are completely filled in the ground state as well as in\ntheir common oxidation states Therefore, they are not regarded as\ntransition elements The d orbitals of the transition elements protrude to the periphery of\nan atom more than the other orbitals (i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3718-3721", "Text": "The orbitals in\nthese elements are completely filled in the ground state as well as in\ntheir common oxidation states Therefore, they are not regarded as\ntransition elements The d orbitals of the transition elements protrude to the periphery of\nan atom more than the other orbitals (i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3719-3722", "Text": "Therefore, they are not regarded as\ntransition elements The d orbitals of the transition elements protrude to the periphery of\nan atom more than the other orbitals (i e , s and p), hence, they are more\ninfluenced by the surroundings as well as affect the atoms or molecules\nsurrounding them"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3720-3723", "Text": "The d orbitals of the transition elements protrude to the periphery of\nan atom more than the other orbitals (i e , s and p), hence, they are more\ninfluenced by the surroundings as well as affect the atoms or molecules\nsurrounding them In some respects, ions of a given d\nn configuration\n(n = 1 \u2013 9) have similar magnetic and electronic properties"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3721-3724", "Text": "e , s and p), hence, they are more\ninfluenced by the surroundings as well as affect the atoms or molecules\nsurrounding them In some respects, ions of a given d\nn configuration\n(n = 1 \u2013 9) have similar magnetic and electronic properties With partly\nfilled d orbitals these elements exhibit certain characteristic properties\nsuch as display of a variety of oxidation states, formation of coloured\nions and entering into complex formation with a variety of ligands"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3722-3725", "Text": ", s and p), hence, they are more\ninfluenced by the surroundings as well as affect the atoms or molecules\nsurrounding them In some respects, ions of a given d\nn configuration\n(n = 1 \u2013 9) have similar magnetic and electronic properties With partly\nfilled d orbitals these elements exhibit certain characteristic properties\nsuch as display of a variety of oxidation states, formation of coloured\nions and entering into complex formation with a variety of ligands The transition metals and their compounds also exhibit catalytic\nproperty and paramagnetic behaviour"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3723-3726", "Text": "In some respects, ions of a given d\nn configuration\n(n = 1 \u2013 9) have similar magnetic and electronic properties With partly\nfilled d orbitals these elements exhibit certain characteristic properties\nsuch as display of a variety of oxidation states, formation of coloured\nions and entering into complex formation with a variety of ligands The transition metals and their compounds also exhibit catalytic\nproperty and paramagnetic behaviour All these characteristics have\nbeen discussed in detail later in this Unit"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3724-3727", "Text": "With partly\nfilled d orbitals these elements exhibit certain characteristic properties\nsuch as display of a variety of oxidation states, formation of coloured\nions and entering into complex formation with a variety of ligands The transition metals and their compounds also exhibit catalytic\nproperty and paramagnetic behaviour All these characteristics have\nbeen discussed in detail later in this Unit There are greater similarities in the properties of the transition\nelements of a horizontal row in contrast to the non-transition elements"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3725-3728", "Text": "The transition metals and their compounds also exhibit catalytic\nproperty and paramagnetic behaviour All these characteristics have\nbeen discussed in detail later in this Unit There are greater similarities in the properties of the transition\nelements of a horizontal row in contrast to the non-transition elements However, some group similarities also exist"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3726-3729", "Text": "All these characteristics have\nbeen discussed in detail later in this Unit There are greater similarities in the properties of the transition\nelements of a horizontal row in contrast to the non-transition elements However, some group similarities also exist We shall first study the\ngeneral characteristics and their trends in the horizontal rows\n(particularly 3d row) and then consider some group similarities"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3727-3730", "Text": "There are greater similarities in the properties of the transition\nelements of a horizontal row in contrast to the non-transition elements However, some group similarities also exist We shall first study the\ngeneral characteristics and their trends in the horizontal rows\n(particularly 3d row) and then consider some group similarities 2nd Series\nY\nZr\nNb\nMo\nTc\nRu\nRh\nPd\nAg\nCd\nZ\n39\n40\n41\n42\n43\n44\n45\n46\n47\n48\n5s\n2\n2\n1\n1\n1\n1\n1\n0\n1\n2\n4d\n1\n2\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n10\n10\n10\n3rd Series\nLa\nHf\nTa\nW\nRe\nOs\nIr\nPt\nAu\nHg\nZ\n57\n72\n73\n74\n75\n76\n77\n78\n79\n80\n6s\n2\n2\n2\n2\n2\n2\n2\n1\n1\n2\n5d\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n9\n10\n10\nAc\nRf\nDb\nSg\nBh\nHs\nMt\nDs\nRg\nCn\nZ\n89\n104\n105\n106\n107\n108\n109\n110\n111\n112\n7s\n2\n2\n2\n2\n2\n2\n2\n2\n1\n2\n6d\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n10\n10\n4th Series\nOn what ground can you say that scandium (Z = 21) is a transition\nelement but zinc (Z = 30) is not"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3728-3731", "Text": "However, some group similarities also exist We shall first study the\ngeneral characteristics and their trends in the horizontal rows\n(particularly 3d row) and then consider some group similarities 2nd Series\nY\nZr\nNb\nMo\nTc\nRu\nRh\nPd\nAg\nCd\nZ\n39\n40\n41\n42\n43\n44\n45\n46\n47\n48\n5s\n2\n2\n1\n1\n1\n1\n1\n0\n1\n2\n4d\n1\n2\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n10\n10\n10\n3rd Series\nLa\nHf\nTa\nW\nRe\nOs\nIr\nPt\nAu\nHg\nZ\n57\n72\n73\n74\n75\n76\n77\n78\n79\n80\n6s\n2\n2\n2\n2\n2\n2\n2\n1\n1\n2\n5d\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n9\n10\n10\nAc\nRf\nDb\nSg\nBh\nHs\nMt\nDs\nRg\nCn\nZ\n89\n104\n105\n106\n107\n108\n109\n110\n111\n112\n7s\n2\n2\n2\n2\n2\n2\n2\n2\n1\n2\n6d\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n10\n10\n4th Series\nOn what ground can you say that scandium (Z = 21) is a transition\nelement but zinc (Z = 30) is not On the basis of incompletely filled 3d orbitals in case of scandium atom\nin its ground state (3d\n1), it is regarded as a transition element"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3729-3732", "Text": "We shall first study the\ngeneral characteristics and their trends in the horizontal rows\n(particularly 3d row) and then consider some group similarities 2nd Series\nY\nZr\nNb\nMo\nTc\nRu\nRh\nPd\nAg\nCd\nZ\n39\n40\n41\n42\n43\n44\n45\n46\n47\n48\n5s\n2\n2\n1\n1\n1\n1\n1\n0\n1\n2\n4d\n1\n2\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n10\n10\n10\n3rd Series\nLa\nHf\nTa\nW\nRe\nOs\nIr\nPt\nAu\nHg\nZ\n57\n72\n73\n74\n75\n76\n77\n78\n79\n80\n6s\n2\n2\n2\n2\n2\n2\n2\n1\n1\n2\n5d\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n9\n10\n10\nAc\nRf\nDb\nSg\nBh\nHs\nMt\nDs\nRg\nCn\nZ\n89\n104\n105\n106\n107\n108\n109\n110\n111\n112\n7s\n2\n2\n2\n2\n2\n2\n2\n2\n1\n2\n6d\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n10\n10\n4th Series\nOn what ground can you say that scandium (Z = 21) is a transition\nelement but zinc (Z = 30) is not On the basis of incompletely filled 3d orbitals in case of scandium atom\nin its ground state (3d\n1), it is regarded as a transition element On the\nother hand, zinc atom has completely filled d orbitals (3d\n10) in its\nground state as well as in its oxidised state, hence it is not regarded\nas a transition element"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3730-3733", "Text": "2nd Series\nY\nZr\nNb\nMo\nTc\nRu\nRh\nPd\nAg\nCd\nZ\n39\n40\n41\n42\n43\n44\n45\n46\n47\n48\n5s\n2\n2\n1\n1\n1\n1\n1\n0\n1\n2\n4d\n1\n2\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n10\n10\n10\n3rd Series\nLa\nHf\nTa\nW\nRe\nOs\nIr\nPt\nAu\nHg\nZ\n57\n72\n73\n74\n75\n76\n77\n78\n79\n80\n6s\n2\n2\n2\n2\n2\n2\n2\n1\n1\n2\n5d\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n9\n10\n10\nAc\nRf\nDb\nSg\nBh\nHs\nMt\nDs\nRg\nCn\nZ\n89\n104\n105\n106\n107\n108\n109\n110\n111\n112\n7s\n2\n2\n2\n2\n2\n2\n2\n2\n1\n2\n6d\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n10\n10\n4th Series\nOn what ground can you say that scandium (Z = 21) is a transition\nelement but zinc (Z = 30) is not On the basis of incompletely filled 3d orbitals in case of scandium atom\nin its ground state (3d\n1), it is regarded as a transition element On the\nother hand, zinc atom has completely filled d orbitals (3d\n10) in its\nground state as well as in its oxidised state, hence it is not regarded\nas a transition element Example 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3731-3734", "Text": "On the basis of incompletely filled 3d orbitals in case of scandium atom\nin its ground state (3d\n1), it is regarded as a transition element On the\nother hand, zinc atom has completely filled d orbitals (3d\n10) in its\nground state as well as in its oxidised state, hence it is not regarded\nas a transition element Example 4 1\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3732-3735", "Text": "On the\nother hand, zinc atom has completely filled d orbitals (3d\n10) in its\nground state as well as in its oxidised state, hence it is not regarded\nas a transition element Example 4 1\nExample 4 1\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3733-3736", "Text": "Example 4 1\nExample 4 1\nExample 4 1\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3734-3737", "Text": "1\nExample 4 1\nExample 4 1\nExample 4 1\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3735-3738", "Text": "1\nExample 4 1\nExample 4 1\nExample 4 1\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n92\nChemistry\n1\n2\n3\n4\nM"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3736-3739", "Text": "1\nExample 4 1\nExample 4 1\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n92\nChemistry\n1\n2\n3\n4\nM p"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3737-3740", "Text": "1\nExample 4 1\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n92\nChemistry\n1\n2\n3\n4\nM p /10 K\n3\nTi\nZr\nHf\nW\nRe\nTa\nOs\nIr\nRu\nMo\nNb\nTc\nRh\nCr\nV\nMn\nFe\nCo\nNi\nPd\nPt\nCu\nAu\nAg\nAtomic number\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3738-3741", "Text": "1\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n92\nChemistry\n1\n2\n3\n4\nM p /10 K\n3\nTi\nZr\nHf\nW\nRe\nTa\nOs\nIr\nRu\nMo\nNb\nTc\nRh\nCr\nV\nMn\nFe\nCo\nNi\nPd\nPt\nCu\nAu\nAg\nAtomic number\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n4 1 Silver atom has completely filled d orbitals (4d\n10) in its ground state"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3739-3742", "Text": "p /10 K\n3\nTi\nZr\nHf\nW\nRe\nTa\nOs\nIr\nRu\nMo\nNb\nTc\nRh\nCr\nV\nMn\nFe\nCo\nNi\nPd\nPt\nCu\nAu\nAg\nAtomic number\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n4 1 Silver atom has completely filled d orbitals (4d\n10) in its ground state How can you say that it is a transition element"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3740-3743", "Text": "/10 K\n3\nTi\nZr\nHf\nW\nRe\nTa\nOs\nIr\nRu\nMo\nNb\nTc\nRh\nCr\nV\nMn\nFe\nCo\nNi\nPd\nPt\nCu\nAu\nAg\nAtomic number\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n4 1 Silver atom has completely filled d orbitals (4d\n10) in its ground state How can you say that it is a transition element We will discuss the properties of elements of first transition series\nonly in the following sections"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3741-3744", "Text": "1 Silver atom has completely filled d orbitals (4d\n10) in its ground state How can you say that it is a transition element We will discuss the properties of elements of first transition series\nonly in the following sections 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3742-3745", "Text": "How can you say that it is a transition element We will discuss the properties of elements of first transition series\nonly in the following sections 4 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3743-3746", "Text": "We will discuss the properties of elements of first transition series\nonly in the following sections 4 3 1 Physical Properties\nNearly all the transition elements display typical metallic properties\nsuch as high tensile strength, ductility, malleability, high thermal and\nelectrical conductivity and metallic lustre"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3744-3747", "Text": "4 3 1 Physical Properties\nNearly all the transition elements display typical metallic properties\nsuch as high tensile strength, ductility, malleability, high thermal and\nelectrical conductivity and metallic lustre With the exceptions of Zn,\nCd, Hg and Mn, they have one or more typical metallic structures at\nnormal temperatures"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3745-3748", "Text": "3 1 Physical Properties\nNearly all the transition elements display typical metallic properties\nsuch as high tensile strength, ductility, malleability, high thermal and\nelectrical conductivity and metallic lustre With the exceptions of Zn,\nCd, Hg and Mn, they have one or more typical metallic structures at\nnormal temperatures 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3746-3749", "Text": "1 Physical Properties\nNearly all the transition elements display typical metallic properties\nsuch as high tensile strength, ductility, malleability, high thermal and\nelectrical conductivity and metallic lustre With the exceptions of Zn,\nCd, Hg and Mn, they have one or more typical metallic structures at\nnormal temperatures 4 3\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3747-3750", "Text": "With the exceptions of Zn,\nCd, Hg and Mn, they have one or more typical metallic structures at\nnormal temperatures 4 3\n4 3\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3748-3751", "Text": "4 3\n4 3\n4 3\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3749-3752", "Text": "3\n4 3\n4 3\n4 3\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3750-3753", "Text": "3\n4 3\n4 3\n4 3 General\nGeneral\nGeneral\nGeneral\nGeneral\nProperties of\nProperties of\nProperties of\nProperties of\nProperties of\nthe Transition\nthe Transition\nthe Transition\nthe Transition\nthe Transition\nElements\nElements\nElements\nElements\nElements\n(d-Block)\n(d-Block)\n(d-Block)\n(d-Block)\n(d-Block)\n(bcc = body centred cubic; hcp = hexagonal close packed;\nccp = cubic close packed; X = a typical metal structure)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3751-3754", "Text": "3\n4 3\n4 3 General\nGeneral\nGeneral\nGeneral\nGeneral\nProperties of\nProperties of\nProperties of\nProperties of\nProperties of\nthe Transition\nthe Transition\nthe Transition\nthe Transition\nthe Transition\nElements\nElements\nElements\nElements\nElements\n(d-Block)\n(d-Block)\n(d-Block)\n(d-Block)\n(d-Block)\n(bcc = body centred cubic; hcp = hexagonal close packed;\nccp = cubic close packed; X = a typical metal structure) Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3752-3755", "Text": "3\n4 3 General\nGeneral\nGeneral\nGeneral\nGeneral\nProperties of\nProperties of\nProperties of\nProperties of\nProperties of\nthe Transition\nthe Transition\nthe Transition\nthe Transition\nthe Transition\nElements\nElements\nElements\nElements\nElements\n(d-Block)\n(d-Block)\n(d-Block)\n(d-Block)\n(d-Block)\n(bcc = body centred cubic; hcp = hexagonal close packed;\nccp = cubic close packed; X = a typical metal structure) Fig 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3753-3756", "Text": "3 General\nGeneral\nGeneral\nGeneral\nGeneral\nProperties of\nProperties of\nProperties of\nProperties of\nProperties of\nthe Transition\nthe Transition\nthe Transition\nthe Transition\nthe Transition\nElements\nElements\nElements\nElements\nElements\n(d-Block)\n(d-Block)\n(d-Block)\n(d-Block)\n(d-Block)\n(bcc = body centred cubic; hcp = hexagonal close packed;\nccp = cubic close packed; X = a typical metal structure) Fig 4 1: Trends in melting points of\ntransition elements\nThe transition metals (with the exception\nof Zn, Cd and Hg) are very hard and have low\nvolatility"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3754-3757", "Text": "Fig 4 1: Trends in melting points of\ntransition elements\nThe transition metals (with the exception\nof Zn, Cd and Hg) are very hard and have low\nvolatility Their melting and boiling points are\nhigh"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3755-3758", "Text": "4 1: Trends in melting points of\ntransition elements\nThe transition metals (with the exception\nof Zn, Cd and Hg) are very hard and have low\nvolatility Their melting and boiling points are\nhigh Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3756-3759", "Text": "1: Trends in melting points of\ntransition elements\nThe transition metals (with the exception\nof Zn, Cd and Hg) are very hard and have low\nvolatility Their melting and boiling points are\nhigh Fig 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3757-3760", "Text": "Their melting and boiling points are\nhigh Fig 4 1 depicts the melting points of\ntransition metals belonging to 3d, 4d and 5d\nseries"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3758-3761", "Text": "Fig 4 1 depicts the melting points of\ntransition metals belonging to 3d, 4d and 5d\nseries The high melting points of these metals\nare attributed to the involvement of greater\nnumber of electrons from (n-1)d in addition to\nthe ns electrons in the interatomic metallic\nbonding"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3759-3762", "Text": "4 1 depicts the melting points of\ntransition metals belonging to 3d, 4d and 5d\nseries The high melting points of these metals\nare attributed to the involvement of greater\nnumber of electrons from (n-1)d in addition to\nthe ns electrons in the interatomic metallic\nbonding In any row the melting points of these\nmetals rise to a maximum at d\n5 except for\nanomalous values of Mn and Tc and fall\nregularly as the atomic number increases"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3760-3763", "Text": "1 depicts the melting points of\ntransition metals belonging to 3d, 4d and 5d\nseries The high melting points of these metals\nare attributed to the involvement of greater\nnumber of electrons from (n-1)d in addition to\nthe ns electrons in the interatomic metallic\nbonding In any row the melting points of these\nmetals rise to a maximum at d\n5 except for\nanomalous values of Mn and Tc and fall\nregularly as the atomic number increases They have high enthalpies of atomisation which\nare shown in Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3761-3764", "Text": "The high melting points of these metals\nare attributed to the involvement of greater\nnumber of electrons from (n-1)d in addition to\nthe ns electrons in the interatomic metallic\nbonding In any row the melting points of these\nmetals rise to a maximum at d\n5 except for\nanomalous values of Mn and Tc and fall\nregularly as the atomic number increases They have high enthalpies of atomisation which\nare shown in Fig 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3762-3765", "Text": "In any row the melting points of these\nmetals rise to a maximum at d\n5 except for\nanomalous values of Mn and Tc and fall\nregularly as the atomic number increases They have high enthalpies of atomisation which\nare shown in Fig 4 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3763-3766", "Text": "They have high enthalpies of atomisation which\nare shown in Fig 4 2 The maxima at about\nthe middle of each series indicate that one\nunpaired electron per d orbital is particularly\nLattice Structures of Transition Metals\nSc\nTi\nV\nCr\nMn\nFe\nCo\nNi\nCu\nZn\nhcp\nhcp\nbcc\nbcc\nX\nbcc\nccp\nccp\nccp\nX\n(bcc)\n(bcc)\n(bcc, ccp)\n(hcp)\n(hcp)\n(hcp)\nY\nZr\nNb\nMo\nTc\nRu\nRh\nPd\nAg\nCd\nhcp\nhcp\nbcc\nbcc\nhcp\nhcp\nccp\nccp\nccp\nX\n(bcc)\n(bcc)\n(hcp)\nLa\nHf\nTa\nW\nRe\nOs\nIr\nPt\nAu\nHg\nhcp\nhcp\nbcc\nbcc\nhcp\nhcp\nccp\nccp\nccp\nX\n(ccp,bcc)\n(bcc)\nRationalised 2023-24\n93\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nfavourable for strong interatomic interaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3764-3767", "Text": "4 2 The maxima at about\nthe middle of each series indicate that one\nunpaired electron per d orbital is particularly\nLattice Structures of Transition Metals\nSc\nTi\nV\nCr\nMn\nFe\nCo\nNi\nCu\nZn\nhcp\nhcp\nbcc\nbcc\nX\nbcc\nccp\nccp\nccp\nX\n(bcc)\n(bcc)\n(bcc, ccp)\n(hcp)\n(hcp)\n(hcp)\nY\nZr\nNb\nMo\nTc\nRu\nRh\nPd\nAg\nCd\nhcp\nhcp\nbcc\nbcc\nhcp\nhcp\nccp\nccp\nccp\nX\n(bcc)\n(bcc)\n(hcp)\nLa\nHf\nTa\nW\nRe\nOs\nIr\nPt\nAu\nHg\nhcp\nhcp\nbcc\nbcc\nhcp\nhcp\nccp\nccp\nccp\nX\n(ccp,bcc)\n(bcc)\nRationalised 2023-24\n93\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nfavourable for strong interatomic interaction In general, greater the\nnumber of valence electrons, stronger is the resultant bonding"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3765-3768", "Text": "2 The maxima at about\nthe middle of each series indicate that one\nunpaired electron per d orbital is particularly\nLattice Structures of Transition Metals\nSc\nTi\nV\nCr\nMn\nFe\nCo\nNi\nCu\nZn\nhcp\nhcp\nbcc\nbcc\nX\nbcc\nccp\nccp\nccp\nX\n(bcc)\n(bcc)\n(bcc, ccp)\n(hcp)\n(hcp)\n(hcp)\nY\nZr\nNb\nMo\nTc\nRu\nRh\nPd\nAg\nCd\nhcp\nhcp\nbcc\nbcc\nhcp\nhcp\nccp\nccp\nccp\nX\n(bcc)\n(bcc)\n(hcp)\nLa\nHf\nTa\nW\nRe\nOs\nIr\nPt\nAu\nHg\nhcp\nhcp\nbcc\nbcc\nhcp\nhcp\nccp\nccp\nccp\nX\n(ccp,bcc)\n(bcc)\nRationalised 2023-24\n93\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nfavourable for strong interatomic interaction In general, greater the\nnumber of valence electrons, stronger is the resultant bonding Since\nthe enthalpy of atomisation is an important factor in determining the\nstandard electrode potential of a metal, metals with very high enthalpy\nof atomisation (i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3766-3769", "Text": "The maxima at about\nthe middle of each series indicate that one\nunpaired electron per d orbital is particularly\nLattice Structures of Transition Metals\nSc\nTi\nV\nCr\nMn\nFe\nCo\nNi\nCu\nZn\nhcp\nhcp\nbcc\nbcc\nX\nbcc\nccp\nccp\nccp\nX\n(bcc)\n(bcc)\n(bcc, ccp)\n(hcp)\n(hcp)\n(hcp)\nY\nZr\nNb\nMo\nTc\nRu\nRh\nPd\nAg\nCd\nhcp\nhcp\nbcc\nbcc\nhcp\nhcp\nccp\nccp\nccp\nX\n(bcc)\n(bcc)\n(hcp)\nLa\nHf\nTa\nW\nRe\nOs\nIr\nPt\nAu\nHg\nhcp\nhcp\nbcc\nbcc\nhcp\nhcp\nccp\nccp\nccp\nX\n(ccp,bcc)\n(bcc)\nRationalised 2023-24\n93\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nfavourable for strong interatomic interaction In general, greater the\nnumber of valence electrons, stronger is the resultant bonding Since\nthe enthalpy of atomisation is an important factor in determining the\nstandard electrode potential of a metal, metals with very high enthalpy\nof atomisation (i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3767-3770", "Text": "In general, greater the\nnumber of valence electrons, stronger is the resultant bonding Since\nthe enthalpy of atomisation is an important factor in determining the\nstandard electrode potential of a metal, metals with very high enthalpy\nof atomisation (i e , very high boiling point) tend to be noble in their\nreactions (see later for electrode potentials)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3768-3771", "Text": "Since\nthe enthalpy of atomisation is an important factor in determining the\nstandard electrode potential of a metal, metals with very high enthalpy\nof atomisation (i e , very high boiling point) tend to be noble in their\nreactions (see later for electrode potentials) Another generalisation that may be drawn from Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3769-3772", "Text": "e , very high boiling point) tend to be noble in their\nreactions (see later for electrode potentials) Another generalisation that may be drawn from Fig 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3770-3773", "Text": ", very high boiling point) tend to be noble in their\nreactions (see later for electrode potentials) Another generalisation that may be drawn from Fig 4 2 is that the\nmetals of the second and third series have greater enthalpies of\natomisation than the corresponding elements of the first series; this is an\nimportant factor in accounting for the occurrence of much more frequent\nmetal \u2013 metal bonding in compounds of the heavy transition metals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3771-3774", "Text": "Another generalisation that may be drawn from Fig 4 2 is that the\nmetals of the second and third series have greater enthalpies of\natomisation than the corresponding elements of the first series; this is an\nimportant factor in accounting for the occurrence of much more frequent\nmetal \u2013 metal bonding in compounds of the heavy transition metals Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3772-3775", "Text": "4 2 is that the\nmetals of the second and third series have greater enthalpies of\natomisation than the corresponding elements of the first series; this is an\nimportant factor in accounting for the occurrence of much more frequent\nmetal \u2013 metal bonding in compounds of the heavy transition metals Fig 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3773-3776", "Text": "2 is that the\nmetals of the second and third series have greater enthalpies of\natomisation than the corresponding elements of the first series; this is an\nimportant factor in accounting for the occurrence of much more frequent\nmetal \u2013 metal bonding in compounds of the heavy transition metals Fig 4 2\nTrends in enthalpies\nof atomisation of\ntransition elements\nIn general, ions of the same charge in a given series show progressive\ndecrease in radius with increasing atomic number"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3774-3777", "Text": "Fig 4 2\nTrends in enthalpies\nof atomisation of\ntransition elements\nIn general, ions of the same charge in a given series show progressive\ndecrease in radius with increasing atomic number This is because the\nnew electron enters a d orbital each time the nuclear charge increases\nby unity"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3775-3778", "Text": "4 2\nTrends in enthalpies\nof atomisation of\ntransition elements\nIn general, ions of the same charge in a given series show progressive\ndecrease in radius with increasing atomic number This is because the\nnew electron enters a d orbital each time the nuclear charge increases\nby unity It may be recalled that the shielding effect of a d electron is\nnot that effective, hence the net electrostatic attraction between the\nnuclear charge and the outermost electron increases and the ionic\nradius decreases"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3776-3779", "Text": "2\nTrends in enthalpies\nof atomisation of\ntransition elements\nIn general, ions of the same charge in a given series show progressive\ndecrease in radius with increasing atomic number This is because the\nnew electron enters a d orbital each time the nuclear charge increases\nby unity It may be recalled that the shielding effect of a d electron is\nnot that effective, hence the net electrostatic attraction between the\nnuclear charge and the outermost electron increases and the ionic\nradius decreases The same trend is observed in the atomic radii of a\ngiven series"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3777-3780", "Text": "This is because the\nnew electron enters a d orbital each time the nuclear charge increases\nby unity It may be recalled that the shielding effect of a d electron is\nnot that effective, hence the net electrostatic attraction between the\nnuclear charge and the outermost electron increases and the ionic\nradius decreases The same trend is observed in the atomic radii of a\ngiven series However, the variation within a series is quite small"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3778-3781", "Text": "It may be recalled that the shielding effect of a d electron is\nnot that effective, hence the net electrostatic attraction between the\nnuclear charge and the outermost electron increases and the ionic\nradius decreases The same trend is observed in the atomic radii of a\ngiven series However, the variation within a series is quite small An\ninteresting point emerges when atomic sizes of one series are compared\nwith those of the corresponding elements in the other series"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3779-3782", "Text": "The same trend is observed in the atomic radii of a\ngiven series However, the variation within a series is quite small An\ninteresting point emerges when atomic sizes of one series are compared\nwith those of the corresponding elements in the other series The curves\nin Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3780-3783", "Text": "However, the variation within a series is quite small An\ninteresting point emerges when atomic sizes of one series are compared\nwith those of the corresponding elements in the other series The curves\nin Fig 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3781-3784", "Text": "An\ninteresting point emerges when atomic sizes of one series are compared\nwith those of the corresponding elements in the other series The curves\nin Fig 4 3 show an increase from the first (3d) to the second (4d) series\nof the elements but the radii of the third (5d) series are virtually the\nsame as those of the corresponding members of the second series"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3782-3785", "Text": "The curves\nin Fig 4 3 show an increase from the first (3d) to the second (4d) series\nof the elements but the radii of the third (5d) series are virtually the\nsame as those of the corresponding members of the second series This\nphenomenon is associated with the intervention of the 4f orbitals which\nmust be filled before the 5d series of elements begin"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3783-3786", "Text": "4 3 show an increase from the first (3d) to the second (4d) series\nof the elements but the radii of the third (5d) series are virtually the\nsame as those of the corresponding members of the second series This\nphenomenon is associated with the intervention of the 4f orbitals which\nmust be filled before the 5d series of elements begin The filling of 4f\nbefore 5d orbital results in a regular decrease in atomic radii called\nLanthanoid contraction which essentially compensates for the expected\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3784-3787", "Text": "3 show an increase from the first (3d) to the second (4d) series\nof the elements but the radii of the third (5d) series are virtually the\nsame as those of the corresponding members of the second series This\nphenomenon is associated with the intervention of the 4f orbitals which\nmust be filled before the 5d series of elements begin The filling of 4f\nbefore 5d orbital results in a regular decrease in atomic radii called\nLanthanoid contraction which essentially compensates for the expected\n4 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3785-3788", "Text": "This\nphenomenon is associated with the intervention of the 4f orbitals which\nmust be filled before the 5d series of elements begin The filling of 4f\nbefore 5d orbital results in a regular decrease in atomic radii called\nLanthanoid contraction which essentially compensates for the expected\n4 3 2 Variation in\nAtomic and\nIonic Sizes\nof\nTransition\nMetals\n\ufffdaH\n\ufffd/kJ mol\n\u20131\nRationalised 2023-24\n94\nChemistry\nincrease in atomic size with increasing atomic number"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3786-3789", "Text": "The filling of 4f\nbefore 5d orbital results in a regular decrease in atomic radii called\nLanthanoid contraction which essentially compensates for the expected\n4 3 2 Variation in\nAtomic and\nIonic Sizes\nof\nTransition\nMetals\n\ufffdaH\n\ufffd/kJ mol\n\u20131\nRationalised 2023-24\n94\nChemistry\nincrease in atomic size with increasing atomic number The net result\nof the lanthanoid contraction is that the second and the third d series\nexhibit similar radii (e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3787-3790", "Text": "3 2 Variation in\nAtomic and\nIonic Sizes\nof\nTransition\nMetals\n\ufffdaH\n\ufffd/kJ mol\n\u20131\nRationalised 2023-24\n94\nChemistry\nincrease in atomic size with increasing atomic number The net result\nof the lanthanoid contraction is that the second and the third d series\nexhibit similar radii (e g"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3788-3791", "Text": "2 Variation in\nAtomic and\nIonic Sizes\nof\nTransition\nMetals\n\ufffdaH\n\ufffd/kJ mol\n\u20131\nRationalised 2023-24\n94\nChemistry\nincrease in atomic size with increasing atomic number The net result\nof the lanthanoid contraction is that the second and the third d series\nexhibit similar radii (e g , Zr 160 pm, Hf 159 pm) and have very similar\nphysical and chemical properties much more than that expected on\nthe basis of usual family relationship"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3789-3792", "Text": "The net result\nof the lanthanoid contraction is that the second and the third d series\nexhibit similar radii (e g , Zr 160 pm, Hf 159 pm) and have very similar\nphysical and chemical properties much more than that expected on\nthe basis of usual family relationship The factor responsible for the lanthanoid\ncontraction is somewhat similar to that observed\nin an ordinary transition series and is attributed\nto similar cause, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3790-3793", "Text": "g , Zr 160 pm, Hf 159 pm) and have very similar\nphysical and chemical properties much more than that expected on\nthe basis of usual family relationship The factor responsible for the lanthanoid\ncontraction is somewhat similar to that observed\nin an ordinary transition series and is attributed\nto similar cause, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3791-3794", "Text": ", Zr 160 pm, Hf 159 pm) and have very similar\nphysical and chemical properties much more than that expected on\nthe basis of usual family relationship The factor responsible for the lanthanoid\ncontraction is somewhat similar to that observed\nin an ordinary transition series and is attributed\nto similar cause, i e , the imperfect shielding of\none electron by another in the same set of orbitals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3792-3795", "Text": "The factor responsible for the lanthanoid\ncontraction is somewhat similar to that observed\nin an ordinary transition series and is attributed\nto similar cause, i e , the imperfect shielding of\none electron by another in the same set of orbitals However, the shielding of one 4f electron by\nanother is less than that of one d electron by\nanother, and as the nuclear charge increases\nalong the series, there is fairly regular decrease\nin the size of the entire 4f \nn orbitals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3793-3796", "Text": "e , the imperfect shielding of\none electron by another in the same set of orbitals However, the shielding of one 4f electron by\nanother is less than that of one d electron by\nanother, and as the nuclear charge increases\nalong the series, there is fairly regular decrease\nin the size of the entire 4f \nn orbitals The decrease in metallic radius coupled with\nincrease in atomic mass results in a general\nincrease in the density of these elements"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3794-3797", "Text": ", the imperfect shielding of\none electron by another in the same set of orbitals However, the shielding of one 4f electron by\nanother is less than that of one d electron by\nanother, and as the nuclear charge increases\nalong the series, there is fairly regular decrease\nin the size of the entire 4f \nn orbitals The decrease in metallic radius coupled with\nincrease in atomic mass results in a general\nincrease in the density of these elements Thus,\nfrom titanium (Z = 22) to copper (Z = 29) the\nsignificant increase in the density may be noted\n(Table 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3795-3798", "Text": "However, the shielding of one 4f electron by\nanother is less than that of one d electron by\nanother, and as the nuclear charge increases\nalong the series, there is fairly regular decrease\nin the size of the entire 4f \nn orbitals The decrease in metallic radius coupled with\nincrease in atomic mass results in a general\nincrease in the density of these elements Thus,\nfrom titanium (Z = 22) to copper (Z = 29) the\nsignificant increase in the density may be noted\n(Table 4 2)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3796-3799", "Text": "The decrease in metallic radius coupled with\nincrease in atomic mass results in a general\nincrease in the density of these elements Thus,\nfrom titanium (Z = 22) to copper (Z = 29) the\nsignificant increase in the density may be noted\n(Table 4 2) 19\n18\n16\n15\n13\n12\nSc Ti\nV\nCr Mn Fe\nCo Ni Cu Zn\nY\nZr Nb Mo Tc Ru\nRh Pd Ag Cd\nLa Hf Ta\nW\nRe Os\nIr\nPt\nAu Hg\nRadius/nm\n17\n14\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3797-3800", "Text": "Thus,\nfrom titanium (Z = 22) to copper (Z = 29) the\nsignificant increase in the density may be noted\n(Table 4 2) 19\n18\n16\n15\n13\n12\nSc Ti\nV\nCr Mn Fe\nCo Ni Cu Zn\nY\nZr Nb Mo Tc Ru\nRh Pd Ag Cd\nLa Hf Ta\nW\nRe Os\nIr\nPt\nAu Hg\nRadius/nm\n17\n14\nFig 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3798-3801", "Text": "2) 19\n18\n16\n15\n13\n12\nSc Ti\nV\nCr Mn Fe\nCo Ni Cu Zn\nY\nZr Nb Mo Tc Ru\nRh Pd Ag Cd\nLa Hf Ta\nW\nRe Os\nIr\nPt\nAu Hg\nRadius/nm\n17\n14\nFig 4 3: Trends in atomic radii of\ntransition elements\nAtomic number\n21\n22\n23\n24\n25\n26\n27\n28\n29\n30\nElectronic configuration\nM\n3d\n14s\n2\n3d\n24s\n2\n3d\n34s\n2\n3d\n54s\n1 3d\n54s\n2\n3d\n64s\n2\n3d\n74s\n2\n3d\n84s\n2\n3d\n104s\n1\n3d\n104s\n2\nM\n+\n3d\n14s\n1\n3d\n24s\n1\n3d\n34s\n1\n3d\n5\n3d\n54s\n1\n3d\n64s\n1\n3d\n74s\n1\n3d\n84s\n1\n3d\n10\n3d\n104s\n1\nM\n2+\n3d\n1\n3d\n2\n3d\n3\n3d\n4\n3d\n5\n3d\n6\n3d\n7\n3d\n8\n3d\n9\n3d\n10\nM\n3+\n[Ar]\n3d\n1\n3d\n2\n3d\n3\n3d\n4\n3d\n5\n3d\n6\n3d\n7\n\u2013\n\u2013\nEnthalpy of atomisation, DaH o/kJ mol\n\u20131\n326\n473\n515\n397\n281\n416\n425\n430\n339\n126\nIonisation enthalpy/DDDDDiH o/kJ mol\n\u20131\nDiHo\nI\n631\n656\n650\n653\n717\n762\n758\n736\n745\n906\nDiHo\nII\n1235\n1309\n1414\n1592\n1509\n1561\n1644\n1752\n1958\n1734\nDiHo\nIII\n2393\n2657\n2833\n2990\n3260\n2962\n3243\n3402\n3556\n3837\nMetallic/ionic\nM\n164\n147\n135\n129\n137\n126\n125\n125\n128\n137\nradii/pm\nM\n2+\n\u2013\n\u2013\n79\n82\n82\n77\n74\n70\n73\n75\nM\n3+\n73\n67\n64\n62\n65\n65\n61\n60\n\u2013\n\u2013\nStandard\nelectrode\nM\n2+/M\n\u2013\n\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3799-3802", "Text": "19\n18\n16\n15\n13\n12\nSc Ti\nV\nCr Mn Fe\nCo Ni Cu Zn\nY\nZr Nb Mo Tc Ru\nRh Pd Ag Cd\nLa Hf Ta\nW\nRe Os\nIr\nPt\nAu Hg\nRadius/nm\n17\n14\nFig 4 3: Trends in atomic radii of\ntransition elements\nAtomic number\n21\n22\n23\n24\n25\n26\n27\n28\n29\n30\nElectronic configuration\nM\n3d\n14s\n2\n3d\n24s\n2\n3d\n34s\n2\n3d\n54s\n1 3d\n54s\n2\n3d\n64s\n2\n3d\n74s\n2\n3d\n84s\n2\n3d\n104s\n1\n3d\n104s\n2\nM\n+\n3d\n14s\n1\n3d\n24s\n1\n3d\n34s\n1\n3d\n5\n3d\n54s\n1\n3d\n64s\n1\n3d\n74s\n1\n3d\n84s\n1\n3d\n10\n3d\n104s\n1\nM\n2+\n3d\n1\n3d\n2\n3d\n3\n3d\n4\n3d\n5\n3d\n6\n3d\n7\n3d\n8\n3d\n9\n3d\n10\nM\n3+\n[Ar]\n3d\n1\n3d\n2\n3d\n3\n3d\n4\n3d\n5\n3d\n6\n3d\n7\n\u2013\n\u2013\nEnthalpy of atomisation, DaH o/kJ mol\n\u20131\n326\n473\n515\n397\n281\n416\n425\n430\n339\n126\nIonisation enthalpy/DDDDDiH o/kJ mol\n\u20131\nDiHo\nI\n631\n656\n650\n653\n717\n762\n758\n736\n745\n906\nDiHo\nII\n1235\n1309\n1414\n1592\n1509\n1561\n1644\n1752\n1958\n1734\nDiHo\nIII\n2393\n2657\n2833\n2990\n3260\n2962\n3243\n3402\n3556\n3837\nMetallic/ionic\nM\n164\n147\n135\n129\n137\n126\n125\n125\n128\n137\nradii/pm\nM\n2+\n\u2013\n\u2013\n79\n82\n82\n77\n74\n70\n73\n75\nM\n3+\n73\n67\n64\n62\n65\n65\n61\n60\n\u2013\n\u2013\nStandard\nelectrode\nM\n2+/M\n\u2013\n\u20131 63\n\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3800-3803", "Text": "4 3: Trends in atomic radii of\ntransition elements\nAtomic number\n21\n22\n23\n24\n25\n26\n27\n28\n29\n30\nElectronic configuration\nM\n3d\n14s\n2\n3d\n24s\n2\n3d\n34s\n2\n3d\n54s\n1 3d\n54s\n2\n3d\n64s\n2\n3d\n74s\n2\n3d\n84s\n2\n3d\n104s\n1\n3d\n104s\n2\nM\n+\n3d\n14s\n1\n3d\n24s\n1\n3d\n34s\n1\n3d\n5\n3d\n54s\n1\n3d\n64s\n1\n3d\n74s\n1\n3d\n84s\n1\n3d\n10\n3d\n104s\n1\nM\n2+\n3d\n1\n3d\n2\n3d\n3\n3d\n4\n3d\n5\n3d\n6\n3d\n7\n3d\n8\n3d\n9\n3d\n10\nM\n3+\n[Ar]\n3d\n1\n3d\n2\n3d\n3\n3d\n4\n3d\n5\n3d\n6\n3d\n7\n\u2013\n\u2013\nEnthalpy of atomisation, DaH o/kJ mol\n\u20131\n326\n473\n515\n397\n281\n416\n425\n430\n339\n126\nIonisation enthalpy/DDDDDiH o/kJ mol\n\u20131\nDiHo\nI\n631\n656\n650\n653\n717\n762\n758\n736\n745\n906\nDiHo\nII\n1235\n1309\n1414\n1592\n1509\n1561\n1644\n1752\n1958\n1734\nDiHo\nIII\n2393\n2657\n2833\n2990\n3260\n2962\n3243\n3402\n3556\n3837\nMetallic/ionic\nM\n164\n147\n135\n129\n137\n126\n125\n125\n128\n137\nradii/pm\nM\n2+\n\u2013\n\u2013\n79\n82\n82\n77\n74\n70\n73\n75\nM\n3+\n73\n67\n64\n62\n65\n65\n61\n60\n\u2013\n\u2013\nStandard\nelectrode\nM\n2+/M\n\u2013\n\u20131 63\n\u20131 18\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3801-3804", "Text": "3: Trends in atomic radii of\ntransition elements\nAtomic number\n21\n22\n23\n24\n25\n26\n27\n28\n29\n30\nElectronic configuration\nM\n3d\n14s\n2\n3d\n24s\n2\n3d\n34s\n2\n3d\n54s\n1 3d\n54s\n2\n3d\n64s\n2\n3d\n74s\n2\n3d\n84s\n2\n3d\n104s\n1\n3d\n104s\n2\nM\n+\n3d\n14s\n1\n3d\n24s\n1\n3d\n34s\n1\n3d\n5\n3d\n54s\n1\n3d\n64s\n1\n3d\n74s\n1\n3d\n84s\n1\n3d\n10\n3d\n104s\n1\nM\n2+\n3d\n1\n3d\n2\n3d\n3\n3d\n4\n3d\n5\n3d\n6\n3d\n7\n3d\n8\n3d\n9\n3d\n10\nM\n3+\n[Ar]\n3d\n1\n3d\n2\n3d\n3\n3d\n4\n3d\n5\n3d\n6\n3d\n7\n\u2013\n\u2013\nEnthalpy of atomisation, DaH o/kJ mol\n\u20131\n326\n473\n515\n397\n281\n416\n425\n430\n339\n126\nIonisation enthalpy/DDDDDiH o/kJ mol\n\u20131\nDiHo\nI\n631\n656\n650\n653\n717\n762\n758\n736\n745\n906\nDiHo\nII\n1235\n1309\n1414\n1592\n1509\n1561\n1644\n1752\n1958\n1734\nDiHo\nIII\n2393\n2657\n2833\n2990\n3260\n2962\n3243\n3402\n3556\n3837\nMetallic/ionic\nM\n164\n147\n135\n129\n137\n126\n125\n125\n128\n137\nradii/pm\nM\n2+\n\u2013\n\u2013\n79\n82\n82\n77\n74\n70\n73\n75\nM\n3+\n73\n67\n64\n62\n65\n65\n61\n60\n\u2013\n\u2013\nStandard\nelectrode\nM\n2+/M\n\u2013\n\u20131 63\n\u20131 18\n\u20130 90\n\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3802-3805", "Text": "63\n\u20131 18\n\u20130 90\n\u20131 18\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3803-3806", "Text": "18\n\u20130 90\n\u20131 18\n\u20130 44\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3804-3807", "Text": "90\n\u20131 18\n\u20130 44\n\u20130 28\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3805-3808", "Text": "18\n\u20130 44\n\u20130 28\n\u20130 25\n+0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3806-3809", "Text": "44\n\u20130 28\n\u20130 25\n+0 34\n-0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3807-3810", "Text": "28\n\u20130 25\n+0 34\n-0 76\npotential Eo/V\nM\n3+/M\n2+\n\u2013\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3808-3811", "Text": "25\n+0 34\n-0 76\npotential Eo/V\nM\n3+/M\n2+\n\u2013\n\u20130 37\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3809-3812", "Text": "34\n-0 76\npotential Eo/V\nM\n3+/M\n2+\n\u2013\n\u20130 37\n\u20130 26\n\u20130"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3810-3813", "Text": "76\npotential Eo/V\nM\n3+/M\n2+\n\u2013\n\u20130 37\n\u20130 26\n\u20130 41\n+1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3811-3814", "Text": "37\n\u20130 26\n\u20130 41\n+1 57\n+0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3812-3815", "Text": "26\n\u20130 41\n+1 57\n+0 77\n+1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3813-3816", "Text": "41\n+1 57\n+0 77\n+1 97\n\u2013\n\u2013\n\u2013\nDensity/g cm\n\u20133\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3814-3817", "Text": "57\n+0 77\n+1 97\n\u2013\n\u2013\n\u2013\nDensity/g cm\n\u20133\n3 43\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3815-3818", "Text": "77\n+1 97\n\u2013\n\u2013\n\u2013\nDensity/g cm\n\u20133\n3 43\n4 1\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3816-3819", "Text": "97\n\u2013\n\u2013\n\u2013\nDensity/g cm\n\u20133\n3 43\n4 1\n6 07\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3817-3820", "Text": "43\n4 1\n6 07\n7 19\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3818-3821", "Text": "1\n6 07\n7 19\n7 21\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3819-3822", "Text": "07\n7 19\n7 21\n7 8\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3820-3823", "Text": "19\n7 21\n7 8\n8 7\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3821-3824", "Text": "21\n7 8\n8 7\n8 9\n 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3822-3825", "Text": "8\n8 7\n8 9\n 8 9\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3823-3826", "Text": "7\n8 9\n 8 9\n7 1\nElement\nSc\nTi\nV\nCr\nMn\nFe\nCo\nNi\nCu\nZn\nTable 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3824-3827", "Text": "9\n 8 9\n7 1\nElement\nSc\nTi\nV\nCr\nMn\nFe\nCo\nNi\nCu\nZn\nTable 4 2: Electronic Configurations and some other Properties of\nthe First Series of Transition Elements\nRationalised 2023-24\n95\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nWhy do the transition elements exhibit higher enthalpies of\natomisation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3825-3828", "Text": "9\n7 1\nElement\nSc\nTi\nV\nCr\nMn\nFe\nCo\nNi\nCu\nZn\nTable 4 2: Electronic Configurations and some other Properties of\nthe First Series of Transition Elements\nRationalised 2023-24\n95\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nWhy do the transition elements exhibit higher enthalpies of\natomisation Because of large number of unpaired electrons in their atoms they\nhave stronger interatomic interaction and hence stronger bonding\nbetween atoms resulting in higher enthalpies of atomisation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3826-3829", "Text": "1\nElement\nSc\nTi\nV\nCr\nMn\nFe\nCo\nNi\nCu\nZn\nTable 4 2: Electronic Configurations and some other Properties of\nthe First Series of Transition Elements\nRationalised 2023-24\n95\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nWhy do the transition elements exhibit higher enthalpies of\natomisation Because of large number of unpaired electrons in their atoms they\nhave stronger interatomic interaction and hence stronger bonding\nbetween atoms resulting in higher enthalpies of atomisation Example 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3827-3830", "Text": "2: Electronic Configurations and some other Properties of\nthe First Series of Transition Elements\nRationalised 2023-24\n95\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nWhy do the transition elements exhibit higher enthalpies of\natomisation Because of large number of unpaired electrons in their atoms they\nhave stronger interatomic interaction and hence stronger bonding\nbetween atoms resulting in higher enthalpies of atomisation Example 4 2\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3828-3831", "Text": "Because of large number of unpaired electrons in their atoms they\nhave stronger interatomic interaction and hence stronger bonding\nbetween atoms resulting in higher enthalpies of atomisation Example 4 2\nExample 4 2\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3829-3832", "Text": "Example 4 2\nExample 4 2\nExample 4 2\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3830-3833", "Text": "2\nExample 4 2\nExample 4 2\nExample 4 2\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3831-3834", "Text": "2\nExample 4 2\nExample 4 2\nExample 4 2\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nThere is an increase in ionisation enthalpy along each series of the\ntransition elements from left to right due to an increase in nuclear\ncharge which accompanies the filling of the inner d orbitals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3832-3835", "Text": "2\nExample 4 2\nExample 4 2\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nThere is an increase in ionisation enthalpy along each series of the\ntransition elements from left to right due to an increase in nuclear\ncharge which accompanies the filling of the inner d orbitals Table\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3833-3836", "Text": "2\nExample 4 2\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nThere is an increase in ionisation enthalpy along each series of the\ntransition elements from left to right due to an increase in nuclear\ncharge which accompanies the filling of the inner d orbitals Table\n4 2 gives the values of the first three ionisation enthalpies of the first\nseries of transition elements"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3834-3837", "Text": "2\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nThere is an increase in ionisation enthalpy along each series of the\ntransition elements from left to right due to an increase in nuclear\ncharge which accompanies the filling of the inner d orbitals Table\n4 2 gives the values of the first three ionisation enthalpies of the first\nseries of transition elements These values show that the successive\nenthalpies of these elements do not increase as steeply as in the case\nof non-transition elements"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3835-3838", "Text": "Table\n4 2 gives the values of the first three ionisation enthalpies of the first\nseries of transition elements These values show that the successive\nenthalpies of these elements do not increase as steeply as in the case\nof non-transition elements The variation in ionisation enthalpy along\na series of transition elements is much less in comparison to the variation\nalong a period of non-transition elements"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3836-3839", "Text": "2 gives the values of the first three ionisation enthalpies of the first\nseries of transition elements These values show that the successive\nenthalpies of these elements do not increase as steeply as in the case\nof non-transition elements The variation in ionisation enthalpy along\na series of transition elements is much less in comparison to the variation\nalong a period of non-transition elements The first ionisation enthalpy,\nin general, increases, but the magnitude of the increase in the second\nand third ionisation enthalpies for the successive elements, is much\nhigher along a series"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3837-3840", "Text": "These values show that the successive\nenthalpies of these elements do not increase as steeply as in the case\nof non-transition elements The variation in ionisation enthalpy along\na series of transition elements is much less in comparison to the variation\nalong a period of non-transition elements The first ionisation enthalpy,\nin general, increases, but the magnitude of the increase in the second\nand third ionisation enthalpies for the successive elements, is much\nhigher along a series The irregular trend in the first ionisation enthalpy of the metals of\n3d series, though of little chemical significance, can be accounted for\nby considering that the removal of one electron alters the relative energies\nof 4s and 3d orbitals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3838-3841", "Text": "The variation in ionisation enthalpy along\na series of transition elements is much less in comparison to the variation\nalong a period of non-transition elements The first ionisation enthalpy,\nin general, increases, but the magnitude of the increase in the second\nand third ionisation enthalpies for the successive elements, is much\nhigher along a series The irregular trend in the first ionisation enthalpy of the metals of\n3d series, though of little chemical significance, can be accounted for\nby considering that the removal of one electron alters the relative energies\nof 4s and 3d orbitals You have learnt that when d-block elements form\nions, ns electrons are lost before (n \u2013 1) d electrons"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3839-3842", "Text": "The first ionisation enthalpy,\nin general, increases, but the magnitude of the increase in the second\nand third ionisation enthalpies for the successive elements, is much\nhigher along a series The irregular trend in the first ionisation enthalpy of the metals of\n3d series, though of little chemical significance, can be accounted for\nby considering that the removal of one electron alters the relative energies\nof 4s and 3d orbitals You have learnt that when d-block elements form\nions, ns electrons are lost before (n \u2013 1) d electrons As we move along\nthe period in 3d series, we see that nuclear charge increases from\nscandium to zinc but electrons are added to the orbital of inner subshell,\ni"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3840-3843", "Text": "The irregular trend in the first ionisation enthalpy of the metals of\n3d series, though of little chemical significance, can be accounted for\nby considering that the removal of one electron alters the relative energies\nof 4s and 3d orbitals You have learnt that when d-block elements form\nions, ns electrons are lost before (n \u2013 1) d electrons As we move along\nthe period in 3d series, we see that nuclear charge increases from\nscandium to zinc but electrons are added to the orbital of inner subshell,\ni e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3841-3844", "Text": "You have learnt that when d-block elements form\nions, ns electrons are lost before (n \u2013 1) d electrons As we move along\nthe period in 3d series, we see that nuclear charge increases from\nscandium to zinc but electrons are added to the orbital of inner subshell,\ni e , 3d orbitals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3842-3845", "Text": "As we move along\nthe period in 3d series, we see that nuclear charge increases from\nscandium to zinc but electrons are added to the orbital of inner subshell,\ni e , 3d orbitals These 3d electrons shield the 4s electrons from the\nincreasing nuclear charge somewhat more effectively than the outer\nshell electrons can shield one another"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3843-3846", "Text": "e , 3d orbitals These 3d electrons shield the 4s electrons from the\nincreasing nuclear charge somewhat more effectively than the outer\nshell electrons can shield one another Therefore, the atomic radii\ndecrease less rapidly"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3844-3847", "Text": ", 3d orbitals These 3d electrons shield the 4s electrons from the\nincreasing nuclear charge somewhat more effectively than the outer\nshell electrons can shield one another Therefore, the atomic radii\ndecrease less rapidly Thus, ionization energies increase only slightly\nalong the 3d series"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3845-3848", "Text": "These 3d electrons shield the 4s electrons from the\nincreasing nuclear charge somewhat more effectively than the outer\nshell electrons can shield one another Therefore, the atomic radii\ndecrease less rapidly Thus, ionization energies increase only slightly\nalong the 3d series The doubly or more highly charged ions have d\nn\nconfigurations with no 4s electrons"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3846-3849", "Text": "Therefore, the atomic radii\ndecrease less rapidly Thus, ionization energies increase only slightly\nalong the 3d series The doubly or more highly charged ions have d\nn\nconfigurations with no 4s electrons A general trend of increasing values\nof second ionisation enthalpy is expected as the effective nuclear charge\nincreases because one d electron does not shield another electron from\nthe influence of nuclear charge because d-orbitals differ in direction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3847-3850", "Text": "Thus, ionization energies increase only slightly\nalong the 3d series The doubly or more highly charged ions have d\nn\nconfigurations with no 4s electrons A general trend of increasing values\nof second ionisation enthalpy is expected as the effective nuclear charge\nincreases because one d electron does not shield another electron from\nthe influence of nuclear charge because d-orbitals differ in direction However, the trend of steady increase in second and third ionisation\nenthalpy breaks for the formation of Mn2+ and Fe3+ respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3848-3851", "Text": "The doubly or more highly charged ions have d\nn\nconfigurations with no 4s electrons A general trend of increasing values\nof second ionisation enthalpy is expected as the effective nuclear charge\nincreases because one d electron does not shield another electron from\nthe influence of nuclear charge because d-orbitals differ in direction However, the trend of steady increase in second and third ionisation\nenthalpy breaks for the formation of Mn2+ and Fe3+ respectively In both\nthe cases, ions have d5 configuration"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3849-3852", "Text": "A general trend of increasing values\nof second ionisation enthalpy is expected as the effective nuclear charge\nincreases because one d electron does not shield another electron from\nthe influence of nuclear charge because d-orbitals differ in direction However, the trend of steady increase in second and third ionisation\nenthalpy breaks for the formation of Mn2+ and Fe3+ respectively In both\nthe cases, ions have d5 configuration Similar breaks occur at\ncorresponding elements in the later transition series"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3850-3853", "Text": "However, the trend of steady increase in second and third ionisation\nenthalpy breaks for the formation of Mn2+ and Fe3+ respectively In both\nthe cases, ions have d5 configuration Similar breaks occur at\ncorresponding elements in the later transition series The interpretation of variation in ionisation enthalpy for an electronic\nconfiguration dn is as follows:\nThe three terms responsible for the value of ionisation enthalpy are\nattraction of each electron towards nucleus, repulsion between the\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3851-3854", "Text": "In both\nthe cases, ions have d5 configuration Similar breaks occur at\ncorresponding elements in the later transition series The interpretation of variation in ionisation enthalpy for an electronic\nconfiguration dn is as follows:\nThe three terms responsible for the value of ionisation enthalpy are\nattraction of each electron towards nucleus, repulsion between the\n4 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3852-3855", "Text": "Similar breaks occur at\ncorresponding elements in the later transition series The interpretation of variation in ionisation enthalpy for an electronic\nconfiguration dn is as follows:\nThe three terms responsible for the value of ionisation enthalpy are\nattraction of each electron towards nucleus, repulsion between the\n4 3 3 Ionisation\nEnthalpies\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3853-3856", "Text": "The interpretation of variation in ionisation enthalpy for an electronic\nconfiguration dn is as follows:\nThe three terms responsible for the value of ionisation enthalpy are\nattraction of each electron towards nucleus, repulsion between the\n4 3 3 Ionisation\nEnthalpies\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n4 2 In the series Sc (Z = 21) to Zn (Z = 30), the enthalpy of atomisation\nof zinc is the lowest, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3854-3857", "Text": "3 3 Ionisation\nEnthalpies\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n4 2 In the series Sc (Z = 21) to Zn (Z = 30), the enthalpy of atomisation\nof zinc is the lowest, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3855-3858", "Text": "3 Ionisation\nEnthalpies\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n4 2 In the series Sc (Z = 21) to Zn (Z = 30), the enthalpy of atomisation\nof zinc is the lowest, i e , 126 kJ mol\n\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3856-3859", "Text": "2 In the series Sc (Z = 21) to Zn (Z = 30), the enthalpy of atomisation\nof zinc is the lowest, i e , 126 kJ mol\n\u20131 Why"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3857-3860", "Text": "e , 126 kJ mol\n\u20131 Why Rationalised 2023-24\n96\nChemistry\nelectrons and the exchange energy"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3858-3861", "Text": ", 126 kJ mol\n\u20131 Why Rationalised 2023-24\n96\nChemistry\nelectrons and the exchange energy Exchange energy is responsible for\nthe stabilisation of energy state"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3859-3862", "Text": "Why Rationalised 2023-24\n96\nChemistry\nelectrons and the exchange energy Exchange energy is responsible for\nthe stabilisation of energy state Exchange energy is approximately\nproportional to the total number of possible pairs of parallel spins in\nthe degenerate orbitals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3860-3863", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n96\nChemistry\nelectrons and the exchange energy Exchange energy is responsible for\nthe stabilisation of energy state Exchange energy is approximately\nproportional to the total number of possible pairs of parallel spins in\nthe degenerate orbitals When several electrons occupy a set of\ndegenerate orbitals, the lowest energy state corresponds to the maximum\npossible extent of single occupation of orbital and parallel spins (Hunds\nrule)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3861-3864", "Text": "Exchange energy is responsible for\nthe stabilisation of energy state Exchange energy is approximately\nproportional to the total number of possible pairs of parallel spins in\nthe degenerate orbitals When several electrons occupy a set of\ndegenerate orbitals, the lowest energy state corresponds to the maximum\npossible extent of single occupation of orbital and parallel spins (Hunds\nrule) The loss of exchange energy increases the stability"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3862-3865", "Text": "Exchange energy is approximately\nproportional to the total number of possible pairs of parallel spins in\nthe degenerate orbitals When several electrons occupy a set of\ndegenerate orbitals, the lowest energy state corresponds to the maximum\npossible extent of single occupation of orbital and parallel spins (Hunds\nrule) The loss of exchange energy increases the stability As the stability\nincreases, the ionisation becomes more difficult"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3863-3866", "Text": "When several electrons occupy a set of\ndegenerate orbitals, the lowest energy state corresponds to the maximum\npossible extent of single occupation of orbital and parallel spins (Hunds\nrule) The loss of exchange energy increases the stability As the stability\nincreases, the ionisation becomes more difficult There is no loss of\nexchange energy at d6 configuration"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3864-3867", "Text": "The loss of exchange energy increases the stability As the stability\nincreases, the ionisation becomes more difficult There is no loss of\nexchange energy at d6 configuration Mn+ has 3d54s1 configuration and\nconfiguration of Cr+ is d5, therefore, ionisation enthalpy of Mn+ is lower\nthan Cr+"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3865-3868", "Text": "As the stability\nincreases, the ionisation becomes more difficult There is no loss of\nexchange energy at d6 configuration Mn+ has 3d54s1 configuration and\nconfiguration of Cr+ is d5, therefore, ionisation enthalpy of Mn+ is lower\nthan Cr+ In the same way, Fe2+ has d6 configuration and Mn2+ has 3d5\nconfiguration"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3866-3869", "Text": "There is no loss of\nexchange energy at d6 configuration Mn+ has 3d54s1 configuration and\nconfiguration of Cr+ is d5, therefore, ionisation enthalpy of Mn+ is lower\nthan Cr+ In the same way, Fe2+ has d6 configuration and Mn2+ has 3d5\nconfiguration Hence, ionisation enthalpy of Fe2+ is lower than the Mn2+"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3867-3870", "Text": "Mn+ has 3d54s1 configuration and\nconfiguration of Cr+ is d5, therefore, ionisation enthalpy of Mn+ is lower\nthan Cr+ In the same way, Fe2+ has d6 configuration and Mn2+ has 3d5\nconfiguration Hence, ionisation enthalpy of Fe2+ is lower than the Mn2+ In other words, we can say that the third ionisation enthalpy of Fe is\nlower than that of Mn"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3868-3871", "Text": "In the same way, Fe2+ has d6 configuration and Mn2+ has 3d5\nconfiguration Hence, ionisation enthalpy of Fe2+ is lower than the Mn2+ In other words, we can say that the third ionisation enthalpy of Fe is\nlower than that of Mn The lowest common oxidation state of these metals is +2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3869-3872", "Text": "Hence, ionisation enthalpy of Fe2+ is lower than the Mn2+ In other words, we can say that the third ionisation enthalpy of Fe is\nlower than that of Mn The lowest common oxidation state of these metals is +2 To\nform the M\n2+ ions from the gaseous atoms, the sum of the first and\nsecond ionisation enthalpy is required in addition to the enthalpy of\natomisation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3870-3873", "Text": "In other words, we can say that the third ionisation enthalpy of Fe is\nlower than that of Mn The lowest common oxidation state of these metals is +2 To\nform the M\n2+ ions from the gaseous atoms, the sum of the first and\nsecond ionisation enthalpy is required in addition to the enthalpy of\natomisation The dominant term is the second ionisation enthalpy\nwhich shows unusually high values for Cr and Cu where M\n+ ions\nhave the d\n5 and d\n10 configurations respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3871-3874", "Text": "The lowest common oxidation state of these metals is +2 To\nform the M\n2+ ions from the gaseous atoms, the sum of the first and\nsecond ionisation enthalpy is required in addition to the enthalpy of\natomisation The dominant term is the second ionisation enthalpy\nwhich shows unusually high values for Cr and Cu where M\n+ ions\nhave the d\n5 and d\n10 configurations respectively The value for Zn is\ncorrespondingly low as the ionisation causes the removal of one 4s\nelectron which results in the formation of stable d\n10 configuration"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3872-3875", "Text": "To\nform the M\n2+ ions from the gaseous atoms, the sum of the first and\nsecond ionisation enthalpy is required in addition to the enthalpy of\natomisation The dominant term is the second ionisation enthalpy\nwhich shows unusually high values for Cr and Cu where M\n+ ions\nhave the d\n5 and d\n10 configurations respectively The value for Zn is\ncorrespondingly low as the ionisation causes the removal of one 4s\nelectron which results in the formation of stable d\n10 configuration The trend in the third ionisation enthalpies is not complicated by\nthe 4s orbital factor and shows the greater difficulty of removing an\nelectron from the d\n5 (Mn\n2+) and d\n10 (Zn\n2+) ions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3873-3876", "Text": "The dominant term is the second ionisation enthalpy\nwhich shows unusually high values for Cr and Cu where M\n+ ions\nhave the d\n5 and d\n10 configurations respectively The value for Zn is\ncorrespondingly low as the ionisation causes the removal of one 4s\nelectron which results in the formation of stable d\n10 configuration The trend in the third ionisation enthalpies is not complicated by\nthe 4s orbital factor and shows the greater difficulty of removing an\nelectron from the d\n5 (Mn\n2+) and d\n10 (Zn\n2+) ions In general, the third\nionisation enthalpies are quite high"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3874-3877", "Text": "The value for Zn is\ncorrespondingly low as the ionisation causes the removal of one 4s\nelectron which results in the formation of stable d\n10 configuration The trend in the third ionisation enthalpies is not complicated by\nthe 4s orbital factor and shows the greater difficulty of removing an\nelectron from the d\n5 (Mn\n2+) and d\n10 (Zn\n2+) ions In general, the third\nionisation enthalpies are quite high Also the high values for third\nionisation enthalpies of copper, nickel and zinc indicate why it is\ndifficult to obtain oxidation state greater than two for these elements"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3875-3878", "Text": "The trend in the third ionisation enthalpies is not complicated by\nthe 4s orbital factor and shows the greater difficulty of removing an\nelectron from the d\n5 (Mn\n2+) and d\n10 (Zn\n2+) ions In general, the third\nionisation enthalpies are quite high Also the high values for third\nionisation enthalpies of copper, nickel and zinc indicate why it is\ndifficult to obtain oxidation state greater than two for these elements Although ionisation enthalpies give some guidance concerning the\nrelative stabilities of oxidation states, this problem is very complex and\nnot amenable to ready generalisation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3876-3879", "Text": "In general, the third\nionisation enthalpies are quite high Also the high values for third\nionisation enthalpies of copper, nickel and zinc indicate why it is\ndifficult to obtain oxidation state greater than two for these elements Although ionisation enthalpies give some guidance concerning the\nrelative stabilities of oxidation states, this problem is very complex and\nnot amenable to ready generalisation One of the notable features of a transition elements is the great variety\nof oxidation states these may show in their compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3877-3880", "Text": "Also the high values for third\nionisation enthalpies of copper, nickel and zinc indicate why it is\ndifficult to obtain oxidation state greater than two for these elements Although ionisation enthalpies give some guidance concerning the\nrelative stabilities of oxidation states, this problem is very complex and\nnot amenable to ready generalisation One of the notable features of a transition elements is the great variety\nof oxidation states these may show in their compounds Table 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3878-3881", "Text": "Although ionisation enthalpies give some guidance concerning the\nrelative stabilities of oxidation states, this problem is very complex and\nnot amenable to ready generalisation One of the notable features of a transition elements is the great variety\nof oxidation states these may show in their compounds Table 4 3 lists\nthe common oxidation states of the first row transition elements"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3879-3882", "Text": "One of the notable features of a transition elements is the great variety\nof oxidation states these may show in their compounds Table 4 3 lists\nthe common oxidation states of the first row transition elements Sc\nTi\nV\nCr\nMn\nFe\nCo\nNi\nCu\nZn\n+2\n+2\n+2\n+2\n+2\n+2\n+2\n+1\n+2\n+3\n+3\n+3\n+3\n+3\n+3\n+3\n+3\n+2\n+4\n+4\n+4\n+4\n+4\n+4\n+4\n+5\n+5\n+5\n+6\n+6\n+6\n+7\nTable 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3880-3883", "Text": "Table 4 3 lists\nthe common oxidation states of the first row transition elements Sc\nTi\nV\nCr\nMn\nFe\nCo\nNi\nCu\nZn\n+2\n+2\n+2\n+2\n+2\n+2\n+2\n+1\n+2\n+3\n+3\n+3\n+3\n+3\n+3\n+3\n+3\n+2\n+4\n+4\n+4\n+4\n+4\n+4\n+4\n+5\n+5\n+5\n+6\n+6\n+6\n+7\nTable 4 3: Oxidation States of the first row Transition Metal\n(the most common ones are in bold types)\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3881-3884", "Text": "3 lists\nthe common oxidation states of the first row transition elements Sc\nTi\nV\nCr\nMn\nFe\nCo\nNi\nCu\nZn\n+2\n+2\n+2\n+2\n+2\n+2\n+2\n+1\n+2\n+3\n+3\n+3\n+3\n+3\n+3\n+3\n+3\n+2\n+4\n+4\n+4\n+4\n+4\n+4\n+4\n+5\n+5\n+5\n+6\n+6\n+6\n+7\nTable 4 3: Oxidation States of the first row Transition Metal\n(the most common ones are in bold types)\n4 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3882-3885", "Text": "Sc\nTi\nV\nCr\nMn\nFe\nCo\nNi\nCu\nZn\n+2\n+2\n+2\n+2\n+2\n+2\n+2\n+1\n+2\n+3\n+3\n+3\n+3\n+3\n+3\n+3\n+3\n+2\n+4\n+4\n+4\n+4\n+4\n+4\n+4\n+5\n+5\n+5\n+6\n+6\n+6\n+7\nTable 4 3: Oxidation States of the first row Transition Metal\n(the most common ones are in bold types)\n4 3 4 Oxidation\nStates\nRationalised 2023-24\n97\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nThe elements which give the greatest number of oxidation states\noccur in or near the middle of the series"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3883-3886", "Text": "3: Oxidation States of the first row Transition Metal\n(the most common ones are in bold types)\n4 3 4 Oxidation\nStates\nRationalised 2023-24\n97\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nThe elements which give the greatest number of oxidation states\noccur in or near the middle of the series Manganese, for example,\nexhibits all the oxidation states from +2 to +7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3884-3887", "Text": "3 4 Oxidation\nStates\nRationalised 2023-24\n97\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nThe elements which give the greatest number of oxidation states\noccur in or near the middle of the series Manganese, for example,\nexhibits all the oxidation states from +2 to +7 The lesser number of\noxidation states at the extreme ends stems from either too few electrons\nto lose or share (Sc, Ti) or too many d electrons (hence fewer orbitals\navailable in which to share electrons with others) for higher valence\n(Cu, Zn)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3885-3888", "Text": "4 Oxidation\nStates\nRationalised 2023-24\n97\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nThe elements which give the greatest number of oxidation states\noccur in or near the middle of the series Manganese, for example,\nexhibits all the oxidation states from +2 to +7 The lesser number of\noxidation states at the extreme ends stems from either too few electrons\nto lose or share (Sc, Ti) or too many d electrons (hence fewer orbitals\navailable in which to share electrons with others) for higher valence\n(Cu, Zn) Thus, early in the series scandium(II) is virtually unknown\nand titanium (IV) is more stable than Ti(III) or Ti(II)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3886-3889", "Text": "Manganese, for example,\nexhibits all the oxidation states from +2 to +7 The lesser number of\noxidation states at the extreme ends stems from either too few electrons\nto lose or share (Sc, Ti) or too many d electrons (hence fewer orbitals\navailable in which to share electrons with others) for higher valence\n(Cu, Zn) Thus, early in the series scandium(II) is virtually unknown\nand titanium (IV) is more stable than Ti(III) or Ti(II) At the other end,\nthe only oxidation state of zinc is +2 (no d electrons are involved)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3887-3890", "Text": "The lesser number of\noxidation states at the extreme ends stems from either too few electrons\nto lose or share (Sc, Ti) or too many d electrons (hence fewer orbitals\navailable in which to share electrons with others) for higher valence\n(Cu, Zn) Thus, early in the series scandium(II) is virtually unknown\nand titanium (IV) is more stable than Ti(III) or Ti(II) At the other end,\nthe only oxidation state of zinc is +2 (no d electrons are involved) The\nmaximum oxidation states of reasonable stability correspond in value\nto the sum of the s and d electrons upto manganese (Ti\nIVO2, V\nVO2\n+,\nCr\nV1O4\n2\u2013, Mn\nVIIO4\n\u2013) followed by a rather abrupt decrease in stability of\nhigher oxidation states, so that the typical species to follow are Fe\nII,III,\nCo\nII,III, Ni\nII, Cu\nI,II, Zn\nII"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3888-3891", "Text": "Thus, early in the series scandium(II) is virtually unknown\nand titanium (IV) is more stable than Ti(III) or Ti(II) At the other end,\nthe only oxidation state of zinc is +2 (no d electrons are involved) The\nmaximum oxidation states of reasonable stability correspond in value\nto the sum of the s and d electrons upto manganese (Ti\nIVO2, V\nVO2\n+,\nCr\nV1O4\n2\u2013, Mn\nVIIO4\n\u2013) followed by a rather abrupt decrease in stability of\nhigher oxidation states, so that the typical species to follow are Fe\nII,III,\nCo\nII,III, Ni\nII, Cu\nI,II, Zn\nII The variability of oxidation states, a characteristic of transition\nelements, arises out of incomplete filling of d orbitals in such a way\nthat their oxidation states differ from each other by unity, e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3889-3892", "Text": "At the other end,\nthe only oxidation state of zinc is +2 (no d electrons are involved) The\nmaximum oxidation states of reasonable stability correspond in value\nto the sum of the s and d electrons upto manganese (Ti\nIVO2, V\nVO2\n+,\nCr\nV1O4\n2\u2013, Mn\nVIIO4\n\u2013) followed by a rather abrupt decrease in stability of\nhigher oxidation states, so that the typical species to follow are Fe\nII,III,\nCo\nII,III, Ni\nII, Cu\nI,II, Zn\nII The variability of oxidation states, a characteristic of transition\nelements, arises out of incomplete filling of d orbitals in such a way\nthat their oxidation states differ from each other by unity, e g"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3890-3893", "Text": "The\nmaximum oxidation states of reasonable stability correspond in value\nto the sum of the s and d electrons upto manganese (Ti\nIVO2, V\nVO2\n+,\nCr\nV1O4\n2\u2013, Mn\nVIIO4\n\u2013) followed by a rather abrupt decrease in stability of\nhigher oxidation states, so that the typical species to follow are Fe\nII,III,\nCo\nII,III, Ni\nII, Cu\nI,II, Zn\nII The variability of oxidation states, a characteristic of transition\nelements, arises out of incomplete filling of d orbitals in such a way\nthat their oxidation states differ from each other by unity, e g , V\nII, V\nIII,\nV\nIV, V\nV"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3891-3894", "Text": "The variability of oxidation states, a characteristic of transition\nelements, arises out of incomplete filling of d orbitals in such a way\nthat their oxidation states differ from each other by unity, e g , V\nII, V\nIII,\nV\nIV, V\nV This is in contrast with the variability of oxidation states of non\ntransition elements where oxidation states normally differ by a unit\nof two"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3892-3895", "Text": "g , V\nII, V\nIII,\nV\nIV, V\nV This is in contrast with the variability of oxidation states of non\ntransition elements where oxidation states normally differ by a unit\nof two An interesting feature in the variability of oxidation states of the d\u2013\nblock elements is noticed among the groups (groups 4 through 10)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3893-3896", "Text": ", V\nII, V\nIII,\nV\nIV, V\nV This is in contrast with the variability of oxidation states of non\ntransition elements where oxidation states normally differ by a unit\nof two An interesting feature in the variability of oxidation states of the d\u2013\nblock elements is noticed among the groups (groups 4 through 10) Although in the p\u2013block the lower oxidation states are favoured by the\nheavier members (due to inert pair effect), the opposite is true in the\ngroups of d-block"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3894-3897", "Text": "This is in contrast with the variability of oxidation states of non\ntransition elements where oxidation states normally differ by a unit\nof two An interesting feature in the variability of oxidation states of the d\u2013\nblock elements is noticed among the groups (groups 4 through 10) Although in the p\u2013block the lower oxidation states are favoured by the\nheavier members (due to inert pair effect), the opposite is true in the\ngroups of d-block For example, in group 6, Mo(VI) and W(VI) are\nfound to be more stable than Cr(VI)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3895-3898", "Text": "An interesting feature in the variability of oxidation states of the d\u2013\nblock elements is noticed among the groups (groups 4 through 10) Although in the p\u2013block the lower oxidation states are favoured by the\nheavier members (due to inert pair effect), the opposite is true in the\ngroups of d-block For example, in group 6, Mo(VI) and W(VI) are\nfound to be more stable than Cr(VI) Thus Cr(VI) in the form of dichromate\nin acidic medium is a strong oxidising agent, whereas MoO3 and WO3\nare not"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3896-3899", "Text": "Although in the p\u2013block the lower oxidation states are favoured by the\nheavier members (due to inert pair effect), the opposite is true in the\ngroups of d-block For example, in group 6, Mo(VI) and W(VI) are\nfound to be more stable than Cr(VI) Thus Cr(VI) in the form of dichromate\nin acidic medium is a strong oxidising agent, whereas MoO3 and WO3\nare not Low oxidation states are found when a complex compound has\nligands capable of p-acceptor character in addition to the s-bonding"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3897-3900", "Text": "For example, in group 6, Mo(VI) and W(VI) are\nfound to be more stable than Cr(VI) Thus Cr(VI) in the form of dichromate\nin acidic medium is a strong oxidising agent, whereas MoO3 and WO3\nare not Low oxidation states are found when a complex compound has\nligands capable of p-acceptor character in addition to the s-bonding For example, in Ni(CO)4 and Fe(CO)5, the oxidation state of nickel and\niron is zero"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3898-3901", "Text": "Thus Cr(VI) in the form of dichromate\nin acidic medium is a strong oxidising agent, whereas MoO3 and WO3\nare not Low oxidation states are found when a complex compound has\nligands capable of p-acceptor character in addition to the s-bonding For example, in Ni(CO)4 and Fe(CO)5, the oxidation state of nickel and\niron is zero Name a transition element which does not exhibit variable\noxidation states"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3899-3902", "Text": "Low oxidation states are found when a complex compound has\nligands capable of p-acceptor character in addition to the s-bonding For example, in Ni(CO)4 and Fe(CO)5, the oxidation state of nickel and\niron is zero Name a transition element which does not exhibit variable\noxidation states Scandium (Z = 21) does not exhibit variable oxidation states"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3900-3903", "Text": "For example, in Ni(CO)4 and Fe(CO)5, the oxidation state of nickel and\niron is zero Name a transition element which does not exhibit variable\noxidation states Scandium (Z = 21) does not exhibit variable oxidation states Example 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3901-3904", "Text": "Name a transition element which does not exhibit variable\noxidation states Scandium (Z = 21) does not exhibit variable oxidation states Example 4 3\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3902-3905", "Text": "Scandium (Z = 21) does not exhibit variable oxidation states Example 4 3\nExample 4 3\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3903-3906", "Text": "Example 4 3\nExample 4 3\nExample 4 3\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3904-3907", "Text": "3\nExample 4 3\nExample 4 3\nExample 4 3\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3905-3908", "Text": "3\nExample 4 3\nExample 4 3\nExample 4 3\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3906-3909", "Text": "3\nExample 4 3\nExample 4 3\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n4 3 Which of the 3d series of the transition metals exhibits the\nlargest number of oxidation states and why"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3907-3910", "Text": "3\nExample 4 3\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n4 3 Which of the 3d series of the transition metals exhibits the\nlargest number of oxidation states and why Rationalised 2023-24\n98\nChemistry\nTable 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3908-3911", "Text": "3\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n4 3 Which of the 3d series of the transition metals exhibits the\nlargest number of oxidation states and why Rationalised 2023-24\n98\nChemistry\nTable 4 4 contains the thermochemical parameters related to the\ntransformation of the solid metal atoms to M\n2+ ions in solution and their\nstandard electrode potentials"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3909-3912", "Text": "3 Which of the 3d series of the transition metals exhibits the\nlargest number of oxidation states and why Rationalised 2023-24\n98\nChemistry\nTable 4 4 contains the thermochemical parameters related to the\ntransformation of the solid metal atoms to M\n2+ ions in solution and their\nstandard electrode potentials The observed values of E\nV and those\ncalculated using the data of Table 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3910-3913", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n98\nChemistry\nTable 4 4 contains the thermochemical parameters related to the\ntransformation of the solid metal atoms to M\n2+ ions in solution and their\nstandard electrode potentials The observed values of E\nV and those\ncalculated using the data of Table 4 4 are compared in Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3911-3914", "Text": "4 contains the thermochemical parameters related to the\ntransformation of the solid metal atoms to M\n2+ ions in solution and their\nstandard electrode potentials The observed values of E\nV and those\ncalculated using the data of Table 4 4 are compared in Fig 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3912-3915", "Text": "The observed values of E\nV and those\ncalculated using the data of Table 4 4 are compared in Fig 4 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3913-3916", "Text": "4 are compared in Fig 4 4 The unique behaviour of Cu, having a positive E\nV, accounts for its\ninability to liberate H2 from acids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3914-3917", "Text": "4 4 The unique behaviour of Cu, having a positive E\nV, accounts for its\ninability to liberate H2 from acids Only oxidising acids (nitric and hot\nconcentrated sulphuric) react with Cu, the acids being reduced"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3915-3918", "Text": "4 The unique behaviour of Cu, having a positive E\nV, accounts for its\ninability to liberate H2 from acids Only oxidising acids (nitric and hot\nconcentrated sulphuric) react with Cu, the acids being reduced The\nhigh energy to transform Cu(s) to Cu2+(aq) is not balanced by its hydration\nenthalpy"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3916-3919", "Text": "The unique behaviour of Cu, having a positive E\nV, accounts for its\ninability to liberate H2 from acids Only oxidising acids (nitric and hot\nconcentrated sulphuric) react with Cu, the acids being reduced The\nhigh energy to transform Cu(s) to Cu2+(aq) is not balanced by its hydration\nenthalpy The general trend towards less negative E\nV values across the\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3917-3920", "Text": "Only oxidising acids (nitric and hot\nconcentrated sulphuric) react with Cu, the acids being reduced The\nhigh energy to transform Cu(s) to Cu2+(aq) is not balanced by its hydration\nenthalpy The general trend towards less negative E\nV values across the\n4 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3918-3921", "Text": "The\nhigh energy to transform Cu(s) to Cu2+(aq) is not balanced by its hydration\nenthalpy The general trend towards less negative E\nV values across the\n4 3 5 Trends in the\nM\n2+/M\nStandard\nElectrode\nPotentials\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3919-3922", "Text": "The general trend towards less negative E\nV values across the\n4 3 5 Trends in the\nM\n2+/M\nStandard\nElectrode\nPotentials\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n4 4 The E\no(M\n2+/M) value for copper is positive (+0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3920-3923", "Text": "3 5 Trends in the\nM\n2+/M\nStandard\nElectrode\nPotentials\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n4 4 The E\no(M\n2+/M) value for copper is positive (+0 34V)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3921-3924", "Text": "5 Trends in the\nM\n2+/M\nStandard\nElectrode\nPotentials\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n4 4 The E\no(M\n2+/M) value for copper is positive (+0 34V) What is possible\nreason for this"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3922-3925", "Text": "4 The E\no(M\n2+/M) value for copper is positive (+0 34V) What is possible\nreason for this (Hint: consider its high DaH\no and low DhydH\no)\nWhy is Cr\n2+ reducing and Mn\n3+ oxidising when both have d\n4 configuration"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3923-3926", "Text": "34V) What is possible\nreason for this (Hint: consider its high DaH\no and low DhydH\no)\nWhy is Cr\n2+ reducing and Mn\n3+ oxidising when both have d\n4 configuration Cr\n2+ is reducing as its configuration changes from d\n4 to d\n3, the latter\nhaving a half-filled t2g level (see Unit 5)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3924-3927", "Text": "What is possible\nreason for this (Hint: consider its high DaH\no and low DhydH\no)\nWhy is Cr\n2+ reducing and Mn\n3+ oxidising when both have d\n4 configuration Cr\n2+ is reducing as its configuration changes from d\n4 to d\n3, the latter\nhaving a half-filled t2g level (see Unit 5) On the other hand, the change\nfrom Mn\n3+ to Mn\n2+ results in the half-filled (d\n5) configuration which has\nextra stability"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3925-3928", "Text": "(Hint: consider its high DaH\no and low DhydH\no)\nWhy is Cr\n2+ reducing and Mn\n3+ oxidising when both have d\n4 configuration Cr\n2+ is reducing as its configuration changes from d\n4 to d\n3, the latter\nhaving a half-filled t2g level (see Unit 5) On the other hand, the change\nfrom Mn\n3+ to Mn\n2+ results in the half-filled (d\n5) configuration which has\nextra stability Example 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3926-3929", "Text": "Cr\n2+ is reducing as its configuration changes from d\n4 to d\n3, the latter\nhaving a half-filled t2g level (see Unit 5) On the other hand, the change\nfrom Mn\n3+ to Mn\n2+ results in the half-filled (d\n5) configuration which has\nextra stability Example 4 4\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3927-3930", "Text": "On the other hand, the change\nfrom Mn\n3+ to Mn\n2+ results in the half-filled (d\n5) configuration which has\nextra stability Example 4 4\nExample 4 4\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3928-3931", "Text": "Example 4 4\nExample 4 4\nExample 4 4\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3929-3932", "Text": "4\nExample 4 4\nExample 4 4\nExample 4 4\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3930-3933", "Text": "4\nExample 4 4\nExample 4 4\nExample 4 4\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3931-3934", "Text": "4\nExample 4 4\nExample 4 4\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nFig 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3932-3935", "Text": "4\nExample 4 4\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nFig 4 4: Observed and calculated values for the standard\nelectrode potentials\n(M2+ \u00ae M\u00b0) of the elements Ti to Zn\nseries is related to the general increase in the sum of the first and second\nionisation enthalpies"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3933-3936", "Text": "4\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nFig 4 4: Observed and calculated values for the standard\nelectrode potentials\n(M2+ \u00ae M\u00b0) of the elements Ti to Zn\nseries is related to the general increase in the sum of the first and second\nionisation enthalpies It is interesting to note that the value of E\nV for Mn,\nNi and Zn are more negative than expected from the trend"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3934-3937", "Text": "4 4: Observed and calculated values for the standard\nelectrode potentials\n(M2+ \u00ae M\u00b0) of the elements Ti to Zn\nseries is related to the general increase in the sum of the first and second\nionisation enthalpies It is interesting to note that the value of E\nV for Mn,\nNi and Zn are more negative than expected from the trend Rationalised 2023-24\n99\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nElement (M)\nDDDDDaH\no (M)\nDDDDDiH1\no\nDDDDD1H2\no\nDDDDDhydH\no(M\n2+)\nE\no/V\nTi\n469\n656\n1309\n-1866\n-1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3935-3938", "Text": "4: Observed and calculated values for the standard\nelectrode potentials\n(M2+ \u00ae M\u00b0) of the elements Ti to Zn\nseries is related to the general increase in the sum of the first and second\nionisation enthalpies It is interesting to note that the value of E\nV for Mn,\nNi and Zn are more negative than expected from the trend Rationalised 2023-24\n99\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nElement (M)\nDDDDDaH\no (M)\nDDDDDiH1\no\nDDDDD1H2\no\nDDDDDhydH\no(M\n2+)\nE\no/V\nTi\n469\n656\n1309\n-1866\n-1 63\nV\n515\n650\n1414\n-1895\n-1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3936-3939", "Text": "It is interesting to note that the value of E\nV for Mn,\nNi and Zn are more negative than expected from the trend Rationalised 2023-24\n99\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nElement (M)\nDDDDDaH\no (M)\nDDDDDiH1\no\nDDDDD1H2\no\nDDDDDhydH\no(M\n2+)\nE\no/V\nTi\n469\n656\n1309\n-1866\n-1 63\nV\n515\n650\n1414\n-1895\n-1 18\nCr\n398\n653\n1592\n-1925\n-0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3937-3940", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n99\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nElement (M)\nDDDDDaH\no (M)\nDDDDDiH1\no\nDDDDD1H2\no\nDDDDDhydH\no(M\n2+)\nE\no/V\nTi\n469\n656\n1309\n-1866\n-1 63\nV\n515\n650\n1414\n-1895\n-1 18\nCr\n398\n653\n1592\n-1925\n-0 90\nMn\n279\n717\n1509\n-1862\n-1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3938-3941", "Text": "63\nV\n515\n650\n1414\n-1895\n-1 18\nCr\n398\n653\n1592\n-1925\n-0 90\nMn\n279\n717\n1509\n-1862\n-1 18\nFe\n418\n762\n1561\n-1998\n-0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3939-3942", "Text": "18\nCr\n398\n653\n1592\n-1925\n-0 90\nMn\n279\n717\n1509\n-1862\n-1 18\nFe\n418\n762\n1561\n-1998\n-0 44\nCo\n427\n758\n1644\n-2079\n-0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3940-3943", "Text": "90\nMn\n279\n717\n1509\n-1862\n-1 18\nFe\n418\n762\n1561\n-1998\n-0 44\nCo\n427\n758\n1644\n-2079\n-0 28\nNi\n431\n736\n1752\n-2121\n-0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3941-3944", "Text": "18\nFe\n418\n762\n1561\n-1998\n-0 44\nCo\n427\n758\n1644\n-2079\n-0 28\nNi\n431\n736\n1752\n-2121\n-0 25\nCu\n339\n745\n1958\n-2121\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3942-3945", "Text": "44\nCo\n427\n758\n1644\n-2079\n-0 28\nNi\n431\n736\n1752\n-2121\n-0 25\nCu\n339\n745\n1958\n-2121\n0 34\nZn\n130\n906\n1734\n-2059\n-0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3943-3946", "Text": "28\nNi\n431\n736\n1752\n-2121\n-0 25\nCu\n339\n745\n1958\n-2121\n0 34\nZn\n130\n906\n1734\n-2059\n-0 76\nTable 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3944-3947", "Text": "25\nCu\n339\n745\n1958\n-2121\n0 34\nZn\n130\n906\n1734\n-2059\n-0 76\nTable 4 4: Thermochemical data (kJ mol\n-1) for the first row Transition\nElements and the Standard Electrode Potentials for the\nReduction of M\nII to M"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3945-3948", "Text": "34\nZn\n130\n906\n1734\n-2059\n-0 76\nTable 4 4: Thermochemical data (kJ mol\n-1) for the first row Transition\nElements and the Standard Electrode Potentials for the\nReduction of M\nII to M The stability of the half-filled d sub-shell in Mn\n2+ and the completely\nfilled d\n10 configuration in Zn\n2+ are related to their E\no values, whereas E\no\nfor Ni is related to the highest negative DhydH\no"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3946-3949", "Text": "76\nTable 4 4: Thermochemical data (kJ mol\n-1) for the first row Transition\nElements and the Standard Electrode Potentials for the\nReduction of M\nII to M The stability of the half-filled d sub-shell in Mn\n2+ and the completely\nfilled d\n10 configuration in Zn\n2+ are related to their E\no values, whereas E\no\nfor Ni is related to the highest negative DhydH\no An examination of the E\no(M\n3+/M\n2+) values (Table 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3947-3950", "Text": "4: Thermochemical data (kJ mol\n-1) for the first row Transition\nElements and the Standard Electrode Potentials for the\nReduction of M\nII to M The stability of the half-filled d sub-shell in Mn\n2+ and the completely\nfilled d\n10 configuration in Zn\n2+ are related to their E\no values, whereas E\no\nfor Ni is related to the highest negative DhydH\no An examination of the E\no(M\n3+/M\n2+) values (Table 4 2) shows the varying\ntrends"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3948-3951", "Text": "The stability of the half-filled d sub-shell in Mn\n2+ and the completely\nfilled d\n10 configuration in Zn\n2+ are related to their E\no values, whereas E\no\nfor Ni is related to the highest negative DhydH\no An examination of the E\no(M\n3+/M\n2+) values (Table 4 2) shows the varying\ntrends The low value for Sc reflects the stability of Sc\n3+ which has a\nnoble gas configuration"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3949-3952", "Text": "An examination of the E\no(M\n3+/M\n2+) values (Table 4 2) shows the varying\ntrends The low value for Sc reflects the stability of Sc\n3+ which has a\nnoble gas configuration The highest value for Zn is due to the removal\nof an electron from the stable d\n10 configuration of Zn\n2+"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3950-3953", "Text": "2) shows the varying\ntrends The low value for Sc reflects the stability of Sc\n3+ which has a\nnoble gas configuration The highest value for Zn is due to the removal\nof an electron from the stable d\n10 configuration of Zn\n2+ The\ncomparatively high value for Mn shows that Mn\n2+(d\n5) is particularly\nstable, whereas comparatively low value for Fe shows the extra stability\nof Fe\n3+ (d\n5)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3951-3954", "Text": "The low value for Sc reflects the stability of Sc\n3+ which has a\nnoble gas configuration The highest value for Zn is due to the removal\nof an electron from the stable d\n10 configuration of Zn\n2+ The\ncomparatively high value for Mn shows that Mn\n2+(d\n5) is particularly\nstable, whereas comparatively low value for Fe shows the extra stability\nof Fe\n3+ (d\n5) The comparatively low value for V is related to the stability\nof V\n2+ (half-filled t2g level, Unit 5)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3952-3955", "Text": "The highest value for Zn is due to the removal\nof an electron from the stable d\n10 configuration of Zn\n2+ The\ncomparatively high value for Mn shows that Mn\n2+(d\n5) is particularly\nstable, whereas comparatively low value for Fe shows the extra stability\nof Fe\n3+ (d\n5) The comparatively low value for V is related to the stability\nof V\n2+ (half-filled t2g level, Unit 5) Table 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3953-3956", "Text": "The\ncomparatively high value for Mn shows that Mn\n2+(d\n5) is particularly\nstable, whereas comparatively low value for Fe shows the extra stability\nof Fe\n3+ (d\n5) The comparatively low value for V is related to the stability\nof V\n2+ (half-filled t2g level, Unit 5) Table 4 5 shows the stable halides of the 3d series of transition metals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3954-3957", "Text": "The comparatively low value for V is related to the stability\nof V\n2+ (half-filled t2g level, Unit 5) Table 4 5 shows the stable halides of the 3d series of transition metals The highest oxidation numbers are achieved in TiX4 (tetrahalides), VF5\nand CrF6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3955-3958", "Text": "Table 4 5 shows the stable halides of the 3d series of transition metals The highest oxidation numbers are achieved in TiX4 (tetrahalides), VF5\nand CrF6 The +7 state for Mn is not represented in simple halides but\nMnO3F is known, and beyond Mn no metal has a trihalide except FeX3\nand CoF3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3956-3959", "Text": "5 shows the stable halides of the 3d series of transition metals The highest oxidation numbers are achieved in TiX4 (tetrahalides), VF5\nand CrF6 The +7 state for Mn is not represented in simple halides but\nMnO3F is known, and beyond Mn no metal has a trihalide except FeX3\nand CoF3 The ability of fluorine to stabilise the highest oxidation state is\ndue to either higher lattice energy as in the case of CoF3, or higher bond\nenthalpy terms for the higher covalent compounds, e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3957-3960", "Text": "The highest oxidation numbers are achieved in TiX4 (tetrahalides), VF5\nand CrF6 The +7 state for Mn is not represented in simple halides but\nMnO3F is known, and beyond Mn no metal has a trihalide except FeX3\nand CoF3 The ability of fluorine to stabilise the highest oxidation state is\ndue to either higher lattice energy as in the case of CoF3, or higher bond\nenthalpy terms for the higher covalent compounds, e g"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3958-3961", "Text": "The +7 state for Mn is not represented in simple halides but\nMnO3F is known, and beyond Mn no metal has a trihalide except FeX3\nand CoF3 The ability of fluorine to stabilise the highest oxidation state is\ndue to either higher lattice energy as in the case of CoF3, or higher bond\nenthalpy terms for the higher covalent compounds, e g , VF5 and CrF6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3959-3962", "Text": "The ability of fluorine to stabilise the highest oxidation state is\ndue to either higher lattice energy as in the case of CoF3, or higher bond\nenthalpy terms for the higher covalent compounds, e g , VF5 and CrF6 Although V\n +5 is represented only by VF5, the other halides, however,\nundergo hydrolysis to give oxohalides, VOX3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3960-3963", "Text": "g , VF5 and CrF6 Although V\n +5 is represented only by VF5, the other halides, however,\nundergo hydrolysis to give oxohalides, VOX3 Another feature of fluorides\nis their instability in the low oxidation states e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3961-3964", "Text": ", VF5 and CrF6 Although V\n +5 is represented only by VF5, the other halides, however,\nundergo hydrolysis to give oxohalides, VOX3 Another feature of fluorides\nis their instability in the low oxidation states e g"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3962-3965", "Text": "Although V\n +5 is represented only by VF5, the other halides, however,\nundergo hydrolysis to give oxohalides, VOX3 Another feature of fluorides\nis their instability in the low oxidation states e g , VX2 (X = CI, Br or I)\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3963-3966", "Text": "Another feature of fluorides\nis their instability in the low oxidation states e g , VX2 (X = CI, Br or I)\n4 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3964-3967", "Text": "g , VX2 (X = CI, Br or I)\n4 3 6 Trends in\nthe M\n3+/M\n2+\nStandard\nElectrode\nPotentials\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3965-3968", "Text": ", VX2 (X = CI, Br or I)\n4 3 6 Trends in\nthe M\n3+/M\n2+\nStandard\nElectrode\nPotentials\n4 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3966-3969", "Text": "3 6 Trends in\nthe M\n3+/M\n2+\nStandard\nElectrode\nPotentials\n4 3 7 Trends in\nStability of\nHigher\nOxidation\nStates\n+ 6\nCrF6\n+ 5\nVF5\nCrF5\n+ 4\nTiX4\nVX\nI\n4\nCrX4\nMnF4\n+ 3\nTiX3\nVX3\nCrX3\nMnF3\nFeX\nI\n3\nCoF3\n+ 2\nTiX2\nIII\nVX2\nCrX2\nMnX2\nFeX2\nCoX2\nNiX2\nCuX2\nII\nZnX2\n+ 1\nCuX\nIII\nOxidation\nNumber\nTable 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3967-3970", "Text": "6 Trends in\nthe M\n3+/M\n2+\nStandard\nElectrode\nPotentials\n4 3 7 Trends in\nStability of\nHigher\nOxidation\nStates\n+ 6\nCrF6\n+ 5\nVF5\nCrF5\n+ 4\nTiX4\nVX\nI\n4\nCrX4\nMnF4\n+ 3\nTiX3\nVX3\nCrX3\nMnF3\nFeX\nI\n3\nCoF3\n+ 2\nTiX2\nIII\nVX2\nCrX2\nMnX2\nFeX2\nCoX2\nNiX2\nCuX2\nII\nZnX2\n+ 1\nCuX\nIII\nOxidation\nNumber\nTable 4 5: Formulas of Halides of 3d Metals\nKey: X = F \u00ae I; XI = F \u00ae Br; XII = F, CI; XIII = CI \u00ae I\nRationalised 2023-24\n100\nChemistry\nand the same applies to CuX"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3968-3971", "Text": "3 7 Trends in\nStability of\nHigher\nOxidation\nStates\n+ 6\nCrF6\n+ 5\nVF5\nCrF5\n+ 4\nTiX4\nVX\nI\n4\nCrX4\nMnF4\n+ 3\nTiX3\nVX3\nCrX3\nMnF3\nFeX\nI\n3\nCoF3\n+ 2\nTiX2\nIII\nVX2\nCrX2\nMnX2\nFeX2\nCoX2\nNiX2\nCuX2\nII\nZnX2\n+ 1\nCuX\nIII\nOxidation\nNumber\nTable 4 5: Formulas of Halides of 3d Metals\nKey: X = F \u00ae I; XI = F \u00ae Br; XII = F, CI; XIII = CI \u00ae I\nRationalised 2023-24\n100\nChemistry\nand the same applies to CuX On the other hand, all Cu\nII halides are\nknown except the iodide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3969-3972", "Text": "7 Trends in\nStability of\nHigher\nOxidation\nStates\n+ 6\nCrF6\n+ 5\nVF5\nCrF5\n+ 4\nTiX4\nVX\nI\n4\nCrX4\nMnF4\n+ 3\nTiX3\nVX3\nCrX3\nMnF3\nFeX\nI\n3\nCoF3\n+ 2\nTiX2\nIII\nVX2\nCrX2\nMnX2\nFeX2\nCoX2\nNiX2\nCuX2\nII\nZnX2\n+ 1\nCuX\nIII\nOxidation\nNumber\nTable 4 5: Formulas of Halides of 3d Metals\nKey: X = F \u00ae I; XI = F \u00ae Br; XII = F, CI; XIII = CI \u00ae I\nRationalised 2023-24\n100\nChemistry\nand the same applies to CuX On the other hand, all Cu\nII halides are\nknown except the iodide In this case, Cu\n2+ oxidises I\n\u2013 to I2:\n\uf028 \uf029\n2\n2 2\n2\n2Cu\n4I\nCu I\nI\ns\n\uf02b\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf0ae\n\uf02b\nHowever, many copper (I) compounds are unstable in aqueous\nsolution and undergo disproportionation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3970-3973", "Text": "5: Formulas of Halides of 3d Metals\nKey: X = F \u00ae I; XI = F \u00ae Br; XII = F, CI; XIII = CI \u00ae I\nRationalised 2023-24\n100\nChemistry\nand the same applies to CuX On the other hand, all Cu\nII halides are\nknown except the iodide In this case, Cu\n2+ oxidises I\n\u2013 to I2:\n\uf028 \uf029\n2\n2 2\n2\n2Cu\n4I\nCu I\nI\ns\n\uf02b\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf0ae\n\uf02b\nHowever, many copper (I) compounds are unstable in aqueous\nsolution and undergo disproportionation 2Cu\n+ \u00ae Cu\n2+ + Cu\nThe stability of Cu\n2+ (aq) rather than Cu\n+(aq) is due to the much\nmore negative DhydH\no of Cu\n2+ (aq) than Cu\n+, which more than\ncompensates for the second ionisation enthalpy of Cu"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3971-3974", "Text": "On the other hand, all Cu\nII halides are\nknown except the iodide In this case, Cu\n2+ oxidises I\n\u2013 to I2:\n\uf028 \uf029\n2\n2 2\n2\n2Cu\n4I\nCu I\nI\ns\n\uf02b\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf0ae\n\uf02b\nHowever, many copper (I) compounds are unstable in aqueous\nsolution and undergo disproportionation 2Cu\n+ \u00ae Cu\n2+ + Cu\nThe stability of Cu\n2+ (aq) rather than Cu\n+(aq) is due to the much\nmore negative DhydH\no of Cu\n2+ (aq) than Cu\n+, which more than\ncompensates for the second ionisation enthalpy of Cu The ability of oxygen to stabilise the highest oxidation state is\ndemonstrated in the oxides"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3972-3975", "Text": "In this case, Cu\n2+ oxidises I\n\u2013 to I2:\n\uf028 \uf029\n2\n2 2\n2\n2Cu\n4I\nCu I\nI\ns\n\uf02b\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf0ae\n\uf02b\nHowever, many copper (I) compounds are unstable in aqueous\nsolution and undergo disproportionation 2Cu\n+ \u00ae Cu\n2+ + Cu\nThe stability of Cu\n2+ (aq) rather than Cu\n+(aq) is due to the much\nmore negative DhydH\no of Cu\n2+ (aq) than Cu\n+, which more than\ncompensates for the second ionisation enthalpy of Cu The ability of oxygen to stabilise the highest oxidation state is\ndemonstrated in the oxides The highest oxidation number in the oxides\n(Table 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3973-3976", "Text": "2Cu\n+ \u00ae Cu\n2+ + Cu\nThe stability of Cu\n2+ (aq) rather than Cu\n+(aq) is due to the much\nmore negative DhydH\no of Cu\n2+ (aq) than Cu\n+, which more than\ncompensates for the second ionisation enthalpy of Cu The ability of oxygen to stabilise the highest oxidation state is\ndemonstrated in the oxides The highest oxidation number in the oxides\n(Table 4 6) coincides with the group number and is attained in Sc2O3\nto Mn2O7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3974-3977", "Text": "The ability of oxygen to stabilise the highest oxidation state is\ndemonstrated in the oxides The highest oxidation number in the oxides\n(Table 4 6) coincides with the group number and is attained in Sc2O3\nto Mn2O7 Beyond Group 7, no higher oxides of Fe above Fe2O3, are\nknown, although ferrates (VI)(FeO4)\n2\u2013, are formed in alkaline media but\nthey readily decompose to Fe2O3 and O2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3975-3978", "Text": "The highest oxidation number in the oxides\n(Table 4 6) coincides with the group number and is attained in Sc2O3\nto Mn2O7 Beyond Group 7, no higher oxides of Fe above Fe2O3, are\nknown, although ferrates (VI)(FeO4)\n2\u2013, are formed in alkaline media but\nthey readily decompose to Fe2O3 and O2 Besides the oxides, oxocations\nstabilise V\nv as VO2\n+, V\nIV as VO\n2+ and Ti\nIV as TiO\n2+"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3976-3979", "Text": "6) coincides with the group number and is attained in Sc2O3\nto Mn2O7 Beyond Group 7, no higher oxides of Fe above Fe2O3, are\nknown, although ferrates (VI)(FeO4)\n2\u2013, are formed in alkaline media but\nthey readily decompose to Fe2O3 and O2 Besides the oxides, oxocations\nstabilise V\nv as VO2\n+, V\nIV as VO\n2+ and Ti\nIV as TiO\n2+ The ability of oxygen\nto stabilise these high oxidation states exceeds that of fluorine"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3977-3980", "Text": "Beyond Group 7, no higher oxides of Fe above Fe2O3, are\nknown, although ferrates (VI)(FeO4)\n2\u2013, are formed in alkaline media but\nthey readily decompose to Fe2O3 and O2 Besides the oxides, oxocations\nstabilise V\nv as VO2\n+, V\nIV as VO\n2+ and Ti\nIV as TiO\n2+ The ability of oxygen\nto stabilise these high oxidation states exceeds that of fluorine Thus\nthe highest Mn fluoride is MnF4 whereas the highest oxide is Mn2O7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3978-3981", "Text": "Besides the oxides, oxocations\nstabilise V\nv as VO2\n+, V\nIV as VO\n2+ and Ti\nIV as TiO\n2+ The ability of oxygen\nto stabilise these high oxidation states exceeds that of fluorine Thus\nthe highest Mn fluoride is MnF4 whereas the highest oxide is Mn2O7 The ability of oxygen to form multiple bonds to metals explains its\nsuperiority"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3979-3982", "Text": "The ability of oxygen\nto stabilise these high oxidation states exceeds that of fluorine Thus\nthe highest Mn fluoride is MnF4 whereas the highest oxide is Mn2O7 The ability of oxygen to form multiple bonds to metals explains its\nsuperiority In the covalent oxide Mn2O7, each Mn is tetrahedrally\nsurrounded by O\u2019s including a Mn\u2013O\u2013Mn bridge"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3980-3983", "Text": "Thus\nthe highest Mn fluoride is MnF4 whereas the highest oxide is Mn2O7 The ability of oxygen to form multiple bonds to metals explains its\nsuperiority In the covalent oxide Mn2O7, each Mn is tetrahedrally\nsurrounded by O\u2019s including a Mn\u2013O\u2013Mn bridge The tetrahedral [MO4]\nn-\nions are known for V\nV, Cr\nVl, Mn\nV, Mn\nVl and Mn\nVII"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3981-3984", "Text": "The ability of oxygen to form multiple bonds to metals explains its\nsuperiority In the covalent oxide Mn2O7, each Mn is tetrahedrally\nsurrounded by O\u2019s including a Mn\u2013O\u2013Mn bridge The tetrahedral [MO4]\nn-\nions are known for V\nV, Cr\nVl, Mn\nV, Mn\nVl and Mn\nVII + 7\nMn2O7\n+ 6\nCrO3\n+ 5\nV2O5\n+ 4\nTiO2\nV2O4\nCrO2\nMnO2\n+ 3\nSc2O3\nTi2O3\nV2O3\nCr2O3\nMn2O3\nFe2O3\nMn3O4\n*\n Fe3O4\n*\nCo3O4\n*\n+ 2\nTiO\nVO\n(CrO)\nMnO\nFeO\nCoO\nNiO\nCuO\nZnO\n+ 1\nCu2O\nTable 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3982-3985", "Text": "In the covalent oxide Mn2O7, each Mn is tetrahedrally\nsurrounded by O\u2019s including a Mn\u2013O\u2013Mn bridge The tetrahedral [MO4]\nn-\nions are known for V\nV, Cr\nVl, Mn\nV, Mn\nVl and Mn\nVII + 7\nMn2O7\n+ 6\nCrO3\n+ 5\nV2O5\n+ 4\nTiO2\nV2O4\nCrO2\nMnO2\n+ 3\nSc2O3\nTi2O3\nV2O3\nCr2O3\nMn2O3\nFe2O3\nMn3O4\n*\n Fe3O4\n*\nCo3O4\n*\n+ 2\nTiO\nVO\n(CrO)\nMnO\nFeO\nCoO\nNiO\nCuO\nZnO\n+ 1\nCu2O\nTable 4 6: Oxides of 3d Metals\n*\nmixed oxides\nGroups\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n10\n11\n12\nOxidation\nNumber\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3983-3986", "Text": "The tetrahedral [MO4]\nn-\nions are known for V\nV, Cr\nVl, Mn\nV, Mn\nVl and Mn\nVII + 7\nMn2O7\n+ 6\nCrO3\n+ 5\nV2O5\n+ 4\nTiO2\nV2O4\nCrO2\nMnO2\n+ 3\nSc2O3\nTi2O3\nV2O3\nCr2O3\nMn2O3\nFe2O3\nMn3O4\n*\n Fe3O4\n*\nCo3O4\n*\n+ 2\nTiO\nVO\n(CrO)\nMnO\nFeO\nCoO\nNiO\nCuO\nZnO\n+ 1\nCu2O\nTable 4 6: Oxides of 3d Metals\n*\nmixed oxides\nGroups\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n10\n11\n12\nOxidation\nNumber\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n4 5 How would you account for the irregular variation of ionisation\nenthalpies (first and second) in the first series of the transition elements"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3984-3987", "Text": "+ 7\nMn2O7\n+ 6\nCrO3\n+ 5\nV2O5\n+ 4\nTiO2\nV2O4\nCrO2\nMnO2\n+ 3\nSc2O3\nTi2O3\nV2O3\nCr2O3\nMn2O3\nFe2O3\nMn3O4\n*\n Fe3O4\n*\nCo3O4\n*\n+ 2\nTiO\nVO\n(CrO)\nMnO\nFeO\nCoO\nNiO\nCuO\nZnO\n+ 1\nCu2O\nTable 4 6: Oxides of 3d Metals\n*\nmixed oxides\nGroups\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n10\n11\n12\nOxidation\nNumber\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n4 5 How would you account for the irregular variation of ionisation\nenthalpies (first and second) in the first series of the transition elements Example 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3985-3988", "Text": "6: Oxides of 3d Metals\n*\nmixed oxides\nGroups\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n8\n9\n10\n11\n12\nOxidation\nNumber\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n4 5 How would you account for the irregular variation of ionisation\nenthalpies (first and second) in the first series of the transition elements Example 4 5\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3986-3989", "Text": "5 How would you account for the irregular variation of ionisation\nenthalpies (first and second) in the first series of the transition elements Example 4 5\nExample 4 5\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3987-3990", "Text": "Example 4 5\nExample 4 5\nExample 4 5\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3988-3991", "Text": "5\nExample 4 5\nExample 4 5\nExample 4 5\nHow would you account for the increasing oxidising power in theExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3989-3992", "Text": "5\nExample 4 5\nExample 4 5\nHow would you account for the increasing oxidising power in theExample 4 5\nseries VO2\n+ < Cr2O7\n2\u2013 < MnO4 \n\u2013"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3990-3993", "Text": "5\nExample 4 5\nHow would you account for the increasing oxidising power in theExample 4 5\nseries VO2\n+ < Cr2O7\n2\u2013 < MnO4 \n\u2013 This is due to the increasing stability of the lower species to which they\nare reduced"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3991-3994", "Text": "5\nHow would you account for the increasing oxidising power in theExample 4 5\nseries VO2\n+ < Cr2O7\n2\u2013 < MnO4 \n\u2013 This is due to the increasing stability of the lower species to which they\nare reduced Solution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n101\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nEFor the first row transition metals the Eo values are:\no\nV\nCr\nMn\nFe\nCo\nNi\nCu\n(M\n2+/M)\n\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3992-3995", "Text": "5\nseries VO2\n+ < Cr2O7\n2\u2013 < MnO4 \n\u2013 This is due to the increasing stability of the lower species to which they\nare reduced Solution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n101\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nEFor the first row transition metals the Eo values are:\no\nV\nCr\nMn\nFe\nCo\nNi\nCu\n(M\n2+/M)\n\u20131 18\n\u2013 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3993-3996", "Text": "This is due to the increasing stability of the lower species to which they\nare reduced Solution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n101\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nEFor the first row transition metals the Eo values are:\no\nV\nCr\nMn\nFe\nCo\nNi\nCu\n(M\n2+/M)\n\u20131 18\n\u2013 0 91\n\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3994-3997", "Text": "Solution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n101\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nEFor the first row transition metals the Eo values are:\no\nV\nCr\nMn\nFe\nCo\nNi\nCu\n(M\n2+/M)\n\u20131 18\n\u2013 0 91\n\u20131 18\n\u2013 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3995-3998", "Text": "18\n\u2013 0 91\n\u20131 18\n\u2013 0 44\n\u2013 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3996-3999", "Text": "91\n\u20131 18\n\u2013 0 44\n\u2013 0 28\n\u2013 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3997-4000", "Text": "18\n\u2013 0 44\n\u2013 0 28\n\u2013 0 25\n+0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3998-4001", "Text": "44\n\u2013 0 28\n\u2013 0 25\n+0 34\nExplain the irregularity in the above values"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "3999-4002", "Text": "28\n\u2013 0 25\n+0 34\nExplain the irregularity in the above values The E\no (M\n2+/M) values are not regular which can be explained from\nthe irregular variation of ionisation enthalpies (\ni\ni\n\uf044\n1\uf02b \uf044\n2\nH\nH ) and also\nthe sublimation enthalpies which are relatively much less for\nmanganese and vanadium"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4000-4003", "Text": "25\n+0 34\nExplain the irregularity in the above values The E\no (M\n2+/M) values are not regular which can be explained from\nthe irregular variation of ionisation enthalpies (\ni\ni\n\uf044\n1\uf02b \uf044\n2\nH\nH ) and also\nthe sublimation enthalpies which are relatively much less for\nmanganese and vanadium Why is the E\no value for the Mn\n3+/Mn\n2+ couple much more positive\nthan that for Cr\n3+/Cr\n2+ or Fe\n3+/Fe\n2+"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4001-4004", "Text": "34\nExplain the irregularity in the above values The E\no (M\n2+/M) values are not regular which can be explained from\nthe irregular variation of ionisation enthalpies (\ni\ni\n\uf044\n1\uf02b \uf044\n2\nH\nH ) and also\nthe sublimation enthalpies which are relatively much less for\nmanganese and vanadium Why is the E\no value for the Mn\n3+/Mn\n2+ couple much more positive\nthan that for Cr\n3+/Cr\n2+ or Fe\n3+/Fe\n2+ Explain"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4002-4005", "Text": "The E\no (M\n2+/M) values are not regular which can be explained from\nthe irregular variation of ionisation enthalpies (\ni\ni\n\uf044\n1\uf02b \uf044\n2\nH\nH ) and also\nthe sublimation enthalpies which are relatively much less for\nmanganese and vanadium Why is the E\no value for the Mn\n3+/Mn\n2+ couple much more positive\nthan that for Cr\n3+/Cr\n2+ or Fe\n3+/Fe\n2+ Explain Much larger third ionisation energy of Mn (where the required change\nis d\n5 to d\n4) is mainly responsible for this"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4003-4006", "Text": "Why is the E\no value for the Mn\n3+/Mn\n2+ couple much more positive\nthan that for Cr\n3+/Cr\n2+ or Fe\n3+/Fe\n2+ Explain Much larger third ionisation energy of Mn (where the required change\nis d\n5 to d\n4) is mainly responsible for this This also explains why the\n+3 state of Mn is of little importance"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4004-4007", "Text": "Explain Much larger third ionisation energy of Mn (where the required change\nis d\n5 to d\n4) is mainly responsible for this This also explains why the\n+3 state of Mn is of little importance 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4005-4008", "Text": "Much larger third ionisation energy of Mn (where the required change\nis d\n5 to d\n4) is mainly responsible for this This also explains why the\n+3 state of Mn is of little importance 4 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4006-4009", "Text": "This also explains why the\n+3 state of Mn is of little importance 4 3 9 Magnetic\nProperties\nTransition metals vary widely in their chemical reactivity"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4007-4010", "Text": "4 3 9 Magnetic\nProperties\nTransition metals vary widely in their chemical reactivity Many of\nthem are sufficiently electropositive to dissolve in mineral acids, although\na few are \u2018noble\u2019\u2014that is, they are unaffected by single acids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4008-4011", "Text": "3 9 Magnetic\nProperties\nTransition metals vary widely in their chemical reactivity Many of\nthem are sufficiently electropositive to dissolve in mineral acids, although\na few are \u2018noble\u2019\u2014that is, they are unaffected by single acids The metals of the first series with the exception of copper are relatively\nmore reactive and are oxidised by 1M H\n+, though the actual rate at\nwhich these metals react with oxidising agents like hydrogen ion (H\n+) is\nsometimes slow"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4009-4012", "Text": "9 Magnetic\nProperties\nTransition metals vary widely in their chemical reactivity Many of\nthem are sufficiently electropositive to dissolve in mineral acids, although\na few are \u2018noble\u2019\u2014that is, they are unaffected by single acids The metals of the first series with the exception of copper are relatively\nmore reactive and are oxidised by 1M H\n+, though the actual rate at\nwhich these metals react with oxidising agents like hydrogen ion (H\n+) is\nsometimes slow For example, titanium and vanadium, in practice, are\npassive to dilute non oxidising acids at room temperature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4010-4013", "Text": "Many of\nthem are sufficiently electropositive to dissolve in mineral acids, although\na few are \u2018noble\u2019\u2014that is, they are unaffected by single acids The metals of the first series with the exception of copper are relatively\nmore reactive and are oxidised by 1M H\n+, though the actual rate at\nwhich these metals react with oxidising agents like hydrogen ion (H\n+) is\nsometimes slow For example, titanium and vanadium, in practice, are\npassive to dilute non oxidising acids at room temperature The E\no values\nfor M\n2+/M (Table 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4011-4014", "Text": "The metals of the first series with the exception of copper are relatively\nmore reactive and are oxidised by 1M H\n+, though the actual rate at\nwhich these metals react with oxidising agents like hydrogen ion (H\n+) is\nsometimes slow For example, titanium and vanadium, in practice, are\npassive to dilute non oxidising acids at room temperature The E\no values\nfor M\n2+/M (Table 4 2) indicate a decreasing tendency to form divalent\ncations across the series"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4012-4015", "Text": "For example, titanium and vanadium, in practice, are\npassive to dilute non oxidising acids at room temperature The E\no values\nfor M\n2+/M (Table 4 2) indicate a decreasing tendency to form divalent\ncations across the series This general trend towards less negative E\no\nvalues is related to the increase in the sum of the first and second\nionisation enthalpies"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4013-4016", "Text": "The E\no values\nfor M\n2+/M (Table 4 2) indicate a decreasing tendency to form divalent\ncations across the series This general trend towards less negative E\no\nvalues is related to the increase in the sum of the first and second\nionisation enthalpies It is interesting to note that the E\no values for Mn,\nNi and Zn are more negative than expected from the general trend"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4014-4017", "Text": "2) indicate a decreasing tendency to form divalent\ncations across the series This general trend towards less negative E\no\nvalues is related to the increase in the sum of the first and second\nionisation enthalpies It is interesting to note that the E\no values for Mn,\nNi and Zn are more negative than expected from the general trend Whereas the stabilities of half-filled d subshell (d\n5) in Mn\n2+ and completely\nfilled d subshell (d\n10) in zinc are related to their E \ne values; for nickel, Eo\nvalue is related to the highest negative enthalpy of hydration"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4015-4018", "Text": "This general trend towards less negative E\no\nvalues is related to the increase in the sum of the first and second\nionisation enthalpies It is interesting to note that the E\no values for Mn,\nNi and Zn are more negative than expected from the general trend Whereas the stabilities of half-filled d subshell (d\n5) in Mn\n2+ and completely\nfilled d subshell (d\n10) in zinc are related to their E \ne values; for nickel, Eo\nvalue is related to the highest negative enthalpy of hydration An examination of the E\no values for the redox couple M\n3+/M\n2+ (Table\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4016-4019", "Text": "It is interesting to note that the E\no values for Mn,\nNi and Zn are more negative than expected from the general trend Whereas the stabilities of half-filled d subshell (d\n5) in Mn\n2+ and completely\nfilled d subshell (d\n10) in zinc are related to their E \ne values; for nickel, Eo\nvalue is related to the highest negative enthalpy of hydration An examination of the E\no values for the redox couple M\n3+/M\n2+ (Table\n4 2) shows that Mn\n3+ and Co\n3+ ions are the strongest oxidising agents\nin aqueous solutions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4017-4020", "Text": "Whereas the stabilities of half-filled d subshell (d\n5) in Mn\n2+ and completely\nfilled d subshell (d\n10) in zinc are related to their E \ne values; for nickel, Eo\nvalue is related to the highest negative enthalpy of hydration An examination of the E\no values for the redox couple M\n3+/M\n2+ (Table\n4 2) shows that Mn\n3+ and Co\n3+ ions are the strongest oxidising agents\nin aqueous solutions The ions Ti\n2+, V\n2+ and Cr\n2+ are strong reducing\nagents and will liberate hydrogen from a dilute acid, e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4018-4021", "Text": "An examination of the E\no values for the redox couple M\n3+/M\n2+ (Table\n4 2) shows that Mn\n3+ and Co\n3+ ions are the strongest oxidising agents\nin aqueous solutions The ions Ti\n2+, V\n2+ and Cr\n2+ are strong reducing\nagents and will liberate hydrogen from a dilute acid, e g"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4019-4022", "Text": "2) shows that Mn\n3+ and Co\n3+ ions are the strongest oxidising agents\nin aqueous solutions The ions Ti\n2+, V\n2+ and Cr\n2+ are strong reducing\nagents and will liberate hydrogen from a dilute acid, e g ,\n2 Cr\n2+(aq) + 2 H\n+(aq) \u00ae 2 Cr\n3+(aq) + H2(g)\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4020-4023", "Text": "The ions Ti\n2+, V\n2+ and Cr\n2+ are strong reducing\nagents and will liberate hydrogen from a dilute acid, e g ,\n2 Cr\n2+(aq) + 2 H\n+(aq) \u00ae 2 Cr\n3+(aq) + H2(g)\n4 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4021-4024", "Text": "g ,\n2 Cr\n2+(aq) + 2 H\n+(aq) \u00ae 2 Cr\n3+(aq) + H2(g)\n4 3 8 Chemical\nReactivity\nand E\no\nValues\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4022-4025", "Text": ",\n2 Cr\n2+(aq) + 2 H\n+(aq) \u00ae 2 Cr\n3+(aq) + H2(g)\n4 3 8 Chemical\nReactivity\nand E\no\nValues\nExample 4 6\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4023-4026", "Text": "3 8 Chemical\nReactivity\nand E\no\nValues\nExample 4 6\nExample 4 6\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4024-4027", "Text": "8 Chemical\nReactivity\nand E\no\nValues\nExample 4 6\nExample 4 6\nExample 4 6\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4025-4028", "Text": "6\nExample 4 6\nExample 4 6\nExample 4 6\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4026-4029", "Text": "6\nExample 4 6\nExample 4 6\nExample 4 6\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4027-4030", "Text": "6\nExample 4 6\nExample 4 6\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n4 6 Why is the highest oxidation state of a metal exhibited in its oxide or\nfluoride only"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4028-4031", "Text": "6\nExample 4 6\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n4 6 Why is the highest oxidation state of a metal exhibited in its oxide or\nfluoride only 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4029-4032", "Text": "6\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n4 6 Why is the highest oxidation state of a metal exhibited in its oxide or\nfluoride only 4 7 Which is a stronger reducing agent Cr\n2+ or Fe\n2+ and why"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4030-4033", "Text": "6 Why is the highest oxidation state of a metal exhibited in its oxide or\nfluoride only 4 7 Which is a stronger reducing agent Cr\n2+ or Fe\n2+ and why When a magnetic field is applied to substances, mainly two types of\nmagnetic behaviour are observed: diamagnetism and paramagnetism"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4031-4034", "Text": "4 7 Which is a stronger reducing agent Cr\n2+ or Fe\n2+ and why When a magnetic field is applied to substances, mainly two types of\nmagnetic behaviour are observed: diamagnetism and paramagnetism Diamagnetic substances are repelled by the applied field while the\nparamagnetic substances are attracted"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4032-4035", "Text": "7 Which is a stronger reducing agent Cr\n2+ or Fe\n2+ and why When a magnetic field is applied to substances, mainly two types of\nmagnetic behaviour are observed: diamagnetism and paramagnetism Diamagnetic substances are repelled by the applied field while the\nparamagnetic substances are attracted Substances which are\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4033-4036", "Text": "When a magnetic field is applied to substances, mainly two types of\nmagnetic behaviour are observed: diamagnetism and paramagnetism Diamagnetic substances are repelled by the applied field while the\nparamagnetic substances are attracted Substances which are\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nExample 4 7\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4034-4037", "Text": "Diamagnetic substances are repelled by the applied field while the\nparamagnetic substances are attracted Substances which are\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nExample 4 7\nExample 4 7\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4035-4038", "Text": "Substances which are\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nExample 4 7\nExample 4 7\nExample 4 7\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4036-4039", "Text": "7\nExample 4 7\nExample 4 7\nExample 4 7\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4037-4040", "Text": "7\nExample 4 7\nExample 4 7\nExample 4 7\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n102\nChemistry\nattracted very strongly are said to be ferromagnetic"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4038-4041", "Text": "7\nExample 4 7\nExample 4 7\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n102\nChemistry\nattracted very strongly are said to be ferromagnetic In fact,\nferromagnetism is an extreme form of paramagnetism"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4039-4042", "Text": "7\nExample 4 7\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n102\nChemistry\nattracted very strongly are said to be ferromagnetic In fact,\nferromagnetism is an extreme form of paramagnetism Many of the\ntransition metal ions are paramagnetic"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4040-4043", "Text": "7\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n102\nChemistry\nattracted very strongly are said to be ferromagnetic In fact,\nferromagnetism is an extreme form of paramagnetism Many of the\ntransition metal ions are paramagnetic Paramagnetism arises from the presence of unpaired electrons, each\nsuch electron having a magnetic moment associated with its spin angular\nmomentum and orbital angular momentum"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4041-4044", "Text": "In fact,\nferromagnetism is an extreme form of paramagnetism Many of the\ntransition metal ions are paramagnetic Paramagnetism arises from the presence of unpaired electrons, each\nsuch electron having a magnetic moment associated with its spin angular\nmomentum and orbital angular momentum For the compounds of the\nfirst series of transition metals, the contribution of the orbital angular\nmomentum is effectively quenched and hence is of no significance"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4042-4045", "Text": "Many of the\ntransition metal ions are paramagnetic Paramagnetism arises from the presence of unpaired electrons, each\nsuch electron having a magnetic moment associated with its spin angular\nmomentum and orbital angular momentum For the compounds of the\nfirst series of transition metals, the contribution of the orbital angular\nmomentum is effectively quenched and hence is of no significance For\nthese, the magnetic moment is determined by the number of unpaired\nelectrons and is calculated by using the \u2018spin-only\u2019 formula, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4043-4046", "Text": "Paramagnetism arises from the presence of unpaired electrons, each\nsuch electron having a magnetic moment associated with its spin angular\nmomentum and orbital angular momentum For the compounds of the\nfirst series of transition metals, the contribution of the orbital angular\nmomentum is effectively quenched and hence is of no significance For\nthese, the magnetic moment is determined by the number of unpaired\nelectrons and is calculated by using the \u2018spin-only\u2019 formula, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4044-4047", "Text": "For the compounds of the\nfirst series of transition metals, the contribution of the orbital angular\nmomentum is effectively quenched and hence is of no significance For\nthese, the magnetic moment is determined by the number of unpaired\nelectrons and is calculated by using the \u2018spin-only\u2019 formula, i e ,\n\uf028\n\uf029\nn n\n2\n\uf06d \uf03d\n\uf02b\nwhere n is the number of unpaired electrons and \u00b5 is the magnetic\nmoment in units of Bohr magneton (BM)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4045-4048", "Text": "For\nthese, the magnetic moment is determined by the number of unpaired\nelectrons and is calculated by using the \u2018spin-only\u2019 formula, i e ,\n\uf028\n\uf029\nn n\n2\n\uf06d \uf03d\n\uf02b\nwhere n is the number of unpaired electrons and \u00b5 is the magnetic\nmoment in units of Bohr magneton (BM) A single unpaired electron\nhas a magnetic moment of 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4046-4049", "Text": "e ,\n\uf028\n\uf029\nn n\n2\n\uf06d \uf03d\n\uf02b\nwhere n is the number of unpaired electrons and \u00b5 is the magnetic\nmoment in units of Bohr magneton (BM) A single unpaired electron\nhas a magnetic moment of 1 73 Bohr magnetons (BM)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4047-4050", "Text": ",\n\uf028\n\uf029\nn n\n2\n\uf06d \uf03d\n\uf02b\nwhere n is the number of unpaired electrons and \u00b5 is the magnetic\nmoment in units of Bohr magneton (BM) A single unpaired electron\nhas a magnetic moment of 1 73 Bohr magnetons (BM) The magnetic moment increases with the increasing number of\nunpaired electrons"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4048-4051", "Text": "A single unpaired electron\nhas a magnetic moment of 1 73 Bohr magnetons (BM) The magnetic moment increases with the increasing number of\nunpaired electrons Thus, the observed magnetic moment gives a useful\nindication about the number of unpaired electrons present in the atom,\nmolecule or ion"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4049-4052", "Text": "73 Bohr magnetons (BM) The magnetic moment increases with the increasing number of\nunpaired electrons Thus, the observed magnetic moment gives a useful\nindication about the number of unpaired electrons present in the atom,\nmolecule or ion The magnetic moments calculated from the \u2018spin-only\u2019\nformula and those derived experimentally for some ions of the first row\ntransition elements are given in Table 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4050-4053", "Text": "The magnetic moment increases with the increasing number of\nunpaired electrons Thus, the observed magnetic moment gives a useful\nindication about the number of unpaired electrons present in the atom,\nmolecule or ion The magnetic moments calculated from the \u2018spin-only\u2019\nformula and those derived experimentally for some ions of the first row\ntransition elements are given in Table 4 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4051-4054", "Text": "Thus, the observed magnetic moment gives a useful\nindication about the number of unpaired electrons present in the atom,\nmolecule or ion The magnetic moments calculated from the \u2018spin-only\u2019\nformula and those derived experimentally for some ions of the first row\ntransition elements are given in Table 4 7 The experimental data are\nmainly for hydrated ions in solution or in the solid state"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4052-4055", "Text": "The magnetic moments calculated from the \u2018spin-only\u2019\nformula and those derived experimentally for some ions of the first row\ntransition elements are given in Table 4 7 The experimental data are\nmainly for hydrated ions in solution or in the solid state Sc\n3+\n3d\n0\n0\n0\n0\nTi\n3+\n3d\n1\n1\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4053-4056", "Text": "7 The experimental data are\nmainly for hydrated ions in solution or in the solid state Sc\n3+\n3d\n0\n0\n0\n0\nTi\n3+\n3d\n1\n1\n1 73\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4054-4057", "Text": "The experimental data are\nmainly for hydrated ions in solution or in the solid state Sc\n3+\n3d\n0\n0\n0\n0\nTi\n3+\n3d\n1\n1\n1 73\n1 75\nTl\n2+\n3d\n2\n2\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4055-4058", "Text": "Sc\n3+\n3d\n0\n0\n0\n0\nTi\n3+\n3d\n1\n1\n1 73\n1 75\nTl\n2+\n3d\n2\n2\n2 84\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4056-4059", "Text": "73\n1 75\nTl\n2+\n3d\n2\n2\n2 84\n2 76\nV\n2+\n3d\n3\n3\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4057-4060", "Text": "75\nTl\n2+\n3d\n2\n2\n2 84\n2 76\nV\n2+\n3d\n3\n3\n3 87\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4058-4061", "Text": "84\n2 76\nV\n2+\n3d\n3\n3\n3 87\n3 86\nCr\n2+\n3d\n4\n4\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4059-4062", "Text": "76\nV\n2+\n3d\n3\n3\n3 87\n3 86\nCr\n2+\n3d\n4\n4\n4 90\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4060-4063", "Text": "87\n3 86\nCr\n2+\n3d\n4\n4\n4 90\n4 80\nMn\n2+\n3d\n5\n5\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4061-4064", "Text": "86\nCr\n2+\n3d\n4\n4\n4 90\n4 80\nMn\n2+\n3d\n5\n5\n5 92\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4062-4065", "Text": "90\n4 80\nMn\n2+\n3d\n5\n5\n5 92\n5 96\nFe\n2+\n3d\n6\n4\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4063-4066", "Text": "80\nMn\n2+\n3d\n5\n5\n5 92\n5 96\nFe\n2+\n3d\n6\n4\n4 90\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4064-4067", "Text": "92\n5 96\nFe\n2+\n3d\n6\n4\n4 90\n5 3 \u2013 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4065-4068", "Text": "96\nFe\n2+\n3d\n6\n4\n4 90\n5 3 \u2013 5 5\nCo\n2+\n3d\n7\n3\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4066-4069", "Text": "90\n5 3 \u2013 5 5\nCo\n2+\n3d\n7\n3\n3 87\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4067-4070", "Text": "3 \u2013 5 5\nCo\n2+\n3d\n7\n3\n3 87\n4 4 \u2013 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4068-4071", "Text": "5\nCo\n2+\n3d\n7\n3\n3 87\n4 4 \u2013 5 2\nNi\n2+\n3d\n8\n2\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4069-4072", "Text": "87\n4 4 \u2013 5 2\nNi\n2+\n3d\n8\n2\n2 84\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4070-4073", "Text": "4 \u2013 5 2\nNi\n2+\n3d\n8\n2\n2 84\n2 9 \u2013 3, 4\nCu\n2+\n3d\n9\n1\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4071-4074", "Text": "2\nNi\n2+\n3d\n8\n2\n2 84\n2 9 \u2013 3, 4\nCu\n2+\n3d\n9\n1\n1 73\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4072-4075", "Text": "84\n2 9 \u2013 3, 4\nCu\n2+\n3d\n9\n1\n1 73\n1 8 \u2013 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4073-4076", "Text": "9 \u2013 3, 4\nCu\n2+\n3d\n9\n1\n1 73\n1 8 \u2013 2 2\nZn\n2+\n3d\n10\n0\n0\nIon\nConfiguration\nUnpaired\nelectron(s)\nMagnetic moment\nCalculated\nObserved\nTable 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4074-4077", "Text": "73\n1 8 \u2013 2 2\nZn\n2+\n3d\n10\n0\n0\nIon\nConfiguration\nUnpaired\nelectron(s)\nMagnetic moment\nCalculated\nObserved\nTable 4 7: Calculated and Observed Magnetic Moments (BM)\nCalculate the magnetic moment of a divalent ion in aqueous solution\nif its atomic number is 25"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4075-4078", "Text": "8 \u2013 2 2\nZn\n2+\n3d\n10\n0\n0\nIon\nConfiguration\nUnpaired\nelectron(s)\nMagnetic moment\nCalculated\nObserved\nTable 4 7: Calculated and Observed Magnetic Moments (BM)\nCalculate the magnetic moment of a divalent ion in aqueous solution\nif its atomic number is 25 dWith atomic number 25, the divalent ion in aqueous solution will have\n5 configuration (five unpaired electrons)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4076-4079", "Text": "2\nZn\n2+\n3d\n10\n0\n0\nIon\nConfiguration\nUnpaired\nelectron(s)\nMagnetic moment\nCalculated\nObserved\nTable 4 7: Calculated and Observed Magnetic Moments (BM)\nCalculate the magnetic moment of a divalent ion in aqueous solution\nif its atomic number is 25 dWith atomic number 25, the divalent ion in aqueous solution will have\n5 configuration (five unpaired electrons) The magnetic moment, \u00b5 is\n\uf028\n\uf029\n5\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4077-4080", "Text": "7: Calculated and Observed Magnetic Moments (BM)\nCalculate the magnetic moment of a divalent ion in aqueous solution\nif its atomic number is 25 dWith atomic number 25, the divalent ion in aqueous solution will have\n5 configuration (five unpaired electrons) The magnetic moment, \u00b5 is\n\uf028\n\uf029\n5\n5 92BM\n5\n2\n\uf06d \uf03d\n\uf03d\n\uf02b\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4078-4081", "Text": "dWith atomic number 25, the divalent ion in aqueous solution will have\n5 configuration (five unpaired electrons) The magnetic moment, \u00b5 is\n\uf028\n\uf029\n5\n5 92BM\n5\n2\n\uf06d \uf03d\n\uf03d\n\uf02b\nExample 4 8\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4079-4082", "Text": "The magnetic moment, \u00b5 is\n\uf028\n\uf029\n5\n5 92BM\n5\n2\n\uf06d \uf03d\n\uf03d\n\uf02b\nExample 4 8\nExample 4 8\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4080-4083", "Text": "92BM\n5\n2\n\uf06d \uf03d\n\uf03d\n\uf02b\nExample 4 8\nExample 4 8\nExample 4 8\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4081-4084", "Text": "8\nExample 4 8\nExample 4 8\nExample 4 8\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4082-4085", "Text": "8\nExample 4 8\nExample 4 8\nExample 4 8\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n103\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\n3d\n0\nSc\n3+\ncolourless\n3d\n0\nTi\n4+\ncolourless\n3d\n1\nTi\n3+\npurple\n3d\n1\nV\n4+\nblue\n3d\n2\nV\n3+\ngreen\n3d\n3\nV\n2+\nviolet\n3d\n3\nCr\n3+\nviolet\n3d\n4\nMn\n3+\nviolet\n3d\n4\nCr\n2+\nblue\n3d\n5\nMn\n2+\npink\n3d\n5\nFe\n3+\nyellow\n3d\n6\nFe\n2+\ngreen\n3d\n63d\n7\nCo\n3+Co\n2+\nbluepink\n3d\n8\nNi\n2+\ngreen\n3d\n9\nCu\n2+\nblue\n3d\n10\nZn\n2+\ncolourless\nConfiguration\nExample\nColour\nTable 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4083-4086", "Text": "8\nExample 4 8\nExample 4 8\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n103\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\n3d\n0\nSc\n3+\ncolourless\n3d\n0\nTi\n4+\ncolourless\n3d\n1\nTi\n3+\npurple\n3d\n1\nV\n4+\nblue\n3d\n2\nV\n3+\ngreen\n3d\n3\nV\n2+\nviolet\n3d\n3\nCr\n3+\nviolet\n3d\n4\nMn\n3+\nviolet\n3d\n4\nCr\n2+\nblue\n3d\n5\nMn\n2+\npink\n3d\n5\nFe\n3+\nyellow\n3d\n6\nFe\n2+\ngreen\n3d\n63d\n7\nCo\n3+Co\n2+\nbluepink\n3d\n8\nNi\n2+\ngreen\n3d\n9\nCu\n2+\nblue\n3d\n10\nZn\n2+\ncolourless\nConfiguration\nExample\nColour\nTable 4 8: Colours of Some of the First Row\n(aquated) Transition Metal Ions\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4084-4087", "Text": "8\nExample 4 8\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n103\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\n3d\n0\nSc\n3+\ncolourless\n3d\n0\nTi\n4+\ncolourless\n3d\n1\nTi\n3+\npurple\n3d\n1\nV\n4+\nblue\n3d\n2\nV\n3+\ngreen\n3d\n3\nV\n2+\nviolet\n3d\n3\nCr\n3+\nviolet\n3d\n4\nMn\n3+\nviolet\n3d\n4\nCr\n2+\nblue\n3d\n5\nMn\n2+\npink\n3d\n5\nFe\n3+\nyellow\n3d\n6\nFe\n2+\ngreen\n3d\n63d\n7\nCo\n3+Co\n2+\nbluepink\n3d\n8\nNi\n2+\ngreen\n3d\n9\nCu\n2+\nblue\n3d\n10\nZn\n2+\ncolourless\nConfiguration\nExample\nColour\nTable 4 8: Colours of Some of the First Row\n(aquated) Transition Metal Ions\n4 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4085-4088", "Text": "8\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n103\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\n3d\n0\nSc\n3+\ncolourless\n3d\n0\nTi\n4+\ncolourless\n3d\n1\nTi\n3+\npurple\n3d\n1\nV\n4+\nblue\n3d\n2\nV\n3+\ngreen\n3d\n3\nV\n2+\nviolet\n3d\n3\nCr\n3+\nviolet\n3d\n4\nMn\n3+\nviolet\n3d\n4\nCr\n2+\nblue\n3d\n5\nMn\n2+\npink\n3d\n5\nFe\n3+\nyellow\n3d\n6\nFe\n2+\ngreen\n3d\n63d\n7\nCo\n3+Co\n2+\nbluepink\n3d\n8\nNi\n2+\ngreen\n3d\n9\nCu\n2+\nblue\n3d\n10\nZn\n2+\ncolourless\nConfiguration\nExample\nColour\nTable 4 8: Colours of Some of the First Row\n(aquated) Transition Metal Ions\n4 3 11 Formation\nof Complex\nCompounds\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4086-4089", "Text": "8: Colours of Some of the First Row\n(aquated) Transition Metal Ions\n4 3 11 Formation\nof Complex\nCompounds\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n4 8 Calculate the \u2018spin only\u2019 magnetic moment of M\n2+\n(aq) ion (Z = 27)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4087-4090", "Text": "3 11 Formation\nof Complex\nCompounds\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n4 8 Calculate the \u2018spin only\u2019 magnetic moment of M\n2+\n(aq) ion (Z = 27) When an electron from a lower energy d orbital is excited to a higher\nenergy d orbital, the energy of excitation corresponds to the frequency\nof light absorbed (Unit 5)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4088-4091", "Text": "11 Formation\nof Complex\nCompounds\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n4 8 Calculate the \u2018spin only\u2019 magnetic moment of M\n2+\n(aq) ion (Z = 27) When an electron from a lower energy d orbital is excited to a higher\nenergy d orbital, the energy of excitation corresponds to the frequency\nof light absorbed (Unit 5) This frequency generally lies in the visible\nregion"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4089-4092", "Text": "8 Calculate the \u2018spin only\u2019 magnetic moment of M\n2+\n(aq) ion (Z = 27) When an electron from a lower energy d orbital is excited to a higher\nenergy d orbital, the energy of excitation corresponds to the frequency\nof light absorbed (Unit 5) This frequency generally lies in the visible\nregion The colour observed corresponds to the complementary colour\nof the light absorbed"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4090-4093", "Text": "When an electron from a lower energy d orbital is excited to a higher\nenergy d orbital, the energy of excitation corresponds to the frequency\nof light absorbed (Unit 5) This frequency generally lies in the visible\nregion The colour observed corresponds to the complementary colour\nof the light absorbed The\nfrequency of the light\nabsorbed is determined by\nthe nature of the ligand"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4091-4094", "Text": "This frequency generally lies in the visible\nregion The colour observed corresponds to the complementary colour\nof the light absorbed The\nfrequency of the light\nabsorbed is determined by\nthe nature of the ligand In \naqueous \nsolutions\nwhere water molecules are\nthe ligands, the colours\nof the ions observed are\nlisted in Table 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4092-4095", "Text": "The colour observed corresponds to the complementary colour\nof the light absorbed The\nfrequency of the light\nabsorbed is determined by\nthe nature of the ligand In \naqueous \nsolutions\nwhere water molecules are\nthe ligands, the colours\nof the ions observed are\nlisted in Table 4 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4093-4096", "Text": "The\nfrequency of the light\nabsorbed is determined by\nthe nature of the ligand In \naqueous \nsolutions\nwhere water molecules are\nthe ligands, the colours\nof the ions observed are\nlisted in Table 4 8 A few\ncoloured \nsolutions \nof\nd\u2013block \nelements \nare\nillustrated in Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4094-4097", "Text": "In \naqueous \nsolutions\nwhere water molecules are\nthe ligands, the colours\nof the ions observed are\nlisted in Table 4 8 A few\ncoloured \nsolutions \nof\nd\u2013block \nelements \nare\nillustrated in Fig 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4095-4098", "Text": "8 A few\ncoloured \nsolutions \nof\nd\u2013block \nelements \nare\nillustrated in Fig 4 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4096-4099", "Text": "A few\ncoloured \nsolutions \nof\nd\u2013block \nelements \nare\nillustrated in Fig 4 5 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4097-4100", "Text": "4 5 4 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4098-4101", "Text": "5 4 3 10 Formation\nof Coloured\nIons\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4099-4102", "Text": "4 3 10 Formation\nof Coloured\nIons\nFig 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4100-4103", "Text": "3 10 Formation\nof Coloured\nIons\nFig 4 5: Colours of some of the first row\ntransition metal ions in aqueous solutions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4101-4104", "Text": "10 Formation\nof Coloured\nIons\nFig 4 5: Colours of some of the first row\ntransition metal ions in aqueous solutions From\nleft to right: V4+,V3+,Mn2+,Fe3+,Co2+,Ni2+and Cu2+"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4102-4105", "Text": "4 5: Colours of some of the first row\ntransition metal ions in aqueous solutions From\nleft to right: V4+,V3+,Mn2+,Fe3+,Co2+,Ni2+and Cu2+ Complex compounds are those in which the metal ions bind a number\nof anions or neutral molecules giving complex species with\ncharacteristic properties"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4103-4106", "Text": "5: Colours of some of the first row\ntransition metal ions in aqueous solutions From\nleft to right: V4+,V3+,Mn2+,Fe3+,Co2+,Ni2+and Cu2+ Complex compounds are those in which the metal ions bind a number\nof anions or neutral molecules giving complex species with\ncharacteristic properties A few examples are: [Fe(CN)6]\n3\u2013, [Fe(CN)6]\n4\u2013,\n[Cu(NH3)4]\n2+ and [PtCl4]\n2\u2013"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4104-4107", "Text": "From\nleft to right: V4+,V3+,Mn2+,Fe3+,Co2+,Ni2+and Cu2+ Complex compounds are those in which the metal ions bind a number\nof anions or neutral molecules giving complex species with\ncharacteristic properties A few examples are: [Fe(CN)6]\n3\u2013, [Fe(CN)6]\n4\u2013,\n[Cu(NH3)4]\n2+ and [PtCl4]\n2\u2013 (The chemistry of complex compounds is\nRationalised 2023-24\n104\nChemistry\ndealt with in detail in Unit 5)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4105-4108", "Text": "Complex compounds are those in which the metal ions bind a number\nof anions or neutral molecules giving complex species with\ncharacteristic properties A few examples are: [Fe(CN)6]\n3\u2013, [Fe(CN)6]\n4\u2013,\n[Cu(NH3)4]\n2+ and [PtCl4]\n2\u2013 (The chemistry of complex compounds is\nRationalised 2023-24\n104\nChemistry\ndealt with in detail in Unit 5) The transition metals form a large\nnumber of complex compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4106-4109", "Text": "A few examples are: [Fe(CN)6]\n3\u2013, [Fe(CN)6]\n4\u2013,\n[Cu(NH3)4]\n2+ and [PtCl4]\n2\u2013 (The chemistry of complex compounds is\nRationalised 2023-24\n104\nChemistry\ndealt with in detail in Unit 5) The transition metals form a large\nnumber of complex compounds This is due to the comparatively\nsmaller sizes of the metal ions, their high ionic charges and the\navailability of d orbitals for bond formation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4107-4110", "Text": "(The chemistry of complex compounds is\nRationalised 2023-24\n104\nChemistry\ndealt with in detail in Unit 5) The transition metals form a large\nnumber of complex compounds This is due to the comparatively\nsmaller sizes of the metal ions, their high ionic charges and the\navailability of d orbitals for bond formation The transition metals and their compounds are known for their catalytic\nactivity"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4108-4111", "Text": "The transition metals form a large\nnumber of complex compounds This is due to the comparatively\nsmaller sizes of the metal ions, their high ionic charges and the\navailability of d orbitals for bond formation The transition metals and their compounds are known for their catalytic\nactivity This activity is ascribed to their ability to adopt multiple\noxidation states and to form complexes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4109-4112", "Text": "This is due to the comparatively\nsmaller sizes of the metal ions, their high ionic charges and the\navailability of d orbitals for bond formation The transition metals and their compounds are known for their catalytic\nactivity This activity is ascribed to their ability to adopt multiple\noxidation states and to form complexes Vanadium(V) oxide (in Contact\nProcess), finely divided iron (in Haber\u2019s Process), and nickel (in Catalytic\nHydrogenation) are some of the examples"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4110-4113", "Text": "The transition metals and their compounds are known for their catalytic\nactivity This activity is ascribed to their ability to adopt multiple\noxidation states and to form complexes Vanadium(V) oxide (in Contact\nProcess), finely divided iron (in Haber\u2019s Process), and nickel (in Catalytic\nHydrogenation) are some of the examples Catalysts at a solid surface\ninvolve the formation of bonds between reactant molecules and atoms\nof the surface of the catalyst (first row transition metals utilise 3d and\n4s electrons for bonding)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4111-4114", "Text": "This activity is ascribed to their ability to adopt multiple\noxidation states and to form complexes Vanadium(V) oxide (in Contact\nProcess), finely divided iron (in Haber\u2019s Process), and nickel (in Catalytic\nHydrogenation) are some of the examples Catalysts at a solid surface\ninvolve the formation of bonds between reactant molecules and atoms\nof the surface of the catalyst (first row transition metals utilise 3d and\n4s electrons for bonding) This has the effect of increasing the\nconcentration of the reactants at the catalyst surface and also weakening\nof the bonds in the reacting molecules (the activation energy is lowering)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4112-4115", "Text": "Vanadium(V) oxide (in Contact\nProcess), finely divided iron (in Haber\u2019s Process), and nickel (in Catalytic\nHydrogenation) are some of the examples Catalysts at a solid surface\ninvolve the formation of bonds between reactant molecules and atoms\nof the surface of the catalyst (first row transition metals utilise 3d and\n4s electrons for bonding) This has the effect of increasing the\nconcentration of the reactants at the catalyst surface and also weakening\nof the bonds in the reacting molecules (the activation energy is lowering) Also because the transition metal ions can change their oxidation states,\nthey become more effective as catalysts"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4113-4116", "Text": "Catalysts at a solid surface\ninvolve the formation of bonds between reactant molecules and atoms\nof the surface of the catalyst (first row transition metals utilise 3d and\n4s electrons for bonding) This has the effect of increasing the\nconcentration of the reactants at the catalyst surface and also weakening\nof the bonds in the reacting molecules (the activation energy is lowering) Also because the transition metal ions can change their oxidation states,\nthey become more effective as catalysts For example, iron(III) catalyses\nthe reaction between iodide and persulphate ions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4114-4117", "Text": "This has the effect of increasing the\nconcentration of the reactants at the catalyst surface and also weakening\nof the bonds in the reacting molecules (the activation energy is lowering) Also because the transition metal ions can change their oxidation states,\nthey become more effective as catalysts For example, iron(III) catalyses\nthe reaction between iodide and persulphate ions 2 I\n\u2013 + S2O8\n2\u2013 \u00ae I2 + 2 SO4\n2\u2013\nAn explanation of this catalytic action can be given as:\n2 Fe\n3+ + 2 I\n\u2013 \u00ae 2 Fe\n2+ + I2\n2 Fe\n2+ + S2O8\n2\u2013 \u00ae 2 Fe\n3+ + 2SO4\n2\u2013\nInterstitial compounds are those which are formed when small atoms\nlike H, C or N are trapped inside the crystal lattices of metals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4115-4118", "Text": "Also because the transition metal ions can change their oxidation states,\nthey become more effective as catalysts For example, iron(III) catalyses\nthe reaction between iodide and persulphate ions 2 I\n\u2013 + S2O8\n2\u2013 \u00ae I2 + 2 SO4\n2\u2013\nAn explanation of this catalytic action can be given as:\n2 Fe\n3+ + 2 I\n\u2013 \u00ae 2 Fe\n2+ + I2\n2 Fe\n2+ + S2O8\n2\u2013 \u00ae 2 Fe\n3+ + 2SO4\n2\u2013\nInterstitial compounds are those which are formed when small atoms\nlike H, C or N are trapped inside the crystal lattices of metals They are\nusually non stoichiometric and are neither typically ionic nor covalent,\nfor example, TiC, Mn4N, Fe3H, VH0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4116-4119", "Text": "For example, iron(III) catalyses\nthe reaction between iodide and persulphate ions 2 I\n\u2013 + S2O8\n2\u2013 \u00ae I2 + 2 SO4\n2\u2013\nAn explanation of this catalytic action can be given as:\n2 Fe\n3+ + 2 I\n\u2013 \u00ae 2 Fe\n2+ + I2\n2 Fe\n2+ + S2O8\n2\u2013 \u00ae 2 Fe\n3+ + 2SO4\n2\u2013\nInterstitial compounds are those which are formed when small atoms\nlike H, C or N are trapped inside the crystal lattices of metals They are\nusually non stoichiometric and are neither typically ionic nor covalent,\nfor example, TiC, Mn4N, Fe3H, VH0 56 and TiH1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4117-4120", "Text": "2 I\n\u2013 + S2O8\n2\u2013 \u00ae I2 + 2 SO4\n2\u2013\nAn explanation of this catalytic action can be given as:\n2 Fe\n3+ + 2 I\n\u2013 \u00ae 2 Fe\n2+ + I2\n2 Fe\n2+ + S2O8\n2\u2013 \u00ae 2 Fe\n3+ + 2SO4\n2\u2013\nInterstitial compounds are those which are formed when small atoms\nlike H, C or N are trapped inside the crystal lattices of metals They are\nusually non stoichiometric and are neither typically ionic nor covalent,\nfor example, TiC, Mn4N, Fe3H, VH0 56 and TiH1 7, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4118-4121", "Text": "They are\nusually non stoichiometric and are neither typically ionic nor covalent,\nfor example, TiC, Mn4N, Fe3H, VH0 56 and TiH1 7, etc The formulas\nquoted do not, of course, correspond to any normal oxidation state of\nthe metal"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4119-4122", "Text": "56 and TiH1 7, etc The formulas\nquoted do not, of course, correspond to any normal oxidation state of\nthe metal Because of the nature of their composition, these compounds\nare referred to as interstitial compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4120-4123", "Text": "7, etc The formulas\nquoted do not, of course, correspond to any normal oxidation state of\nthe metal Because of the nature of their composition, these compounds\nare referred to as interstitial compounds The principal physical and\nchemical characteristics of these compounds are as follows:\n(i) They have high melting points, higher than those of pure metals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4121-4124", "Text": "The formulas\nquoted do not, of course, correspond to any normal oxidation state of\nthe metal Because of the nature of their composition, these compounds\nare referred to as interstitial compounds The principal physical and\nchemical characteristics of these compounds are as follows:\n(i) They have high melting points, higher than those of pure metals (ii) They are very hard, some borides approach diamond in hardness"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4122-4125", "Text": "Because of the nature of their composition, these compounds\nare referred to as interstitial compounds The principal physical and\nchemical characteristics of these compounds are as follows:\n(i) They have high melting points, higher than those of pure metals (ii) They are very hard, some borides approach diamond in hardness (iii) They retain metallic conductivity"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4123-4126", "Text": "The principal physical and\nchemical characteristics of these compounds are as follows:\n(i) They have high melting points, higher than those of pure metals (ii) They are very hard, some borides approach diamond in hardness (iii) They retain metallic conductivity (iv) They are chemically inert"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4124-4127", "Text": "(ii) They are very hard, some borides approach diamond in hardness (iii) They retain metallic conductivity (iv) They are chemically inert An alloy is a blend of metals prepared by mixing the components"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4125-4128", "Text": "(iii) They retain metallic conductivity (iv) They are chemically inert An alloy is a blend of metals prepared by mixing the components Alloys may be homogeneous solid solutions in which the atoms of one\nmetal are distributed randomly among the atoms of the other"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4126-4129", "Text": "(iv) They are chemically inert An alloy is a blend of metals prepared by mixing the components Alloys may be homogeneous solid solutions in which the atoms of one\nmetal are distributed randomly among the atoms of the other Such\nalloys are formed by atoms with metallic radii that are within about 15\npercent of each other"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4127-4130", "Text": "An alloy is a blend of metals prepared by mixing the components Alloys may be homogeneous solid solutions in which the atoms of one\nmetal are distributed randomly among the atoms of the other Such\nalloys are formed by atoms with metallic radii that are within about 15\npercent of each other Because of similar radii and other characteristics\nof transition metals, alloys are readily formed by these metals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4128-4131", "Text": "Alloys may be homogeneous solid solutions in which the atoms of one\nmetal are distributed randomly among the atoms of the other Such\nalloys are formed by atoms with metallic radii that are within about 15\npercent of each other Because of similar radii and other characteristics\nof transition metals, alloys are readily formed by these metals The\nalloys so formed are hard and have often high melting points"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4129-4132", "Text": "Such\nalloys are formed by atoms with metallic radii that are within about 15\npercent of each other Because of similar radii and other characteristics\nof transition metals, alloys are readily formed by these metals The\nalloys so formed are hard and have often high melting points The best\nknown are ferrous alloys: chromium, vanadium, tungsten, molybdenum\nand manganese are used for the production of a variety of steels and\nstainless steel"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4130-4133", "Text": "Because of similar radii and other characteristics\nof transition metals, alloys are readily formed by these metals The\nalloys so formed are hard and have often high melting points The best\nknown are ferrous alloys: chromium, vanadium, tungsten, molybdenum\nand manganese are used for the production of a variety of steels and\nstainless steel Alloys of transition metals with non transition metals\nsuch as brass (copper-zinc) and bronze (copper-tin), are also of\nconsiderable industrial importance"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4131-4134", "Text": "The\nalloys so formed are hard and have often high melting points The best\nknown are ferrous alloys: chromium, vanadium, tungsten, molybdenum\nand manganese are used for the production of a variety of steels and\nstainless steel Alloys of transition metals with non transition metals\nsuch as brass (copper-zinc) and bronze (copper-tin), are also of\nconsiderable industrial importance 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4132-4135", "Text": "The best\nknown are ferrous alloys: chromium, vanadium, tungsten, molybdenum\nand manganese are used for the production of a variety of steels and\nstainless steel Alloys of transition metals with non transition metals\nsuch as brass (copper-zinc) and bronze (copper-tin), are also of\nconsiderable industrial importance 4 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4133-4136", "Text": "Alloys of transition metals with non transition metals\nsuch as brass (copper-zinc) and bronze (copper-tin), are also of\nconsiderable industrial importance 4 3 12 Catalytic\nProperties\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4134-4137", "Text": "4 3 12 Catalytic\nProperties\n4 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4135-4138", "Text": "3 12 Catalytic\nProperties\n4 3 13 Formation\nof\nInterstitial\nCompounds\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4136-4139", "Text": "12 Catalytic\nProperties\n4 3 13 Formation\nof\nInterstitial\nCompounds\n4 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4137-4140", "Text": "3 13 Formation\nof\nInterstitial\nCompounds\n4 3 14 Alloy\nFormation\nRationalised 2023-24\n105\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4138-4141", "Text": "13 Formation\nof\nInterstitial\nCompounds\n4 3 14 Alloy\nFormation\nRationalised 2023-24\n105\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n4 9 Explain why Cu\n+ ion is not stable in aqueous solutions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4139-4142", "Text": "3 14 Alloy\nFormation\nRationalised 2023-24\n105\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n4 9 Explain why Cu\n+ ion is not stable in aqueous solutions 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4140-4143", "Text": "14 Alloy\nFormation\nRationalised 2023-24\n105\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n4 9 Explain why Cu\n+ ion is not stable in aqueous solutions 4 4\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4141-4144", "Text": "9 Explain why Cu\n+ ion is not stable in aqueous solutions 4 4\n4 4\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4142-4145", "Text": "4 4\n4 4\n4 4\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4143-4146", "Text": "4\n4 4\n4 4\n4 4\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4144-4147", "Text": "4\n4 4\n4 4\n4 4 Some\nSome\nSome\nSome\nSome\nImportant\nImportant\nImportant\nImportant\nImportant\nCompounds of\nCompounds of\nCompounds of\nCompounds of\nCompounds of\nTransition\nTransition\nTransition\nTransition\nTransition\nElements\nElements\nElements\nElements\nElements\nWhat is meant by \u2018disproportionation\u2019 of an oxidation state"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4145-4148", "Text": "4\n4 4\n4 4 Some\nSome\nSome\nSome\nSome\nImportant\nImportant\nImportant\nImportant\nImportant\nCompounds of\nCompounds of\nCompounds of\nCompounds of\nCompounds of\nTransition\nTransition\nTransition\nTransition\nTransition\nElements\nElements\nElements\nElements\nElements\nWhat is meant by \u2018disproportionation\u2019 of an oxidation state Give an\nexample"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4146-4149", "Text": "4\n4 4 Some\nSome\nSome\nSome\nSome\nImportant\nImportant\nImportant\nImportant\nImportant\nCompounds of\nCompounds of\nCompounds of\nCompounds of\nCompounds of\nTransition\nTransition\nTransition\nTransition\nTransition\nElements\nElements\nElements\nElements\nElements\nWhat is meant by \u2018disproportionation\u2019 of an oxidation state Give an\nexample When a particular oxidation state becomes less stable relative to other\noxidation states, one lower, one higher, it is said to undergo disproportionation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4147-4150", "Text": "4 Some\nSome\nSome\nSome\nSome\nImportant\nImportant\nImportant\nImportant\nImportant\nCompounds of\nCompounds of\nCompounds of\nCompounds of\nCompounds of\nTransition\nTransition\nTransition\nTransition\nTransition\nElements\nElements\nElements\nElements\nElements\nWhat is meant by \u2018disproportionation\u2019 of an oxidation state Give an\nexample When a particular oxidation state becomes less stable relative to other\noxidation states, one lower, one higher, it is said to undergo disproportionation For example, manganese (VI) becomes unstable relative to manganese(VII) and\nmanganese (IV) in acidic solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4148-4151", "Text": "Give an\nexample When a particular oxidation state becomes less stable relative to other\noxidation states, one lower, one higher, it is said to undergo disproportionation For example, manganese (VI) becomes unstable relative to manganese(VII) and\nmanganese (IV) in acidic solution 3 Mn\nVIO4 \n2\u2013 + 4 H\n+ \u00ae 2 Mn\nVIIO\n\u2013\n4 + Mn\nIVO2 + 2H2O\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4149-4152", "Text": "When a particular oxidation state becomes less stable relative to other\noxidation states, one lower, one higher, it is said to undergo disproportionation For example, manganese (VI) becomes unstable relative to manganese(VII) and\nmanganese (IV) in acidic solution 3 Mn\nVIO4 \n2\u2013 + 4 H\n+ \u00ae 2 Mn\nVIIO\n\u2013\n4 + Mn\nIVO2 + 2H2O\nExample 4 9\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4150-4153", "Text": "For example, manganese (VI) becomes unstable relative to manganese(VII) and\nmanganese (IV) in acidic solution 3 Mn\nVIO4 \n2\u2013 + 4 H\n+ \u00ae 2 Mn\nVIIO\n\u2013\n4 + Mn\nIVO2 + 2H2O\nExample 4 9\nExample 4 9\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4151-4154", "Text": "3 Mn\nVIO4 \n2\u2013 + 4 H\n+ \u00ae 2 Mn\nVIIO\n\u2013\n4 + Mn\nIVO2 + 2H2O\nExample 4 9\nExample 4 9\nExample 4 9\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4152-4155", "Text": "9\nExample 4 9\nExample 4 9\nExample 4 9\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4153-4156", "Text": "9\nExample 4 9\nExample 4 9\nExample 4 9\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4154-4157", "Text": "9\nExample 4 9\nExample 4 9\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n4 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4155-4158", "Text": "9\nExample 4 9\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n4 4 1 Oxides and Oxoanions of Metals\nThese oxides are generally formed by the reaction of metals with\noxygen at high temperatures"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4156-4159", "Text": "9\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n4 4 1 Oxides and Oxoanions of Metals\nThese oxides are generally formed by the reaction of metals with\noxygen at high temperatures All the metals except scandium form\nMO oxides which are ionic"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4157-4160", "Text": "4 1 Oxides and Oxoanions of Metals\nThese oxides are generally formed by the reaction of metals with\noxygen at high temperatures All the metals except scandium form\nMO oxides which are ionic The highest oxidation number in the\noxides, coincides with the group number and is attained in Sc2O3 to\nMn2O7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4158-4161", "Text": "1 Oxides and Oxoanions of Metals\nThese oxides are generally formed by the reaction of metals with\noxygen at high temperatures All the metals except scandium form\nMO oxides which are ionic The highest oxidation number in the\noxides, coincides with the group number and is attained in Sc2O3 to\nMn2O7 Beyond group 7, no higher oxides of iron above Fe2O3 are\nknown"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4159-4162", "Text": "All the metals except scandium form\nMO oxides which are ionic The highest oxidation number in the\noxides, coincides with the group number and is attained in Sc2O3 to\nMn2O7 Beyond group 7, no higher oxides of iron above Fe2O3 are\nknown Besides the oxides, the oxocations stabilise V\nV as VO2\n+, V\nIV as\nVO\n2+ and Ti\nIV as TiO\n2+"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4160-4163", "Text": "The highest oxidation number in the\noxides, coincides with the group number and is attained in Sc2O3 to\nMn2O7 Beyond group 7, no higher oxides of iron above Fe2O3 are\nknown Besides the oxides, the oxocations stabilise V\nV as VO2\n+, V\nIV as\nVO\n2+ and Ti\nIV as TiO\n2+ As the oxidation number of a metal increases, ionic character\ndecreases"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4161-4164", "Text": "Beyond group 7, no higher oxides of iron above Fe2O3 are\nknown Besides the oxides, the oxocations stabilise V\nV as VO2\n+, V\nIV as\nVO\n2+ and Ti\nIV as TiO\n2+ As the oxidation number of a metal increases, ionic character\ndecreases In the case of Mn, Mn2O7 is a covalent green oil"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4162-4165", "Text": "Besides the oxides, the oxocations stabilise V\nV as VO2\n+, V\nIV as\nVO\n2+ and Ti\nIV as TiO\n2+ As the oxidation number of a metal increases, ionic character\ndecreases In the case of Mn, Mn2O7 is a covalent green oil Even CrO3\nand V2O5 have low melting points"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4163-4166", "Text": "As the oxidation number of a metal increases, ionic character\ndecreases In the case of Mn, Mn2O7 is a covalent green oil Even CrO3\nand V2O5 have low melting points In these higher oxides, the acidic\ncharacter is predominant"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4164-4167", "Text": "In the case of Mn, Mn2O7 is a covalent green oil Even CrO3\nand V2O5 have low melting points In these higher oxides, the acidic\ncharacter is predominant Thus, Mn2O7 gives HMnO4 and CrO3 gives H2CrO4 and H2Cr2O7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4165-4168", "Text": "Even CrO3\nand V2O5 have low melting points In these higher oxides, the acidic\ncharacter is predominant Thus, Mn2O7 gives HMnO4 and CrO3 gives H2CrO4 and H2Cr2O7 V2O5 is, however, amphoteric though mainly acidic and it gives VO4\n3\u2013 as\nwell as VO2\n+ salts"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4166-4169", "Text": "In these higher oxides, the acidic\ncharacter is predominant Thus, Mn2O7 gives HMnO4 and CrO3 gives H2CrO4 and H2Cr2O7 V2O5 is, however, amphoteric though mainly acidic and it gives VO4\n3\u2013 as\nwell as VO2\n+ salts In vanadium there is gradual change from the basic\nV2O3 to less basic V2O4 and to amphoteric V2O5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4167-4170", "Text": "Thus, Mn2O7 gives HMnO4 and CrO3 gives H2CrO4 and H2Cr2O7 V2O5 is, however, amphoteric though mainly acidic and it gives VO4\n3\u2013 as\nwell as VO2\n+ salts In vanadium there is gradual change from the basic\nV2O3 to less basic V2O4 and to amphoteric V2O5 V2O4 dissolves in acids\nto give VO\n2+ salts"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4168-4171", "Text": "V2O5 is, however, amphoteric though mainly acidic and it gives VO4\n3\u2013 as\nwell as VO2\n+ salts In vanadium there is gradual change from the basic\nV2O3 to less basic V2O4 and to amphoteric V2O5 V2O4 dissolves in acids\nto give VO\n2+ salts Similarly, V2O5 reacts with alkalies as well as acids\nto give\n43\nVO \uf02d and\n4\nVO\uf02b respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4169-4172", "Text": "In vanadium there is gradual change from the basic\nV2O3 to less basic V2O4 and to amphoteric V2O5 V2O4 dissolves in acids\nto give VO\n2+ salts Similarly, V2O5 reacts with alkalies as well as acids\nto give\n43\nVO \uf02d and\n4\nVO\uf02b respectively The well characterised CrO is basic\nbut Cr2O3 is amphoteric"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4170-4173", "Text": "V2O4 dissolves in acids\nto give VO\n2+ salts Similarly, V2O5 reacts with alkalies as well as acids\nto give\n43\nVO \uf02d and\n4\nVO\uf02b respectively The well characterised CrO is basic\nbut Cr2O3 is amphoteric Potassium dichromate K2Cr2O7\nPotassium dichromate is a very important chemical used in leather\nindustry and as an oxidant for preparation of many azo compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4171-4174", "Text": "Similarly, V2O5 reacts with alkalies as well as acids\nto give\n43\nVO \uf02d and\n4\nVO\uf02b respectively The well characterised CrO is basic\nbut Cr2O3 is amphoteric Potassium dichromate K2Cr2O7\nPotassium dichromate is a very important chemical used in leather\nindustry and as an oxidant for preparation of many azo compounds Dichromates are generally prepared from chromate, which in turn are\nobtained by the fusion of chromite ore (FeCr2O4) with sodium or\npotassium carbonate in free access of air"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4172-4175", "Text": "The well characterised CrO is basic\nbut Cr2O3 is amphoteric Potassium dichromate K2Cr2O7\nPotassium dichromate is a very important chemical used in leather\nindustry and as an oxidant for preparation of many azo compounds Dichromates are generally prepared from chromate, which in turn are\nobtained by the fusion of chromite ore (FeCr2O4) with sodium or\npotassium carbonate in free access of air The reaction with sodium\ncarbonate occurs as follows:\n4 FeCr2O4 + 8 Na2CO3 + 7 O2 \u00ae 8 Na2CrO4 + 2 Fe2O3 + 8 CO2\nThe yellow solution of sodium chromate is filtered and acidified\nwith sulphuric acid to give a solution from which orange sodium\ndichromate, Na2Cr2O7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4173-4176", "Text": "Potassium dichromate K2Cr2O7\nPotassium dichromate is a very important chemical used in leather\nindustry and as an oxidant for preparation of many azo compounds Dichromates are generally prepared from chromate, which in turn are\nobtained by the fusion of chromite ore (FeCr2O4) with sodium or\npotassium carbonate in free access of air The reaction with sodium\ncarbonate occurs as follows:\n4 FeCr2O4 + 8 Na2CO3 + 7 O2 \u00ae 8 Na2CrO4 + 2 Fe2O3 + 8 CO2\nThe yellow solution of sodium chromate is filtered and acidified\nwith sulphuric acid to give a solution from which orange sodium\ndichromate, Na2Cr2O7 2H2O can be crystallised"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4174-4177", "Text": "Dichromates are generally prepared from chromate, which in turn are\nobtained by the fusion of chromite ore (FeCr2O4) with sodium or\npotassium carbonate in free access of air The reaction with sodium\ncarbonate occurs as follows:\n4 FeCr2O4 + 8 Na2CO3 + 7 O2 \u00ae 8 Na2CrO4 + 2 Fe2O3 + 8 CO2\nThe yellow solution of sodium chromate is filtered and acidified\nwith sulphuric acid to give a solution from which orange sodium\ndichromate, Na2Cr2O7 2H2O can be crystallised 2Na2CrO4 + 2 H\n+ \u00ae Na2Cr2O7 + 2 Na\n+ + H2O\nRationalised 2023-24\n106\nChemistry\nSodium dichromate is more soluble than potassium dichromate"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4175-4178", "Text": "The reaction with sodium\ncarbonate occurs as follows:\n4 FeCr2O4 + 8 Na2CO3 + 7 O2 \u00ae 8 Na2CrO4 + 2 Fe2O3 + 8 CO2\nThe yellow solution of sodium chromate is filtered and acidified\nwith sulphuric acid to give a solution from which orange sodium\ndichromate, Na2Cr2O7 2H2O can be crystallised 2Na2CrO4 + 2 H\n+ \u00ae Na2Cr2O7 + 2 Na\n+ + H2O\nRationalised 2023-24\n106\nChemistry\nSodium dichromate is more soluble than potassium dichromate The latter is therefore, prepared by treating the solution of sodium\ndichromate with potassium chloride"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4176-4179", "Text": "2H2O can be crystallised 2Na2CrO4 + 2 H\n+ \u00ae Na2Cr2O7 + 2 Na\n+ + H2O\nRationalised 2023-24\n106\nChemistry\nSodium dichromate is more soluble than potassium dichromate The latter is therefore, prepared by treating the solution of sodium\ndichromate with potassium chloride Na2Cr2O7 + 2 KCl \u00ae K2Cr2O7 + 2 NaCl\nOrange crystals of potassium dichromate crystallise out"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4177-4180", "Text": "2Na2CrO4 + 2 H\n+ \u00ae Na2Cr2O7 + 2 Na\n+ + H2O\nRationalised 2023-24\n106\nChemistry\nSodium dichromate is more soluble than potassium dichromate The latter is therefore, prepared by treating the solution of sodium\ndichromate with potassium chloride Na2Cr2O7 + 2 KCl \u00ae K2Cr2O7 + 2 NaCl\nOrange crystals of potassium dichromate crystallise out The\nchromates and dichromates are interconvertible in aqueous solution\ndepending upon pH of the solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4178-4181", "Text": "The latter is therefore, prepared by treating the solution of sodium\ndichromate with potassium chloride Na2Cr2O7 + 2 KCl \u00ae K2Cr2O7 + 2 NaCl\nOrange crystals of potassium dichromate crystallise out The\nchromates and dichromates are interconvertible in aqueous solution\ndepending upon pH of the solution The oxidation state of chromium\nin chromate and dichromate is the same"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4179-4182", "Text": "Na2Cr2O7 + 2 KCl \u00ae K2Cr2O7 + 2 NaCl\nOrange crystals of potassium dichromate crystallise out The\nchromates and dichromates are interconvertible in aqueous solution\ndepending upon pH of the solution The oxidation state of chromium\nin chromate and dichromate is the same 2 CrO4\n2\u2013 + 2H\n+ \u00ae Cr2O7\n2\u2013 + H2O\nCr2O7\n2\u2013 + 2 OH\n- \u00ae 2 CrO4\n2\u2013 + H2O\nThe \nstructures \nof\nchromate ion, CrO4\n2\u2013 and\nthe dichromate ion, Cr2O7\n2\u2013\nare shown below"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4180-4183", "Text": "The\nchromates and dichromates are interconvertible in aqueous solution\ndepending upon pH of the solution The oxidation state of chromium\nin chromate and dichromate is the same 2 CrO4\n2\u2013 + 2H\n+ \u00ae Cr2O7\n2\u2013 + H2O\nCr2O7\n2\u2013 + 2 OH\n- \u00ae 2 CrO4\n2\u2013 + H2O\nThe \nstructures \nof\nchromate ion, CrO4\n2\u2013 and\nthe dichromate ion, Cr2O7\n2\u2013\nare shown below The\nchromate ion is tetrahedral\nwhereas the dichromate ion\nconsists of two tetrahedra\nsharing one corner with\nCr\u2013O\u2013Cr bond angle of 126\u00b0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4181-4184", "Text": "The oxidation state of chromium\nin chromate and dichromate is the same 2 CrO4\n2\u2013 + 2H\n+ \u00ae Cr2O7\n2\u2013 + H2O\nCr2O7\n2\u2013 + 2 OH\n- \u00ae 2 CrO4\n2\u2013 + H2O\nThe \nstructures \nof\nchromate ion, CrO4\n2\u2013 and\nthe dichromate ion, Cr2O7\n2\u2013\nare shown below The\nchromate ion is tetrahedral\nwhereas the dichromate ion\nconsists of two tetrahedra\nsharing one corner with\nCr\u2013O\u2013Cr bond angle of 126\u00b0 Sodium and potassium dichromates are strong oxidising agents;\nthe sodium salt has a greater solubility in water and is extensively\nused as an oxidising agent in organic chemistry"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4182-4185", "Text": "2 CrO4\n2\u2013 + 2H\n+ \u00ae Cr2O7\n2\u2013 + H2O\nCr2O7\n2\u2013 + 2 OH\n- \u00ae 2 CrO4\n2\u2013 + H2O\nThe \nstructures \nof\nchromate ion, CrO4\n2\u2013 and\nthe dichromate ion, Cr2O7\n2\u2013\nare shown below The\nchromate ion is tetrahedral\nwhereas the dichromate ion\nconsists of two tetrahedra\nsharing one corner with\nCr\u2013O\u2013Cr bond angle of 126\u00b0 Sodium and potassium dichromates are strong oxidising agents;\nthe sodium salt has a greater solubility in water and is extensively\nused as an oxidising agent in organic chemistry Potassium dichromate\nis used as a primary standard in volumetric analysis"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4183-4186", "Text": "The\nchromate ion is tetrahedral\nwhereas the dichromate ion\nconsists of two tetrahedra\nsharing one corner with\nCr\u2013O\u2013Cr bond angle of 126\u00b0 Sodium and potassium dichromates are strong oxidising agents;\nthe sodium salt has a greater solubility in water and is extensively\nused as an oxidising agent in organic chemistry Potassium dichromate\nis used as a primary standard in volumetric analysis In acidic solution,\nits oxidising action can be represented as follows:\nCr2O7\n2\u2013 + 14H\n+ + 6e\n\u2013 \u00ae 2Cr\n3+ + 7H2O (E\no = 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4184-4187", "Text": "Sodium and potassium dichromates are strong oxidising agents;\nthe sodium salt has a greater solubility in water and is extensively\nused as an oxidising agent in organic chemistry Potassium dichromate\nis used as a primary standard in volumetric analysis In acidic solution,\nits oxidising action can be represented as follows:\nCr2O7\n2\u2013 + 14H\n+ + 6e\n\u2013 \u00ae 2Cr\n3+ + 7H2O (E\no = 1 33V)\nThus, acidified potassium dichromate will oxidise iodides to iodine,\nsulphides to sulphur, tin(II) to tin(IV) and iron(II) salts to iron(III)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4185-4188", "Text": "Potassium dichromate\nis used as a primary standard in volumetric analysis In acidic solution,\nits oxidising action can be represented as follows:\nCr2O7\n2\u2013 + 14H\n+ + 6e\n\u2013 \u00ae 2Cr\n3+ + 7H2O (E\no = 1 33V)\nThus, acidified potassium dichromate will oxidise iodides to iodine,\nsulphides to sulphur, tin(II) to tin(IV) and iron(II) salts to iron(III) The\nhalf-reactions are noted below:\n6 I\n\u2013 \u00ae 3I2 + 6 e\n\u2013 ;\n3 Sn\n2+ \u00ae 3Sn\n4+ + 6 e\n\u2013\n3 H2S \u00ae 6H\n+ + 3S + 6e\n\u2013 ;\n6 Fe\n2+ \u00ae 6Fe\n3+ + 6 e\n\u2013\nThe full ionic equation may be obtained by adding the half-reaction for\npotassium dichromate to the half-reaction for the reducing agent, for e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4186-4189", "Text": "In acidic solution,\nits oxidising action can be represented as follows:\nCr2O7\n2\u2013 + 14H\n+ + 6e\n\u2013 \u00ae 2Cr\n3+ + 7H2O (E\no = 1 33V)\nThus, acidified potassium dichromate will oxidise iodides to iodine,\nsulphides to sulphur, tin(II) to tin(IV) and iron(II) salts to iron(III) The\nhalf-reactions are noted below:\n6 I\n\u2013 \u00ae 3I2 + 6 e\n\u2013 ;\n3 Sn\n2+ \u00ae 3Sn\n4+ + 6 e\n\u2013\n3 H2S \u00ae 6H\n+ + 3S + 6e\n\u2013 ;\n6 Fe\n2+ \u00ae 6Fe\n3+ + 6 e\n\u2013\nThe full ionic equation may be obtained by adding the half-reaction for\npotassium dichromate to the half-reaction for the reducing agent, for e g"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4187-4190", "Text": "33V)\nThus, acidified potassium dichromate will oxidise iodides to iodine,\nsulphides to sulphur, tin(II) to tin(IV) and iron(II) salts to iron(III) The\nhalf-reactions are noted below:\n6 I\n\u2013 \u00ae 3I2 + 6 e\n\u2013 ;\n3 Sn\n2+ \u00ae 3Sn\n4+ + 6 e\n\u2013\n3 H2S \u00ae 6H\n+ + 3S + 6e\n\u2013 ;\n6 Fe\n2+ \u00ae 6Fe\n3+ + 6 e\n\u2013\nThe full ionic equation may be obtained by adding the half-reaction for\npotassium dichromate to the half-reaction for the reducing agent, for e g ,\nCr2O7\n2\u2013 + 14 H\n+ + 6 Fe\n2+ \u00ae 2 Cr\n3+ + 6 Fe\n3+ + 7 H2O\nPotassium permanganate KMnO4\nPotassium permanganate is prepared by fusion of MnO2 with an alkali\nmetal hydroxide and an oxidising agent like KNO3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4188-4191", "Text": "The\nhalf-reactions are noted below:\n6 I\n\u2013 \u00ae 3I2 + 6 e\n\u2013 ;\n3 Sn\n2+ \u00ae 3Sn\n4+ + 6 e\n\u2013\n3 H2S \u00ae 6H\n+ + 3S + 6e\n\u2013 ;\n6 Fe\n2+ \u00ae 6Fe\n3+ + 6 e\n\u2013\nThe full ionic equation may be obtained by adding the half-reaction for\npotassium dichromate to the half-reaction for the reducing agent, for e g ,\nCr2O7\n2\u2013 + 14 H\n+ + 6 Fe\n2+ \u00ae 2 Cr\n3+ + 6 Fe\n3+ + 7 H2O\nPotassium permanganate KMnO4\nPotassium permanganate is prepared by fusion of MnO2 with an alkali\nmetal hydroxide and an oxidising agent like KNO3 This produces the\ndark green K2MnO4 which disproportionates in a neutral or acidic\nsolution to give permanganate"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4189-4192", "Text": "g ,\nCr2O7\n2\u2013 + 14 H\n+ + 6 Fe\n2+ \u00ae 2 Cr\n3+ + 6 Fe\n3+ + 7 H2O\nPotassium permanganate KMnO4\nPotassium permanganate is prepared by fusion of MnO2 with an alkali\nmetal hydroxide and an oxidising agent like KNO3 This produces the\ndark green K2MnO4 which disproportionates in a neutral or acidic\nsolution to give permanganate 2MnO2 + 4KOH + O2 \u00ae 2K2MnO4 + 2H2O\n3MnO4\n2\u2013 + 4H+ \u00ae 2MnO4\n\u2013 + MnO2 + 2H2O\nCommercially it is prepared by the alkaline oxidative fusion of MnO2\nfollowed by the electrolytic oxidation of manganate (Vl)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4190-4193", "Text": ",\nCr2O7\n2\u2013 + 14 H\n+ + 6 Fe\n2+ \u00ae 2 Cr\n3+ + 6 Fe\n3+ + 7 H2O\nPotassium permanganate KMnO4\nPotassium permanganate is prepared by fusion of MnO2 with an alkali\nmetal hydroxide and an oxidising agent like KNO3 This produces the\ndark green K2MnO4 which disproportionates in a neutral or acidic\nsolution to give permanganate 2MnO2 + 4KOH + O2 \u00ae 2K2MnO4 + 2H2O\n3MnO4\n2\u2013 + 4H+ \u00ae 2MnO4\n\u2013 + MnO2 + 2H2O\nCommercially it is prepared by the alkaline oxidative fusion of MnO2\nfollowed by the electrolytic oxidation of manganate (Vl) F\nused with KOH, oxidised\nwith air or KNO\n2\n3\n2\n4\nMnO\nMnO\n;\nmanganate ion\n\u2212\n\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\u2192\n42\n4\nElectrolytic oxidation in\nalkaline solution\nMnO\nMnO\nmanganate\npermanganate ion\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\nRationalised 2023-24\n107\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nIn the laboratory, a manganese (II) ion salt is oxidised by\nperoxodisulphate to permanganate"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4191-4194", "Text": "This produces the\ndark green K2MnO4 which disproportionates in a neutral or acidic\nsolution to give permanganate 2MnO2 + 4KOH + O2 \u00ae 2K2MnO4 + 2H2O\n3MnO4\n2\u2013 + 4H+ \u00ae 2MnO4\n\u2013 + MnO2 + 2H2O\nCommercially it is prepared by the alkaline oxidative fusion of MnO2\nfollowed by the electrolytic oxidation of manganate (Vl) F\nused with KOH, oxidised\nwith air or KNO\n2\n3\n2\n4\nMnO\nMnO\n;\nmanganate ion\n\u2212\n\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\u2192\n42\n4\nElectrolytic oxidation in\nalkaline solution\nMnO\nMnO\nmanganate\npermanganate ion\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\nRationalised 2023-24\n107\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nIn the laboratory, a manganese (II) ion salt is oxidised by\nperoxodisulphate to permanganate 2Mn\n2+ + 5S2O8\n2\u2013 + 8H2O \u00ae 2MnO4\n\u2013 + 10SO4\n2\u2013 + 16H\n+\nPotassium permanganate forms dark purple (almost black) crystals which\nare isostructural with those of KClO4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4192-4195", "Text": "2MnO2 + 4KOH + O2 \u00ae 2K2MnO4 + 2H2O\n3MnO4\n2\u2013 + 4H+ \u00ae 2MnO4\n\u2013 + MnO2 + 2H2O\nCommercially it is prepared by the alkaline oxidative fusion of MnO2\nfollowed by the electrolytic oxidation of manganate (Vl) F\nused with KOH, oxidised\nwith air or KNO\n2\n3\n2\n4\nMnO\nMnO\n;\nmanganate ion\n\u2212\n\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\u2192\n42\n4\nElectrolytic oxidation in\nalkaline solution\nMnO\nMnO\nmanganate\npermanganate ion\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\nRationalised 2023-24\n107\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nIn the laboratory, a manganese (II) ion salt is oxidised by\nperoxodisulphate to permanganate 2Mn\n2+ + 5S2O8\n2\u2013 + 8H2O \u00ae 2MnO4\n\u2013 + 10SO4\n2\u2013 + 16H\n+\nPotassium permanganate forms dark purple (almost black) crystals which\nare isostructural with those of KClO4 The salt is not very soluble in water\n(6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4193-4196", "Text": "F\nused with KOH, oxidised\nwith air or KNO\n2\n3\n2\n4\nMnO\nMnO\n;\nmanganate ion\n\u2212\n\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\u2192\n42\n4\nElectrolytic oxidation in\nalkaline solution\nMnO\nMnO\nmanganate\npermanganate ion\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\nRationalised 2023-24\n107\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nIn the laboratory, a manganese (II) ion salt is oxidised by\nperoxodisulphate to permanganate 2Mn\n2+ + 5S2O8\n2\u2013 + 8H2O \u00ae 2MnO4\n\u2013 + 10SO4\n2\u2013 + 16H\n+\nPotassium permanganate forms dark purple (almost black) crystals which\nare isostructural with those of KClO4 The salt is not very soluble in water\n(6 4 g/100 g of water at 293 K), but when heated it decomposes at 513 K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4194-4197", "Text": "2Mn\n2+ + 5S2O8\n2\u2013 + 8H2O \u00ae 2MnO4\n\u2013 + 10SO4\n2\u2013 + 16H\n+\nPotassium permanganate forms dark purple (almost black) crystals which\nare isostructural with those of KClO4 The salt is not very soluble in water\n(6 4 g/100 g of water at 293 K), but when heated it decomposes at 513 K 2KMnO4 \u00ae K2MnO4 + MnO2 + O2\nIt has two physical properties of considerable interest: its intense colour\nand its diamagnetism along with temperature-dependent weak\nparamagnetism"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4195-4198", "Text": "The salt is not very soluble in water\n(6 4 g/100 g of water at 293 K), but when heated it decomposes at 513 K 2KMnO4 \u00ae K2MnO4 + MnO2 + O2\nIt has two physical properties of considerable interest: its intense colour\nand its diamagnetism along with temperature-dependent weak\nparamagnetism These can be explained by the use of molecular orbital\ntheory which is beyond the present scope"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4196-4199", "Text": "4 g/100 g of water at 293 K), but when heated it decomposes at 513 K 2KMnO4 \u00ae K2MnO4 + MnO2 + O2\nIt has two physical properties of considerable interest: its intense colour\nand its diamagnetism along with temperature-dependent weak\nparamagnetism These can be explained by the use of molecular orbital\ntheory which is beyond the present scope The manganate and permanganate ions are tetrahedral; the p-\nbonding takes place by overlap of p orbitals of oxygen with d orbitals\nof manganese"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4197-4200", "Text": "2KMnO4 \u00ae K2MnO4 + MnO2 + O2\nIt has two physical properties of considerable interest: its intense colour\nand its diamagnetism along with temperature-dependent weak\nparamagnetism These can be explained by the use of molecular orbital\ntheory which is beyond the present scope The manganate and permanganate ions are tetrahedral; the p-\nbonding takes place by overlap of p orbitals of oxygen with d orbitals\nof manganese The green manganate is paramagnetic because of one\nunpaired electron but the permanganate is diamagnetic due to the\nabsence of unpaired electron"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4198-4201", "Text": "These can be explained by the use of molecular orbital\ntheory which is beyond the present scope The manganate and permanganate ions are tetrahedral; the p-\nbonding takes place by overlap of p orbitals of oxygen with d orbitals\nof manganese The green manganate is paramagnetic because of one\nunpaired electron but the permanganate is diamagnetic due to the\nabsence of unpaired electron Acidified permanganate solution oxidises oxalates to carbon dioxide,\niron(II) to iron(III), nitrites to nitrates and iodides to free iodine"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4199-4202", "Text": "The manganate and permanganate ions are tetrahedral; the p-\nbonding takes place by overlap of p orbitals of oxygen with d orbitals\nof manganese The green manganate is paramagnetic because of one\nunpaired electron but the permanganate is diamagnetic due to the\nabsence of unpaired electron Acidified permanganate solution oxidises oxalates to carbon dioxide,\niron(II) to iron(III), nitrites to nitrates and iodides to free iodine The half-reactions of reductants are:\nCOO\n\u2013\nCOO\n\u2013\n5\n10CO2 + 10e\n\u2013\n5 Fe2+ \u00ae 5 Fe3+ + 5e\u2013\n5NO2\n\u2013 + 5H2O \u00ae 5NO3\n\u2013 + 10H+ + l0e\u2013\n10I\u2013 \u00ae 5I2 + 10e\u2013\nThe full reaction can be written by adding the half-reaction for\nKMnO4 to the half-reaction of the reducing agent, balancing wherever\nnecessary"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4200-4203", "Text": "The green manganate is paramagnetic because of one\nunpaired electron but the permanganate is diamagnetic due to the\nabsence of unpaired electron Acidified permanganate solution oxidises oxalates to carbon dioxide,\niron(II) to iron(III), nitrites to nitrates and iodides to free iodine The half-reactions of reductants are:\nCOO\n\u2013\nCOO\n\u2013\n5\n10CO2 + 10e\n\u2013\n5 Fe2+ \u00ae 5 Fe3+ + 5e\u2013\n5NO2\n\u2013 + 5H2O \u00ae 5NO3\n\u2013 + 10H+ + l0e\u2013\n10I\u2013 \u00ae 5I2 + 10e\u2013\nThe full reaction can be written by adding the half-reaction for\nKMnO4 to the half-reaction of the reducing agent, balancing wherever\nnecessary If we represent the reduction of permanganate to manganate,\nmanganese dioxide and manganese(II) salt by half-reactions,\nMnO4\n\u2013 + e\u2013 \u00ae MnO4\n2\u2013\n(E\no = + 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4201-4204", "Text": "Acidified permanganate solution oxidises oxalates to carbon dioxide,\niron(II) to iron(III), nitrites to nitrates and iodides to free iodine The half-reactions of reductants are:\nCOO\n\u2013\nCOO\n\u2013\n5\n10CO2 + 10e\n\u2013\n5 Fe2+ \u00ae 5 Fe3+ + 5e\u2013\n5NO2\n\u2013 + 5H2O \u00ae 5NO3\n\u2013 + 10H+ + l0e\u2013\n10I\u2013 \u00ae 5I2 + 10e\u2013\nThe full reaction can be written by adding the half-reaction for\nKMnO4 to the half-reaction of the reducing agent, balancing wherever\nnecessary If we represent the reduction of permanganate to manganate,\nmanganese dioxide and manganese(II) salt by half-reactions,\nMnO4\n\u2013 + e\u2013 \u00ae MnO4\n2\u2013\n(E\no = + 0 56 V)\nMnO4\n\u2013 + 4H+ + 3e\u2013 \u00ae MnO2 + 2H2O\n(E\no = + 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4202-4205", "Text": "The half-reactions of reductants are:\nCOO\n\u2013\nCOO\n\u2013\n5\n10CO2 + 10e\n\u2013\n5 Fe2+ \u00ae 5 Fe3+ + 5e\u2013\n5NO2\n\u2013 + 5H2O \u00ae 5NO3\n\u2013 + 10H+ + l0e\u2013\n10I\u2013 \u00ae 5I2 + 10e\u2013\nThe full reaction can be written by adding the half-reaction for\nKMnO4 to the half-reaction of the reducing agent, balancing wherever\nnecessary If we represent the reduction of permanganate to manganate,\nmanganese dioxide and manganese(II) salt by half-reactions,\nMnO4\n\u2013 + e\u2013 \u00ae MnO4\n2\u2013\n(E\no = + 0 56 V)\nMnO4\n\u2013 + 4H+ + 3e\u2013 \u00ae MnO2 + 2H2O\n(E\no = + 1 69 V)\nMnO4\n\u2013 + 8H+ + 5e\u2013 \u00ae Mn2+ + 4H2O\n(E\no = + 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4203-4206", "Text": "If we represent the reduction of permanganate to manganate,\nmanganese dioxide and manganese(II) salt by half-reactions,\nMnO4\n\u2013 + e\u2013 \u00ae MnO4\n2\u2013\n(E\no = + 0 56 V)\nMnO4\n\u2013 + 4H+ + 3e\u2013 \u00ae MnO2 + 2H2O\n(E\no = + 1 69 V)\nMnO4\n\u2013 + 8H+ + 5e\u2013 \u00ae Mn2+ + 4H2O\n(E\no = + 1 52 V)\nWe can very well see that the hydrogen ion concentration of the\nsolution plays an important part in influencing the reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4204-4207", "Text": "56 V)\nMnO4\n\u2013 + 4H+ + 3e\u2013 \u00ae MnO2 + 2H2O\n(E\no = + 1 69 V)\nMnO4\n\u2013 + 8H+ + 5e\u2013 \u00ae Mn2+ + 4H2O\n(E\no = + 1 52 V)\nWe can very well see that the hydrogen ion concentration of the\nsolution plays an important part in influencing the reaction Although\nmany reactions can be understood by consideration of redox potential,\nkinetics of the reaction is also an important factor"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4205-4208", "Text": "69 V)\nMnO4\n\u2013 + 8H+ + 5e\u2013 \u00ae Mn2+ + 4H2O\n(E\no = + 1 52 V)\nWe can very well see that the hydrogen ion concentration of the\nsolution plays an important part in influencing the reaction Although\nmany reactions can be understood by consideration of redox potential,\nkinetics of the reaction is also an important factor Permanganate at\n[H\n+] = 1 should oxidise water but in practice the reaction is extremely slow\nunless either manganese(ll) ions are present or the temperature is raised"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4206-4209", "Text": "52 V)\nWe can very well see that the hydrogen ion concentration of the\nsolution plays an important part in influencing the reaction Although\nmany reactions can be understood by consideration of redox potential,\nkinetics of the reaction is also an important factor Permanganate at\n[H\n+] = 1 should oxidise water but in practice the reaction is extremely slow\nunless either manganese(ll) ions are present or the temperature is raised A few important oxidising reactions of KMnO4 are given below:\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4207-4210", "Text": "Although\nmany reactions can be understood by consideration of redox potential,\nkinetics of the reaction is also an important factor Permanganate at\n[H\n+] = 1 should oxidise water but in practice the reaction is extremely slow\nunless either manganese(ll) ions are present or the temperature is raised A few important oxidising reactions of KMnO4 are given below:\n1 In acid solutions:\n(a) Iodine is liberated from potassium iodide :\n10I\n\u2013 + 2MnO4\n\u2013 + 16H\n+ \u00ae 2Mn\n2+ + 8H2O + 5I2\n(b) Fe\n2+ ion (green) is converted to Fe\n3+ (yellow):\n5Fe\n2+ + MnO4\n\u2013 + 8H\n+ \u00ae Mn\n2+ + 4H2O + 5Fe\n3+\nRationalised 2023-24\n108\nChemistry\n(c) Oxalate ion or oxalic acid is oxidised at 333 K:\n5C2O4\n2\u2013 + 2MnO4\n\u2013 + 16H\n+ \u2014\u2014> 2Mn\n2+ + 8H2O + 10CO2\n(d) Hydrogen sulphide is oxidised, sulphur being precipitated:\nH2S \u2014> 2H\n+ + S\n2\u2013\n5S\n2\u2013 + 2MnO\n\u2013\n4 + 16H\n+ \u2014\u2014> 2Mn\n2+ + 8H2O + 5S\n(e) Sulphurous acid or sulphite is oxidised to a sulphate or\nsulphuric acid:\n5SO3\n2\u2013 + 2MnO4\n\u2013 + 6H\n+ \u2014\u2014> 2Mn\n2+ + 3H2O + 5SO4\n2\u2013\n(f)\nNitrite is oxidised to nitrate:\n5NO2\n\u2013 + 2MnO4\n\u2013 + 6H\n+ \u2014\u2014> 2Mn\n2+ + 5NO3\n\u2013 + 3H2O\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4208-4211", "Text": "Permanganate at\n[H\n+] = 1 should oxidise water but in practice the reaction is extremely slow\nunless either manganese(ll) ions are present or the temperature is raised A few important oxidising reactions of KMnO4 are given below:\n1 In acid solutions:\n(a) Iodine is liberated from potassium iodide :\n10I\n\u2013 + 2MnO4\n\u2013 + 16H\n+ \u00ae 2Mn\n2+ + 8H2O + 5I2\n(b) Fe\n2+ ion (green) is converted to Fe\n3+ (yellow):\n5Fe\n2+ + MnO4\n\u2013 + 8H\n+ \u00ae Mn\n2+ + 4H2O + 5Fe\n3+\nRationalised 2023-24\n108\nChemistry\n(c) Oxalate ion or oxalic acid is oxidised at 333 K:\n5C2O4\n2\u2013 + 2MnO4\n\u2013 + 16H\n+ \u2014\u2014> 2Mn\n2+ + 8H2O + 10CO2\n(d) Hydrogen sulphide is oxidised, sulphur being precipitated:\nH2S \u2014> 2H\n+ + S\n2\u2013\n5S\n2\u2013 + 2MnO\n\u2013\n4 + 16H\n+ \u2014\u2014> 2Mn\n2+ + 8H2O + 5S\n(e) Sulphurous acid or sulphite is oxidised to a sulphate or\nsulphuric acid:\n5SO3\n2\u2013 + 2MnO4\n\u2013 + 6H\n+ \u2014\u2014> 2Mn\n2+ + 3H2O + 5SO4\n2\u2013\n(f)\nNitrite is oxidised to nitrate:\n5NO2\n\u2013 + 2MnO4\n\u2013 + 6H\n+ \u2014\u2014> 2Mn\n2+ + 5NO3\n\u2013 + 3H2O\n2 In neutral or faintly alkaline solutions:\n(a) A notable reaction is the oxidation of iodide to iodate:\n2MnO4\n\u2013 + H2O + I\n\u2013 \u2014\u2014> 2MnO2 + 2OH\n\u2013 + IO3\n\u2013\n(b) Thiosulphate is oxidised almost quantitatively to sulphate:\n8MnO4\n\u2013 + 3S2O3\n2\u2013 + H2O \u2014\u2014> 8MnO2 + 6SO4\n2\u2013 + 2OH\n\u2013\n(c) Manganous salt is oxidised to MnO2; the presence of zinc sulphate\nor zinc oxide catalyses the oxidation:\n2MnO4\n\u2013 + 3Mn\n2+ + 2H2O \u2014\u2014> 5MnO2 + 4H\n+\nNote: Permanganate titrations in presence of hydrochloric acid are\nunsatisfactory since hydrochloric acid is oxidised to chlorine"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4209-4212", "Text": "A few important oxidising reactions of KMnO4 are given below:\n1 In acid solutions:\n(a) Iodine is liberated from potassium iodide :\n10I\n\u2013 + 2MnO4\n\u2013 + 16H\n+ \u00ae 2Mn\n2+ + 8H2O + 5I2\n(b) Fe\n2+ ion (green) is converted to Fe\n3+ (yellow):\n5Fe\n2+ + MnO4\n\u2013 + 8H\n+ \u00ae Mn\n2+ + 4H2O + 5Fe\n3+\nRationalised 2023-24\n108\nChemistry\n(c) Oxalate ion or oxalic acid is oxidised at 333 K:\n5C2O4\n2\u2013 + 2MnO4\n\u2013 + 16H\n+ \u2014\u2014> 2Mn\n2+ + 8H2O + 10CO2\n(d) Hydrogen sulphide is oxidised, sulphur being precipitated:\nH2S \u2014> 2H\n+ + S\n2\u2013\n5S\n2\u2013 + 2MnO\n\u2013\n4 + 16H\n+ \u2014\u2014> 2Mn\n2+ + 8H2O + 5S\n(e) Sulphurous acid or sulphite is oxidised to a sulphate or\nsulphuric acid:\n5SO3\n2\u2013 + 2MnO4\n\u2013 + 6H\n+ \u2014\u2014> 2Mn\n2+ + 3H2O + 5SO4\n2\u2013\n(f)\nNitrite is oxidised to nitrate:\n5NO2\n\u2013 + 2MnO4\n\u2013 + 6H\n+ \u2014\u2014> 2Mn\n2+ + 5NO3\n\u2013 + 3H2O\n2 In neutral or faintly alkaline solutions:\n(a) A notable reaction is the oxidation of iodide to iodate:\n2MnO4\n\u2013 + H2O + I\n\u2013 \u2014\u2014> 2MnO2 + 2OH\n\u2013 + IO3\n\u2013\n(b) Thiosulphate is oxidised almost quantitatively to sulphate:\n8MnO4\n\u2013 + 3S2O3\n2\u2013 + H2O \u2014\u2014> 8MnO2 + 6SO4\n2\u2013 + 2OH\n\u2013\n(c) Manganous salt is oxidised to MnO2; the presence of zinc sulphate\nor zinc oxide catalyses the oxidation:\n2MnO4\n\u2013 + 3Mn\n2+ + 2H2O \u2014\u2014> 5MnO2 + 4H\n+\nNote: Permanganate titrations in presence of hydrochloric acid are\nunsatisfactory since hydrochloric acid is oxidised to chlorine Uses\nUses\nUses\nUses\nUses: Besides its use in analytical chemistry, potassium permanganate is\nused as a favourite oxidant in preparative organic chemistry"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4210-4213", "Text": "In acid solutions:\n(a) Iodine is liberated from potassium iodide :\n10I\n\u2013 + 2MnO4\n\u2013 + 16H\n+ \u00ae 2Mn\n2+ + 8H2O + 5I2\n(b) Fe\n2+ ion (green) is converted to Fe\n3+ (yellow):\n5Fe\n2+ + MnO4\n\u2013 + 8H\n+ \u00ae Mn\n2+ + 4H2O + 5Fe\n3+\nRationalised 2023-24\n108\nChemistry\n(c) Oxalate ion or oxalic acid is oxidised at 333 K:\n5C2O4\n2\u2013 + 2MnO4\n\u2013 + 16H\n+ \u2014\u2014> 2Mn\n2+ + 8H2O + 10CO2\n(d) Hydrogen sulphide is oxidised, sulphur being precipitated:\nH2S \u2014> 2H\n+ + S\n2\u2013\n5S\n2\u2013 + 2MnO\n\u2013\n4 + 16H\n+ \u2014\u2014> 2Mn\n2+ + 8H2O + 5S\n(e) Sulphurous acid or sulphite is oxidised to a sulphate or\nsulphuric acid:\n5SO3\n2\u2013 + 2MnO4\n\u2013 + 6H\n+ \u2014\u2014> 2Mn\n2+ + 3H2O + 5SO4\n2\u2013\n(f)\nNitrite is oxidised to nitrate:\n5NO2\n\u2013 + 2MnO4\n\u2013 + 6H\n+ \u2014\u2014> 2Mn\n2+ + 5NO3\n\u2013 + 3H2O\n2 In neutral or faintly alkaline solutions:\n(a) A notable reaction is the oxidation of iodide to iodate:\n2MnO4\n\u2013 + H2O + I\n\u2013 \u2014\u2014> 2MnO2 + 2OH\n\u2013 + IO3\n\u2013\n(b) Thiosulphate is oxidised almost quantitatively to sulphate:\n8MnO4\n\u2013 + 3S2O3\n2\u2013 + H2O \u2014\u2014> 8MnO2 + 6SO4\n2\u2013 + 2OH\n\u2013\n(c) Manganous salt is oxidised to MnO2; the presence of zinc sulphate\nor zinc oxide catalyses the oxidation:\n2MnO4\n\u2013 + 3Mn\n2+ + 2H2O \u2014\u2014> 5MnO2 + 4H\n+\nNote: Permanganate titrations in presence of hydrochloric acid are\nunsatisfactory since hydrochloric acid is oxidised to chlorine Uses\nUses\nUses\nUses\nUses: Besides its use in analytical chemistry, potassium permanganate is\nused as a favourite oxidant in preparative organic chemistry Its uses for the\nbleaching of wool, cotton, silk and other textile fibres and for the decolourisation\nof oils are also dependent on its strong oxidising power"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4211-4214", "Text": "In neutral or faintly alkaline solutions:\n(a) A notable reaction is the oxidation of iodide to iodate:\n2MnO4\n\u2013 + H2O + I\n\u2013 \u2014\u2014> 2MnO2 + 2OH\n\u2013 + IO3\n\u2013\n(b) Thiosulphate is oxidised almost quantitatively to sulphate:\n8MnO4\n\u2013 + 3S2O3\n2\u2013 + H2O \u2014\u2014> 8MnO2 + 6SO4\n2\u2013 + 2OH\n\u2013\n(c) Manganous salt is oxidised to MnO2; the presence of zinc sulphate\nor zinc oxide catalyses the oxidation:\n2MnO4\n\u2013 + 3Mn\n2+ + 2H2O \u2014\u2014> 5MnO2 + 4H\n+\nNote: Permanganate titrations in presence of hydrochloric acid are\nunsatisfactory since hydrochloric acid is oxidised to chlorine Uses\nUses\nUses\nUses\nUses: Besides its use in analytical chemistry, potassium permanganate is\nused as a favourite oxidant in preparative organic chemistry Its uses for the\nbleaching of wool, cotton, silk and other textile fibres and for the decolourisation\nof oils are also dependent on its strong oxidising power THE INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS ( f-BLOCK)\nThe f-block consists of the two series, lanthanoids (the fourteen elements\nfollowing lanthanum) and actinoids (the fourteen elements following\nactinium)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4212-4215", "Text": "Uses\nUses\nUses\nUses\nUses: Besides its use in analytical chemistry, potassium permanganate is\nused as a favourite oxidant in preparative organic chemistry Its uses for the\nbleaching of wool, cotton, silk and other textile fibres and for the decolourisation\nof oils are also dependent on its strong oxidising power THE INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS ( f-BLOCK)\nThe f-block consists of the two series, lanthanoids (the fourteen elements\nfollowing lanthanum) and actinoids (the fourteen elements following\nactinium) Because lanthanum closely resembles the lanthanoids, it is\nusually included in any discussion of the lanthanoids for which the\ngeneral symbol Ln is often used"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4213-4216", "Text": "Its uses for the\nbleaching of wool, cotton, silk and other textile fibres and for the decolourisation\nof oils are also dependent on its strong oxidising power THE INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS ( f-BLOCK)\nThe f-block consists of the two series, lanthanoids (the fourteen elements\nfollowing lanthanum) and actinoids (the fourteen elements following\nactinium) Because lanthanum closely resembles the lanthanoids, it is\nusually included in any discussion of the lanthanoids for which the\ngeneral symbol Ln is often used Similarly, a discussion of the actinoids\nincludes actinium besides the fourteen elements constituting the series"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4214-4217", "Text": "THE INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS ( f-BLOCK)\nThe f-block consists of the two series, lanthanoids (the fourteen elements\nfollowing lanthanum) and actinoids (the fourteen elements following\nactinium) Because lanthanum closely resembles the lanthanoids, it is\nusually included in any discussion of the lanthanoids for which the\ngeneral symbol Ln is often used Similarly, a discussion of the actinoids\nincludes actinium besides the fourteen elements constituting the series The lanthanoids resemble one another more closely than do the members\nof ordinary transition elements in any series"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4215-4218", "Text": "Because lanthanum closely resembles the lanthanoids, it is\nusually included in any discussion of the lanthanoids for which the\ngeneral symbol Ln is often used Similarly, a discussion of the actinoids\nincludes actinium besides the fourteen elements constituting the series The lanthanoids resemble one another more closely than do the members\nof ordinary transition elements in any series They have only one stable\noxidation state and their chemistry provides an excellent opportunity to\nexamine the effect of small changes in size and nuclear charge along a\nseries of otherwise similar elements"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4216-4219", "Text": "Similarly, a discussion of the actinoids\nincludes actinium besides the fourteen elements constituting the series The lanthanoids resemble one another more closely than do the members\nof ordinary transition elements in any series They have only one stable\noxidation state and their chemistry provides an excellent opportunity to\nexamine the effect of small changes in size and nuclear charge along a\nseries of otherwise similar elements The chemistry of the actinoids is, on\nthe other hand, much more complicated"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4217-4220", "Text": "The lanthanoids resemble one another more closely than do the members\nof ordinary transition elements in any series They have only one stable\noxidation state and their chemistry provides an excellent opportunity to\nexamine the effect of small changes in size and nuclear charge along a\nseries of otherwise similar elements The chemistry of the actinoids is, on\nthe other hand, much more complicated The complication arises partly\nowing to the occurrence of a wide range of oxidation states in these\nelements and partly because their radioactivity creates special problems\nin their study; the two series will be considered separately here"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4218-4221", "Text": "They have only one stable\noxidation state and their chemistry provides an excellent opportunity to\nexamine the effect of small changes in size and nuclear charge along a\nseries of otherwise similar elements The chemistry of the actinoids is, on\nthe other hand, much more complicated The complication arises partly\nowing to the occurrence of a wide range of oxidation states in these\nelements and partly because their radioactivity creates special problems\nin their study; the two series will be considered separately here The names, symbols, electronic configurations of atomic and some\nionic states and atomic and ionic radii of lanthanum and lanthanoids\n(for which the general symbol Ln is used) are given in Table 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4219-4222", "Text": "The chemistry of the actinoids is, on\nthe other hand, much more complicated The complication arises partly\nowing to the occurrence of a wide range of oxidation states in these\nelements and partly because their radioactivity creates special problems\nin their study; the two series will be considered separately here The names, symbols, electronic configurations of atomic and some\nionic states and atomic and ionic radii of lanthanum and lanthanoids\n(for which the general symbol Ln is used) are given in Table 4 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4220-4223", "Text": "The complication arises partly\nowing to the occurrence of a wide range of oxidation states in these\nelements and partly because their radioactivity creates special problems\nin their study; the two series will be considered separately here The names, symbols, electronic configurations of atomic and some\nionic states and atomic and ionic radii of lanthanum and lanthanoids\n(for which the general symbol Ln is used) are given in Table 4 9 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4221-4224", "Text": "The names, symbols, electronic configurations of atomic and some\nionic states and atomic and ionic radii of lanthanum and lanthanoids\n(for which the general symbol Ln is used) are given in Table 4 9 4 5\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4222-4225", "Text": "9 4 5\n4 5\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4223-4226", "Text": "4 5\n4 5\n4 5\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4224-4227", "Text": "5\n4 5\n4 5\n4 5\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4225-4228", "Text": "5\n4 5\n4 5\n4 5 The\nThe\nThe\nThe\nThe\nLanthanoids\nLanthanoids\nLanthanoids\nLanthanoids\nLanthanoids\nRationalised 2023-24\n109\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nLa\n3+\nCe\n3+\nPr\n3+\nNd\n3+\nPm\n3+\nSm\n3+\nEu\n3+\nGd\n3+\nTb\n3+\nDy\n3+\nHo\n3+\nEr\n3+\nTm\n3+\nYb\n3+\nLu\n3+\nCe\n4+\nPr\n4+\nTb\n4+\nYb\n2+\nTm\n2+\nSm\n2\nEu\n2+\n110\n100\n90\n57\n61\n65\n59\n63\n67\n69\n71\nIonic radii/pm\nAtomic number\n+\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4226-4229", "Text": "5\n4 5\n4 5 The\nThe\nThe\nThe\nThe\nLanthanoids\nLanthanoids\nLanthanoids\nLanthanoids\nLanthanoids\nRationalised 2023-24\n109\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nLa\n3+\nCe\n3+\nPr\n3+\nNd\n3+\nPm\n3+\nSm\n3+\nEu\n3+\nGd\n3+\nTb\n3+\nDy\n3+\nHo\n3+\nEr\n3+\nTm\n3+\nYb\n3+\nLu\n3+\nCe\n4+\nPr\n4+\nTb\n4+\nYb\n2+\nTm\n2+\nSm\n2\nEu\n2+\n110\n100\n90\n57\n61\n65\n59\n63\n67\n69\n71\nIonic radii/pm\nAtomic number\n+\n4 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4227-4230", "Text": "5\n4 5 The\nThe\nThe\nThe\nThe\nLanthanoids\nLanthanoids\nLanthanoids\nLanthanoids\nLanthanoids\nRationalised 2023-24\n109\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nLa\n3+\nCe\n3+\nPr\n3+\nNd\n3+\nPm\n3+\nSm\n3+\nEu\n3+\nGd\n3+\nTb\n3+\nDy\n3+\nHo\n3+\nEr\n3+\nTm\n3+\nYb\n3+\nLu\n3+\nCe\n4+\nPr\n4+\nTb\n4+\nYb\n2+\nTm\n2+\nSm\n2\nEu\n2+\n110\n100\n90\n57\n61\n65\n59\n63\n67\n69\n71\nIonic radii/pm\nAtomic number\n+\n4 5 1 Electronic\nConfigurations\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4228-4231", "Text": "5 The\nThe\nThe\nThe\nThe\nLanthanoids\nLanthanoids\nLanthanoids\nLanthanoids\nLanthanoids\nRationalised 2023-24\n109\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nLa\n3+\nCe\n3+\nPr\n3+\nNd\n3+\nPm\n3+\nSm\n3+\nEu\n3+\nGd\n3+\nTb\n3+\nDy\n3+\nHo\n3+\nEr\n3+\nTm\n3+\nYb\n3+\nLu\n3+\nCe\n4+\nPr\n4+\nTb\n4+\nYb\n2+\nTm\n2+\nSm\n2\nEu\n2+\n110\n100\n90\n57\n61\n65\n59\n63\n67\n69\n71\nIonic radii/pm\nAtomic number\n+\n4 5 1 Electronic\nConfigurations\n4 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4229-4232", "Text": "5 1 Electronic\nConfigurations\n4 5 2 Atomic and\nIonic Sizes\nIt may be noted that atoms of these elements have electronic\nconfiguration with 6s\n2 common but with variable occupancy of 4f level\n(Table 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4230-4233", "Text": "1 Electronic\nConfigurations\n4 5 2 Atomic and\nIonic Sizes\nIt may be noted that atoms of these elements have electronic\nconfiguration with 6s\n2 common but with variable occupancy of 4f level\n(Table 4 9)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4231-4234", "Text": "5 2 Atomic and\nIonic Sizes\nIt may be noted that atoms of these elements have electronic\nconfiguration with 6s\n2 common but with variable occupancy of 4f level\n(Table 4 9) However, the electronic configurations of all the tripositive\nions (the most stable oxidation state of all the lanthanoids) are of the\nform 4f \nn (n = 1 to 14 with increasing atomic number)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4232-4235", "Text": "2 Atomic and\nIonic Sizes\nIt may be noted that atoms of these elements have electronic\nconfiguration with 6s\n2 common but with variable occupancy of 4f level\n(Table 4 9) However, the electronic configurations of all the tripositive\nions (the most stable oxidation state of all the lanthanoids) are of the\nform 4f \nn (n = 1 to 14 with increasing atomic number) The overall decrease in atomic and ionic radii from lanthanum to\nlutetium (the lanthanoid contraction) is a unique feature in the\nchemistry of the lanthanoids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4233-4236", "Text": "9) However, the electronic configurations of all the tripositive\nions (the most stable oxidation state of all the lanthanoids) are of the\nform 4f \nn (n = 1 to 14 with increasing atomic number) The overall decrease in atomic and ionic radii from lanthanum to\nlutetium (the lanthanoid contraction) is a unique feature in the\nchemistry of the lanthanoids It has far reaching\nconsequences in the chemistry of the third\ntransition series of the elements"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4234-4237", "Text": "However, the electronic configurations of all the tripositive\nions (the most stable oxidation state of all the lanthanoids) are of the\nform 4f \nn (n = 1 to 14 with increasing atomic number) The overall decrease in atomic and ionic radii from lanthanum to\nlutetium (the lanthanoid contraction) is a unique feature in the\nchemistry of the lanthanoids It has far reaching\nconsequences in the chemistry of the third\ntransition series of the elements The decrease\nin atomic radii (derived from the structures of\nmetals) is not quite regular as it is regular in\nM\n3+ ions (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4235-4238", "Text": "The overall decrease in atomic and ionic radii from lanthanum to\nlutetium (the lanthanoid contraction) is a unique feature in the\nchemistry of the lanthanoids It has far reaching\nconsequences in the chemistry of the third\ntransition series of the elements The decrease\nin atomic radii (derived from the structures of\nmetals) is not quite regular as it is regular in\nM\n3+ ions (Fig 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4236-4239", "Text": "It has far reaching\nconsequences in the chemistry of the third\ntransition series of the elements The decrease\nin atomic radii (derived from the structures of\nmetals) is not quite regular as it is regular in\nM\n3+ ions (Fig 4 6)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4237-4240", "Text": "The decrease\nin atomic radii (derived from the structures of\nmetals) is not quite regular as it is regular in\nM\n3+ ions (Fig 4 6) This contraction is, of\ncourse, similar to that observed in an ordinary\ntransition series and is attributed to the same\ncause, the imperfect shielding of one electron\nby another in the same sub-shell"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4238-4241", "Text": "4 6) This contraction is, of\ncourse, similar to that observed in an ordinary\ntransition series and is attributed to the same\ncause, the imperfect shielding of one electron\nby another in the same sub-shell However, the\nshielding of one 4 f electron by another is less\nthan one d electron by another with the increase\nin nuclear charge along the series"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4239-4242", "Text": "6) This contraction is, of\ncourse, similar to that observed in an ordinary\ntransition series and is attributed to the same\ncause, the imperfect shielding of one electron\nby another in the same sub-shell However, the\nshielding of one 4 f electron by another is less\nthan one d electron by another with the increase\nin nuclear charge along the series There is\nfairly regular decrease in the sizes with\nincreasing atomic number"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4240-4243", "Text": "This contraction is, of\ncourse, similar to that observed in an ordinary\ntransition series and is attributed to the same\ncause, the imperfect shielding of one electron\nby another in the same sub-shell However, the\nshielding of one 4 f electron by another is less\nthan one d electron by another with the increase\nin nuclear charge along the series There is\nfairly regular decrease in the sizes with\nincreasing atomic number The cumulative effect of the contraction of\nthe lanthanoid series, known as lanthanoid\ncontraction, causes the radii of the members\nof the third transition series to be very similar\nto those of the corresponding members of the\nsecond series"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4241-4244", "Text": "However, the\nshielding of one 4 f electron by another is less\nthan one d electron by another with the increase\nin nuclear charge along the series There is\nfairly regular decrease in the sizes with\nincreasing atomic number The cumulative effect of the contraction of\nthe lanthanoid series, known as lanthanoid\ncontraction, causes the radii of the members\nof the third transition series to be very similar\nto those of the corresponding members of the\nsecond series The almost identical radii of Zr\n(160 pm) and Hf (159 pm), a consequence of\nthe lanthanoid contraction, account for their\noccurrence together in nature and for the\ndifficulty faced in their separation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4242-4245", "Text": "There is\nfairly regular decrease in the sizes with\nincreasing atomic number The cumulative effect of the contraction of\nthe lanthanoid series, known as lanthanoid\ncontraction, causes the radii of the members\nof the third transition series to be very similar\nto those of the corresponding members of the\nsecond series The almost identical radii of Zr\n(160 pm) and Hf (159 pm), a consequence of\nthe lanthanoid contraction, account for their\noccurrence together in nature and for the\ndifficulty faced in their separation In the lanthanoids, La(II) and Ln(III) compounds are predominant\nspecies"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4243-4246", "Text": "The cumulative effect of the contraction of\nthe lanthanoid series, known as lanthanoid\ncontraction, causes the radii of the members\nof the third transition series to be very similar\nto those of the corresponding members of the\nsecond series The almost identical radii of Zr\n(160 pm) and Hf (159 pm), a consequence of\nthe lanthanoid contraction, account for their\noccurrence together in nature and for the\ndifficulty faced in their separation In the lanthanoids, La(II) and Ln(III) compounds are predominant\nspecies However, occasionally +2 and +4 ions in solution or in solid\ncompounds are also obtained"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4244-4247", "Text": "The almost identical radii of Zr\n(160 pm) and Hf (159 pm), a consequence of\nthe lanthanoid contraction, account for their\noccurrence together in nature and for the\ndifficulty faced in their separation In the lanthanoids, La(II) and Ln(III) compounds are predominant\nspecies However, occasionally +2 and +4 ions in solution or in solid\ncompounds are also obtained This irregularity (as in ionisation\nenthalpies) arises mainly from the extra stability of empty, half-filled\nor filled f subshell"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4245-4248", "Text": "In the lanthanoids, La(II) and Ln(III) compounds are predominant\nspecies However, occasionally +2 and +4 ions in solution or in solid\ncompounds are also obtained This irregularity (as in ionisation\nenthalpies) arises mainly from the extra stability of empty, half-filled\nor filled f subshell Thus, the formation of Ce\nIV is favoured by its\nnoble gas configuration, but it is a strong oxidant reverting to the\ncommon +3 state"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4246-4249", "Text": "However, occasionally +2 and +4 ions in solution or in solid\ncompounds are also obtained This irregularity (as in ionisation\nenthalpies) arises mainly from the extra stability of empty, half-filled\nor filled f subshell Thus, the formation of Ce\nIV is favoured by its\nnoble gas configuration, but it is a strong oxidant reverting to the\ncommon +3 state The E\no value for Ce\n4+/ Ce\n3+ is + 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4247-4250", "Text": "This irregularity (as in ionisation\nenthalpies) arises mainly from the extra stability of empty, half-filled\nor filled f subshell Thus, the formation of Ce\nIV is favoured by its\nnoble gas configuration, but it is a strong oxidant reverting to the\ncommon +3 state The E\no value for Ce\n4+/ Ce\n3+ is + 1 74 V which\nsuggests that it can oxidise water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4248-4251", "Text": "Thus, the formation of Ce\nIV is favoured by its\nnoble gas configuration, but it is a strong oxidant reverting to the\ncommon +3 state The E\no value for Ce\n4+/ Ce\n3+ is + 1 74 V which\nsuggests that it can oxidise water However, the reaction rate is very\nslow and hence Ce(IV) is a good analytical reagent"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4249-4252", "Text": "The E\no value for Ce\n4+/ Ce\n3+ is + 1 74 V which\nsuggests that it can oxidise water However, the reaction rate is very\nslow and hence Ce(IV) is a good analytical reagent Pr, Nd, Tb and Dy\nalso exhibit +4 state but only in oxides, MO2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4250-4253", "Text": "74 V which\nsuggests that it can oxidise water However, the reaction rate is very\nslow and hence Ce(IV) is a good analytical reagent Pr, Nd, Tb and Dy\nalso exhibit +4 state but only in oxides, MO2 Eu\n2+ is formed by losing\nthe two s electrons and its f \n7 configuration accounts for the formation\nof this ion"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4251-4254", "Text": "However, the reaction rate is very\nslow and hence Ce(IV) is a good analytical reagent Pr, Nd, Tb and Dy\nalso exhibit +4 state but only in oxides, MO2 Eu\n2+ is formed by losing\nthe two s electrons and its f \n7 configuration accounts for the formation\nof this ion However, Eu\n2+ is a strong reducing agent changing to the\ncommon +3 state"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4252-4255", "Text": "Pr, Nd, Tb and Dy\nalso exhibit +4 state but only in oxides, MO2 Eu\n2+ is formed by losing\nthe two s electrons and its f \n7 configuration accounts for the formation\nof this ion However, Eu\n2+ is a strong reducing agent changing to the\ncommon +3 state Similarly Yb\n2+ which has f \n14 configuration is a\nreductant"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4253-4256", "Text": "Eu\n2+ is formed by losing\nthe two s electrons and its f \n7 configuration accounts for the formation\nof this ion However, Eu\n2+ is a strong reducing agent changing to the\ncommon +3 state Similarly Yb\n2+ which has f \n14 configuration is a\nreductant Tb\nIV has half-filled f-orbitals and is an oxidant"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4254-4257", "Text": "However, Eu\n2+ is a strong reducing agent changing to the\ncommon +3 state Similarly Yb\n2+ which has f \n14 configuration is a\nreductant Tb\nIV has half-filled f-orbitals and is an oxidant The\nbehaviour of samarium is very much like europium, exhibiting both\n+2 and +3 oxidation states"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4255-4258", "Text": "Similarly Yb\n2+ which has f \n14 configuration is a\nreductant Tb\nIV has half-filled f-orbitals and is an oxidant The\nbehaviour of samarium is very much like europium, exhibiting both\n+2 and +3 oxidation states 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4256-4259", "Text": "Tb\nIV has half-filled f-orbitals and is an oxidant The\nbehaviour of samarium is very much like europium, exhibiting both\n+2 and +3 oxidation states 4 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4257-4260", "Text": "The\nbehaviour of samarium is very much like europium, exhibiting both\n+2 and +3 oxidation states 4 5 3 Oxidation\nStates\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4258-4261", "Text": "4 5 3 Oxidation\nStates\nFig 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4259-4262", "Text": "5 3 Oxidation\nStates\nFig 4 6: Trends in ionic radii of lanthanoids\nRationalised 2023-24\n110\nChemistry\nElectronic configurations*\nRadii/pm\nAtomic\n Name\nSymbol\n Ln\nLn\n2+\nLn\n3+\nLn\n4+\nLn\nLn\n3+\nNumber\n57\nLanthanum\nLa\n5d\n16s\n2\n5d\n1\n4f \n0\n187\n106\n58\nCerium\nCe\n4f\n15d\n16s\n2\n4f \n2\n4f \n1\n4f \n0\n183\n103\n59\nPraseodymium\nPr\n4f \n36s\n2\n4f \n3\n4f \n2\n4f \n1\n182\n101\n60\nNeodymium\nNd\n4f \n46s\n2\n4f \n4\n4f \n3\n4f \n2\n181\n99\n61\nPromethium\nPm\n4f \n56s\n2\n4f \n5\n4f \n4\n181\n98\n62\nSamarium\nSm\n4f \n66s\n2\n4f \n6\n4f \n5\n180\n96\n63\nEuropium\nEu\n4f \n76s\n2\n4f \n7\n4f \n6\n199\n95\n64\nGadolinium\nGd\n4f \n75d\n16s\n2\n4f \n75d\n1\n4f \n7\n180\n94\n65\nTerbium\nTb\n4f \n96s\n2\n4f \n9\n4f \n8\n4f \n7\n178\n92\n66\nDysprosium\nDy\n4f \n106s\n2\n4f \n10\n4f \n9\n4f \n8\n177\n91\n67\nHolmium\nHo\n4f \n116s\n2\n4f \n11\n4f \n10\n176\n89\n68\nErbium\nEr\n4f \n126s\n2\n4f \n12\n4f \n11\n175\n88\n69\nThulium\nTm\n4f \n136s\n2\n4f \n13\n4f \n12\n174\n87\n70\nYtterbium\nYb\n4f \n146s\n2\n4f \n14\n4f \n13\n173\n86\n71\nLutetium\nLu\n4f \n145d\n16s\n2\n4f \n145d\n1\n4f \n14\n\u2013\n\u2013\n\u2013\nTable 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4260-4263", "Text": "3 Oxidation\nStates\nFig 4 6: Trends in ionic radii of lanthanoids\nRationalised 2023-24\n110\nChemistry\nElectronic configurations*\nRadii/pm\nAtomic\n Name\nSymbol\n Ln\nLn\n2+\nLn\n3+\nLn\n4+\nLn\nLn\n3+\nNumber\n57\nLanthanum\nLa\n5d\n16s\n2\n5d\n1\n4f \n0\n187\n106\n58\nCerium\nCe\n4f\n15d\n16s\n2\n4f \n2\n4f \n1\n4f \n0\n183\n103\n59\nPraseodymium\nPr\n4f \n36s\n2\n4f \n3\n4f \n2\n4f \n1\n182\n101\n60\nNeodymium\nNd\n4f \n46s\n2\n4f \n4\n4f \n3\n4f \n2\n181\n99\n61\nPromethium\nPm\n4f \n56s\n2\n4f \n5\n4f \n4\n181\n98\n62\nSamarium\nSm\n4f \n66s\n2\n4f \n6\n4f \n5\n180\n96\n63\nEuropium\nEu\n4f \n76s\n2\n4f \n7\n4f \n6\n199\n95\n64\nGadolinium\nGd\n4f \n75d\n16s\n2\n4f \n75d\n1\n4f \n7\n180\n94\n65\nTerbium\nTb\n4f \n96s\n2\n4f \n9\n4f \n8\n4f \n7\n178\n92\n66\nDysprosium\nDy\n4f \n106s\n2\n4f \n10\n4f \n9\n4f \n8\n177\n91\n67\nHolmium\nHo\n4f \n116s\n2\n4f \n11\n4f \n10\n176\n89\n68\nErbium\nEr\n4f \n126s\n2\n4f \n12\n4f \n11\n175\n88\n69\nThulium\nTm\n4f \n136s\n2\n4f \n13\n4f \n12\n174\n87\n70\nYtterbium\nYb\n4f \n146s\n2\n4f \n14\n4f \n13\n173\n86\n71\nLutetium\nLu\n4f \n145d\n16s\n2\n4f \n145d\n1\n4f \n14\n\u2013\n\u2013\n\u2013\nTable 4 9: Electronic Configurations and Radii of Lanthanum and Lanthanoids\n* Only electrons outside [Xe] core are indicated\nAll the lanthanoids are silvery white soft metals and tarnish rapidly in air"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4261-4264", "Text": "4 6: Trends in ionic radii of lanthanoids\nRationalised 2023-24\n110\nChemistry\nElectronic configurations*\nRadii/pm\nAtomic\n Name\nSymbol\n Ln\nLn\n2+\nLn\n3+\nLn\n4+\nLn\nLn\n3+\nNumber\n57\nLanthanum\nLa\n5d\n16s\n2\n5d\n1\n4f \n0\n187\n106\n58\nCerium\nCe\n4f\n15d\n16s\n2\n4f \n2\n4f \n1\n4f \n0\n183\n103\n59\nPraseodymium\nPr\n4f \n36s\n2\n4f \n3\n4f \n2\n4f \n1\n182\n101\n60\nNeodymium\nNd\n4f \n46s\n2\n4f \n4\n4f \n3\n4f \n2\n181\n99\n61\nPromethium\nPm\n4f \n56s\n2\n4f \n5\n4f \n4\n181\n98\n62\nSamarium\nSm\n4f \n66s\n2\n4f \n6\n4f \n5\n180\n96\n63\nEuropium\nEu\n4f \n76s\n2\n4f \n7\n4f \n6\n199\n95\n64\nGadolinium\nGd\n4f \n75d\n16s\n2\n4f \n75d\n1\n4f \n7\n180\n94\n65\nTerbium\nTb\n4f \n96s\n2\n4f \n9\n4f \n8\n4f \n7\n178\n92\n66\nDysprosium\nDy\n4f \n106s\n2\n4f \n10\n4f \n9\n4f \n8\n177\n91\n67\nHolmium\nHo\n4f \n116s\n2\n4f \n11\n4f \n10\n176\n89\n68\nErbium\nEr\n4f \n126s\n2\n4f \n12\n4f \n11\n175\n88\n69\nThulium\nTm\n4f \n136s\n2\n4f \n13\n4f \n12\n174\n87\n70\nYtterbium\nYb\n4f \n146s\n2\n4f \n14\n4f \n13\n173\n86\n71\nLutetium\nLu\n4f \n145d\n16s\n2\n4f \n145d\n1\n4f \n14\n\u2013\n\u2013\n\u2013\nTable 4 9: Electronic Configurations and Radii of Lanthanum and Lanthanoids\n* Only electrons outside [Xe] core are indicated\nAll the lanthanoids are silvery white soft metals and tarnish rapidly in air The hardness increases with increasing atomic number, samarium being\nsteel hard"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4262-4265", "Text": "6: Trends in ionic radii of lanthanoids\nRationalised 2023-24\n110\nChemistry\nElectronic configurations*\nRadii/pm\nAtomic\n Name\nSymbol\n Ln\nLn\n2+\nLn\n3+\nLn\n4+\nLn\nLn\n3+\nNumber\n57\nLanthanum\nLa\n5d\n16s\n2\n5d\n1\n4f \n0\n187\n106\n58\nCerium\nCe\n4f\n15d\n16s\n2\n4f \n2\n4f \n1\n4f \n0\n183\n103\n59\nPraseodymium\nPr\n4f \n36s\n2\n4f \n3\n4f \n2\n4f \n1\n182\n101\n60\nNeodymium\nNd\n4f \n46s\n2\n4f \n4\n4f \n3\n4f \n2\n181\n99\n61\nPromethium\nPm\n4f \n56s\n2\n4f \n5\n4f \n4\n181\n98\n62\nSamarium\nSm\n4f \n66s\n2\n4f \n6\n4f \n5\n180\n96\n63\nEuropium\nEu\n4f \n76s\n2\n4f \n7\n4f \n6\n199\n95\n64\nGadolinium\nGd\n4f \n75d\n16s\n2\n4f \n75d\n1\n4f \n7\n180\n94\n65\nTerbium\nTb\n4f \n96s\n2\n4f \n9\n4f \n8\n4f \n7\n178\n92\n66\nDysprosium\nDy\n4f \n106s\n2\n4f \n10\n4f \n9\n4f \n8\n177\n91\n67\nHolmium\nHo\n4f \n116s\n2\n4f \n11\n4f \n10\n176\n89\n68\nErbium\nEr\n4f \n126s\n2\n4f \n12\n4f \n11\n175\n88\n69\nThulium\nTm\n4f \n136s\n2\n4f \n13\n4f \n12\n174\n87\n70\nYtterbium\nYb\n4f \n146s\n2\n4f \n14\n4f \n13\n173\n86\n71\nLutetium\nLu\n4f \n145d\n16s\n2\n4f \n145d\n1\n4f \n14\n\u2013\n\u2013\n\u2013\nTable 4 9: Electronic Configurations and Radii of Lanthanum and Lanthanoids\n* Only electrons outside [Xe] core are indicated\nAll the lanthanoids are silvery white soft metals and tarnish rapidly in air The hardness increases with increasing atomic number, samarium being\nsteel hard Their melting points range between 1000 to 1200 K but\nsamarium melts at 1623 K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4263-4266", "Text": "9: Electronic Configurations and Radii of Lanthanum and Lanthanoids\n* Only electrons outside [Xe] core are indicated\nAll the lanthanoids are silvery white soft metals and tarnish rapidly in air The hardness increases with increasing atomic number, samarium being\nsteel hard Their melting points range between 1000 to 1200 K but\nsamarium melts at 1623 K They have typical metallic structure and are\ngood conductors of heat and electricity"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4264-4267", "Text": "The hardness increases with increasing atomic number, samarium being\nsteel hard Their melting points range between 1000 to 1200 K but\nsamarium melts at 1623 K They have typical metallic structure and are\ngood conductors of heat and electricity Density and other properties\nchange smoothly except for Eu and Yb and occasionally for Sm and Tm"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4265-4268", "Text": "Their melting points range between 1000 to 1200 K but\nsamarium melts at 1623 K They have typical metallic structure and are\ngood conductors of heat and electricity Density and other properties\nchange smoothly except for Eu and Yb and occasionally for Sm and Tm Many trivalent lanthanoid ions are coloured both in the solid state\nand in aqueous solutions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4266-4269", "Text": "They have typical metallic structure and are\ngood conductors of heat and electricity Density and other properties\nchange smoothly except for Eu and Yb and occasionally for Sm and Tm Many trivalent lanthanoid ions are coloured both in the solid state\nand in aqueous solutions Colour of these ions may be attributed to\nthe presence of f electrons"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4267-4270", "Text": "Density and other properties\nchange smoothly except for Eu and Yb and occasionally for Sm and Tm Many trivalent lanthanoid ions are coloured both in the solid state\nand in aqueous solutions Colour of these ions may be attributed to\nthe presence of f electrons Neither La\n3+ nor Lu\n3+ ion shows any colour\nbut the rest do so"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4268-4271", "Text": "Many trivalent lanthanoid ions are coloured both in the solid state\nand in aqueous solutions Colour of these ions may be attributed to\nthe presence of f electrons Neither La\n3+ nor Lu\n3+ ion shows any colour\nbut the rest do so However, absorption bands are narrow, probably\nbecause of the excitation within f level"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4269-4272", "Text": "Colour of these ions may be attributed to\nthe presence of f electrons Neither La\n3+ nor Lu\n3+ ion shows any colour\nbut the rest do so However, absorption bands are narrow, probably\nbecause of the excitation within f level The lanthanoid ions other\nthan the f \n0 type (La\n3+ and Ce\n4+) and the f \n14 type (Yb\n2+ and Lu\n3+) are\nall paramagnetic"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4270-4273", "Text": "Neither La\n3+ nor Lu\n3+ ion shows any colour\nbut the rest do so However, absorption bands are narrow, probably\nbecause of the excitation within f level The lanthanoid ions other\nthan the f \n0 type (La\n3+ and Ce\n4+) and the f \n14 type (Yb\n2+ and Lu\n3+) are\nall paramagnetic The first ionisation enthalpies of the lanthanoids are around\n600 kJ mol\n\u20131, the second about 1200 kJ mol\n\u20131 comparable with those\nof calcium"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4271-4274", "Text": "However, absorption bands are narrow, probably\nbecause of the excitation within f level The lanthanoid ions other\nthan the f \n0 type (La\n3+ and Ce\n4+) and the f \n14 type (Yb\n2+ and Lu\n3+) are\nall paramagnetic The first ionisation enthalpies of the lanthanoids are around\n600 kJ mol\n\u20131, the second about 1200 kJ mol\n\u20131 comparable with those\nof calcium A detailed discussion of the variation of the third ionisation\nenthalpies indicates that the exchange enthalpy considerations (as in\n3d orbitals of the first transition series), appear to impart a certain\ndegree of stability to empty, half-filled and completely filled orbitals\nf level"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4272-4275", "Text": "The lanthanoid ions other\nthan the f \n0 type (La\n3+ and Ce\n4+) and the f \n14 type (Yb\n2+ and Lu\n3+) are\nall paramagnetic The first ionisation enthalpies of the lanthanoids are around\n600 kJ mol\n\u20131, the second about 1200 kJ mol\n\u20131 comparable with those\nof calcium A detailed discussion of the variation of the third ionisation\nenthalpies indicates that the exchange enthalpy considerations (as in\n3d orbitals of the first transition series), appear to impart a certain\ndegree of stability to empty, half-filled and completely filled orbitals\nf level This is indicated from the abnormally low value of the third\nionisation enthalpy of lanthanum, gadolinium and lutetium"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4273-4276", "Text": "The first ionisation enthalpies of the lanthanoids are around\n600 kJ mol\n\u20131, the second about 1200 kJ mol\n\u20131 comparable with those\nof calcium A detailed discussion of the variation of the third ionisation\nenthalpies indicates that the exchange enthalpy considerations (as in\n3d orbitals of the first transition series), appear to impart a certain\ndegree of stability to empty, half-filled and completely filled orbitals\nf level This is indicated from the abnormally low value of the third\nionisation enthalpy of lanthanum, gadolinium and lutetium In their chemical behaviour, in general, the earlier members of the series\nare quite reactive similar to calcium but, with increasing atomic number,\nthey behave more like aluminium"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4274-4277", "Text": "A detailed discussion of the variation of the third ionisation\nenthalpies indicates that the exchange enthalpy considerations (as in\n3d orbitals of the first transition series), appear to impart a certain\ndegree of stability to empty, half-filled and completely filled orbitals\nf level This is indicated from the abnormally low value of the third\nionisation enthalpy of lanthanum, gadolinium and lutetium In their chemical behaviour, in general, the earlier members of the series\nare quite reactive similar to calcium but, with increasing atomic number,\nthey behave more like aluminium Values for E\no for the half-reaction:\nLn\n3+(aq) + 3e\n\u2013 \u00ae Ln(s)\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4275-4278", "Text": "This is indicated from the abnormally low value of the third\nionisation enthalpy of lanthanum, gadolinium and lutetium In their chemical behaviour, in general, the earlier members of the series\nare quite reactive similar to calcium but, with increasing atomic number,\nthey behave more like aluminium Values for E\no for the half-reaction:\nLn\n3+(aq) + 3e\n\u2013 \u00ae Ln(s)\n4 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4276-4279", "Text": "In their chemical behaviour, in general, the earlier members of the series\nare quite reactive similar to calcium but, with increasing atomic number,\nthey behave more like aluminium Values for E\no for the half-reaction:\nLn\n3+(aq) + 3e\n\u2013 \u00ae Ln(s)\n4 5 4 General\nCharacteristics\nRationalised 2023-24\n111\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nLnC2\nwith C\n2773 K\nN\nLn\nheated with N\nwith H O\n2\nLn O\n2\n3\nH2\nwith acids\nburns in O2\nheated with S\nwith halogens\nLnX 3\nLn(OH)3 + H2\nLn S\n2\n3\nLn\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4277-4280", "Text": "Values for E\no for the half-reaction:\nLn\n3+(aq) + 3e\n\u2013 \u00ae Ln(s)\n4 5 4 General\nCharacteristics\nRationalised 2023-24\n111\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nLnC2\nwith C\n2773 K\nN\nLn\nheated with N\nwith H O\n2\nLn O\n2\n3\nH2\nwith acids\nburns in O2\nheated with S\nwith halogens\nLnX 3\nLn(OH)3 + H2\nLn S\n2\n3\nLn\n4 6\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4278-4281", "Text": "5 4 General\nCharacteristics\nRationalised 2023-24\n111\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nLnC2\nwith C\n2773 K\nN\nLn\nheated with N\nwith H O\n2\nLn O\n2\n3\nH2\nwith acids\nburns in O2\nheated with S\nwith halogens\nLnX 3\nLn(OH)3 + H2\nLn S\n2\n3\nLn\n4 6\n4 6\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4279-4282", "Text": "4 General\nCharacteristics\nRationalised 2023-24\n111\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nLnC2\nwith C\n2773 K\nN\nLn\nheated with N\nwith H O\n2\nLn O\n2\n3\nH2\nwith acids\nburns in O2\nheated with S\nwith halogens\nLnX 3\nLn(OH)3 + H2\nLn S\n2\n3\nLn\n4 6\n4 6\n4 6\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4280-4283", "Text": "6\n4 6\n4 6\n4 6\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4281-4284", "Text": "6\n4 6\n4 6\n4 6 The Actinoids\nThe Actinoids\nThe Actinoids\nThe Actinoids\nThe Actinoids\nare in the range of \u20132"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4282-4285", "Text": "6\n4 6\n4 6 The Actinoids\nThe Actinoids\nThe Actinoids\nThe Actinoids\nThe Actinoids\nare in the range of \u20132 2 to \u20132"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4283-4286", "Text": "6\n4 6 The Actinoids\nThe Actinoids\nThe Actinoids\nThe Actinoids\nThe Actinoids\nare in the range of \u20132 2 to \u20132 4 V\nexcept for Eu for which the value is\n\u2013 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4284-4287", "Text": "6 The Actinoids\nThe Actinoids\nThe Actinoids\nThe Actinoids\nThe Actinoids\nare in the range of \u20132 2 to \u20132 4 V\nexcept for Eu for which the value is\n\u2013 2 0 V"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4285-4288", "Text": "2 to \u20132 4 V\nexcept for Eu for which the value is\n\u2013 2 0 V This is, of course, a small\nvariation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4286-4289", "Text": "4 V\nexcept for Eu for which the value is\n\u2013 2 0 V This is, of course, a small\nvariation The metals combine with\nhydrogen when gently heated in the\ngas"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4287-4290", "Text": "0 V This is, of course, a small\nvariation The metals combine with\nhydrogen when gently heated in the\ngas The carbides, Ln3C, Ln2C3 and LnC2\nare formed when the metals are heated\nwith carbon"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4288-4291", "Text": "This is, of course, a small\nvariation The metals combine with\nhydrogen when gently heated in the\ngas The carbides, Ln3C, Ln2C3 and LnC2\nare formed when the metals are heated\nwith carbon They liberate hydrogen\nfrom dilute acids and burn in halogens\nto form halides"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4289-4292", "Text": "The metals combine with\nhydrogen when gently heated in the\ngas The carbides, Ln3C, Ln2C3 and LnC2\nare formed when the metals are heated\nwith carbon They liberate hydrogen\nfrom dilute acids and burn in halogens\nto form halides They form oxides M2O3\nand \nhydroxides \nM(OH)3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4290-4293", "Text": "The carbides, Ln3C, Ln2C3 and LnC2\nare formed when the metals are heated\nwith carbon They liberate hydrogen\nfrom dilute acids and burn in halogens\nto form halides They form oxides M2O3\nand \nhydroxides \nM(OH)3 The\nhydroxides are definite compounds, not\njust hydrated oxides"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4291-4294", "Text": "They liberate hydrogen\nfrom dilute acids and burn in halogens\nto form halides They form oxides M2O3\nand \nhydroxides \nM(OH)3 The\nhydroxides are definite compounds, not\njust hydrated oxides They are basic\nlike alkaline earth metal oxides and\nhydroxides"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4292-4295", "Text": "They form oxides M2O3\nand \nhydroxides \nM(OH)3 The\nhydroxides are definite compounds, not\njust hydrated oxides They are basic\nlike alkaline earth metal oxides and\nhydroxides Their general reactions are\ndepicted in Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4293-4296", "Text": "The\nhydroxides are definite compounds, not\njust hydrated oxides They are basic\nlike alkaline earth metal oxides and\nhydroxides Their general reactions are\ndepicted in Fig 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4294-4297", "Text": "They are basic\nlike alkaline earth metal oxides and\nhydroxides Their general reactions are\ndepicted in Fig 4 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4295-4298", "Text": "Their general reactions are\ndepicted in Fig 4 7 The best single use of the\nlanthanoids is for the production of alloy steels for plates and pipes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4296-4299", "Text": "4 7 The best single use of the\nlanthanoids is for the production of alloy steels for plates and pipes A\nwell known alloy is mischmetall which consists of a lanthanoid metal\n(~ 95%) and iron (~ 5%) and traces of S, C, Ca and Al"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4297-4300", "Text": "7 The best single use of the\nlanthanoids is for the production of alloy steels for plates and pipes A\nwell known alloy is mischmetall which consists of a lanthanoid metal\n(~ 95%) and iron (~ 5%) and traces of S, C, Ca and Al A good deal of\nmischmetall is used in Mg-based alloy to produce bullets, shell and\nlighter flint"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4298-4301", "Text": "The best single use of the\nlanthanoids is for the production of alloy steels for plates and pipes A\nwell known alloy is mischmetall which consists of a lanthanoid metal\n(~ 95%) and iron (~ 5%) and traces of S, C, Ca and Al A good deal of\nmischmetall is used in Mg-based alloy to produce bullets, shell and\nlighter flint Mixed oxides of lanthanoids are employed as catalysts in\npetroleum cracking"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4299-4302", "Text": "A\nwell known alloy is mischmetall which consists of a lanthanoid metal\n(~ 95%) and iron (~ 5%) and traces of S, C, Ca and Al A good deal of\nmischmetall is used in Mg-based alloy to produce bullets, shell and\nlighter flint Mixed oxides of lanthanoids are employed as catalysts in\npetroleum cracking Some individual Ln oxides are used as phosphors\nin television screens and similar fluorescing surfaces"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4300-4303", "Text": "A good deal of\nmischmetall is used in Mg-based alloy to produce bullets, shell and\nlighter flint Mixed oxides of lanthanoids are employed as catalysts in\npetroleum cracking Some individual Ln oxides are used as phosphors\nin television screens and similar fluorescing surfaces The actinoids include the fourteen elements from Th to Lr"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4301-4304", "Text": "Mixed oxides of lanthanoids are employed as catalysts in\npetroleum cracking Some individual Ln oxides are used as phosphors\nin television screens and similar fluorescing surfaces The actinoids include the fourteen elements from Th to Lr The names,\nsymbols and some properties of these elements are given in Table 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4302-4305", "Text": "Some individual Ln oxides are used as phosphors\nin television screens and similar fluorescing surfaces The actinoids include the fourteen elements from Th to Lr The names,\nsymbols and some properties of these elements are given in Table 4 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4303-4306", "Text": "The actinoids include the fourteen elements from Th to Lr The names,\nsymbols and some properties of these elements are given in Table 4 10 Table 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4304-4307", "Text": "The names,\nsymbols and some properties of these elements are given in Table 4 10 Table 4 10: Some Properties of Actinium and Actinoids\nElectronic conifigurations*\nRadii/pm\nAtomic\nName\nSymbol\nM\nM\n3+\nM\n4+\nM\n3+\nM\n4+\nNumber\n89\nActinium\nAc\n 6d\n17s\n2\n5f \n0\n111\n90\nThorium\nTh\n 6d\n27s\n2\n5f \n1\n5f \n0\n99\n91\nProtactinium\nPa\n 5f \n26d\n17s\n2\n5f \n2\n5f \n1\n96\n92\nUranium\nU\n 5f \n36d\n17s\n2\n5f \n3\n5f \n2\n103\n93\n93\nNeptunium\nNp\n 5f \n46d\n17s\n2\n5f \n4\n5f \n3\n101\n92\n94\nPlutonium\nPu\n 5f \n67s\n2\n5f \n5\n5f \n4\n100\n90\n95\nAmericium\nAm\n 5f \n77s\n2\n5f \n6\n5f \n5\n99\n89\n96\nCurium\nCm\n 5f \n76d\n17s\n2\n5f \n7\n5f \n6\n99\n88\n97\nBerkelium\nBk\n 5f \n97s\n2\n5f \n8\n5f \n7\n98\n87\n98\nCalifornium\nCf\n 5f \n107s\n2\n5f \n9\n5f \n8\n98\n86\n99\nEinstenium\nEs\n 5f \n117s\n2\n5f \n10\n5f \n9\n\u2013\n\u2013\n100\nFermium\nFm\n 5f \n127s\n2\n5f \n11\n5f \n10\n\u2013\n\u2013\n101\nMendelevium\nMd\n 5f \n137s\n2\n5f \n12\n5f \n11\n\u2013\n\u2013\n102\nNobelium\nNo\n 5f \n147s\n2\n5f \n13\n5f \n12\n\u2013\n\u2013\n103\nLawrencium\nLr\n 5f \n146d\n17s\n2\n5f \n14\n5f \n13\n\u2013\n\u2013\nFig 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4305-4308", "Text": "10 Table 4 10: Some Properties of Actinium and Actinoids\nElectronic conifigurations*\nRadii/pm\nAtomic\nName\nSymbol\nM\nM\n3+\nM\n4+\nM\n3+\nM\n4+\nNumber\n89\nActinium\nAc\n 6d\n17s\n2\n5f \n0\n111\n90\nThorium\nTh\n 6d\n27s\n2\n5f \n1\n5f \n0\n99\n91\nProtactinium\nPa\n 5f \n26d\n17s\n2\n5f \n2\n5f \n1\n96\n92\nUranium\nU\n 5f \n36d\n17s\n2\n5f \n3\n5f \n2\n103\n93\n93\nNeptunium\nNp\n 5f \n46d\n17s\n2\n5f \n4\n5f \n3\n101\n92\n94\nPlutonium\nPu\n 5f \n67s\n2\n5f \n5\n5f \n4\n100\n90\n95\nAmericium\nAm\n 5f \n77s\n2\n5f \n6\n5f \n5\n99\n89\n96\nCurium\nCm\n 5f \n76d\n17s\n2\n5f \n7\n5f \n6\n99\n88\n97\nBerkelium\nBk\n 5f \n97s\n2\n5f \n8\n5f \n7\n98\n87\n98\nCalifornium\nCf\n 5f \n107s\n2\n5f \n9\n5f \n8\n98\n86\n99\nEinstenium\nEs\n 5f \n117s\n2\n5f \n10\n5f \n9\n\u2013\n\u2013\n100\nFermium\nFm\n 5f \n127s\n2\n5f \n11\n5f \n10\n\u2013\n\u2013\n101\nMendelevium\nMd\n 5f \n137s\n2\n5f \n12\n5f \n11\n\u2013\n\u2013\n102\nNobelium\nNo\n 5f \n147s\n2\n5f \n13\n5f \n12\n\u2013\n\u2013\n103\nLawrencium\nLr\n 5f \n146d\n17s\n2\n5f \n14\n5f \n13\n\u2013\n\u2013\nFig 4 7: Chemical reactions of the lanthanoids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4306-4309", "Text": "Table 4 10: Some Properties of Actinium and Actinoids\nElectronic conifigurations*\nRadii/pm\nAtomic\nName\nSymbol\nM\nM\n3+\nM\n4+\nM\n3+\nM\n4+\nNumber\n89\nActinium\nAc\n 6d\n17s\n2\n5f \n0\n111\n90\nThorium\nTh\n 6d\n27s\n2\n5f \n1\n5f \n0\n99\n91\nProtactinium\nPa\n 5f \n26d\n17s\n2\n5f \n2\n5f \n1\n96\n92\nUranium\nU\n 5f \n36d\n17s\n2\n5f \n3\n5f \n2\n103\n93\n93\nNeptunium\nNp\n 5f \n46d\n17s\n2\n5f \n4\n5f \n3\n101\n92\n94\nPlutonium\nPu\n 5f \n67s\n2\n5f \n5\n5f \n4\n100\n90\n95\nAmericium\nAm\n 5f \n77s\n2\n5f \n6\n5f \n5\n99\n89\n96\nCurium\nCm\n 5f \n76d\n17s\n2\n5f \n7\n5f \n6\n99\n88\n97\nBerkelium\nBk\n 5f \n97s\n2\n5f \n8\n5f \n7\n98\n87\n98\nCalifornium\nCf\n 5f \n107s\n2\n5f \n9\n5f \n8\n98\n86\n99\nEinstenium\nEs\n 5f \n117s\n2\n5f \n10\n5f \n9\n\u2013\n\u2013\n100\nFermium\nFm\n 5f \n127s\n2\n5f \n11\n5f \n10\n\u2013\n\u2013\n101\nMendelevium\nMd\n 5f \n137s\n2\n5f \n12\n5f \n11\n\u2013\n\u2013\n102\nNobelium\nNo\n 5f \n147s\n2\n5f \n13\n5f \n12\n\u2013\n\u2013\n103\nLawrencium\nLr\n 5f \n146d\n17s\n2\n5f \n14\n5f \n13\n\u2013\n\u2013\nFig 4 7: Chemical reactions of the lanthanoids Rationalised 2023-24\n112\nChemistry\nThe actinoids are radioactive elements and the earlier members have\nrelatively long half-lives, the latter ones have half-life values ranging from\na day to 3 minutes for lawrencium (Z =103)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4307-4310", "Text": "10: Some Properties of Actinium and Actinoids\nElectronic conifigurations*\nRadii/pm\nAtomic\nName\nSymbol\nM\nM\n3+\nM\n4+\nM\n3+\nM\n4+\nNumber\n89\nActinium\nAc\n 6d\n17s\n2\n5f \n0\n111\n90\nThorium\nTh\n 6d\n27s\n2\n5f \n1\n5f \n0\n99\n91\nProtactinium\nPa\n 5f \n26d\n17s\n2\n5f \n2\n5f \n1\n96\n92\nUranium\nU\n 5f \n36d\n17s\n2\n5f \n3\n5f \n2\n103\n93\n93\nNeptunium\nNp\n 5f \n46d\n17s\n2\n5f \n4\n5f \n3\n101\n92\n94\nPlutonium\nPu\n 5f \n67s\n2\n5f \n5\n5f \n4\n100\n90\n95\nAmericium\nAm\n 5f \n77s\n2\n5f \n6\n5f \n5\n99\n89\n96\nCurium\nCm\n 5f \n76d\n17s\n2\n5f \n7\n5f \n6\n99\n88\n97\nBerkelium\nBk\n 5f \n97s\n2\n5f \n8\n5f \n7\n98\n87\n98\nCalifornium\nCf\n 5f \n107s\n2\n5f \n9\n5f \n8\n98\n86\n99\nEinstenium\nEs\n 5f \n117s\n2\n5f \n10\n5f \n9\n\u2013\n\u2013\n100\nFermium\nFm\n 5f \n127s\n2\n5f \n11\n5f \n10\n\u2013\n\u2013\n101\nMendelevium\nMd\n 5f \n137s\n2\n5f \n12\n5f \n11\n\u2013\n\u2013\n102\nNobelium\nNo\n 5f \n147s\n2\n5f \n13\n5f \n12\n\u2013\n\u2013\n103\nLawrencium\nLr\n 5f \n146d\n17s\n2\n5f \n14\n5f \n13\n\u2013\n\u2013\nFig 4 7: Chemical reactions of the lanthanoids Rationalised 2023-24\n112\nChemistry\nThe actinoids are radioactive elements and the earlier members have\nrelatively long half-lives, the latter ones have half-life values ranging from\na day to 3 minutes for lawrencium (Z =103) The latter members could be\nprepared only in nanogram quantities"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4308-4311", "Text": "7: Chemical reactions of the lanthanoids Rationalised 2023-24\n112\nChemistry\nThe actinoids are radioactive elements and the earlier members have\nrelatively long half-lives, the latter ones have half-life values ranging from\na day to 3 minutes for lawrencium (Z =103) The latter members could be\nprepared only in nanogram quantities These facts render their study\nmore difficult"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4309-4312", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n112\nChemistry\nThe actinoids are radioactive elements and the earlier members have\nrelatively long half-lives, the latter ones have half-life values ranging from\na day to 3 minutes for lawrencium (Z =103) The latter members could be\nprepared only in nanogram quantities These facts render their study\nmore difficult All the actinoids are believed to have the electronic configuration of 7s\n2\nand variable occupancy of the 5f and 6d subshells"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4310-4313", "Text": "The latter members could be\nprepared only in nanogram quantities These facts render their study\nmore difficult All the actinoids are believed to have the electronic configuration of 7s\n2\nand variable occupancy of the 5f and 6d subshells The fourteen electrons\nare formally added to 5f, though not in thorium (Z = 90) but from Pa\nonwards the 5f orbitals are complete at element 103"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4311-4314", "Text": "These facts render their study\nmore difficult All the actinoids are believed to have the electronic configuration of 7s\n2\nand variable occupancy of the 5f and 6d subshells The fourteen electrons\nare formally added to 5f, though not in thorium (Z = 90) but from Pa\nonwards the 5f orbitals are complete at element 103 The irregularities in\nthe electronic configurations of the actinoids, like those in the lanthanoids\nare related to the stabilities of the f \n0, f \n7 and f \n14 occupancies of the 5f\norbitals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4312-4315", "Text": "All the actinoids are believed to have the electronic configuration of 7s\n2\nand variable occupancy of the 5f and 6d subshells The fourteen electrons\nare formally added to 5f, though not in thorium (Z = 90) but from Pa\nonwards the 5f orbitals are complete at element 103 The irregularities in\nthe electronic configurations of the actinoids, like those in the lanthanoids\nare related to the stabilities of the f \n0, f \n7 and f \n14 occupancies of the 5f\norbitals Thus, the configurations of Am and Cm are [Rn] 5f \n77s\n2 and\n[Rn] 5f\n 76d\n17s\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4313-4316", "Text": "The fourteen electrons\nare formally added to 5f, though not in thorium (Z = 90) but from Pa\nonwards the 5f orbitals are complete at element 103 The irregularities in\nthe electronic configurations of the actinoids, like those in the lanthanoids\nare related to the stabilities of the f \n0, f \n7 and f \n14 occupancies of the 5f\norbitals Thus, the configurations of Am and Cm are [Rn] 5f \n77s\n2 and\n[Rn] 5f\n 76d\n17s\n2 Although the 5f orbitals resemble the 4f orbitals in their\nangular part of the wave-function, they are not as buried as 4f orbitals\nand hence 5f electrons can participate in bonding to a far greater extent"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4314-4317", "Text": "The irregularities in\nthe electronic configurations of the actinoids, like those in the lanthanoids\nare related to the stabilities of the f \n0, f \n7 and f \n14 occupancies of the 5f\norbitals Thus, the configurations of Am and Cm are [Rn] 5f \n77s\n2 and\n[Rn] 5f\n 76d\n17s\n2 Although the 5f orbitals resemble the 4f orbitals in their\nangular part of the wave-function, they are not as buried as 4f orbitals\nand hence 5f electrons can participate in bonding to a far greater extent The general trend in lanthanoids is observable in the actinoids as well"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4315-4318", "Text": "Thus, the configurations of Am and Cm are [Rn] 5f \n77s\n2 and\n[Rn] 5f\n 76d\n17s\n2 Although the 5f orbitals resemble the 4f orbitals in their\nangular part of the wave-function, they are not as buried as 4f orbitals\nand hence 5f electrons can participate in bonding to a far greater extent The general trend in lanthanoids is observable in the actinoids as well There is a gradual decrease in the size of atoms or M\n3+ ions across the\nseries"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4316-4319", "Text": "Although the 5f orbitals resemble the 4f orbitals in their\nangular part of the wave-function, they are not as buried as 4f orbitals\nand hence 5f electrons can participate in bonding to a far greater extent The general trend in lanthanoids is observable in the actinoids as well There is a gradual decrease in the size of atoms or M\n3+ ions across the\nseries This may be referred to as the actinoid contraction (like lanthanoid\ncontraction)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4317-4320", "Text": "The general trend in lanthanoids is observable in the actinoids as well There is a gradual decrease in the size of atoms or M\n3+ ions across the\nseries This may be referred to as the actinoid contraction (like lanthanoid\ncontraction) The contraction is, however, greater from element to element\nin this series resulting from poor shielding by 5f electrons"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4318-4321", "Text": "There is a gradual decrease in the size of atoms or M\n3+ ions across the\nseries This may be referred to as the actinoid contraction (like lanthanoid\ncontraction) The contraction is, however, greater from element to element\nin this series resulting from poor shielding by 5f electrons There is a greater range of oxidation states, which is in part attributed to\nthe fact that the 5f, 6d and 7s levels are of comparable energies"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4319-4322", "Text": "This may be referred to as the actinoid contraction (like lanthanoid\ncontraction) The contraction is, however, greater from element to element\nin this series resulting from poor shielding by 5f electrons There is a greater range of oxidation states, which is in part attributed to\nthe fact that the 5f, 6d and 7s levels are of comparable energies The\nknown oxidation states of actinoids are listed in Table 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4320-4323", "Text": "The contraction is, however, greater from element to element\nin this series resulting from poor shielding by 5f electrons There is a greater range of oxidation states, which is in part attributed to\nthe fact that the 5f, 6d and 7s levels are of comparable energies The\nknown oxidation states of actinoids are listed in Table 4 11"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4321-4324", "Text": "There is a greater range of oxidation states, which is in part attributed to\nthe fact that the 5f, 6d and 7s levels are of comparable energies The\nknown oxidation states of actinoids are listed in Table 4 11 The actinoids show in general +3 oxidation state"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4322-4325", "Text": "The\nknown oxidation states of actinoids are listed in Table 4 11 The actinoids show in general +3 oxidation state The elements, in the\nfirst half of the series frequently exhibit higher oxidation states"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4323-4326", "Text": "11 The actinoids show in general +3 oxidation state The elements, in the\nfirst half of the series frequently exhibit higher oxidation states For example,\nthe maximum oxidation state increases from +4 in Th to +5, +6 and +7\nrespectively in Pa, U and Np but decreases in succeeding elements (Table\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4324-4327", "Text": "The actinoids show in general +3 oxidation state The elements, in the\nfirst half of the series frequently exhibit higher oxidation states For example,\nthe maximum oxidation state increases from +4 in Th to +5, +6 and +7\nrespectively in Pa, U and Np but decreases in succeeding elements (Table\n4 11)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4325-4328", "Text": "The elements, in the\nfirst half of the series frequently exhibit higher oxidation states For example,\nthe maximum oxidation state increases from +4 in Th to +5, +6 and +7\nrespectively in Pa, U and Np but decreases in succeeding elements (Table\n4 11) The actinoids resemble the lanthanoids in having more compounds\nin +3 state than in the +4 state"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4326-4329", "Text": "For example,\nthe maximum oxidation state increases from +4 in Th to +5, +6 and +7\nrespectively in Pa, U and Np but decreases in succeeding elements (Table\n4 11) The actinoids resemble the lanthanoids in having more compounds\nin +3 state than in the +4 state However, +3 and +4 ions tend to hydrolyse"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4327-4330", "Text": "11) The actinoids resemble the lanthanoids in having more compounds\nin +3 state than in the +4 state However, +3 and +4 ions tend to hydrolyse Because the distribution of oxidation states among the actinoids is so\nuneven and so different for the former and later elements, it is unsatisfactory\nto review their chemistry in terms of oxidation states"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4328-4331", "Text": "The actinoids resemble the lanthanoids in having more compounds\nin +3 state than in the +4 state However, +3 and +4 ions tend to hydrolyse Because the distribution of oxidation states among the actinoids is so\nuneven and so different for the former and later elements, it is unsatisfactory\nto review their chemistry in terms of oxidation states 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4329-4332", "Text": "However, +3 and +4 ions tend to hydrolyse Because the distribution of oxidation states among the actinoids is so\nuneven and so different for the former and later elements, it is unsatisfactory\nto review their chemistry in terms of oxidation states 4 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4330-4333", "Text": "Because the distribution of oxidation states among the actinoids is so\nuneven and so different for the former and later elements, it is unsatisfactory\nto review their chemistry in terms of oxidation states 4 6 1 Electronic\nConfigurations\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4331-4334", "Text": "4 6 1 Electronic\nConfigurations\n4 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4332-4335", "Text": "6 1 Electronic\nConfigurations\n4 6 2 Ionic Sizes\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4333-4336", "Text": "1 Electronic\nConfigurations\n4 6 2 Ionic Sizes\n4 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4334-4337", "Text": "6 2 Ionic Sizes\n4 6 3 Oxidation\nStates\nThe actinoid metals are all silvery in appearance but display\na variety of structures"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4335-4338", "Text": "2 Ionic Sizes\n4 6 3 Oxidation\nStates\nThe actinoid metals are all silvery in appearance but display\na variety of structures The structural variability is obtained\ndue to irregularities in metallic radii which are far greater\nthan in lanthanoids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4336-4339", "Text": "6 3 Oxidation\nStates\nThe actinoid metals are all silvery in appearance but display\na variety of structures The structural variability is obtained\ndue to irregularities in metallic radii which are far greater\nthan in lanthanoids 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4337-4340", "Text": "3 Oxidation\nStates\nThe actinoid metals are all silvery in appearance but display\na variety of structures The structural variability is obtained\ndue to irregularities in metallic radii which are far greater\nthan in lanthanoids 4 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4338-4341", "Text": "The structural variability is obtained\ndue to irregularities in metallic radii which are far greater\nthan in lanthanoids 4 6 4 General\nCharacteristics\nand Comparison\nwith Lanthanoids\nAc\nTh\nPa\nU\nNp\nPu\nAm\nCm\nBk\nCf\nEs\nFm\nMd\nNo\nLr\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n4\n4\n4\n4\n4\n4\n4\n4\n5\n5\n5\n5\n5\n6\n6\n6\n6\n7\n7\nTable 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4339-4342", "Text": "4 6 4 General\nCharacteristics\nand Comparison\nwith Lanthanoids\nAc\nTh\nPa\nU\nNp\nPu\nAm\nCm\nBk\nCf\nEs\nFm\nMd\nNo\nLr\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n4\n4\n4\n4\n4\n4\n4\n4\n5\n5\n5\n5\n5\n6\n6\n6\n6\n7\n7\nTable 4 11: Oxidation States of Actinium and Actinoids\nRationalised 2023-24\n113\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nThe actinoids are highly reactive metals, especially when finely divided"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4340-4343", "Text": "6 4 General\nCharacteristics\nand Comparison\nwith Lanthanoids\nAc\nTh\nPa\nU\nNp\nPu\nAm\nCm\nBk\nCf\nEs\nFm\nMd\nNo\nLr\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n4\n4\n4\n4\n4\n4\n4\n4\n5\n5\n5\n5\n5\n6\n6\n6\n6\n7\n7\nTable 4 11: Oxidation States of Actinium and Actinoids\nRationalised 2023-24\n113\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nThe actinoids are highly reactive metals, especially when finely divided The action of boiling water on them, for example, gives a mixture of oxide\nand hydride and combination with most non metals takes place at\nmoderate temperatures"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4341-4344", "Text": "4 General\nCharacteristics\nand Comparison\nwith Lanthanoids\nAc\nTh\nPa\nU\nNp\nPu\nAm\nCm\nBk\nCf\nEs\nFm\nMd\nNo\nLr\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n3\n4\n4\n4\n4\n4\n4\n4\n4\n5\n5\n5\n5\n5\n6\n6\n6\n6\n7\n7\nTable 4 11: Oxidation States of Actinium and Actinoids\nRationalised 2023-24\n113\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nThe actinoids are highly reactive metals, especially when finely divided The action of boiling water on them, for example, gives a mixture of oxide\nand hydride and combination with most non metals takes place at\nmoderate temperatures Hydrochloric acid attacks all metals but most are\nslightly affected by nitric acid owing to the formation of protective oxide\nlayers; alkalies have no action"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4342-4345", "Text": "11: Oxidation States of Actinium and Actinoids\nRationalised 2023-24\n113\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nThe actinoids are highly reactive metals, especially when finely divided The action of boiling water on them, for example, gives a mixture of oxide\nand hydride and combination with most non metals takes place at\nmoderate temperatures Hydrochloric acid attacks all metals but most are\nslightly affected by nitric acid owing to the formation of protective oxide\nlayers; alkalies have no action The magnetic properties of the actinoids are more complex than those\nof the lanthanoids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4343-4346", "Text": "The action of boiling water on them, for example, gives a mixture of oxide\nand hydride and combination with most non metals takes place at\nmoderate temperatures Hydrochloric acid attacks all metals but most are\nslightly affected by nitric acid owing to the formation of protective oxide\nlayers; alkalies have no action The magnetic properties of the actinoids are more complex than those\nof the lanthanoids Although the variation in the magnetic susceptibility\nof the actinoids with the number of unpaired 5 f electrons is roughly\nparallel to the corresponding results for the lanthanoids, the latter have\nhigher values"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4344-4347", "Text": "Hydrochloric acid attacks all metals but most are\nslightly affected by nitric acid owing to the formation of protective oxide\nlayers; alkalies have no action The magnetic properties of the actinoids are more complex than those\nof the lanthanoids Although the variation in the magnetic susceptibility\nof the actinoids with the number of unpaired 5 f electrons is roughly\nparallel to the corresponding results for the lanthanoids, the latter have\nhigher values It is evident from the behaviour of the actinoids that the ionisation\nenthalpies of the early actinoids, though not accurately known, but are\nlower than for the early lanthanoids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4345-4348", "Text": "The magnetic properties of the actinoids are more complex than those\nof the lanthanoids Although the variation in the magnetic susceptibility\nof the actinoids with the number of unpaired 5 f electrons is roughly\nparallel to the corresponding results for the lanthanoids, the latter have\nhigher values It is evident from the behaviour of the actinoids that the ionisation\nenthalpies of the early actinoids, though not accurately known, but are\nlower than for the early lanthanoids This is quite reasonable since it is to\nbe expected that when 5f orbitals are beginning to be occupied, they will\npenetrate less into the inner core of electrons"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4346-4349", "Text": "Although the variation in the magnetic susceptibility\nof the actinoids with the number of unpaired 5 f electrons is roughly\nparallel to the corresponding results for the lanthanoids, the latter have\nhigher values It is evident from the behaviour of the actinoids that the ionisation\nenthalpies of the early actinoids, though not accurately known, but are\nlower than for the early lanthanoids This is quite reasonable since it is to\nbe expected that when 5f orbitals are beginning to be occupied, they will\npenetrate less into the inner core of electrons The 5f electrons, will therefore,\nbe more effectively shielded from the nuclear charge than the 4f electrons\nof the corresponding lanthanoids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4347-4350", "Text": "It is evident from the behaviour of the actinoids that the ionisation\nenthalpies of the early actinoids, though not accurately known, but are\nlower than for the early lanthanoids This is quite reasonable since it is to\nbe expected that when 5f orbitals are beginning to be occupied, they will\npenetrate less into the inner core of electrons The 5f electrons, will therefore,\nbe more effectively shielded from the nuclear charge than the 4f electrons\nof the corresponding lanthanoids Because the outer electrons are less\nfirmly held, they are available for bonding in the actinoids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4348-4351", "Text": "This is quite reasonable since it is to\nbe expected that when 5f orbitals are beginning to be occupied, they will\npenetrate less into the inner core of electrons The 5f electrons, will therefore,\nbe more effectively shielded from the nuclear charge than the 4f electrons\nof the corresponding lanthanoids Because the outer electrons are less\nfirmly held, they are available for bonding in the actinoids A comparison of the actinoids with the lanthanoids, with respect to\ndifferent characteristics as discussed above, reveals that behaviour similar\nto that of the lanthanoids is not evident until the second half of the\nactinoid series"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4349-4352", "Text": "The 5f electrons, will therefore,\nbe more effectively shielded from the nuclear charge than the 4f electrons\nof the corresponding lanthanoids Because the outer electrons are less\nfirmly held, they are available for bonding in the actinoids A comparison of the actinoids with the lanthanoids, with respect to\ndifferent characteristics as discussed above, reveals that behaviour similar\nto that of the lanthanoids is not evident until the second half of the\nactinoid series However, even the early actinoids resemble the lanthanoids\nin showing close similarities with each other and in gradual variation in\nproperties which do not entail change in oxidation state"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4350-4353", "Text": "Because the outer electrons are less\nfirmly held, they are available for bonding in the actinoids A comparison of the actinoids with the lanthanoids, with respect to\ndifferent characteristics as discussed above, reveals that behaviour similar\nto that of the lanthanoids is not evident until the second half of the\nactinoid series However, even the early actinoids resemble the lanthanoids\nin showing close similarities with each other and in gradual variation in\nproperties which do not entail change in oxidation state The lanthanoid\nand actinoid contractions, have extended effects on the sizes, and\ntherefore, the properties of the elements succeeding them in their\nrespective periods"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4351-4354", "Text": "A comparison of the actinoids with the lanthanoids, with respect to\ndifferent characteristics as discussed above, reveals that behaviour similar\nto that of the lanthanoids is not evident until the second half of the\nactinoid series However, even the early actinoids resemble the lanthanoids\nin showing close similarities with each other and in gradual variation in\nproperties which do not entail change in oxidation state The lanthanoid\nand actinoid contractions, have extended effects on the sizes, and\ntherefore, the properties of the elements succeeding them in their\nrespective periods The lanthanoid contraction is more important because\nthe chemistry of elements succeeding the actinoids are much less known\nat the present time"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4352-4355", "Text": "However, even the early actinoids resemble the lanthanoids\nin showing close similarities with each other and in gradual variation in\nproperties which do not entail change in oxidation state The lanthanoid\nand actinoid contractions, have extended effects on the sizes, and\ntherefore, the properties of the elements succeeding them in their\nrespective periods The lanthanoid contraction is more important because\nthe chemistry of elements succeeding the actinoids are much less known\nat the present time 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4353-4356", "Text": "The lanthanoid\nand actinoid contractions, have extended effects on the sizes, and\ntherefore, the properties of the elements succeeding them in their\nrespective periods The lanthanoid contraction is more important because\nthe chemistry of elements succeeding the actinoids are much less known\nat the present time 4 7\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4354-4357", "Text": "The lanthanoid contraction is more important because\nthe chemistry of elements succeeding the actinoids are much less known\nat the present time 4 7\n4 7\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4355-4358", "Text": "4 7\n4 7\n4 7\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4356-4359", "Text": "7\n4 7\n4 7\n4 7\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4357-4360", "Text": "7\n4 7\n4 7\n4 7 Some\nSome\nSome\nSome\nSome\nApplications\nApplications\nApplications\nApplications\nApplications\nof d- and\nof d- and\nof d- and\nof d- and\nof d- and\nf-Block\nf-Block\nf-Block\nf-Block\nf-Block\nElements\nElements\nElements\nElements\nElements\nIron and steels are the most important construction materials"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4358-4361", "Text": "7\n4 7\n4 7 Some\nSome\nSome\nSome\nSome\nApplications\nApplications\nApplications\nApplications\nApplications\nof d- and\nof d- and\nof d- and\nof d- and\nof d- and\nf-Block\nf-Block\nf-Block\nf-Block\nf-Block\nElements\nElements\nElements\nElements\nElements\nIron and steels are the most important construction materials Their\nproduction is based on the reduction of iron oxides, the removal of\nimpurities and the addition of carbon and alloying metals such as Cr, Mn\nand Ni"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4359-4362", "Text": "7\n4 7 Some\nSome\nSome\nSome\nSome\nApplications\nApplications\nApplications\nApplications\nApplications\nof d- and\nof d- and\nof d- and\nof d- and\nof d- and\nf-Block\nf-Block\nf-Block\nf-Block\nf-Block\nElements\nElements\nElements\nElements\nElements\nIron and steels are the most important construction materials Their\nproduction is based on the reduction of iron oxides, the removal of\nimpurities and the addition of carbon and alloying metals such as Cr, Mn\nand Ni Some compounds are manufactured for special purposes such as\nTiO for the pigment industry and MnO2 for use in dry battery cells"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4360-4363", "Text": "7 Some\nSome\nSome\nSome\nSome\nApplications\nApplications\nApplications\nApplications\nApplications\nof d- and\nof d- and\nof d- and\nof d- and\nof d- and\nf-Block\nf-Block\nf-Block\nf-Block\nf-Block\nElements\nElements\nElements\nElements\nElements\nIron and steels are the most important construction materials Their\nproduction is based on the reduction of iron oxides, the removal of\nimpurities and the addition of carbon and alloying metals such as Cr, Mn\nand Ni Some compounds are manufactured for special purposes such as\nTiO for the pigment industry and MnO2 for use in dry battery cells The\nbattery industry also requires Zn and Ni/Cd"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4361-4364", "Text": "Their\nproduction is based on the reduction of iron oxides, the removal of\nimpurities and the addition of carbon and alloying metals such as Cr, Mn\nand Ni Some compounds are manufactured for special purposes such as\nTiO for the pigment industry and MnO2 for use in dry battery cells The\nbattery industry also requires Zn and Ni/Cd The elements of Group 11\nare still worthy of being called the coinage metals, although Ag and Au\nName a member of the lanthanoid series which is well known\nto exhibit +4 oxidation state"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4362-4365", "Text": "Some compounds are manufactured for special purposes such as\nTiO for the pigment industry and MnO2 for use in dry battery cells The\nbattery industry also requires Zn and Ni/Cd The elements of Group 11\nare still worthy of being called the coinage metals, although Ag and Au\nName a member of the lanthanoid series which is well known\nto exhibit +4 oxidation state Cerium (Z = 58)\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4363-4366", "Text": "The\nbattery industry also requires Zn and Ni/Cd The elements of Group 11\nare still worthy of being called the coinage metals, although Ag and Au\nName a member of the lanthanoid series which is well known\nto exhibit +4 oxidation state Cerium (Z = 58)\nExample 4 10\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4364-4367", "Text": "The elements of Group 11\nare still worthy of being called the coinage metals, although Ag and Au\nName a member of the lanthanoid series which is well known\nto exhibit +4 oxidation state Cerium (Z = 58)\nExample 4 10\nExample 4 10\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4365-4368", "Text": "Cerium (Z = 58)\nExample 4 10\nExample 4 10\nExample 4 10\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4366-4369", "Text": "10\nExample 4 10\nExample 4 10\nExample 4 10\nExample 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4367-4370", "Text": "10\nExample 4 10\nExample 4 10\nExample 4 10\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4368-4371", "Text": "10\nExample 4 10\nExample 4 10\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n4 10\nActinoid contraction is greater from element to element than\nlanthanoid contraction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4369-4372", "Text": "10\nExample 4 10\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n4 10\nActinoid contraction is greater from element to element than\nlanthanoid contraction Why"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4370-4373", "Text": "10\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n4 10\nActinoid contraction is greater from element to element than\nlanthanoid contraction Why Rationalised 2023-24\n114\nChemistry\nare restricted to collection items and the contemporary UK \u2018copper\u2019 coins\nare copper-coated steel"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4371-4374", "Text": "10\nActinoid contraction is greater from element to element than\nlanthanoid contraction Why Rationalised 2023-24\n114\nChemistry\nare restricted to collection items and the contemporary UK \u2018copper\u2019 coins\nare copper-coated steel The \u2018silver\u2019 UK coins are a Cu/Ni alloy"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4372-4375", "Text": "Why Rationalised 2023-24\n114\nChemistry\nare restricted to collection items and the contemporary UK \u2018copper\u2019 coins\nare copper-coated steel The \u2018silver\u2019 UK coins are a Cu/Ni alloy Many of\nthe metals and/or their compounds are essential catalysts in the chemical\nindustry"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4373-4376", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n114\nChemistry\nare restricted to collection items and the contemporary UK \u2018copper\u2019 coins\nare copper-coated steel The \u2018silver\u2019 UK coins are a Cu/Ni alloy Many of\nthe metals and/or their compounds are essential catalysts in the chemical\nindustry V2O5 catalyses the oxidation of SO2 in the manufacture of\nsulphuric acid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4374-4377", "Text": "The \u2018silver\u2019 UK coins are a Cu/Ni alloy Many of\nthe metals and/or their compounds are essential catalysts in the chemical\nindustry V2O5 catalyses the oxidation of SO2 in the manufacture of\nsulphuric acid TiCl4 with A1(CH3)3 forms the basis of the Ziegler catalysts\nused to manufacture polyethylene (polythene)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4375-4378", "Text": "Many of\nthe metals and/or their compounds are essential catalysts in the chemical\nindustry V2O5 catalyses the oxidation of SO2 in the manufacture of\nsulphuric acid TiCl4 with A1(CH3)3 forms the basis of the Ziegler catalysts\nused to manufacture polyethylene (polythene) Iron catalysts are used in\nthe Haber process for the production of ammonia from N2/H2 mixtures"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4376-4379", "Text": "V2O5 catalyses the oxidation of SO2 in the manufacture of\nsulphuric acid TiCl4 with A1(CH3)3 forms the basis of the Ziegler catalysts\nused to manufacture polyethylene (polythene) Iron catalysts are used in\nthe Haber process for the production of ammonia from N2/H2 mixtures Nickel catalysts enable the hydrogenation of fats to proceed"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4377-4380", "Text": "TiCl4 with A1(CH3)3 forms the basis of the Ziegler catalysts\nused to manufacture polyethylene (polythene) Iron catalysts are used in\nthe Haber process for the production of ammonia from N2/H2 mixtures Nickel catalysts enable the hydrogenation of fats to proceed In the Wacker\nprocess the oxidation of ethyne to ethanal is catalysed by PdCl2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4378-4381", "Text": "Iron catalysts are used in\nthe Haber process for the production of ammonia from N2/H2 mixtures Nickel catalysts enable the hydrogenation of fats to proceed In the Wacker\nprocess the oxidation of ethyne to ethanal is catalysed by PdCl2 Nickel\ncomplexes are useful in the polymerisation of alkynes and other organic\ncompounds such as benzene"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4379-4382", "Text": "Nickel catalysts enable the hydrogenation of fats to proceed In the Wacker\nprocess the oxidation of ethyne to ethanal is catalysed by PdCl2 Nickel\ncomplexes are useful in the polymerisation of alkynes and other organic\ncompounds such as benzene The photographic industry relies on the\nspecial light-sensitive properties of AgBr"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4380-4383", "Text": "In the Wacker\nprocess the oxidation of ethyne to ethanal is catalysed by PdCl2 Nickel\ncomplexes are useful in the polymerisation of alkynes and other organic\ncompounds such as benzene The photographic industry relies on the\nspecial light-sensitive properties of AgBr The d-block consisting of Groups 3-12 occupies the large middle section of the periodic\ntable"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4381-4384", "Text": "Nickel\ncomplexes are useful in the polymerisation of alkynes and other organic\ncompounds such as benzene The photographic industry relies on the\nspecial light-sensitive properties of AgBr The d-block consisting of Groups 3-12 occupies the large middle section of the periodic\ntable In these elements the inner d orbitals are progressively filled"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4382-4385", "Text": "The photographic industry relies on the\nspecial light-sensitive properties of AgBr The d-block consisting of Groups 3-12 occupies the large middle section of the periodic\ntable In these elements the inner d orbitals are progressively filled The f-block is placed\noutside at the bottom of the periodic table and in the elements of this block, 4f and\n5f orbitals are progressively filled"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4383-4386", "Text": "The d-block consisting of Groups 3-12 occupies the large middle section of the periodic\ntable In these elements the inner d orbitals are progressively filled The f-block is placed\noutside at the bottom of the periodic table and in the elements of this block, 4f and\n5f orbitals are progressively filled Corresponding to the filling of 3d, 4d and 5d orbitals, three series of transition\nelements are well recognised"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4384-4387", "Text": "In these elements the inner d orbitals are progressively filled The f-block is placed\noutside at the bottom of the periodic table and in the elements of this block, 4f and\n5f orbitals are progressively filled Corresponding to the filling of 3d, 4d and 5d orbitals, three series of transition\nelements are well recognised All the transition elements exhibit typical metallic properties\nsuch as \u2013high tensile strength, ductility, malleability, thermal and electrical conductivity\nand metallic character"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4385-4388", "Text": "The f-block is placed\noutside at the bottom of the periodic table and in the elements of this block, 4f and\n5f orbitals are progressively filled Corresponding to the filling of 3d, 4d and 5d orbitals, three series of transition\nelements are well recognised All the transition elements exhibit typical metallic properties\nsuch as \u2013high tensile strength, ductility, malleability, thermal and electrical conductivity\nand metallic character Their melting and boiling points are high which are attributed\nto the involvement of (n \u20131) d electrons resulting into strong interatomic bonding"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4386-4389", "Text": "Corresponding to the filling of 3d, 4d and 5d orbitals, three series of transition\nelements are well recognised All the transition elements exhibit typical metallic properties\nsuch as \u2013high tensile strength, ductility, malleability, thermal and electrical conductivity\nand metallic character Their melting and boiling points are high which are attributed\nto the involvement of (n \u20131) d electrons resulting into strong interatomic bonding In\nmany of these properties, the maxima occur at about the middle of each series which\nindicates that one unpaired electron per d orbital is particularly a favourable configuration\nfor strong interatomic interaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4387-4390", "Text": "All the transition elements exhibit typical metallic properties\nsuch as \u2013high tensile strength, ductility, malleability, thermal and electrical conductivity\nand metallic character Their melting and boiling points are high which are attributed\nto the involvement of (n \u20131) d electrons resulting into strong interatomic bonding In\nmany of these properties, the maxima occur at about the middle of each series which\nindicates that one unpaired electron per d orbital is particularly a favourable configuration\nfor strong interatomic interaction Successive ionisation enthalpies do not increase as steeply as in the main group\nelements with increasing atomic number"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4388-4391", "Text": "Their melting and boiling points are high which are attributed\nto the involvement of (n \u20131) d electrons resulting into strong interatomic bonding In\nmany of these properties, the maxima occur at about the middle of each series which\nindicates that one unpaired electron per d orbital is particularly a favourable configuration\nfor strong interatomic interaction Successive ionisation enthalpies do not increase as steeply as in the main group\nelements with increasing atomic number Hence, the loss of variable number of electrons\nfrom (n \u20131) d orbitals is not energetically unfavourable"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4389-4392", "Text": "In\nmany of these properties, the maxima occur at about the middle of each series which\nindicates that one unpaired electron per d orbital is particularly a favourable configuration\nfor strong interatomic interaction Successive ionisation enthalpies do not increase as steeply as in the main group\nelements with increasing atomic number Hence, the loss of variable number of electrons\nfrom (n \u20131) d orbitals is not energetically unfavourable The involvement of (n\u20131) d electrons\nin the behaviour of transition elements impart certain distinct characteristics to these\nelements"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4390-4393", "Text": "Successive ionisation enthalpies do not increase as steeply as in the main group\nelements with increasing atomic number Hence, the loss of variable number of electrons\nfrom (n \u20131) d orbitals is not energetically unfavourable The involvement of (n\u20131) d electrons\nin the behaviour of transition elements impart certain distinct characteristics to these\nelements Thus, in addition to variable oxidation states, they exhibit paramagnetic\nbehaviour, catalytic properties and tendency for the formation of coloured ions, interstitial\ncompounds and complexes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4391-4394", "Text": "Hence, the loss of variable number of electrons\nfrom (n \u20131) d orbitals is not energetically unfavourable The involvement of (n\u20131) d electrons\nin the behaviour of transition elements impart certain distinct characteristics to these\nelements Thus, in addition to variable oxidation states, they exhibit paramagnetic\nbehaviour, catalytic properties and tendency for the formation of coloured ions, interstitial\ncompounds and complexes The transition elements vary widely in their chemical behaviour"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4392-4395", "Text": "The involvement of (n\u20131) d electrons\nin the behaviour of transition elements impart certain distinct characteristics to these\nelements Thus, in addition to variable oxidation states, they exhibit paramagnetic\nbehaviour, catalytic properties and tendency for the formation of coloured ions, interstitial\ncompounds and complexes The transition elements vary widely in their chemical behaviour Many of them are\nsufficiently electropositive to dissolve in mineral acids, although a few are \u2018noble\u2019"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4393-4396", "Text": "Thus, in addition to variable oxidation states, they exhibit paramagnetic\nbehaviour, catalytic properties and tendency for the formation of coloured ions, interstitial\ncompounds and complexes The transition elements vary widely in their chemical behaviour Many of them are\nsufficiently electropositive to dissolve in mineral acids, although a few are \u2018noble\u2019 Of the\nfirst series, with the exception of copper, all the metals are relatively reactive"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4394-4397", "Text": "The transition elements vary widely in their chemical behaviour Many of them are\nsufficiently electropositive to dissolve in mineral acids, although a few are \u2018noble\u2019 Of the\nfirst series, with the exception of copper, all the metals are relatively reactive The transition metals react with a number of non-metals like oxygen, nitrogen,\nsulphur and halogens to form binary compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4395-4398", "Text": "Many of them are\nsufficiently electropositive to dissolve in mineral acids, although a few are \u2018noble\u2019 Of the\nfirst series, with the exception of copper, all the metals are relatively reactive The transition metals react with a number of non-metals like oxygen, nitrogen,\nsulphur and halogens to form binary compounds The first series transition metal oxides\nare generally formed from the reaction of metals with oxygen at high temperatures"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4396-4399", "Text": "Of the\nfirst series, with the exception of copper, all the metals are relatively reactive The transition metals react with a number of non-metals like oxygen, nitrogen,\nsulphur and halogens to form binary compounds The first series transition metal oxides\nare generally formed from the reaction of metals with oxygen at high temperatures These\noxides dissolve in acids and bases to form oxometallic salts"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4397-4400", "Text": "The transition metals react with a number of non-metals like oxygen, nitrogen,\nsulphur and halogens to form binary compounds The first series transition metal oxides\nare generally formed from the reaction of metals with oxygen at high temperatures These\noxides dissolve in acids and bases to form oxometallic salts Potassium dichromate and\npotassium permanganate are common examples"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4398-4401", "Text": "The first series transition metal oxides\nare generally formed from the reaction of metals with oxygen at high temperatures These\noxides dissolve in acids and bases to form oxometallic salts Potassium dichromate and\npotassium permanganate are common examples Potassium dichromate is prepared from\nthe chromite ore by fusion with alkali in presence of air and acidifying the extract"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4399-4402", "Text": "These\noxides dissolve in acids and bases to form oxometallic salts Potassium dichromate and\npotassium permanganate are common examples Potassium dichromate is prepared from\nthe chromite ore by fusion with alkali in presence of air and acidifying the extract Pyrolusite ore (MnO2) is used for the preparation of potassium permanganate"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4400-4403", "Text": "Potassium dichromate and\npotassium permanganate are common examples Potassium dichromate is prepared from\nthe chromite ore by fusion with alkali in presence of air and acidifying the extract Pyrolusite ore (MnO2) is used for the preparation of potassium permanganate Both the\ndichromate and the permanganate ions are strong oxidising agents"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4401-4404", "Text": "Potassium dichromate is prepared from\nthe chromite ore by fusion with alkali in presence of air and acidifying the extract Pyrolusite ore (MnO2) is used for the preparation of potassium permanganate Both the\ndichromate and the permanganate ions are strong oxidising agents The two series of inner transition elements, lanthanoids and actinoids constitute\nthe f-block of the periodic table"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4402-4405", "Text": "Pyrolusite ore (MnO2) is used for the preparation of potassium permanganate Both the\ndichromate and the permanganate ions are strong oxidising agents The two series of inner transition elements, lanthanoids and actinoids constitute\nthe f-block of the periodic table With the successive filling of the inner orbitals, 4f, there\nis a gradual decrease in the atomic and ionic sizes of these metals along the series\n(lanthanoid contraction)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4403-4406", "Text": "Both the\ndichromate and the permanganate ions are strong oxidising agents The two series of inner transition elements, lanthanoids and actinoids constitute\nthe f-block of the periodic table With the successive filling of the inner orbitals, 4f, there\nis a gradual decrease in the atomic and ionic sizes of these metals along the series\n(lanthanoid contraction) This has far reaching consequences in the chemistry of the\nelements succeeding them"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4404-4407", "Text": "The two series of inner transition elements, lanthanoids and actinoids constitute\nthe f-block of the periodic table With the successive filling of the inner orbitals, 4f, there\nis a gradual decrease in the atomic and ionic sizes of these metals along the series\n(lanthanoid contraction) This has far reaching consequences in the chemistry of the\nelements succeeding them Lanthanum and all the lanthanoids are rather soft white\nmetals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4405-4408", "Text": "With the successive filling of the inner orbitals, 4f, there\nis a gradual decrease in the atomic and ionic sizes of these metals along the series\n(lanthanoid contraction) This has far reaching consequences in the chemistry of the\nelements succeeding them Lanthanum and all the lanthanoids are rather soft white\nmetals They react easily with water to give solutions giving +3 ions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4406-4409", "Text": "This has far reaching consequences in the chemistry of the\nelements succeeding them Lanthanum and all the lanthanoids are rather soft white\nmetals They react easily with water to give solutions giving +3 ions The principal\noxidation state is +3, although +4 and +2 oxidation states are also exhibited by some\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nRationalised 2023-24\n115\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\noccasionally"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4407-4410", "Text": "Lanthanum and all the lanthanoids are rather soft white\nmetals They react easily with water to give solutions giving +3 ions The principal\noxidation state is +3, although +4 and +2 oxidation states are also exhibited by some\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nRationalised 2023-24\n115\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\noccasionally The chemistry of the actinoids is more complex in view of their ability to\nexist in different oxidation states"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4408-4411", "Text": "They react easily with water to give solutions giving +3 ions The principal\noxidation state is +3, although +4 and +2 oxidation states are also exhibited by some\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nRationalised 2023-24\n115\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\noccasionally The chemistry of the actinoids is more complex in view of their ability to\nexist in different oxidation states Furthermore, many of the actinoid elements are radioactive\nwhich make the study of these elements rather difficult"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4409-4412", "Text": "The principal\noxidation state is +3, although +4 and +2 oxidation states are also exhibited by some\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nRationalised 2023-24\n115\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\noccasionally The chemistry of the actinoids is more complex in view of their ability to\nexist in different oxidation states Furthermore, many of the actinoid elements are radioactive\nwhich make the study of these elements rather difficult There are many useful applications of the d- and f-block elements and their\ncompounds, notable among them being in varieties of steels, catalysts, complexes,\norganic syntheses, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4410-4413", "Text": "The chemistry of the actinoids is more complex in view of their ability to\nexist in different oxidation states Furthermore, many of the actinoid elements are radioactive\nwhich make the study of these elements rather difficult There are many useful applications of the d- and f-block elements and their\ncompounds, notable among them being in varieties of steels, catalysts, complexes,\norganic syntheses, etc 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4411-4414", "Text": "Furthermore, many of the actinoid elements are radioactive\nwhich make the study of these elements rather difficult There are many useful applications of the d- and f-block elements and their\ncompounds, notable among them being in varieties of steels, catalysts, complexes,\norganic syntheses, etc 4 1\nWrite down the electronic configuration of:\n(i) Cr3+\n(iii) Cu+\n(v) Co2+\n(vii) Mn2+\n(ii) Pm3+\n(iv) Ce4+\n(vi) Lu2+\n(viii) Th4+\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4412-4415", "Text": "There are many useful applications of the d- and f-block elements and their\ncompounds, notable among them being in varieties of steels, catalysts, complexes,\norganic syntheses, etc 4 1\nWrite down the electronic configuration of:\n(i) Cr3+\n(iii) Cu+\n(v) Co2+\n(vii) Mn2+\n(ii) Pm3+\n(iv) Ce4+\n(vi) Lu2+\n(viii) Th4+\n4 2\nWhy are Mn\n2+ compounds more stable than Fe\n2+ towards oxidation to their\n+3 state"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4413-4416", "Text": "4 1\nWrite down the electronic configuration of:\n(i) Cr3+\n(iii) Cu+\n(v) Co2+\n(vii) Mn2+\n(ii) Pm3+\n(iv) Ce4+\n(vi) Lu2+\n(viii) Th4+\n4 2\nWhy are Mn\n2+ compounds more stable than Fe\n2+ towards oxidation to their\n+3 state 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4414-4417", "Text": "1\nWrite down the electronic configuration of:\n(i) Cr3+\n(iii) Cu+\n(v) Co2+\n(vii) Mn2+\n(ii) Pm3+\n(iv) Ce4+\n(vi) Lu2+\n(viii) Th4+\n4 2\nWhy are Mn\n2+ compounds more stable than Fe\n2+ towards oxidation to their\n+3 state 4 3\nExplain briefly how +2 state becomes more and more stable in the first half\nof the first row transition elements with increasing atomic number"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4415-4418", "Text": "2\nWhy are Mn\n2+ compounds more stable than Fe\n2+ towards oxidation to their\n+3 state 4 3\nExplain briefly how +2 state becomes more and more stable in the first half\nof the first row transition elements with increasing atomic number 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4416-4419", "Text": "4 3\nExplain briefly how +2 state becomes more and more stable in the first half\nof the first row transition elements with increasing atomic number 4 4\nTo what extent do the electronic configurations decide the stability of\noxidation states in the first series of the transition elements"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4417-4420", "Text": "3\nExplain briefly how +2 state becomes more and more stable in the first half\nof the first row transition elements with increasing atomic number 4 4\nTo what extent do the electronic configurations decide the stability of\noxidation states in the first series of the transition elements Illustrate\nyour answer with examples"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4418-4421", "Text": "4 4\nTo what extent do the electronic configurations decide the stability of\noxidation states in the first series of the transition elements Illustrate\nyour answer with examples 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4419-4422", "Text": "4\nTo what extent do the electronic configurations decide the stability of\noxidation states in the first series of the transition elements Illustrate\nyour answer with examples 4 5\nWhat may be the stable oxidation state of the transition element with the\nfollowing d electron configurations in the ground state of their atoms : 3d\n3,\n3d\n5, 3d\n8 and 3d\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4420-4423", "Text": "Illustrate\nyour answer with examples 4 5\nWhat may be the stable oxidation state of the transition element with the\nfollowing d electron configurations in the ground state of their atoms : 3d\n3,\n3d\n5, 3d\n8 and 3d\n4 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4421-4424", "Text": "4 5\nWhat may be the stable oxidation state of the transition element with the\nfollowing d electron configurations in the ground state of their atoms : 3d\n3,\n3d\n5, 3d\n8 and 3d\n4 4 6\nName the oxometal anions of the first series of the transition metals in\nwhich the metal exhibits the oxidation state equal to its group number"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4422-4425", "Text": "5\nWhat may be the stable oxidation state of the transition element with the\nfollowing d electron configurations in the ground state of their atoms : 3d\n3,\n3d\n5, 3d\n8 and 3d\n4 4 6\nName the oxometal anions of the first series of the transition metals in\nwhich the metal exhibits the oxidation state equal to its group number 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4423-4426", "Text": "4 6\nName the oxometal anions of the first series of the transition metals in\nwhich the metal exhibits the oxidation state equal to its group number 4 7\nWhat is lanthanoid contraction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4424-4427", "Text": "6\nName the oxometal anions of the first series of the transition metals in\nwhich the metal exhibits the oxidation state equal to its group number 4 7\nWhat is lanthanoid contraction What are the consequences of lanthanoid\ncontraction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4425-4428", "Text": "4 7\nWhat is lanthanoid contraction What are the consequences of lanthanoid\ncontraction 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4426-4429", "Text": "7\nWhat is lanthanoid contraction What are the consequences of lanthanoid\ncontraction 4 8\nWhat are the characteristics of the transition elements and why are they\ncalled transition elements"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4427-4430", "Text": "What are the consequences of lanthanoid\ncontraction 4 8\nWhat are the characteristics of the transition elements and why are they\ncalled transition elements Which of the d-block elements may not be\nregarded as the transition elements"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4428-4431", "Text": "4 8\nWhat are the characteristics of the transition elements and why are they\ncalled transition elements Which of the d-block elements may not be\nregarded as the transition elements 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4429-4432", "Text": "8\nWhat are the characteristics of the transition elements and why are they\ncalled transition elements Which of the d-block elements may not be\nregarded as the transition elements 4 9\nIn what way is the electronic configuration of the transition elements different\nfrom that of the non transition elements"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4430-4433", "Text": "Which of the d-block elements may not be\nregarded as the transition elements 4 9\nIn what way is the electronic configuration of the transition elements different\nfrom that of the non transition elements 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4431-4434", "Text": "4 9\nIn what way is the electronic configuration of the transition elements different\nfrom that of the non transition elements 4 10\nWhat are the different oxidation states exhibited by the lanthanoids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4432-4435", "Text": "9\nIn what way is the electronic configuration of the transition elements different\nfrom that of the non transition elements 4 10\nWhat are the different oxidation states exhibited by the lanthanoids 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4433-4436", "Text": "4 10\nWhat are the different oxidation states exhibited by the lanthanoids 4 11\nExplain giving reasons:\n(i) Transition metals and many of their compounds show paramagnetic\nbehaviour"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4434-4437", "Text": "10\nWhat are the different oxidation states exhibited by the lanthanoids 4 11\nExplain giving reasons:\n(i) Transition metals and many of their compounds show paramagnetic\nbehaviour (ii) The enthalpies of atomisation of the transition metals are high"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4435-4438", "Text": "4 11\nExplain giving reasons:\n(i) Transition metals and many of their compounds show paramagnetic\nbehaviour (ii) The enthalpies of atomisation of the transition metals are high (iii) The transition metals generally form coloured compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4436-4439", "Text": "11\nExplain giving reasons:\n(i) Transition metals and many of their compounds show paramagnetic\nbehaviour (ii) The enthalpies of atomisation of the transition metals are high (iii) The transition metals generally form coloured compounds (iv) Transition metals and their many compounds act as good catalyst"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4437-4440", "Text": "(ii) The enthalpies of atomisation of the transition metals are high (iii) The transition metals generally form coloured compounds (iv) Transition metals and their many compounds act as good catalyst 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4438-4441", "Text": "(iii) The transition metals generally form coloured compounds (iv) Transition metals and their many compounds act as good catalyst 4 12\nWhat are interstitial compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4439-4442", "Text": "(iv) Transition metals and their many compounds act as good catalyst 4 12\nWhat are interstitial compounds Why are such compounds well known for\ntransition metals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4440-4443", "Text": "4 12\nWhat are interstitial compounds Why are such compounds well known for\ntransition metals 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4441-4444", "Text": "12\nWhat are interstitial compounds Why are such compounds well known for\ntransition metals 4 13\nHow is the variability in oxidation states of transition metals different from\nthat of the non transition metals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4442-4445", "Text": "Why are such compounds well known for\ntransition metals 4 13\nHow is the variability in oxidation states of transition metals different from\nthat of the non transition metals Illustrate with examples"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4443-4446", "Text": "4 13\nHow is the variability in oxidation states of transition metals different from\nthat of the non transition metals Illustrate with examples 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4444-4447", "Text": "13\nHow is the variability in oxidation states of transition metals different from\nthat of the non transition metals Illustrate with examples 4 14\nDescribe the preparation of potassium dichromate from iron chromite ore"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4445-4448", "Text": "Illustrate with examples 4 14\nDescribe the preparation of potassium dichromate from iron chromite ore What is the effect of increasing pH on a solution of potassium dichromate"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4446-4449", "Text": "4 14\nDescribe the preparation of potassium dichromate from iron chromite ore What is the effect of increasing pH on a solution of potassium dichromate 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4447-4450", "Text": "14\nDescribe the preparation of potassium dichromate from iron chromite ore What is the effect of increasing pH on a solution of potassium dichromate 4 15\nDescribe the oxidising action of potassium dichromate and write the ionic\nequations for its reaction with:\n(i) iodide\n (ii) iron(II) solution and\n(iii) H2S\nExercises\nRationalised 2023-24\n116\nChemistry\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4448-4451", "Text": "What is the effect of increasing pH on a solution of potassium dichromate 4 15\nDescribe the oxidising action of potassium dichromate and write the ionic\nequations for its reaction with:\n(i) iodide\n (ii) iron(II) solution and\n(iii) H2S\nExercises\nRationalised 2023-24\n116\nChemistry\n4 16\nDescribe the preparation of potassium permanganate"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4449-4452", "Text": "4 15\nDescribe the oxidising action of potassium dichromate and write the ionic\nequations for its reaction with:\n(i) iodide\n (ii) iron(II) solution and\n(iii) H2S\nExercises\nRationalised 2023-24\n116\nChemistry\n4 16\nDescribe the preparation of potassium permanganate How does the acidified\npermanganate solution react with (i) iron(II) ions (ii) SO2 and (iii) oxalic acid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4450-4453", "Text": "15\nDescribe the oxidising action of potassium dichromate and write the ionic\nequations for its reaction with:\n(i) iodide\n (ii) iron(II) solution and\n(iii) H2S\nExercises\nRationalised 2023-24\n116\nChemistry\n4 16\nDescribe the preparation of potassium permanganate How does the acidified\npermanganate solution react with (i) iron(II) ions (ii) SO2 and (iii) oxalic acid Write the ionic equations for the reactions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4451-4454", "Text": "16\nDescribe the preparation of potassium permanganate How does the acidified\npermanganate solution react with (i) iron(II) ions (ii) SO2 and (iii) oxalic acid Write the ionic equations for the reactions 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4452-4455", "Text": "How does the acidified\npermanganate solution react with (i) iron(II) ions (ii) SO2 and (iii) oxalic acid Write the ionic equations for the reactions 4 17\nFor M\n2+/M and M\n3+/M\n2+ systems the E o values for some metals are as follows:\nCr\n2+/Cr\n-0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4453-4456", "Text": "Write the ionic equations for the reactions 4 17\nFor M\n2+/M and M\n3+/M\n2+ systems the E o values for some metals are as follows:\nCr\n2+/Cr\n-0 9V\nCr\n3/Cr\n2+\n-0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4454-4457", "Text": "4 17\nFor M\n2+/M and M\n3+/M\n2+ systems the E o values for some metals are as follows:\nCr\n2+/Cr\n-0 9V\nCr\n3/Cr\n2+\n-0 4 V\nMn\n2+/Mn\n-1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4455-4458", "Text": "17\nFor M\n2+/M and M\n3+/M\n2+ systems the E o values for some metals are as follows:\nCr\n2+/Cr\n-0 9V\nCr\n3/Cr\n2+\n-0 4 V\nMn\n2+/Mn\n-1 2V\nMn\n3+/Mn\n2+\n+1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4456-4459", "Text": "9V\nCr\n3/Cr\n2+\n-0 4 V\nMn\n2+/Mn\n-1 2V\nMn\n3+/Mn\n2+\n+1 5 V\nFe\n2+/Fe\n-0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4457-4460", "Text": "4 V\nMn\n2+/Mn\n-1 2V\nMn\n3+/Mn\n2+\n+1 5 V\nFe\n2+/Fe\n-0 4V\nFe\n3+/Fe\n2+\n+0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4458-4461", "Text": "2V\nMn\n3+/Mn\n2+\n+1 5 V\nFe\n2+/Fe\n-0 4V\nFe\n3+/Fe\n2+\n+0 8 V\nUse this data to comment upon:\n(i) the stability of Fe3+ in acid solution as compared to that of Cr3+ or Mn3+\n and\n(ii) the ease with which iron can be oxidised as compared to a similar process\nfor either chromium or manganese metal"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4459-4462", "Text": "5 V\nFe\n2+/Fe\n-0 4V\nFe\n3+/Fe\n2+\n+0 8 V\nUse this data to comment upon:\n(i) the stability of Fe3+ in acid solution as compared to that of Cr3+ or Mn3+\n and\n(ii) the ease with which iron can be oxidised as compared to a similar process\nfor either chromium or manganese metal 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4460-4463", "Text": "4V\nFe\n3+/Fe\n2+\n+0 8 V\nUse this data to comment upon:\n(i) the stability of Fe3+ in acid solution as compared to that of Cr3+ or Mn3+\n and\n(ii) the ease with which iron can be oxidised as compared to a similar process\nfor either chromium or manganese metal 4 18\nPredict which of the following will be coloured in aqueous solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4461-4464", "Text": "8 V\nUse this data to comment upon:\n(i) the stability of Fe3+ in acid solution as compared to that of Cr3+ or Mn3+\n and\n(ii) the ease with which iron can be oxidised as compared to a similar process\nfor either chromium or manganese metal 4 18\nPredict which of the following will be coloured in aqueous solution Ti\n3+, V\n3+,\nCu\n+, Sc\n3+, Mn\n2+, Fe\n3+ and Co\n2+"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4462-4465", "Text": "4 18\nPredict which of the following will be coloured in aqueous solution Ti\n3+, V\n3+,\nCu\n+, Sc\n3+, Mn\n2+, Fe\n3+ and Co\n2+ Give reasons for each"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4463-4466", "Text": "18\nPredict which of the following will be coloured in aqueous solution Ti\n3+, V\n3+,\nCu\n+, Sc\n3+, Mn\n2+, Fe\n3+ and Co\n2+ Give reasons for each 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4464-4467", "Text": "Ti\n3+, V\n3+,\nCu\n+, Sc\n3+, Mn\n2+, Fe\n3+ and Co\n2+ Give reasons for each 4 19\nCompare the stability of +2 oxidation state for the elements of the first\ntransition series"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4465-4468", "Text": "Give reasons for each 4 19\nCompare the stability of +2 oxidation state for the elements of the first\ntransition series 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4466-4469", "Text": "4 19\nCompare the stability of +2 oxidation state for the elements of the first\ntransition series 4 20\nCompare the chemistry of actinoids with that of the lanthanoids with special\nreference to:\n(i) electronic configuration\n(iii) oxidation state\n(ii) atomic and ionic sizes and\n(iv) chemical reactivity"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4467-4470", "Text": "19\nCompare the stability of +2 oxidation state for the elements of the first\ntransition series 4 20\nCompare the chemistry of actinoids with that of the lanthanoids with special\nreference to:\n(i) electronic configuration\n(iii) oxidation state\n(ii) atomic and ionic sizes and\n(iv) chemical reactivity 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4468-4471", "Text": "4 20\nCompare the chemistry of actinoids with that of the lanthanoids with special\nreference to:\n(i) electronic configuration\n(iii) oxidation state\n(ii) atomic and ionic sizes and\n(iv) chemical reactivity 4 21\nHow would you account for the following:\n(i) Of the d4 species, Cr2+ is strongly reducing while manganese(III)\nis strongly oxidising"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4469-4472", "Text": "20\nCompare the chemistry of actinoids with that of the lanthanoids with special\nreference to:\n(i) electronic configuration\n(iii) oxidation state\n(ii) atomic and ionic sizes and\n(iv) chemical reactivity 4 21\nHow would you account for the following:\n(i) Of the d4 species, Cr2+ is strongly reducing while manganese(III)\nis strongly oxidising (ii) Cobalt(II) is stable in aqueous solution but in the presence of\ncomplexing reagents it is easily oxidised"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4470-4473", "Text": "4 21\nHow would you account for the following:\n(i) Of the d4 species, Cr2+ is strongly reducing while manganese(III)\nis strongly oxidising (ii) Cobalt(II) is stable in aqueous solution but in the presence of\ncomplexing reagents it is easily oxidised (iii) The d1 configuration is very unstable in ions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4471-4474", "Text": "21\nHow would you account for the following:\n(i) Of the d4 species, Cr2+ is strongly reducing while manganese(III)\nis strongly oxidising (ii) Cobalt(II) is stable in aqueous solution but in the presence of\ncomplexing reagents it is easily oxidised (iii) The d1 configuration is very unstable in ions 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4472-4475", "Text": "(ii) Cobalt(II) is stable in aqueous solution but in the presence of\ncomplexing reagents it is easily oxidised (iii) The d1 configuration is very unstable in ions 4 22\nWhat is meant by \u2018disproportionation\u2019"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4473-4476", "Text": "(iii) The d1 configuration is very unstable in ions 4 22\nWhat is meant by \u2018disproportionation\u2019 Give two examples of disproportionation\nreaction in aqueous solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4474-4477", "Text": "4 22\nWhat is meant by \u2018disproportionation\u2019 Give two examples of disproportionation\nreaction in aqueous solution 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4475-4478", "Text": "22\nWhat is meant by \u2018disproportionation\u2019 Give two examples of disproportionation\nreaction in aqueous solution 4 23\nWhich metal in the first series of transition metals exhibits +1 oxidation\nstate most frequently and why"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4476-4479", "Text": "Give two examples of disproportionation\nreaction in aqueous solution 4 23\nWhich metal in the first series of transition metals exhibits +1 oxidation\nstate most frequently and why 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4477-4480", "Text": "4 23\nWhich metal in the first series of transition metals exhibits +1 oxidation\nstate most frequently and why 4 24\nCalculate the number of unpaired electrons in the following gaseous ions: Mn\n3+,\nCr\n3+, V\n3+ and Ti\n3+"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4478-4481", "Text": "23\nWhich metal in the first series of transition metals exhibits +1 oxidation\nstate most frequently and why 4 24\nCalculate the number of unpaired electrons in the following gaseous ions: Mn\n3+,\nCr\n3+, V\n3+ and Ti\n3+ Which one of these is the most stable in aqueous solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4479-4482", "Text": "4 24\nCalculate the number of unpaired electrons in the following gaseous ions: Mn\n3+,\nCr\n3+, V\n3+ and Ti\n3+ Which one of these is the most stable in aqueous solution 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4480-4483", "Text": "24\nCalculate the number of unpaired electrons in the following gaseous ions: Mn\n3+,\nCr\n3+, V\n3+ and Ti\n3+ Which one of these is the most stable in aqueous solution 4 25\nGive examples and suggest reasons for the following features of the transition\nmetal chemistry:\n(i) The lowest oxide of transition metal is basic, the highest is\namphoteric/acidic"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4481-4484", "Text": "Which one of these is the most stable in aqueous solution 4 25\nGive examples and suggest reasons for the following features of the transition\nmetal chemistry:\n(i) The lowest oxide of transition metal is basic, the highest is\namphoteric/acidic (ii) A transition metal exhibits highest oxidation state in oxides\nand fluorides"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4482-4485", "Text": "4 25\nGive examples and suggest reasons for the following features of the transition\nmetal chemistry:\n(i) The lowest oxide of transition metal is basic, the highest is\namphoteric/acidic (ii) A transition metal exhibits highest oxidation state in oxides\nand fluorides (iii) The highest oxidation state is exhibited in oxoanions of a metal"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4483-4486", "Text": "25\nGive examples and suggest reasons for the following features of the transition\nmetal chemistry:\n(i) The lowest oxide of transition metal is basic, the highest is\namphoteric/acidic (ii) A transition metal exhibits highest oxidation state in oxides\nand fluorides (iii) The highest oxidation state is exhibited in oxoanions of a metal 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4484-4487", "Text": "(ii) A transition metal exhibits highest oxidation state in oxides\nand fluorides (iii) The highest oxidation state is exhibited in oxoanions of a metal 4 26\nIndicate the steps in the preparation of:\n(i) K2Cr2O7 from chromite ore"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4485-4488", "Text": "(iii) The highest oxidation state is exhibited in oxoanions of a metal 4 26\nIndicate the steps in the preparation of:\n(i) K2Cr2O7 from chromite ore (ii) KMnO4 from pyrolusite ore"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4486-4489", "Text": "4 26\nIndicate the steps in the preparation of:\n(i) K2Cr2O7 from chromite ore (ii) KMnO4 from pyrolusite ore 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4487-4490", "Text": "26\nIndicate the steps in the preparation of:\n(i) K2Cr2O7 from chromite ore (ii) KMnO4 from pyrolusite ore 4 27\nWhat are alloys"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4488-4491", "Text": "(ii) KMnO4 from pyrolusite ore 4 27\nWhat are alloys Name an important alloy which contains some of the\nlanthanoid metals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4489-4492", "Text": "4 27\nWhat are alloys Name an important alloy which contains some of the\nlanthanoid metals Mention its uses"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4490-4493", "Text": "27\nWhat are alloys Name an important alloy which contains some of the\nlanthanoid metals Mention its uses 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4491-4494", "Text": "Name an important alloy which contains some of the\nlanthanoid metals Mention its uses 4 28\nWhat are inner transition elements"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4492-4495", "Text": "Mention its uses 4 28\nWhat are inner transition elements Decide which of the following atomic\nnumbers are the atomic numbers of the inner transition elements : 29, 59,\n74, 95, 102, 104"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4493-4496", "Text": "4 28\nWhat are inner transition elements Decide which of the following atomic\nnumbers are the atomic numbers of the inner transition elements : 29, 59,\n74, 95, 102, 104 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4494-4497", "Text": "28\nWhat are inner transition elements Decide which of the following atomic\nnumbers are the atomic numbers of the inner transition elements : 29, 59,\n74, 95, 102, 104 4 29\nThe chemistry of the actinoid elements is not so smooth as that of the\nlanthanoids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4495-4498", "Text": "Decide which of the following atomic\nnumbers are the atomic numbers of the inner transition elements : 29, 59,\n74, 95, 102, 104 4 29\nThe chemistry of the actinoid elements is not so smooth as that of the\nlanthanoids Justify this statement by giving some examples from the\noxidation state of these elements"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4496-4499", "Text": "4 29\nThe chemistry of the actinoid elements is not so smooth as that of the\nlanthanoids Justify this statement by giving some examples from the\noxidation state of these elements 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4497-4500", "Text": "29\nThe chemistry of the actinoid elements is not so smooth as that of the\nlanthanoids Justify this statement by giving some examples from the\noxidation state of these elements 4 30\nWhich is the last element in the series of the actinoids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4498-4501", "Text": "Justify this statement by giving some examples from the\noxidation state of these elements 4 30\nWhich is the last element in the series of the actinoids Write the electronic\nconfiguration of this element"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4499-4502", "Text": "4 30\nWhich is the last element in the series of the actinoids Write the electronic\nconfiguration of this element Comment on the possible oxidation state of\nthis element"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4500-4503", "Text": "30\nWhich is the last element in the series of the actinoids Write the electronic\nconfiguration of this element Comment on the possible oxidation state of\nthis element Rationalised 2023-24\n117\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nAnswers to Some Intext Questions\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4501-4504", "Text": "Write the electronic\nconfiguration of this element Comment on the possible oxidation state of\nthis element Rationalised 2023-24\n117\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nAnswers to Some Intext Questions\n4 1 Silver (Z = 47) can exhibit +2 oxidation state wherein it will have\nincompletely filled d-orbitals (4d), hence a transition element"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4502-4505", "Text": "Comment on the possible oxidation state of\nthis element Rationalised 2023-24\n117\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nAnswers to Some Intext Questions\n4 1 Silver (Z = 47) can exhibit +2 oxidation state wherein it will have\nincompletely filled d-orbitals (4d), hence a transition element 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4503-4506", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n117\nThe d- and f- Block Elements\nAnswers to Some Intext Questions\n4 1 Silver (Z = 47) can exhibit +2 oxidation state wherein it will have\nincompletely filled d-orbitals (4d), hence a transition element 4 2 In the formation of metallic bonds, no eletrons from 3d-orbitals are involved\nin case of zinc, while in all other metals of the 3d series, electrons from\nthe d-orbitals are always involved in the formation of metallic bonds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4504-4507", "Text": "1 Silver (Z = 47) can exhibit +2 oxidation state wherein it will have\nincompletely filled d-orbitals (4d), hence a transition element 4 2 In the formation of metallic bonds, no eletrons from 3d-orbitals are involved\nin case of zinc, while in all other metals of the 3d series, electrons from\nthe d-orbitals are always involved in the formation of metallic bonds 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4505-4508", "Text": "4 2 In the formation of metallic bonds, no eletrons from 3d-orbitals are involved\nin case of zinc, while in all other metals of the 3d series, electrons from\nthe d-orbitals are always involved in the formation of metallic bonds 4 3 Manganese (Z = 25), as its atom has the maximum number of unpaired\nelectrons"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4506-4509", "Text": "2 In the formation of metallic bonds, no eletrons from 3d-orbitals are involved\nin case of zinc, while in all other metals of the 3d series, electrons from\nthe d-orbitals are always involved in the formation of metallic bonds 4 3 Manganese (Z = 25), as its atom has the maximum number of unpaired\nelectrons 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4507-4510", "Text": "4 3 Manganese (Z = 25), as its atom has the maximum number of unpaired\nelectrons 4 5 Irregular variation of ionisation enthalpies is mainly attributed to varying\ndegree of stability of different 3d-configurations (e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4508-4511", "Text": "3 Manganese (Z = 25), as its atom has the maximum number of unpaired\nelectrons 4 5 Irregular variation of ionisation enthalpies is mainly attributed to varying\ndegree of stability of different 3d-configurations (e g"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4509-4512", "Text": "4 5 Irregular variation of ionisation enthalpies is mainly attributed to varying\ndegree of stability of different 3d-configurations (e g , d\n0, d\n5, d\n10 are\nexceptionally stable)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4510-4513", "Text": "5 Irregular variation of ionisation enthalpies is mainly attributed to varying\ndegree of stability of different 3d-configurations (e g , d\n0, d\n5, d\n10 are\nexceptionally stable) 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4511-4514", "Text": "g , d\n0, d\n5, d\n10 are\nexceptionally stable) 4 6 Because of small size and high electronegativity oxygen or fluorine can\noxidise the metal to its highest oxidation state"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4512-4515", "Text": ", d\n0, d\n5, d\n10 are\nexceptionally stable) 4 6 Because of small size and high electronegativity oxygen or fluorine can\noxidise the metal to its highest oxidation state 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4513-4516", "Text": "4 6 Because of small size and high electronegativity oxygen or fluorine can\noxidise the metal to its highest oxidation state 4 7 Cr\n2+ is stronger reducing agent than Fe\n2+\nReason: d\n4 \uf0ae d\n3 occurs in case of Cr\n2+ to Cr\n3+\nBut d\n6 \uf0ae d\n5 occurs in case of Fe\n2+ to Fe\n3+\nIn a medium (like water) d\n3 is more stable as compared to d\n5 (see CFSE)\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4514-4517", "Text": "6 Because of small size and high electronegativity oxygen or fluorine can\noxidise the metal to its highest oxidation state 4 7 Cr\n2+ is stronger reducing agent than Fe\n2+\nReason: d\n4 \uf0ae d\n3 occurs in case of Cr\n2+ to Cr\n3+\nBut d\n6 \uf0ae d\n5 occurs in case of Fe\n2+ to Fe\n3+\nIn a medium (like water) d\n3 is more stable as compared to d\n5 (see CFSE)\n4 9 Cu\n2Cu+ in aqueous solution underoes disproportionation, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4515-4518", "Text": "4 7 Cr\n2+ is stronger reducing agent than Fe\n2+\nReason: d\n4 \uf0ae d\n3 occurs in case of Cr\n2+ to Cr\n3+\nBut d\n6 \uf0ae d\n5 occurs in case of Fe\n2+ to Fe\n3+\nIn a medium (like water) d\n3 is more stable as compared to d\n5 (see CFSE)\n4 9 Cu\n2Cu+ in aqueous solution underoes disproportionation, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4516-4519", "Text": "7 Cr\n2+ is stronger reducing agent than Fe\n2+\nReason: d\n4 \uf0ae d\n3 occurs in case of Cr\n2+ to Cr\n3+\nBut d\n6 \uf0ae d\n5 occurs in case of Fe\n2+ to Fe\n3+\nIn a medium (like water) d\n3 is more stable as compared to d\n5 (see CFSE)\n4 9 Cu\n2Cu+ in aqueous solution underoes disproportionation, i e ,\n+(aq) \u00ae Cu\n2+(aq) + Cu(s)\nThe E\n0 value for this is favourable"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4517-4520", "Text": "9 Cu\n2Cu+ in aqueous solution underoes disproportionation, i e ,\n+(aq) \u00ae Cu\n2+(aq) + Cu(s)\nThe E\n0 value for this is favourable 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4518-4521", "Text": "e ,\n+(aq) \u00ae Cu\n2+(aq) + Cu(s)\nThe E\n0 value for this is favourable 4 10 The 5f electrons are more effectively shielded from nuclear charge"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4519-4522", "Text": ",\n+(aq) \u00ae Cu\n2+(aq) + Cu(s)\nThe E\n0 value for this is favourable 4 10 The 5f electrons are more effectively shielded from nuclear charge In other\nwords the 5f electrons themselves provide poor shielding from element to\nelement in the series"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4520-4523", "Text": "4 10 The 5f electrons are more effectively shielded from nuclear charge In other\nwords the 5f electrons themselves provide poor shielding from element to\nelement in the series 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4521-4524", "Text": "10 The 5f electrons are more effectively shielded from nuclear charge In other\nwords the 5f electrons themselves provide poor shielding from element to\nelement in the series 4 31\nUse Hund\u2019s rule to derive the electronic configuration of Ce\n3+ ion, and calculate\nits magnetic moment on the basis of \u2018spin-only\u2019 formula"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4522-4525", "Text": "In other\nwords the 5f electrons themselves provide poor shielding from element to\nelement in the series 4 31\nUse Hund\u2019s rule to derive the electronic configuration of Ce\n3+ ion, and calculate\nits magnetic moment on the basis of \u2018spin-only\u2019 formula 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4523-4526", "Text": "4 31\nUse Hund\u2019s rule to derive the electronic configuration of Ce\n3+ ion, and calculate\nits magnetic moment on the basis of \u2018spin-only\u2019 formula 4 32\nName the members of the lanthanoid series which exhibit +4 oxidation states\nand those which exhibit +2 oxidation states"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4524-4527", "Text": "31\nUse Hund\u2019s rule to derive the electronic configuration of Ce\n3+ ion, and calculate\nits magnetic moment on the basis of \u2018spin-only\u2019 formula 4 32\nName the members of the lanthanoid series which exhibit +4 oxidation states\nand those which exhibit +2 oxidation states Try to correlate this type of\nbehaviour with the electronic configurations of these elements"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4525-4528", "Text": "4 32\nName the members of the lanthanoid series which exhibit +4 oxidation states\nand those which exhibit +2 oxidation states Try to correlate this type of\nbehaviour with the electronic configurations of these elements 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4526-4529", "Text": "32\nName the members of the lanthanoid series which exhibit +4 oxidation states\nand those which exhibit +2 oxidation states Try to correlate this type of\nbehaviour with the electronic configurations of these elements 4 33\nCompare the chemistry of the actinoids with that of lanthanoids with reference to:\n(i) electronic configuration (ii) oxidation states and (iii) chemical reactivity"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4527-4530", "Text": "Try to correlate this type of\nbehaviour with the electronic configurations of these elements 4 33\nCompare the chemistry of the actinoids with that of lanthanoids with reference to:\n(i) electronic configuration (ii) oxidation states and (iii) chemical reactivity 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4528-4531", "Text": "4 33\nCompare the chemistry of the actinoids with that of lanthanoids with reference to:\n(i) electronic configuration (ii) oxidation states and (iii) chemical reactivity 4 34\nWrite the electronic configurations of the elements with the atomic numbers\n61, 91, 101, and 109"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4529-4532", "Text": "33\nCompare the chemistry of the actinoids with that of lanthanoids with reference to:\n(i) electronic configuration (ii) oxidation states and (iii) chemical reactivity 4 34\nWrite the electronic configurations of the elements with the atomic numbers\n61, 91, 101, and 109 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4530-4533", "Text": "4 34\nWrite the electronic configurations of the elements with the atomic numbers\n61, 91, 101, and 109 4 35\nCompare the general characteristics of the first series of the transition metals\nwith those of the second and third series metals in the respective vertical\ncolumns"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4531-4534", "Text": "34\nWrite the electronic configurations of the elements with the atomic numbers\n61, 91, 101, and 109 4 35\nCompare the general characteristics of the first series of the transition metals\nwith those of the second and third series metals in the respective vertical\ncolumns Give special emphasis on the following points:\n(i) electronic configurations (ii) oxidation states (iii) ionisation enthalpies\nand (iv) atomic sizes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4532-4535", "Text": "4 35\nCompare the general characteristics of the first series of the transition metals\nwith those of the second and third series metals in the respective vertical\ncolumns Give special emphasis on the following points:\n(i) electronic configurations (ii) oxidation states (iii) ionisation enthalpies\nand (iv) atomic sizes 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4533-4536", "Text": "35\nCompare the general characteristics of the first series of the transition metals\nwith those of the second and third series metals in the respective vertical\ncolumns Give special emphasis on the following points:\n(i) electronic configurations (ii) oxidation states (iii) ionisation enthalpies\nand (iv) atomic sizes 4 36\nWrite down the number of 3d electrons in each of the following ions: Ti\n2+, V\n2+,\nCr\n3+, Mn\n2+, Fe\n2+, Fe\n3+, Co\n2+, Ni\n2+ and Cu\n2+"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4534-4537", "Text": "Give special emphasis on the following points:\n(i) electronic configurations (ii) oxidation states (iii) ionisation enthalpies\nand (iv) atomic sizes 4 36\nWrite down the number of 3d electrons in each of the following ions: Ti\n2+, V\n2+,\nCr\n3+, Mn\n2+, Fe\n2+, Fe\n3+, Co\n2+, Ni\n2+ and Cu\n2+ Indicate how would you expect the five\n3d orbitals to be occupied for these hydrated ions (octahedral)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4535-4538", "Text": "4 36\nWrite down the number of 3d electrons in each of the following ions: Ti\n2+, V\n2+,\nCr\n3+, Mn\n2+, Fe\n2+, Fe\n3+, Co\n2+, Ni\n2+ and Cu\n2+ Indicate how would you expect the five\n3d orbitals to be occupied for these hydrated ions (octahedral) 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4536-4539", "Text": "36\nWrite down the number of 3d electrons in each of the following ions: Ti\n2+, V\n2+,\nCr\n3+, Mn\n2+, Fe\n2+, Fe\n3+, Co\n2+, Ni\n2+ and Cu\n2+ Indicate how would you expect the five\n3d orbitals to be occupied for these hydrated ions (octahedral) 4 37\nComment on the statement that elements of the first transition series possess\nmany properties different from those of heavier transition elements"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4537-4540", "Text": "Indicate how would you expect the five\n3d orbitals to be occupied for these hydrated ions (octahedral) 4 37\nComment on the statement that elements of the first transition series possess\nmany properties different from those of heavier transition elements 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4538-4541", "Text": "4 37\nComment on the statement that elements of the first transition series possess\nmany properties different from those of heavier transition elements 4 38\nWhat can be inferred from the magnetic moment values of the following complex\nspecies"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4539-4542", "Text": "37\nComment on the statement that elements of the first transition series possess\nmany properties different from those of heavier transition elements 4 38\nWhat can be inferred from the magnetic moment values of the following complex\nspecies Example\nMagnetic Moment (BM)\nK4[Mn(CN)6)\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4540-4543", "Text": "4 38\nWhat can be inferred from the magnetic moment values of the following complex\nspecies Example\nMagnetic Moment (BM)\nK4[Mn(CN)6)\n2 2\n[Fe(H2O)6]\n2+\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4541-4544", "Text": "38\nWhat can be inferred from the magnetic moment values of the following complex\nspecies Example\nMagnetic Moment (BM)\nK4[Mn(CN)6)\n2 2\n[Fe(H2O)6]\n2+\n5 3\nK2[MnCl4]\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4542-4545", "Text": "Example\nMagnetic Moment (BM)\nK4[Mn(CN)6)\n2 2\n[Fe(H2O)6]\n2+\n5 3\nK2[MnCl4]\n5 9\nRationalised 2023-24\n118\nChemistry\nIn the previous Unit we learnt that the transition metals\nform a large number of complex compounds in which\nthe metal atoms are bound to a number of anions or\nneutral molecules by sharing of electrons"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4543-4546", "Text": "2\n[Fe(H2O)6]\n2+\n5 3\nK2[MnCl4]\n5 9\nRationalised 2023-24\n118\nChemistry\nIn the previous Unit we learnt that the transition metals\nform a large number of complex compounds in which\nthe metal atoms are bound to a number of anions or\nneutral molecules by sharing of electrons In modern\nterminology such compounds are called coordination\ncompounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4544-4547", "Text": "3\nK2[MnCl4]\n5 9\nRationalised 2023-24\n118\nChemistry\nIn the previous Unit we learnt that the transition metals\nform a large number of complex compounds in which\nthe metal atoms are bound to a number of anions or\nneutral molecules by sharing of electrons In modern\nterminology such compounds are called coordination\ncompounds The chemistry of coordination compounds\nis an important and challenging area of modern\ninorganic chemistry"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4545-4548", "Text": "9\nRationalised 2023-24\n118\nChemistry\nIn the previous Unit we learnt that the transition metals\nform a large number of complex compounds in which\nthe metal atoms are bound to a number of anions or\nneutral molecules by sharing of electrons In modern\nterminology such compounds are called coordination\ncompounds The chemistry of coordination compounds\nis an important and challenging area of modern\ninorganic chemistry New concepts of chemical bonding\nand molecular structure have provided insights into\nthe functioning of these compounds as vital components\nof biological systems"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4546-4549", "Text": "In modern\nterminology such compounds are called coordination\ncompounds The chemistry of coordination compounds\nis an important and challenging area of modern\ninorganic chemistry New concepts of chemical bonding\nand molecular structure have provided insights into\nthe functioning of these compounds as vital components\nof biological systems Chlorophyll, haemoglobin and\nvitamin B12 are coordination compounds of magnesium,\niron and cobalt respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4547-4550", "Text": "The chemistry of coordination compounds\nis an important and challenging area of modern\ninorganic chemistry New concepts of chemical bonding\nand molecular structure have provided insights into\nthe functioning of these compounds as vital components\nof biological systems Chlorophyll, haemoglobin and\nvitamin B12 are coordination compounds of magnesium,\niron and cobalt respectively Variety of metallurgical\nprocesses, industrial catalysts and analytical reagents\ninvolve \nthe \nuse \nof \ncoordination \ncompounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4548-4551", "Text": "New concepts of chemical bonding\nand molecular structure have provided insights into\nthe functioning of these compounds as vital components\nof biological systems Chlorophyll, haemoglobin and\nvitamin B12 are coordination compounds of magnesium,\niron and cobalt respectively Variety of metallurgical\nprocesses, industrial catalysts and analytical reagents\ninvolve \nthe \nuse \nof \ncoordination \ncompounds Coordination compounds also find many applications\nin electroplating, textile dyeing and medicinal chemistry"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4549-4552", "Text": "Chlorophyll, haemoglobin and\nvitamin B12 are coordination compounds of magnesium,\niron and cobalt respectively Variety of metallurgical\nprocesses, industrial catalysts and analytical reagents\ninvolve \nthe \nuse \nof \ncoordination \ncompounds Coordination compounds also find many applications\nin electroplating, textile dyeing and medicinal chemistry Coordination\nCompounds\nAfter studying this Unit, you will be\n\u2022able to\nappreciate \nthe \npostulates \nof\nWerner\u2019s theory of coordination\ncompounds;\n\u2022\nknow the meaning of the terms:\ncoordination entity, central atom/\nion, ligand, coordination number,\ncoordination sphere, coordination\npolyhedron, oxidation number,\nhomoleptic and heteroleptic;\n\u2022\nlearn the rules of nomenclature\nof coordination compounds;\n\u2022\nwrite the formulas and names\nof \nmononuclear \ncoordination\ncompounds;\n\u2022\ndefine different types of isomerism\nin coordination compounds;\n\u2022\nunderstand the nature of bonding\nin coordination compounds in\nterms of the Valence Bond and\nCrystal Field theories;\n\u2022\nappreciate the importance and\napplications \nof \ncoordination\ncompounds in our day to day life"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4550-4553", "Text": "Variety of metallurgical\nprocesses, industrial catalysts and analytical reagents\ninvolve \nthe \nuse \nof \ncoordination \ncompounds Coordination compounds also find many applications\nin electroplating, textile dyeing and medicinal chemistry Coordination\nCompounds\nAfter studying this Unit, you will be\n\u2022able to\nappreciate \nthe \npostulates \nof\nWerner\u2019s theory of coordination\ncompounds;\n\u2022\nknow the meaning of the terms:\ncoordination entity, central atom/\nion, ligand, coordination number,\ncoordination sphere, coordination\npolyhedron, oxidation number,\nhomoleptic and heteroleptic;\n\u2022\nlearn the rules of nomenclature\nof coordination compounds;\n\u2022\nwrite the formulas and names\nof \nmononuclear \ncoordination\ncompounds;\n\u2022\ndefine different types of isomerism\nin coordination compounds;\n\u2022\nunderstand the nature of bonding\nin coordination compounds in\nterms of the Valence Bond and\nCrystal Field theories;\n\u2022\nappreciate the importance and\napplications \nof \ncoordination\ncompounds in our day to day life Objectives\nCoordination Compounds are the backbone of modern inorganic\nand bio\u2013inorganic chemistry and chemical industry"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4551-4554", "Text": "Coordination compounds also find many applications\nin electroplating, textile dyeing and medicinal chemistry Coordination\nCompounds\nAfter studying this Unit, you will be\n\u2022able to\nappreciate \nthe \npostulates \nof\nWerner\u2019s theory of coordination\ncompounds;\n\u2022\nknow the meaning of the terms:\ncoordination entity, central atom/\nion, ligand, coordination number,\ncoordination sphere, coordination\npolyhedron, oxidation number,\nhomoleptic and heteroleptic;\n\u2022\nlearn the rules of nomenclature\nof coordination compounds;\n\u2022\nwrite the formulas and names\nof \nmononuclear \ncoordination\ncompounds;\n\u2022\ndefine different types of isomerism\nin coordination compounds;\n\u2022\nunderstand the nature of bonding\nin coordination compounds in\nterms of the Valence Bond and\nCrystal Field theories;\n\u2022\nappreciate the importance and\napplications \nof \ncoordination\ncompounds in our day to day life Objectives\nCoordination Compounds are the backbone of modern inorganic\nand bio\u2013inorganic chemistry and chemical industry Coordination\nCompounds\nAlfred Werner (1866-1919), a Swiss chemist was the first to formulate\nhis ideas about the structures of coordination compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4552-4555", "Text": "Coordination\nCompounds\nAfter studying this Unit, you will be\n\u2022able to\nappreciate \nthe \npostulates \nof\nWerner\u2019s theory of coordination\ncompounds;\n\u2022\nknow the meaning of the terms:\ncoordination entity, central atom/\nion, ligand, coordination number,\ncoordination sphere, coordination\npolyhedron, oxidation number,\nhomoleptic and heteroleptic;\n\u2022\nlearn the rules of nomenclature\nof coordination compounds;\n\u2022\nwrite the formulas and names\nof \nmononuclear \ncoordination\ncompounds;\n\u2022\ndefine different types of isomerism\nin coordination compounds;\n\u2022\nunderstand the nature of bonding\nin coordination compounds in\nterms of the Valence Bond and\nCrystal Field theories;\n\u2022\nappreciate the importance and\napplications \nof \ncoordination\ncompounds in our day to day life Objectives\nCoordination Compounds are the backbone of modern inorganic\nand bio\u2013inorganic chemistry and chemical industry Coordination\nCompounds\nAlfred Werner (1866-1919), a Swiss chemist was the first to formulate\nhis ideas about the structures of coordination compounds He prepared\nand characterised a large number of coordination compounds and\nstudied their physical and chemical behaviour by simple experimental\ntechniques"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4553-4556", "Text": "Objectives\nCoordination Compounds are the backbone of modern inorganic\nand bio\u2013inorganic chemistry and chemical industry Coordination\nCompounds\nAlfred Werner (1866-1919), a Swiss chemist was the first to formulate\nhis ideas about the structures of coordination compounds He prepared\nand characterised a large number of coordination compounds and\nstudied their physical and chemical behaviour by simple experimental\ntechniques Werner proposed the concept of a primary valence and\na secondary valence for a metal ion"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4554-4557", "Text": "Coordination\nCompounds\nAlfred Werner (1866-1919), a Swiss chemist was the first to formulate\nhis ideas about the structures of coordination compounds He prepared\nand characterised a large number of coordination compounds and\nstudied their physical and chemical behaviour by simple experimental\ntechniques Werner proposed the concept of a primary valence and\na secondary valence for a metal ion Binary compounds such as\nCrCl3, CoCl2 or PdCl2 have primary valence of 3, 2 and 2 respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4555-4558", "Text": "He prepared\nand characterised a large number of coordination compounds and\nstudied their physical and chemical behaviour by simple experimental\ntechniques Werner proposed the concept of a primary valence and\na secondary valence for a metal ion Binary compounds such as\nCrCl3, CoCl2 or PdCl2 have primary valence of 3, 2 and 2 respectively In a series of compounds of cobalt(III) chloride with ammonia, it was\nfound that some of the chloride ions could be precipitated as AgCl on\nadding excess silver nitrate solution in cold but some remained in\nsolution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4556-4559", "Text": "Werner proposed the concept of a primary valence and\na secondary valence for a metal ion Binary compounds such as\nCrCl3, CoCl2 or PdCl2 have primary valence of 3, 2 and 2 respectively In a series of compounds of cobalt(III) chloride with ammonia, it was\nfound that some of the chloride ions could be precipitated as AgCl on\nadding excess silver nitrate solution in cold but some remained in\nsolution 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4557-4560", "Text": "Binary compounds such as\nCrCl3, CoCl2 or PdCl2 have primary valence of 3, 2 and 2 respectively In a series of compounds of cobalt(III) chloride with ammonia, it was\nfound that some of the chloride ions could be precipitated as AgCl on\nadding excess silver nitrate solution in cold but some remained in\nsolution 5 1\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4558-4561", "Text": "In a series of compounds of cobalt(III) chloride with ammonia, it was\nfound that some of the chloride ions could be precipitated as AgCl on\nadding excess silver nitrate solution in cold but some remained in\nsolution 5 1\n5 1\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4559-4562", "Text": "5 1\n5 1\n5 1\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4560-4563", "Text": "1\n5 1\n5 1\n5 1\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4561-4564", "Text": "1\n5 1\n5 1\n5 1\nWerner\u2019\nWerner\u2019\nWerner\u2019\nWerner\u2019\nWerner\u2019sssss\nTheory of\nTheory of\nTheory of\nTheory of\nTheory of\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\n5\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit5\nRationalised 2023-24\n119\nCoordination Compounds\n1 mol\nCoCl3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4562-4565", "Text": "1\n5 1\n5 1\nWerner\u2019\nWerner\u2019\nWerner\u2019\nWerner\u2019\nWerner\u2019sssss\nTheory of\nTheory of\nTheory of\nTheory of\nTheory of\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\n5\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit5\nRationalised 2023-24\n119\nCoordination Compounds\n1 mol\nCoCl3 6NH3 (Yellow)\n gave\n3 mol AgCl\n1 mol\nCoCl3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4563-4566", "Text": "1\n5 1\nWerner\u2019\nWerner\u2019\nWerner\u2019\nWerner\u2019\nWerner\u2019sssss\nTheory of\nTheory of\nTheory of\nTheory of\nTheory of\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\n5\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit5\nRationalised 2023-24\n119\nCoordination Compounds\n1 mol\nCoCl3 6NH3 (Yellow)\n gave\n3 mol AgCl\n1 mol\nCoCl3 5NH3 (Purple)\n gave\n2 mol AgCl\n1 mol\nCoCl3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4564-4567", "Text": "1\nWerner\u2019\nWerner\u2019\nWerner\u2019\nWerner\u2019\nWerner\u2019sssss\nTheory of\nTheory of\nTheory of\nTheory of\nTheory of\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\n5\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit5\nRationalised 2023-24\n119\nCoordination Compounds\n1 mol\nCoCl3 6NH3 (Yellow)\n gave\n3 mol AgCl\n1 mol\nCoCl3 5NH3 (Purple)\n gave\n2 mol AgCl\n1 mol\nCoCl3 4NH3 (Green)\n gave\n1 mol AgCl\n1 mol\nCoCl3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4565-4568", "Text": "6NH3 (Yellow)\n gave\n3 mol AgCl\n1 mol\nCoCl3 5NH3 (Purple)\n gave\n2 mol AgCl\n1 mol\nCoCl3 4NH3 (Green)\n gave\n1 mol AgCl\n1 mol\nCoCl3 4NH3 (Violet)\n gave\n1 mol AgCl\nThese observations, together with the results of conductivity\nmeasurements in solution can be explained if (i) six groups in all,\neither chloride ions or ammonia molecules or both, remain bonded to\nthe cobalt ion during the reaction and (ii) the compounds are formulated\nas shown in Table 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4566-4569", "Text": "5NH3 (Purple)\n gave\n2 mol AgCl\n1 mol\nCoCl3 4NH3 (Green)\n gave\n1 mol AgCl\n1 mol\nCoCl3 4NH3 (Violet)\n gave\n1 mol AgCl\nThese observations, together with the results of conductivity\nmeasurements in solution can be explained if (i) six groups in all,\neither chloride ions or ammonia molecules or both, remain bonded to\nthe cobalt ion during the reaction and (ii) the compounds are formulated\nas shown in Table 5 1, where the atoms within the square brackets\nform a single entity which does not dissociate under the reaction\nconditions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4567-4570", "Text": "4NH3 (Green)\n gave\n1 mol AgCl\n1 mol\nCoCl3 4NH3 (Violet)\n gave\n1 mol AgCl\nThese observations, together with the results of conductivity\nmeasurements in solution can be explained if (i) six groups in all,\neither chloride ions or ammonia molecules or both, remain bonded to\nthe cobalt ion during the reaction and (ii) the compounds are formulated\nas shown in Table 5 1, where the atoms within the square brackets\nform a single entity which does not dissociate under the reaction\nconditions Werner proposed the term secondary valence for the\nnumber of groups bound directly to the metal ion; in each of these\nexamples the secondary valences are six"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4568-4571", "Text": "4NH3 (Violet)\n gave\n1 mol AgCl\nThese observations, together with the results of conductivity\nmeasurements in solution can be explained if (i) six groups in all,\neither chloride ions or ammonia molecules or both, remain bonded to\nthe cobalt ion during the reaction and (ii) the compounds are formulated\nas shown in Table 5 1, where the atoms within the square brackets\nform a single entity which does not dissociate under the reaction\nconditions Werner proposed the term secondary valence for the\nnumber of groups bound directly to the metal ion; in each of these\nexamples the secondary valences are six Note that the last two compounds in Table 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4569-4572", "Text": "1, where the atoms within the square brackets\nform a single entity which does not dissociate under the reaction\nconditions Werner proposed the term secondary valence for the\nnumber of groups bound directly to the metal ion; in each of these\nexamples the secondary valences are six Note that the last two compounds in Table 5 1 have identical empirical\nformula, CoCl3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4570-4573", "Text": "Werner proposed the term secondary valence for the\nnumber of groups bound directly to the metal ion; in each of these\nexamples the secondary valences are six Note that the last two compounds in Table 5 1 have identical empirical\nformula, CoCl3 4NH3, but distinct properties"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4571-4574", "Text": "Note that the last two compounds in Table 5 1 have identical empirical\nformula, CoCl3 4NH3, but distinct properties Such compounds are\ntermed as isomers"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4572-4575", "Text": "1 have identical empirical\nformula, CoCl3 4NH3, but distinct properties Such compounds are\ntermed as isomers Werner in 1898, propounded his theory of\ncoordination compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4573-4576", "Text": "4NH3, but distinct properties Such compounds are\ntermed as isomers Werner in 1898, propounded his theory of\ncoordination compounds The main postulates are:\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4574-4577", "Text": "Such compounds are\ntermed as isomers Werner in 1898, propounded his theory of\ncoordination compounds The main postulates are:\n1 In coordination compounds metals show two types of linkages\n(valences)-primary and secondary"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4575-4578", "Text": "Werner in 1898, propounded his theory of\ncoordination compounds The main postulates are:\n1 In coordination compounds metals show two types of linkages\n(valences)-primary and secondary 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4576-4579", "Text": "The main postulates are:\n1 In coordination compounds metals show two types of linkages\n(valences)-primary and secondary 2 The primary valences are normally ionisable and are satisfied by\nnegative ions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4577-4580", "Text": "In coordination compounds metals show two types of linkages\n(valences)-primary and secondary 2 The primary valences are normally ionisable and are satisfied by\nnegative ions 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4578-4581", "Text": "2 The primary valences are normally ionisable and are satisfied by\nnegative ions 3 The secondary valences are non ionisable"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4579-4582", "Text": "The primary valences are normally ionisable and are satisfied by\nnegative ions 3 The secondary valences are non ionisable These are satisfied by\nneutral molecules or negative ions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4580-4583", "Text": "3 The secondary valences are non ionisable These are satisfied by\nneutral molecules or negative ions The secondary valence is equal to\nthe coordination number and is fixed for a metal"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4581-4584", "Text": "The secondary valences are non ionisable These are satisfied by\nneutral molecules or negative ions The secondary valence is equal to\nthe coordination number and is fixed for a metal 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4582-4585", "Text": "These are satisfied by\nneutral molecules or negative ions The secondary valence is equal to\nthe coordination number and is fixed for a metal 4 The ions/groups bound by the secondary linkages to the metal have\ncharacteristic spatial arrangements corresponding to different\ncoordination numbers"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4583-4586", "Text": "The secondary valence is equal to\nthe coordination number and is fixed for a metal 4 The ions/groups bound by the secondary linkages to the metal have\ncharacteristic spatial arrangements corresponding to different\ncoordination numbers In modern formulations, such spatial arrangements are called\ncoordination polyhedra"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4584-4587", "Text": "4 The ions/groups bound by the secondary linkages to the metal have\ncharacteristic spatial arrangements corresponding to different\ncoordination numbers In modern formulations, such spatial arrangements are called\ncoordination polyhedra The species within the square bracket are\ncoordination entities or complexes and the ions outside the square\nbracket are called counter ions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4585-4588", "Text": "The ions/groups bound by the secondary linkages to the metal have\ncharacteristic spatial arrangements corresponding to different\ncoordination numbers In modern formulations, such spatial arrangements are called\ncoordination polyhedra The species within the square bracket are\ncoordination entities or complexes and the ions outside the square\nbracket are called counter ions He further postulated that octahedral, tetrahedral and square planar\ngeometrical shapes are more common in coordination compounds of\ntransition metals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4586-4589", "Text": "In modern formulations, such spatial arrangements are called\ncoordination polyhedra The species within the square bracket are\ncoordination entities or complexes and the ions outside the square\nbracket are called counter ions He further postulated that octahedral, tetrahedral and square planar\ngeometrical shapes are more common in coordination compounds of\ntransition metals Thus, [Co(NH3)6]\n3+, [CoCl(NH3)5]\n2+ and [CoCl2(NH3)4]\n+\nare octahedral entities, while [Ni(CO)4] and [PtCl4]\n2\u2013 are tetrahedral and\nsquare planar, respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4587-4590", "Text": "The species within the square bracket are\ncoordination entities or complexes and the ions outside the square\nbracket are called counter ions He further postulated that octahedral, tetrahedral and square planar\ngeometrical shapes are more common in coordination compounds of\ntransition metals Thus, [Co(NH3)6]\n3+, [CoCl(NH3)5]\n2+ and [CoCl2(NH3)4]\n+\nare octahedral entities, while [Ni(CO)4] and [PtCl4]\n2\u2013 are tetrahedral and\nsquare planar, respectively Colour\nFormula\nSolution conductivity\ncorresponds to\nTable 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4588-4591", "Text": "He further postulated that octahedral, tetrahedral and square planar\ngeometrical shapes are more common in coordination compounds of\ntransition metals Thus, [Co(NH3)6]\n3+, [CoCl(NH3)5]\n2+ and [CoCl2(NH3)4]\n+\nare octahedral entities, while [Ni(CO)4] and [PtCl4]\n2\u2013 are tetrahedral and\nsquare planar, respectively Colour\nFormula\nSolution conductivity\ncorresponds to\nTable 5 1: Formulation of Cobalt(III) Chloride-Ammonia Complexes\nYellow\n[Co(NH3)6]\n3+3Cl\n\u2013\n1:3 electrolyte\nPurple\n[CoCl(NH3)5]\n2+2Cl\n\u2013\n1:2 electrolyte\nGreen\n[CoCl2(NH3)4]\n+Cl\n\u2013\n1:1 electrolyte\nViolet\n[CoCl2(NH3)4]\n+Cl\n\u2013\n1:1 electrolyte\nRationalised 2023-24\n120\nChemistry\n(i) Secondary 4\n(ii) Secondary 6\n(iii) Secondary 6\n(iv) Secondary 6\n(v) Secondary 4\nOn the basis of the following observations made with aqueous solutions,\nassign secondary valences to metals in the following compounds:\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nDifference between a double salt and a complex\nBoth double salts as well as complexes are formed by the combination\nof two or more stable compounds in stoichiometric ratio"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4589-4592", "Text": "Thus, [Co(NH3)6]\n3+, [CoCl(NH3)5]\n2+ and [CoCl2(NH3)4]\n+\nare octahedral entities, while [Ni(CO)4] and [PtCl4]\n2\u2013 are tetrahedral and\nsquare planar, respectively Colour\nFormula\nSolution conductivity\ncorresponds to\nTable 5 1: Formulation of Cobalt(III) Chloride-Ammonia Complexes\nYellow\n[Co(NH3)6]\n3+3Cl\n\u2013\n1:3 electrolyte\nPurple\n[CoCl(NH3)5]\n2+2Cl\n\u2013\n1:2 electrolyte\nGreen\n[CoCl2(NH3)4]\n+Cl\n\u2013\n1:1 electrolyte\nViolet\n[CoCl2(NH3)4]\n+Cl\n\u2013\n1:1 electrolyte\nRationalised 2023-24\n120\nChemistry\n(i) Secondary 4\n(ii) Secondary 6\n(iii) Secondary 6\n(iv) Secondary 6\n(v) Secondary 4\nOn the basis of the following observations made with aqueous solutions,\nassign secondary valences to metals in the following compounds:\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nDifference between a double salt and a complex\nBoth double salts as well as complexes are formed by the combination\nof two or more stable compounds in stoichiometric ratio However, they\ndiffer in the fact that double salts such as carnallite, KCl"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4590-4593", "Text": "Colour\nFormula\nSolution conductivity\ncorresponds to\nTable 5 1: Formulation of Cobalt(III) Chloride-Ammonia Complexes\nYellow\n[Co(NH3)6]\n3+3Cl\n\u2013\n1:3 electrolyte\nPurple\n[CoCl(NH3)5]\n2+2Cl\n\u2013\n1:2 electrolyte\nGreen\n[CoCl2(NH3)4]\n+Cl\n\u2013\n1:1 electrolyte\nViolet\n[CoCl2(NH3)4]\n+Cl\n\u2013\n1:1 electrolyte\nRationalised 2023-24\n120\nChemistry\n(i) Secondary 4\n(ii) Secondary 6\n(iii) Secondary 6\n(iv) Secondary 6\n(v) Secondary 4\nOn the basis of the following observations made with aqueous solutions,\nassign secondary valences to metals in the following compounds:\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nDifference between a double salt and a complex\nBoth double salts as well as complexes are formed by the combination\nof two or more stable compounds in stoichiometric ratio However, they\ndiffer in the fact that double salts such as carnallite, KCl MgCl2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4591-4594", "Text": "1: Formulation of Cobalt(III) Chloride-Ammonia Complexes\nYellow\n[Co(NH3)6]\n3+3Cl\n\u2013\n1:3 electrolyte\nPurple\n[CoCl(NH3)5]\n2+2Cl\n\u2013\n1:2 electrolyte\nGreen\n[CoCl2(NH3)4]\n+Cl\n\u2013\n1:1 electrolyte\nViolet\n[CoCl2(NH3)4]\n+Cl\n\u2013\n1:1 electrolyte\nRationalised 2023-24\n120\nChemistry\n(i) Secondary 4\n(ii) Secondary 6\n(iii) Secondary 6\n(iv) Secondary 6\n(v) Secondary 4\nOn the basis of the following observations made with aqueous solutions,\nassign secondary valences to metals in the following compounds:\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nDifference between a double salt and a complex\nBoth double salts as well as complexes are formed by the combination\nof two or more stable compounds in stoichiometric ratio However, they\ndiffer in the fact that double salts such as carnallite, KCl MgCl2 6H2O,\nMohr\u2019s salt, FeSO4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4592-4595", "Text": "However, they\ndiffer in the fact that double salts such as carnallite, KCl MgCl2 6H2O,\nMohr\u2019s salt, FeSO4 (NH4)2SO4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4593-4596", "Text": "MgCl2 6H2O,\nMohr\u2019s salt, FeSO4 (NH4)2SO4 6H2O, potash alum, KAl(SO4)2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4594-4597", "Text": "6H2O,\nMohr\u2019s salt, FeSO4 (NH4)2SO4 6H2O, potash alum, KAl(SO4)2 12H2O, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4595-4598", "Text": "(NH4)2SO4 6H2O, potash alum, KAl(SO4)2 12H2O, etc dissociate into simple ions completely when dissolved in water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4596-4599", "Text": "6H2O, potash alum, KAl(SO4)2 12H2O, etc dissociate into simple ions completely when dissolved in water However,\ncomplex ions such as [Fe(CN)6]\n4\u2013 of K4[Fe(CN)6] do not dissociate into\nFe\n2+ and CN\n\u2013 ions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4597-4600", "Text": "12H2O, etc dissociate into simple ions completely when dissolved in water However,\ncomplex ions such as [Fe(CN)6]\n4\u2013 of K4[Fe(CN)6] do not dissociate into\nFe\n2+ and CN\n\u2013 ions Formula\nMoles of AgCl precipitated per mole of\nthe compounds with excess AgNO3\n(i) PdCl2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4598-4601", "Text": "dissociate into simple ions completely when dissolved in water However,\ncomplex ions such as [Fe(CN)6]\n4\u2013 of K4[Fe(CN)6] do not dissociate into\nFe\n2+ and CN\n\u2013 ions Formula\nMoles of AgCl precipitated per mole of\nthe compounds with excess AgNO3\n(i) PdCl2 4NH3\n2\n(ii) NiCl2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4599-4602", "Text": "However,\ncomplex ions such as [Fe(CN)6]\n4\u2013 of K4[Fe(CN)6] do not dissociate into\nFe\n2+ and CN\n\u2013 ions Formula\nMoles of AgCl precipitated per mole of\nthe compounds with excess AgNO3\n(i) PdCl2 4NH3\n2\n(ii) NiCl2 6H2O\n2\n(iii) PtCl4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4600-4603", "Text": "Formula\nMoles of AgCl precipitated per mole of\nthe compounds with excess AgNO3\n(i) PdCl2 4NH3\n2\n(ii) NiCl2 6H2O\n2\n(iii) PtCl4 2HCl\n0\n(iv) CoCl3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4601-4604", "Text": "4NH3\n2\n(ii) NiCl2 6H2O\n2\n(iii) PtCl4 2HCl\n0\n(iv) CoCl3 4NH3\n1\n(v) PtCl2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4602-4605", "Text": "6H2O\n2\n(iii) PtCl4 2HCl\n0\n(iv) CoCl3 4NH3\n1\n(v) PtCl2 2NH3\n0\nExample 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4603-4606", "Text": "2HCl\n0\n(iv) CoCl3 4NH3\n1\n(v) PtCl2 2NH3\n0\nExample 5 1\nExample 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4604-4607", "Text": "4NH3\n1\n(v) PtCl2 2NH3\n0\nExample 5 1\nExample 5 1\nExample 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4605-4608", "Text": "2NH3\n0\nExample 5 1\nExample 5 1\nExample 5 1\nExample 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4606-4609", "Text": "1\nExample 5 1\nExample 5 1\nExample 5 1\nExample 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4607-4610", "Text": "1\nExample 5 1\nExample 5 1\nExample 5 1\nWerner\nWerner\nWerner\nWerner\nWerner was born on December 12, 1866, in M\u00fclhouse,\na small community in the French province of Alsace"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4608-4611", "Text": "1\nExample 5 1\nExample 5 1\nWerner\nWerner\nWerner\nWerner\nWerner was born on December 12, 1866, in M\u00fclhouse,\na small community in the French province of Alsace His study of chemistry began in Karlsruhe (Germany)\nand continued in Zurich (Switzerland), where in his\ndoctoral thesis in 1890, he explained the difference in\nproperties of certain nitrogen containing organic\nsubstances on the basis of isomerism"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4609-4612", "Text": "1\nExample 5 1\nWerner\nWerner\nWerner\nWerner\nWerner was born on December 12, 1866, in M\u00fclhouse,\na small community in the French province of Alsace His study of chemistry began in Karlsruhe (Germany)\nand continued in Zurich (Switzerland), where in his\ndoctoral thesis in 1890, he explained the difference in\nproperties of certain nitrogen containing organic\nsubstances on the basis of isomerism He extended vant\nHoff\u2019s theory of tetrahedral carbon atom and modified\nit for nitrogen"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4610-4613", "Text": "1\nWerner\nWerner\nWerner\nWerner\nWerner was born on December 12, 1866, in M\u00fclhouse,\na small community in the French province of Alsace His study of chemistry began in Karlsruhe (Germany)\nand continued in Zurich (Switzerland), where in his\ndoctoral thesis in 1890, he explained the difference in\nproperties of certain nitrogen containing organic\nsubstances on the basis of isomerism He extended vant\nHoff\u2019s theory of tetrahedral carbon atom and modified\nit for nitrogen Werner showed optical and electrical differences between\ncomplex compounds based on physical measurements"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4611-4614", "Text": "His study of chemistry began in Karlsruhe (Germany)\nand continued in Zurich (Switzerland), where in his\ndoctoral thesis in 1890, he explained the difference in\nproperties of certain nitrogen containing organic\nsubstances on the basis of isomerism He extended vant\nHoff\u2019s theory of tetrahedral carbon atom and modified\nit for nitrogen Werner showed optical and electrical differences between\ncomplex compounds based on physical measurements In fact, Werner was\nthe first to discover optical activity in certain coordination compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4612-4615", "Text": "He extended vant\nHoff\u2019s theory of tetrahedral carbon atom and modified\nit for nitrogen Werner showed optical and electrical differences between\ncomplex compounds based on physical measurements In fact, Werner was\nthe first to discover optical activity in certain coordination compounds He, at the age of 29 years became a full professor at Technische\nHochschule in Zurich in 1895"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4613-4616", "Text": "Werner showed optical and electrical differences between\ncomplex compounds based on physical measurements In fact, Werner was\nthe first to discover optical activity in certain coordination compounds He, at the age of 29 years became a full professor at Technische\nHochschule in Zurich in 1895 Alfred Werner was a chemist and educationist"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4614-4617", "Text": "In fact, Werner was\nthe first to discover optical activity in certain coordination compounds He, at the age of 29 years became a full professor at Technische\nHochschule in Zurich in 1895 Alfred Werner was a chemist and educationist His accomplishments included the development of the theory of coordination\ncompounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4615-4618", "Text": "He, at the age of 29 years became a full professor at Technische\nHochschule in Zurich in 1895 Alfred Werner was a chemist and educationist His accomplishments included the development of the theory of coordination\ncompounds This theory, in which Werner proposed revolutionary ideas about\nhow atoms and molecules are linked together, was formulated in a span of\nonly three years, from 1890 to 1893"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4616-4619", "Text": "Alfred Werner was a chemist and educationist His accomplishments included the development of the theory of coordination\ncompounds This theory, in which Werner proposed revolutionary ideas about\nhow atoms and molecules are linked together, was formulated in a span of\nonly three years, from 1890 to 1893 The remainder of his career was spent\ngathering the experimental support required to validate his new ideas"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4617-4620", "Text": "His accomplishments included the development of the theory of coordination\ncompounds This theory, in which Werner proposed revolutionary ideas about\nhow atoms and molecules are linked together, was formulated in a span of\nonly three years, from 1890 to 1893 The remainder of his career was spent\ngathering the experimental support required to validate his new ideas Werner\nbecame the first Swiss chemist to win the Nobel Prize in 1913 for his work\non the linkage of atoms and the coordination theory"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4618-4621", "Text": "This theory, in which Werner proposed revolutionary ideas about\nhow atoms and molecules are linked together, was formulated in a span of\nonly three years, from 1890 to 1893 The remainder of his career was spent\ngathering the experimental support required to validate his new ideas Werner\nbecame the first Swiss chemist to win the Nobel Prize in 1913 for his work\non the linkage of atoms and the coordination theory (1866-1919)\n(1866-1919)\n(1866-1919)\n(1866-1919)\n(1866-1919)\nRationalised 2023-24\n121\nCoordination Compounds\n( a ) Coordination entity\nA coordination entity constitutes a central metal atom or ion bonded\nto a fixed number of ions or molecules"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4619-4622", "Text": "The remainder of his career was spent\ngathering the experimental support required to validate his new ideas Werner\nbecame the first Swiss chemist to win the Nobel Prize in 1913 for his work\non the linkage of atoms and the coordination theory (1866-1919)\n(1866-1919)\n(1866-1919)\n(1866-1919)\n(1866-1919)\nRationalised 2023-24\n121\nCoordination Compounds\n( a ) Coordination entity\nA coordination entity constitutes a central metal atom or ion bonded\nto a fixed number of ions or molecules For example, [CoCl3(NH3)3]\nis a coordination entity in which the cobalt ion is surrounded by\nthree ammonia molecules and three chloride ions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4620-4623", "Text": "Werner\nbecame the first Swiss chemist to win the Nobel Prize in 1913 for his work\non the linkage of atoms and the coordination theory (1866-1919)\n(1866-1919)\n(1866-1919)\n(1866-1919)\n(1866-1919)\nRationalised 2023-24\n121\nCoordination Compounds\n( a ) Coordination entity\nA coordination entity constitutes a central metal atom or ion bonded\nto a fixed number of ions or molecules For example, [CoCl3(NH3)3]\nis a coordination entity in which the cobalt ion is surrounded by\nthree ammonia molecules and three chloride ions Other examples\nare [Ni(CO)4], [PtCl2(NH3)2], [Fe(CN)6]\n4\u2013, [Co(NH3)6]\n3+"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4621-4624", "Text": "(1866-1919)\n(1866-1919)\n(1866-1919)\n(1866-1919)\n(1866-1919)\nRationalised 2023-24\n121\nCoordination Compounds\n( a ) Coordination entity\nA coordination entity constitutes a central metal atom or ion bonded\nto a fixed number of ions or molecules For example, [CoCl3(NH3)3]\nis a coordination entity in which the cobalt ion is surrounded by\nthree ammonia molecules and three chloride ions Other examples\nare [Ni(CO)4], [PtCl2(NH3)2], [Fe(CN)6]\n4\u2013, [Co(NH3)6]\n3+ (b) Central atom/ion\nIn a coordination entity, the atom/ion to which a fixed number\nof ions/groups are bound in a definite geometrical arrangement\naround it, is called the central atom or ion"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4622-4625", "Text": "For example, [CoCl3(NH3)3]\nis a coordination entity in which the cobalt ion is surrounded by\nthree ammonia molecules and three chloride ions Other examples\nare [Ni(CO)4], [PtCl2(NH3)2], [Fe(CN)6]\n4\u2013, [Co(NH3)6]\n3+ (b) Central atom/ion\nIn a coordination entity, the atom/ion to which a fixed number\nof ions/groups are bound in a definite geometrical arrangement\naround it, is called the central atom or ion For example, the\ncentral atom/ion in the coordination entities: [NiCl2(H2O)4],\n[CoCl(NH3)5]\n2+ and [Fe(CN)6]\n3\u2013 are Ni\n2+, Co\n3+ and Fe\n3+, respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4623-4626", "Text": "Other examples\nare [Ni(CO)4], [PtCl2(NH3)2], [Fe(CN)6]\n4\u2013, [Co(NH3)6]\n3+ (b) Central atom/ion\nIn a coordination entity, the atom/ion to which a fixed number\nof ions/groups are bound in a definite geometrical arrangement\naround it, is called the central atom or ion For example, the\ncentral atom/ion in the coordination entities: [NiCl2(H2O)4],\n[CoCl(NH3)5]\n2+ and [Fe(CN)6]\n3\u2013 are Ni\n2+, Co\n3+ and Fe\n3+, respectively These central atoms/ions are also referred to as Lewis acids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4624-4627", "Text": "(b) Central atom/ion\nIn a coordination entity, the atom/ion to which a fixed number\nof ions/groups are bound in a definite geometrical arrangement\naround it, is called the central atom or ion For example, the\ncentral atom/ion in the coordination entities: [NiCl2(H2O)4],\n[CoCl(NH3)5]\n2+ and [Fe(CN)6]\n3\u2013 are Ni\n2+, Co\n3+ and Fe\n3+, respectively These central atoms/ions are also referred to as Lewis acids ( c ) Ligands\nThe ions or molecules bound to the central atom/ion in the\ncoordination entity are called ligands"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4625-4628", "Text": "For example, the\ncentral atom/ion in the coordination entities: [NiCl2(H2O)4],\n[CoCl(NH3)5]\n2+ and [Fe(CN)6]\n3\u2013 are Ni\n2+, Co\n3+ and Fe\n3+, respectively These central atoms/ions are also referred to as Lewis acids ( c ) Ligands\nThe ions or molecules bound to the central atom/ion in the\ncoordination entity are called ligands These may be simple ions\nsuch as Cl\n\u2013, small molecules such as H2O or NH3, larger molecules\nsuch as H2NCH2CH2NH2 or N(CH2CH2NH2)3 or even macromolecules,\nsuch as proteins"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4626-4629", "Text": "These central atoms/ions are also referred to as Lewis acids ( c ) Ligands\nThe ions or molecules bound to the central atom/ion in the\ncoordination entity are called ligands These may be simple ions\nsuch as Cl\n\u2013, small molecules such as H2O or NH3, larger molecules\nsuch as H2NCH2CH2NH2 or N(CH2CH2NH2)3 or even macromolecules,\nsuch as proteins When a ligand is bound to a metal ion through a single donor\natom, as with Cl\n\u2013, H2O or NH3, the ligand is said to be unidentate"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4627-4630", "Text": "( c ) Ligands\nThe ions or molecules bound to the central atom/ion in the\ncoordination entity are called ligands These may be simple ions\nsuch as Cl\n\u2013, small molecules such as H2O or NH3, larger molecules\nsuch as H2NCH2CH2NH2 or N(CH2CH2NH2)3 or even macromolecules,\nsuch as proteins When a ligand is bound to a metal ion through a single donor\natom, as with Cl\n\u2013, H2O or NH3, the ligand is said to be unidentate When a ligand can bind through two donor atoms as in\nH2NCH2CH2NH2 (ethane-1,2-diamine) or C2O4\n2\u2013 (oxalate), the\nligand is said to be didentate and when several donor atoms are\npresent in a single ligand as in N(CH2CH2NH2)3, the ligand is said\nto be polydentate"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4628-4631", "Text": "These may be simple ions\nsuch as Cl\n\u2013, small molecules such as H2O or NH3, larger molecules\nsuch as H2NCH2CH2NH2 or N(CH2CH2NH2)3 or even macromolecules,\nsuch as proteins When a ligand is bound to a metal ion through a single donor\natom, as with Cl\n\u2013, H2O or NH3, the ligand is said to be unidentate When a ligand can bind through two donor atoms as in\nH2NCH2CH2NH2 (ethane-1,2-diamine) or C2O4\n2\u2013 (oxalate), the\nligand is said to be didentate and when several donor atoms are\npresent in a single ligand as in N(CH2CH2NH2)3, the ligand is said\nto be polydentate Ethylenediaminetetraacetate ion (EDTA\n4\u2013) is\nan important hexadentate ligand"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4629-4632", "Text": "When a ligand is bound to a metal ion through a single donor\natom, as with Cl\n\u2013, H2O or NH3, the ligand is said to be unidentate When a ligand can bind through two donor atoms as in\nH2NCH2CH2NH2 (ethane-1,2-diamine) or C2O4\n2\u2013 (oxalate), the\nligand is said to be didentate and when several donor atoms are\npresent in a single ligand as in N(CH2CH2NH2)3, the ligand is said\nto be polydentate Ethylenediaminetetraacetate ion (EDTA\n4\u2013) is\nan important hexadentate ligand It can bind through two\nnitrogen and four oxygen atoms to a central metal ion"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4630-4633", "Text": "When a ligand can bind through two donor atoms as in\nH2NCH2CH2NH2 (ethane-1,2-diamine) or C2O4\n2\u2013 (oxalate), the\nligand is said to be didentate and when several donor atoms are\npresent in a single ligand as in N(CH2CH2NH2)3, the ligand is said\nto be polydentate Ethylenediaminetetraacetate ion (EDTA\n4\u2013) is\nan important hexadentate ligand It can bind through two\nnitrogen and four oxygen atoms to a central metal ion When a di- or polydentate ligand uses its two or more donor\natoms simultaneously to bind a single metal ion, it is said to be a\nchelate ligand"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4631-4634", "Text": "Ethylenediaminetetraacetate ion (EDTA\n4\u2013) is\nan important hexadentate ligand It can bind through two\nnitrogen and four oxygen atoms to a central metal ion When a di- or polydentate ligand uses its two or more donor\natoms simultaneously to bind a single metal ion, it is said to be a\nchelate ligand The number of such ligating groups is called the\ndenticity of the ligand"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4632-4635", "Text": "It can bind through two\nnitrogen and four oxygen atoms to a central metal ion When a di- or polydentate ligand uses its two or more donor\natoms simultaneously to bind a single metal ion, it is said to be a\nchelate ligand The number of such ligating groups is called the\ndenticity of the ligand Such complexes, called chelate complexes\ntend to be more stable than similar complexes containing unidentate\nligands"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4633-4636", "Text": "When a di- or polydentate ligand uses its two or more donor\natoms simultaneously to bind a single metal ion, it is said to be a\nchelate ligand The number of such ligating groups is called the\ndenticity of the ligand Such complexes, called chelate complexes\ntend to be more stable than similar complexes containing unidentate\nligands Ligand which has two different donor atoms and either of\nthe two ligetes in the complex is called ambidentate\nligand"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4634-4637", "Text": "The number of such ligating groups is called the\ndenticity of the ligand Such complexes, called chelate complexes\ntend to be more stable than similar complexes containing unidentate\nligands Ligand which has two different donor atoms and either of\nthe two ligetes in the complex is called ambidentate\nligand Examples of such ligands are the NO2\n\u2013 and\nSCN\n\u2013 ions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4635-4638", "Text": "Such complexes, called chelate complexes\ntend to be more stable than similar complexes containing unidentate\nligands Ligand which has two different donor atoms and either of\nthe two ligetes in the complex is called ambidentate\nligand Examples of such ligands are the NO2\n\u2013 and\nSCN\n\u2013 ions NO2\n\u2013 ion can coordinate either through\nnitrogen or through oxygen to a central metal\natom/ion"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4636-4639", "Text": "Ligand which has two different donor atoms and either of\nthe two ligetes in the complex is called ambidentate\nligand Examples of such ligands are the NO2\n\u2013 and\nSCN\n\u2013 ions NO2\n\u2013 ion can coordinate either through\nnitrogen or through oxygen to a central metal\natom/ion Similarly, SCN\n\u2013 ion can coordinate through the\nsulphur or nitrogen atom"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4637-4640", "Text": "Examples of such ligands are the NO2\n\u2013 and\nSCN\n\u2013 ions NO2\n\u2013 ion can coordinate either through\nnitrogen or through oxygen to a central metal\natom/ion Similarly, SCN\n\u2013 ion can coordinate through the\nsulphur or nitrogen atom ( d ) Coordination number\nThe coordination number (CN) of a metal ion in a complex can be\ndefined as the number of ligand donor atoms to which the metal is\ndirectly bonded"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4638-4641", "Text": "NO2\n\u2013 ion can coordinate either through\nnitrogen or through oxygen to a central metal\natom/ion Similarly, SCN\n\u2013 ion can coordinate through the\nsulphur or nitrogen atom ( d ) Coordination number\nThe coordination number (CN) of a metal ion in a complex can be\ndefined as the number of ligand donor atoms to which the metal is\ndirectly bonded For example, in the complex ions, [PtCl6]\n2\u2013 and\n[Ni(NH3)4]\n2+, the coordination number of Pt and Ni are 6 and 4\nrespectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4639-4642", "Text": "Similarly, SCN\n\u2013 ion can coordinate through the\nsulphur or nitrogen atom ( d ) Coordination number\nThe coordination number (CN) of a metal ion in a complex can be\ndefined as the number of ligand donor atoms to which the metal is\ndirectly bonded For example, in the complex ions, [PtCl6]\n2\u2013 and\n[Ni(NH3)4]\n2+, the coordination number of Pt and Ni are 6 and 4\nrespectively Similarly, in the complex ions, [Fe(C2O4)3]\n3\u2013 and\n[Co(en)3]\n3+, the coordination number of both, Fe and Co, is 6 because\nC2O4\n2\u2013 and en (ethane-1,2-diamine) are didentate ligands"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4640-4643", "Text": "( d ) Coordination number\nThe coordination number (CN) of a metal ion in a complex can be\ndefined as the number of ligand donor atoms to which the metal is\ndirectly bonded For example, in the complex ions, [PtCl6]\n2\u2013 and\n[Ni(NH3)4]\n2+, the coordination number of Pt and Ni are 6 and 4\nrespectively Similarly, in the complex ions, [Fe(C2O4)3]\n3\u2013 and\n[Co(en)3]\n3+, the coordination number of both, Fe and Co, is 6 because\nC2O4\n2\u2013 and en (ethane-1,2-diamine) are didentate ligands 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4641-4644", "Text": "For example, in the complex ions, [PtCl6]\n2\u2013 and\n[Ni(NH3)4]\n2+, the coordination number of Pt and Ni are 6 and 4\nrespectively Similarly, in the complex ions, [Fe(C2O4)3]\n3\u2013 and\n[Co(en)3]\n3+, the coordination number of both, Fe and Co, is 6 because\nC2O4\n2\u2013 and en (ethane-1,2-diamine) are didentate ligands 5 2\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4642-4645", "Text": "Similarly, in the complex ions, [Fe(C2O4)3]\n3\u2013 and\n[Co(en)3]\n3+, the coordination number of both, Fe and Co, is 6 because\nC2O4\n2\u2013 and en (ethane-1,2-diamine) are didentate ligands 5 2\n5 2\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4643-4646", "Text": "5 2\n5 2\n5 2\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4644-4647", "Text": "2\n5 2\n5 2\n5 2\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4645-4648", "Text": "2\n5 2\n5 2\n5 2 Definitions of\nDefinitions of\nDefinitions of\nDefinitions of\nDefinitions of\nSome\nSome\nSome\nSome\nSome\nImportant\nImportant\nImportant\nImportant\nImportant\nTerms\nTerms\nTerms\nTerms\nTerms\nPertaining to\nPertaining to\nPertaining to\nPertaining to\nPertaining to\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nRationalised 2023-24\n122\nChemistry\nIt is important to note here that coordination number of the central\natom/ion is determined only by the number of sigma bonds formed by\nthe ligand with the central atom/ion"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4646-4649", "Text": "2\n5 2\n5 2 Definitions of\nDefinitions of\nDefinitions of\nDefinitions of\nDefinitions of\nSome\nSome\nSome\nSome\nSome\nImportant\nImportant\nImportant\nImportant\nImportant\nTerms\nTerms\nTerms\nTerms\nTerms\nPertaining to\nPertaining to\nPertaining to\nPertaining to\nPertaining to\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nRationalised 2023-24\n122\nChemistry\nIt is important to note here that coordination number of the central\natom/ion is determined only by the number of sigma bonds formed by\nthe ligand with the central atom/ion Pi bonds, if formed between the\nligand and the central atom/ion, are not counted for this purpose"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4647-4650", "Text": "2\n5 2 Definitions of\nDefinitions of\nDefinitions of\nDefinitions of\nDefinitions of\nSome\nSome\nSome\nSome\nSome\nImportant\nImportant\nImportant\nImportant\nImportant\nTerms\nTerms\nTerms\nTerms\nTerms\nPertaining to\nPertaining to\nPertaining to\nPertaining to\nPertaining to\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nRationalised 2023-24\n122\nChemistry\nIt is important to note here that coordination number of the central\natom/ion is determined only by the number of sigma bonds formed by\nthe ligand with the central atom/ion Pi bonds, if formed between the\nligand and the central atom/ion, are not counted for this purpose (e) Coordination sphere\nThe central atom/ion and the ligands attached to it are enclosed in\nsquare bracket and is collectively termed as the coordination\nsphere"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4648-4651", "Text": "2 Definitions of\nDefinitions of\nDefinitions of\nDefinitions of\nDefinitions of\nSome\nSome\nSome\nSome\nSome\nImportant\nImportant\nImportant\nImportant\nImportant\nTerms\nTerms\nTerms\nTerms\nTerms\nPertaining to\nPertaining to\nPertaining to\nPertaining to\nPertaining to\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nRationalised 2023-24\n122\nChemistry\nIt is important to note here that coordination number of the central\natom/ion is determined only by the number of sigma bonds formed by\nthe ligand with the central atom/ion Pi bonds, if formed between the\nligand and the central atom/ion, are not counted for this purpose (e) Coordination sphere\nThe central atom/ion and the ligands attached to it are enclosed in\nsquare bracket and is collectively termed as the coordination\nsphere The ionisable groups are written outside the bracket and\nare called counter ions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4649-4652", "Text": "Pi bonds, if formed between the\nligand and the central atom/ion, are not counted for this purpose (e) Coordination sphere\nThe central atom/ion and the ligands attached to it are enclosed in\nsquare bracket and is collectively termed as the coordination\nsphere The ionisable groups are written outside the bracket and\nare called counter ions For example, in the complex K4[Fe(CN)6],\nthe coordination sphere is [Fe(CN)6]\n4\u2013 and the counter ion is K\n+"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4650-4653", "Text": "(e) Coordination sphere\nThe central atom/ion and the ligands attached to it are enclosed in\nsquare bracket and is collectively termed as the coordination\nsphere The ionisable groups are written outside the bracket and\nare called counter ions For example, in the complex K4[Fe(CN)6],\nthe coordination sphere is [Fe(CN)6]\n4\u2013 and the counter ion is K\n+ (f) Coordination polyhedron\nThe spatial arrangement of the ligand atoms which are directly\nattached to the central atom/ion defines a coordination\npolyhedron about the central atom"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4651-4654", "Text": "The ionisable groups are written outside the bracket and\nare called counter ions For example, in the complex K4[Fe(CN)6],\nthe coordination sphere is [Fe(CN)6]\n4\u2013 and the counter ion is K\n+ (f) Coordination polyhedron\nThe spatial arrangement of the ligand atoms which are directly\nattached to the central atom/ion defines a coordination\npolyhedron about the central atom The most common\ncoordination polyhedra are octahedral, square planar and\ntetrahedral"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4652-4655", "Text": "For example, in the complex K4[Fe(CN)6],\nthe coordination sphere is [Fe(CN)6]\n4\u2013 and the counter ion is K\n+ (f) Coordination polyhedron\nThe spatial arrangement of the ligand atoms which are directly\nattached to the central atom/ion defines a coordination\npolyhedron about the central atom The most common\ncoordination polyhedra are octahedral, square planar and\ntetrahedral For example, [Co(NH3)6]\n3+ is octahedral, [Ni(CO)4] is\ntetrahedral and [PtCl4]\n2\u2013 is square planar"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4653-4656", "Text": "(f) Coordination polyhedron\nThe spatial arrangement of the ligand atoms which are directly\nattached to the central atom/ion defines a coordination\npolyhedron about the central atom The most common\ncoordination polyhedra are octahedral, square planar and\ntetrahedral For example, [Co(NH3)6]\n3+ is octahedral, [Ni(CO)4] is\ntetrahedral and [PtCl4]\n2\u2013 is square planar Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4654-4657", "Text": "The most common\ncoordination polyhedra are octahedral, square planar and\ntetrahedral For example, [Co(NH3)6]\n3+ is octahedral, [Ni(CO)4] is\ntetrahedral and [PtCl4]\n2\u2013 is square planar Fig 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4655-4658", "Text": "For example, [Co(NH3)6]\n3+ is octahedral, [Ni(CO)4] is\ntetrahedral and [PtCl4]\n2\u2013 is square planar Fig 5 1 shows the\nshapes of different coordination polyhedra"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4656-4659", "Text": "Fig 5 1 shows the\nshapes of different coordination polyhedra 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4657-4660", "Text": "5 1 shows the\nshapes of different coordination polyhedra 5 3\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4658-4661", "Text": "1 shows the\nshapes of different coordination polyhedra 5 3\n5 3\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4659-4662", "Text": "5 3\n5 3\n5 3\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4660-4663", "Text": "3\n5 3\n5 3\n5 3\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4661-4664", "Text": "3\n5 3\n5 3\n5 3 Nomenclature\nNomenclature\nNomenclature\nNomenclature\nofofofofofNomenclature\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\n(g) Oxidation number of central atom\nThe oxidation number of the central atom in a complex is defined\nas the charge it would carry if all the ligands are removed along\nwith the electron pairs that are shared with the central atom"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4662-4665", "Text": "3\n5 3\n5 3 Nomenclature\nNomenclature\nNomenclature\nNomenclature\nofofofofofNomenclature\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\n(g) Oxidation number of central atom\nThe oxidation number of the central atom in a complex is defined\nas the charge it would carry if all the ligands are removed along\nwith the electron pairs that are shared with the central atom The\noxidation number is represented by a Roman numeral in parenthesis\nfollowing the name of the coordination entity"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4663-4666", "Text": "3\n5 3 Nomenclature\nNomenclature\nNomenclature\nNomenclature\nofofofofofNomenclature\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\n(g) Oxidation number of central atom\nThe oxidation number of the central atom in a complex is defined\nas the charge it would carry if all the ligands are removed along\nwith the electron pairs that are shared with the central atom The\noxidation number is represented by a Roman numeral in parenthesis\nfollowing the name of the coordination entity For example, oxidation\nnumber of copper in [Cu(CN)4]\n3\u2013 is +1 and it is written as Cu(I)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4664-4667", "Text": "3 Nomenclature\nNomenclature\nNomenclature\nNomenclature\nofofofofofNomenclature\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\n(g) Oxidation number of central atom\nThe oxidation number of the central atom in a complex is defined\nas the charge it would carry if all the ligands are removed along\nwith the electron pairs that are shared with the central atom The\noxidation number is represented by a Roman numeral in parenthesis\nfollowing the name of the coordination entity For example, oxidation\nnumber of copper in [Cu(CN)4]\n3\u2013 is +1 and it is written as Cu(I) ( h ) Homoleptic and heteroleptic complexes\nComplexes in which a metal is bound to only one kind of donor\ngroups, e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4665-4668", "Text": "The\noxidation number is represented by a Roman numeral in parenthesis\nfollowing the name of the coordination entity For example, oxidation\nnumber of copper in [Cu(CN)4]\n3\u2013 is +1 and it is written as Cu(I) ( h ) Homoleptic and heteroleptic complexes\nComplexes in which a metal is bound to only one kind of donor\ngroups, e g"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4666-4669", "Text": "For example, oxidation\nnumber of copper in [Cu(CN)4]\n3\u2013 is +1 and it is written as Cu(I) ( h ) Homoleptic and heteroleptic complexes\nComplexes in which a metal is bound to only one kind of donor\ngroups, e g , [Co(NH3)6]\n3+, are known as homoleptic"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4667-4670", "Text": "( h ) Homoleptic and heteroleptic complexes\nComplexes in which a metal is bound to only one kind of donor\ngroups, e g , [Co(NH3)6]\n3+, are known as homoleptic Complexes in\nwhich a metal is bound to more than one kind of donor groups,\ne"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4668-4671", "Text": "g , [Co(NH3)6]\n3+, are known as homoleptic Complexes in\nwhich a metal is bound to more than one kind of donor groups,\ne g"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4669-4672", "Text": ", [Co(NH3)6]\n3+, are known as homoleptic Complexes in\nwhich a metal is bound to more than one kind of donor groups,\ne g , [Co(NH3)4Cl2]\n+, are known as heteroleptic"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4670-4673", "Text": "Complexes in\nwhich a metal is bound to more than one kind of donor groups,\ne g , [Co(NH3)4Cl2]\n+, are known as heteroleptic Nomenclature is important in Coordination Chemistry because of the\nneed to have an unambiguous method of describing formulas and\nwriting systematic names, particularly when dealing with isomers"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4671-4674", "Text": "g , [Co(NH3)4Cl2]\n+, are known as heteroleptic Nomenclature is important in Coordination Chemistry because of the\nneed to have an unambiguous method of describing formulas and\nwriting systematic names, particularly when dealing with isomers The\nformulas and names adopted for coordination entities are based on the\nrecommendations of the International Union of Pure and Applied\nChemistry (IUPAC)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4672-4675", "Text": ", [Co(NH3)4Cl2]\n+, are known as heteroleptic Nomenclature is important in Coordination Chemistry because of the\nneed to have an unambiguous method of describing formulas and\nwriting systematic names, particularly when dealing with isomers The\nformulas and names adopted for coordination entities are based on the\nrecommendations of the International Union of Pure and Applied\nChemistry (IUPAC) Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4673-4676", "Text": "Nomenclature is important in Coordination Chemistry because of the\nneed to have an unambiguous method of describing formulas and\nwriting systematic names, particularly when dealing with isomers The\nformulas and names adopted for coordination entities are based on the\nrecommendations of the International Union of Pure and Applied\nChemistry (IUPAC) Fig 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4674-4677", "Text": "The\nformulas and names adopted for coordination entities are based on the\nrecommendations of the International Union of Pure and Applied\nChemistry (IUPAC) Fig 5 1: Shapes of different coordination polyhedra"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4675-4678", "Text": "Fig 5 1: Shapes of different coordination polyhedra M\nrepresents the central atom/ion and L, a unidentate\nligand"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4676-4679", "Text": "5 1: Shapes of different coordination polyhedra M\nrepresents the central atom/ion and L, a unidentate\nligand Rationalised 2023-24\n123\nCoordination Compounds\nThe formula of a compound is a shorthand tool used to provide basic\ninformation about the constitution of the compound in a concise and\nconvenient manner"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4677-4680", "Text": "1: Shapes of different coordination polyhedra M\nrepresents the central atom/ion and L, a unidentate\nligand Rationalised 2023-24\n123\nCoordination Compounds\nThe formula of a compound is a shorthand tool used to provide basic\ninformation about the constitution of the compound in a concise and\nconvenient manner Mononuclear coordination entities contain a single\ncentral metal atom"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4678-4681", "Text": "M\nrepresents the central atom/ion and L, a unidentate\nligand Rationalised 2023-24\n123\nCoordination Compounds\nThe formula of a compound is a shorthand tool used to provide basic\ninformation about the constitution of the compound in a concise and\nconvenient manner Mononuclear coordination entities contain a single\ncentral metal atom The following rules are applied while writing the formulas:\n(i) The central atom is listed first"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4679-4682", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n123\nCoordination Compounds\nThe formula of a compound is a shorthand tool used to provide basic\ninformation about the constitution of the compound in a concise and\nconvenient manner Mononuclear coordination entities contain a single\ncentral metal atom The following rules are applied while writing the formulas:\n(i) The central atom is listed first (ii) The ligands are then listed in alphabetical order"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4680-4683", "Text": "Mononuclear coordination entities contain a single\ncentral metal atom The following rules are applied while writing the formulas:\n(i) The central atom is listed first (ii) The ligands are then listed in alphabetical order The placement of\na ligand in the list does not depend on its charge"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4681-4684", "Text": "The following rules are applied while writing the formulas:\n(i) The central atom is listed first (ii) The ligands are then listed in alphabetical order The placement of\na ligand in the list does not depend on its charge (iii) Polydentate ligands are also listed alphabetically"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4682-4685", "Text": "(ii) The ligands are then listed in alphabetical order The placement of\na ligand in the list does not depend on its charge (iii) Polydentate ligands are also listed alphabetically In case of\nabbreviated ligand, the first letter of the abbreviation is used to\ndetermine the position of the ligand in the alphabetical order"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4683-4686", "Text": "The placement of\na ligand in the list does not depend on its charge (iii) Polydentate ligands are also listed alphabetically In case of\nabbreviated ligand, the first letter of the abbreviation is used to\ndetermine the position of the ligand in the alphabetical order (iv) The formula for the entire coordination entity, whether charged or\nnot, is enclosed in square brackets"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4684-4687", "Text": "(iii) Polydentate ligands are also listed alphabetically In case of\nabbreviated ligand, the first letter of the abbreviation is used to\ndetermine the position of the ligand in the alphabetical order (iv) The formula for the entire coordination entity, whether charged or\nnot, is enclosed in square brackets When ligands are polyatomic,\ntheir formulas are enclosed in parentheses"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4685-4688", "Text": "In case of\nabbreviated ligand, the first letter of the abbreviation is used to\ndetermine the position of the ligand in the alphabetical order (iv) The formula for the entire coordination entity, whether charged or\nnot, is enclosed in square brackets When ligands are polyatomic,\ntheir formulas are enclosed in parentheses Ligand abbreviations\nare also enclosed in parentheses"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4686-4689", "Text": "(iv) The formula for the entire coordination entity, whether charged or\nnot, is enclosed in square brackets When ligands are polyatomic,\ntheir formulas are enclosed in parentheses Ligand abbreviations\nare also enclosed in parentheses (v) There should be no space between the ligands and the metal\nwithin a coordination sphere"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4687-4690", "Text": "When ligands are polyatomic,\ntheir formulas are enclosed in parentheses Ligand abbreviations\nare also enclosed in parentheses (v) There should be no space between the ligands and the metal\nwithin a coordination sphere (vi) When the formula of a charged coordination entity is to be written\nwithout that of the counter ion, the charge is indicated outside the\nsquare brackets as a right superscript with the number before the\nsign"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4688-4691", "Text": "Ligand abbreviations\nare also enclosed in parentheses (v) There should be no space between the ligands and the metal\nwithin a coordination sphere (vi) When the formula of a charged coordination entity is to be written\nwithout that of the counter ion, the charge is indicated outside the\nsquare brackets as a right superscript with the number before the\nsign For example, [Co(CN)6]\n3\u2013, [Cr(H2O)6]\n3+, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4689-4692", "Text": "(v) There should be no space between the ligands and the metal\nwithin a coordination sphere (vi) When the formula of a charged coordination entity is to be written\nwithout that of the counter ion, the charge is indicated outside the\nsquare brackets as a right superscript with the number before the\nsign For example, [Co(CN)6]\n3\u2013, [Cr(H2O)6]\n3+, etc (vii) The charge of the cation(s) is balanced by the charge of the anion(s)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4690-4693", "Text": "(vi) When the formula of a charged coordination entity is to be written\nwithout that of the counter ion, the charge is indicated outside the\nsquare brackets as a right superscript with the number before the\nsign For example, [Co(CN)6]\n3\u2013, [Cr(H2O)6]\n3+, etc (vii) The charge of the cation(s) is balanced by the charge of the anion(s) The names of coordination compounds are derived by following the\nprinciples of additive nomenclature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4691-4694", "Text": "For example, [Co(CN)6]\n3\u2013, [Cr(H2O)6]\n3+, etc (vii) The charge of the cation(s) is balanced by the charge of the anion(s) The names of coordination compounds are derived by following the\nprinciples of additive nomenclature Thus, the groups that surround the\ncentral atom must be identified in the name"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4692-4695", "Text": "(vii) The charge of the cation(s) is balanced by the charge of the anion(s) The names of coordination compounds are derived by following the\nprinciples of additive nomenclature Thus, the groups that surround the\ncentral atom must be identified in the name They are listed as prefixes\nto the name of the central atom along with any appropriate multipliers"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4693-4696", "Text": "The names of coordination compounds are derived by following the\nprinciples of additive nomenclature Thus, the groups that surround the\ncentral atom must be identified in the name They are listed as prefixes\nto the name of the central atom along with any appropriate multipliers The following rules are used when naming coordination compounds:\n(i) The cation is named first in both positively and negatively charged\ncoordination entities"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4694-4697", "Text": "Thus, the groups that surround the\ncentral atom must be identified in the name They are listed as prefixes\nto the name of the central atom along with any appropriate multipliers The following rules are used when naming coordination compounds:\n(i) The cation is named first in both positively and negatively charged\ncoordination entities (ii) The ligands are named in an alphabetical order before the name of the\ncentral atom/ion"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4695-4698", "Text": "They are listed as prefixes\nto the name of the central atom along with any appropriate multipliers The following rules are used when naming coordination compounds:\n(i) The cation is named first in both positively and negatively charged\ncoordination entities (ii) The ligands are named in an alphabetical order before the name of the\ncentral atom/ion (This procedure is reversed from writing formula)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4696-4699", "Text": "The following rules are used when naming coordination compounds:\n(i) The cation is named first in both positively and negatively charged\ncoordination entities (ii) The ligands are named in an alphabetical order before the name of the\ncentral atom/ion (This procedure is reversed from writing formula) (iii) Names of the anionic ligands end in \u2013o, those of neutral and cationic\nligands are the same except aqua for H2O, ammine for NH3, carbonyl\nfor CO and nitrosyl for NO"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4697-4700", "Text": "(ii) The ligands are named in an alphabetical order before the name of the\ncentral atom/ion (This procedure is reversed from writing formula) (iii) Names of the anionic ligands end in \u2013o, those of neutral and cationic\nligands are the same except aqua for H2O, ammine for NH3, carbonyl\nfor CO and nitrosyl for NO While writing the formula of coordination\nentity, these are enclosed in brackets ( )"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4698-4701", "Text": "(This procedure is reversed from writing formula) (iii) Names of the anionic ligands end in \u2013o, those of neutral and cationic\nligands are the same except aqua for H2O, ammine for NH3, carbonyl\nfor CO and nitrosyl for NO While writing the formula of coordination\nentity, these are enclosed in brackets ( ) (iv) Prefixes mono, di, tri, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4699-4702", "Text": "(iii) Names of the anionic ligands end in \u2013o, those of neutral and cationic\nligands are the same except aqua for H2O, ammine for NH3, carbonyl\nfor CO and nitrosyl for NO While writing the formula of coordination\nentity, these are enclosed in brackets ( ) (iv) Prefixes mono, di, tri, etc , are used to indicate the number of the\nindividual ligands in the coordination entity"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4700-4703", "Text": "While writing the formula of coordination\nentity, these are enclosed in brackets ( ) (iv) Prefixes mono, di, tri, etc , are used to indicate the number of the\nindividual ligands in the coordination entity When the names of\nthe ligands include a numerical prefix, then the terms, bis, tris,\ntetrakis are used, the ligand to which they refer being placed in\nparentheses"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4701-4704", "Text": "(iv) Prefixes mono, di, tri, etc , are used to indicate the number of the\nindividual ligands in the coordination entity When the names of\nthe ligands include a numerical prefix, then the terms, bis, tris,\ntetrakis are used, the ligand to which they refer being placed in\nparentheses For example, [NiCl2(PPh3)2] is named as\ndichloridobis(triphenylphosphine)nickel(II)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4702-4705", "Text": ", are used to indicate the number of the\nindividual ligands in the coordination entity When the names of\nthe ligands include a numerical prefix, then the terms, bis, tris,\ntetrakis are used, the ligand to which they refer being placed in\nparentheses For example, [NiCl2(PPh3)2] is named as\ndichloridobis(triphenylphosphine)nickel(II) (v) Oxidation state of the metal in cation, anion or neutral coordination\nentity is indicated by Roman numeral in parenthesis"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4703-4706", "Text": "When the names of\nthe ligands include a numerical prefix, then the terms, bis, tris,\ntetrakis are used, the ligand to which they refer being placed in\nparentheses For example, [NiCl2(PPh3)2] is named as\ndichloridobis(triphenylphosphine)nickel(II) (v) Oxidation state of the metal in cation, anion or neutral coordination\nentity is indicated by Roman numeral in parenthesis (vi) If the complex ion is a cation, the metal is named same as the\nelement"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4704-4707", "Text": "For example, [NiCl2(PPh3)2] is named as\ndichloridobis(triphenylphosphine)nickel(II) (v) Oxidation state of the metal in cation, anion or neutral coordination\nentity is indicated by Roman numeral in parenthesis (vi) If the complex ion is a cation, the metal is named same as the\nelement For example, Co in a complex cation is called cobalt and\nPt is called platinum"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4705-4708", "Text": "(v) Oxidation state of the metal in cation, anion or neutral coordination\nentity is indicated by Roman numeral in parenthesis (vi) If the complex ion is a cation, the metal is named same as the\nelement For example, Co in a complex cation is called cobalt and\nPt is called platinum If the complex ion is an anion, the name of\nthe metal ends with the suffix \u2013 ate"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4706-4709", "Text": "(vi) If the complex ion is a cation, the metal is named same as the\nelement For example, Co in a complex cation is called cobalt and\nPt is called platinum If the complex ion is an anion, the name of\nthe metal ends with the suffix \u2013 ate For example, Co in a complex\nanion, \n\uf028\n\uf029\n2\nCo SCN4\n\uf02d\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\nis called cobaltate"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4707-4710", "Text": "For example, Co in a complex cation is called cobalt and\nPt is called platinum If the complex ion is an anion, the name of\nthe metal ends with the suffix \u2013 ate For example, Co in a complex\nanion, \n\uf028\n\uf029\n2\nCo SCN4\n\uf02d\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\nis called cobaltate For some metals, the Latin\nnames are used in the complex anions, e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4708-4711", "Text": "If the complex ion is an anion, the name of\nthe metal ends with the suffix \u2013 ate For example, Co in a complex\nanion, \n\uf028\n\uf029\n2\nCo SCN4\n\uf02d\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\nis called cobaltate For some metals, the Latin\nnames are used in the complex anions, e g"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4709-4712", "Text": "For example, Co in a complex\nanion, \n\uf028\n\uf029\n2\nCo SCN4\n\uf02d\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\nis called cobaltate For some metals, the Latin\nnames are used in the complex anions, e g , ferrate for Fe"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4710-4713", "Text": "For some metals, the Latin\nnames are used in the complex anions, e g , ferrate for Fe 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4711-4714", "Text": "g , ferrate for Fe 5 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4712-4715", "Text": ", ferrate for Fe 5 3 2 Naming of\nMononuclear\nCoordination\nCompounds\nNote: The 2004 IUPAC\ndraft recommends that\nligands will be sorted\nalphabetically,\nirrespective of charge"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4713-4716", "Text": "5 3 2 Naming of\nMononuclear\nCoordination\nCompounds\nNote: The 2004 IUPAC\ndraft recommends that\nligands will be sorted\nalphabetically,\nirrespective of charge Note: The 2004\nIUPAC draft\nrecommends that\nanionic ligands will\nend with\u2013ido so that\nchloro would become\nchlorido, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4714-4717", "Text": "3 2 Naming of\nMononuclear\nCoordination\nCompounds\nNote: The 2004 IUPAC\ndraft recommends that\nligands will be sorted\nalphabetically,\nirrespective of charge Note: The 2004\nIUPAC draft\nrecommends that\nanionic ligands will\nend with\u2013ido so that\nchloro would become\nchlorido, etc 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4715-4718", "Text": "2 Naming of\nMononuclear\nCoordination\nCompounds\nNote: The 2004 IUPAC\ndraft recommends that\nligands will be sorted\nalphabetically,\nirrespective of charge Note: The 2004\nIUPAC draft\nrecommends that\nanionic ligands will\nend with\u2013ido so that\nchloro would become\nchlorido, etc 5 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4716-4719", "Text": "Note: The 2004\nIUPAC draft\nrecommends that\nanionic ligands will\nend with\u2013ido so that\nchloro would become\nchlorido, etc 5 3 1 Formulas of\nMononuclear\nCoordination\nEntities\nRationalised 2023-24\n124\nChemistry\n(vii) The neutral complex molecule is named similar to that of the\ncomplex cation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4717-4720", "Text": "5 3 1 Formulas of\nMononuclear\nCoordination\nEntities\nRationalised 2023-24\n124\nChemistry\n(vii) The neutral complex molecule is named similar to that of the\ncomplex cation The following examples illustrate the nomenclature for coordination\ncompounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4718-4721", "Text": "3 1 Formulas of\nMononuclear\nCoordination\nEntities\nRationalised 2023-24\n124\nChemistry\n(vii) The neutral complex molecule is named similar to that of the\ncomplex cation The following examples illustrate the nomenclature for coordination\ncompounds 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4719-4722", "Text": "1 Formulas of\nMononuclear\nCoordination\nEntities\nRationalised 2023-24\n124\nChemistry\n(vii) The neutral complex molecule is named similar to that of the\ncomplex cation The following examples illustrate the nomenclature for coordination\ncompounds 1 [Cr(NH3)3(H2O)3]Cl3 is named as:\ntriamminetriaquachromium(III) chloride\nExplanation: The complex ion is inside the square bracket, which is\na cation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4720-4723", "Text": "The following examples illustrate the nomenclature for coordination\ncompounds 1 [Cr(NH3)3(H2O)3]Cl3 is named as:\ntriamminetriaquachromium(III) chloride\nExplanation: The complex ion is inside the square bracket, which is\na cation The amine ligands are named before the aqua ligands\naccording to alphabetical order"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4721-4724", "Text": "1 [Cr(NH3)3(H2O)3]Cl3 is named as:\ntriamminetriaquachromium(III) chloride\nExplanation: The complex ion is inside the square bracket, which is\na cation The amine ligands are named before the aqua ligands\naccording to alphabetical order Since there are three chloride ions in\nthe compound, the charge on the complex ion must be +3 (since the\ncompound is electrically neutral)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4722-4725", "Text": "[Cr(NH3)3(H2O)3]Cl3 is named as:\ntriamminetriaquachromium(III) chloride\nExplanation: The complex ion is inside the square bracket, which is\na cation The amine ligands are named before the aqua ligands\naccording to alphabetical order Since there are three chloride ions in\nthe compound, the charge on the complex ion must be +3 (since the\ncompound is electrically neutral) From the charge on the complex\nion and the charge on the ligands, we can calculate the oxidation\nnumber of the metal"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4723-4726", "Text": "The amine ligands are named before the aqua ligands\naccording to alphabetical order Since there are three chloride ions in\nthe compound, the charge on the complex ion must be +3 (since the\ncompound is electrically neutral) From the charge on the complex\nion and the charge on the ligands, we can calculate the oxidation\nnumber of the metal In this example, all the ligands are neutral\nmolecules"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4724-4727", "Text": "Since there are three chloride ions in\nthe compound, the charge on the complex ion must be +3 (since the\ncompound is electrically neutral) From the charge on the complex\nion and the charge on the ligands, we can calculate the oxidation\nnumber of the metal In this example, all the ligands are neutral\nmolecules Therefore, the oxidation number of chromium must be\nthe same as the charge of the complex ion, +3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4725-4728", "Text": "From the charge on the complex\nion and the charge on the ligands, we can calculate the oxidation\nnumber of the metal In this example, all the ligands are neutral\nmolecules Therefore, the oxidation number of chromium must be\nthe same as the charge of the complex ion, +3 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4726-4729", "Text": "In this example, all the ligands are neutral\nmolecules Therefore, the oxidation number of chromium must be\nthe same as the charge of the complex ion, +3 2 [Co(H2NCH2CH2NH2)3]2(SO4)3 is named as:\ntris(ethane-1,2\u2013diamine)cobalt(III) sulphate\nExplanation: The sulphate is the counter anion in this molecule"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4727-4730", "Text": "Therefore, the oxidation number of chromium must be\nthe same as the charge of the complex ion, +3 2 [Co(H2NCH2CH2NH2)3]2(SO4)3 is named as:\ntris(ethane-1,2\u2013diamine)cobalt(III) sulphate\nExplanation: The sulphate is the counter anion in this molecule Since it takes 3 sulphates to bond with two complex cations, the\ncharge on each complex cation must be +3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4728-4731", "Text": "2 [Co(H2NCH2CH2NH2)3]2(SO4)3 is named as:\ntris(ethane-1,2\u2013diamine)cobalt(III) sulphate\nExplanation: The sulphate is the counter anion in this molecule Since it takes 3 sulphates to bond with two complex cations, the\ncharge on each complex cation must be +3 Further, ethane-1,2\u2013\ndiamine is a neutral molecule, so the oxidation number of cobalt\nin the complex ion must be +3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4729-4732", "Text": "[Co(H2NCH2CH2NH2)3]2(SO4)3 is named as:\ntris(ethane-1,2\u2013diamine)cobalt(III) sulphate\nExplanation: The sulphate is the counter anion in this molecule Since it takes 3 sulphates to bond with two complex cations, the\ncharge on each complex cation must be +3 Further, ethane-1,2\u2013\ndiamine is a neutral molecule, so the oxidation number of cobalt\nin the complex ion must be +3 Remember that you never have to\nindicate the number of cations and anions in the name of an\nionic compound"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4730-4733", "Text": "Since it takes 3 sulphates to bond with two complex cations, the\ncharge on each complex cation must be +3 Further, ethane-1,2\u2013\ndiamine is a neutral molecule, so the oxidation number of cobalt\nin the complex ion must be +3 Remember that you never have to\nindicate the number of cations and anions in the name of an\nionic compound 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4731-4734", "Text": "Further, ethane-1,2\u2013\ndiamine is a neutral molecule, so the oxidation number of cobalt\nin the complex ion must be +3 Remember that you never have to\nindicate the number of cations and anions in the name of an\nionic compound 3 [Ag(NH3)2][Ag(CN)2] is named as:\ndiamminesilver(I) dicyanidoargentate(I)\nWrite the formulas for the following coordination compounds:\n(a) Tetraammineaquachloridocobalt(III) chloride\n(b) Potassium tetrahydroxidozincate(II)\n(c) Potassium trioxalatoaluminate(III)\n(d) Dichloridobis(ethane-1,2-diamine)cobalt(III)\n(e) Tetracarbonylnickel(0)\n(a) [Co(NH3)4(H2O)Cl]Cl2\n(b) K2[Zn(OH)4]\n(c) K3[Al(C2O4)3]\n(d) [CoCl2(en)2]+\n(e) [Ni(CO)4]\nWrite the IUPAC names of the following coordination compounds:\n(a) [Pt(NH3)2Cl(NO2)]\n(b) K3[Cr(C2O4)3]\n(c) [CoCl2(en)2]Cl\n(d) [Co(NH3)5(CO3)]Cl\n(e) Hg[Co(SCN)4]\n(a) Diamminechloridonitrito-N-platinum(II)\n(b) Potassium trioxalatochromate(III)\n(c) Dichloridobis(ethane-1,2-diamine)cobalt(III) chloride\n(d) Pentaamminecarbonatocobalt(III) chloride\n(e) Mercury (I) tetrathiocyanato-S-cobaltate(III)\nExample 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4732-4735", "Text": "Remember that you never have to\nindicate the number of cations and anions in the name of an\nionic compound 3 [Ag(NH3)2][Ag(CN)2] is named as:\ndiamminesilver(I) dicyanidoargentate(I)\nWrite the formulas for the following coordination compounds:\n(a) Tetraammineaquachloridocobalt(III) chloride\n(b) Potassium tetrahydroxidozincate(II)\n(c) Potassium trioxalatoaluminate(III)\n(d) Dichloridobis(ethane-1,2-diamine)cobalt(III)\n(e) Tetracarbonylnickel(0)\n(a) [Co(NH3)4(H2O)Cl]Cl2\n(b) K2[Zn(OH)4]\n(c) K3[Al(C2O4)3]\n(d) [CoCl2(en)2]+\n(e) [Ni(CO)4]\nWrite the IUPAC names of the following coordination compounds:\n(a) [Pt(NH3)2Cl(NO2)]\n(b) K3[Cr(C2O4)3]\n(c) [CoCl2(en)2]Cl\n(d) [Co(NH3)5(CO3)]Cl\n(e) Hg[Co(SCN)4]\n(a) Diamminechloridonitrito-N-platinum(II)\n(b) Potassium trioxalatochromate(III)\n(c) Dichloridobis(ethane-1,2-diamine)cobalt(III) chloride\n(d) Pentaamminecarbonatocobalt(III) chloride\n(e) Mercury (I) tetrathiocyanato-S-cobaltate(III)\nExample 5 2\nExample 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4733-4736", "Text": "3 [Ag(NH3)2][Ag(CN)2] is named as:\ndiamminesilver(I) dicyanidoargentate(I)\nWrite the formulas for the following coordination compounds:\n(a) Tetraammineaquachloridocobalt(III) chloride\n(b) Potassium tetrahydroxidozincate(II)\n(c) Potassium trioxalatoaluminate(III)\n(d) Dichloridobis(ethane-1,2-diamine)cobalt(III)\n(e) Tetracarbonylnickel(0)\n(a) [Co(NH3)4(H2O)Cl]Cl2\n(b) K2[Zn(OH)4]\n(c) K3[Al(C2O4)3]\n(d) [CoCl2(en)2]+\n(e) [Ni(CO)4]\nWrite the IUPAC names of the following coordination compounds:\n(a) [Pt(NH3)2Cl(NO2)]\n(b) K3[Cr(C2O4)3]\n(c) [CoCl2(en)2]Cl\n(d) [Co(NH3)5(CO3)]Cl\n(e) Hg[Co(SCN)4]\n(a) Diamminechloridonitrito-N-platinum(II)\n(b) Potassium trioxalatochromate(III)\n(c) Dichloridobis(ethane-1,2-diamine)cobalt(III) chloride\n(d) Pentaamminecarbonatocobalt(III) chloride\n(e) Mercury (I) tetrathiocyanato-S-cobaltate(III)\nExample 5 2\nExample 5 2\nExample 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4734-4737", "Text": "[Ag(NH3)2][Ag(CN)2] is named as:\ndiamminesilver(I) dicyanidoargentate(I)\nWrite the formulas for the following coordination compounds:\n(a) Tetraammineaquachloridocobalt(III) chloride\n(b) Potassium tetrahydroxidozincate(II)\n(c) Potassium trioxalatoaluminate(III)\n(d) Dichloridobis(ethane-1,2-diamine)cobalt(III)\n(e) Tetracarbonylnickel(0)\n(a) [Co(NH3)4(H2O)Cl]Cl2\n(b) K2[Zn(OH)4]\n(c) K3[Al(C2O4)3]\n(d) [CoCl2(en)2]+\n(e) [Ni(CO)4]\nWrite the IUPAC names of the following coordination compounds:\n(a) [Pt(NH3)2Cl(NO2)]\n(b) K3[Cr(C2O4)3]\n(c) [CoCl2(en)2]Cl\n(d) [Co(NH3)5(CO3)]Cl\n(e) Hg[Co(SCN)4]\n(a) Diamminechloridonitrito-N-platinum(II)\n(b) Potassium trioxalatochromate(III)\n(c) Dichloridobis(ethane-1,2-diamine)cobalt(III) chloride\n(d) Pentaamminecarbonatocobalt(III) chloride\n(e) Mercury (I) tetrathiocyanato-S-cobaltate(III)\nExample 5 2\nExample 5 2\nExample 5 2\nExample 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4735-4738", "Text": "2\nExample 5 2\nExample 5 2\nExample 5 2\nExample 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4736-4739", "Text": "2\nExample 5 2\nExample 5 2\nExample 5 2\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nExample 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4737-4740", "Text": "2\nExample 5 2\nExample 5 2\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nExample 5 3\nExample 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4738-4741", "Text": "2\nExample 5 2\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nExample 5 3\nExample 5 3\nExample 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4739-4742", "Text": "2\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nExample 5 3\nExample 5 3\nExample 5 3\nExample 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4740-4743", "Text": "3\nExample 5 3\nExample 5 3\nExample 5 3\nExample 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4741-4744", "Text": "3\nExample 5 3\nExample 5 3\nExample 5 3\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nNotice how the name\nof the metal differs in\ncation and anion even\nthough they contain the\nsame metal ions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4742-4745", "Text": "3\nExample 5 3\nExample 5 3\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nNotice how the name\nof the metal differs in\ncation and anion even\nthough they contain the\nsame metal ions Rationalised 2023-24\n125\nCoordination Compounds\nIsomers are two or more compounds that have the same chemical\nformula but a different arrangement of atoms"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4743-4746", "Text": "3\nExample 5 3\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nNotice how the name\nof the metal differs in\ncation and anion even\nthough they contain the\nsame metal ions Rationalised 2023-24\n125\nCoordination Compounds\nIsomers are two or more compounds that have the same chemical\nformula but a different arrangement of atoms Because of the different\narrangement of atoms, they differ in one or more physical or chemical\nproperties"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4744-4747", "Text": "3\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nNotice how the name\nof the metal differs in\ncation and anion even\nthough they contain the\nsame metal ions Rationalised 2023-24\n125\nCoordination Compounds\nIsomers are two or more compounds that have the same chemical\nformula but a different arrangement of atoms Because of the different\narrangement of atoms, they differ in one or more physical or chemical\nproperties Two principal types of isomerism are known among\ncoordination compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4745-4748", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n125\nCoordination Compounds\nIsomers are two or more compounds that have the same chemical\nformula but a different arrangement of atoms Because of the different\narrangement of atoms, they differ in one or more physical or chemical\nproperties Two principal types of isomerism are known among\ncoordination compounds Each of which can be further subdivided"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4746-4749", "Text": "Because of the different\narrangement of atoms, they differ in one or more physical or chemical\nproperties Two principal types of isomerism are known among\ncoordination compounds Each of which can be further subdivided (a) Stereoisomerism\n(i) Geometrical isomerism\n(ii) Optical isomerism\n(b) Structural isomerism\n(i) Linkage isomerism\n(ii) Coordination isomerism\n(iii) Ionisation isomerism\n(iv) Solvate isomerism\nStereoisomers have the same chemical formula and chemical\nbonds but they have different spatial arrangement"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4747-4750", "Text": "Two principal types of isomerism are known among\ncoordination compounds Each of which can be further subdivided (a) Stereoisomerism\n(i) Geometrical isomerism\n(ii) Optical isomerism\n(b) Structural isomerism\n(i) Linkage isomerism\n(ii) Coordination isomerism\n(iii) Ionisation isomerism\n(iv) Solvate isomerism\nStereoisomers have the same chemical formula and chemical\nbonds but they have different spatial arrangement Structural isomers\nhave different bonds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4748-4751", "Text": "Each of which can be further subdivided (a) Stereoisomerism\n(i) Geometrical isomerism\n(ii) Optical isomerism\n(b) Structural isomerism\n(i) Linkage isomerism\n(ii) Coordination isomerism\n(iii) Ionisation isomerism\n(iv) Solvate isomerism\nStereoisomers have the same chemical formula and chemical\nbonds but they have different spatial arrangement Structural isomers\nhave different bonds A detailed account of these isomers are\ngiven below"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4749-4752", "Text": "(a) Stereoisomerism\n(i) Geometrical isomerism\n(ii) Optical isomerism\n(b) Structural isomerism\n(i) Linkage isomerism\n(ii) Coordination isomerism\n(iii) Ionisation isomerism\n(iv) Solvate isomerism\nStereoisomers have the same chemical formula and chemical\nbonds but they have different spatial arrangement Structural isomers\nhave different bonds A detailed account of these isomers are\ngiven below This type of isomerism arises in heteroleptic\ncomplexes due to different possible geometric\narrangements of the ligands"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4750-4753", "Text": "Structural isomers\nhave different bonds A detailed account of these isomers are\ngiven below This type of isomerism arises in heteroleptic\ncomplexes due to different possible geometric\narrangements of the ligands Important examples\nof this behaviour are found with coordination\nnumbers 4 and 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4751-4754", "Text": "A detailed account of these isomers are\ngiven below This type of isomerism arises in heteroleptic\ncomplexes due to different possible geometric\narrangements of the ligands Important examples\nof this behaviour are found with coordination\nnumbers 4 and 6 In a square planar complex of\nformula [MX2L2] (X and L are unidentate), the\ntwo ligands X may be arranged adjacent to each\nother in a cis isomer, or opposite to each other\nin a trans isomer as depicted in Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4752-4755", "Text": "This type of isomerism arises in heteroleptic\ncomplexes due to different possible geometric\narrangements of the ligands Important examples\nof this behaviour are found with coordination\nnumbers 4 and 6 In a square planar complex of\nformula [MX2L2] (X and L are unidentate), the\ntwo ligands X may be arranged adjacent to each\nother in a cis isomer, or opposite to each other\nin a trans isomer as depicted in Fig 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4753-4756", "Text": "Important examples\nof this behaviour are found with coordination\nnumbers 4 and 6 In a square planar complex of\nformula [MX2L2] (X and L are unidentate), the\ntwo ligands X may be arranged adjacent to each\nother in a cis isomer, or opposite to each other\nin a trans isomer as depicted in Fig 5 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4754-4757", "Text": "In a square planar complex of\nformula [MX2L2] (X and L are unidentate), the\ntwo ligands X may be arranged adjacent to each\nother in a cis isomer, or opposite to each other\nin a trans isomer as depicted in Fig 5 2 Other square planar complex of the type\nMABXL (where A, B, X, L are unidentates)\nshows three isomers-two cis and one trans"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4755-4758", "Text": "5 2 Other square planar complex of the type\nMABXL (where A, B, X, L are unidentates)\nshows three isomers-two cis and one trans You may attempt to draw these structures"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4756-4759", "Text": "2 Other square planar complex of the type\nMABXL (where A, B, X, L are unidentates)\nshows three isomers-two cis and one trans You may attempt to draw these structures Such isomerism is not possible for a tetrahedral\ngeometry but similar behaviour is possible in\noctahedral complexes of formula [MX2L4] in\nwhich the two ligands X may be oriented cis or\ntrans to each other (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4757-4760", "Text": "Other square planar complex of the type\nMABXL (where A, B, X, L are unidentates)\nshows three isomers-two cis and one trans You may attempt to draw these structures Such isomerism is not possible for a tetrahedral\ngeometry but similar behaviour is possible in\noctahedral complexes of formula [MX2L4] in\nwhich the two ligands X may be oriented cis or\ntrans to each other (Fig 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4758-4761", "Text": "You may attempt to draw these structures Such isomerism is not possible for a tetrahedral\ngeometry but similar behaviour is possible in\noctahedral complexes of formula [MX2L4] in\nwhich the two ligands X may be oriented cis or\ntrans to each other (Fig 5 3)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4759-4762", "Text": "Such isomerism is not possible for a tetrahedral\ngeometry but similar behaviour is possible in\noctahedral complexes of formula [MX2L4] in\nwhich the two ligands X may be oriented cis or\ntrans to each other (Fig 5 3) 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4760-4763", "Text": "5 3) 5 4\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4761-4764", "Text": "3) 5 4\n5 4\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4762-4765", "Text": "5 4\n5 4\n5 4\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4763-4766", "Text": "4\n5 4\n5 4\n5 4\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4764-4767", "Text": "4\n5 4\n5 4\n5 4 Isomerism in\nIsomerism in\nIsomerism in\nIsomerism in\nIsomerism in\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4765-4768", "Text": "4\n5 4\n5 4 Isomerism in\nIsomerism in\nIsomerism in\nIsomerism in\nIsomerism in\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n5 1 Write the formulas for the following coordination compounds:\n(i) Tetraamminediaquacobalt(III) chloride\n(ii) Potassium tetracyanidonickelate(II)\n(iii) Tris(ethane\u20131,2\u2013diamine) chromium(III) chloride\n(iv) Amminebromidochloridonitrito-N-platinate(II)\n(v) Dichloridobis(ethane\u20131,2\u2013diamine)platinum(IV) nitrate\n(vi) Iron(III) hexacyanidoferrate(II)\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4766-4769", "Text": "4\n5 4 Isomerism in\nIsomerism in\nIsomerism in\nIsomerism in\nIsomerism in\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n5 1 Write the formulas for the following coordination compounds:\n(i) Tetraamminediaquacobalt(III) chloride\n(ii) Potassium tetracyanidonickelate(II)\n(iii) Tris(ethane\u20131,2\u2013diamine) chromium(III) chloride\n(iv) Amminebromidochloridonitrito-N-platinate(II)\n(v) Dichloridobis(ethane\u20131,2\u2013diamine)platinum(IV) nitrate\n(vi) Iron(III) hexacyanidoferrate(II)\n5 2 Write the IUPAC names of the following coordination compounds:\n(i) [Co(NH3)6]Cl3\n(ii) [Co(NH3)5Cl]Cl2\n(iii) K3[Fe(CN)6]\n(iv) K3[Fe(C2O4)3]\n(v) K2[PdCl4]\n(vi) [Pt(NH3)2Cl(NH2CH3)]Cl\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4767-4770", "Text": "4 Isomerism in\nIsomerism in\nIsomerism in\nIsomerism in\nIsomerism in\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n5 1 Write the formulas for the following coordination compounds:\n(i) Tetraamminediaquacobalt(III) chloride\n(ii) Potassium tetracyanidonickelate(II)\n(iii) Tris(ethane\u20131,2\u2013diamine) chromium(III) chloride\n(iv) Amminebromidochloridonitrito-N-platinate(II)\n(v) Dichloridobis(ethane\u20131,2\u2013diamine)platinum(IV) nitrate\n(vi) Iron(III) hexacyanidoferrate(II)\n5 2 Write the IUPAC names of the following coordination compounds:\n(i) [Co(NH3)6]Cl3\n(ii) [Co(NH3)5Cl]Cl2\n(iii) K3[Fe(CN)6]\n(iv) K3[Fe(C2O4)3]\n(v) K2[PdCl4]\n(vi) [Pt(NH3)2Cl(NH2CH3)]Cl\n5 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4768-4771", "Text": "1 Write the formulas for the following coordination compounds:\n(i) Tetraamminediaquacobalt(III) chloride\n(ii) Potassium tetracyanidonickelate(II)\n(iii) Tris(ethane\u20131,2\u2013diamine) chromium(III) chloride\n(iv) Amminebromidochloridonitrito-N-platinate(II)\n(v) Dichloridobis(ethane\u20131,2\u2013diamine)platinum(IV) nitrate\n(vi) Iron(III) hexacyanidoferrate(II)\n5 2 Write the IUPAC names of the following coordination compounds:\n(i) [Co(NH3)6]Cl3\n(ii) [Co(NH3)5Cl]Cl2\n(iii) K3[Fe(CN)6]\n(iv) K3[Fe(C2O4)3]\n(v) K2[PdCl4]\n(vi) [Pt(NH3)2Cl(NH2CH3)]Cl\n5 4 1 Geometric Isomerism\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4769-4772", "Text": "2 Write the IUPAC names of the following coordination compounds:\n(i) [Co(NH3)6]Cl3\n(ii) [Co(NH3)5Cl]Cl2\n(iii) K3[Fe(CN)6]\n(iv) K3[Fe(C2O4)3]\n(v) K2[PdCl4]\n(vi) [Pt(NH3)2Cl(NH2CH3)]Cl\n5 4 1 Geometric Isomerism\nFig 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4770-4773", "Text": "4 1 Geometric Isomerism\nFig 5 2: Geometrical isomers (cis and trans)\nof Pt [NH3)2Cl2]\nCo\nCl\nCl\nN H3\nN H3\nN H3\nN H3\n+\nCo\nCl\nCl\nN H3\nN H3\nN H3\nN H3\n+\ncis\ntrans\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4771-4774", "Text": "1 Geometric Isomerism\nFig 5 2: Geometrical isomers (cis and trans)\nof Pt [NH3)2Cl2]\nCo\nCl\nCl\nN H3\nN H3\nN H3\nN H3\n+\nCo\nCl\nCl\nN H3\nN H3\nN H3\nN H3\n+\ncis\ntrans\nFig 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4772-4775", "Text": "5 2: Geometrical isomers (cis and trans)\nof Pt [NH3)2Cl2]\nCo\nCl\nCl\nN H3\nN H3\nN H3\nN H3\n+\nCo\nCl\nCl\nN H3\nN H3\nN H3\nN H3\n+\ncis\ntrans\nFig 5 3: Geometrical isomers (cis and trans)\nof [Co(NH3)4Cl2]+\nRationalised 2023-24\n126\nChemistry\nThis type of isomerism also\narises when didentate ligands\nL \u2013 L [e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4773-4776", "Text": "2: Geometrical isomers (cis and trans)\nof Pt [NH3)2Cl2]\nCo\nCl\nCl\nN H3\nN H3\nN H3\nN H3\n+\nCo\nCl\nCl\nN H3\nN H3\nN H3\nN H3\n+\ncis\ntrans\nFig 5 3: Geometrical isomers (cis and trans)\nof [Co(NH3)4Cl2]+\nRationalised 2023-24\n126\nChemistry\nThis type of isomerism also\narises when didentate ligands\nL \u2013 L [e g"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4774-4777", "Text": "5 3: Geometrical isomers (cis and trans)\nof [Co(NH3)4Cl2]+\nRationalised 2023-24\n126\nChemistry\nThis type of isomerism also\narises when didentate ligands\nL \u2013 L [e g , NH2 CH2 CH2 NH2 (en)]\nare present in complexes of formula\n[MX2(L \u2013 L)2] (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4775-4778", "Text": "3: Geometrical isomers (cis and trans)\nof [Co(NH3)4Cl2]+\nRationalised 2023-24\n126\nChemistry\nThis type of isomerism also\narises when didentate ligands\nL \u2013 L [e g , NH2 CH2 CH2 NH2 (en)]\nare present in complexes of formula\n[MX2(L \u2013 L)2] (Fig 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4776-4779", "Text": "g , NH2 CH2 CH2 NH2 (en)]\nare present in complexes of formula\n[MX2(L \u2013 L)2] (Fig 5 4)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4777-4780", "Text": ", NH2 CH2 CH2 NH2 (en)]\nare present in complexes of formula\n[MX2(L \u2013 L)2] (Fig 5 4) Another type of geometrical\nisomerism occurs in octahedral\ncoordination entities of the type\n[Ma3b3] like [Co(NH3)3(NO2)3]"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4778-4781", "Text": "5 4) Another type of geometrical\nisomerism occurs in octahedral\ncoordination entities of the type\n[Ma3b3] like [Co(NH3)3(NO2)3] If\nthree donor atoms of the same\nligands occupy adjacent positions\nat the corners of an octahedral\nface, we have the facial (fac)\nisomer"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4779-4782", "Text": "4) Another type of geometrical\nisomerism occurs in octahedral\ncoordination entities of the type\n[Ma3b3] like [Co(NH3)3(NO2)3] If\nthree donor atoms of the same\nligands occupy adjacent positions\nat the corners of an octahedral\nface, we have the facial (fac)\nisomer When the positions are\naround the meridian of the\noctahedron, we get the meridional\n(mer) isomer (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4780-4783", "Text": "Another type of geometrical\nisomerism occurs in octahedral\ncoordination entities of the type\n[Ma3b3] like [Co(NH3)3(NO2)3] If\nthree donor atoms of the same\nligands occupy adjacent positions\nat the corners of an octahedral\nface, we have the facial (fac)\nisomer When the positions are\naround the meridian of the\noctahedron, we get the meridional\n(mer) isomer (Fig 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4781-4784", "Text": "If\nthree donor atoms of the same\nligands occupy adjacent positions\nat the corners of an octahedral\nface, we have the facial (fac)\nisomer When the positions are\naround the meridian of the\noctahedron, we get the meridional\n(mer) isomer (Fig 5 5)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4782-4785", "Text": "When the positions are\naround the meridian of the\noctahedron, we get the meridional\n(mer) isomer (Fig 5 5) Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4783-4786", "Text": "5 5) Fig 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4784-4787", "Text": "5) Fig 5 4: Geometrical isomers (cis and trans)\nof [CoCl2(en)2]\nWhy is geometrical isomerism not possible in tetrahedral complexes\nhaving two different types of unidentate ligands coordinated with\nthe central metal ion"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4785-4788", "Text": "Fig 5 4: Geometrical isomers (cis and trans)\nof [CoCl2(en)2]\nWhy is geometrical isomerism not possible in tetrahedral complexes\nhaving two different types of unidentate ligands coordinated with\nthe central metal ion Tetrahedral complexes do not show geometrical isomerism because\nthe relative positions of the unidentate ligands attached to the central\nmetal atom are the same with respect to each other"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4786-4789", "Text": "5 4: Geometrical isomers (cis and trans)\nof [CoCl2(en)2]\nWhy is geometrical isomerism not possible in tetrahedral complexes\nhaving two different types of unidentate ligands coordinated with\nthe central metal ion Tetrahedral complexes do not show geometrical isomerism because\nthe relative positions of the unidentate ligands attached to the central\nmetal atom are the same with respect to each other Solution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nOptical isomers are mirror images that\ncannot be superimposed on one\nanother"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4787-4790", "Text": "4: Geometrical isomers (cis and trans)\nof [CoCl2(en)2]\nWhy is geometrical isomerism not possible in tetrahedral complexes\nhaving two different types of unidentate ligands coordinated with\nthe central metal ion Tetrahedral complexes do not show geometrical isomerism because\nthe relative positions of the unidentate ligands attached to the central\nmetal atom are the same with respect to each other Solution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nOptical isomers are mirror images that\ncannot be superimposed on one\nanother These \nare \ncalled \nas\nenantiomers"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4788-4791", "Text": "Tetrahedral complexes do not show geometrical isomerism because\nthe relative positions of the unidentate ligands attached to the central\nmetal atom are the same with respect to each other Solution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nOptical isomers are mirror images that\ncannot be superimposed on one\nanother These \nare \ncalled \nas\nenantiomers The molecules or ions\nthat cannot be superimposed are\ncalled chiral"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4789-4792", "Text": "Solution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nOptical isomers are mirror images that\ncannot be superimposed on one\nanother These \nare \ncalled \nas\nenantiomers The molecules or ions\nthat cannot be superimposed are\ncalled chiral The two forms are called\ndextro (d) and laevo (l) depending\nupon the direction they rotate the\nplane \nof \npolarised \nlight \nin \npolarimeter (d rotates to the right, l toa\nthe left)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4790-4793", "Text": "These \nare \ncalled \nas\nenantiomers The molecules or ions\nthat cannot be superimposed are\ncalled chiral The two forms are called\ndextro (d) and laevo (l) depending\nupon the direction they rotate the\nplane \nof \npolarised \nlight \nin \npolarimeter (d rotates to the right, l toa\nthe left) Optical isomerism is common\nin octahedral complexes involving\ndidentate ligands (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4791-4794", "Text": "The molecules or ions\nthat cannot be superimposed are\ncalled chiral The two forms are called\ndextro (d) and laevo (l) depending\nupon the direction they rotate the\nplane \nof \npolarised \nlight \nin \npolarimeter (d rotates to the right, l toa\nthe left) Optical isomerism is common\nin octahedral complexes involving\ndidentate ligands (Fig 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4792-4795", "Text": "The two forms are called\ndextro (d) and laevo (l) depending\nupon the direction they rotate the\nplane \nof \npolarised \nlight \nin \npolarimeter (d rotates to the right, l toa\nthe left) Optical isomerism is common\nin octahedral complexes involving\ndidentate ligands (Fig 5 6)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4793-4796", "Text": "Optical isomerism is common\nin octahedral complexes involving\ndidentate ligands (Fig 5 6) In a coordination\nentity \nof \nthe \ntype\n[PtCl2(en)2]\n2+, only the\ncis-isomer shows optical\nactivity (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4794-4797", "Text": "5 6) In a coordination\nentity \nof \nthe \ntype\n[PtCl2(en)2]\n2+, only the\ncis-isomer shows optical\nactivity (Fig 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4795-4798", "Text": "6) In a coordination\nentity \nof \nthe \ntype\n[PtCl2(en)2]\n2+, only the\ncis-isomer shows optical\nactivity (Fig 5 7)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4796-4799", "Text": "In a coordination\nentity \nof \nthe \ntype\n[PtCl2(en)2]\n2+, only the\ncis-isomer shows optical\nactivity (Fig 5 7) 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4797-4800", "Text": "5 7) 5 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4798-4801", "Text": "7) 5 4 2\nOptical Isomerism\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4799-4802", "Text": "5 4 2\nOptical Isomerism\nFig 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4800-4803", "Text": "4 2\nOptical Isomerism\nFig 5 6: Optical isomers (d and l) of [Co(en)3] 3+\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4801-4804", "Text": "2\nOptical Isomerism\nFig 5 6: Optical isomers (d and l) of [Co(en)3] 3+\nFig 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4802-4805", "Text": "5 6: Optical isomers (d and l) of [Co(en)3] 3+\nFig 5 7\nOptical isomers\n(d and l) of cis-\n[PtCl2(en)2]2+\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4803-4806", "Text": "6: Optical isomers (d and l) of [Co(en)3] 3+\nFig 5 7\nOptical isomers\n(d and l) of cis-\n[PtCl2(en)2]2+\nFig 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4804-4807", "Text": "5 7\nOptical isomers\n(d and l) of cis-\n[PtCl2(en)2]2+\nFig 5 5\nThe facial (fac) and\nmeridional (mer)\nisomers of\n[Co(NH3)3(NO2)3]\nExample 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4805-4808", "Text": "7\nOptical isomers\n(d and l) of cis-\n[PtCl2(en)2]2+\nFig 5 5\nThe facial (fac) and\nmeridional (mer)\nisomers of\n[Co(NH3)3(NO2)3]\nExample 5 4\nExample 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4806-4809", "Text": "5 5\nThe facial (fac) and\nmeridional (mer)\nisomers of\n[Co(NH3)3(NO2)3]\nExample 5 4\nExample 5 4\nExample 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4807-4810", "Text": "5\nThe facial (fac) and\nmeridional (mer)\nisomers of\n[Co(NH3)3(NO2)3]\nExample 5 4\nExample 5 4\nExample 5 4\nExample 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4808-4811", "Text": "4\nExample 5 4\nExample 5 4\nExample 5 4\nExample 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4809-4812", "Text": "4\nExample 5 4\nExample 5 4\nExample 5 4\nRationalised 2023-24\n127\nCoordination Compounds\nLinkage isomerism arises in a coordination compound containing\nambidentate ligand"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4810-4813", "Text": "4\nExample 5 4\nExample 5 4\nRationalised 2023-24\n127\nCoordination Compounds\nLinkage isomerism arises in a coordination compound containing\nambidentate ligand A simple example is provided by complexes\ncontaining the thiocyanate ligand, NCS\n\u2013, which may bind through the\nnitrogen to give M\u2013NCS or through sulphur to give M\u2013SCN"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4811-4814", "Text": "4\nExample 5 4\nRationalised 2023-24\n127\nCoordination Compounds\nLinkage isomerism arises in a coordination compound containing\nambidentate ligand A simple example is provided by complexes\ncontaining the thiocyanate ligand, NCS\n\u2013, which may bind through the\nnitrogen to give M\u2013NCS or through sulphur to give M\u2013SCN J\u00f8rgensen\ndiscovered such behaviour in the complex [Co(NH3)5(NO2)]Cl2, which is\nobtained as the red form, in which the nitrite ligand is bound through\noxygen (\u2013ONO), and as the yellow form, in which the nitrite ligand is\nbound through nitrogen (\u2013NO2)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4812-4815", "Text": "4\nRationalised 2023-24\n127\nCoordination Compounds\nLinkage isomerism arises in a coordination compound containing\nambidentate ligand A simple example is provided by complexes\ncontaining the thiocyanate ligand, NCS\n\u2013, which may bind through the\nnitrogen to give M\u2013NCS or through sulphur to give M\u2013SCN J\u00f8rgensen\ndiscovered such behaviour in the complex [Co(NH3)5(NO2)]Cl2, which is\nobtained as the red form, in which the nitrite ligand is bound through\noxygen (\u2013ONO), and as the yellow form, in which the nitrite ligand is\nbound through nitrogen (\u2013NO2) This type of isomerism arises from the interchange of ligands between\ncationic and anionic entities of different metal ions present in a complex"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4813-4816", "Text": "A simple example is provided by complexes\ncontaining the thiocyanate ligand, NCS\n\u2013, which may bind through the\nnitrogen to give M\u2013NCS or through sulphur to give M\u2013SCN J\u00f8rgensen\ndiscovered such behaviour in the complex [Co(NH3)5(NO2)]Cl2, which is\nobtained as the red form, in which the nitrite ligand is bound through\noxygen (\u2013ONO), and as the yellow form, in which the nitrite ligand is\nbound through nitrogen (\u2013NO2) This type of isomerism arises from the interchange of ligands between\ncationic and anionic entities of different metal ions present in a complex An example is provided by [Co(NH3)6][Cr(CN)6], in which the NH3 ligands\nare bound to Co\n3+ and the CN\n\u2013 ligands to Cr\n3+"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4814-4817", "Text": "J\u00f8rgensen\ndiscovered such behaviour in the complex [Co(NH3)5(NO2)]Cl2, which is\nobtained as the red form, in which the nitrite ligand is bound through\noxygen (\u2013ONO), and as the yellow form, in which the nitrite ligand is\nbound through nitrogen (\u2013NO2) This type of isomerism arises from the interchange of ligands between\ncationic and anionic entities of different metal ions present in a complex An example is provided by [Co(NH3)6][Cr(CN)6], in which the NH3 ligands\nare bound to Co\n3+ and the CN\n\u2013 ligands to Cr\n3+ In its coordination\nisomer [Cr(NH3)6][Co(CN)6], the NH3 ligands are bound to Cr\n3+ and the\nCN\n\u2013 ligands to Co\n3+"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4815-4818", "Text": "This type of isomerism arises from the interchange of ligands between\ncationic and anionic entities of different metal ions present in a complex An example is provided by [Co(NH3)6][Cr(CN)6], in which the NH3 ligands\nare bound to Co\n3+ and the CN\n\u2013 ligands to Cr\n3+ In its coordination\nisomer [Cr(NH3)6][Co(CN)6], the NH3 ligands are bound to Cr\n3+ and the\nCN\n\u2013 ligands to Co\n3+ This form of isomerism arises when the counter ion in a complex salt\nis itself a potential ligand and can displace a ligand which can then\nbecome the counter ion"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4816-4819", "Text": "An example is provided by [Co(NH3)6][Cr(CN)6], in which the NH3 ligands\nare bound to Co\n3+ and the CN\n\u2013 ligands to Cr\n3+ In its coordination\nisomer [Cr(NH3)6][Co(CN)6], the NH3 ligands are bound to Cr\n3+ and the\nCN\n\u2013 ligands to Co\n3+ This form of isomerism arises when the counter ion in a complex salt\nis itself a potential ligand and can displace a ligand which can then\nbecome the counter ion An example is provided by the ionisation\nisomers [Co(NH3)5(SO4)]Br and [Co(NH3)5Br]SO4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4817-4820", "Text": "In its coordination\nisomer [Cr(NH3)6][Co(CN)6], the NH3 ligands are bound to Cr\n3+ and the\nCN\n\u2013 ligands to Co\n3+ This form of isomerism arises when the counter ion in a complex salt\nis itself a potential ligand and can displace a ligand which can then\nbecome the counter ion An example is provided by the ionisation\nisomers [Co(NH3)5(SO4)]Br and [Co(NH3)5Br]SO4 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4818-4821", "Text": "This form of isomerism arises when the counter ion in a complex salt\nis itself a potential ligand and can displace a ligand which can then\nbecome the counter ion An example is provided by the ionisation\nisomers [Co(NH3)5(SO4)]Br and [Co(NH3)5Br]SO4 5 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4819-4822", "Text": "An example is provided by the ionisation\nisomers [Co(NH3)5(SO4)]Br and [Co(NH3)5Br]SO4 5 4 3 Linkage\nIsomerism\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4820-4823", "Text": "5 4 3 Linkage\nIsomerism\n5 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4821-4824", "Text": "4 3 Linkage\nIsomerism\n5 4 4 Coordination\nIsomerism\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4822-4825", "Text": "3 Linkage\nIsomerism\n5 4 4 Coordination\nIsomerism\n5 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4823-4826", "Text": "4 4 Coordination\nIsomerism\n5 4 5 Ionisation\nIsomerism\nOut of the following two coordination entities which is chiral\n(optically active)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4824-4827", "Text": "4 Coordination\nIsomerism\n5 4 5 Ionisation\nIsomerism\nOut of the following two coordination entities which is chiral\n(optically active) (a) cis-[CrCl2(ox)2]\n3\u2013\n(b) trans-[CrCl2(ox)2]\n3\u2013\nThe two entities are represented as\nDraw structures of geometrical isomers of [Fe(NH3)2(CN)4]\n\u2013\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nOut of the two, (a) cis - [CrCl2(ox)2]\n3- is chiral (optically active)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4825-4828", "Text": "4 5 Ionisation\nIsomerism\nOut of the following two coordination entities which is chiral\n(optically active) (a) cis-[CrCl2(ox)2]\n3\u2013\n(b) trans-[CrCl2(ox)2]\n3\u2013\nThe two entities are represented as\nDraw structures of geometrical isomers of [Fe(NH3)2(CN)4]\n\u2013\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nOut of the two, (a) cis - [CrCl2(ox)2]\n3- is chiral (optically active) Example 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4826-4829", "Text": "5 Ionisation\nIsomerism\nOut of the following two coordination entities which is chiral\n(optically active) (a) cis-[CrCl2(ox)2]\n3\u2013\n(b) trans-[CrCl2(ox)2]\n3\u2013\nThe two entities are represented as\nDraw structures of geometrical isomers of [Fe(NH3)2(CN)4]\n\u2013\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nOut of the two, (a) cis - [CrCl2(ox)2]\n3- is chiral (optically active) Example 5 5\nExample 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4827-4830", "Text": "(a) cis-[CrCl2(ox)2]\n3\u2013\n(b) trans-[CrCl2(ox)2]\n3\u2013\nThe two entities are represented as\nDraw structures of geometrical isomers of [Fe(NH3)2(CN)4]\n\u2013\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nOut of the two, (a) cis - [CrCl2(ox)2]\n3- is chiral (optically active) Example 5 5\nExample 5 5\nExample 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4828-4831", "Text": "Example 5 5\nExample 5 5\nExample 5 5\nExample 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4829-4832", "Text": "5\nExample 5 5\nExample 5 5\nExample 5 5\nExample 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4830-4833", "Text": "5\nExample 5 5\nExample 5 5\nExample 5 5\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nExample 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4831-4834", "Text": "5\nExample 5 5\nExample 5 5\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nExample 5 6\nExample 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4832-4835", "Text": "5\nExample 5 5\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nExample 5 6\nExample 5 6\nExample 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4833-4836", "Text": "5\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nExample 5 6\nExample 5 6\nExample 5 6\nExample 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4834-4837", "Text": "6\nExample 5 6\nExample 5 6\nExample 5 6\nExample 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4835-4838", "Text": "6\nExample 5 6\nExample 5 6\nExample 5 6\nRationalised 2023-24\n128\nChemistry\nThis form of isomerism is known as \u2018hydrate isomerism\u2019 in case where\nwater is involved as a solvent"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4836-4839", "Text": "6\nExample 5 6\nExample 5 6\nRationalised 2023-24\n128\nChemistry\nThis form of isomerism is known as \u2018hydrate isomerism\u2019 in case where\nwater is involved as a solvent This is similar to ionisation isomerism"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4837-4840", "Text": "6\nExample 5 6\nRationalised 2023-24\n128\nChemistry\nThis form of isomerism is known as \u2018hydrate isomerism\u2019 in case where\nwater is involved as a solvent This is similar to ionisation isomerism Solvate isomers differ by whether or not a solvent molecule is directly\nbonded to the metal ion or merely present as free solvent moleculesin\nthe crystal lattice"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4838-4841", "Text": "6\nRationalised 2023-24\n128\nChemistry\nThis form of isomerism is known as \u2018hydrate isomerism\u2019 in case where\nwater is involved as a solvent This is similar to ionisation isomerism Solvate isomers differ by whether or not a solvent molecule is directly\nbonded to the metal ion or merely present as free solvent moleculesin\nthe crystal lattice An example is provided by the aqua\ncomplex [Cr(H2O)6]Cl3 (violet) and its solvate isomer [Cr(H2O)5Cl]Cl2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4839-4842", "Text": "This is similar to ionisation isomerism Solvate isomers differ by whether or not a solvent molecule is directly\nbonded to the metal ion or merely present as free solvent moleculesin\nthe crystal lattice An example is provided by the aqua\ncomplex [Cr(H2O)6]Cl3 (violet) and its solvate isomer [Cr(H2O)5Cl]Cl2 H2O\n(grey-green)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4840-4843", "Text": "Solvate isomers differ by whether or not a solvent molecule is directly\nbonded to the metal ion or merely present as free solvent moleculesin\nthe crystal lattice An example is provided by the aqua\ncomplex [Cr(H2O)6]Cl3 (violet) and its solvate isomer [Cr(H2O)5Cl]Cl2 H2O\n(grey-green) 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4841-4844", "Text": "An example is provided by the aqua\ncomplex [Cr(H2O)6]Cl3 (violet) and its solvate isomer [Cr(H2O)5Cl]Cl2 H2O\n(grey-green) 5 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4842-4845", "Text": "H2O\n(grey-green) 5 4 6 Solvate\nIsomerism\nWerner was the first to describe the bonding features in coordination\ncompounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4843-4846", "Text": "5 4 6 Solvate\nIsomerism\nWerner was the first to describe the bonding features in coordination\ncompounds But his theory could not answer basic questions like:\n(i) Why only certain elements possess the remarkable property of\nforming coordination compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4844-4847", "Text": "4 6 Solvate\nIsomerism\nWerner was the first to describe the bonding features in coordination\ncompounds But his theory could not answer basic questions like:\n(i) Why only certain elements possess the remarkable property of\nforming coordination compounds (ii) Why the bonds in coordination compounds have directional\nproperties"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4845-4848", "Text": "6 Solvate\nIsomerism\nWerner was the first to describe the bonding features in coordination\ncompounds But his theory could not answer basic questions like:\n(i) Why only certain elements possess the remarkable property of\nforming coordination compounds (ii) Why the bonds in coordination compounds have directional\nproperties (iii) Why coordination compounds have characteristic magnetic and\noptical properties"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4846-4849", "Text": "But his theory could not answer basic questions like:\n(i) Why only certain elements possess the remarkable property of\nforming coordination compounds (ii) Why the bonds in coordination compounds have directional\nproperties (iii) Why coordination compounds have characteristic magnetic and\noptical properties Many approaches have been put forth to explain the nature of\nbonding in coordination compounds viz"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4847-4850", "Text": "(ii) Why the bonds in coordination compounds have directional\nproperties (iii) Why coordination compounds have characteristic magnetic and\noptical properties Many approaches have been put forth to explain the nature of\nbonding in coordination compounds viz Valence Bond Theory (VBT),\nCrystal Field Theory (CFT), Ligand Field Theory (LFT) and Molecular\nOrbital Theory (MOT)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4848-4851", "Text": "(iii) Why coordination compounds have characteristic magnetic and\noptical properties Many approaches have been put forth to explain the nature of\nbonding in coordination compounds viz Valence Bond Theory (VBT),\nCrystal Field Theory (CFT), Ligand Field Theory (LFT) and Molecular\nOrbital Theory (MOT) We shall focus our attention on elementary\ntreatment of the application of VBT and CFT to coordination compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4849-4852", "Text": "Many approaches have been put forth to explain the nature of\nbonding in coordination compounds viz Valence Bond Theory (VBT),\nCrystal Field Theory (CFT), Ligand Field Theory (LFT) and Molecular\nOrbital Theory (MOT) We shall focus our attention on elementary\ntreatment of the application of VBT and CFT to coordination compounds According to this theory, the metal atom or ion under the influence of\nligands can use its (n-1)d, ns, np or ns, np, nd orbitals for hybridisation\nto yield a set of equivalent orbitals of definite geometry such as octahedral,\ntetrahedral, square planar and so on (Table 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4850-4853", "Text": "Valence Bond Theory (VBT),\nCrystal Field Theory (CFT), Ligand Field Theory (LFT) and Molecular\nOrbital Theory (MOT) We shall focus our attention on elementary\ntreatment of the application of VBT and CFT to coordination compounds According to this theory, the metal atom or ion under the influence of\nligands can use its (n-1)d, ns, np or ns, np, nd orbitals for hybridisation\nto yield a set of equivalent orbitals of definite geometry such as octahedral,\ntetrahedral, square planar and so on (Table 5 2)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4851-4854", "Text": "We shall focus our attention on elementary\ntreatment of the application of VBT and CFT to coordination compounds According to this theory, the metal atom or ion under the influence of\nligands can use its (n-1)d, ns, np or ns, np, nd orbitals for hybridisation\nto yield a set of equivalent orbitals of definite geometry such as octahedral,\ntetrahedral, square planar and so on (Table 5 2) These hybridised orbitals\nare allowed to overlap with ligand orbitals that can donate electron pairs\nfor bonding"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4852-4855", "Text": "According to this theory, the metal atom or ion under the influence of\nligands can use its (n-1)d, ns, np or ns, np, nd orbitals for hybridisation\nto yield a set of equivalent orbitals of definite geometry such as octahedral,\ntetrahedral, square planar and so on (Table 5 2) These hybridised orbitals\nare allowed to overlap with ligand orbitals that can donate electron pairs\nfor bonding This is illustrated by the following examples"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4853-4856", "Text": "2) These hybridised orbitals\nare allowed to overlap with ligand orbitals that can donate electron pairs\nfor bonding This is illustrated by the following examples 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4854-4857", "Text": "These hybridised orbitals\nare allowed to overlap with ligand orbitals that can donate electron pairs\nfor bonding This is illustrated by the following examples 5 5\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4855-4858", "Text": "This is illustrated by the following examples 5 5\n5 5\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4856-4859", "Text": "5 5\n5 5\n5 5\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4857-4860", "Text": "5\n5 5\n5 5\n5 5\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4858-4861", "Text": "5\n5 5\n5 5\n5 5 Bonding in\nBonding in\nBonding in\nBonding in\nBonding in\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4859-4862", "Text": "5\n5 5\n5 5 Bonding in\nBonding in\nBonding in\nBonding in\nBonding in\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\n5 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4860-4863", "Text": "5\n5 5 Bonding in\nBonding in\nBonding in\nBonding in\nBonding in\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\n5 5 1 Valence\nBond\nTheory\nTable 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4861-4864", "Text": "5 Bonding in\nBonding in\nBonding in\nBonding in\nBonding in\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\n5 5 1 Valence\nBond\nTheory\nTable 5 2: Number of Orbitals and Types of Hybridisations\n4\nsp\n3\nTetrahedral\n4\ndsp\n2\nSquare planar\n5\nsp\n3d\nTrigonal bipyramidal\n6\nsp\n3d\n2\nOctahedral\n6\nd\n2sp\n3\nOctahedral\nCoordination\nnumber\nType of\nhybridisation\nDistribution of hybrid\norbitals in space\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4862-4865", "Text": "5 1 Valence\nBond\nTheory\nTable 5 2: Number of Orbitals and Types of Hybridisations\n4\nsp\n3\nTetrahedral\n4\ndsp\n2\nSquare planar\n5\nsp\n3d\nTrigonal bipyramidal\n6\nsp\n3d\n2\nOctahedral\n6\nd\n2sp\n3\nOctahedral\nCoordination\nnumber\nType of\nhybridisation\nDistribution of hybrid\norbitals in space\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n5 3 Indicate the types of isomerism exhibited by the following complexes and\ndraw the structures for these isomers:\n(i) K[Cr(H2O)2(C2O4)2\n(ii) [Co(en)3]Cl3\n(iii) [Co(NH3)5(NO2)](NO3)2\n(iv) [Pt(NH3)(H2O)Cl2]\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4863-4866", "Text": "1 Valence\nBond\nTheory\nTable 5 2: Number of Orbitals and Types of Hybridisations\n4\nsp\n3\nTetrahedral\n4\ndsp\n2\nSquare planar\n5\nsp\n3d\nTrigonal bipyramidal\n6\nsp\n3d\n2\nOctahedral\n6\nd\n2sp\n3\nOctahedral\nCoordination\nnumber\nType of\nhybridisation\nDistribution of hybrid\norbitals in space\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n5 3 Indicate the types of isomerism exhibited by the following complexes and\ndraw the structures for these isomers:\n(i) K[Cr(H2O)2(C2O4)2\n(ii) [Co(en)3]Cl3\n(iii) [Co(NH3)5(NO2)](NO3)2\n(iv) [Pt(NH3)(H2O)Cl2]\n5 4 Give evidence that [Co(NH3)5Cl]SO4 and [Co(NH3)5(SO4)]Cl are ionisation\nisomers"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4864-4867", "Text": "2: Number of Orbitals and Types of Hybridisations\n4\nsp\n3\nTetrahedral\n4\ndsp\n2\nSquare planar\n5\nsp\n3d\nTrigonal bipyramidal\n6\nsp\n3d\n2\nOctahedral\n6\nd\n2sp\n3\nOctahedral\nCoordination\nnumber\nType of\nhybridisation\nDistribution of hybrid\norbitals in space\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n5 3 Indicate the types of isomerism exhibited by the following complexes and\ndraw the structures for these isomers:\n(i) K[Cr(H2O)2(C2O4)2\n(ii) [Co(en)3]Cl3\n(iii) [Co(NH3)5(NO2)](NO3)2\n(iv) [Pt(NH3)(H2O)Cl2]\n5 4 Give evidence that [Co(NH3)5Cl]SO4 and [Co(NH3)5(SO4)]Cl are ionisation\nisomers Rationalised 2023-24\n129\nCoordination Compounds\nIt is usually possible to predict the geometry of a complex from\nthe knowledge of its\nmagnetic behaviour on\nthe basis of the valence\nbond theory"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4865-4868", "Text": "3 Indicate the types of isomerism exhibited by the following complexes and\ndraw the structures for these isomers:\n(i) K[Cr(H2O)2(C2O4)2\n(ii) [Co(en)3]Cl3\n(iii) [Co(NH3)5(NO2)](NO3)2\n(iv) [Pt(NH3)(H2O)Cl2]\n5 4 Give evidence that [Co(NH3)5Cl]SO4 and [Co(NH3)5(SO4)]Cl are ionisation\nisomers Rationalised 2023-24\n129\nCoordination Compounds\nIt is usually possible to predict the geometry of a complex from\nthe knowledge of its\nmagnetic behaviour on\nthe basis of the valence\nbond theory In the diamagnetic\noctahedral \ncomplex,\n[Co(NH3)6]\n3+, the cobalt ion\nis in +3 oxidation state\nand has the electronic\nconfiguration 3d\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4866-4869", "Text": "4 Give evidence that [Co(NH3)5Cl]SO4 and [Co(NH3)5(SO4)]Cl are ionisation\nisomers Rationalised 2023-24\n129\nCoordination Compounds\nIt is usually possible to predict the geometry of a complex from\nthe knowledge of its\nmagnetic behaviour on\nthe basis of the valence\nbond theory In the diamagnetic\noctahedral \ncomplex,\n[Co(NH3)6]\n3+, the cobalt ion\nis in +3 oxidation state\nand has the electronic\nconfiguration 3d\n6 The\nhybridisation scheme is as\nshown in diagram"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4867-4870", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n129\nCoordination Compounds\nIt is usually possible to predict the geometry of a complex from\nthe knowledge of its\nmagnetic behaviour on\nthe basis of the valence\nbond theory In the diamagnetic\noctahedral \ncomplex,\n[Co(NH3)6]\n3+, the cobalt ion\nis in +3 oxidation state\nand has the electronic\nconfiguration 3d\n6 The\nhybridisation scheme is as\nshown in diagram Orbitals of Co ion\n3+\nsp d\n3\n2\n3+\nhybridised\norbitals of Co\n[CoF ]\n(outer orbital or\nhigh spin complex)\n6\n3\u2013\nSix pairs of electrons\nfrom six F ions\n\u2013\n3d\n4s\n4p\nsp d\n3\n3 hybrid\n4d\n3d\n3d\nSix pairs of electrons, one from each NH3 molecule, occupy the six\nhybrid orbitals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4868-4871", "Text": "In the diamagnetic\noctahedral \ncomplex,\n[Co(NH3)6]\n3+, the cobalt ion\nis in +3 oxidation state\nand has the electronic\nconfiguration 3d\n6 The\nhybridisation scheme is as\nshown in diagram Orbitals of Co ion\n3+\nsp d\n3\n2\n3+\nhybridised\norbitals of Co\n[CoF ]\n(outer orbital or\nhigh spin complex)\n6\n3\u2013\nSix pairs of electrons\nfrom six F ions\n\u2013\n3d\n4s\n4p\nsp d\n3\n3 hybrid\n4d\n3d\n3d\nSix pairs of electrons, one from each NH3 molecule, occupy the six\nhybrid orbitals Thus, the complex has octahedral geometry and is\ndiamagnetic because of the absence of unpaired electron"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4869-4872", "Text": "The\nhybridisation scheme is as\nshown in diagram Orbitals of Co ion\n3+\nsp d\n3\n2\n3+\nhybridised\norbitals of Co\n[CoF ]\n(outer orbital or\nhigh spin complex)\n6\n3\u2013\nSix pairs of electrons\nfrom six F ions\n\u2013\n3d\n4s\n4p\nsp d\n3\n3 hybrid\n4d\n3d\n3d\nSix pairs of electrons, one from each NH3 molecule, occupy the six\nhybrid orbitals Thus, the complex has octahedral geometry and is\ndiamagnetic because of the absence of unpaired electron In the formation\nof this complex, since the inner d orbital (3d) is used in hybridisation,\nthe complex, [Co(NH3)6]\n3+ is called an inner orbital or low spin or spin\npaired complex"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4870-4873", "Text": "Orbitals of Co ion\n3+\nsp d\n3\n2\n3+\nhybridised\norbitals of Co\n[CoF ]\n(outer orbital or\nhigh spin complex)\n6\n3\u2013\nSix pairs of electrons\nfrom six F ions\n\u2013\n3d\n4s\n4p\nsp d\n3\n3 hybrid\n4d\n3d\n3d\nSix pairs of electrons, one from each NH3 molecule, occupy the six\nhybrid orbitals Thus, the complex has octahedral geometry and is\ndiamagnetic because of the absence of unpaired electron In the formation\nof this complex, since the inner d orbital (3d) is used in hybridisation,\nthe complex, [Co(NH3)6]\n3+ is called an inner orbital or low spin or spin\npaired complex The paramagnetic octahedral complex, [CoF6]\n3\u2013 uses\nouter orbital (4d ) in hybridisation (sp\n3d\n2)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4871-4874", "Text": "Thus, the complex has octahedral geometry and is\ndiamagnetic because of the absence of unpaired electron In the formation\nof this complex, since the inner d orbital (3d) is used in hybridisation,\nthe complex, [Co(NH3)6]\n3+ is called an inner orbital or low spin or spin\npaired complex The paramagnetic octahedral complex, [CoF6]\n3\u2013 uses\nouter orbital (4d ) in hybridisation (sp\n3d\n2) It is thus called outer orbital\nor high spin or spin free complex"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4872-4875", "Text": "In the formation\nof this complex, since the inner d orbital (3d) is used in hybridisation,\nthe complex, [Co(NH3)6]\n3+ is called an inner orbital or low spin or spin\npaired complex The paramagnetic octahedral complex, [CoF6]\n3\u2013 uses\nouter orbital (4d ) in hybridisation (sp\n3d\n2) It is thus called outer orbital\nor high spin or spin free complex Thus:\nIn tetrahedral complexes\none s and three p orbitals\nare hybridised to form four\nequivalent orbitals oriented\ntetrahedrally"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4873-4876", "Text": "The paramagnetic octahedral complex, [CoF6]\n3\u2013 uses\nouter orbital (4d ) in hybridisation (sp\n3d\n2) It is thus called outer orbital\nor high spin or spin free complex Thus:\nIn tetrahedral complexes\none s and three p orbitals\nare hybridised to form four\nequivalent orbitals oriented\ntetrahedrally This is ill-\nustrated below for [NiCl4]\n2-"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4874-4877", "Text": "It is thus called outer orbital\nor high spin or spin free complex Thus:\nIn tetrahedral complexes\none s and three p orbitals\nare hybridised to form four\nequivalent orbitals oriented\ntetrahedrally This is ill-\nustrated below for [NiCl4]\n2- Here \nnickel \nis \nin \n+2\noxidation state and the ion\nhas \nthe \nelectronic\nconfiguration \n3d\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4875-4878", "Text": "Thus:\nIn tetrahedral complexes\none s and three p orbitals\nare hybridised to form four\nequivalent orbitals oriented\ntetrahedrally This is ill-\nustrated below for [NiCl4]\n2- Here \nnickel \nis \nin \n+2\noxidation state and the ion\nhas \nthe \nelectronic\nconfiguration \n3d\n8 The\nhybridisation scheme is as\nshown in diagram"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4876-4879", "Text": "This is ill-\nustrated below for [NiCl4]\n2- Here \nnickel \nis \nin \n+2\noxidation state and the ion\nhas \nthe \nelectronic\nconfiguration \n3d\n8 The\nhybridisation scheme is as\nshown in diagram Each Cl\n\u2013 ion donates a pair of electrons"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4877-4880", "Text": "Here \nnickel \nis \nin \n+2\noxidation state and the ion\nhas \nthe \nelectronic\nconfiguration \n3d\n8 The\nhybridisation scheme is as\nshown in diagram Each Cl\n\u2013 ion donates a pair of electrons The compound is\nparamagnetic since it contains two unpaired electrons"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4878-4881", "Text": "The\nhybridisation scheme is as\nshown in diagram Each Cl\n\u2013 ion donates a pair of electrons The compound is\nparamagnetic since it contains two unpaired electrons Similarly,\n[Ni(CO)4] has tetrahedral geometry but is diamagnetic since nickel is in\nzero oxidation state and contains no unpaired electron"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4879-4882", "Text": "Each Cl\n\u2013 ion donates a pair of electrons The compound is\nparamagnetic since it contains two unpaired electrons Similarly,\n[Ni(CO)4] has tetrahedral geometry but is diamagnetic since nickel is in\nzero oxidation state and contains no unpaired electron Rationalised 2023-24\n130\nChemistry\nOrbitals of Ni ion\n2+\ndsp hybridised\norbitals of Ni\n2\n2+\n[Ni(CN) ]\n(low spin complex)\n4\n2\u2013\n3d\n4s\n4p\nFour pairs of electrons\nfrom 4 CN groups\n\u2013\ndsp\n2 hydrid\n3d\n4p\n3d\n4p\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4880-4883", "Text": "The compound is\nparamagnetic since it contains two unpaired electrons Similarly,\n[Ni(CO)4] has tetrahedral geometry but is diamagnetic since nickel is in\nzero oxidation state and contains no unpaired electron Rationalised 2023-24\n130\nChemistry\nOrbitals of Ni ion\n2+\ndsp hybridised\norbitals of Ni\n2\n2+\n[Ni(CN) ]\n(low spin complex)\n4\n2\u2013\n3d\n4s\n4p\nFour pairs of electrons\nfrom 4 CN groups\n\u2013\ndsp\n2 hydrid\n3d\n4p\n3d\n4p\n5 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4881-4884", "Text": "Similarly,\n[Ni(CO)4] has tetrahedral geometry but is diamagnetic since nickel is in\nzero oxidation state and contains no unpaired electron Rationalised 2023-24\n130\nChemistry\nOrbitals of Ni ion\n2+\ndsp hybridised\norbitals of Ni\n2\n2+\n[Ni(CN) ]\n(low spin complex)\n4\n2\u2013\n3d\n4s\n4p\nFour pairs of electrons\nfrom 4 CN groups\n\u2013\ndsp\n2 hydrid\n3d\n4p\n3d\n4p\n5 5 2 Magnetic\nProperties\nof\nCoordination\nCompounds\nIn the square planar complexes, the hybridisation involved is dsp\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4882-4885", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n130\nChemistry\nOrbitals of Ni ion\n2+\ndsp hybridised\norbitals of Ni\n2\n2+\n[Ni(CN) ]\n(low spin complex)\n4\n2\u2013\n3d\n4s\n4p\nFour pairs of electrons\nfrom 4 CN groups\n\u2013\ndsp\n2 hydrid\n3d\n4p\n3d\n4p\n5 5 2 Magnetic\nProperties\nof\nCoordination\nCompounds\nIn the square planar complexes, the hybridisation involved is dsp\n2 An example is [Ni(CN)4]\n2\u2013"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4883-4886", "Text": "5 2 Magnetic\nProperties\nof\nCoordination\nCompounds\nIn the square planar complexes, the hybridisation involved is dsp\n2 An example is [Ni(CN)4]\n2\u2013 Here nickel is in +2 oxidation state and has\nthe electronic configuration 3d\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4884-4887", "Text": "2 Magnetic\nProperties\nof\nCoordination\nCompounds\nIn the square planar complexes, the hybridisation involved is dsp\n2 An example is [Ni(CN)4]\n2\u2013 Here nickel is in +2 oxidation state and has\nthe electronic configuration 3d\n8 The hybridisation scheme is as shown\nin diagram:\nEach of the hybridised orbitals receives a pair of electrons from a\ncyanide ion"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4885-4888", "Text": "An example is [Ni(CN)4]\n2\u2013 Here nickel is in +2 oxidation state and has\nthe electronic configuration 3d\n8 The hybridisation scheme is as shown\nin diagram:\nEach of the hybridised orbitals receives a pair of electrons from a\ncyanide ion The compound is diamagnetic as evident from the absence\nof unpaired electron"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4886-4889", "Text": "Here nickel is in +2 oxidation state and has\nthe electronic configuration 3d\n8 The hybridisation scheme is as shown\nin diagram:\nEach of the hybridised orbitals receives a pair of electrons from a\ncyanide ion The compound is diamagnetic as evident from the absence\nof unpaired electron It is important to note that the hybrid orbitals do not actually exist"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4887-4890", "Text": "The hybridisation scheme is as shown\nin diagram:\nEach of the hybridised orbitals receives a pair of electrons from a\ncyanide ion The compound is diamagnetic as evident from the absence\nof unpaired electron It is important to note that the hybrid orbitals do not actually exist In fact, hybridisation is a mathematical manipulation of wave equation\nfor the atomic orbitals involved"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4888-4891", "Text": "The compound is diamagnetic as evident from the absence\nof unpaired electron It is important to note that the hybrid orbitals do not actually exist In fact, hybridisation is a mathematical manipulation of wave equation\nfor the atomic orbitals involved The magnetic moment of coordination compounds can be measured\nby the magnetic susceptibility experiments"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4889-4892", "Text": "It is important to note that the hybrid orbitals do not actually exist In fact, hybridisation is a mathematical manipulation of wave equation\nfor the atomic orbitals involved The magnetic moment of coordination compounds can be measured\nby the magnetic susceptibility experiments The results can be used to\nobtain information about the number of unpaired electrons and hence\nstructures adopted by metal complexes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4890-4893", "Text": "In fact, hybridisation is a mathematical manipulation of wave equation\nfor the atomic orbitals involved The magnetic moment of coordination compounds can be measured\nby the magnetic susceptibility experiments The results can be used to\nobtain information about the number of unpaired electrons and hence\nstructures adopted by metal complexes A critical study of the magnetic data of coordination compounds of\nmetals of the first transition series reveals some complications"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4891-4894", "Text": "The magnetic moment of coordination compounds can be measured\nby the magnetic susceptibility experiments The results can be used to\nobtain information about the number of unpaired electrons and hence\nstructures adopted by metal complexes A critical study of the magnetic data of coordination compounds of\nmetals of the first transition series reveals some complications For\nmetal ions with upto three electrons in the d orbitals, like Ti\n3+ (d\n1); V\n3+\n(d\n2); Cr\n3+ (d\n3); two vacant d orbitals are available for octahedral\nhybridisation with 4s and 4p orbitals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4892-4895", "Text": "The results can be used to\nobtain information about the number of unpaired electrons and hence\nstructures adopted by metal complexes A critical study of the magnetic data of coordination compounds of\nmetals of the first transition series reveals some complications For\nmetal ions with upto three electrons in the d orbitals, like Ti\n3+ (d\n1); V\n3+\n(d\n2); Cr\n3+ (d\n3); two vacant d orbitals are available for octahedral\nhybridisation with 4s and 4p orbitals The magnetic behaviour of these\nfree ions and their coordination entities is similar"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4893-4896", "Text": "A critical study of the magnetic data of coordination compounds of\nmetals of the first transition series reveals some complications For\nmetal ions with upto three electrons in the d orbitals, like Ti\n3+ (d\n1); V\n3+\n(d\n2); Cr\n3+ (d\n3); two vacant d orbitals are available for octahedral\nhybridisation with 4s and 4p orbitals The magnetic behaviour of these\nfree ions and their coordination entities is similar When more than\nthree 3d electrons are present, the required pair of 3d orbitals for\noctahedral hybridisation is not directly available (as a consequence of\nHund\u2019s rule)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4894-4897", "Text": "For\nmetal ions with upto three electrons in the d orbitals, like Ti\n3+ (d\n1); V\n3+\n(d\n2); Cr\n3+ (d\n3); two vacant d orbitals are available for octahedral\nhybridisation with 4s and 4p orbitals The magnetic behaviour of these\nfree ions and their coordination entities is similar When more than\nthree 3d electrons are present, the required pair of 3d orbitals for\noctahedral hybridisation is not directly available (as a consequence of\nHund\u2019s rule) Thus, for d\n4 (Cr\n2+, Mn\n3+), d\n5 (Mn\n2+, Fe\n3+), d\n6 (Fe\n2+, Co\n3+)\ncases, a vacant pair of d orbitals results only by pairing of 3d electrons\nwhich leaves two, one and zero unpaired electrons, respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4895-4898", "Text": "The magnetic behaviour of these\nfree ions and their coordination entities is similar When more than\nthree 3d electrons are present, the required pair of 3d orbitals for\noctahedral hybridisation is not directly available (as a consequence of\nHund\u2019s rule) Thus, for d\n4 (Cr\n2+, Mn\n3+), d\n5 (Mn\n2+, Fe\n3+), d\n6 (Fe\n2+, Co\n3+)\ncases, a vacant pair of d orbitals results only by pairing of 3d electrons\nwhich leaves two, one and zero unpaired electrons, respectively The magnetic data agree with maximum spin pairing in many cases,\nespecially with coordination compounds containing d\n6 ions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4896-4899", "Text": "When more than\nthree 3d electrons are present, the required pair of 3d orbitals for\noctahedral hybridisation is not directly available (as a consequence of\nHund\u2019s rule) Thus, for d\n4 (Cr\n2+, Mn\n3+), d\n5 (Mn\n2+, Fe\n3+), d\n6 (Fe\n2+, Co\n3+)\ncases, a vacant pair of d orbitals results only by pairing of 3d electrons\nwhich leaves two, one and zero unpaired electrons, respectively The magnetic data agree with maximum spin pairing in many cases,\nespecially with coordination compounds containing d\n6 ions However,\nwith species containing d\n4 and d\n5 ions there are complications"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4897-4900", "Text": "Thus, for d\n4 (Cr\n2+, Mn\n3+), d\n5 (Mn\n2+, Fe\n3+), d\n6 (Fe\n2+, Co\n3+)\ncases, a vacant pair of d orbitals results only by pairing of 3d electrons\nwhich leaves two, one and zero unpaired electrons, respectively The magnetic data agree with maximum spin pairing in many cases,\nespecially with coordination compounds containing d\n6 ions However,\nwith species containing d\n4 and d\n5 ions there are complications [Mn(CN)6]\n3\u2013\nhas magnetic moment of two unpaired electrons while [MnCl6]\n3\u2013 has a\nparamagnetic moment of four unpaired electrons"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4898-4901", "Text": "The magnetic data agree with maximum spin pairing in many cases,\nespecially with coordination compounds containing d\n6 ions However,\nwith species containing d\n4 and d\n5 ions there are complications [Mn(CN)6]\n3\u2013\nhas magnetic moment of two unpaired electrons while [MnCl6]\n3\u2013 has a\nparamagnetic moment of four unpaired electrons [Fe(CN)6]\n3\u2013 has magnetic\nmoment of a single unpaired electron while [FeF6]\n3\u2013 has a paramagnetic\nmoment of five unpaired electrons"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4899-4902", "Text": "However,\nwith species containing d\n4 and d\n5 ions there are complications [Mn(CN)6]\n3\u2013\nhas magnetic moment of two unpaired electrons while [MnCl6]\n3\u2013 has a\nparamagnetic moment of four unpaired electrons [Fe(CN)6]\n3\u2013 has magnetic\nmoment of a single unpaired electron while [FeF6]\n3\u2013 has a paramagnetic\nmoment of five unpaired electrons [CoF6]\n3\u2013 is paramagnetic with four\nunpaired electrons while [Co(C2O4)3]\n3\u2013 is diamagnetic"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4900-4903", "Text": "[Mn(CN)6]\n3\u2013\nhas magnetic moment of two unpaired electrons while [MnCl6]\n3\u2013 has a\nparamagnetic moment of four unpaired electrons [Fe(CN)6]\n3\u2013 has magnetic\nmoment of a single unpaired electron while [FeF6]\n3\u2013 has a paramagnetic\nmoment of five unpaired electrons [CoF6]\n3\u2013 is paramagnetic with four\nunpaired electrons while [Co(C2O4)3]\n3\u2013 is diamagnetic This apparent\nanomaly is explained by valence bond theory in terms of formation of\ninner orbital and outer orbital coordination entities"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4901-4904", "Text": "[Fe(CN)6]\n3\u2013 has magnetic\nmoment of a single unpaired electron while [FeF6]\n3\u2013 has a paramagnetic\nmoment of five unpaired electrons [CoF6]\n3\u2013 is paramagnetic with four\nunpaired electrons while [Co(C2O4)3]\n3\u2013 is diamagnetic This apparent\nanomaly is explained by valence bond theory in terms of formation of\ninner orbital and outer orbital coordination entities [Mn(CN)6]\n3\u2013, [Fe(CN)6]\n3\u2013\nand [Co(C2O4)3]\n3\u2013 are inner orbital complexes involving d\n2sp\n3 hybridisation,\nthe former two complexes are paramagnetic and the latter diamagnetic"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4902-4905", "Text": "[CoF6]\n3\u2013 is paramagnetic with four\nunpaired electrons while [Co(C2O4)3]\n3\u2013 is diamagnetic This apparent\nanomaly is explained by valence bond theory in terms of formation of\ninner orbital and outer orbital coordination entities [Mn(CN)6]\n3\u2013, [Fe(CN)6]\n3\u2013\nand [Co(C2O4)3]\n3\u2013 are inner orbital complexes involving d\n2sp\n3 hybridisation,\nthe former two complexes are paramagnetic and the latter diamagnetic On the other hand, [MnCl6]\n3\u2013, [FeF6]\n3\u2013 and [CoF6-]\n3\u2013 are outer orbital\ncomplexes involving sp\n3d\n2\n hybridisation and are paramagnetic\ncorresponding to four, five and four unpaired electrons"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4903-4906", "Text": "This apparent\nanomaly is explained by valence bond theory in terms of formation of\ninner orbital and outer orbital coordination entities [Mn(CN)6]\n3\u2013, [Fe(CN)6]\n3\u2013\nand [Co(C2O4)3]\n3\u2013 are inner orbital complexes involving d\n2sp\n3 hybridisation,\nthe former two complexes are paramagnetic and the latter diamagnetic On the other hand, [MnCl6]\n3\u2013, [FeF6]\n3\u2013 and [CoF6-]\n3\u2013 are outer orbital\ncomplexes involving sp\n3d\n2\n hybridisation and are paramagnetic\ncorresponding to four, five and four unpaired electrons Rationalised 2023-24\n131\nCoordination Compounds\nThe spin only magnetic moment of [MnBr4]\n2\u2013 is 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4904-4907", "Text": "[Mn(CN)6]\n3\u2013, [Fe(CN)6]\n3\u2013\nand [Co(C2O4)3]\n3\u2013 are inner orbital complexes involving d\n2sp\n3 hybridisation,\nthe former two complexes are paramagnetic and the latter diamagnetic On the other hand, [MnCl6]\n3\u2013, [FeF6]\n3\u2013 and [CoF6-]\n3\u2013 are outer orbital\ncomplexes involving sp\n3d\n2\n hybridisation and are paramagnetic\ncorresponding to four, five and four unpaired electrons Rationalised 2023-24\n131\nCoordination Compounds\nThe spin only magnetic moment of [MnBr4]\n2\u2013 is 5 9 BM"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4905-4908", "Text": "On the other hand, [MnCl6]\n3\u2013, [FeF6]\n3\u2013 and [CoF6-]\n3\u2013 are outer orbital\ncomplexes involving sp\n3d\n2\n hybridisation and are paramagnetic\ncorresponding to four, five and four unpaired electrons Rationalised 2023-24\n131\nCoordination Compounds\nThe spin only magnetic moment of [MnBr4]\n2\u2013 is 5 9 BM Predict the\ngeometry of the complex ion"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4906-4909", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n131\nCoordination Compounds\nThe spin only magnetic moment of [MnBr4]\n2\u2013 is 5 9 BM Predict the\ngeometry of the complex ion Since the coordination number of Mn\n2+ ion in the complex ion is 4, it\nwill be either tetrahedral (sp\n3 hybridisation) or square planar (dsp\n2\nhybridisation)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4907-4910", "Text": "9 BM Predict the\ngeometry of the complex ion Since the coordination number of Mn\n2+ ion in the complex ion is 4, it\nwill be either tetrahedral (sp\n3 hybridisation) or square planar (dsp\n2\nhybridisation) But the fact that the magnetic moment of the complex\nion is 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4908-4911", "Text": "Predict the\ngeometry of the complex ion Since the coordination number of Mn\n2+ ion in the complex ion is 4, it\nwill be either tetrahedral (sp\n3 hybridisation) or square planar (dsp\n2\nhybridisation) But the fact that the magnetic moment of the complex\nion is 5 9 BM, it should be tetrahedral in shape rather than square\nplanar because of the presence of five unpaired electrons in the d orbitals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4909-4912", "Text": "Since the coordination number of Mn\n2+ ion in the complex ion is 4, it\nwill be either tetrahedral (sp\n3 hybridisation) or square planar (dsp\n2\nhybridisation) But the fact that the magnetic moment of the complex\nion is 5 9 BM, it should be tetrahedral in shape rather than square\nplanar because of the presence of five unpaired electrons in the d orbitals Example 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4910-4913", "Text": "But the fact that the magnetic moment of the complex\nion is 5 9 BM, it should be tetrahedral in shape rather than square\nplanar because of the presence of five unpaired electrons in the d orbitals Example 5 7\nExample 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4911-4914", "Text": "9 BM, it should be tetrahedral in shape rather than square\nplanar because of the presence of five unpaired electrons in the d orbitals Example 5 7\nExample 5 7\nExample 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4912-4915", "Text": "Example 5 7\nExample 5 7\nExample 5 7\nExample 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4913-4916", "Text": "7\nExample 5 7\nExample 5 7\nExample 5 7\nExample 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4914-4917", "Text": "7\nExample 5 7\nExample 5 7\nExample 5 7\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4915-4918", "Text": "7\nExample 5 7\nExample 5 7\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n5 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4916-4919", "Text": "7\nExample 5 7\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n5 5 3 Limitations\nof Valence\nBond\nTheory\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4917-4920", "Text": "7\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n5 5 3 Limitations\nof Valence\nBond\nTheory\n5 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4918-4921", "Text": "5 3 Limitations\nof Valence\nBond\nTheory\n5 5 4 Crystal\nField\nTheory\nWhile the VB theory, to a larger extent, explains the formation, structures\nand magnetic behaviour of coordination compounds, it suffers from\nthe following shortcomings:\n(i) It involves a number of assumptions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4919-4922", "Text": "3 Limitations\nof Valence\nBond\nTheory\n5 5 4 Crystal\nField\nTheory\nWhile the VB theory, to a larger extent, explains the formation, structures\nand magnetic behaviour of coordination compounds, it suffers from\nthe following shortcomings:\n(i) It involves a number of assumptions (ii) It does not give quantitative interpretation of magnetic data"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4920-4923", "Text": "5 4 Crystal\nField\nTheory\nWhile the VB theory, to a larger extent, explains the formation, structures\nand magnetic behaviour of coordination compounds, it suffers from\nthe following shortcomings:\n(i) It involves a number of assumptions (ii) It does not give quantitative interpretation of magnetic data (iii) It does not explain the colour exhibited by coordination compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4921-4924", "Text": "4 Crystal\nField\nTheory\nWhile the VB theory, to a larger extent, explains the formation, structures\nand magnetic behaviour of coordination compounds, it suffers from\nthe following shortcomings:\n(i) It involves a number of assumptions (ii) It does not give quantitative interpretation of magnetic data (iii) It does not explain the colour exhibited by coordination compounds (iv) It does not give a quantitative interpretation of the thermodynamic\nor kinetic stabilities of coordination compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4922-4925", "Text": "(ii) It does not give quantitative interpretation of magnetic data (iii) It does not explain the colour exhibited by coordination compounds (iv) It does not give a quantitative interpretation of the thermodynamic\nor kinetic stabilities of coordination compounds (v) It does not make exact predictions regarding the tetrahedral and\nsquare planar structures of 4-coordinate complexes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4923-4926", "Text": "(iii) It does not explain the colour exhibited by coordination compounds (iv) It does not give a quantitative interpretation of the thermodynamic\nor kinetic stabilities of coordination compounds (v) It does not make exact predictions regarding the tetrahedral and\nsquare planar structures of 4-coordinate complexes (vi) It does not distinguish between weak and strong ligands"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4924-4927", "Text": "(iv) It does not give a quantitative interpretation of the thermodynamic\nor kinetic stabilities of coordination compounds (v) It does not make exact predictions regarding the tetrahedral and\nsquare planar structures of 4-coordinate complexes (vi) It does not distinguish between weak and strong ligands The crystal field theory (CFT) is an electrostatic model which considers\nthe metal-ligand bond to be ionic arising purely from electrostatic\ninteractions between the metal ion and the ligand"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4925-4928", "Text": "(v) It does not make exact predictions regarding the tetrahedral and\nsquare planar structures of 4-coordinate complexes (vi) It does not distinguish between weak and strong ligands The crystal field theory (CFT) is an electrostatic model which considers\nthe metal-ligand bond to be ionic arising purely from electrostatic\ninteractions between the metal ion and the ligand Ligands are treated\nas point charges in case of anions or point dipoles in case of neutral\nmolecules"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4926-4929", "Text": "(vi) It does not distinguish between weak and strong ligands The crystal field theory (CFT) is an electrostatic model which considers\nthe metal-ligand bond to be ionic arising purely from electrostatic\ninteractions between the metal ion and the ligand Ligands are treated\nas point charges in case of anions or point dipoles in case of neutral\nmolecules The five d orbitals in an isolated gaseous metal atom/ion\nhave same energy, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4927-4930", "Text": "The crystal field theory (CFT) is an electrostatic model which considers\nthe metal-ligand bond to be ionic arising purely from electrostatic\ninteractions between the metal ion and the ligand Ligands are treated\nas point charges in case of anions or point dipoles in case of neutral\nmolecules The five d orbitals in an isolated gaseous metal atom/ion\nhave same energy, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4928-4931", "Text": "Ligands are treated\nas point charges in case of anions or point dipoles in case of neutral\nmolecules The five d orbitals in an isolated gaseous metal atom/ion\nhave same energy, i e , they are degenerate"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4929-4932", "Text": "The five d orbitals in an isolated gaseous metal atom/ion\nhave same energy, i e , they are degenerate This degeneracy is\nmaintained if a spherically symmetrical field of negative charges\nsurrounds the metal atom/ion"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4930-4933", "Text": "e , they are degenerate This degeneracy is\nmaintained if a spherically symmetrical field of negative charges\nsurrounds the metal atom/ion However, when this negative field is\ndue to ligands (either anions or the negative ends of dipolar molecules\nlike NH3 and H2O) in a complex, it becomes asymmetrical and the\ndegeneracy of the d orbitals is lifted"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4931-4934", "Text": ", they are degenerate This degeneracy is\nmaintained if a spherically symmetrical field of negative charges\nsurrounds the metal atom/ion However, when this negative field is\ndue to ligands (either anions or the negative ends of dipolar molecules\nlike NH3 and H2O) in a complex, it becomes asymmetrical and the\ndegeneracy of the d orbitals is lifted It results in splitting of the d\norbitals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4932-4935", "Text": "This degeneracy is\nmaintained if a spherically symmetrical field of negative charges\nsurrounds the metal atom/ion However, when this negative field is\ndue to ligands (either anions or the negative ends of dipolar molecules\nlike NH3 and H2O) in a complex, it becomes asymmetrical and the\ndegeneracy of the d orbitals is lifted It results in splitting of the d\norbitals The pattern of splitting depends upon the nature of the crystal\nfield"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4933-4936", "Text": "However, when this negative field is\ndue to ligands (either anions or the negative ends of dipolar molecules\nlike NH3 and H2O) in a complex, it becomes asymmetrical and the\ndegeneracy of the d orbitals is lifted It results in splitting of the d\norbitals The pattern of splitting depends upon the nature of the crystal\nfield Let us explain this splitting in different crystal fields"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4934-4937", "Text": "It results in splitting of the d\norbitals The pattern of splitting depends upon the nature of the crystal\nfield Let us explain this splitting in different crystal fields ( a ) Crystal field splitting in octahedral coordination entities\nIn an octahedral coordination entity with six ligands surrounding\nthe metal atom/ion, there will be repulsion between the electrons in\nmetal d orbitals and the electrons (or negative charges) of the ligands"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4935-4938", "Text": "The pattern of splitting depends upon the nature of the crystal\nfield Let us explain this splitting in different crystal fields ( a ) Crystal field splitting in octahedral coordination entities\nIn an octahedral coordination entity with six ligands surrounding\nthe metal atom/ion, there will be repulsion between the electrons in\nmetal d orbitals and the electrons (or negative charges) of the ligands Such a repulsion is more when the metal d orbital is directed towards\nthe ligand than when it is away from the ligand"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4936-4939", "Text": "Let us explain this splitting in different crystal fields ( a ) Crystal field splitting in octahedral coordination entities\nIn an octahedral coordination entity with six ligands surrounding\nthe metal atom/ion, there will be repulsion between the electrons in\nmetal d orbitals and the electrons (or negative charges) of the ligands Such a repulsion is more when the metal d orbital is directed towards\nthe ligand than when it is away from the ligand Thus, the \n2\n2\nx\n\uf02dy\nd\nand\ndz2\n orbitals which point towards the axes along the direction of\nthe ligand will experience more repulsion and will be raised in\nenergy; and the dxy, dyz and dxz orbitals which are directed between\nthe axes will be lowered in energy relative to the average energy in\nthe spherical crystal field"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4937-4940", "Text": "( a ) Crystal field splitting in octahedral coordination entities\nIn an octahedral coordination entity with six ligands surrounding\nthe metal atom/ion, there will be repulsion between the electrons in\nmetal d orbitals and the electrons (or negative charges) of the ligands Such a repulsion is more when the metal d orbital is directed towards\nthe ligand than when it is away from the ligand Thus, the \n2\n2\nx\n\uf02dy\nd\nand\ndz2\n orbitals which point towards the axes along the direction of\nthe ligand will experience more repulsion and will be raised in\nenergy; and the dxy, dyz and dxz orbitals which are directed between\nthe axes will be lowered in energy relative to the average energy in\nthe spherical crystal field Thus, the degeneracy of the d orbitals\nhas been removed due to ligand electron-metal electron repulsions\nin the octahedral complex to yield three orbitals of lower energy, t2g\nset and two orbitals of higher energy, eg set"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4938-4941", "Text": "Such a repulsion is more when the metal d orbital is directed towards\nthe ligand than when it is away from the ligand Thus, the \n2\n2\nx\n\uf02dy\nd\nand\ndz2\n orbitals which point towards the axes along the direction of\nthe ligand will experience more repulsion and will be raised in\nenergy; and the dxy, dyz and dxz orbitals which are directed between\nthe axes will be lowered in energy relative to the average energy in\nthe spherical crystal field Thus, the degeneracy of the d orbitals\nhas been removed due to ligand electron-metal electron repulsions\nin the octahedral complex to yield three orbitals of lower energy, t2g\nset and two orbitals of higher energy, eg set This splitting of the\nRationalised 2023-24\n132\nChemistry\ndegenerate levels due to the\npresence of ligands in a\ndefinite geometry is termed as\ncrystal field splitting and\nthe energy separation is\ndenoted by Do (the subscript\no is for octahedral) (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4939-4942", "Text": "Thus, the \n2\n2\nx\n\uf02dy\nd\nand\ndz2\n orbitals which point towards the axes along the direction of\nthe ligand will experience more repulsion and will be raised in\nenergy; and the dxy, dyz and dxz orbitals which are directed between\nthe axes will be lowered in energy relative to the average energy in\nthe spherical crystal field Thus, the degeneracy of the d orbitals\nhas been removed due to ligand electron-metal electron repulsions\nin the octahedral complex to yield three orbitals of lower energy, t2g\nset and two orbitals of higher energy, eg set This splitting of the\nRationalised 2023-24\n132\nChemistry\ndegenerate levels due to the\npresence of ligands in a\ndefinite geometry is termed as\ncrystal field splitting and\nthe energy separation is\ndenoted by Do (the subscript\no is for octahedral) (Fig 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4940-4943", "Text": "Thus, the degeneracy of the d orbitals\nhas been removed due to ligand electron-metal electron repulsions\nin the octahedral complex to yield three orbitals of lower energy, t2g\nset and two orbitals of higher energy, eg set This splitting of the\nRationalised 2023-24\n132\nChemistry\ndegenerate levels due to the\npresence of ligands in a\ndefinite geometry is termed as\ncrystal field splitting and\nthe energy separation is\ndenoted by Do (the subscript\no is for octahedral) (Fig 5 8)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4941-4944", "Text": "This splitting of the\nRationalised 2023-24\n132\nChemistry\ndegenerate levels due to the\npresence of ligands in a\ndefinite geometry is termed as\ncrystal field splitting and\nthe energy separation is\ndenoted by Do (the subscript\no is for octahedral) (Fig 5 8) Thus, the energy of the two eg\norbitals will increase by (3/5)\nDo and that of the three t2g will\ndecrease by (2/5)Do"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4942-4945", "Text": "5 8) Thus, the energy of the two eg\norbitals will increase by (3/5)\nDo and that of the three t2g will\ndecrease by (2/5)Do The crystal field splitting,\nDo, depends upon the field\nproduced by the ligand and\ncharge on the metal ion"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4943-4946", "Text": "8) Thus, the energy of the two eg\norbitals will increase by (3/5)\nDo and that of the three t2g will\ndecrease by (2/5)Do The crystal field splitting,\nDo, depends upon the field\nproduced by the ligand and\ncharge on the metal ion Some\nligands are able to produce\nstrong fields in which case, the\nsplitting will be large whereas\nothers produce weak fields\nand consequently result in\nsmall splitting of d orbitals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4944-4947", "Text": "Thus, the energy of the two eg\norbitals will increase by (3/5)\nDo and that of the three t2g will\ndecrease by (2/5)Do The crystal field splitting,\nDo, depends upon the field\nproduced by the ligand and\ncharge on the metal ion Some\nligands are able to produce\nstrong fields in which case, the\nsplitting will be large whereas\nothers produce weak fields\nand consequently result in\nsmall splitting of d orbitals In general, ligands can be arranged in a series in the order of increasing\nfield strength as given below:\nI\n\u2013 < Br\n\u2013 < SCN\n\u2013 < Cl\n\u2013 < S\n2\u2013 < F\n\u2013 < OH\n\u2013 < C2O4\n2\u2013 < H2O < NCS\n\u2013\n< edta\n4\u2013 < NH3 < en < CN\n\u2013 < CO\nSuch a series is termed as spectrochemical series"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4945-4948", "Text": "The crystal field splitting,\nDo, depends upon the field\nproduced by the ligand and\ncharge on the metal ion Some\nligands are able to produce\nstrong fields in which case, the\nsplitting will be large whereas\nothers produce weak fields\nand consequently result in\nsmall splitting of d orbitals In general, ligands can be arranged in a series in the order of increasing\nfield strength as given below:\nI\n\u2013 < Br\n\u2013 < SCN\n\u2013 < Cl\n\u2013 < S\n2\u2013 < F\n\u2013 < OH\n\u2013 < C2O4\n2\u2013 < H2O < NCS\n\u2013\n< edta\n4\u2013 < NH3 < en < CN\n\u2013 < CO\nSuch a series is termed as spectrochemical series It is an\nexperimentally determined series based on the absorption of light\nby complexes with different ligands"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4946-4949", "Text": "Some\nligands are able to produce\nstrong fields in which case, the\nsplitting will be large whereas\nothers produce weak fields\nand consequently result in\nsmall splitting of d orbitals In general, ligands can be arranged in a series in the order of increasing\nfield strength as given below:\nI\n\u2013 < Br\n\u2013 < SCN\n\u2013 < Cl\n\u2013 < S\n2\u2013 < F\n\u2013 < OH\n\u2013 < C2O4\n2\u2013 < H2O < NCS\n\u2013\n< edta\n4\u2013 < NH3 < en < CN\n\u2013 < CO\nSuch a series is termed as spectrochemical series It is an\nexperimentally determined series based on the absorption of light\nby complexes with different ligands Let us assign electrons in the d\norbitals of metal ion in octahedral coordination entities"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4947-4950", "Text": "In general, ligands can be arranged in a series in the order of increasing\nfield strength as given below:\nI\n\u2013 < Br\n\u2013 < SCN\n\u2013 < Cl\n\u2013 < S\n2\u2013 < F\n\u2013 < OH\n\u2013 < C2O4\n2\u2013 < H2O < NCS\n\u2013\n< edta\n4\u2013 < NH3 < en < CN\n\u2013 < CO\nSuch a series is termed as spectrochemical series It is an\nexperimentally determined series based on the absorption of light\nby complexes with different ligands Let us assign electrons in the d\norbitals of metal ion in octahedral coordination entities Obviously,\ndthe single d electron occupies one of the lower energy t2g orbitals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4948-4951", "Text": "It is an\nexperimentally determined series based on the absorption of light\nby complexes with different ligands Let us assign electrons in the d\norbitals of metal ion in octahedral coordination entities Obviously,\ndthe single d electron occupies one of the lower energy t2g orbitals In\n2 and d\n3 coordination entities, the d electrons occupy the t2g orbitals\nsingly in accordance with the Hund\u2019s rule"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4949-4952", "Text": "Let us assign electrons in the d\norbitals of metal ion in octahedral coordination entities Obviously,\ndthe single d electron occupies one of the lower energy t2g orbitals In\n2 and d\n3 coordination entities, the d electrons occupy the t2g orbitals\nsingly in accordance with the Hund\u2019s rule For d\n4 ions, two possible\npatterns of electron distribution arise: (i) the fourth electron could\neither enter the t2g level and pair with an existing electron, or (ii) it\ncould avoid paying the price of the pairing energy by occupying the\neg level"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4950-4953", "Text": "Obviously,\ndthe single d electron occupies one of the lower energy t2g orbitals In\n2 and d\n3 coordination entities, the d electrons occupy the t2g orbitals\nsingly in accordance with the Hund\u2019s rule For d\n4 ions, two possible\npatterns of electron distribution arise: (i) the fourth electron could\neither enter the t2g level and pair with an existing electron, or (ii) it\ncould avoid paying the price of the pairing energy by occupying the\neg level Which of these possibilities occurs, depends on the relative\nmagnitude of the crystal field splitting, Do and the pairing energy, P\n(P represents the energy required for electron pairing in a single\norbital)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4951-4954", "Text": "In\n2 and d\n3 coordination entities, the d electrons occupy the t2g orbitals\nsingly in accordance with the Hund\u2019s rule For d\n4 ions, two possible\npatterns of electron distribution arise: (i) the fourth electron could\neither enter the t2g level and pair with an existing electron, or (ii) it\ncould avoid paying the price of the pairing energy by occupying the\neg level Which of these possibilities occurs, depends on the relative\nmagnitude of the crystal field splitting, Do and the pairing energy, P\n(P represents the energy required for electron pairing in a single\norbital) The two options are:\n(i) If Do < P, the fourth electron enters one of the eg orbitals giving the\nconfiguration \n3\n1\n2g\ng\nt\ne"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4952-4955", "Text": "For d\n4 ions, two possible\npatterns of electron distribution arise: (i) the fourth electron could\neither enter the t2g level and pair with an existing electron, or (ii) it\ncould avoid paying the price of the pairing energy by occupying the\neg level Which of these possibilities occurs, depends on the relative\nmagnitude of the crystal field splitting, Do and the pairing energy, P\n(P represents the energy required for electron pairing in a single\norbital) The two options are:\n(i) If Do < P, the fourth electron enters one of the eg orbitals giving the\nconfiguration \n3\n1\n2g\ng\nt\ne Ligands for which Do < P are known as weak\nfield ligands and form high spin complexes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4953-4956", "Text": "Which of these possibilities occurs, depends on the relative\nmagnitude of the crystal field splitting, Do and the pairing energy, P\n(P represents the energy required for electron pairing in a single\norbital) The two options are:\n(i) If Do < P, the fourth electron enters one of the eg orbitals giving the\nconfiguration \n3\n1\n2g\ng\nt\ne Ligands for which Do < P are known as weak\nfield ligands and form high spin complexes (ii) If Do > P, it becomes more energetically favourable for the fourth\nelectron to occupy a t2g orbital with configuration t2g\n4eg\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4954-4957", "Text": "The two options are:\n(i) If Do < P, the fourth electron enters one of the eg orbitals giving the\nconfiguration \n3\n1\n2g\ng\nt\ne Ligands for which Do < P are known as weak\nfield ligands and form high spin complexes (ii) If Do > P, it becomes more energetically favourable for the fourth\nelectron to occupy a t2g orbital with configuration t2g\n4eg\n0 Ligands\nwhich produce this effect are known as strong field ligands and\nform low spin complexes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4955-4958", "Text": "Ligands for which Do < P are known as weak\nfield ligands and form high spin complexes (ii) If Do > P, it becomes more energetically favourable for the fourth\nelectron to occupy a t2g orbital with configuration t2g\n4eg\n0 Ligands\nwhich produce this effect are known as strong field ligands and\nform low spin complexes Calculations show that d\n4 to d\n7 coordination entities are more\nstable for strong field as compared to weak field cases"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4956-4959", "Text": "(ii) If Do > P, it becomes more energetically favourable for the fourth\nelectron to occupy a t2g orbital with configuration t2g\n4eg\n0 Ligands\nwhich produce this effect are known as strong field ligands and\nform low spin complexes Calculations show that d\n4 to d\n7 coordination entities are more\nstable for strong field as compared to weak field cases Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4957-4960", "Text": "Ligands\nwhich produce this effect are known as strong field ligands and\nform low spin complexes Calculations show that d\n4 to d\n7 coordination entities are more\nstable for strong field as compared to weak field cases Fig 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4958-4961", "Text": "Calculations show that d\n4 to d\n7 coordination entities are more\nstable for strong field as compared to weak field cases Fig 5 8: d orbital splitting in an octahedral crystal field\nRationalised 2023-24\n133\nCoordination Compounds\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4959-4962", "Text": "Fig 5 8: d orbital splitting in an octahedral crystal field\nRationalised 2023-24\n133\nCoordination Compounds\nFig 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4960-4963", "Text": "5 8: d orbital splitting in an octahedral crystal field\nRationalised 2023-24\n133\nCoordination Compounds\nFig 5 9: d orbital splitting in a tetrahedral\ncrystal field"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4961-4964", "Text": "8: d orbital splitting in an octahedral crystal field\nRationalised 2023-24\n133\nCoordination Compounds\nFig 5 9: d orbital splitting in a tetrahedral\ncrystal field In the previous Unit, we learnt that one of the most distinctive\nproperties of transition metal complexes is their wide range of colours"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4962-4965", "Text": "5 9: d orbital splitting in a tetrahedral\ncrystal field In the previous Unit, we learnt that one of the most distinctive\nproperties of transition metal complexes is their wide range of colours This means that some of the visible spectrum is being removed from\nwhite light as it passes through the sample, so the light that emerges\nis no longer white"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4963-4966", "Text": "9: d orbital splitting in a tetrahedral\ncrystal field In the previous Unit, we learnt that one of the most distinctive\nproperties of transition metal complexes is their wide range of colours This means that some of the visible spectrum is being removed from\nwhite light as it passes through the sample, so the light that emerges\nis no longer white The colour of the complex is complementary to\nthat which is absorbed"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4964-4967", "Text": "In the previous Unit, we learnt that one of the most distinctive\nproperties of transition metal complexes is their wide range of colours This means that some of the visible spectrum is being removed from\nwhite light as it passes through the sample, so the light that emerges\nis no longer white The colour of the complex is complementary to\nthat which is absorbed The complementary colour is the colour\ngenerated from the wavelength left over; if green light is absorbed by\nthe complex, it appears red"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4965-4968", "Text": "This means that some of the visible spectrum is being removed from\nwhite light as it passes through the sample, so the light that emerges\nis no longer white The colour of the complex is complementary to\nthat which is absorbed The complementary colour is the colour\ngenerated from the wavelength left over; if green light is absorbed by\nthe complex, it appears red Table 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4966-4969", "Text": "The colour of the complex is complementary to\nthat which is absorbed The complementary colour is the colour\ngenerated from the wavelength left over; if green light is absorbed by\nthe complex, it appears red Table 5 3 gives the relationship of the\ndifferent wavelength absorbed and the colour observed"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4967-4970", "Text": "The complementary colour is the colour\ngenerated from the wavelength left over; if green light is absorbed by\nthe complex, it appears red Table 5 3 gives the relationship of the\ndifferent wavelength absorbed and the colour observed 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4968-4971", "Text": "Table 5 3 gives the relationship of the\ndifferent wavelength absorbed and the colour observed 5 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4969-4972", "Text": "3 gives the relationship of the\ndifferent wavelength absorbed and the colour observed 5 5 5 Colour in\nCoordination\nCompounds\nCoordinaton\nentity\nWavelength of light\nabsorbed (nm)\nColour of light\nabsorbed\nColour of coordination\nentity\nTable 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4970-4973", "Text": "5 5 5 Colour in\nCoordination\nCompounds\nCoordinaton\nentity\nWavelength of light\nabsorbed (nm)\nColour of light\nabsorbed\nColour of coordination\nentity\nTable 5 3: Relationship between the Wavelength of Light absorbed and the\nColour observed in some Coordination Entities\n[CoCl(NH3)5]\n2+\n535\nYellow\nViolet\n[Co(NH3)5(H2O)]\n3+\n500\nBlue Green\nRed\n[Co(NH3)6]\n3+\n475\nBlue\nYellow Orange\n[Co(CN)6]\n3\u2013\n310\nUltraviolet\nPale Yellow\n[Cu(H2O)4]\n2+\n600\nRed\nBlue\n[Ti(H2O)6]\n3+\n498\nBlue Green\nViolet\nThe colour in the coordination compounds can be readily explained\nin terms of the crystal field theory"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4971-4974", "Text": "5 5 Colour in\nCoordination\nCompounds\nCoordinaton\nentity\nWavelength of light\nabsorbed (nm)\nColour of light\nabsorbed\nColour of coordination\nentity\nTable 5 3: Relationship between the Wavelength of Light absorbed and the\nColour observed in some Coordination Entities\n[CoCl(NH3)5]\n2+\n535\nYellow\nViolet\n[Co(NH3)5(H2O)]\n3+\n500\nBlue Green\nRed\n[Co(NH3)6]\n3+\n475\nBlue\nYellow Orange\n[Co(CN)6]\n3\u2013\n310\nUltraviolet\nPale Yellow\n[Cu(H2O)4]\n2+\n600\nRed\nBlue\n[Ti(H2O)6]\n3+\n498\nBlue Green\nViolet\nThe colour in the coordination compounds can be readily explained\nin terms of the crystal field theory Consider, for example, the complex\n[Ti(H2O)6]\n3+, which is violet in colour"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4972-4975", "Text": "5 Colour in\nCoordination\nCompounds\nCoordinaton\nentity\nWavelength of light\nabsorbed (nm)\nColour of light\nabsorbed\nColour of coordination\nentity\nTable 5 3: Relationship between the Wavelength of Light absorbed and the\nColour observed in some Coordination Entities\n[CoCl(NH3)5]\n2+\n535\nYellow\nViolet\n[Co(NH3)5(H2O)]\n3+\n500\nBlue Green\nRed\n[Co(NH3)6]\n3+\n475\nBlue\nYellow Orange\n[Co(CN)6]\n3\u2013\n310\nUltraviolet\nPale Yellow\n[Cu(H2O)4]\n2+\n600\nRed\nBlue\n[Ti(H2O)6]\n3+\n498\nBlue Green\nViolet\nThe colour in the coordination compounds can be readily explained\nin terms of the crystal field theory Consider, for example, the complex\n[Ti(H2O)6]\n3+, which is violet in colour This is an octahedral complex\nwhere the single electron (Ti\n3+ is a 3d\n1 system) in the metal d orbital is\nin the t2g level in the ground state of the complex"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4973-4976", "Text": "3: Relationship between the Wavelength of Light absorbed and the\nColour observed in some Coordination Entities\n[CoCl(NH3)5]\n2+\n535\nYellow\nViolet\n[Co(NH3)5(H2O)]\n3+\n500\nBlue Green\nRed\n[Co(NH3)6]\n3+\n475\nBlue\nYellow Orange\n[Co(CN)6]\n3\u2013\n310\nUltraviolet\nPale Yellow\n[Cu(H2O)4]\n2+\n600\nRed\nBlue\n[Ti(H2O)6]\n3+\n498\nBlue Green\nViolet\nThe colour in the coordination compounds can be readily explained\nin terms of the crystal field theory Consider, for example, the complex\n[Ti(H2O)6]\n3+, which is violet in colour This is an octahedral complex\nwhere the single electron (Ti\n3+ is a 3d\n1 system) in the metal d orbital is\nin the t2g level in the ground state of the complex The next higher state\navailable for the electron is the empty eg level"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4974-4977", "Text": "Consider, for example, the complex\n[Ti(H2O)6]\n3+, which is violet in colour This is an octahedral complex\nwhere the single electron (Ti\n3+ is a 3d\n1 system) in the metal d orbital is\nin the t2g level in the ground state of the complex The next higher state\navailable for the electron is the empty eg level If light corresponding to\nthe energy of blue-green region is absorbed by the complex, it would\nexcite the electron from t2g level to the eg level (t2g\n1eg\n0 \u00ae t2g\n0eg\n1)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4975-4978", "Text": "This is an octahedral complex\nwhere the single electron (Ti\n3+ is a 3d\n1 system) in the metal d orbital is\nin the t2g level in the ground state of the complex The next higher state\navailable for the electron is the empty eg level If light corresponding to\nthe energy of blue-green region is absorbed by the complex, it would\nexcite the electron from t2g level to the eg level (t2g\n1eg\n0 \u00ae t2g\n0eg\n1) Consequently, the complex appears violet in colour (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4976-4979", "Text": "The next higher state\navailable for the electron is the empty eg level If light corresponding to\nthe energy of blue-green region is absorbed by the complex, it would\nexcite the electron from t2g level to the eg level (t2g\n1eg\n0 \u00ae t2g\n0eg\n1) Consequently, the complex appears violet in colour (Fig 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4977-4980", "Text": "If light corresponding to\nthe energy of blue-green region is absorbed by the complex, it would\nexcite the electron from t2g level to the eg level (t2g\n1eg\n0 \u00ae t2g\n0eg\n1) Consequently, the complex appears violet in colour (Fig 5 10)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4978-4981", "Text": "Consequently, the complex appears violet in colour (Fig 5 10) The\ncrystal field theory attributes the colour of the coordination compounds\nto d-d transition of the electron"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4979-4982", "Text": "5 10) The\ncrystal field theory attributes the colour of the coordination compounds\nto d-d transition of the electron ( b ) Crystal field splitting in tetrahedral coordination entities\nIn tetrahedral coordination entity formation,\nthe d orbital splitting (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4980-4983", "Text": "10) The\ncrystal field theory attributes the colour of the coordination compounds\nto d-d transition of the electron ( b ) Crystal field splitting in tetrahedral coordination entities\nIn tetrahedral coordination entity formation,\nthe d orbital splitting (Fig 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4981-4984", "Text": "The\ncrystal field theory attributes the colour of the coordination compounds\nto d-d transition of the electron ( b ) Crystal field splitting in tetrahedral coordination entities\nIn tetrahedral coordination entity formation,\nthe d orbital splitting (Fig 5 9) is inverted\nand is smaller as compared to the octahedral\nfield splitting"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4982-4985", "Text": "( b ) Crystal field splitting in tetrahedral coordination entities\nIn tetrahedral coordination entity formation,\nthe d orbital splitting (Fig 5 9) is inverted\nand is smaller as compared to the octahedral\nfield splitting For the same metal, the same\nligands and metal-ligand distances, it can\nbe shown that Dt = (4/9) D0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4983-4986", "Text": "5 9) is inverted\nand is smaller as compared to the octahedral\nfield splitting For the same metal, the same\nligands and metal-ligand distances, it can\nbe shown that Dt = (4/9) D0 Consequently,\nthe orbital splitting energies are not\nsufficiently large for forcing pairing and,\ntherefore, low spin configurations are rarely\nobserved"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4984-4987", "Text": "9) is inverted\nand is smaller as compared to the octahedral\nfield splitting For the same metal, the same\nligands and metal-ligand distances, it can\nbe shown that Dt = (4/9) D0 Consequently,\nthe orbital splitting energies are not\nsufficiently large for forcing pairing and,\ntherefore, low spin configurations are rarely\nobserved The \u2018g\u2019 subscript is used for the\noctahedral and square planar complexes\nwhich have centre of symmetry"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4985-4988", "Text": "For the same metal, the same\nligands and metal-ligand distances, it can\nbe shown that Dt = (4/9) D0 Consequently,\nthe orbital splitting energies are not\nsufficiently large for forcing pairing and,\ntherefore, low spin configurations are rarely\nobserved The \u2018g\u2019 subscript is used for the\noctahedral and square planar complexes\nwhich have centre of symmetry Since\ntetrahedral complexes lack symmetry, \u2018g\u2019\nsubscript is not used with energy levels"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4986-4989", "Text": "Consequently,\nthe orbital splitting energies are not\nsufficiently large for forcing pairing and,\ntherefore, low spin configurations are rarely\nobserved The \u2018g\u2019 subscript is used for the\noctahedral and square planar complexes\nwhich have centre of symmetry Since\ntetrahedral complexes lack symmetry, \u2018g\u2019\nsubscript is not used with energy levels Not in visible\nregion\nRationalised 2023-24\n134\nChemistry\n It is important to note that\nin the absence of ligand,\ncrystal field splitting does\nnot occur and hence the\nsubstance is colourless"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4987-4990", "Text": "The \u2018g\u2019 subscript is used for the\noctahedral and square planar complexes\nwhich have centre of symmetry Since\ntetrahedral complexes lack symmetry, \u2018g\u2019\nsubscript is not used with energy levels Not in visible\nregion\nRationalised 2023-24\n134\nChemistry\n It is important to note that\nin the absence of ligand,\ncrystal field splitting does\nnot occur and hence the\nsubstance is colourless For\nexample, removal of water\nfrom [Ti(H2O)6]Cl3 on heating\nrenders \nit \ncolourless"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4988-4991", "Text": "Since\ntetrahedral complexes lack symmetry, \u2018g\u2019\nsubscript is not used with energy levels Not in visible\nregion\nRationalised 2023-24\n134\nChemistry\n It is important to note that\nin the absence of ligand,\ncrystal field splitting does\nnot occur and hence the\nsubstance is colourless For\nexample, removal of water\nfrom [Ti(H2O)6]Cl3 on heating\nrenders \nit \ncolourless Similarly, anhydrous CuSO4\nis white, but CuSO4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4989-4992", "Text": "Not in visible\nregion\nRationalised 2023-24\n134\nChemistry\n It is important to note that\nin the absence of ligand,\ncrystal field splitting does\nnot occur and hence the\nsubstance is colourless For\nexample, removal of water\nfrom [Ti(H2O)6]Cl3 on heating\nrenders \nit \ncolourless Similarly, anhydrous CuSO4\nis white, but CuSO4 5H2O is\nblue in colour"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4990-4993", "Text": "For\nexample, removal of water\nfrom [Ti(H2O)6]Cl3 on heating\nrenders \nit \ncolourless Similarly, anhydrous CuSO4\nis white, but CuSO4 5H2O is\nblue in colour The influence\nof the ligand on the colour\nof a complex may be illustrated by considering the [Ni(H2O)6]\n2+ complex,\nwhich forms when nickel(II) chloride is dissolved in water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4991-4994", "Text": "Similarly, anhydrous CuSO4\nis white, but CuSO4 5H2O is\nblue in colour The influence\nof the ligand on the colour\nof a complex may be illustrated by considering the [Ni(H2O)6]\n2+ complex,\nwhich forms when nickel(II) chloride is dissolved in water If the\ndidentate ligand, ethane-1,2-diamine(en) is progressively added in the\nmolar ratios en:Ni, 1:1, 2:1, 3:1, the following series of reactions and\ntheir associated colour changes occur:\n[Ni(H2O)6]\n2+ (aq)\n+ en (aq)\n=\n[Ni(H2O)4(en)]\n2+(aq)\n+ 2H2O\ngreen\n pale blue\n[Ni(H2O)4 (en)]\n2+(aq) + en (aq)\n=\n[Ni(H2O)2(en)2]\n2+(aq) + 2H2O\n blue/purple\n[Ni(H2O)2(en)2]\n2+(aq) + en (aq)\n=\n[Ni(en)3]\n2+(aq)\n+ 2H2O\n violet\nThis sequence is shown in Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4992-4995", "Text": "5H2O is\nblue in colour The influence\nof the ligand on the colour\nof a complex may be illustrated by considering the [Ni(H2O)6]\n2+ complex,\nwhich forms when nickel(II) chloride is dissolved in water If the\ndidentate ligand, ethane-1,2-diamine(en) is progressively added in the\nmolar ratios en:Ni, 1:1, 2:1, 3:1, the following series of reactions and\ntheir associated colour changes occur:\n[Ni(H2O)6]\n2+ (aq)\n+ en (aq)\n=\n[Ni(H2O)4(en)]\n2+(aq)\n+ 2H2O\ngreen\n pale blue\n[Ni(H2O)4 (en)]\n2+(aq) + en (aq)\n=\n[Ni(H2O)2(en)2]\n2+(aq) + 2H2O\n blue/purple\n[Ni(H2O)2(en)2]\n2+(aq) + en (aq)\n=\n[Ni(en)3]\n2+(aq)\n+ 2H2O\n violet\nThis sequence is shown in Fig 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4993-4996", "Text": "The influence\nof the ligand on the colour\nof a complex may be illustrated by considering the [Ni(H2O)6]\n2+ complex,\nwhich forms when nickel(II) chloride is dissolved in water If the\ndidentate ligand, ethane-1,2-diamine(en) is progressively added in the\nmolar ratios en:Ni, 1:1, 2:1, 3:1, the following series of reactions and\ntheir associated colour changes occur:\n[Ni(H2O)6]\n2+ (aq)\n+ en (aq)\n=\n[Ni(H2O)4(en)]\n2+(aq)\n+ 2H2O\ngreen\n pale blue\n[Ni(H2O)4 (en)]\n2+(aq) + en (aq)\n=\n[Ni(H2O)2(en)2]\n2+(aq) + 2H2O\n blue/purple\n[Ni(H2O)2(en)2]\n2+(aq) + en (aq)\n=\n[Ni(en)3]\n2+(aq)\n+ 2H2O\n violet\nThis sequence is shown in Fig 5 11"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4994-4997", "Text": "If the\ndidentate ligand, ethane-1,2-diamine(en) is progressively added in the\nmolar ratios en:Ni, 1:1, 2:1, 3:1, the following series of reactions and\ntheir associated colour changes occur:\n[Ni(H2O)6]\n2+ (aq)\n+ en (aq)\n=\n[Ni(H2O)4(en)]\n2+(aq)\n+ 2H2O\ngreen\n pale blue\n[Ni(H2O)4 (en)]\n2+(aq) + en (aq)\n=\n[Ni(H2O)2(en)2]\n2+(aq) + 2H2O\n blue/purple\n[Ni(H2O)2(en)2]\n2+(aq) + en (aq)\n=\n[Ni(en)3]\n2+(aq)\n+ 2H2O\n violet\nThis sequence is shown in Fig 5 11 Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4995-4998", "Text": "5 11 Fig 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4996-4999", "Text": "11 Fig 5 11\nAqueous solutions of\ncomplexes of\nnickel(II) with an\nincreasing number\nof ethane-1,\n2-diamine ligands"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4997-5000", "Text": "Fig 5 11\nAqueous solutions of\ncomplexes of\nnickel(II) with an\nincreasing number\nof ethane-1,\n2-diamine ligands [Ni(H O) ]\n(aq)\n2\n6\n2+\n[Ni(H O)\n]\n(aq)\n2\n4\nen2+\n[Ni(H O)\n]\n(aq)\n2\n4\n2+\nen2\n[Ni(en) ]\n(aq)\n3\n2+\nColour of Some Gem Stones\nThe colours produced by electronic transitions within the d orbitals of a\ntransition metal ion occur frequently in everyday life"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4998-5001", "Text": "5 11\nAqueous solutions of\ncomplexes of\nnickel(II) with an\nincreasing number\nof ethane-1,\n2-diamine ligands [Ni(H O) ]\n(aq)\n2\n6\n2+\n[Ni(H O)\n]\n(aq)\n2\n4\nen2+\n[Ni(H O)\n]\n(aq)\n2\n4\n2+\nen2\n[Ni(en) ]\n(aq)\n3\n2+\nColour of Some Gem Stones\nThe colours produced by electronic transitions within the d orbitals of a\ntransition metal ion occur frequently in everyday life Ruby [Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "4999-5002", "Text": "11\nAqueous solutions of\ncomplexes of\nnickel(II) with an\nincreasing number\nof ethane-1,\n2-diamine ligands [Ni(H O) ]\n(aq)\n2\n6\n2+\n[Ni(H O)\n]\n(aq)\n2\n4\nen2+\n[Ni(H O)\n]\n(aq)\n2\n4\n2+\nen2\n[Ni(en) ]\n(aq)\n3\n2+\nColour of Some Gem Stones\nThe colours produced by electronic transitions within the d orbitals of a\ntransition metal ion occur frequently in everyday life Ruby [Fig 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5000-5003", "Text": "[Ni(H O) ]\n(aq)\n2\n6\n2+\n[Ni(H O)\n]\n(aq)\n2\n4\nen2+\n[Ni(H O)\n]\n(aq)\n2\n4\n2+\nen2\n[Ni(en) ]\n(aq)\n3\n2+\nColour of Some Gem Stones\nThe colours produced by electronic transitions within the d orbitals of a\ntransition metal ion occur frequently in everyday life Ruby [Fig 5 12(a)] is\naluminium oxide (Al2O3) containing about 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5001-5004", "Text": "Ruby [Fig 5 12(a)] is\naluminium oxide (Al2O3) containing about 0 5-1% Cr\n3+ ions (d\n3), which are\nrandomly distributed in positions normally occupied by Al\n3+"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5002-5005", "Text": "5 12(a)] is\naluminium oxide (Al2O3) containing about 0 5-1% Cr\n3+ ions (d\n3), which are\nrandomly distributed in positions normally occupied by Al\n3+ We may view\nthese chromium(III) species as octahedral chromium(III) complexes incorporated\ninto the alumina lattice; d\u2013d transitions at these centres give rise to the colour"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5003-5006", "Text": "12(a)] is\naluminium oxide (Al2O3) containing about 0 5-1% Cr\n3+ ions (d\n3), which are\nrandomly distributed in positions normally occupied by Al\n3+ We may view\nthese chromium(III) species as octahedral chromium(III) complexes incorporated\ninto the alumina lattice; d\u2013d transitions at these centres give rise to the colour Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5004-5007", "Text": "5-1% Cr\n3+ ions (d\n3), which are\nrandomly distributed in positions normally occupied by Al\n3+ We may view\nthese chromium(III) species as octahedral chromium(III) complexes incorporated\ninto the alumina lattice; d\u2013d transitions at these centres give rise to the colour Fig 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5005-5008", "Text": "We may view\nthese chromium(III) species as octahedral chromium(III) complexes incorporated\ninto the alumina lattice; d\u2013d transitions at these centres give rise to the colour Fig 5 10: Transition of an electron in\nRationalised 2023-24\n135\nCoordination Compounds\nThe crystal field model is successful in explaining the formation,\nstructures, colour and magnetic properties of coordination compounds\nto a large extent"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5006-5009", "Text": "Fig 5 10: Transition of an electron in\nRationalised 2023-24\n135\nCoordination Compounds\nThe crystal field model is successful in explaining the formation,\nstructures, colour and magnetic properties of coordination compounds\nto a large extent However, from the assumptions that the ligands are\npoint charges, it follows that anionic ligands should exert the greatest\nsplitting effect"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5007-5010", "Text": "5 10: Transition of an electron in\nRationalised 2023-24\n135\nCoordination Compounds\nThe crystal field model is successful in explaining the formation,\nstructures, colour and magnetic properties of coordination compounds\nto a large extent However, from the assumptions that the ligands are\npoint charges, it follows that anionic ligands should exert the greatest\nsplitting effect The anionic ligands actually are found at the low end\nof the spectrochemical series"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5008-5011", "Text": "10: Transition of an electron in\nRationalised 2023-24\n135\nCoordination Compounds\nThe crystal field model is successful in explaining the formation,\nstructures, colour and magnetic properties of coordination compounds\nto a large extent However, from the assumptions that the ligands are\npoint charges, it follows that anionic ligands should exert the greatest\nsplitting effect The anionic ligands actually are found at the low end\nof the spectrochemical series Further, it does not take into account\nthe covalent character of bonding between the ligand and the central\natom"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5009-5012", "Text": "However, from the assumptions that the ligands are\npoint charges, it follows that anionic ligands should exert the greatest\nsplitting effect The anionic ligands actually are found at the low end\nof the spectrochemical series Further, it does not take into account\nthe covalent character of bonding between the ligand and the central\natom These are some of the weaknesses of CFT, which are explained\nby ligand field theory (LFT) and molecular orbital theory which are\nbeyond the scope of the present study"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5010-5013", "Text": "The anionic ligands actually are found at the low end\nof the spectrochemical series Further, it does not take into account\nthe covalent character of bonding between the ligand and the central\natom These are some of the weaknesses of CFT, which are explained\nby ligand field theory (LFT) and molecular orbital theory which are\nbeyond the scope of the present study 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5011-5014", "Text": "Further, it does not take into account\nthe covalent character of bonding between the ligand and the central\natom These are some of the weaknesses of CFT, which are explained\nby ligand field theory (LFT) and molecular orbital theory which are\nbeyond the scope of the present study 5 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5012-5015", "Text": "These are some of the weaknesses of CFT, which are explained\nby ligand field theory (LFT) and molecular orbital theory which are\nbeyond the scope of the present study 5 5 6 Limitations\nof Crystal\nField\nTheory\nThe homoleptic carbonyls (compounds containing carbonyl ligands\nonly) are formed by most of the transition metals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5013-5016", "Text": "5 5 6 Limitations\nof Crystal\nField\nTheory\nThe homoleptic carbonyls (compounds containing carbonyl ligands\nonly) are formed by most of the transition metals These carbonyls\nhave simple, well defined structures"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5014-5017", "Text": "5 6 Limitations\nof Crystal\nField\nTheory\nThe homoleptic carbonyls (compounds containing carbonyl ligands\nonly) are formed by most of the transition metals These carbonyls\nhave simple, well defined structures Tetracarbonylnickel(0) is\ntetrahedral, pentacarbonyliron(0) is trigonalbipyramidal while\nhexacarbonyl chromium(0) is octahedral"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5015-5018", "Text": "6 Limitations\nof Crystal\nField\nTheory\nThe homoleptic carbonyls (compounds containing carbonyl ligands\nonly) are formed by most of the transition metals These carbonyls\nhave simple, well defined structures Tetracarbonylnickel(0) is\ntetrahedral, pentacarbonyliron(0) is trigonalbipyramidal while\nhexacarbonyl chromium(0) is octahedral Decacarbonyldimanganese(0) is made up of two square pyramidal\nMn(CO)5 units joined by a Mn \u2013 Mn bond"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5016-5019", "Text": "These carbonyls\nhave simple, well defined structures Tetracarbonylnickel(0) is\ntetrahedral, pentacarbonyliron(0) is trigonalbipyramidal while\nhexacarbonyl chromium(0) is octahedral Decacarbonyldimanganese(0) is made up of two square pyramidal\nMn(CO)5 units joined by a Mn \u2013 Mn bond Octacarbonyldicobalt(0)\nhas a Co \u2013 Co bond bridged by two CO groups (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5017-5020", "Text": "Tetracarbonylnickel(0) is\ntetrahedral, pentacarbonyliron(0) is trigonalbipyramidal while\nhexacarbonyl chromium(0) is octahedral Decacarbonyldimanganese(0) is made up of two square pyramidal\nMn(CO)5 units joined by a Mn \u2013 Mn bond Octacarbonyldicobalt(0)\nhas a Co \u2013 Co bond bridged by two CO groups (Fig 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5018-5021", "Text": "Decacarbonyldimanganese(0) is made up of two square pyramidal\nMn(CO)5 units joined by a Mn \u2013 Mn bond Octacarbonyldicobalt(0)\nhas a Co \u2013 Co bond bridged by two CO groups (Fig 5 13)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5019-5022", "Text": "Octacarbonyldicobalt(0)\nhas a Co \u2013 Co bond bridged by two CO groups (Fig 5 13) 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5020-5023", "Text": "5 13) 5 6 Bonding in\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5021-5024", "Text": "13) 5 6 Bonding in\n5 6 Bonding in\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5022-5025", "Text": "5 6 Bonding in\n5 6 Bonding in\n5 6 Bonding in\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5023-5026", "Text": "6 Bonding in\n5 6 Bonding in\n5 6 Bonding in\n5 6 Bonding in\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5024-5027", "Text": "6 Bonding in\n5 6 Bonding in\n5 6 Bonding in\n5 6 Bonding in\nMetal\nMetal\nMetal\nMetal\nMetal\nCarbonyls\nCarbonyls\nCarbonyls\nCarbonyls\nCarbonyls\nIn emerald [Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5025-5028", "Text": "6 Bonding in\n5 6 Bonding in\n5 6 Bonding in\nMetal\nMetal\nMetal\nMetal\nMetal\nCarbonyls\nCarbonyls\nCarbonyls\nCarbonyls\nCarbonyls\nIn emerald [Fig 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5026-5029", "Text": "6 Bonding in\n5 6 Bonding in\nMetal\nMetal\nMetal\nMetal\nMetal\nCarbonyls\nCarbonyls\nCarbonyls\nCarbonyls\nCarbonyls\nIn emerald [Fig 5 12(b)], Cr\n3+\nions occupy octahedral sites\nin \nthe \nmineral \nberyl\n(Be3Al2Si6O18)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5027-5030", "Text": "6 Bonding in\nMetal\nMetal\nMetal\nMetal\nMetal\nCarbonyls\nCarbonyls\nCarbonyls\nCarbonyls\nCarbonyls\nIn emerald [Fig 5 12(b)], Cr\n3+\nions occupy octahedral sites\nin \nthe \nmineral \nberyl\n(Be3Al2Si6O18) The absorption\nbands seen in the ruby shift\nto longer wavelength, namely\nyellow-red and blue, causing\nemerald to transmit light in\nthe green region"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5028-5031", "Text": "5 12(b)], Cr\n3+\nions occupy octahedral sites\nin \nthe \nmineral \nberyl\n(Be3Al2Si6O18) The absorption\nbands seen in the ruby shift\nto longer wavelength, namely\nyellow-red and blue, causing\nemerald to transmit light in\nthe green region Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5029-5032", "Text": "12(b)], Cr\n3+\nions occupy octahedral sites\nin \nthe \nmineral \nberyl\n(Be3Al2Si6O18) The absorption\nbands seen in the ruby shift\nto longer wavelength, namely\nyellow-red and blue, causing\nemerald to transmit light in\nthe green region Fig 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5030-5033", "Text": "The absorption\nbands seen in the ruby shift\nto longer wavelength, namely\nyellow-red and blue, causing\nemerald to transmit light in\nthe green region Fig 5 12: (a) Ruby: this gemstone was found in\nmarble from Mogok, Myanmar; (b)\nEmerald: this gemstone was found in\nMuzo, Columbia"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5031-5034", "Text": "Fig 5 12: (a) Ruby: this gemstone was found in\nmarble from Mogok, Myanmar; (b)\nEmerald: this gemstone was found in\nMuzo, Columbia (a)\n(b)\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5032-5035", "Text": "5 12: (a) Ruby: this gemstone was found in\nmarble from Mogok, Myanmar; (b)\nEmerald: this gemstone was found in\nMuzo, Columbia (a)\n(b)\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n5 5 Explain on the basis of valence bond theory that [Ni(CN)4]\n2\u2013 ion with square\nplanar structure is diamagnetic and the [NiCl4]\n2\u2013 ion with tetrahedral\ngeometry is paramagnetic"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5033-5036", "Text": "12: (a) Ruby: this gemstone was found in\nmarble from Mogok, Myanmar; (b)\nEmerald: this gemstone was found in\nMuzo, Columbia (a)\n(b)\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n5 5 Explain on the basis of valence bond theory that [Ni(CN)4]\n2\u2013 ion with square\nplanar structure is diamagnetic and the [NiCl4]\n2\u2013 ion with tetrahedral\ngeometry is paramagnetic 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5034-5037", "Text": "(a)\n(b)\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n5 5 Explain on the basis of valence bond theory that [Ni(CN)4]\n2\u2013 ion with square\nplanar structure is diamagnetic and the [NiCl4]\n2\u2013 ion with tetrahedral\ngeometry is paramagnetic 5 6 [NiCl4]\n2\u2013 is paramagnetic while [Ni(CO)4] is diamagnetic though both are\ntetrahedral"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5035-5038", "Text": "5 Explain on the basis of valence bond theory that [Ni(CN)4]\n2\u2013 ion with square\nplanar structure is diamagnetic and the [NiCl4]\n2\u2013 ion with tetrahedral\ngeometry is paramagnetic 5 6 [NiCl4]\n2\u2013 is paramagnetic while [Ni(CO)4] is diamagnetic though both are\ntetrahedral Why"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5036-5039", "Text": "5 6 [NiCl4]\n2\u2013 is paramagnetic while [Ni(CO)4] is diamagnetic though both are\ntetrahedral Why 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5037-5040", "Text": "6 [NiCl4]\n2\u2013 is paramagnetic while [Ni(CO)4] is diamagnetic though both are\ntetrahedral Why 5 7 [Fe(H2O)6]\n3+ is strongly paramagnetic whereas [Fe(CN)6]\n3\u2013 is weakly\nparamagnetic"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5038-5041", "Text": "Why 5 7 [Fe(H2O)6]\n3+ is strongly paramagnetic whereas [Fe(CN)6]\n3\u2013 is weakly\nparamagnetic Explain"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5039-5042", "Text": "5 7 [Fe(H2O)6]\n3+ is strongly paramagnetic whereas [Fe(CN)6]\n3\u2013 is weakly\nparamagnetic Explain 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5040-5043", "Text": "7 [Fe(H2O)6]\n3+ is strongly paramagnetic whereas [Fe(CN)6]\n3\u2013 is weakly\nparamagnetic Explain 5 8 Explain [Co(NH3)6]\n3+ is an inner orbital complex whereas [Ni(NH3)6]\n2+ is an\nouter orbital complex"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5041-5044", "Text": "Explain 5 8 Explain [Co(NH3)6]\n3+ is an inner orbital complex whereas [Ni(NH3)6]\n2+ is an\nouter orbital complex 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5042-5045", "Text": "5 8 Explain [Co(NH3)6]\n3+ is an inner orbital complex whereas [Ni(NH3)6]\n2+ is an\nouter orbital complex 5 9 Predict the number of unpaired electrons in the square planar [Pt(CN)4]\n2\u2013 ion"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5043-5046", "Text": "8 Explain [Co(NH3)6]\n3+ is an inner orbital complex whereas [Ni(NH3)6]\n2+ is an\nouter orbital complex 5 9 Predict the number of unpaired electrons in the square planar [Pt(CN)4]\n2\u2013 ion 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5044-5047", "Text": "5 9 Predict the number of unpaired electrons in the square planar [Pt(CN)4]\n2\u2013 ion 5 10 The hexaquo manganese(II) ion contains five unpaired electrons, while the\nhexacyanoion contains only one unpaired electron"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5045-5048", "Text": "9 Predict the number of unpaired electrons in the square planar [Pt(CN)4]\n2\u2013 ion 5 10 The hexaquo manganese(II) ion contains five unpaired electrons, while the\nhexacyanoion contains only one unpaired electron Explain using Crystal\nField Theory"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5046-5049", "Text": "5 10 The hexaquo manganese(II) ion contains five unpaired electrons, while the\nhexacyanoion contains only one unpaired electron Explain using Crystal\nField Theory Rationalised 2023-24\n136\nChemistry\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5047-5050", "Text": "10 The hexaquo manganese(II) ion contains five unpaired electrons, while the\nhexacyanoion contains only one unpaired electron Explain using Crystal\nField Theory Rationalised 2023-24\n136\nChemistry\n5 7\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5048-5051", "Text": "Explain using Crystal\nField Theory Rationalised 2023-24\n136\nChemistry\n5 7\n5 7\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5049-5052", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n136\nChemistry\n5 7\n5 7\n5 7\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5050-5053", "Text": "7\n5 7\n5 7\n5 7\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5051-5054", "Text": "7\n5 7\n5 7\n5 7 Importance\nImportance\nImportance\nImportance\nImportance\nand\nand\nand\nand\nand\nApplications\nApplications\nApplications\nApplications\nofofofofofApplications\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nNi\nCO\nCO\nOC\nCO\nNi(CO)\nTetrahedral\n4\nFe\nCO\nCO\nCO\nOC\nOC\nFe(CO)\nTrigonal bipyramidal\n5\nCO\nCO\nCO\nCO\nCO\nCO\nCr\nCO\nCO\nCO\nOC\nCO\nCO\nCO CO\nCO\nCO\nMn\nMn\nCr(CO) Octahedral\n6\n[Mn (CO) ]\n2\n10\nCO\nCO\nCO\nCo\nCo\nOC\nOC\n[Co (CO) ]\n2\n8\nOC\nC\nO\nO\nC\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5052-5055", "Text": "7\n5 7\n5 7 Importance\nImportance\nImportance\nImportance\nImportance\nand\nand\nand\nand\nand\nApplications\nApplications\nApplications\nApplications\nofofofofofApplications\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nNi\nCO\nCO\nOC\nCO\nNi(CO)\nTetrahedral\n4\nFe\nCO\nCO\nCO\nOC\nOC\nFe(CO)\nTrigonal bipyramidal\n5\nCO\nCO\nCO\nCO\nCO\nCO\nCr\nCO\nCO\nCO\nOC\nCO\nCO\nCO CO\nCO\nCO\nMn\nMn\nCr(CO) Octahedral\n6\n[Mn (CO) ]\n2\n10\nCO\nCO\nCO\nCo\nCo\nOC\nOC\n[Co (CO) ]\n2\n8\nOC\nC\nO\nO\nC\nFig 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5053-5056", "Text": "7\n5 7 Importance\nImportance\nImportance\nImportance\nImportance\nand\nand\nand\nand\nand\nApplications\nApplications\nApplications\nApplications\nofofofofofApplications\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nNi\nCO\nCO\nOC\nCO\nNi(CO)\nTetrahedral\n4\nFe\nCO\nCO\nCO\nOC\nOC\nFe(CO)\nTrigonal bipyramidal\n5\nCO\nCO\nCO\nCO\nCO\nCO\nCr\nCO\nCO\nCO\nOC\nCO\nCO\nCO CO\nCO\nCO\nMn\nMn\nCr(CO) Octahedral\n6\n[Mn (CO) ]\n2\n10\nCO\nCO\nCO\nCo\nCo\nOC\nOC\n[Co (CO) ]\n2\n8\nOC\nC\nO\nO\nC\nFig 5 13\nStructures of some\nrepresentative\nhomoleptic metal\ncarbonyls"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5054-5057", "Text": "7 Importance\nImportance\nImportance\nImportance\nImportance\nand\nand\nand\nand\nand\nApplications\nApplications\nApplications\nApplications\nofofofofofApplications\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCoordination\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nNi\nCO\nCO\nOC\nCO\nNi(CO)\nTetrahedral\n4\nFe\nCO\nCO\nCO\nOC\nOC\nFe(CO)\nTrigonal bipyramidal\n5\nCO\nCO\nCO\nCO\nCO\nCO\nCr\nCO\nCO\nCO\nOC\nCO\nCO\nCO CO\nCO\nCO\nMn\nMn\nCr(CO) Octahedral\n6\n[Mn (CO) ]\n2\n10\nCO\nCO\nCO\nCo\nCo\nOC\nOC\n[Co (CO) ]\n2\n8\nOC\nC\nO\nO\nC\nFig 5 13\nStructures of some\nrepresentative\nhomoleptic metal\ncarbonyls The metal-carbon bond in metal carbonyls\npossess both s and p character"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5055-5058", "Text": "5 13\nStructures of some\nrepresentative\nhomoleptic metal\ncarbonyls The metal-carbon bond in metal carbonyls\npossess both s and p character The M\u2013C s bond\nis formed by the donation of lone pair of electrons\non the carbonyl carbon into a vacant orbital of\nthe metal"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5056-5059", "Text": "13\nStructures of some\nrepresentative\nhomoleptic metal\ncarbonyls The metal-carbon bond in metal carbonyls\npossess both s and p character The M\u2013C s bond\nis formed by the donation of lone pair of electrons\non the carbonyl carbon into a vacant orbital of\nthe metal The M\u2013C p bond is formed by the\ndonation of a pair of electrons from a filled d orbital\nof metal into the vacant antibonding p*\n orbital of\ncarbon monoxide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5057-5060", "Text": "The metal-carbon bond in metal carbonyls\npossess both s and p character The M\u2013C s bond\nis formed by the donation of lone pair of electrons\non the carbonyl carbon into a vacant orbital of\nthe metal The M\u2013C p bond is formed by the\ndonation of a pair of electrons from a filled d orbital\nof metal into the vacant antibonding p*\n orbital of\ncarbon monoxide The metal to ligand bonding\ncreates a synergic effect which strengthens the\nbond between CO and the metal (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5058-5061", "Text": "The M\u2013C s bond\nis formed by the donation of lone pair of electrons\non the carbonyl carbon into a vacant orbital of\nthe metal The M\u2013C p bond is formed by the\ndonation of a pair of electrons from a filled d orbital\nof metal into the vacant antibonding p*\n orbital of\ncarbon monoxide The metal to ligand bonding\ncreates a synergic effect which strengthens the\nbond between CO and the metal (Fig 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5059-5062", "Text": "The M\u2013C p bond is formed by the\ndonation of a pair of electrons from a filled d orbital\nof metal into the vacant antibonding p*\n orbital of\ncarbon monoxide The metal to ligand bonding\ncreates a synergic effect which strengthens the\nbond between CO and the metal (Fig 5 14)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5060-5063", "Text": "The metal to ligand bonding\ncreates a synergic effect which strengthens the\nbond between CO and the metal (Fig 5 14) Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5061-5064", "Text": "5 14) Fig 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5062-5065", "Text": "14) Fig 5 14: Example of synergic bonding\ninteractions \nin \na \ncarbonyl\ncomplex"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5063-5066", "Text": "Fig 5 14: Example of synergic bonding\ninteractions \nin \na \ncarbonyl\ncomplex The coordination compounds are of great importance"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5064-5067", "Text": "5 14: Example of synergic bonding\ninteractions \nin \na \ncarbonyl\ncomplex The coordination compounds are of great importance These compounds\nare widely present in the mineral, plant and animal worlds and are\nknown to play many important functions in the area of analytical\nchemistry, metallurgy, biological systems, industry and medicine"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5065-5068", "Text": "14: Example of synergic bonding\ninteractions \nin \na \ncarbonyl\ncomplex The coordination compounds are of great importance These compounds\nare widely present in the mineral, plant and animal worlds and are\nknown to play many important functions in the area of analytical\nchemistry, metallurgy, biological systems, industry and medicine These\n\u2022are described below:\nCoordination compounds find use in many qualitative and\nquantitative chemical analysis"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5066-5069", "Text": "The coordination compounds are of great importance These compounds\nare widely present in the mineral, plant and animal worlds and are\nknown to play many important functions in the area of analytical\nchemistry, metallurgy, biological systems, industry and medicine These\n\u2022are described below:\nCoordination compounds find use in many qualitative and\nquantitative chemical analysis The familiar colour reactions given\nby metal ions with a number of ligands (especially chelating ligands),\nas a result of formation of coordination entities, form the basis for\ntheir detection and estimation by classical and instrumental methods\nof analysis"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5067-5070", "Text": "These compounds\nare widely present in the mineral, plant and animal worlds and are\nknown to play many important functions in the area of analytical\nchemistry, metallurgy, biological systems, industry and medicine These\n\u2022are described below:\nCoordination compounds find use in many qualitative and\nquantitative chemical analysis The familiar colour reactions given\nby metal ions with a number of ligands (especially chelating ligands),\nas a result of formation of coordination entities, form the basis for\ntheir detection and estimation by classical and instrumental methods\nof analysis Examples of such reagents include EDTA, DMG\n(dimethylglyoxime), a\u2013nitroso\u2013b\u2013naphthol, cupron, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5068-5071", "Text": "These\n\u2022are described below:\nCoordination compounds find use in many qualitative and\nquantitative chemical analysis The familiar colour reactions given\nby metal ions with a number of ligands (especially chelating ligands),\nas a result of formation of coordination entities, form the basis for\ntheir detection and estimation by classical and instrumental methods\nof analysis Examples of such reagents include EDTA, DMG\n(dimethylglyoxime), a\u2013nitroso\u2013b\u2013naphthol, cupron, etc \u2022\nHardness of water is estimated by simple titration with Na2EDTA"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5069-5072", "Text": "The familiar colour reactions given\nby metal ions with a number of ligands (especially chelating ligands),\nas a result of formation of coordination entities, form the basis for\ntheir detection and estimation by classical and instrumental methods\nof analysis Examples of such reagents include EDTA, DMG\n(dimethylglyoxime), a\u2013nitroso\u2013b\u2013naphthol, cupron, etc \u2022\nHardness of water is estimated by simple titration with Na2EDTA The Ca\n2+ and Mg\n2+ ions form stable complexes with EDTA"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5070-5073", "Text": "Examples of such reagents include EDTA, DMG\n(dimethylglyoxime), a\u2013nitroso\u2013b\u2013naphthol, cupron, etc \u2022\nHardness of water is estimated by simple titration with Na2EDTA The Ca\n2+ and Mg\n2+ ions form stable complexes with EDTA The\nselective estimation of these ions can be done due to difference in\nthe stability constants of calcium and magnesium complexes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5071-5074", "Text": "\u2022\nHardness of water is estimated by simple titration with Na2EDTA The Ca\n2+ and Mg\n2+ ions form stable complexes with EDTA The\nselective estimation of these ions can be done due to difference in\nthe stability constants of calcium and magnesium complexes \u2022\nSome important extraction processes of metals, like those of silver and\ngold, make use of complex formation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5072-5075", "Text": "The Ca\n2+ and Mg\n2+ ions form stable complexes with EDTA The\nselective estimation of these ions can be done due to difference in\nthe stability constants of calcium and magnesium complexes \u2022\nSome important extraction processes of metals, like those of silver and\ngold, make use of complex formation Gold, for example, combines with\ncyanide in the presence of oxygen and water to form the coordination\nentity [Au(CN)2]\n\u2013 in aqueous solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5073-5076", "Text": "The\nselective estimation of these ions can be done due to difference in\nthe stability constants of calcium and magnesium complexes \u2022\nSome important extraction processes of metals, like those of silver and\ngold, make use of complex formation Gold, for example, combines with\ncyanide in the presence of oxygen and water to form the coordination\nentity [Au(CN)2]\n\u2013 in aqueous solution Gold can be separated in metallic\nform from this solution by the addition of zinc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5074-5077", "Text": "\u2022\nSome important extraction processes of metals, like those of silver and\ngold, make use of complex formation Gold, for example, combines with\ncyanide in the presence of oxygen and water to form the coordination\nentity [Au(CN)2]\n\u2013 in aqueous solution Gold can be separated in metallic\nform from this solution by the addition of zinc \u2022\nSimilarly, purification of metals can be achieved through formation\nand subsequent decomposition of their coordination compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5075-5078", "Text": "Gold, for example, combines with\ncyanide in the presence of oxygen and water to form the coordination\nentity [Au(CN)2]\n\u2013 in aqueous solution Gold can be separated in metallic\nform from this solution by the addition of zinc \u2022\nSimilarly, purification of metals can be achieved through formation\nand subsequent decomposition of their coordination compounds Rationalised 2023-24\n137\nCoordination Compounds\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nThe chemistry of coordination compounds is an important and challenging\narea of modern inorganic chemistry"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5076-5079", "Text": "Gold can be separated in metallic\nform from this solution by the addition of zinc \u2022\nSimilarly, purification of metals can be achieved through formation\nand subsequent decomposition of their coordination compounds Rationalised 2023-24\n137\nCoordination Compounds\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nThe chemistry of coordination compounds is an important and challenging\narea of modern inorganic chemistry During the last fifty years, advances in this\narea, have provided development of new concepts and models of bonding and\nmolecular structure, novel breakthroughs in chemical industry and vital\ninsights into the functioning of critical components of biological systems"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5077-5080", "Text": "\u2022\nSimilarly, purification of metals can be achieved through formation\nand subsequent decomposition of their coordination compounds Rationalised 2023-24\n137\nCoordination Compounds\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nThe chemistry of coordination compounds is an important and challenging\narea of modern inorganic chemistry During the last fifty years, advances in this\narea, have provided development of new concepts and models of bonding and\nmolecular structure, novel breakthroughs in chemical industry and vital\ninsights into the functioning of critical components of biological systems The first systematic attempt at explaining the formation, reactions, structure\nand bonding of a coordination compound was made by A"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5078-5081", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n137\nCoordination Compounds\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nThe chemistry of coordination compounds is an important and challenging\narea of modern inorganic chemistry During the last fifty years, advances in this\narea, have provided development of new concepts and models of bonding and\nmolecular structure, novel breakthroughs in chemical industry and vital\ninsights into the functioning of critical components of biological systems The first systematic attempt at explaining the formation, reactions, structure\nand bonding of a coordination compound was made by A Werner"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5079-5082", "Text": "During the last fifty years, advances in this\narea, have provided development of new concepts and models of bonding and\nmolecular structure, novel breakthroughs in chemical industry and vital\ninsights into the functioning of critical components of biological systems The first systematic attempt at explaining the formation, reactions, structure\nand bonding of a coordination compound was made by A Werner His theory\npostulated the use of two types of linkages (primary and secondary) by a\nmetal atom/ion in a coordination compound"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5080-5083", "Text": "The first systematic attempt at explaining the formation, reactions, structure\nand bonding of a coordination compound was made by A Werner His theory\npostulated the use of two types of linkages (primary and secondary) by a\nmetal atom/ion in a coordination compound In the modern language of chemistry\nthese linkages are recognised as the ionisable (ionic) and non-ionisable (covalent)\nbonds, respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5081-5084", "Text": "Werner His theory\npostulated the use of two types of linkages (primary and secondary) by a\nmetal atom/ion in a coordination compound In the modern language of chemistry\nthese linkages are recognised as the ionisable (ionic) and non-ionisable (covalent)\nbonds, respectively Using the property of isomerism, Werner predicted the\ngeometrical shapes of a large number of coordination entities"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5082-5085", "Text": "His theory\npostulated the use of two types of linkages (primary and secondary) by a\nmetal atom/ion in a coordination compound In the modern language of chemistry\nthese linkages are recognised as the ionisable (ionic) and non-ionisable (covalent)\nbonds, respectively Using the property of isomerism, Werner predicted the\ngeometrical shapes of a large number of coordination entities The Valence Bond Theory (VBT) explains with reasonable success, the\nformation, magnetic behaviour and geometrical shapes of coordination compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5083-5086", "Text": "In the modern language of chemistry\nthese linkages are recognised as the ionisable (ionic) and non-ionisable (covalent)\nbonds, respectively Using the property of isomerism, Werner predicted the\ngeometrical shapes of a large number of coordination entities The Valence Bond Theory (VBT) explains with reasonable success, the\nformation, magnetic behaviour and geometrical shapes of coordination compounds It, however, fails to provide a quantitative interpretation of magnetic behaviour\nand has nothing to say about the optical properties of these compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5084-5087", "Text": "Using the property of isomerism, Werner predicted the\ngeometrical shapes of a large number of coordination entities The Valence Bond Theory (VBT) explains with reasonable success, the\nformation, magnetic behaviour and geometrical shapes of coordination compounds It, however, fails to provide a quantitative interpretation of magnetic behaviour\nand has nothing to say about the optical properties of these compounds The Crystal Field Theory (CFT) to coordination compounds is based on\nthe effect of different crystal fields (provided by the ligands taken as point charges),\nFor example, impure nickel is converted to [Ni(CO)4], which is\ndecomposed to yield pure nickel"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5085-5088", "Text": "The Valence Bond Theory (VBT) explains with reasonable success, the\nformation, magnetic behaviour and geometrical shapes of coordination compounds It, however, fails to provide a quantitative interpretation of magnetic behaviour\nand has nothing to say about the optical properties of these compounds The Crystal Field Theory (CFT) to coordination compounds is based on\nthe effect of different crystal fields (provided by the ligands taken as point charges),\nFor example, impure nickel is converted to [Ni(CO)4], which is\ndecomposed to yield pure nickel \u2022\nCoordination compounds are of great importance in biological\nsystems"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5086-5089", "Text": "It, however, fails to provide a quantitative interpretation of magnetic behaviour\nand has nothing to say about the optical properties of these compounds The Crystal Field Theory (CFT) to coordination compounds is based on\nthe effect of different crystal fields (provided by the ligands taken as point charges),\nFor example, impure nickel is converted to [Ni(CO)4], which is\ndecomposed to yield pure nickel \u2022\nCoordination compounds are of great importance in biological\nsystems The pigment responsible for photosynthesis, chlorophyll,\nis a coordination compound of magnesium"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5087-5090", "Text": "The Crystal Field Theory (CFT) to coordination compounds is based on\nthe effect of different crystal fields (provided by the ligands taken as point charges),\nFor example, impure nickel is converted to [Ni(CO)4], which is\ndecomposed to yield pure nickel \u2022\nCoordination compounds are of great importance in biological\nsystems The pigment responsible for photosynthesis, chlorophyll,\nis a coordination compound of magnesium Haemoglobin, the red\npigment of blood which acts as oxygen carrier is a coordination\ncompound of iron"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5088-5091", "Text": "\u2022\nCoordination compounds are of great importance in biological\nsystems The pigment responsible for photosynthesis, chlorophyll,\nis a coordination compound of magnesium Haemoglobin, the red\npigment of blood which acts as oxygen carrier is a coordination\ncompound of iron Vitamin B12, cyanocobalamine, the anti\u2013\npernicious anaemia factor, is a coordination compound of cobalt"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5089-5092", "Text": "The pigment responsible for photosynthesis, chlorophyll,\nis a coordination compound of magnesium Haemoglobin, the red\npigment of blood which acts as oxygen carrier is a coordination\ncompound of iron Vitamin B12, cyanocobalamine, the anti\u2013\npernicious anaemia factor, is a coordination compound of cobalt Among the other compounds of biological importance with\ncoordinated metal ions are the enzymes like, carboxypeptidase A\nand carbonic anhydrase (catalysts of biological systems)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5090-5093", "Text": "Haemoglobin, the red\npigment of blood which acts as oxygen carrier is a coordination\ncompound of iron Vitamin B12, cyanocobalamine, the anti\u2013\npernicious anaemia factor, is a coordination compound of cobalt Among the other compounds of biological importance with\ncoordinated metal ions are the enzymes like, carboxypeptidase A\nand carbonic anhydrase (catalysts of biological systems) \u2022\nCoordination compounds are used as catalysts for many industrial\nprocesses"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5091-5094", "Text": "Vitamin B12, cyanocobalamine, the anti\u2013\npernicious anaemia factor, is a coordination compound of cobalt Among the other compounds of biological importance with\ncoordinated metal ions are the enzymes like, carboxypeptidase A\nand carbonic anhydrase (catalysts of biological systems) \u2022\nCoordination compounds are used as catalysts for many industrial\nprocesses Examples include rhodium complex, [(Ph3P)3RhCl], a\nWilkinson catalyst, is used for the hydrogenation of alkenes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5092-5095", "Text": "Among the other compounds of biological importance with\ncoordinated metal ions are the enzymes like, carboxypeptidase A\nand carbonic anhydrase (catalysts of biological systems) \u2022\nCoordination compounds are used as catalysts for many industrial\nprocesses Examples include rhodium complex, [(Ph3P)3RhCl], a\nWilkinson catalyst, is used for the hydrogenation of alkenes \u2022\nArticles can be electroplated with silver and gold much more\nsmoothly and evenly from solutions of the complexes, [Ag(CN)2]\n\u2013\nand [Au(CN)2]\n\u2013 than from a solution of simple metal ions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5093-5096", "Text": "\u2022\nCoordination compounds are used as catalysts for many industrial\nprocesses Examples include rhodium complex, [(Ph3P)3RhCl], a\nWilkinson catalyst, is used for the hydrogenation of alkenes \u2022\nArticles can be electroplated with silver and gold much more\nsmoothly and evenly from solutions of the complexes, [Ag(CN)2]\n\u2013\nand [Au(CN)2]\n\u2013 than from a solution of simple metal ions \u2022\nIn black and white photography, the developed film is fixed by\nwashing with hypo solution which dissolves the undecomposed\nAgBr to form a complex ion, [Ag(S2O3)2]\n3\u2013"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5094-5097", "Text": "Examples include rhodium complex, [(Ph3P)3RhCl], a\nWilkinson catalyst, is used for the hydrogenation of alkenes \u2022\nArticles can be electroplated with silver and gold much more\nsmoothly and evenly from solutions of the complexes, [Ag(CN)2]\n\u2013\nand [Au(CN)2]\n\u2013 than from a solution of simple metal ions \u2022\nIn black and white photography, the developed film is fixed by\nwashing with hypo solution which dissolves the undecomposed\nAgBr to form a complex ion, [Ag(S2O3)2]\n3\u2013 \u2022\nThere is growing interest in the use of chelate therapy in medicinal\nchemistry"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5095-5098", "Text": "\u2022\nArticles can be electroplated with silver and gold much more\nsmoothly and evenly from solutions of the complexes, [Ag(CN)2]\n\u2013\nand [Au(CN)2]\n\u2013 than from a solution of simple metal ions \u2022\nIn black and white photography, the developed film is fixed by\nwashing with hypo solution which dissolves the undecomposed\nAgBr to form a complex ion, [Ag(S2O3)2]\n3\u2013 \u2022\nThere is growing interest in the use of chelate therapy in medicinal\nchemistry An example is the treatment of problems caused by the\npresence of metals in toxic proportions in plant/animal systems"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5096-5099", "Text": "\u2022\nIn black and white photography, the developed film is fixed by\nwashing with hypo solution which dissolves the undecomposed\nAgBr to form a complex ion, [Ag(S2O3)2]\n3\u2013 \u2022\nThere is growing interest in the use of chelate therapy in medicinal\nchemistry An example is the treatment of problems caused by the\npresence of metals in toxic proportions in plant/animal systems Thus, excess of copper and iron are removed by the chelating ligands\nD\u2013penicillamine and desferrioxime B via the formation of coordination\ncompounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5097-5100", "Text": "\u2022\nThere is growing interest in the use of chelate therapy in medicinal\nchemistry An example is the treatment of problems caused by the\npresence of metals in toxic proportions in plant/animal systems Thus, excess of copper and iron are removed by the chelating ligands\nD\u2013penicillamine and desferrioxime B via the formation of coordination\ncompounds EDTA is used in the treatment of lead poisoning"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5098-5101", "Text": "An example is the treatment of problems caused by the\npresence of metals in toxic proportions in plant/animal systems Thus, excess of copper and iron are removed by the chelating ligands\nD\u2013penicillamine and desferrioxime B via the formation of coordination\ncompounds EDTA is used in the treatment of lead poisoning Some\ncoordination compounds of platinum effectively inhibit the growth\nof tumours"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5099-5102", "Text": "Thus, excess of copper and iron are removed by the chelating ligands\nD\u2013penicillamine and desferrioxime B via the formation of coordination\ncompounds EDTA is used in the treatment of lead poisoning Some\ncoordination compounds of platinum effectively inhibit the growth\nof tumours Examples are: cis\u2013platin and related compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5100-5103", "Text": "EDTA is used in the treatment of lead poisoning Some\ncoordination compounds of platinum effectively inhibit the growth\nof tumours Examples are: cis\u2013platin and related compounds Rationalised 2023-24\n138\nChemistry\non the degeneracy of d orbital energies of the central metal atom/ion"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5101-5104", "Text": "Some\ncoordination compounds of platinum effectively inhibit the growth\nof tumours Examples are: cis\u2013platin and related compounds Rationalised 2023-24\n138\nChemistry\non the degeneracy of d orbital energies of the central metal atom/ion The\nsplitting of the d orbitals provides different electronic arrangements in strong\nand weak crystal fields"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5102-5105", "Text": "Examples are: cis\u2013platin and related compounds Rationalised 2023-24\n138\nChemistry\non the degeneracy of d orbital energies of the central metal atom/ion The\nsplitting of the d orbitals provides different electronic arrangements in strong\nand weak crystal fields The treatment provides for quantitative estimations of\norbital separation energies, magnetic moments and spectral and stability\nparameters"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5103-5106", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n138\nChemistry\non the degeneracy of d orbital energies of the central metal atom/ion The\nsplitting of the d orbitals provides different electronic arrangements in strong\nand weak crystal fields The treatment provides for quantitative estimations of\norbital separation energies, magnetic moments and spectral and stability\nparameters However, the assumption that ligands consititute point charges\ncreates many theoretical difficulties"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5104-5107", "Text": "The\nsplitting of the d orbitals provides different electronic arrangements in strong\nand weak crystal fields The treatment provides for quantitative estimations of\norbital separation energies, magnetic moments and spectral and stability\nparameters However, the assumption that ligands consititute point charges\ncreates many theoretical difficulties The metal\u2013carbon bond in metal carbonyls possesses both s and p character"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5105-5108", "Text": "The treatment provides for quantitative estimations of\norbital separation energies, magnetic moments and spectral and stability\nparameters However, the assumption that ligands consititute point charges\ncreates many theoretical difficulties The metal\u2013carbon bond in metal carbonyls possesses both s and p character The ligand to metal is s bond and metal to ligand is p bond"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5106-5109", "Text": "However, the assumption that ligands consititute point charges\ncreates many theoretical difficulties The metal\u2013carbon bond in metal carbonyls possesses both s and p character The ligand to metal is s bond and metal to ligand is p bond This unique synergic\nbonding provides stability to metal carbonyls"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5107-5110", "Text": "The metal\u2013carbon bond in metal carbonyls possesses both s and p character The ligand to metal is s bond and metal to ligand is p bond This unique synergic\nbonding provides stability to metal carbonyls Coordination compounds are of great importance"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5108-5111", "Text": "The ligand to metal is s bond and metal to ligand is p bond This unique synergic\nbonding provides stability to metal carbonyls Coordination compounds are of great importance These compounds provide\ncritical insights into the functioning and structures of vital components of\nbiological systems"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5109-5112", "Text": "This unique synergic\nbonding provides stability to metal carbonyls Coordination compounds are of great importance These compounds provide\ncritical insights into the functioning and structures of vital components of\nbiological systems Coordination compounds also find extensive applications in\nmetallurgical processes, analytical and medicinal chemistry"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5110-5113", "Text": "Coordination compounds are of great importance These compounds provide\ncritical insights into the functioning and structures of vital components of\nbiological systems Coordination compounds also find extensive applications in\nmetallurgical processes, analytical and medicinal chemistry Exercises\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5111-5114", "Text": "These compounds provide\ncritical insights into the functioning and structures of vital components of\nbiological systems Coordination compounds also find extensive applications in\nmetallurgical processes, analytical and medicinal chemistry Exercises\n5 1\nExplain the bonding in coordination compounds in terms of Werner\u2019s postulates"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5112-5115", "Text": "Coordination compounds also find extensive applications in\nmetallurgical processes, analytical and medicinal chemistry Exercises\n5 1\nExplain the bonding in coordination compounds in terms of Werner\u2019s postulates 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5113-5116", "Text": "Exercises\n5 1\nExplain the bonding in coordination compounds in terms of Werner\u2019s postulates 5 2\nFeSO4 solution mixed with (NH4)2SO4 solution in 1:1 molar ratio gives the\ntest of Fe\n2+ ion but CuSO4 solution mixed with aqueous ammonia in 1:4\nmolar ratio does not give the test of Cu\n2+ ion"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5114-5117", "Text": "1\nExplain the bonding in coordination compounds in terms of Werner\u2019s postulates 5 2\nFeSO4 solution mixed with (NH4)2SO4 solution in 1:1 molar ratio gives the\ntest of Fe\n2+ ion but CuSO4 solution mixed with aqueous ammonia in 1:4\nmolar ratio does not give the test of Cu\n2+ ion Explain why"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5115-5118", "Text": "5 2\nFeSO4 solution mixed with (NH4)2SO4 solution in 1:1 molar ratio gives the\ntest of Fe\n2+ ion but CuSO4 solution mixed with aqueous ammonia in 1:4\nmolar ratio does not give the test of Cu\n2+ ion Explain why 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5116-5119", "Text": "2\nFeSO4 solution mixed with (NH4)2SO4 solution in 1:1 molar ratio gives the\ntest of Fe\n2+ ion but CuSO4 solution mixed with aqueous ammonia in 1:4\nmolar ratio does not give the test of Cu\n2+ ion Explain why 5 3\nExplain with two examples each of the following: coordination entity, ligand,\ncoordination number, coordination polyhedron, homoleptic and heteroleptic"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5117-5120", "Text": "Explain why 5 3\nExplain with two examples each of the following: coordination entity, ligand,\ncoordination number, coordination polyhedron, homoleptic and heteroleptic 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5118-5121", "Text": "5 3\nExplain with two examples each of the following: coordination entity, ligand,\ncoordination number, coordination polyhedron, homoleptic and heteroleptic 5 4\nWhat is meant by unidentate, didentate and ambidentate ligands"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5119-5122", "Text": "3\nExplain with two examples each of the following: coordination entity, ligand,\ncoordination number, coordination polyhedron, homoleptic and heteroleptic 5 4\nWhat is meant by unidentate, didentate and ambidentate ligands Give two\nexamples for each"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5120-5123", "Text": "5 4\nWhat is meant by unidentate, didentate and ambidentate ligands Give two\nexamples for each 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5121-5124", "Text": "4\nWhat is meant by unidentate, didentate and ambidentate ligands Give two\nexamples for each 5 5\nSpecify the oxidation numbers of the metals in the following coordination entities:\n(i) [Co(H2O)(CN)(en)2]\n2+\n(iii) [PtCl4]\n2\u2013\n(v) [Cr(NH3)3Cl3]\n(ii) [CoBr2(en)2]\n+\n(iv) K3[Fe(CN)6]\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5122-5125", "Text": "Give two\nexamples for each 5 5\nSpecify the oxidation numbers of the metals in the following coordination entities:\n(i) [Co(H2O)(CN)(en)2]\n2+\n(iii) [PtCl4]\n2\u2013\n(v) [Cr(NH3)3Cl3]\n(ii) [CoBr2(en)2]\n+\n(iv) K3[Fe(CN)6]\n5 6\nUsing IUPAC norms write the formulas for the following:\n(i) Tetrahydroxidozincate(II)\n(vi) Hexaamminecobalt(III) sulphate\n(ii) Potassium tetrachloridopalladate(II)\n(vii) Potassium tri(oxalato)chromate(III)\n(iii) Diamminedichloridoplatinum(II)\n(viii) Hexaammineplatinum(IV)\n(iv) Potassium tetracyanidonickelate(II) (ix) Tetrabromidocuprate(II)\n(v) Pentaamminenitrito-O-cobalt(III)\n(x) Pentaamminenitrito-N-cobalt(III)\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5123-5126", "Text": "5 5\nSpecify the oxidation numbers of the metals in the following coordination entities:\n(i) [Co(H2O)(CN)(en)2]\n2+\n(iii) [PtCl4]\n2\u2013\n(v) [Cr(NH3)3Cl3]\n(ii) [CoBr2(en)2]\n+\n(iv) K3[Fe(CN)6]\n5 6\nUsing IUPAC norms write the formulas for the following:\n(i) Tetrahydroxidozincate(II)\n(vi) Hexaamminecobalt(III) sulphate\n(ii) Potassium tetrachloridopalladate(II)\n(vii) Potassium tri(oxalato)chromate(III)\n(iii) Diamminedichloridoplatinum(II)\n(viii) Hexaammineplatinum(IV)\n(iv) Potassium tetracyanidonickelate(II) (ix) Tetrabromidocuprate(II)\n(v) Pentaamminenitrito-O-cobalt(III)\n(x) Pentaamminenitrito-N-cobalt(III)\n5 7\nUsing IUPAC norms write the systematic names of the following:\n(i) [Co(NH3)6]Cl3\n(iv) [Co(NH3)4Cl(NO2)]Cl\n(vii) [Ni(NH3)6]Cl2\n(ii) [Pt(NH3)2Cl(NH2CH3)]Cl\n(v) [Mn(H2O)6]\n2+\n(viii) [Co(en)3]\n3+\n(iii) [Ti(H2O)6]\n3+\n(vi) [NiCl4]\n2\u2013\n(ix) [Ni(CO)4]\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5124-5127", "Text": "5\nSpecify the oxidation numbers of the metals in the following coordination entities:\n(i) [Co(H2O)(CN)(en)2]\n2+\n(iii) [PtCl4]\n2\u2013\n(v) [Cr(NH3)3Cl3]\n(ii) [CoBr2(en)2]\n+\n(iv) K3[Fe(CN)6]\n5 6\nUsing IUPAC norms write the formulas for the following:\n(i) Tetrahydroxidozincate(II)\n(vi) Hexaamminecobalt(III) sulphate\n(ii) Potassium tetrachloridopalladate(II)\n(vii) Potassium tri(oxalato)chromate(III)\n(iii) Diamminedichloridoplatinum(II)\n(viii) Hexaammineplatinum(IV)\n(iv) Potassium tetracyanidonickelate(II) (ix) Tetrabromidocuprate(II)\n(v) Pentaamminenitrito-O-cobalt(III)\n(x) Pentaamminenitrito-N-cobalt(III)\n5 7\nUsing IUPAC norms write the systematic names of the following:\n(i) [Co(NH3)6]Cl3\n(iv) [Co(NH3)4Cl(NO2)]Cl\n(vii) [Ni(NH3)6]Cl2\n(ii) [Pt(NH3)2Cl(NH2CH3)]Cl\n(v) [Mn(H2O)6]\n2+\n(viii) [Co(en)3]\n3+\n(iii) [Ti(H2O)6]\n3+\n(vi) [NiCl4]\n2\u2013\n(ix) [Ni(CO)4]\n5 8\nList various types of isomerism possible for coordination compounds, giving\nan example of each"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5125-5128", "Text": "6\nUsing IUPAC norms write the formulas for the following:\n(i) Tetrahydroxidozincate(II)\n(vi) Hexaamminecobalt(III) sulphate\n(ii) Potassium tetrachloridopalladate(II)\n(vii) Potassium tri(oxalato)chromate(III)\n(iii) Diamminedichloridoplatinum(II)\n(viii) Hexaammineplatinum(IV)\n(iv) Potassium tetracyanidonickelate(II) (ix) Tetrabromidocuprate(II)\n(v) Pentaamminenitrito-O-cobalt(III)\n(x) Pentaamminenitrito-N-cobalt(III)\n5 7\nUsing IUPAC norms write the systematic names of the following:\n(i) [Co(NH3)6]Cl3\n(iv) [Co(NH3)4Cl(NO2)]Cl\n(vii) [Ni(NH3)6]Cl2\n(ii) [Pt(NH3)2Cl(NH2CH3)]Cl\n(v) [Mn(H2O)6]\n2+\n(viii) [Co(en)3]\n3+\n(iii) [Ti(H2O)6]\n3+\n(vi) [NiCl4]\n2\u2013\n(ix) [Ni(CO)4]\n5 8\nList various types of isomerism possible for coordination compounds, giving\nan example of each 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5126-5129", "Text": "7\nUsing IUPAC norms write the systematic names of the following:\n(i) [Co(NH3)6]Cl3\n(iv) [Co(NH3)4Cl(NO2)]Cl\n(vii) [Ni(NH3)6]Cl2\n(ii) [Pt(NH3)2Cl(NH2CH3)]Cl\n(v) [Mn(H2O)6]\n2+\n(viii) [Co(en)3]\n3+\n(iii) [Ti(H2O)6]\n3+\n(vi) [NiCl4]\n2\u2013\n(ix) [Ni(CO)4]\n5 8\nList various types of isomerism possible for coordination compounds, giving\nan example of each 5 9\nHow many geometrical isomers are possible in the following coordination entities"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5127-5130", "Text": "8\nList various types of isomerism possible for coordination compounds, giving\nan example of each 5 9\nHow many geometrical isomers are possible in the following coordination entities (i) [Cr(C2O4)3]\n3\u2013\n(ii) [Co(NH3)3Cl3]\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5128-5131", "Text": "5 9\nHow many geometrical isomers are possible in the following coordination entities (i) [Cr(C2O4)3]\n3\u2013\n(ii) [Co(NH3)3Cl3]\n5 10\nDraw the structures of optical isomers of:\n(i) [Cr(C2O4)3]\n3\u2013\n(ii) [PtCl2(en)2]\n2+\n(iii) [Cr(NH3)2Cl2(en)]\n+\nRationalised 2023-24\n139\nCoordination Compounds\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5129-5132", "Text": "9\nHow many geometrical isomers are possible in the following coordination entities (i) [Cr(C2O4)3]\n3\u2013\n(ii) [Co(NH3)3Cl3]\n5 10\nDraw the structures of optical isomers of:\n(i) [Cr(C2O4)3]\n3\u2013\n(ii) [PtCl2(en)2]\n2+\n(iii) [Cr(NH3)2Cl2(en)]\n+\nRationalised 2023-24\n139\nCoordination Compounds\n5 11\nDraw all the isomers (geometrical and optical) of:\n(i) [CoCl2(en)2]\n+\n(ii) [Co(NH3)Cl(en)2]\n2+\n(iii) [Co(NH3)2Cl2(en)]\n+\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5130-5133", "Text": "(i) [Cr(C2O4)3]\n3\u2013\n(ii) [Co(NH3)3Cl3]\n5 10\nDraw the structures of optical isomers of:\n(i) [Cr(C2O4)3]\n3\u2013\n(ii) [PtCl2(en)2]\n2+\n(iii) [Cr(NH3)2Cl2(en)]\n+\nRationalised 2023-24\n139\nCoordination Compounds\n5 11\nDraw all the isomers (geometrical and optical) of:\n(i) [CoCl2(en)2]\n+\n(ii) [Co(NH3)Cl(en)2]\n2+\n(iii) [Co(NH3)2Cl2(en)]\n+\n5 12\nWrite all the geometrical isomers of [Pt(NH3)(Br)(Cl)(py)] and how many of\nthese will exhibit optical isomers"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5131-5134", "Text": "10\nDraw the structures of optical isomers of:\n(i) [Cr(C2O4)3]\n3\u2013\n(ii) [PtCl2(en)2]\n2+\n(iii) [Cr(NH3)2Cl2(en)]\n+\nRationalised 2023-24\n139\nCoordination Compounds\n5 11\nDraw all the isomers (geometrical and optical) of:\n(i) [CoCl2(en)2]\n+\n(ii) [Co(NH3)Cl(en)2]\n2+\n(iii) [Co(NH3)2Cl2(en)]\n+\n5 12\nWrite all the geometrical isomers of [Pt(NH3)(Br)(Cl)(py)] and how many of\nthese will exhibit optical isomers 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5132-5135", "Text": "11\nDraw all the isomers (geometrical and optical) of:\n(i) [CoCl2(en)2]\n+\n(ii) [Co(NH3)Cl(en)2]\n2+\n(iii) [Co(NH3)2Cl2(en)]\n+\n5 12\nWrite all the geometrical isomers of [Pt(NH3)(Br)(Cl)(py)] and how many of\nthese will exhibit optical isomers 5 13\nAqueous copper sulphate solution (blue in colour) gives:\n(i) a green precipitate with aqueous potassium fluoride and\n(ii) a bright green solution with aqueous potassium chloride"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5133-5136", "Text": "12\nWrite all the geometrical isomers of [Pt(NH3)(Br)(Cl)(py)] and how many of\nthese will exhibit optical isomers 5 13\nAqueous copper sulphate solution (blue in colour) gives:\n(i) a green precipitate with aqueous potassium fluoride and\n(ii) a bright green solution with aqueous potassium chloride Explain these\nexperimental results"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5134-5137", "Text": "5 13\nAqueous copper sulphate solution (blue in colour) gives:\n(i) a green precipitate with aqueous potassium fluoride and\n(ii) a bright green solution with aqueous potassium chloride Explain these\nexperimental results 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5135-5138", "Text": "13\nAqueous copper sulphate solution (blue in colour) gives:\n(i) a green precipitate with aqueous potassium fluoride and\n(ii) a bright green solution with aqueous potassium chloride Explain these\nexperimental results 5 14\nWhat is the coordination entity formed when excess of aqueous KCN is\nadded to an aqueous solution of copper sulphate"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5136-5139", "Text": "Explain these\nexperimental results 5 14\nWhat is the coordination entity formed when excess of aqueous KCN is\nadded to an aqueous solution of copper sulphate Why is it that no precipitate\nof copper sulphide is obtained when H2S(g) is passed through this solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5137-5140", "Text": "5 14\nWhat is the coordination entity formed when excess of aqueous KCN is\nadded to an aqueous solution of copper sulphate Why is it that no precipitate\nof copper sulphide is obtained when H2S(g) is passed through this solution 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5138-5141", "Text": "14\nWhat is the coordination entity formed when excess of aqueous KCN is\nadded to an aqueous solution of copper sulphate Why is it that no precipitate\nof copper sulphide is obtained when H2S(g) is passed through this solution 5 15\nDiscuss the nature of bonding in the following coordination entities on the\nbasis of valence bond theory:\n(i) [Fe(CN)6]\n4\u2013\n(ii) [FeF6]\n3\u2013\n(iii) [Co(C2O4)3]\n3\u2013\n(iv) [CoF6]\n3\u2013\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5139-5142", "Text": "Why is it that no precipitate\nof copper sulphide is obtained when H2S(g) is passed through this solution 5 15\nDiscuss the nature of bonding in the following coordination entities on the\nbasis of valence bond theory:\n(i) [Fe(CN)6]\n4\u2013\n(ii) [FeF6]\n3\u2013\n(iii) [Co(C2O4)3]\n3\u2013\n(iv) [CoF6]\n3\u2013\n5 16\nDraw figure to show the splitting of d orbitals in an octahedral crystal field"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5140-5143", "Text": "5 15\nDiscuss the nature of bonding in the following coordination entities on the\nbasis of valence bond theory:\n(i) [Fe(CN)6]\n4\u2013\n(ii) [FeF6]\n3\u2013\n(iii) [Co(C2O4)3]\n3\u2013\n(iv) [CoF6]\n3\u2013\n5 16\nDraw figure to show the splitting of d orbitals in an octahedral crystal field 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5141-5144", "Text": "15\nDiscuss the nature of bonding in the following coordination entities on the\nbasis of valence bond theory:\n(i) [Fe(CN)6]\n4\u2013\n(ii) [FeF6]\n3\u2013\n(iii) [Co(C2O4)3]\n3\u2013\n(iv) [CoF6]\n3\u2013\n5 16\nDraw figure to show the splitting of d orbitals in an octahedral crystal field 5 17\nWhat is spectrochemical series"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5142-5145", "Text": "16\nDraw figure to show the splitting of d orbitals in an octahedral crystal field 5 17\nWhat is spectrochemical series Explain the difference between a weak\nfield ligand and a strong field ligand"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5143-5146", "Text": "5 17\nWhat is spectrochemical series Explain the difference between a weak\nfield ligand and a strong field ligand 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5144-5147", "Text": "17\nWhat is spectrochemical series Explain the difference between a weak\nfield ligand and a strong field ligand 5 18\nWhat is crystal field splitting energy"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5145-5148", "Text": "Explain the difference between a weak\nfield ligand and a strong field ligand 5 18\nWhat is crystal field splitting energy How does the magnitude of Do decide\nthe actual configuration of d orbitals in a coordination entity"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5146-5149", "Text": "5 18\nWhat is crystal field splitting energy How does the magnitude of Do decide\nthe actual configuration of d orbitals in a coordination entity 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5147-5150", "Text": "18\nWhat is crystal field splitting energy How does the magnitude of Do decide\nthe actual configuration of d orbitals in a coordination entity 5 19\n[Cr(NH3)6]\n3+ is paramagnetic while [Ni(CN)4]\n2\u2013 is diamagnetic"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5148-5151", "Text": "How does the magnitude of Do decide\nthe actual configuration of d orbitals in a coordination entity 5 19\n[Cr(NH3)6]\n3+ is paramagnetic while [Ni(CN)4]\n2\u2013 is diamagnetic Explain why"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5149-5152", "Text": "5 19\n[Cr(NH3)6]\n3+ is paramagnetic while [Ni(CN)4]\n2\u2013 is diamagnetic Explain why 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5150-5153", "Text": "19\n[Cr(NH3)6]\n3+ is paramagnetic while [Ni(CN)4]\n2\u2013 is diamagnetic Explain why 5 20\nA solution of [Ni(H2O)6]\n2+ is green but a solution of [Ni(CN)4]\n2\u2013 is colourless"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5151-5154", "Text": "Explain why 5 20\nA solution of [Ni(H2O)6]\n2+ is green but a solution of [Ni(CN)4]\n2\u2013 is colourless Explain"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5152-5155", "Text": "5 20\nA solution of [Ni(H2O)6]\n2+ is green but a solution of [Ni(CN)4]\n2\u2013 is colourless Explain 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5153-5156", "Text": "20\nA solution of [Ni(H2O)6]\n2+ is green but a solution of [Ni(CN)4]\n2\u2013 is colourless Explain 5 21\n[Fe(CN)6]\n4\u2013 and [Fe(H2O)6]\n2+ are of different colours in dilute solutions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5154-5157", "Text": "Explain 5 21\n[Fe(CN)6]\n4\u2013 and [Fe(H2O)6]\n2+ are of different colours in dilute solutions Why"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5155-5158", "Text": "5 21\n[Fe(CN)6]\n4\u2013 and [Fe(H2O)6]\n2+ are of different colours in dilute solutions Why 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5156-5159", "Text": "21\n[Fe(CN)6]\n4\u2013 and [Fe(H2O)6]\n2+ are of different colours in dilute solutions Why 5 22\nDiscuss the nature of bonding in metal carbonyls"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5157-5160", "Text": "Why 5 22\nDiscuss the nature of bonding in metal carbonyls 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5158-5161", "Text": "5 22\nDiscuss the nature of bonding in metal carbonyls 5 23\nGive the oxidation state, d orbital occupation and coordination number of\nthe central metal ion in the following complexes:\n(i) K3[Co(C2O4)3]\n(iii) (NH4)2[CoF4]\n(ii) cis-[CrCl2(en)2]Cl\n(iv) [Mn(H2O)6]SO4\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5159-5162", "Text": "22\nDiscuss the nature of bonding in metal carbonyls 5 23\nGive the oxidation state, d orbital occupation and coordination number of\nthe central metal ion in the following complexes:\n(i) K3[Co(C2O4)3]\n(iii) (NH4)2[CoF4]\n(ii) cis-[CrCl2(en)2]Cl\n(iv) [Mn(H2O)6]SO4\n5 24\nWrite down the IUPAC name for each of the following complexes and indicate\nthe oxidation state, electronic configuration and coordination number"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5160-5163", "Text": "5 23\nGive the oxidation state, d orbital occupation and coordination number of\nthe central metal ion in the following complexes:\n(i) K3[Co(C2O4)3]\n(iii) (NH4)2[CoF4]\n(ii) cis-[CrCl2(en)2]Cl\n(iv) [Mn(H2O)6]SO4\n5 24\nWrite down the IUPAC name for each of the following complexes and indicate\nthe oxidation state, electronic configuration and coordination number Also\ngive stereochemistry and magnetic moment of the complex:\n(i) K[Cr(H2O)2(C2O4)2]"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5161-5164", "Text": "23\nGive the oxidation state, d orbital occupation and coordination number of\nthe central metal ion in the following complexes:\n(i) K3[Co(C2O4)3]\n(iii) (NH4)2[CoF4]\n(ii) cis-[CrCl2(en)2]Cl\n(iv) [Mn(H2O)6]SO4\n5 24\nWrite down the IUPAC name for each of the following complexes and indicate\nthe oxidation state, electronic configuration and coordination number Also\ngive stereochemistry and magnetic moment of the complex:\n(i) K[Cr(H2O)2(C2O4)2] 3H2O\n(iii) [CrCl3(py)3]\n(v) K4[Mn(CN)6]\n(ii) [Co(NH3)5Cl-]Cl2\n(iv) Cs[FeCl4]\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5162-5165", "Text": "24\nWrite down the IUPAC name for each of the following complexes and indicate\nthe oxidation state, electronic configuration and coordination number Also\ngive stereochemistry and magnetic moment of the complex:\n(i) K[Cr(H2O)2(C2O4)2] 3H2O\n(iii) [CrCl3(py)3]\n(v) K4[Mn(CN)6]\n(ii) [Co(NH3)5Cl-]Cl2\n(iv) Cs[FeCl4]\n5 25\nExplain the violet colour of the complex [Ti(H2O)6]\n3+ on the basis of crystal\nfield theory"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5163-5166", "Text": "Also\ngive stereochemistry and magnetic moment of the complex:\n(i) K[Cr(H2O)2(C2O4)2] 3H2O\n(iii) [CrCl3(py)3]\n(v) K4[Mn(CN)6]\n(ii) [Co(NH3)5Cl-]Cl2\n(iv) Cs[FeCl4]\n5 25\nExplain the violet colour of the complex [Ti(H2O)6]\n3+ on the basis of crystal\nfield theory 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5164-5167", "Text": "3H2O\n(iii) [CrCl3(py)3]\n(v) K4[Mn(CN)6]\n(ii) [Co(NH3)5Cl-]Cl2\n(iv) Cs[FeCl4]\n5 25\nExplain the violet colour of the complex [Ti(H2O)6]\n3+ on the basis of crystal\nfield theory 5 26\nWhat is meant by the chelate effect"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5165-5168", "Text": "25\nExplain the violet colour of the complex [Ti(H2O)6]\n3+ on the basis of crystal\nfield theory 5 26\nWhat is meant by the chelate effect Give an example"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5166-5169", "Text": "5 26\nWhat is meant by the chelate effect Give an example 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5167-5170", "Text": "26\nWhat is meant by the chelate effect Give an example 5 27\nDiscuss briefly giving an example in each case the role of coordination\ncompounds in:\n(i) biological systems\n(iii) analytical chemistry\n(ii) medicinal chemistry and\n(iv) extraction/metallurgy of metals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5168-5171", "Text": "Give an example 5 27\nDiscuss briefly giving an example in each case the role of coordination\ncompounds in:\n(i) biological systems\n(iii) analytical chemistry\n(ii) medicinal chemistry and\n(iv) extraction/metallurgy of metals 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5169-5172", "Text": "5 27\nDiscuss briefly giving an example in each case the role of coordination\ncompounds in:\n(i) biological systems\n(iii) analytical chemistry\n(ii) medicinal chemistry and\n(iv) extraction/metallurgy of metals 5 28\nHow many ions are produced from the complex Co(NH3)6Cl2 in solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5170-5173", "Text": "27\nDiscuss briefly giving an example in each case the role of coordination\ncompounds in:\n(i) biological systems\n(iii) analytical chemistry\n(ii) medicinal chemistry and\n(iv) extraction/metallurgy of metals 5 28\nHow many ions are produced from the complex Co(NH3)6Cl2 in solution (i) 6\n(ii) 4\n(iii) 3\n(iv) 2\nRationalised 2023-24\n140\nChemistry\nAnswers to Some Intext Questions\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5171-5174", "Text": "5 28\nHow many ions are produced from the complex Co(NH3)6Cl2 in solution (i) 6\n(ii) 4\n(iii) 3\n(iv) 2\nRationalised 2023-24\n140\nChemistry\nAnswers to Some Intext Questions\n5 1\n(i) [Co(NH3)4(H2O)2]Cl3\n(iv) [Pt(NH3)BrCl(NO2)]\n\u2013\n(ii) K2[Ni(CN)4]\n(v) [PtCl2(en)2](NO3)2\n(iii) [Cr(en)3]Cl3\n(vi) Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5172-5175", "Text": "28\nHow many ions are produced from the complex Co(NH3)6Cl2 in solution (i) 6\n(ii) 4\n(iii) 3\n(iv) 2\nRationalised 2023-24\n140\nChemistry\nAnswers to Some Intext Questions\n5 1\n(i) [Co(NH3)4(H2O)2]Cl3\n(iv) [Pt(NH3)BrCl(NO2)]\n\u2013\n(ii) K2[Ni(CN)4]\n(v) [PtCl2(en)2](NO3)2\n(iii) [Cr(en)3]Cl3\n(vi) Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3\n5 2\n(i) Hexaamminecobalt(III) chloride\n(ii) Pentaamminechloridocobalt(III) chloride\n(iii) Potassium hexacyanidoferrate(III)\n(iv) Potassium trioxalatoferrate(III)\n(v) Potassium tetrachloridopalladate(II)\n(vi) Diamminechlorido(methanamine)platinum(II) chloride\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5173-5176", "Text": "(i) 6\n(ii) 4\n(iii) 3\n(iv) 2\nRationalised 2023-24\n140\nChemistry\nAnswers to Some Intext Questions\n5 1\n(i) [Co(NH3)4(H2O)2]Cl3\n(iv) [Pt(NH3)BrCl(NO2)]\n\u2013\n(ii) K2[Ni(CN)4]\n(v) [PtCl2(en)2](NO3)2\n(iii) [Cr(en)3]Cl3\n(vi) Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3\n5 2\n(i) Hexaamminecobalt(III) chloride\n(ii) Pentaamminechloridocobalt(III) chloride\n(iii) Potassium hexacyanidoferrate(III)\n(iv) Potassium trioxalatoferrate(III)\n(v) Potassium tetrachloridopalladate(II)\n(vi) Diamminechlorido(methanamine)platinum(II) chloride\n5 3\n(i) Both geometrical (cis-, trans-) and optical isomers for cis can exist"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5174-5177", "Text": "1\n(i) [Co(NH3)4(H2O)2]Cl3\n(iv) [Pt(NH3)BrCl(NO2)]\n\u2013\n(ii) K2[Ni(CN)4]\n(v) [PtCl2(en)2](NO3)2\n(iii) [Cr(en)3]Cl3\n(vi) Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3\n5 2\n(i) Hexaamminecobalt(III) chloride\n(ii) Pentaamminechloridocobalt(III) chloride\n(iii) Potassium hexacyanidoferrate(III)\n(iv) Potassium trioxalatoferrate(III)\n(v) Potassium tetrachloridopalladate(II)\n(vi) Diamminechlorido(methanamine)platinum(II) chloride\n5 3\n(i) Both geometrical (cis-, trans-) and optical isomers for cis can exist (ii) Two optical isomers can exist"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5175-5178", "Text": "2\n(i) Hexaamminecobalt(III) chloride\n(ii) Pentaamminechloridocobalt(III) chloride\n(iii) Potassium hexacyanidoferrate(III)\n(iv) Potassium trioxalatoferrate(III)\n(v) Potassium tetrachloridopalladate(II)\n(vi) Diamminechlorido(methanamine)platinum(II) chloride\n5 3\n(i) Both geometrical (cis-, trans-) and optical isomers for cis can exist (ii) Two optical isomers can exist (iii) There are 10 possible isomers"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5176-5179", "Text": "3\n(i) Both geometrical (cis-, trans-) and optical isomers for cis can exist (ii) Two optical isomers can exist (iii) There are 10 possible isomers (Hint: There are geometrical, ionisation and\nlinkage isomers possible)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5177-5180", "Text": "(ii) Two optical isomers can exist (iii) There are 10 possible isomers (Hint: There are geometrical, ionisation and\nlinkage isomers possible) (iv) Geometrical (cis-, trans-) isomers can exist"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5178-5181", "Text": "(iii) There are 10 possible isomers (Hint: There are geometrical, ionisation and\nlinkage isomers possible) (iv) Geometrical (cis-, trans-) isomers can exist 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5179-5182", "Text": "(Hint: There are geometrical, ionisation and\nlinkage isomers possible) (iv) Geometrical (cis-, trans-) isomers can exist 5 4 The ionisation isomers dissolve in water to yield different ions and thus react\ndifferently to various reagents:\n[Co(NH3)5Br]SO4\n+ Ba\n2+ \u00ae BaSO4 (s)\n[Co(NH3)5SO4]Br\n+ Ba\n2+ \u00ae No reaction\n[Co(NH3)5Br]SO4\n+ Ag\n+ \u00ae No reaction\n[Co(NH3)5SO4]Br\n+ Ag\n+ \u00ae AgBr (s)\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5180-5183", "Text": "(iv) Geometrical (cis-, trans-) isomers can exist 5 4 The ionisation isomers dissolve in water to yield different ions and thus react\ndifferently to various reagents:\n[Co(NH3)5Br]SO4\n+ Ba\n2+ \u00ae BaSO4 (s)\n[Co(NH3)5SO4]Br\n+ Ba\n2+ \u00ae No reaction\n[Co(NH3)5Br]SO4\n+ Ag\n+ \u00ae No reaction\n[Co(NH3)5SO4]Br\n+ Ag\n+ \u00ae AgBr (s)\n5 6 In Ni(CO)4, Ni is in zero oxidation state whereas in NiCl4\n2\u2013, it is in +2 oxidation\nstate"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5181-5184", "Text": "5 4 The ionisation isomers dissolve in water to yield different ions and thus react\ndifferently to various reagents:\n[Co(NH3)5Br]SO4\n+ Ba\n2+ \u00ae BaSO4 (s)\n[Co(NH3)5SO4]Br\n+ Ba\n2+ \u00ae No reaction\n[Co(NH3)5Br]SO4\n+ Ag\n+ \u00ae No reaction\n[Co(NH3)5SO4]Br\n+ Ag\n+ \u00ae AgBr (s)\n5 6 In Ni(CO)4, Ni is in zero oxidation state whereas in NiCl4\n2\u2013, it is in +2 oxidation\nstate In the presence of CO ligand, the unpaired d electrons of Ni pair up but\nCl\n\u2013 being a weak ligand is unable to pair up the unpaired electrons"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5182-5185", "Text": "4 The ionisation isomers dissolve in water to yield different ions and thus react\ndifferently to various reagents:\n[Co(NH3)5Br]SO4\n+ Ba\n2+ \u00ae BaSO4 (s)\n[Co(NH3)5SO4]Br\n+ Ba\n2+ \u00ae No reaction\n[Co(NH3)5Br]SO4\n+ Ag\n+ \u00ae No reaction\n[Co(NH3)5SO4]Br\n+ Ag\n+ \u00ae AgBr (s)\n5 6 In Ni(CO)4, Ni is in zero oxidation state whereas in NiCl4\n2\u2013, it is in +2 oxidation\nstate In the presence of CO ligand, the unpaired d electrons of Ni pair up but\nCl\n\u2013 being a weak ligand is unable to pair up the unpaired electrons 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5183-5186", "Text": "6 In Ni(CO)4, Ni is in zero oxidation state whereas in NiCl4\n2\u2013, it is in +2 oxidation\nstate In the presence of CO ligand, the unpaired d electrons of Ni pair up but\nCl\n\u2013 being a weak ligand is unable to pair up the unpaired electrons 5 7 In presence of CN\n\u2013, (a strong ligand) the 3d electrons pair up leaving only one\nunpaired electron"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5184-5187", "Text": "In the presence of CO ligand, the unpaired d electrons of Ni pair up but\nCl\n\u2013 being a weak ligand is unable to pair up the unpaired electrons 5 7 In presence of CN\n\u2013, (a strong ligand) the 3d electrons pair up leaving only one\nunpaired electron The hybridisation is d\n2sp\n3 forming inner orbital complex"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5185-5188", "Text": "5 7 In presence of CN\n\u2013, (a strong ligand) the 3d electrons pair up leaving only one\nunpaired electron The hybridisation is d\n2sp\n3 forming inner orbital complex In\nthe presence of H2O, (a weak ligand), 3d electrons do not pair up"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5186-5189", "Text": "7 In presence of CN\n\u2013, (a strong ligand) the 3d electrons pair up leaving only one\nunpaired electron The hybridisation is d\n2sp\n3 forming inner orbital complex In\nthe presence of H2O, (a weak ligand), 3d electrons do not pair up The\nhybridisation is sp\n3d\n2 forming an outer orbital complex containing five unpaired\nelectrons, it is strongly paramagnetic"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5187-5190", "Text": "The hybridisation is d\n2sp\n3 forming inner orbital complex In\nthe presence of H2O, (a weak ligand), 3d electrons do not pair up The\nhybridisation is sp\n3d\n2 forming an outer orbital complex containing five unpaired\nelectrons, it is strongly paramagnetic 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5188-5191", "Text": "In\nthe presence of H2O, (a weak ligand), 3d electrons do not pair up The\nhybridisation is sp\n3d\n2 forming an outer orbital complex containing five unpaired\nelectrons, it is strongly paramagnetic 5 8 In the presence of NH3, the 3d electrons pair up leaving two d orbitals empty\nto be involved in d\n2sp\n3 hybridisation forming inner orbital complex in case of [Co(NH3)6]\n3+"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5189-5192", "Text": "The\nhybridisation is sp\n3d\n2 forming an outer orbital complex containing five unpaired\nelectrons, it is strongly paramagnetic 5 8 In the presence of NH3, the 3d electrons pair up leaving two d orbitals empty\nto be involved in d\n2sp\n3 hybridisation forming inner orbital complex in case of [Co(NH3)6]\n3+ In Ni(NH3)6\n2+, Ni is in +2 oxidation state and has d\n8 configuration, the\nhybridisation involved is sp\n3d\n2 forming outer orbital complex"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5190-5193", "Text": "5 8 In the presence of NH3, the 3d electrons pair up leaving two d orbitals empty\nto be involved in d\n2sp\n3 hybridisation forming inner orbital complex in case of [Co(NH3)6]\n3+ In Ni(NH3)6\n2+, Ni is in +2 oxidation state and has d\n8 configuration, the\nhybridisation involved is sp\n3d\n2 forming outer orbital complex 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5191-5194", "Text": "8 In the presence of NH3, the 3d electrons pair up leaving two d orbitals empty\nto be involved in d\n2sp\n3 hybridisation forming inner orbital complex in case of [Co(NH3)6]\n3+ In Ni(NH3)6\n2+, Ni is in +2 oxidation state and has d\n8 configuration, the\nhybridisation involved is sp\n3d\n2 forming outer orbital complex 5 9 For square planar shape, the hybridisation is dsp\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5192-5195", "Text": "In Ni(NH3)6\n2+, Ni is in +2 oxidation state and has d\n8 configuration, the\nhybridisation involved is sp\n3d\n2 forming outer orbital complex 5 9 For square planar shape, the hybridisation is dsp\n2 Hence the unpaired electrons\nin 5d orbital pair up to make one d orbital empty for dsp\n2 hybridisation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5193-5196", "Text": "5 9 For square planar shape, the hybridisation is dsp\n2 Hence the unpaired electrons\nin 5d orbital pair up to make one d orbital empty for dsp\n2 hybridisation Thus\nthere is no unpaired electron"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5194-5197", "Text": "9 For square planar shape, the hybridisation is dsp\n2 Hence the unpaired electrons\nin 5d orbital pair up to make one d orbital empty for dsp\n2 hybridisation Thus\nthere is no unpaired electron 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5195-5198", "Text": "Hence the unpaired electrons\nin 5d orbital pair up to make one d orbital empty for dsp\n2 hybridisation Thus\nthere is no unpaired electron 5 29\nAmongst the following ions which one has the highest magnetic moment value"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5196-5199", "Text": "Thus\nthere is no unpaired electron 5 29\nAmongst the following ions which one has the highest magnetic moment value (i) [Cr(H2O)6]\n3+\n(ii) [Fe(H2O)6]\n2+ (iii) [Zn(H2O)6]\n2+\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5197-5200", "Text": "5 29\nAmongst the following ions which one has the highest magnetic moment value (i) [Cr(H2O)6]\n3+\n(ii) [Fe(H2O)6]\n2+ (iii) [Zn(H2O)6]\n2+\n5 30\nAmongst the following, the most stable complex is\n(i) [Fe(H2O)6]\n3+\n(ii) [Fe(NH3)6]\n3+ (iii) [Fe(C2O4)3]\n3\u2013\n(iv) [FeCl6]\n3\u2013\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5198-5201", "Text": "29\nAmongst the following ions which one has the highest magnetic moment value (i) [Cr(H2O)6]\n3+\n(ii) [Fe(H2O)6]\n2+ (iii) [Zn(H2O)6]\n2+\n5 30\nAmongst the following, the most stable complex is\n(i) [Fe(H2O)6]\n3+\n(ii) [Fe(NH3)6]\n3+ (iii) [Fe(C2O4)3]\n3\u2013\n(iv) [FeCl6]\n3\u2013\n5 31\nWhat will be the correct order for the wavelengths of absorption in the visible\nregion for the following:\n[Ni(NO2)6]\n4\u2013, [Ni(NH3)6]\n2+, [Ni(H2O)6]\n2+"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5199-5202", "Text": "(i) [Cr(H2O)6]\n3+\n(ii) [Fe(H2O)6]\n2+ (iii) [Zn(H2O)6]\n2+\n5 30\nAmongst the following, the most stable complex is\n(i) [Fe(H2O)6]\n3+\n(ii) [Fe(NH3)6]\n3+ (iii) [Fe(C2O4)3]\n3\u2013\n(iv) [FeCl6]\n3\u2013\n5 31\nWhat will be the correct order for the wavelengths of absorption in the visible\nregion for the following:\n[Ni(NO2)6]\n4\u2013, [Ni(NH3)6]\n2+, [Ni(H2O)6]\n2+ Rationalised 2023-24\nThe replacement of hydrogen atom(s) in an aliphatic\nor aromatic hydrocarbon by halogen atom(s) results\nin the formation of alkyl halide (haloalkane) and aryl\nhalide (haloarene), respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5200-5203", "Text": "30\nAmongst the following, the most stable complex is\n(i) [Fe(H2O)6]\n3+\n(ii) [Fe(NH3)6]\n3+ (iii) [Fe(C2O4)3]\n3\u2013\n(iv) [FeCl6]\n3\u2013\n5 31\nWhat will be the correct order for the wavelengths of absorption in the visible\nregion for the following:\n[Ni(NO2)6]\n4\u2013, [Ni(NH3)6]\n2+, [Ni(H2O)6]\n2+ Rationalised 2023-24\nThe replacement of hydrogen atom(s) in an aliphatic\nor aromatic hydrocarbon by halogen atom(s) results\nin the formation of alkyl halide (haloalkane) and aryl\nhalide (haloarene), respectively Haloalkanes contain\nhalogen atom(s) attached to the sp3 hybridised carbon\natom of an alkyl group whereas haloarenes contain\nhalogen atom(s) attached to sp2 hybridised carbon\natom(s) of an aryl group"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5201-5204", "Text": "31\nWhat will be the correct order for the wavelengths of absorption in the visible\nregion for the following:\n[Ni(NO2)6]\n4\u2013, [Ni(NH3)6]\n2+, [Ni(H2O)6]\n2+ Rationalised 2023-24\nThe replacement of hydrogen atom(s) in an aliphatic\nor aromatic hydrocarbon by halogen atom(s) results\nin the formation of alkyl halide (haloalkane) and aryl\nhalide (haloarene), respectively Haloalkanes contain\nhalogen atom(s) attached to the sp3 hybridised carbon\natom of an alkyl group whereas haloarenes contain\nhalogen atom(s) attached to sp2 hybridised carbon\natom(s) of an aryl group Many halogen containing\norganic compounds occur in nature and some of\nthese are clinically useful"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5202-5205", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\nThe replacement of hydrogen atom(s) in an aliphatic\nor aromatic hydrocarbon by halogen atom(s) results\nin the formation of alkyl halide (haloalkane) and aryl\nhalide (haloarene), respectively Haloalkanes contain\nhalogen atom(s) attached to the sp3 hybridised carbon\natom of an alkyl group whereas haloarenes contain\nhalogen atom(s) attached to sp2 hybridised carbon\natom(s) of an aryl group Many halogen containing\norganic compounds occur in nature and some of\nthese are clinically useful These classes of compounds\nfind wide applications in industry as well as in day-\nto-day life"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5203-5206", "Text": "Haloalkanes contain\nhalogen atom(s) attached to the sp3 hybridised carbon\natom of an alkyl group whereas haloarenes contain\nhalogen atom(s) attached to sp2 hybridised carbon\natom(s) of an aryl group Many halogen containing\norganic compounds occur in nature and some of\nthese are clinically useful These classes of compounds\nfind wide applications in industry as well as in day-\nto-day life They are used as solvents for relatively\nnon-polar compounds and as starting materials for\nthe synthesis of wide range of organic compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5204-5207", "Text": "Many halogen containing\norganic compounds occur in nature and some of\nthese are clinically useful These classes of compounds\nfind wide applications in industry as well as in day-\nto-day life They are used as solvents for relatively\nnon-polar compounds and as starting materials for\nthe synthesis of wide range of organic compounds Chlorine containing antibiotic, chloramphenicol,\nproduced by microorganisms is very effective for the\ntreatment of typhoid fever"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5205-5208", "Text": "These classes of compounds\nfind wide applications in industry as well as in day-\nto-day life They are used as solvents for relatively\nnon-polar compounds and as starting materials for\nthe synthesis of wide range of organic compounds Chlorine containing antibiotic, chloramphenicol,\nproduced by microorganisms is very effective for the\ntreatment of typhoid fever Our body produces iodine\ncontaining hormone, thyroxine, the deficiency of which\ncauses a disease called goiter"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5206-5209", "Text": "They are used as solvents for relatively\nnon-polar compounds and as starting materials for\nthe synthesis of wide range of organic compounds Chlorine containing antibiotic, chloramphenicol,\nproduced by microorganisms is very effective for the\ntreatment of typhoid fever Our body produces iodine\ncontaining hormone, thyroxine, the deficiency of which\ncauses a disease called goiter Synthetic halogen\ncompounds, viz"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5207-5210", "Text": "Chlorine containing antibiotic, chloramphenicol,\nproduced by microorganisms is very effective for the\ntreatment of typhoid fever Our body produces iodine\ncontaining hormone, thyroxine, the deficiency of which\ncauses a disease called goiter Synthetic halogen\ncompounds, viz chloroquine is used for the treatment\nof malaria; halothane is used as an anaesthetic\nduring surgery"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5208-5211", "Text": "Our body produces iodine\ncontaining hormone, thyroxine, the deficiency of which\ncauses a disease called goiter Synthetic halogen\ncompounds, viz chloroquine is used for the treatment\nof malaria; halothane is used as an anaesthetic\nduring surgery Certain fully fluorinated compounds\nare being considered as potential blood substitutes\nin surgery"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5209-5212", "Text": "Synthetic halogen\ncompounds, viz chloroquine is used for the treatment\nof malaria; halothane is used as an anaesthetic\nduring surgery Certain fully fluorinated compounds\nare being considered as potential blood substitutes\nin surgery In this Unit, you will study the important methods\nof preparation, physical and chemical properties and\nuses of organohalogen compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5210-5213", "Text": "chloroquine is used for the treatment\nof malaria; halothane is used as an anaesthetic\nduring surgery Certain fully fluorinated compounds\nare being considered as potential blood substitutes\nin surgery In this Unit, you will study the important methods\nof preparation, physical and chemical properties and\nuses of organohalogen compounds After studying this Unit, you will be\n\u00b7able to\nname haloalkanes and haloarenes\naccording to the IUPAC system of\nnomenclature from their given\nstructures;\n\u00b7\ndescribe the reactions involved in\nthe preparation of haloalkanes and\nhaloarenes \nand \nunderstand\nvarious reactions that they\nundergo;\n\u00b7\ncorrelate \nthe \nstructures \nof\nhaloalkanes and haloarenes with\nvarious types of reactions;\n\u00b7\nuse stereochemistry as a tool for\nunderstanding \nthe \nreaction\nmechanism;\n\u00b7\nappreciate the applications of\norgano-metallic compounds;\n\u00b7\nhighlight the environmental effects\nof polyhalogen compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5211-5214", "Text": "Certain fully fluorinated compounds\nare being considered as potential blood substitutes\nin surgery In this Unit, you will study the important methods\nof preparation, physical and chemical properties and\nuses of organohalogen compounds After studying this Unit, you will be\n\u00b7able to\nname haloalkanes and haloarenes\naccording to the IUPAC system of\nnomenclature from their given\nstructures;\n\u00b7\ndescribe the reactions involved in\nthe preparation of haloalkanes and\nhaloarenes \nand \nunderstand\nvarious reactions that they\nundergo;\n\u00b7\ncorrelate \nthe \nstructures \nof\nhaloalkanes and haloarenes with\nvarious types of reactions;\n\u00b7\nuse stereochemistry as a tool for\nunderstanding \nthe \nreaction\nmechanism;\n\u00b7\nappreciate the applications of\norgano-metallic compounds;\n\u00b7\nhighlight the environmental effects\nof polyhalogen compounds Objectives\n6\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit6\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloar\nHaloar\nHaloar\nHaloar\nHaloarenes\nenes\nenes\nenes\nenes\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloar\nHaloar\nHaloar\nHaloar\nHaloarenes\nenes\nenes\nenes\nenes\nHalogenated compounds persist in the environment due to their\nresistance to breakdown by soil bacteria"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5212-5215", "Text": "In this Unit, you will study the important methods\nof preparation, physical and chemical properties and\nuses of organohalogen compounds After studying this Unit, you will be\n\u00b7able to\nname haloalkanes and haloarenes\naccording to the IUPAC system of\nnomenclature from their given\nstructures;\n\u00b7\ndescribe the reactions involved in\nthe preparation of haloalkanes and\nhaloarenes \nand \nunderstand\nvarious reactions that they\nundergo;\n\u00b7\ncorrelate \nthe \nstructures \nof\nhaloalkanes and haloarenes with\nvarious types of reactions;\n\u00b7\nuse stereochemistry as a tool for\nunderstanding \nthe \nreaction\nmechanism;\n\u00b7\nappreciate the applications of\norgano-metallic compounds;\n\u00b7\nhighlight the environmental effects\nof polyhalogen compounds Objectives\n6\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit6\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloar\nHaloar\nHaloar\nHaloar\nHaloarenes\nenes\nenes\nenes\nenes\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloar\nHaloar\nHaloar\nHaloar\nHaloarenes\nenes\nenes\nenes\nenes\nHalogenated compounds persist in the environment due to their\nresistance to breakdown by soil bacteria Rationalised 2023-24\n160\nChemistry\nHaloalkanes and haloarenes may be classified as follows:\nThese may be classified as mono, di, or polyhalogen (tri-,tetra-, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5213-5216", "Text": "After studying this Unit, you will be\n\u00b7able to\nname haloalkanes and haloarenes\naccording to the IUPAC system of\nnomenclature from their given\nstructures;\n\u00b7\ndescribe the reactions involved in\nthe preparation of haloalkanes and\nhaloarenes \nand \nunderstand\nvarious reactions that they\nundergo;\n\u00b7\ncorrelate \nthe \nstructures \nof\nhaloalkanes and haloarenes with\nvarious types of reactions;\n\u00b7\nuse stereochemistry as a tool for\nunderstanding \nthe \nreaction\nmechanism;\n\u00b7\nappreciate the applications of\norgano-metallic compounds;\n\u00b7\nhighlight the environmental effects\nof polyhalogen compounds Objectives\n6\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit6\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloar\nHaloar\nHaloar\nHaloar\nHaloarenes\nenes\nenes\nenes\nenes\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloar\nHaloar\nHaloar\nHaloar\nHaloarenes\nenes\nenes\nenes\nenes\nHalogenated compounds persist in the environment due to their\nresistance to breakdown by soil bacteria Rationalised 2023-24\n160\nChemistry\nHaloalkanes and haloarenes may be classified as follows:\nThese may be classified as mono, di, or polyhalogen (tri-,tetra-, etc )\ncompounds depending on whether they contain one, two or more halogen\natoms in their structures"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5214-5217", "Text": "Objectives\n6\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit6\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloar\nHaloar\nHaloar\nHaloar\nHaloarenes\nenes\nenes\nenes\nenes\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloalkanes and\nHaloar\nHaloar\nHaloar\nHaloar\nHaloarenes\nenes\nenes\nenes\nenes\nHalogenated compounds persist in the environment due to their\nresistance to breakdown by soil bacteria Rationalised 2023-24\n160\nChemistry\nHaloalkanes and haloarenes may be classified as follows:\nThese may be classified as mono, di, or polyhalogen (tri-,tetra-, etc )\ncompounds depending on whether they contain one, two or more halogen\natoms in their structures For example,\nMonohalocompounds may further be classified according to the\nhybridisation of the carbon atom to which the halogen is bonded, as\ndiscussed below"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5215-5218", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n160\nChemistry\nHaloalkanes and haloarenes may be classified as follows:\nThese may be classified as mono, di, or polyhalogen (tri-,tetra-, etc )\ncompounds depending on whether they contain one, two or more halogen\natoms in their structures For example,\nMonohalocompounds may further be classified according to the\nhybridisation of the carbon atom to which the halogen is bonded, as\ndiscussed below This class includes\n(a) Alkyl halides or haloalkanes (R\u2014X)\nIn alkyl halides, the halogen atom is bonded to an alkyl group (R)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5216-5219", "Text": ")\ncompounds depending on whether they contain one, two or more halogen\natoms in their structures For example,\nMonohalocompounds may further be classified according to the\nhybridisation of the carbon atom to which the halogen is bonded, as\ndiscussed below This class includes\n(a) Alkyl halides or haloalkanes (R\u2014X)\nIn alkyl halides, the halogen atom is bonded to an alkyl group (R) They form a homologous series represented by CnH2n+1X"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5217-5220", "Text": "For example,\nMonohalocompounds may further be classified according to the\nhybridisation of the carbon atom to which the halogen is bonded, as\ndiscussed below This class includes\n(a) Alkyl halides or haloalkanes (R\u2014X)\nIn alkyl halides, the halogen atom is bonded to an alkyl group (R) They form a homologous series represented by CnH2n+1X They are\nfurther classified as primary, secondary or tertiary according to the\nnature of carbon to which halogen is attached"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5218-5221", "Text": "This class includes\n(a) Alkyl halides or haloalkanes (R\u2014X)\nIn alkyl halides, the halogen atom is bonded to an alkyl group (R) They form a homologous series represented by CnH2n+1X They are\nfurther classified as primary, secondary or tertiary according to the\nnature of carbon to which halogen is attached If halogen is attached to\na primary carbon atom in an alkyl halide, the alkyl halide is called\nprimary alkyl halide or 1\u00b0 alkyl halide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5219-5222", "Text": "They form a homologous series represented by CnH2n+1X They are\nfurther classified as primary, secondary or tertiary according to the\nnature of carbon to which halogen is attached If halogen is attached to\na primary carbon atom in an alkyl halide, the alkyl halide is called\nprimary alkyl halide or 1\u00b0 alkyl halide Similarly, if halogen is attached\nto secondary or tertiary carbon atom, the alkyl halide is called\nsecondary alkyl halide (2\u00b0) and tertiary (3\u00b0) alkyl halide, respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5220-5223", "Text": "They are\nfurther classified as primary, secondary or tertiary according to the\nnature of carbon to which halogen is attached If halogen is attached to\na primary carbon atom in an alkyl halide, the alkyl halide is called\nprimary alkyl halide or 1\u00b0 alkyl halide Similarly, if halogen is attached\nto secondary or tertiary carbon atom, the alkyl halide is called\nsecondary alkyl halide (2\u00b0) and tertiary (3\u00b0) alkyl halide, respectively (b) Allylic halides\nThese are the compounds in which the halogen atom is bonded to an\nsp3-hybridised carbon atom adjacent to carbon-carbon double bond\n(C=C) i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5221-5224", "Text": "If halogen is attached to\na primary carbon atom in an alkyl halide, the alkyl halide is called\nprimary alkyl halide or 1\u00b0 alkyl halide Similarly, if halogen is attached\nto secondary or tertiary carbon atom, the alkyl halide is called\nsecondary alkyl halide (2\u00b0) and tertiary (3\u00b0) alkyl halide, respectively (b) Allylic halides\nThese are the compounds in which the halogen atom is bonded to an\nsp3-hybridised carbon atom adjacent to carbon-carbon double bond\n(C=C) i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5222-5225", "Text": "Similarly, if halogen is attached\nto secondary or tertiary carbon atom, the alkyl halide is called\nsecondary alkyl halide (2\u00b0) and tertiary (3\u00b0) alkyl halide, respectively (b) Allylic halides\nThese are the compounds in which the halogen atom is bonded to an\nsp3-hybridised carbon atom adjacent to carbon-carbon double bond\n(C=C) i e to an allylic carbon"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5223-5226", "Text": "(b) Allylic halides\nThese are the compounds in which the halogen atom is bonded to an\nsp3-hybridised carbon atom adjacent to carbon-carbon double bond\n(C=C) i e to an allylic carbon (c) Benzylic halides\nThese are the compounds in which the halogen atom is bonded to an\nsp3-hybridised carbon atom attached to an aromatic ring"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5224-5227", "Text": "e to an allylic carbon (c) Benzylic halides\nThese are the compounds in which the halogen atom is bonded to an\nsp3-hybridised carbon atom attached to an aromatic ring 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5225-5228", "Text": "to an allylic carbon (c) Benzylic halides\nThese are the compounds in which the halogen atom is bonded to an\nsp3-hybridised carbon atom attached to an aromatic ring 6 1\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5226-5229", "Text": "(c) Benzylic halides\nThese are the compounds in which the halogen atom is bonded to an\nsp3-hybridised carbon atom attached to an aromatic ring 6 1\n6 1\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5227-5230", "Text": "6 1\n6 1\n6 1\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5228-5231", "Text": "1\n6 1\n6 1\n6 1\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5229-5232", "Text": "1\n6 1\n6 1\n6 1 Classification\nClassification\nClassification\nClassification\nClassification\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5230-5233", "Text": "1\n6 1\n6 1 Classification\nClassification\nClassification\nClassification\nClassification\n6 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5231-5234", "Text": "1\n6 1 Classification\nClassification\nClassification\nClassification\nClassification\n6 1 1\nOn the\nBasis of\nNumber of\nHalogen\nAtoms\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5232-5235", "Text": "1 Classification\nClassification\nClassification\nClassification\nClassification\n6 1 1\nOn the\nBasis of\nNumber of\nHalogen\nAtoms\n6 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5233-5236", "Text": "1 1\nOn the\nBasis of\nNumber of\nHalogen\nAtoms\n6 1 2 Compounds\nContaining\nsp3 C\u2014X\nBond (X= F,\nCl, Br, I)\nAllylic carbon\nAllylic carbon\nRationalised 2023-24\n161 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nThis class includes:\n(a) Vinylic halides\nThese are the compounds in which the halogen atom is bonded to\na sp2-hybridised carbon atom of a carbon-carbon double bond\n(C = C)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5234-5237", "Text": "1\nOn the\nBasis of\nNumber of\nHalogen\nAtoms\n6 1 2 Compounds\nContaining\nsp3 C\u2014X\nBond (X= F,\nCl, Br, I)\nAllylic carbon\nAllylic carbon\nRationalised 2023-24\n161 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nThis class includes:\n(a) Vinylic halides\nThese are the compounds in which the halogen atom is bonded to\na sp2-hybridised carbon atom of a carbon-carbon double bond\n(C = C) (b) Aryl halides\nThese are the compounds in which the halogen atom is directly\nbonded to the sp2-hybridised carbon atom of an aromatic ring"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5235-5238", "Text": "1 2 Compounds\nContaining\nsp3 C\u2014X\nBond (X= F,\nCl, Br, I)\nAllylic carbon\nAllylic carbon\nRationalised 2023-24\n161 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nThis class includes:\n(a) Vinylic halides\nThese are the compounds in which the halogen atom is bonded to\na sp2-hybridised carbon atom of a carbon-carbon double bond\n(C = C) (b) Aryl halides\nThese are the compounds in which the halogen atom is directly\nbonded to the sp2-hybridised carbon atom of an aromatic ring Having learnt the classification of halogenated compounds, let us now learn\nhow these are named"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5236-5239", "Text": "2 Compounds\nContaining\nsp3 C\u2014X\nBond (X= F,\nCl, Br, I)\nAllylic carbon\nAllylic carbon\nRationalised 2023-24\n161 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nThis class includes:\n(a) Vinylic halides\nThese are the compounds in which the halogen atom is bonded to\na sp2-hybridised carbon atom of a carbon-carbon double bond\n(C = C) (b) Aryl halides\nThese are the compounds in which the halogen atom is directly\nbonded to the sp2-hybridised carbon atom of an aromatic ring Having learnt the classification of halogenated compounds, let us now learn\nhow these are named The common names of alkyl halides are derived by\nnaming the alkyl group followed by the name of halide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5237-5240", "Text": "(b) Aryl halides\nThese are the compounds in which the halogen atom is directly\nbonded to the sp2-hybridised carbon atom of an aromatic ring Having learnt the classification of halogenated compounds, let us now learn\nhow these are named The common names of alkyl halides are derived by\nnaming the alkyl group followed by the name of halide In the IUPAC system\nof nomenclature, alkyl halides are named as halosubstituted hydrocarbons"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5238-5241", "Text": "Having learnt the classification of halogenated compounds, let us now learn\nhow these are named The common names of alkyl halides are derived by\nnaming the alkyl group followed by the name of halide In the IUPAC system\nof nomenclature, alkyl halides are named as halosubstituted hydrocarbons For mono halogen substituted derivatives of benzene, common and IUPAC\nnames are the same"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5239-5242", "Text": "The common names of alkyl halides are derived by\nnaming the alkyl group followed by the name of halide In the IUPAC system\nof nomenclature, alkyl halides are named as halosubstituted hydrocarbons For mono halogen substituted derivatives of benzene, common and IUPAC\nnames are the same For dihalogen derivatives, the prefixes o-, m-, p- are\nused in common system but in IUPAC system, as you have learnt in Class\nXI, the numerals 1,2; 1,3 and 1,4 are used"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5240-5243", "Text": "In the IUPAC system\nof nomenclature, alkyl halides are named as halosubstituted hydrocarbons For mono halogen substituted derivatives of benzene, common and IUPAC\nnames are the same For dihalogen derivatives, the prefixes o-, m-, p- are\nused in common system but in IUPAC system, as you have learnt in Class\nXI, the numerals 1,2; 1,3 and 1,4 are used 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5241-5244", "Text": "For mono halogen substituted derivatives of benzene, common and IUPAC\nnames are the same For dihalogen derivatives, the prefixes o-, m-, p- are\nused in common system but in IUPAC system, as you have learnt in Class\nXI, the numerals 1,2; 1,3 and 1,4 are used 6 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5242-5245", "Text": "For dihalogen derivatives, the prefixes o-, m-, p- are\nused in common system but in IUPAC system, as you have learnt in Class\nXI, the numerals 1,2; 1,3 and 1,4 are used 6 1 3\nCompounds\nContaining\nsp2 C\u2014X\nBond\nThe dihaloalkanes having the same type of halogen atoms are named\nas alkylidene or alkylene dihalides"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5243-5246", "Text": "6 1 3\nCompounds\nContaining\nsp2 C\u2014X\nBond\nThe dihaloalkanes having the same type of halogen atoms are named\nas alkylidene or alkylene dihalides The dihalo-compounds having both\nthe halogen atoms are further classified as geminal halides or gem-dihalides\nwhen both the halogen atoms are present on the same carbon atom of the\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5244-5247", "Text": "1 3\nCompounds\nContaining\nsp2 C\u2014X\nBond\nThe dihaloalkanes having the same type of halogen atoms are named\nas alkylidene or alkylene dihalides The dihalo-compounds having both\nthe halogen atoms are further classified as geminal halides or gem-dihalides\nwhen both the halogen atoms are present on the same carbon atom of the\n6 2 \nNomenclature\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5245-5248", "Text": "3\nCompounds\nContaining\nsp2 C\u2014X\nBond\nThe dihaloalkanes having the same type of halogen atoms are named\nas alkylidene or alkylene dihalides The dihalo-compounds having both\nthe halogen atoms are further classified as geminal halides or gem-dihalides\nwhen both the halogen atoms are present on the same carbon atom of the\n6 2 \nNomenclature\n6 2 \nNomenclature\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5246-5249", "Text": "The dihalo-compounds having both\nthe halogen atoms are further classified as geminal halides or gem-dihalides\nwhen both the halogen atoms are present on the same carbon atom of the\n6 2 \nNomenclature\n6 2 \nNomenclature\n6 2 \nNomenclature\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5247-5250", "Text": "2 \nNomenclature\n6 2 \nNomenclature\n6 2 \nNomenclature\n6 2 \nNomenclature\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5248-5251", "Text": "2 \nNomenclature\n6 2 \nNomenclature\n6 2 \nNomenclature\n6 2 \nNomenclature\nRationalised 2023-24\n162\nChemistry\nchain and vicinal halides or vic-dihalides when halogen atoms are present\non adjacent carbon atoms"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5249-5252", "Text": "2 \nNomenclature\n6 2 \nNomenclature\n6 2 \nNomenclature\nRationalised 2023-24\n162\nChemistry\nchain and vicinal halides or vic-dihalides when halogen atoms are present\non adjacent carbon atoms In common name system, gem-dihalides are\nnamed as alkylidene halides and vic-dihalides are named as alkylene\ndihalides"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5250-5253", "Text": "2 \nNomenclature\n6 2 \nNomenclature\nRationalised 2023-24\n162\nChemistry\nchain and vicinal halides or vic-dihalides when halogen atoms are present\non adjacent carbon atoms In common name system, gem-dihalides are\nnamed as alkylidene halides and vic-dihalides are named as alkylene\ndihalides In IUPAC system, they are named as dihaloalkanes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5251-5254", "Text": "2 \nNomenclature\nRationalised 2023-24\n162\nChemistry\nchain and vicinal halides or vic-dihalides when halogen atoms are present\non adjacent carbon atoms In common name system, gem-dihalides are\nnamed as alkylidene halides and vic-dihalides are named as alkylene\ndihalides In IUPAC system, they are named as dihaloalkanes Structure\nCommon name\nIUPAC name\nCH3CH2CH(Cl)CH3\nsec-Butyl chloride\n2-Chlorobutane\n(CH3)3CCH2Br\nneo-Pentyl bromide\n1-Bromo-2,2-dimethylpropane\n(CH3)3CBr\ntert-Butyl bromide\n2-Bromo-2-methylpropane\nCH2 = CHCl\nVinyl chloride\nChloroethene\nCH2 = CHCH2Br\nAllyl bromide\n3-Bromopropene\nCH2Cl2\nMethylene chloride\nDichloromethane\nCHCl3\nChloroform\nTrichloromethane\nCHBr3\nBromoform\nTribromomethane\nCCl4\nCarbon tetrachloride Tetrachloromethane\nCH3CH2CH2F\nn-Propyl fluoride\n1-Fluoropropane\no-Chlorotoluene\n1-Chloro-2-methylbenzene\nor\n2-Chlorotoluene\nBenzyl chloride\nChlorophenylmethane\nTable 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5252-5255", "Text": "In common name system, gem-dihalides are\nnamed as alkylidene halides and vic-dihalides are named as alkylene\ndihalides In IUPAC system, they are named as dihaloalkanes Structure\nCommon name\nIUPAC name\nCH3CH2CH(Cl)CH3\nsec-Butyl chloride\n2-Chlorobutane\n(CH3)3CCH2Br\nneo-Pentyl bromide\n1-Bromo-2,2-dimethylpropane\n(CH3)3CBr\ntert-Butyl bromide\n2-Bromo-2-methylpropane\nCH2 = CHCl\nVinyl chloride\nChloroethene\nCH2 = CHCH2Br\nAllyl bromide\n3-Bromopropene\nCH2Cl2\nMethylene chloride\nDichloromethane\nCHCl3\nChloroform\nTrichloromethane\nCHBr3\nBromoform\nTribromomethane\nCCl4\nCarbon tetrachloride Tetrachloromethane\nCH3CH2CH2F\nn-Propyl fluoride\n1-Fluoropropane\no-Chlorotoluene\n1-Chloro-2-methylbenzene\nor\n2-Chlorotoluene\nBenzyl chloride\nChlorophenylmethane\nTable 6 1: Common and IUPAC Names of some Halides\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5253-5256", "Text": "In IUPAC system, they are named as dihaloalkanes Structure\nCommon name\nIUPAC name\nCH3CH2CH(Cl)CH3\nsec-Butyl chloride\n2-Chlorobutane\n(CH3)3CCH2Br\nneo-Pentyl bromide\n1-Bromo-2,2-dimethylpropane\n(CH3)3CBr\ntert-Butyl bromide\n2-Bromo-2-methylpropane\nCH2 = CHCl\nVinyl chloride\nChloroethene\nCH2 = CHCH2Br\nAllyl bromide\n3-Bromopropene\nCH2Cl2\nMethylene chloride\nDichloromethane\nCHCl3\nChloroform\nTrichloromethane\nCHBr3\nBromoform\nTribromomethane\nCCl4\nCarbon tetrachloride Tetrachloromethane\nCH3CH2CH2F\nn-Propyl fluoride\n1-Fluoropropane\no-Chlorotoluene\n1-Chloro-2-methylbenzene\nor\n2-Chlorotoluene\nBenzyl chloride\nChlorophenylmethane\nTable 6 1: Common and IUPAC Names of some Halides\nExample 6 1\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5254-5257", "Text": "Structure\nCommon name\nIUPAC name\nCH3CH2CH(Cl)CH3\nsec-Butyl chloride\n2-Chlorobutane\n(CH3)3CCH2Br\nneo-Pentyl bromide\n1-Bromo-2,2-dimethylpropane\n(CH3)3CBr\ntert-Butyl bromide\n2-Bromo-2-methylpropane\nCH2 = CHCl\nVinyl chloride\nChloroethene\nCH2 = CHCH2Br\nAllyl bromide\n3-Bromopropene\nCH2Cl2\nMethylene chloride\nDichloromethane\nCHCl3\nChloroform\nTrichloromethane\nCHBr3\nBromoform\nTribromomethane\nCCl4\nCarbon tetrachloride Tetrachloromethane\nCH3CH2CH2F\nn-Propyl fluoride\n1-Fluoropropane\no-Chlorotoluene\n1-Chloro-2-methylbenzene\nor\n2-Chlorotoluene\nBenzyl chloride\nChlorophenylmethane\nTable 6 1: Common and IUPAC Names of some Halides\nExample 6 1\nExample 6 1\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5255-5258", "Text": "1: Common and IUPAC Names of some Halides\nExample 6 1\nExample 6 1\nExample 6 1\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5256-5259", "Text": "1\nExample 6 1\nExample 6 1\nExample 6 1\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5257-5260", "Text": "1\nExample 6 1\nExample 6 1\nExample 6 1\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nDraw the structures of all the eight structural isomers that have the\nmolecular formula C5H11Br"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5258-5261", "Text": "1\nExample 6 1\nExample 6 1\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nDraw the structures of all the eight structural isomers that have the\nmolecular formula C5H11Br Name each isomer according to IUPAC system\nand classify them as primary, secondary or tertiary bromide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5259-5262", "Text": "1\nExample 6 1\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nDraw the structures of all the eight structural isomers that have the\nmolecular formula C5H11Br Name each isomer according to IUPAC system\nand classify them as primary, secondary or tertiary bromide CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2Br\n1-Bromopentane (1\no)\nCH3CH2CH2CH(Br)CH3\n2-Bromopentane(2\no)\nCH3CH2CH(Br)CH2CH3\n3-Bromopentane (2\no)\n(CH3)2CHCH2CH2Br\n1-Bromo-3-methylbutane (1\no)\nSome common examples of halocompounds are mentioned in Table 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5260-5263", "Text": "1\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nDraw the structures of all the eight structural isomers that have the\nmolecular formula C5H11Br Name each isomer according to IUPAC system\nand classify them as primary, secondary or tertiary bromide CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2Br\n1-Bromopentane (1\no)\nCH3CH2CH2CH(Br)CH3\n2-Bromopentane(2\no)\nCH3CH2CH(Br)CH2CH3\n3-Bromopentane (2\no)\n(CH3)2CHCH2CH2Br\n1-Bromo-3-methylbutane (1\no)\nSome common examples of halocompounds are mentioned in Table 6 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5261-5264", "Text": "Name each isomer according to IUPAC system\nand classify them as primary, secondary or tertiary bromide CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2Br\n1-Bromopentane (1\no)\nCH3CH2CH2CH(Br)CH3\n2-Bromopentane(2\no)\nCH3CH2CH(Br)CH2CH3\n3-Bromopentane (2\no)\n(CH3)2CHCH2CH2Br\n1-Bromo-3-methylbutane (1\no)\nSome common examples of halocompounds are mentioned in Table 6 1 Rationalised 2023-24\n163 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5262-5265", "Text": "CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2Br\n1-Bromopentane (1\no)\nCH3CH2CH2CH(Br)CH3\n2-Bromopentane(2\no)\nCH3CH2CH(Br)CH2CH3\n3-Bromopentane (2\no)\n(CH3)2CHCH2CH2Br\n1-Bromo-3-methylbutane (1\no)\nSome common examples of halocompounds are mentioned in Table 6 1 Rationalised 2023-24\n163 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n6 1 Write structures of the following compounds:\n(i) 2-Chloro-3-methylpentane\n(ii) 1-Chloro-4-ethylcyclohexane\n(iii) 4-tert"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5263-5266", "Text": "1 Rationalised 2023-24\n163 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n6 1 Write structures of the following compounds:\n(i) 2-Chloro-3-methylpentane\n(ii) 1-Chloro-4-ethylcyclohexane\n(iii) 4-tert Butyl-3-iodoheptane\n(iv) 1,4-Dibromobut-2-ene\n(v) 1-Bromo-4-sec"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5264-5267", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n163 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n6 1 Write structures of the following compounds:\n(i) 2-Chloro-3-methylpentane\n(ii) 1-Chloro-4-ethylcyclohexane\n(iii) 4-tert Butyl-3-iodoheptane\n(iv) 1,4-Dibromobut-2-ene\n(v) 1-Bromo-4-sec butyl-2-methylbenzene"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5265-5268", "Text": "1 Write structures of the following compounds:\n(i) 2-Chloro-3-methylpentane\n(ii) 1-Chloro-4-ethylcyclohexane\n(iii) 4-tert Butyl-3-iodoheptane\n(iv) 1,4-Dibromobut-2-ene\n(v) 1-Bromo-4-sec butyl-2-methylbenzene Halogen atoms are more electronegative than carbon, therefore,\ncarbon-halogen bond of alkyl halide is polarised; the carbon atom bears\na partial positive charge whereas the halogen atom bears a partial\nnegative charge"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5266-5269", "Text": "Butyl-3-iodoheptane\n(iv) 1,4-Dibromobut-2-ene\n(v) 1-Bromo-4-sec butyl-2-methylbenzene Halogen atoms are more electronegative than carbon, therefore,\ncarbon-halogen bond of alkyl halide is polarised; the carbon atom bears\na partial positive charge whereas the halogen atom bears a partial\nnegative charge As we go down the group in the periodic table, the size of halogen\natom increases"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5267-5270", "Text": "butyl-2-methylbenzene Halogen atoms are more electronegative than carbon, therefore,\ncarbon-halogen bond of alkyl halide is polarised; the carbon atom bears\na partial positive charge whereas the halogen atom bears a partial\nnegative charge As we go down the group in the periodic table, the size of halogen\natom increases Fluorine atom is the smallest and iodine atom is the\nlargest"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5268-5271", "Text": "Halogen atoms are more electronegative than carbon, therefore,\ncarbon-halogen bond of alkyl halide is polarised; the carbon atom bears\na partial positive charge whereas the halogen atom bears a partial\nnegative charge As we go down the group in the periodic table, the size of halogen\natom increases Fluorine atom is the smallest and iodine atom is the\nlargest Consequently the carbon-halogen bond length also increases\nfrom C\u2014F to C\u2014I"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5269-5272", "Text": "As we go down the group in the periodic table, the size of halogen\natom increases Fluorine atom is the smallest and iodine atom is the\nlargest Consequently the carbon-halogen bond length also increases\nfrom C\u2014F to C\u2014I Some typical bond lengths, bond enthalpies and\ndipole moments are given in Table 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5270-5273", "Text": "Fluorine atom is the smallest and iodine atom is the\nlargest Consequently the carbon-halogen bond length also increases\nfrom C\u2014F to C\u2014I Some typical bond lengths, bond enthalpies and\ndipole moments are given in Table 6 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5271-5274", "Text": "Consequently the carbon-halogen bond length also increases\nfrom C\u2014F to C\u2014I Some typical bond lengths, bond enthalpies and\ndipole moments are given in Table 6 2 Alkyl halides are best prepared from alcohols, which are easily accessible"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5272-5275", "Text": "Some typical bond lengths, bond enthalpies and\ndipole moments are given in Table 6 2 Alkyl halides are best prepared from alcohols, which are easily accessible 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5273-5276", "Text": "2 Alkyl halides are best prepared from alcohols, which are easily accessible 6 3\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5274-5277", "Text": "Alkyl halides are best prepared from alcohols, which are easily accessible 6 3\n6 3\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5275-5278", "Text": "6 3\n6 3\n6 3\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5276-5279", "Text": "3\n6 3\n6 3\n6 3\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5277-5280", "Text": "3\n6 3\n6 3\n6 3\nNature of\nNature of\nNature of\nNature of\nNature of\nC-X Bond\nC-X Bond\nC-X Bond\nC-X Bond\nC-X Bond\n(CH3)2CHCHBrCH3\n2-Bromo-3-methylbutane(2\no)\n(CH3)2CBrCH2CH3\n2-Bromo-2-methylbutane (3\no)\nCH3CH2CH(CH3)CH2Br\n1-Bromo-2-methylbutane(1\no)\n(CH3)3CCH2Br\n1-Bromo-2,2-dimethylpropane (1\no)\nWrite IUPAC names of the following:\n(i) 4-Bromopent-2-ene\n(ii) 3-Bromo-2-methylbut-1-ene\n(iii) 4-Bromo-3-methylpent-2-ene\n(iv) 1-Bromo-2-methylbut-2-ene\n(v) 1-Bromobut-2-ene\n(vi) 3-Bromo-2-methylpropene\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5278-5281", "Text": "3\n6 3\n6 3\nNature of\nNature of\nNature of\nNature of\nNature of\nC-X Bond\nC-X Bond\nC-X Bond\nC-X Bond\nC-X Bond\n(CH3)2CHCHBrCH3\n2-Bromo-3-methylbutane(2\no)\n(CH3)2CBrCH2CH3\n2-Bromo-2-methylbutane (3\no)\nCH3CH2CH(CH3)CH2Br\n1-Bromo-2-methylbutane(1\no)\n(CH3)3CCH2Br\n1-Bromo-2,2-dimethylpropane (1\no)\nWrite IUPAC names of the following:\n(i) 4-Bromopent-2-ene\n(ii) 3-Bromo-2-methylbut-1-ene\n(iii) 4-Bromo-3-methylpent-2-ene\n(iv) 1-Bromo-2-methylbut-2-ene\n(v) 1-Bromobut-2-ene\n(vi) 3-Bromo-2-methylpropene\nExample 6 2\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5279-5282", "Text": "3\n6 3\nNature of\nNature of\nNature of\nNature of\nNature of\nC-X Bond\nC-X Bond\nC-X Bond\nC-X Bond\nC-X Bond\n(CH3)2CHCHBrCH3\n2-Bromo-3-methylbutane(2\no)\n(CH3)2CBrCH2CH3\n2-Bromo-2-methylbutane (3\no)\nCH3CH2CH(CH3)CH2Br\n1-Bromo-2-methylbutane(1\no)\n(CH3)3CCH2Br\n1-Bromo-2,2-dimethylpropane (1\no)\nWrite IUPAC names of the following:\n(i) 4-Bromopent-2-ene\n(ii) 3-Bromo-2-methylbut-1-ene\n(iii) 4-Bromo-3-methylpent-2-ene\n(iv) 1-Bromo-2-methylbut-2-ene\n(v) 1-Bromobut-2-ene\n(vi) 3-Bromo-2-methylpropene\nExample 6 2\nExample 6 2\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5280-5283", "Text": "3\nNature of\nNature of\nNature of\nNature of\nNature of\nC-X Bond\nC-X Bond\nC-X Bond\nC-X Bond\nC-X Bond\n(CH3)2CHCHBrCH3\n2-Bromo-3-methylbutane(2\no)\n(CH3)2CBrCH2CH3\n2-Bromo-2-methylbutane (3\no)\nCH3CH2CH(CH3)CH2Br\n1-Bromo-2-methylbutane(1\no)\n(CH3)3CCH2Br\n1-Bromo-2,2-dimethylpropane (1\no)\nWrite IUPAC names of the following:\n(i) 4-Bromopent-2-ene\n(ii) 3-Bromo-2-methylbut-1-ene\n(iii) 4-Bromo-3-methylpent-2-ene\n(iv) 1-Bromo-2-methylbut-2-ene\n(v) 1-Bromobut-2-ene\n(vi) 3-Bromo-2-methylpropene\nExample 6 2\nExample 6 2\nExample 6 2\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5281-5284", "Text": "2\nExample 6 2\nExample 6 2\nExample 6 2\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5282-5285", "Text": "2\nExample 6 2\nExample 6 2\nExample 6 2\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n164\nChemistry\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5283-5286", "Text": "2\nExample 6 2\nExample 6 2\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n164\nChemistry\n6 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5284-5287", "Text": "2\nExample 6 2\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n164\nChemistry\n6 4 2\nFrom\nHydrocarbons\nBond\nBond length/pm\nC-X Bond enthalpies/ kJmol-1\nDipole moment/Debye\nCH3\u2013F\n139\n452\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5285-5288", "Text": "2\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n164\nChemistry\n6 4 2\nFrom\nHydrocarbons\nBond\nBond length/pm\nC-X Bond enthalpies/ kJmol-1\nDipole moment/Debye\nCH3\u2013F\n139\n452\n1 847\nCH3\u2013 Cl\n178\n351\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5286-5289", "Text": "4 2\nFrom\nHydrocarbons\nBond\nBond length/pm\nC-X Bond enthalpies/ kJmol-1\nDipole moment/Debye\nCH3\u2013F\n139\n452\n1 847\nCH3\u2013 Cl\n178\n351\n1 860\nCH3\u2013Br\n193\n293\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5287-5290", "Text": "2\nFrom\nHydrocarbons\nBond\nBond length/pm\nC-X Bond enthalpies/ kJmol-1\nDipole moment/Debye\nCH3\u2013F\n139\n452\n1 847\nCH3\u2013 Cl\n178\n351\n1 860\nCH3\u2013Br\n193\n293\n1 830\nCH3\u2013I\n214\n234\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5288-5291", "Text": "847\nCH3\u2013 Cl\n178\n351\n1 860\nCH3\u2013Br\n193\n293\n1 830\nCH3\u2013I\n214\n234\n1 636\nTable 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5289-5292", "Text": "860\nCH3\u2013Br\n193\n293\n1 830\nCH3\u2013I\n214\n234\n1 636\nTable 6 2:\nCarbon-Halogen (C\u2014X) Bond Lengths, Bond\nEnthalpies and Dipole Moments\n The preparation of alkyl chloride is carried out either by passing\ndry hydrogen chloride gas through a solution of alcohol or by heating\na mixture of alcohol and concentrated aqueous halogen acid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5290-5293", "Text": "830\nCH3\u2013I\n214\n234\n1 636\nTable 6 2:\nCarbon-Halogen (C\u2014X) Bond Lengths, Bond\nEnthalpies and Dipole Moments\n The preparation of alkyl chloride is carried out either by passing\ndry hydrogen chloride gas through a solution of alcohol or by heating\na mixture of alcohol and concentrated aqueous halogen acid The above methods are not applicable for the preparation of aryl\nhalides because the carbon-oxygen bond in phenols has a partial double\nbond character and is difficult to break being stronger than a single\nbond"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5291-5294", "Text": "636\nTable 6 2:\nCarbon-Halogen (C\u2014X) Bond Lengths, Bond\nEnthalpies and Dipole Moments\n The preparation of alkyl chloride is carried out either by passing\ndry hydrogen chloride gas through a solution of alcohol or by heating\na mixture of alcohol and concentrated aqueous halogen acid The above methods are not applicable for the preparation of aryl\nhalides because the carbon-oxygen bond in phenols has a partial double\nbond character and is difficult to break being stronger than a single\nbond (I) From alkanes by free radical halogenation\nFree radical chlorination or bromination of alkanes gives a complex\nmixture of isomeric mono- and polyhaloalkanes, which is difficult to\nThe hydroxyl group of an alcohol is replaced by halogen on reaction with\nconcentrated halogen acids, phosphorus halides or thionyl chloride"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5292-5295", "Text": "2:\nCarbon-Halogen (C\u2014X) Bond Lengths, Bond\nEnthalpies and Dipole Moments\n The preparation of alkyl chloride is carried out either by passing\ndry hydrogen chloride gas through a solution of alcohol or by heating\na mixture of alcohol and concentrated aqueous halogen acid The above methods are not applicable for the preparation of aryl\nhalides because the carbon-oxygen bond in phenols has a partial double\nbond character and is difficult to break being stronger than a single\nbond (I) From alkanes by free radical halogenation\nFree radical chlorination or bromination of alkanes gives a complex\nmixture of isomeric mono- and polyhaloalkanes, which is difficult to\nThe hydroxyl group of an alcohol is replaced by halogen on reaction with\nconcentrated halogen acids, phosphorus halides or thionyl chloride Thionyl chloride is preferred because in this reaction alkyl halide is formed\nalong with gases SO2 and HCl"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5293-5296", "Text": "The above methods are not applicable for the preparation of aryl\nhalides because the carbon-oxygen bond in phenols has a partial double\nbond character and is difficult to break being stronger than a single\nbond (I) From alkanes by free radical halogenation\nFree radical chlorination or bromination of alkanes gives a complex\nmixture of isomeric mono- and polyhaloalkanes, which is difficult to\nThe hydroxyl group of an alcohol is replaced by halogen on reaction with\nconcentrated halogen acids, phosphorus halides or thionyl chloride Thionyl chloride is preferred because in this reaction alkyl halide is formed\nalong with gases SO2 and HCl The two gaseous products are escapable,\nhence, the reaction gives pure alkyl halides"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5294-5297", "Text": "(I) From alkanes by free radical halogenation\nFree radical chlorination or bromination of alkanes gives a complex\nmixture of isomeric mono- and polyhaloalkanes, which is difficult to\nThe hydroxyl group of an alcohol is replaced by halogen on reaction with\nconcentrated halogen acids, phosphorus halides or thionyl chloride Thionyl chloride is preferred because in this reaction alkyl halide is formed\nalong with gases SO2 and HCl The two gaseous products are escapable,\nhence, the reaction gives pure alkyl halides The reactions of primary and\nsecondary alcohols with HCl require the presence of a catalyst, ZnCl2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5295-5298", "Text": "Thionyl chloride is preferred because in this reaction alkyl halide is formed\nalong with gases SO2 and HCl The two gaseous products are escapable,\nhence, the reaction gives pure alkyl halides The reactions of primary and\nsecondary alcohols with HCl require the presence of a catalyst, ZnCl2 With tertiary alcohols, the reaction is conducted by simply shaking the\nalcohol with concentrated HCl at room temperature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5296-5299", "Text": "The two gaseous products are escapable,\nhence, the reaction gives pure alkyl halides The reactions of primary and\nsecondary alcohols with HCl require the presence of a catalyst, ZnCl2 With tertiary alcohols, the reaction is conducted by simply shaking the\nalcohol with concentrated HCl at room temperature Constant boiling\nwith HBr (48%) is used for preparing alkyl bromide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5297-5300", "Text": "The reactions of primary and\nsecondary alcohols with HCl require the presence of a catalyst, ZnCl2 With tertiary alcohols, the reaction is conducted by simply shaking the\nalcohol with concentrated HCl at room temperature Constant boiling\nwith HBr (48%) is used for preparing alkyl bromide Good yields of\nR\u2014I may be obtained by heating alcohols with sodium or potassium\niodide in 95% orthophosphoric acid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5298-5301", "Text": "With tertiary alcohols, the reaction is conducted by simply shaking the\nalcohol with concentrated HCl at room temperature Constant boiling\nwith HBr (48%) is used for preparing alkyl bromide Good yields of\nR\u2014I may be obtained by heating alcohols with sodium or potassium\niodide in 95% orthophosphoric acid The order of reactivity of alcohols\nwith a given haloacid is 3\u00b0>2\u00b0>1\u00b0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5299-5302", "Text": "Constant boiling\nwith HBr (48%) is used for preparing alkyl bromide Good yields of\nR\u2014I may be obtained by heating alcohols with sodium or potassium\niodide in 95% orthophosphoric acid The order of reactivity of alcohols\nwith a given haloacid is 3\u00b0>2\u00b0>1\u00b0 Phosphorus tribromide and triiodide\nare usually generated in situ (produced in the reaction mixture) by the\nreaction of red phosphorus with bromine and iodine respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5300-5303", "Text": "Good yields of\nR\u2014I may be obtained by heating alcohols with sodium or potassium\niodide in 95% orthophosphoric acid The order of reactivity of alcohols\nwith a given haloacid is 3\u00b0>2\u00b0>1\u00b0 Phosphorus tribromide and triiodide\nare usually generated in situ (produced in the reaction mixture) by the\nreaction of red phosphorus with bromine and iodine respectively 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5301-5304", "Text": "The order of reactivity of alcohols\nwith a given haloacid is 3\u00b0>2\u00b0>1\u00b0 Phosphorus tribromide and triiodide\nare usually generated in situ (produced in the reaction mixture) by the\nreaction of red phosphorus with bromine and iodine respectively 6 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5302-5305", "Text": "Phosphorus tribromide and triiodide\nare usually generated in situ (produced in the reaction mixture) by the\nreaction of red phosphorus with bromine and iodine respectively 6 4 1 From Alcohols\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5303-5306", "Text": "6 4 1 From Alcohols\n6 4\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5304-5307", "Text": "4 1 From Alcohols\n6 4\n6 4\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5305-5308", "Text": "1 From Alcohols\n6 4\n6 4\n6 4\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5306-5309", "Text": "4\n6 4\n6 4\n6 4\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5307-5310", "Text": "4\n6 4\n6 4\n6 4\nMethods of\nMethods of\nMethods of\nMethods of\nMethods of\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nof Haloalkanes\nof Haloalkanes\nof Haloalkanes\nof Haloalkanes\nof Haloalkanes\nRationalised 2023-24\n165 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nseparate as pure compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5308-5311", "Text": "4\n6 4\n6 4\nMethods of\nMethods of\nMethods of\nMethods of\nMethods of\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nof Haloalkanes\nof Haloalkanes\nof Haloalkanes\nof Haloalkanes\nof Haloalkanes\nRationalised 2023-24\n165 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nseparate as pure compounds Consequently, the yield of any single\ncompound is low"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5309-5312", "Text": "4\n6 4\nMethods of\nMethods of\nMethods of\nMethods of\nMethods of\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nof Haloalkanes\nof Haloalkanes\nof Haloalkanes\nof Haloalkanes\nof Haloalkanes\nRationalised 2023-24\n165 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nseparate as pure compounds Consequently, the yield of any single\ncompound is low Identify all the possible monochloro structural isomers expected to be\nformed on free radical monochlorination of (CH3)2CHCH2CH3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5310-5313", "Text": "4\nMethods of\nMethods of\nMethods of\nMethods of\nMethods of\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nof Haloalkanes\nof Haloalkanes\nof Haloalkanes\nof Haloalkanes\nof Haloalkanes\nRationalised 2023-24\n165 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nseparate as pure compounds Consequently, the yield of any single\ncompound is low Identify all the possible monochloro structural isomers expected to be\nformed on free radical monochlorination of (CH3)2CHCH2CH3 In the given molecule, there are four different types of hydrogen atoms"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5311-5314", "Text": "Consequently, the yield of any single\ncompound is low Identify all the possible monochloro structural isomers expected to be\nformed on free radical monochlorination of (CH3)2CHCH2CH3 In the given molecule, there are four different types of hydrogen atoms Replacement of these hydrogen atoms will give the following\n(CH3)2CHCH2CH2Cl\n(CH3)2CHCH(Cl)CH3\n(CH3)2C(Cl)CH2CH3\nCH3CH(CH2Cl)CH2CH3\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5312-5315", "Text": "Identify all the possible monochloro structural isomers expected to be\nformed on free radical monochlorination of (CH3)2CHCH2CH3 In the given molecule, there are four different types of hydrogen atoms Replacement of these hydrogen atoms will give the following\n(CH3)2CHCH2CH2Cl\n(CH3)2CHCH(Cl)CH3\n(CH3)2C(Cl)CH2CH3\nCH3CH(CH2Cl)CH2CH3\nExample 6 3\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5313-5316", "Text": "In the given molecule, there are four different types of hydrogen atoms Replacement of these hydrogen atoms will give the following\n(CH3)2CHCH2CH2Cl\n(CH3)2CHCH(Cl)CH3\n(CH3)2C(Cl)CH2CH3\nCH3CH(CH2Cl)CH2CH3\nExample 6 3\nExample 6 3\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5314-5317", "Text": "Replacement of these hydrogen atoms will give the following\n(CH3)2CHCH2CH2Cl\n(CH3)2CHCH(Cl)CH3\n(CH3)2C(Cl)CH2CH3\nCH3CH(CH2Cl)CH2CH3\nExample 6 3\nExample 6 3\nExample 6 3\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5315-5318", "Text": "3\nExample 6 3\nExample 6 3\nExample 6 3\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5316-5319", "Text": "3\nExample 6 3\nExample 6 3\nExample 6 3\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n(II) From alkenes\n(i) Addition of hydrogen halides: An alkene is converted to\ncorresponding alkyl halide by reaction with hydrogen chloride,\nhydrogen bromide or hydrogen iodide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5317-5320", "Text": "3\nExample 6 3\nExample 6 3\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n(II) From alkenes\n(i) Addition of hydrogen halides: An alkene is converted to\ncorresponding alkyl halide by reaction with hydrogen chloride,\nhydrogen bromide or hydrogen iodide Propene yields two products, however only one predominates as\nper Markovnikov\u2019s rule"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5318-5321", "Text": "3\nExample 6 3\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n(II) From alkenes\n(i) Addition of hydrogen halides: An alkene is converted to\ncorresponding alkyl halide by reaction with hydrogen chloride,\nhydrogen bromide or hydrogen iodide Propene yields two products, however only one predominates as\nper Markovnikov\u2019s rule (Unit 13, Class XI)\n(ii) Addition of halogens: In the laboratory, addition of bromine in\nCCl4 to an alkene resulting in discharge of reddish brown colour\nof bromine constitutes an important method for the detection of\ndouble bond in a molecule"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5319-5322", "Text": "3\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n(II) From alkenes\n(i) Addition of hydrogen halides: An alkene is converted to\ncorresponding alkyl halide by reaction with hydrogen chloride,\nhydrogen bromide or hydrogen iodide Propene yields two products, however only one predominates as\nper Markovnikov\u2019s rule (Unit 13, Class XI)\n(ii) Addition of halogens: In the laboratory, addition of bromine in\nCCl4 to an alkene resulting in discharge of reddish brown colour\nof bromine constitutes an important method for the detection of\ndouble bond in a molecule The addition results in the synthesis\nof vic-dibromides, which are colourless (Unit 9, Class XI)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5320-5323", "Text": "Propene yields two products, however only one predominates as\nper Markovnikov\u2019s rule (Unit 13, Class XI)\n(ii) Addition of halogens: In the laboratory, addition of bromine in\nCCl4 to an alkene resulting in discharge of reddish brown colour\nof bromine constitutes an important method for the detection of\ndouble bond in a molecule The addition results in the synthesis\nof vic-dibromides, which are colourless (Unit 9, Class XI) Alkyl iodides are often prepared by the reaction of alkyl chlorides/\nbromides with NaI in dry acetone"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5321-5324", "Text": "(Unit 13, Class XI)\n(ii) Addition of halogens: In the laboratory, addition of bromine in\nCCl4 to an alkene resulting in discharge of reddish brown colour\nof bromine constitutes an important method for the detection of\ndouble bond in a molecule The addition results in the synthesis\nof vic-dibromides, which are colourless (Unit 9, Class XI) Alkyl iodides are often prepared by the reaction of alkyl chlorides/\nbromides with NaI in dry acetone This reaction is known as Finkelstein\nreaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5322-5325", "Text": "The addition results in the synthesis\nof vic-dibromides, which are colourless (Unit 9, Class XI) Alkyl iodides are often prepared by the reaction of alkyl chlorides/\nbromides with NaI in dry acetone This reaction is known as Finkelstein\nreaction NaCl or NaBr thus formed is precipitated in dry acetone"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5323-5326", "Text": "Alkyl iodides are often prepared by the reaction of alkyl chlorides/\nbromides with NaI in dry acetone This reaction is known as Finkelstein\nreaction NaCl or NaBr thus formed is precipitated in dry acetone It facilitates\nthe forward reaction according to Le Chatelier\u2019s Principle"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5324-5327", "Text": "This reaction is known as Finkelstein\nreaction NaCl or NaBr thus formed is precipitated in dry acetone It facilitates\nthe forward reaction according to Le Chatelier\u2019s Principle The synthesis of alkyl fluorides is best accomplished by heating an\nalkyl chloride/bromide in the presence of a metallic fluoride such as\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5325-5328", "Text": "NaCl or NaBr thus formed is precipitated in dry acetone It facilitates\nthe forward reaction according to Le Chatelier\u2019s Principle The synthesis of alkyl fluorides is best accomplished by heating an\nalkyl chloride/bromide in the presence of a metallic fluoride such as\n6 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5326-5329", "Text": "It facilitates\nthe forward reaction according to Le Chatelier\u2019s Principle The synthesis of alkyl fluorides is best accomplished by heating an\nalkyl chloride/bromide in the presence of a metallic fluoride such as\n6 4 3 Halogen\nExchange\nRationalised 2023-24\n166\nChemistry\nAgF, Hg2F2, CoF2 or SbF3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5327-5330", "Text": "The synthesis of alkyl fluorides is best accomplished by heating an\nalkyl chloride/bromide in the presence of a metallic fluoride such as\n6 4 3 Halogen\nExchange\nRationalised 2023-24\n166\nChemistry\nAgF, Hg2F2, CoF2 or SbF3 The reaction is termed as Swarts reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5328-5331", "Text": "4 3 Halogen\nExchange\nRationalised 2023-24\n166\nChemistry\nAgF, Hg2F2, CoF2 or SbF3 The reaction is termed as Swarts reaction (i) From hydrocarbons by electrophilic substitution\nAryl chlorides and bromides can be easily prepared by electrophilic\nsubstitution of arenes with chlorine and bromine respectively in the\npresence of Lewis acid catalysts like iron or iron(III) chloride"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5329-5332", "Text": "3 Halogen\nExchange\nRationalised 2023-24\n166\nChemistry\nAgF, Hg2F2, CoF2 or SbF3 The reaction is termed as Swarts reaction (i) From hydrocarbons by electrophilic substitution\nAryl chlorides and bromides can be easily prepared by electrophilic\nsubstitution of arenes with chlorine and bromine respectively in the\npresence of Lewis acid catalysts like iron or iron(III) chloride The ortho and para isomers can be easily separated due to large\ndifference in their melting points"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5330-5333", "Text": "The reaction is termed as Swarts reaction (i) From hydrocarbons by electrophilic substitution\nAryl chlorides and bromides can be easily prepared by electrophilic\nsubstitution of arenes with chlorine and bromine respectively in the\npresence of Lewis acid catalysts like iron or iron(III) chloride The ortho and para isomers can be easily separated due to large\ndifference in their melting points Reactions with iodine are reversible\nin nature and require the presence of an oxidising agent (HNO3,\nHIO4) to oxidise the HI formed during iodination"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5331-5334", "Text": "(i) From hydrocarbons by electrophilic substitution\nAryl chlorides and bromides can be easily prepared by electrophilic\nsubstitution of arenes with chlorine and bromine respectively in the\npresence of Lewis acid catalysts like iron or iron(III) chloride The ortho and para isomers can be easily separated due to large\ndifference in their melting points Reactions with iodine are reversible\nin nature and require the presence of an oxidising agent (HNO3,\nHIO4) to oxidise the HI formed during iodination Fluoro compounds\nare not prepared by this method due to high reactivity of fluorine"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5332-5335", "Text": "The ortho and para isomers can be easily separated due to large\ndifference in their melting points Reactions with iodine are reversible\nin nature and require the presence of an oxidising agent (HNO3,\nHIO4) to oxidise the HI formed during iodination Fluoro compounds\nare not prepared by this method due to high reactivity of fluorine (ii) From amines by Sandmeyer\u2019s reaction\nWhen a primary aromatic amine, dissolved or suspended in cold\naqueous mineral acid, is treated with sodium nitrite, a diazonium\nsalt is formed"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5333-5336", "Text": "Reactions with iodine are reversible\nin nature and require the presence of an oxidising agent (HNO3,\nHIO4) to oxidise the HI formed during iodination Fluoro compounds\nare not prepared by this method due to high reactivity of fluorine (ii) From amines by Sandmeyer\u2019s reaction\nWhen a primary aromatic amine, dissolved or suspended in cold\naqueous mineral acid, is treated with sodium nitrite, a diazonium\nsalt is formed Mixing the solution of freshly prepared diazonium\nsalt with cuprous chloride or cuprous bromide results in the\nreplacement of the diazonium group by \u2013Cl or \u2013Br"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5334-5337", "Text": "Fluoro compounds\nare not prepared by this method due to high reactivity of fluorine (ii) From amines by Sandmeyer\u2019s reaction\nWhen a primary aromatic amine, dissolved or suspended in cold\naqueous mineral acid, is treated with sodium nitrite, a diazonium\nsalt is formed Mixing the solution of freshly prepared diazonium\nsalt with cuprous chloride or cuprous bromide results in the\nreplacement of the diazonium group by \u2013Cl or \u2013Br Replacement of the diazonium group by iodine does not require the\npresence of cuprous halide and is done simply by shaking the diazonium\nsalt with potassium iodide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5335-5338", "Text": "(ii) From amines by Sandmeyer\u2019s reaction\nWhen a primary aromatic amine, dissolved or suspended in cold\naqueous mineral acid, is treated with sodium nitrite, a diazonium\nsalt is formed Mixing the solution of freshly prepared diazonium\nsalt with cuprous chloride or cuprous bromide results in the\nreplacement of the diazonium group by \u2013Cl or \u2013Br Replacement of the diazonium group by iodine does not require the\npresence of cuprous halide and is done simply by shaking the diazonium\nsalt with potassium iodide 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5336-5339", "Text": "Mixing the solution of freshly prepared diazonium\nsalt with cuprous chloride or cuprous bromide results in the\nreplacement of the diazonium group by \u2013Cl or \u2013Br Replacement of the diazonium group by iodine does not require the\npresence of cuprous halide and is done simply by shaking the diazonium\nsalt with potassium iodide 6 5\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5337-5340", "Text": "Replacement of the diazonium group by iodine does not require the\npresence of cuprous halide and is done simply by shaking the diazonium\nsalt with potassium iodide 6 5\n6 5\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5338-5341", "Text": "6 5\n6 5\n6 5\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5339-5342", "Text": "5\n6 5\n6 5\n6 5\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5340-5343", "Text": "5\n6 5\n6 5\n6 5\nPreparation of\nPreparation of\nPreparation of\nPreparation of\nPreparation of\nHaloarenes\nHaloarenes\nHaloarenes\nHaloarenes\nHaloarenes\nRationalised 2023-24\n167 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nAlkyl halides are colourless when pure"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5341-5344", "Text": "5\n6 5\n6 5\nPreparation of\nPreparation of\nPreparation of\nPreparation of\nPreparation of\nHaloarenes\nHaloarenes\nHaloarenes\nHaloarenes\nHaloarenes\nRationalised 2023-24\n167 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nAlkyl halides are colourless when pure However, bromides and iodides\ndevelop colour when exposed to light"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5342-5345", "Text": "5\n6 5\nPreparation of\nPreparation of\nPreparation of\nPreparation of\nPreparation of\nHaloarenes\nHaloarenes\nHaloarenes\nHaloarenes\nHaloarenes\nRationalised 2023-24\n167 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nAlkyl halides are colourless when pure However, bromides and iodides\ndevelop colour when exposed to light Many volatile halogen compounds\nhave sweet smell"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5343-5346", "Text": "5\nPreparation of\nPreparation of\nPreparation of\nPreparation of\nPreparation of\nHaloarenes\nHaloarenes\nHaloarenes\nHaloarenes\nHaloarenes\nRationalised 2023-24\n167 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nAlkyl halides are colourless when pure However, bromides and iodides\ndevelop colour when exposed to light Many volatile halogen compounds\nhave sweet smell 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5344-5347", "Text": "However, bromides and iodides\ndevelop colour when exposed to light Many volatile halogen compounds\nhave sweet smell 6 2\nWhy is sulphuric acid not used during the reaction of alcohols with KI"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5345-5348", "Text": "Many volatile halogen compounds\nhave sweet smell 6 2\nWhy is sulphuric acid not used during the reaction of alcohols with KI 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5346-5349", "Text": "6 2\nWhy is sulphuric acid not used during the reaction of alcohols with KI 6 3\nWrite structures of different dihalogen derivatives of propane"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5347-5350", "Text": "2\nWhy is sulphuric acid not used during the reaction of alcohols with KI 6 3\nWrite structures of different dihalogen derivatives of propane 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5348-5351", "Text": "6 3\nWrite structures of different dihalogen derivatives of propane 6 4\nAmong the isomeric alkanes of molecular formula C5H12, identify the one that\non photochemical chlorination yields\n(i) A single monochloride"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5349-5352", "Text": "3\nWrite structures of different dihalogen derivatives of propane 6 4\nAmong the isomeric alkanes of molecular formula C5H12, identify the one that\non photochemical chlorination yields\n(i) A single monochloride (ii) Three isomeric monochlorides"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5350-5353", "Text": "6 4\nAmong the isomeric alkanes of molecular formula C5H12, identify the one that\non photochemical chlorination yields\n(i) A single monochloride (ii) Three isomeric monochlorides (iii) Four isomeric monochlorides"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5351-5354", "Text": "4\nAmong the isomeric alkanes of molecular formula C5H12, identify the one that\non photochemical chlorination yields\n(i) A single monochloride (ii) Three isomeric monochlorides (iii) Four isomeric monochlorides 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5352-5355", "Text": "(ii) Three isomeric monochlorides (iii) Four isomeric monochlorides 6 5\nDraw the structures of major monohalo products in each of the following\nreactions:\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nWrite the products of the following reactions:\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5353-5356", "Text": "(iii) Four isomeric monochlorides 6 5\nDraw the structures of major monohalo products in each of the following\nreactions:\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nWrite the products of the following reactions:\nExample 6 4\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5354-5357", "Text": "6 5\nDraw the structures of major monohalo products in each of the following\nreactions:\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nWrite the products of the following reactions:\nExample 6 4\nExample 6 4\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5355-5358", "Text": "5\nDraw the structures of major monohalo products in each of the following\nreactions:\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nWrite the products of the following reactions:\nExample 6 4\nExample 6 4\nExample 6 4\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5356-5359", "Text": "4\nExample 6 4\nExample 6 4\nExample 6 4\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5357-5360", "Text": "4\nExample 6 4\nExample 6 4\nExample 6 4\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5358-5361", "Text": "4\nExample 6 4\nExample 6 4\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n6 6\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5359-5362", "Text": "4\nExample 6 4\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n6 6\n6 6\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5360-5363", "Text": "4\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n6 6\n6 6\n6 6\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5361-5364", "Text": "6\n6 6\n6 6\n6 6\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5362-5365", "Text": "6\n6 6\n6 6\n6 6 Physical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nRationalised 2023-24\n168\nChemistry\nMelting and boiling points\nMethyl chloride, methyl bromide, ethyl chloride and some\nchlorofluoromethanes are gases at room temperature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5363-5366", "Text": "6\n6 6\n6 6 Physical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nRationalised 2023-24\n168\nChemistry\nMelting and boiling points\nMethyl chloride, methyl bromide, ethyl chloride and some\nchlorofluoromethanes are gases at room temperature Higher members\nare liquids or solids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5364-5367", "Text": "6\n6 6 Physical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nRationalised 2023-24\n168\nChemistry\nMelting and boiling points\nMethyl chloride, methyl bromide, ethyl chloride and some\nchlorofluoromethanes are gases at room temperature Higher members\nare liquids or solids As we have already learnt, molecules of organic\nhalogen compounds are generally polar"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5365-5368", "Text": "6 Physical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nRationalised 2023-24\n168\nChemistry\nMelting and boiling points\nMethyl chloride, methyl bromide, ethyl chloride and some\nchlorofluoromethanes are gases at room temperature Higher members\nare liquids or solids As we have already learnt, molecules of organic\nhalogen compounds are generally polar Due to greater polarity as well\nas higher molecular mass as compared to the parent hydrocarbon, the\nintermolecular forces of attraction (dipole-dipole and van der Waals)\nare stronger in the halogen derivatives"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5366-5369", "Text": "Higher members\nare liquids or solids As we have already learnt, molecules of organic\nhalogen compounds are generally polar Due to greater polarity as well\nas higher molecular mass as compared to the parent hydrocarbon, the\nintermolecular forces of attraction (dipole-dipole and van der Waals)\nare stronger in the halogen derivatives That is why the boiling points\nof chlorides, bromides and iodides are considerably higher than those\nof the hydrocarbons of comparable molecular mass"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5367-5370", "Text": "As we have already learnt, molecules of organic\nhalogen compounds are generally polar Due to greater polarity as well\nas higher molecular mass as compared to the parent hydrocarbon, the\nintermolecular forces of attraction (dipole-dipole and van der Waals)\nare stronger in the halogen derivatives That is why the boiling points\nof chlorides, bromides and iodides are considerably higher than those\nof the hydrocarbons of comparable molecular mass The attractions get stronger as the molecules get bigger in size and\nhave more electrons"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5368-5371", "Text": "Due to greater polarity as well\nas higher molecular mass as compared to the parent hydrocarbon, the\nintermolecular forces of attraction (dipole-dipole and van der Waals)\nare stronger in the halogen derivatives That is why the boiling points\nof chlorides, bromides and iodides are considerably higher than those\nof the hydrocarbons of comparable molecular mass The attractions get stronger as the molecules get bigger in size and\nhave more electrons The pattern of variation of boiling points of different\nhalides is depicted in Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5369-5372", "Text": "That is why the boiling points\nof chlorides, bromides and iodides are considerably higher than those\nof the hydrocarbons of comparable molecular mass The attractions get stronger as the molecules get bigger in size and\nhave more electrons The pattern of variation of boiling points of different\nhalides is depicted in Fig 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5370-5373", "Text": "The attractions get stronger as the molecules get bigger in size and\nhave more electrons The pattern of variation of boiling points of different\nhalides is depicted in Fig 6 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5371-5374", "Text": "The pattern of variation of boiling points of different\nhalides is depicted in Fig 6 1 For the same alkyl group, the boiling\npoints of alkyl halides decrease in the order: RI> RBr> RCl> RF"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5372-5375", "Text": "6 1 For the same alkyl group, the boiling\npoints of alkyl halides decrease in the order: RI> RBr> RCl> RF This\nis because with the increase in size and mass of halogen atom, the\nmagnitude of van der Waal forces increases"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5373-5376", "Text": "1 For the same alkyl group, the boiling\npoints of alkyl halides decrease in the order: RI> RBr> RCl> RF This\nis because with the increase in size and mass of halogen atom, the\nmagnitude of van der Waal forces increases The boiling points of isomeric haloalkanes decrease with increase\nin branching"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5374-5377", "Text": "For the same alkyl group, the boiling\npoints of alkyl halides decrease in the order: RI> RBr> RCl> RF This\nis because with the increase in size and mass of halogen atom, the\nmagnitude of van der Waal forces increases The boiling points of isomeric haloalkanes decrease with increase\nin branching For example, 2-bromo-2-methylpropane has the lowest\nboiling point among the three isomers"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5375-5378", "Text": "This\nis because with the increase in size and mass of halogen atom, the\nmagnitude of van der Waal forces increases The boiling points of isomeric haloalkanes decrease with increase\nin branching For example, 2-bromo-2-methylpropane has the lowest\nboiling point among the three isomers Boiling points of isomeric dihalobenzenes are very nearly the same"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5376-5379", "Text": "The boiling points of isomeric haloalkanes decrease with increase\nin branching For example, 2-bromo-2-methylpropane has the lowest\nboiling point among the three isomers Boiling points of isomeric dihalobenzenes are very nearly the same However, the para-isomers are high melting as compared to their ortho-\nand meta-isomers"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5377-5380", "Text": "For example, 2-bromo-2-methylpropane has the lowest\nboiling point among the three isomers Boiling points of isomeric dihalobenzenes are very nearly the same However, the para-isomers are high melting as compared to their ortho-\nand meta-isomers It is due to symmetry of para-isomers that fits in\ncrystal lattice better as compared to ortho- and meta-isomers"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5378-5381", "Text": "Boiling points of isomeric dihalobenzenes are very nearly the same However, the para-isomers are high melting as compared to their ortho-\nand meta-isomers It is due to symmetry of para-isomers that fits in\ncrystal lattice better as compared to ortho- and meta-isomers Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5379-5382", "Text": "However, the para-isomers are high melting as compared to their ortho-\nand meta-isomers It is due to symmetry of para-isomers that fits in\ncrystal lattice better as compared to ortho- and meta-isomers Fig 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5380-5383", "Text": "It is due to symmetry of para-isomers that fits in\ncrystal lattice better as compared to ortho- and meta-isomers Fig 6 1: Comparison of boiling points of some alkyl halides\nRationalised 2023-24\n169 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nSolubility\nThe haloalkanes are very slightly soluble in water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5381-5384", "Text": "Fig 6 1: Comparison of boiling points of some alkyl halides\nRationalised 2023-24\n169 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nSolubility\nThe haloalkanes are very slightly soluble in water In order to dissolve\nhaloalkane in water, energy is required to overcome the attractions between\nthe haloalkane molecules and break the hydrogen bonds between water\nmolecules"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5382-5385", "Text": "6 1: Comparison of boiling points of some alkyl halides\nRationalised 2023-24\n169 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nSolubility\nThe haloalkanes are very slightly soluble in water In order to dissolve\nhaloalkane in water, energy is required to overcome the attractions between\nthe haloalkane molecules and break the hydrogen bonds between water\nmolecules Less energy is released when new attractions are set up between\nthe haloalkane and the water molecules as these are not as strong as the\noriginal hydrogen bonds in water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5383-5386", "Text": "1: Comparison of boiling points of some alkyl halides\nRationalised 2023-24\n169 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nSolubility\nThe haloalkanes are very slightly soluble in water In order to dissolve\nhaloalkane in water, energy is required to overcome the attractions between\nthe haloalkane molecules and break the hydrogen bonds between water\nmolecules Less energy is released when new attractions are set up between\nthe haloalkane and the water molecules as these are not as strong as the\noriginal hydrogen bonds in water As a result, the solubility of haloalkanes\nin water is low"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5384-5387", "Text": "In order to dissolve\nhaloalkane in water, energy is required to overcome the attractions between\nthe haloalkane molecules and break the hydrogen bonds between water\nmolecules Less energy is released when new attractions are set up between\nthe haloalkane and the water molecules as these are not as strong as the\noriginal hydrogen bonds in water As a result, the solubility of haloalkanes\nin water is low However, haloalkanes tend to dissolve in organic solvents\nbecause the new intermolecular attractions between haloalkanes and\nsolvent molecules have much the same strength as the ones being broken\nin the separate haloalkane and solvent molecules"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5385-5388", "Text": "Less energy is released when new attractions are set up between\nthe haloalkane and the water molecules as these are not as strong as the\noriginal hydrogen bonds in water As a result, the solubility of haloalkanes\nin water is low However, haloalkanes tend to dissolve in organic solvents\nbecause the new intermolecular attractions between haloalkanes and\nsolvent molecules have much the same strength as the ones being broken\nin the separate haloalkane and solvent molecules Table 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5386-5389", "Text": "As a result, the solubility of haloalkanes\nin water is low However, haloalkanes tend to dissolve in organic solvents\nbecause the new intermolecular attractions between haloalkanes and\nsolvent molecules have much the same strength as the ones being broken\nin the separate haloalkane and solvent molecules Table 6 3: Density of Some Haloalkanes\nDensity\nBromo, iodo and polychloro derivatives of hydrocarbons are heavier than\nwater"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5387-5390", "Text": "However, haloalkanes tend to dissolve in organic solvents\nbecause the new intermolecular attractions between haloalkanes and\nsolvent molecules have much the same strength as the ones being broken\nin the separate haloalkane and solvent molecules Table 6 3: Density of Some Haloalkanes\nDensity\nBromo, iodo and polychloro derivatives of hydrocarbons are heavier than\nwater The density increases with increase in number of carbon atoms,\nhalogen atoms and atomic mass of the halogen atoms (Table 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5388-5391", "Text": "Table 6 3: Density of Some Haloalkanes\nDensity\nBromo, iodo and polychloro derivatives of hydrocarbons are heavier than\nwater The density increases with increase in number of carbon atoms,\nhalogen atoms and atomic mass of the halogen atoms (Table 6 3)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5389-5392", "Text": "3: Density of Some Haloalkanes\nDensity\nBromo, iodo and polychloro derivatives of hydrocarbons are heavier than\nwater The density increases with increase in number of carbon atoms,\nhalogen atoms and atomic mass of the halogen atoms (Table 6 3) The reactions of haloalkanes may be divided into the following categories:\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5390-5393", "Text": "The density increases with increase in number of carbon atoms,\nhalogen atoms and atomic mass of the halogen atoms (Table 6 3) The reactions of haloalkanes may be divided into the following categories:\n1 Nucleophilic substitution\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5391-5394", "Text": "3) The reactions of haloalkanes may be divided into the following categories:\n1 Nucleophilic substitution\n2 Elimination reactions\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5392-5395", "Text": "The reactions of haloalkanes may be divided into the following categories:\n1 Nucleophilic substitution\n2 Elimination reactions\n3 Reaction with metals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5393-5396", "Text": "Nucleophilic substitution\n2 Elimination reactions\n3 Reaction with metals (1)Nucleophilic substitution reactions\nYou have learnt in Class XI that nucleophiles are electron rich species"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5394-5397", "Text": "Elimination reactions\n3 Reaction with metals (1)Nucleophilic substitution reactions\nYou have learnt in Class XI that nucleophiles are electron rich species Therefore, they attack at that part of the substrate molecule which\nis electron deficient"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5395-5398", "Text": "Reaction with metals (1)Nucleophilic substitution reactions\nYou have learnt in Class XI that nucleophiles are electron rich species Therefore, they attack at that part of the substrate molecule which\nis electron deficient The reaction in which a nucleophile replaces\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5396-5399", "Text": "(1)Nucleophilic substitution reactions\nYou have learnt in Class XI that nucleophiles are electron rich species Therefore, they attack at that part of the substrate molecule which\nis electron deficient The reaction in which a nucleophile replaces\n6 6\nArrange each set of compounds in order of increasing boiling points"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5397-5400", "Text": "Therefore, they attack at that part of the substrate molecule which\nis electron deficient The reaction in which a nucleophile replaces\n6 6\nArrange each set of compounds in order of increasing boiling points (i) Bromomethane, Bromoform, Chloromethane, Dibromomethane"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5398-5401", "Text": "The reaction in which a nucleophile replaces\n6 6\nArrange each set of compounds in order of increasing boiling points (i) Bromomethane, Bromoform, Chloromethane, Dibromomethane (ii) 1-Chloropropane, Isopropyl chloride, 1-Chlorobutane"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5399-5402", "Text": "6\nArrange each set of compounds in order of increasing boiling points (i) Bromomethane, Bromoform, Chloromethane, Dibromomethane (ii) 1-Chloropropane, Isopropyl chloride, 1-Chlorobutane Intext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5400-5403", "Text": "(i) Bromomethane, Bromoform, Chloromethane, Dibromomethane (ii) 1-Chloropropane, Isopropyl chloride, 1-Chlorobutane Intext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n6 7\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5401-5404", "Text": "(ii) 1-Chloropropane, Isopropyl chloride, 1-Chlorobutane Intext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n6 7\n6 7\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5402-5405", "Text": "Intext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n6 7\n6 7\n6 7\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5403-5406", "Text": "7\n6 7\n6 7\n6 7\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5404-5407", "Text": "7\n6 7\n6 7\n6 7\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nCompound\nDensity (g/mL)\nCompound\nDensity (g/mL)\nn\u2013C3H7Cl\n 0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5405-5408", "Text": "7\n6 7\n6 7\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nCompound\nDensity (g/mL)\nCompound\nDensity (g/mL)\nn\u2013C3H7Cl\n 0 89\nCH2Cl2\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5406-5409", "Text": "7\n6 7\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nCompound\nDensity (g/mL)\nCompound\nDensity (g/mL)\nn\u2013C3H7Cl\n 0 89\nCH2Cl2\n1 336\nn\u2013C3H7Br\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5407-5410", "Text": "7\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nCompound\nDensity (g/mL)\nCompound\nDensity (g/mL)\nn\u2013C3H7Cl\n 0 89\nCH2Cl2\n1 336\nn\u2013C3H7Br\n1 335\nCHCl3\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5408-5411", "Text": "89\nCH2Cl2\n1 336\nn\u2013C3H7Br\n1 335\nCHCl3\n1 489\nn-C3H7I\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5409-5412", "Text": "336\nn\u2013C3H7Br\n1 335\nCHCl3\n1 489\nn-C3H7I\n1 747\nCCl4\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5410-5413", "Text": "335\nCHCl3\n1 489\nn-C3H7I\n1 747\nCCl4\n1 595\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5411-5414", "Text": "489\nn-C3H7I\n1 747\nCCl4\n1 595\n6 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5412-5415", "Text": "747\nCCl4\n1 595\n6 7 1\nReactions of\nHaloalkanes\nRationalised 2023-24\n170\nChemistry\nalready existing nucleophile in a molecule is called nucleophilic\nsubstitution reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5413-5416", "Text": "595\n6 7 1\nReactions of\nHaloalkanes\nRationalised 2023-24\n170\nChemistry\nalready existing nucleophile in a molecule is called nucleophilic\nsubstitution reaction Haloalkanes are substrate in these reactions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5414-5417", "Text": "7 1\nReactions of\nHaloalkanes\nRationalised 2023-24\n170\nChemistry\nalready existing nucleophile in a molecule is called nucleophilic\nsubstitution reaction Haloalkanes are substrate in these reactions In this type of reaction, a nucleophile reacts with haloalkane (the\nsubstrate) having a partial positive charge on the carbon atom bonded\nto halogen"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5415-5418", "Text": "1\nReactions of\nHaloalkanes\nRationalised 2023-24\n170\nChemistry\nalready existing nucleophile in a molecule is called nucleophilic\nsubstitution reaction Haloalkanes are substrate in these reactions In this type of reaction, a nucleophile reacts with haloalkane (the\nsubstrate) having a partial positive charge on the carbon atom bonded\nto halogen A substitution reaction takes place and halogen atom,\ncalled leaving group departs as halide ion"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5416-5419", "Text": "Haloalkanes are substrate in these reactions In this type of reaction, a nucleophile reacts with haloalkane (the\nsubstrate) having a partial positive charge on the carbon atom bonded\nto halogen A substitution reaction takes place and halogen atom,\ncalled leaving group departs as halide ion Since the substitution\nreaction is initiated by a nucleophile, it is called nucleophilic\nsubstitution reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5417-5420", "Text": "In this type of reaction, a nucleophile reacts with haloalkane (the\nsubstrate) having a partial positive charge on the carbon atom bonded\nto halogen A substitution reaction takes place and halogen atom,\ncalled leaving group departs as halide ion Since the substitution\nreaction is initiated by a nucleophile, it is called nucleophilic\nsubstitution reaction It is one of the most useful classes of organic reactions of alkyl\nhalides in which halogen is bonded to sp3 hybridised carbon"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5418-5421", "Text": "A substitution reaction takes place and halogen atom,\ncalled leaving group departs as halide ion Since the substitution\nreaction is initiated by a nucleophile, it is called nucleophilic\nsubstitution reaction It is one of the most useful classes of organic reactions of alkyl\nhalides in which halogen is bonded to sp3 hybridised carbon The\nproducts formed by the reaction of haloalkanes with some common\nnucleophiles are given in Table 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5419-5422", "Text": "Since the substitution\nreaction is initiated by a nucleophile, it is called nucleophilic\nsubstitution reaction It is one of the most useful classes of organic reactions of alkyl\nhalides in which halogen is bonded to sp3 hybridised carbon The\nproducts formed by the reaction of haloalkanes with some common\nnucleophiles are given in Table 6 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5420-5423", "Text": "It is one of the most useful classes of organic reactions of alkyl\nhalides in which halogen is bonded to sp3 hybridised carbon The\nproducts formed by the reaction of haloalkanes with some common\nnucleophiles are given in Table 6 4 Groups like cyanides and nitrites possess two nucleophilic centres\nand are called ambident nucleophiles"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5421-5424", "Text": "The\nproducts formed by the reaction of haloalkanes with some common\nnucleophiles are given in Table 6 4 Groups like cyanides and nitrites possess two nucleophilic centres\nand are called ambident nucleophiles Actually cyanide group is a\nhybrid of two contributing structures and therefore can act as a\nnucleophile in two different ways [VC\u00baN \u00ab :C=NV], i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5422-5425", "Text": "4 Groups like cyanides and nitrites possess two nucleophilic centres\nand are called ambident nucleophiles Actually cyanide group is a\nhybrid of two contributing structures and therefore can act as a\nnucleophile in two different ways [VC\u00baN \u00ab :C=NV], i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5423-5426", "Text": "Groups like cyanides and nitrites possess two nucleophilic centres\nand are called ambident nucleophiles Actually cyanide group is a\nhybrid of two contributing structures and therefore can act as a\nnucleophile in two different ways [VC\u00baN \u00ab :C=NV], i e , linking through\nTable 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5424-5427", "Text": "Actually cyanide group is a\nhybrid of two contributing structures and therefore can act as a\nnucleophile in two different ways [VC\u00baN \u00ab :C=NV], i e , linking through\nTable 6 4: Nucleophilic Substitution of Alkyl Halides (R\u2013X)\nReagent\nNucleophile\nSubstitution\nClass of main\n(Nu\u2013)\nproduct R\u2013Nu\nproduct\nNaOH (KOH)\nHO\u2013\nROH\nAlcohol\nH2O\nH2O\nROH\nAlcohol\nNaOR\u00a2\nR\u00a2O\u2013\nROR\u00a2\nEther\nNaI\nI\u2013\nR\u2014I\nAlkyl iodide\nNH3\nNH3\nRNH2\nPrimary amine\nR\u00a2NH2\nR\u00a2NH2\nRNHR\u00a2\nSec"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5425-5428", "Text": "e , linking through\nTable 6 4: Nucleophilic Substitution of Alkyl Halides (R\u2013X)\nReagent\nNucleophile\nSubstitution\nClass of main\n(Nu\u2013)\nproduct R\u2013Nu\nproduct\nNaOH (KOH)\nHO\u2013\nROH\nAlcohol\nH2O\nH2O\nROH\nAlcohol\nNaOR\u00a2\nR\u00a2O\u2013\nROR\u00a2\nEther\nNaI\nI\u2013\nR\u2014I\nAlkyl iodide\nNH3\nNH3\nRNH2\nPrimary amine\nR\u00a2NH2\nR\u00a2NH2\nRNHR\u00a2\nSec amine\nR\u00a2R\u00a2\u00a2NH\nR\u00a2R\u00a2\u00a2NH\nRNR\u00a2R\u00a2\u00a2\nTert"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5426-5429", "Text": ", linking through\nTable 6 4: Nucleophilic Substitution of Alkyl Halides (R\u2013X)\nReagent\nNucleophile\nSubstitution\nClass of main\n(Nu\u2013)\nproduct R\u2013Nu\nproduct\nNaOH (KOH)\nHO\u2013\nROH\nAlcohol\nH2O\nH2O\nROH\nAlcohol\nNaOR\u00a2\nR\u00a2O\u2013\nROR\u00a2\nEther\nNaI\nI\u2013\nR\u2014I\nAlkyl iodide\nNH3\nNH3\nRNH2\nPrimary amine\nR\u00a2NH2\nR\u00a2NH2\nRNHR\u00a2\nSec amine\nR\u00a2R\u00a2\u00a2NH\nR\u00a2R\u00a2\u00a2NH\nRNR\u00a2R\u00a2\u00a2\nTert amine\nKCN\nRCN\nNitrile\n(cyanide)\nAgCN\nAg-CN:\nRNC\nIsonitrile\n(isocyanide)\nKNO2\nO=N\u2014O\nR\u2014O\u2014N=O\nAlkyl nitrite\nAgNO2\nAg\u2014\u00d6\u2014N=O\nR\u2014NO2\nNitroalkane\nR\u00a2COOAg\nR\u00a2COO\u2013\nR\u00a2COOR\nEster\nLiAlH4\nH\nRH\nHydrocarbon\nR\u00a2\u2013 M+\nR\u00a2\u2013\nRR\u00a2\nAlkane\nRationalised 2023-24\n171 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\ncarbon atom resulting in alkyl cyanides and through nitrogen atom\nleading to isocyanides"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5427-5430", "Text": "4: Nucleophilic Substitution of Alkyl Halides (R\u2013X)\nReagent\nNucleophile\nSubstitution\nClass of main\n(Nu\u2013)\nproduct R\u2013Nu\nproduct\nNaOH (KOH)\nHO\u2013\nROH\nAlcohol\nH2O\nH2O\nROH\nAlcohol\nNaOR\u00a2\nR\u00a2O\u2013\nROR\u00a2\nEther\nNaI\nI\u2013\nR\u2014I\nAlkyl iodide\nNH3\nNH3\nRNH2\nPrimary amine\nR\u00a2NH2\nR\u00a2NH2\nRNHR\u00a2\nSec amine\nR\u00a2R\u00a2\u00a2NH\nR\u00a2R\u00a2\u00a2NH\nRNR\u00a2R\u00a2\u00a2\nTert amine\nKCN\nRCN\nNitrile\n(cyanide)\nAgCN\nAg-CN:\nRNC\nIsonitrile\n(isocyanide)\nKNO2\nO=N\u2014O\nR\u2014O\u2014N=O\nAlkyl nitrite\nAgNO2\nAg\u2014\u00d6\u2014N=O\nR\u2014NO2\nNitroalkane\nR\u00a2COOAg\nR\u00a2COO\u2013\nR\u00a2COOR\nEster\nLiAlH4\nH\nRH\nHydrocarbon\nR\u00a2\u2013 M+\nR\u00a2\u2013\nRR\u00a2\nAlkane\nRationalised 2023-24\n171 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\ncarbon atom resulting in alkyl cyanides and through nitrogen atom\nleading to isocyanides Similarly nitrite ion also represents an ambident\nnucleophile with two different points of linkage [\u2013O\u2014 N\ni i\n=O]"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5428-5431", "Text": "amine\nR\u00a2R\u00a2\u00a2NH\nR\u00a2R\u00a2\u00a2NH\nRNR\u00a2R\u00a2\u00a2\nTert amine\nKCN\nRCN\nNitrile\n(cyanide)\nAgCN\nAg-CN:\nRNC\nIsonitrile\n(isocyanide)\nKNO2\nO=N\u2014O\nR\u2014O\u2014N=O\nAlkyl nitrite\nAgNO2\nAg\u2014\u00d6\u2014N=O\nR\u2014NO2\nNitroalkane\nR\u00a2COOAg\nR\u00a2COO\u2013\nR\u00a2COOR\nEster\nLiAlH4\nH\nRH\nHydrocarbon\nR\u00a2\u2013 M+\nR\u00a2\u2013\nRR\u00a2\nAlkane\nRationalised 2023-24\n171 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\ncarbon atom resulting in alkyl cyanides and through nitrogen atom\nleading to isocyanides Similarly nitrite ion also represents an ambident\nnucleophile with two different points of linkage [\u2013O\u2014 N\ni i\n=O] The linkage\nthrough oxygen results in alkyl nitrites while through nitrogen atom, it\nleads to nitroalkanes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5429-5432", "Text": "amine\nKCN\nRCN\nNitrile\n(cyanide)\nAgCN\nAg-CN:\nRNC\nIsonitrile\n(isocyanide)\nKNO2\nO=N\u2014O\nR\u2014O\u2014N=O\nAlkyl nitrite\nAgNO2\nAg\u2014\u00d6\u2014N=O\nR\u2014NO2\nNitroalkane\nR\u00a2COOAg\nR\u00a2COO\u2013\nR\u00a2COOR\nEster\nLiAlH4\nH\nRH\nHydrocarbon\nR\u00a2\u2013 M+\nR\u00a2\u2013\nRR\u00a2\nAlkane\nRationalised 2023-24\n171 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\ncarbon atom resulting in alkyl cyanides and through nitrogen atom\nleading to isocyanides Similarly nitrite ion also represents an ambident\nnucleophile with two different points of linkage [\u2013O\u2014 N\ni i\n=O] The linkage\nthrough oxygen results in alkyl nitrites while through nitrogen atom, it\nleads to nitroalkanes Mechanism: This reaction has been found to proceed by two different\nmechanims which are described below:\n(a) Substitution nucleophilic bimolecular (SN2)\nThe reaction between CH3Cl and hydroxide ion to yield methanol and\nchloride ion follows a second order kinetics, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5430-5433", "Text": "Similarly nitrite ion also represents an ambident\nnucleophile with two different points of linkage [\u2013O\u2014 N\ni i\n=O] The linkage\nthrough oxygen results in alkyl nitrites while through nitrogen atom, it\nleads to nitroalkanes Mechanism: This reaction has been found to proceed by two different\nmechanims which are described below:\n(a) Substitution nucleophilic bimolecular (SN2)\nThe reaction between CH3Cl and hydroxide ion to yield methanol and\nchloride ion follows a second order kinetics, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5431-5434", "Text": "The linkage\nthrough oxygen results in alkyl nitrites while through nitrogen atom, it\nleads to nitroalkanes Mechanism: This reaction has been found to proceed by two different\nmechanims which are described below:\n(a) Substitution nucleophilic bimolecular (SN2)\nThe reaction between CH3Cl and hydroxide ion to yield methanol and\nchloride ion follows a second order kinetics, i e , the rate depends\nupon the concentration of both the reactants"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5432-5435", "Text": "Mechanism: This reaction has been found to proceed by two different\nmechanims which are described below:\n(a) Substitution nucleophilic bimolecular (SN2)\nThe reaction between CH3Cl and hydroxide ion to yield methanol and\nchloride ion follows a second order kinetics, i e , the rate depends\nupon the concentration of both the reactants Haloalkanes react with KCN to form alkyl cyanides as main product\nwhile AgCN forms isocyanides as the chief product"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5433-5436", "Text": "e , the rate depends\nupon the concentration of both the reactants Haloalkanes react with KCN to form alkyl cyanides as main product\nwhile AgCN forms isocyanides as the chief product Explain"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5434-5437", "Text": ", the rate depends\nupon the concentration of both the reactants Haloalkanes react with KCN to form alkyl cyanides as main product\nwhile AgCN forms isocyanides as the chief product Explain KCN is predominantly ionic and provides cyanide ions in solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5435-5438", "Text": "Haloalkanes react with KCN to form alkyl cyanides as main product\nwhile AgCN forms isocyanides as the chief product Explain KCN is predominantly ionic and provides cyanide ions in solution Although both carbon and nitrogen atoms are in a position to donate\nelectron pairs, the attack takes place mainly through carbon atom and\nnot through nitrogen atom since C\u2014C bond is more stable than C\u2014N\nbond"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5436-5439", "Text": "Explain KCN is predominantly ionic and provides cyanide ions in solution Although both carbon and nitrogen atoms are in a position to donate\nelectron pairs, the attack takes place mainly through carbon atom and\nnot through nitrogen atom since C\u2014C bond is more stable than C\u2014N\nbond However, AgCN is mainly covalent in nature and nitrogen is free\nto donate electron pair forming isocyanide as the main product"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5437-5440", "Text": "KCN is predominantly ionic and provides cyanide ions in solution Although both carbon and nitrogen atoms are in a position to donate\nelectron pairs, the attack takes place mainly through carbon atom and\nnot through nitrogen atom since C\u2014C bond is more stable than C\u2014N\nbond However, AgCN is mainly covalent in nature and nitrogen is free\nto donate electron pair forming isocyanide as the main product Example 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5438-5441", "Text": "Although both carbon and nitrogen atoms are in a position to donate\nelectron pairs, the attack takes place mainly through carbon atom and\nnot through nitrogen atom since C\u2014C bond is more stable than C\u2014N\nbond However, AgCN is mainly covalent in nature and nitrogen is free\nto donate electron pair forming isocyanide as the main product Example 6 5\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5439-5442", "Text": "However, AgCN is mainly covalent in nature and nitrogen is free\nto donate electron pair forming isocyanide as the main product Example 6 5\nExample 6 5\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5440-5443", "Text": "Example 6 5\nExample 6 5\nExample 6 5\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5441-5444", "Text": "5\nExample 6 5\nExample 6 5\nExample 6 5\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5442-5445", "Text": "5\nExample 6 5\nExample 6 5\nExample 6 5\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nThe above reaction can be represented diagrammatically as shown in\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5443-5446", "Text": "5\nExample 6 5\nExample 6 5\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nThe above reaction can be represented diagrammatically as shown in\nFig 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5444-5447", "Text": "5\nExample 6 5\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nThe above reaction can be represented diagrammatically as shown in\nFig 6 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5445-5448", "Text": "5\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nThe above reaction can be represented diagrammatically as shown in\nFig 6 2 It depicts a bimolecular nucleophilic substitution (SN2) reaction;\nthe incoming nucleophile interacts with alkyl halide causing the\ncarbon-halide bond to break and a new bond is formed between\ncarbon and attacking nucleophile"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5446-5449", "Text": "6 2 It depicts a bimolecular nucleophilic substitution (SN2) reaction;\nthe incoming nucleophile interacts with alkyl halide causing the\ncarbon-halide bond to break and a new bond is formed between\ncarbon and attacking nucleophile Here it is C-O bond formed between\nC and -OH"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5447-5450", "Text": "2 It depicts a bimolecular nucleophilic substitution (SN2) reaction;\nthe incoming nucleophile interacts with alkyl halide causing the\ncarbon-halide bond to break and a new bond is formed between\ncarbon and attacking nucleophile Here it is C-O bond formed between\nC and -OH These two processes take place simultaneously in a\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5448-5451", "Text": "It depicts a bimolecular nucleophilic substitution (SN2) reaction;\nthe incoming nucleophile interacts with alkyl halide causing the\ncarbon-halide bond to break and a new bond is formed between\ncarbon and attacking nucleophile Here it is C-O bond formed between\nC and -OH These two processes take place simultaneously in a\nFig 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5449-5452", "Text": "Here it is C-O bond formed between\nC and -OH These two processes take place simultaneously in a\nFig 6 2:\nRed ball represents the incoming hydroxide ion and green ball represents\nthe outgoing halide ion\nIn the year 1937,\nEdward Davies Hughes\nand Sir Christopher\nIngold \nproposed \nmechanism for an SN2a\nreaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5450-5453", "Text": "These two processes take place simultaneously in a\nFig 6 2:\nRed ball represents the incoming hydroxide ion and green ball represents\nthe outgoing halide ion\nIn the year 1937,\nEdward Davies Hughes\nand Sir Christopher\nIngold \nproposed \nmechanism for an SN2a\nreaction The solid wedge represents the bond coming out of the paper, dashed line going down the\npaper and a straight line representing bond in the plane of the paper"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5451-5454", "Text": "6 2:\nRed ball represents the incoming hydroxide ion and green ball represents\nthe outgoing halide ion\nIn the year 1937,\nEdward Davies Hughes\nand Sir Christopher\nIngold \nproposed \nmechanism for an SN2a\nreaction The solid wedge represents the bond coming out of the paper, dashed line going down the\npaper and a straight line representing bond in the plane of the paper Rationalised 2023-24\n172\nChemistry\nsingle step and no intermediate is formed"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5452-5455", "Text": "2:\nRed ball represents the incoming hydroxide ion and green ball represents\nthe outgoing halide ion\nIn the year 1937,\nEdward Davies Hughes\nand Sir Christopher\nIngold \nproposed \nmechanism for an SN2a\nreaction The solid wedge represents the bond coming out of the paper, dashed line going down the\npaper and a straight line representing bond in the plane of the paper Rationalised 2023-24\n172\nChemistry\nsingle step and no intermediate is formed As the reaction progresses\nand the bond between the incoming nucleophile and the carbon\natom starts forming, the bond between carbon atom and leaving\ngroup weakens"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5453-5456", "Text": "The solid wedge represents the bond coming out of the paper, dashed line going down the\npaper and a straight line representing bond in the plane of the paper Rationalised 2023-24\n172\nChemistry\nsingle step and no intermediate is formed As the reaction progresses\nand the bond between the incoming nucleophile and the carbon\natom starts forming, the bond between carbon atom and leaving\ngroup weakens As this happens, the three carbon-hydrogen bonds\nof the substrate start moving away from the attacking nucleophile"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5454-5457", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n172\nChemistry\nsingle step and no intermediate is formed As the reaction progresses\nand the bond between the incoming nucleophile and the carbon\natom starts forming, the bond between carbon atom and leaving\ngroup weakens As this happens, the three carbon-hydrogen bonds\nof the substrate start moving away from the attacking nucleophile In\ntransition state all the three C-H bonds are in the same plane and the\nattacking and leaving nucleophiles are partially attached to the\ncarbon"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5455-5458", "Text": "As the reaction progresses\nand the bond between the incoming nucleophile and the carbon\natom starts forming, the bond between carbon atom and leaving\ngroup weakens As this happens, the three carbon-hydrogen bonds\nof the substrate start moving away from the attacking nucleophile In\ntransition state all the three C-H bonds are in the same plane and the\nattacking and leaving nucleophiles are partially attached to the\ncarbon As the attacking nucleophile approaches closer to the carbon,\nC-H bonds still keep on moving in the same direction till the attacking\nnucleophile attaches to carbon and leaving group leaves the carbon"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5456-5459", "Text": "As this happens, the three carbon-hydrogen bonds\nof the substrate start moving away from the attacking nucleophile In\ntransition state all the three C-H bonds are in the same plane and the\nattacking and leaving nucleophiles are partially attached to the\ncarbon As the attacking nucleophile approaches closer to the carbon,\nC-H bonds still keep on moving in the same direction till the attacking\nnucleophile attaches to carbon and leaving group leaves the carbon As a result configuration is inverted, the configuration (See box) of\ncarbon atom under attack inverts in much the same way as an\numbrella is turned inside out when caught in a strong wind"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5457-5460", "Text": "In\ntransition state all the three C-H bonds are in the same plane and the\nattacking and leaving nucleophiles are partially attached to the\ncarbon As the attacking nucleophile approaches closer to the carbon,\nC-H bonds still keep on moving in the same direction till the attacking\nnucleophile attaches to carbon and leaving group leaves the carbon As a result configuration is inverted, the configuration (See box) of\ncarbon atom under attack inverts in much the same way as an\numbrella is turned inside out when caught in a strong wind This\nprocess is called as inversion of configuration"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5458-5461", "Text": "As the attacking nucleophile approaches closer to the carbon,\nC-H bonds still keep on moving in the same direction till the attacking\nnucleophile attaches to carbon and leaving group leaves the carbon As a result configuration is inverted, the configuration (See box) of\ncarbon atom under attack inverts in much the same way as an\numbrella is turned inside out when caught in a strong wind This\nprocess is called as inversion of configuration In the transition\nstate, the carbon atom is simultaneously bonded to incoming\nnucleophile and the outgoing leaving group"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5459-5462", "Text": "As a result configuration is inverted, the configuration (See box) of\ncarbon atom under attack inverts in much the same way as an\numbrella is turned inside out when caught in a strong wind This\nprocess is called as inversion of configuration In the transition\nstate, the carbon atom is simultaneously bonded to incoming\nnucleophile and the outgoing leaving group Such structures are\nunstable and cannot be isolated"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5460-5463", "Text": "This\nprocess is called as inversion of configuration In the transition\nstate, the carbon atom is simultaneously bonded to incoming\nnucleophile and the outgoing leaving group Such structures are\nunstable and cannot be isolated Thus, in the transition state, carbon\nis simultaneously bonded to five atoms"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5461-5464", "Text": "In the transition\nstate, the carbon atom is simultaneously bonded to incoming\nnucleophile and the outgoing leaving group Such structures are\nunstable and cannot be isolated Thus, in the transition state, carbon\nis simultaneously bonded to five atoms Hughes worked under\nIngold and earned a\nD"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5462-5465", "Text": "Such structures are\nunstable and cannot be isolated Thus, in the transition state, carbon\nis simultaneously bonded to five atoms Hughes worked under\nIngold and earned a\nD Sc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5463-5466", "Text": "Thus, in the transition state, carbon\nis simultaneously bonded to five atoms Hughes worked under\nIngold and earned a\nD Sc degree from the\nUniversity of London"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5464-5467", "Text": "Hughes worked under\nIngold and earned a\nD Sc degree from the\nUniversity of London Since this reaction requires the approach of the nucleophile to the\ncarbon bearing the leaving group, the presence of bulky substituents\non or near the carbon atom have a dramatic inhibiting effect"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5465-5468", "Text": "Sc degree from the\nUniversity of London Since this reaction requires the approach of the nucleophile to the\ncarbon bearing the leaving group, the presence of bulky substituents\non or near the carbon atom have a dramatic inhibiting effect Of the\nsimple alkyl halides, methyl halides react most rapidly in SN2 reactions\nbecause there are only three small hydrogen atoms"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5466-5469", "Text": "degree from the\nUniversity of London Since this reaction requires the approach of the nucleophile to the\ncarbon bearing the leaving group, the presence of bulky substituents\non or near the carbon atom have a dramatic inhibiting effect Of the\nsimple alkyl halides, methyl halides react most rapidly in SN2 reactions\nbecause there are only three small hydrogen atoms Tertiary halides\nare the least reactive because bulky groups hinder the approaching\nConfiguration\nSpacial arrangement of functional groups around carbon is called its configuration"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5467-5470", "Text": "Since this reaction requires the approach of the nucleophile to the\ncarbon bearing the leaving group, the presence of bulky substituents\non or near the carbon atom have a dramatic inhibiting effect Of the\nsimple alkyl halides, methyl halides react most rapidly in SN2 reactions\nbecause there are only three small hydrogen atoms Tertiary halides\nare the least reactive because bulky groups hinder the approaching\nConfiguration\nSpacial arrangement of functional groups around carbon is called its configuration See the structures (A) and (B) given below carefully"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5468-5471", "Text": "Of the\nsimple alkyl halides, methyl halides react most rapidly in SN2 reactions\nbecause there are only three small hydrogen atoms Tertiary halides\nare the least reactive because bulky groups hinder the approaching\nConfiguration\nSpacial arrangement of functional groups around carbon is called its configuration See the structures (A) and (B) given below carefully These are the two structures of the same compound"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5469-5472", "Text": "Tertiary halides\nare the least reactive because bulky groups hinder the approaching\nConfiguration\nSpacial arrangement of functional groups around carbon is called its configuration See the structures (A) and (B) given below carefully These are the two structures of the same compound They differ in spacial arrangement\nof functional groups attached to carbon"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5470-5473", "Text": "See the structures (A) and (B) given below carefully These are the two structures of the same compound They differ in spacial arrangement\nof functional groups attached to carbon Structure (A) is mirror image of Structure (B)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5471-5474", "Text": "These are the two structures of the same compound They differ in spacial arrangement\nof functional groups attached to carbon Structure (A) is mirror image of Structure (B) We say configuration of carbon in structure (A) is mirror image of the configuration of\ncarbon in structure (B)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5472-5475", "Text": "They differ in spacial arrangement\nof functional groups attached to carbon Structure (A) is mirror image of Structure (B) We say configuration of carbon in structure (A) is mirror image of the configuration of\ncarbon in structure (B) Rationalised 2023-24\n173 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nnucleophiles"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5473-5476", "Text": "Structure (A) is mirror image of Structure (B) We say configuration of carbon in structure (A) is mirror image of the configuration of\ncarbon in structure (B) Rationalised 2023-24\n173 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nnucleophiles Thus the order of reactivity followed is:\nPrimary halide > Secondary halide > Tertiary halide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5474-5477", "Text": "We say configuration of carbon in structure (A) is mirror image of the configuration of\ncarbon in structure (B) Rationalised 2023-24\n173 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nnucleophiles Thus the order of reactivity followed is:\nPrimary halide > Secondary halide > Tertiary halide (b) Substitution nucleophilic unimolecular (SN1)\nSN1 reactions are generally carried out in polar protic solvents\n(like water, alcohol, acetic acid, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5475-5478", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n173 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nnucleophiles Thus the order of reactivity followed is:\nPrimary halide > Secondary halide > Tertiary halide (b) Substitution nucleophilic unimolecular (SN1)\nSN1 reactions are generally carried out in polar protic solvents\n(like water, alcohol, acetic acid, etc )"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5476-5479", "Text": "Thus the order of reactivity followed is:\nPrimary halide > Secondary halide > Tertiary halide (b) Substitution nucleophilic unimolecular (SN1)\nSN1 reactions are generally carried out in polar protic solvents\n(like water, alcohol, acetic acid, etc ) The reaction between tert-\nbutyl bromide and hydroxide ion yields tert-butyl alcohol and\nfollows the first order kinetics, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5477-5480", "Text": "(b) Substitution nucleophilic unimolecular (SN1)\nSN1 reactions are generally carried out in polar protic solvents\n(like water, alcohol, acetic acid, etc ) The reaction between tert-\nbutyl bromide and hydroxide ion yields tert-butyl alcohol and\nfollows the first order kinetics, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5478-5481", "Text": ") The reaction between tert-\nbutyl bromide and hydroxide ion yields tert-butyl alcohol and\nfollows the first order kinetics, i e , the rate of reaction depends\nupon the concentration of only one reactant, which is tert- butyl\nbromide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5479-5482", "Text": "The reaction between tert-\nbutyl bromide and hydroxide ion yields tert-butyl alcohol and\nfollows the first order kinetics, i e , the rate of reaction depends\nupon the concentration of only one reactant, which is tert- butyl\nbromide It occurs in two steps"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5480-5483", "Text": "e , the rate of reaction depends\nupon the concentration of only one reactant, which is tert- butyl\nbromide It occurs in two steps In step I, the polarised C\u2014Br bond undergoes\nslow cleavage to produce a carbocation and a bromide ion"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5481-5484", "Text": ", the rate of reaction depends\nupon the concentration of only one reactant, which is tert- butyl\nbromide It occurs in two steps In step I, the polarised C\u2014Br bond undergoes\nslow cleavage to produce a carbocation and a bromide ion The\ncarbocation thus formed is then attacked by nucleophile in step II\nto complete the substitution reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5482-5485", "Text": "It occurs in two steps In step I, the polarised C\u2014Br bond undergoes\nslow cleavage to produce a carbocation and a bromide ion The\ncarbocation thus formed is then attacked by nucleophile in step II\nto complete the substitution reaction Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5483-5486", "Text": "In step I, the polarised C\u2014Br bond undergoes\nslow cleavage to produce a carbocation and a bromide ion The\ncarbocation thus formed is then attacked by nucleophile in step II\nto complete the substitution reaction Fig 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5484-5487", "Text": "The\ncarbocation thus formed is then attacked by nucleophile in step II\nto complete the substitution reaction Fig 6 3: Steric effects in SN2 reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5485-5488", "Text": "Fig 6 3: Steric effects in SN2 reaction The relative rate of SN2 reaction is given in parenthesis\nRationalised 2023-24\n174\nChemistry\nStep I is the slowest and reversible"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5486-5489", "Text": "6 3: Steric effects in SN2 reaction The relative rate of SN2 reaction is given in parenthesis\nRationalised 2023-24\n174\nChemistry\nStep I is the slowest and reversible It involves the C\u2013Br bond breaking for which the\nenergy is obtained through solvation of halide ion with the proton of protic solvent"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5487-5490", "Text": "3: Steric effects in SN2 reaction The relative rate of SN2 reaction is given in parenthesis\nRationalised 2023-24\n174\nChemistry\nStep I is the slowest and reversible It involves the C\u2013Br bond breaking for which the\nenergy is obtained through solvation of halide ion with the proton of protic solvent Since\nthe rate of reaction depends upon the slowest step, the rate of reaction depends only on the\nconcentration of alkyl halide and not on the concentration of hydroxide ion"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5488-5491", "Text": "The relative rate of SN2 reaction is given in parenthesis\nRationalised 2023-24\n174\nChemistry\nStep I is the slowest and reversible It involves the C\u2013Br bond breaking for which the\nenergy is obtained through solvation of halide ion with the proton of protic solvent Since\nthe rate of reaction depends upon the slowest step, the rate of reaction depends only on the\nconcentration of alkyl halide and not on the concentration of hydroxide ion Further, greater\nthe stability of carbocation, greater will be its ease of formation from alkyl halide and faster\nwill be the rate of reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5489-5492", "Text": "It involves the C\u2013Br bond breaking for which the\nenergy is obtained through solvation of halide ion with the proton of protic solvent Since\nthe rate of reaction depends upon the slowest step, the rate of reaction depends only on the\nconcentration of alkyl halide and not on the concentration of hydroxide ion Further, greater\nthe stability of carbocation, greater will be its ease of formation from alkyl halide and faster\nwill be the rate of reaction In case of alkyl halides, 3\n0 alkyl halides undergo SN1 reaction\nvery fast because of the high stability of 3\n0 carbocations"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5490-5493", "Text": "Since\nthe rate of reaction depends upon the slowest step, the rate of reaction depends only on the\nconcentration of alkyl halide and not on the concentration of hydroxide ion Further, greater\nthe stability of carbocation, greater will be its ease of formation from alkyl halide and faster\nwill be the rate of reaction In case of alkyl halides, 3\n0 alkyl halides undergo SN1 reaction\nvery fast because of the high stability of 3\n0 carbocations We can sum up the order of reactivity\nof alkyl halides towards SN1 and SN2 reactions as follows:\nFor the same reasons, allylic and benzylic halides show high reactivity towards the SN1\nreaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5491-5494", "Text": "Further, greater\nthe stability of carbocation, greater will be its ease of formation from alkyl halide and faster\nwill be the rate of reaction In case of alkyl halides, 3\n0 alkyl halides undergo SN1 reaction\nvery fast because of the high stability of 3\n0 carbocations We can sum up the order of reactivity\nof alkyl halides towards SN1 and SN2 reactions as follows:\nFor the same reasons, allylic and benzylic halides show high reactivity towards the SN1\nreaction The carbocation thus formed gets stabilised through resonance (Unit 8, Class XI) as\nshown below:\nIn the following pairs of halogen compounds, which would undergo\nSN2 reaction faster"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5492-5495", "Text": "In case of alkyl halides, 3\n0 alkyl halides undergo SN1 reaction\nvery fast because of the high stability of 3\n0 carbocations We can sum up the order of reactivity\nof alkyl halides towards SN1 and SN2 reactions as follows:\nFor the same reasons, allylic and benzylic halides show high reactivity towards the SN1\nreaction The carbocation thus formed gets stabilised through resonance (Unit 8, Class XI) as\nshown below:\nIn the following pairs of halogen compounds, which would undergo\nSN2 reaction faster Example 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5493-5496", "Text": "We can sum up the order of reactivity\nof alkyl halides towards SN1 and SN2 reactions as follows:\nFor the same reasons, allylic and benzylic halides show high reactivity towards the SN1\nreaction The carbocation thus formed gets stabilised through resonance (Unit 8, Class XI) as\nshown below:\nIn the following pairs of halogen compounds, which would undergo\nSN2 reaction faster Example 6 6\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5494-5497", "Text": "The carbocation thus formed gets stabilised through resonance (Unit 8, Class XI) as\nshown below:\nIn the following pairs of halogen compounds, which would undergo\nSN2 reaction faster Example 6 6\nExample 6 6\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5495-5498", "Text": "Example 6 6\nExample 6 6\nExample 6 6\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5496-5499", "Text": "6\nExample 6 6\nExample 6 6\nExample 6 6\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5497-5500", "Text": "6\nExample 6 6\nExample 6 6\nExample 6 6\nH2C\n2\nC\nCH\nH\n+\nH2C\nCH2\nC\nH\n+\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nIt is primary halide and therefore undergoes SN2\nreaction faster"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5498-5501", "Text": "6\nExample 6 6\nExample 6 6\nH2C\n2\nC\nCH\nH\n+\nH2C\nCH2\nC\nH\n+\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nIt is primary halide and therefore undergoes SN2\nreaction faster As iodine is a better leaving group because of its\nlarge size, it will be released at a faster rate in the\npresence of incoming nucleophile"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5499-5502", "Text": "6\nExample 6 6\nH2C\n2\nC\nCH\nH\n+\nH2C\nCH2\nC\nH\n+\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nIt is primary halide and therefore undergoes SN2\nreaction faster As iodine is a better leaving group because of its\nlarge size, it will be released at a faster rate in the\npresence of incoming nucleophile Example 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5500-5503", "Text": "6\nH2C\n2\nC\nCH\nH\n+\nH2C\nCH2\nC\nH\n+\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nIt is primary halide and therefore undergoes SN2\nreaction faster As iodine is a better leaving group because of its\nlarge size, it will be released at a faster rate in the\npresence of incoming nucleophile Example 6 7\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5501-5504", "Text": "As iodine is a better leaving group because of its\nlarge size, it will be released at a faster rate in the\npresence of incoming nucleophile Example 6 7\nExample 6 7\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5502-5505", "Text": "Example 6 7\nExample 6 7\nExample 6 7\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5503-5506", "Text": "7\nExample 6 7\nExample 6 7\nExample 6 7\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5504-5507", "Text": "7\nExample 6 7\nExample 6 7\nExample 6 7\nPredict the order of reactivity of the following\ncompounds in SN1 and SN2 reactions:\n(i) The four isomeric bromobutanes\n(ii) C6H5CH2Br, C6H5CH(C6H5)Br, C6H5CH(CH3)Br, C6H5C(CH3)(C6H5)Br\nFor a given alkyl group, the reactivity of the halide, R-X, follows the same order in both the\nmechanisms R\u2013I> R\u2013Br>R\u2013Cl>>R\u2013F"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5505-5508", "Text": "7\nExample 6 7\nExample 6 7\nPredict the order of reactivity of the following\ncompounds in SN1 and SN2 reactions:\n(i) The four isomeric bromobutanes\n(ii) C6H5CH2Br, C6H5CH(C6H5)Br, C6H5CH(CH3)Br, C6H5C(CH3)(C6H5)Br\nFor a given alkyl group, the reactivity of the halide, R-X, follows the same order in both the\nmechanisms R\u2013I> R\u2013Br>R\u2013Cl>>R\u2013F Rationalised 2023-24\n175 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\n(c) Stereochemical aspects of nucleophilic substitution reactions\nIn order to understand the stereochemical aspects of substitution\nreactions, we need to learn some basic stereochemical principles\nand notations (optical activity, chirality, retention, inversion,\nracemisation, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5506-5509", "Text": "7\nExample 6 7\nPredict the order of reactivity of the following\ncompounds in SN1 and SN2 reactions:\n(i) The four isomeric bromobutanes\n(ii) C6H5CH2Br, C6H5CH(C6H5)Br, C6H5CH(CH3)Br, C6H5C(CH3)(C6H5)Br\nFor a given alkyl group, the reactivity of the halide, R-X, follows the same order in both the\nmechanisms R\u2013I> R\u2013Br>R\u2013Cl>>R\u2013F Rationalised 2023-24\n175 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\n(c) Stereochemical aspects of nucleophilic substitution reactions\nIn order to understand the stereochemical aspects of substitution\nreactions, we need to learn some basic stereochemical principles\nand notations (optical activity, chirality, retention, inversion,\nracemisation, etc )"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5507-5510", "Text": "7\nPredict the order of reactivity of the following\ncompounds in SN1 and SN2 reactions:\n(i) The four isomeric bromobutanes\n(ii) C6H5CH2Br, C6H5CH(C6H5)Br, C6H5CH(CH3)Br, C6H5C(CH3)(C6H5)Br\nFor a given alkyl group, the reactivity of the halide, R-X, follows the same order in both the\nmechanisms R\u2013I> R\u2013Br>R\u2013Cl>>R\u2013F Rationalised 2023-24\n175 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\n(c) Stereochemical aspects of nucleophilic substitution reactions\nIn order to understand the stereochemical aspects of substitution\nreactions, we need to learn some basic stereochemical principles\nand notations (optical activity, chirality, retention, inversion,\nracemisation, etc ) (i) Optical activity: Plane of plane polarised light produced by\npassing ordinary light through Nicol prism is rotated when it\nis passed through the solutions of certain compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5508-5511", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n175 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\n(c) Stereochemical aspects of nucleophilic substitution reactions\nIn order to understand the stereochemical aspects of substitution\nreactions, we need to learn some basic stereochemical principles\nand notations (optical activity, chirality, retention, inversion,\nracemisation, etc ) (i) Optical activity: Plane of plane polarised light produced by\npassing ordinary light through Nicol prism is rotated when it\nis passed through the solutions of certain compounds Such\ncompounds are called optically active compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5509-5512", "Text": ") (i) Optical activity: Plane of plane polarised light produced by\npassing ordinary light through Nicol prism is rotated when it\nis passed through the solutions of certain compounds Such\ncompounds are called optically active compounds The angle\nby which the plane polarised light is rotated is measured by an\ninstrument called polarimeter"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5510-5513", "Text": "(i) Optical activity: Plane of plane polarised light produced by\npassing ordinary light through Nicol prism is rotated when it\nis passed through the solutions of certain compounds Such\ncompounds are called optically active compounds The angle\nby which the plane polarised light is rotated is measured by an\ninstrument called polarimeter If the compound rotates the plane\nof plane polarised light to the right, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5511-5514", "Text": "Such\ncompounds are called optically active compounds The angle\nby which the plane polarised light is rotated is measured by an\ninstrument called polarimeter If the compound rotates the plane\nof plane polarised light to the right, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5512-5515", "Text": "The angle\nby which the plane polarised light is rotated is measured by an\ninstrument called polarimeter If the compound rotates the plane\nof plane polarised light to the right, i e , clockwise direction, it\nis called dextrorotatory (Greek for right rotating) or the d-form\nand is indicated by placing a positive (+) sign before the degree\nof rotation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5513-5516", "Text": "If the compound rotates the plane\nof plane polarised light to the right, i e , clockwise direction, it\nis called dextrorotatory (Greek for right rotating) or the d-form\nand is indicated by placing a positive (+) sign before the degree\nof rotation If the light is rotated towards left (anticlockwise\ndirection), the compound is said to be laevo-rotatory or the\nl-form and a negative (\u2013) sign is placed before the degree of\nrotation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5514-5517", "Text": "e , clockwise direction, it\nis called dextrorotatory (Greek for right rotating) or the d-form\nand is indicated by placing a positive (+) sign before the degree\nof rotation If the light is rotated towards left (anticlockwise\ndirection), the compound is said to be laevo-rotatory or the\nl-form and a negative (\u2013) sign is placed before the degree of\nrotation Such (+) and (\u2013) isomers of a compound are called\noptical isomers and the phenomenon is termed as optical\nisomerism"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5515-5518", "Text": ", clockwise direction, it\nis called dextrorotatory (Greek for right rotating) or the d-form\nand is indicated by placing a positive (+) sign before the degree\nof rotation If the light is rotated towards left (anticlockwise\ndirection), the compound is said to be laevo-rotatory or the\nl-form and a negative (\u2013) sign is placed before the degree of\nrotation Such (+) and (\u2013) isomers of a compound are called\noptical isomers and the phenomenon is termed as optical\nisomerism (ii) Molecular asymmetry, chirality and enantiomers: The\nobservation of Louis Pasteur (1848) that crystals of certain\ncompounds exist in the form of mirror images laid the\nfoundation of modern stereochemistry"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5516-5519", "Text": "If the light is rotated towards left (anticlockwise\ndirection), the compound is said to be laevo-rotatory or the\nl-form and a negative (\u2013) sign is placed before the degree of\nrotation Such (+) and (\u2013) isomers of a compound are called\noptical isomers and the phenomenon is termed as optical\nisomerism (ii) Molecular asymmetry, chirality and enantiomers: The\nobservation of Louis Pasteur (1848) that crystals of certain\ncompounds exist in the form of mirror images laid the\nfoundation of modern stereochemistry He demonstrated that\naqueous solutions of both types of crystals showed optical\nrotation, equal in magnitude (for solution of equal concentration)\nbut opposite in direction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5517-5520", "Text": "Such (+) and (\u2013) isomers of a compound are called\noptical isomers and the phenomenon is termed as optical\nisomerism (ii) Molecular asymmetry, chirality and enantiomers: The\nobservation of Louis Pasteur (1848) that crystals of certain\ncompounds exist in the form of mirror images laid the\nfoundation of modern stereochemistry He demonstrated that\naqueous solutions of both types of crystals showed optical\nrotation, equal in magnitude (for solution of equal concentration)\nbut opposite in direction He believed that this difference in\noptical activity was associated with the three dimensional\narrangements of atoms in the molecules (configurations) of\n(i) CH3CH2CH2CH2Br < (CH3)2CHCH2Br < CH3CH2CH(Br)CH3 < (CH3)3CBr (SN1)\nCH3CH2CH2CH2Br > (CH3)2CHCH2Br > CH3CH2CH(Br)CH3> (CH3)3CBr (SN2)\nOf the two primary bromides, the carbocation intermediate derived from\n(CH3)2CHCH2Br is more stable than derived from CH3CH2CH2CH2Br because\nof greater electron donating inductive effect of (CH3)2CH- group"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5518-5521", "Text": "(ii) Molecular asymmetry, chirality and enantiomers: The\nobservation of Louis Pasteur (1848) that crystals of certain\ncompounds exist in the form of mirror images laid the\nfoundation of modern stereochemistry He demonstrated that\naqueous solutions of both types of crystals showed optical\nrotation, equal in magnitude (for solution of equal concentration)\nbut opposite in direction He believed that this difference in\noptical activity was associated with the three dimensional\narrangements of atoms in the molecules (configurations) of\n(i) CH3CH2CH2CH2Br < (CH3)2CHCH2Br < CH3CH2CH(Br)CH3 < (CH3)3CBr (SN1)\nCH3CH2CH2CH2Br > (CH3)2CHCH2Br > CH3CH2CH(Br)CH3> (CH3)3CBr (SN2)\nOf the two primary bromides, the carbocation intermediate derived from\n(CH3)2CHCH2Br is more stable than derived from CH3CH2CH2CH2Br because\nof greater electron donating inductive effect of (CH3)2CH- group Therefore,\n(CH3)2CHCH2Br is more reactive than CH3CH2CH2CH2Br in SN1 reactions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5519-5522", "Text": "He demonstrated that\naqueous solutions of both types of crystals showed optical\nrotation, equal in magnitude (for solution of equal concentration)\nbut opposite in direction He believed that this difference in\noptical activity was associated with the three dimensional\narrangements of atoms in the molecules (configurations) of\n(i) CH3CH2CH2CH2Br < (CH3)2CHCH2Br < CH3CH2CH(Br)CH3 < (CH3)3CBr (SN1)\nCH3CH2CH2CH2Br > (CH3)2CHCH2Br > CH3CH2CH(Br)CH3> (CH3)3CBr (SN2)\nOf the two primary bromides, the carbocation intermediate derived from\n(CH3)2CHCH2Br is more stable than derived from CH3CH2CH2CH2Br because\nof greater electron donating inductive effect of (CH3)2CH- group Therefore,\n(CH3)2CHCH2Br is more reactive than CH3CH2CH2CH2Br in SN1 reactions CH3CH2CH(Br)CH3 is a secondary bromide and (CH3)3CBr is a tertiary\nbromide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5520-5523", "Text": "He believed that this difference in\noptical activity was associated with the three dimensional\narrangements of atoms in the molecules (configurations) of\n(i) CH3CH2CH2CH2Br < (CH3)2CHCH2Br < CH3CH2CH(Br)CH3 < (CH3)3CBr (SN1)\nCH3CH2CH2CH2Br > (CH3)2CHCH2Br > CH3CH2CH(Br)CH3> (CH3)3CBr (SN2)\nOf the two primary bromides, the carbocation intermediate derived from\n(CH3)2CHCH2Br is more stable than derived from CH3CH2CH2CH2Br because\nof greater electron donating inductive effect of (CH3)2CH- group Therefore,\n(CH3)2CHCH2Br is more reactive than CH3CH2CH2CH2Br in SN1 reactions CH3CH2CH(Br)CH3 is a secondary bromide and (CH3)3CBr is a tertiary\nbromide Hence the above order is followed in SN1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5521-5524", "Text": "Therefore,\n(CH3)2CHCH2Br is more reactive than CH3CH2CH2CH2Br in SN1 reactions CH3CH2CH(Br)CH3 is a secondary bromide and (CH3)3CBr is a tertiary\nbromide Hence the above order is followed in SN1 The reactivity in SN2\nreactions follows the reverse order as the steric hinderance around the\nelectrophilic carbon increases in that order"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5522-5525", "Text": "CH3CH2CH(Br)CH3 is a secondary bromide and (CH3)3CBr is a tertiary\nbromide Hence the above order is followed in SN1 The reactivity in SN2\nreactions follows the reverse order as the steric hinderance around the\nelectrophilic carbon increases in that order (ii) C6H5C(CH3)(C6H5)Br > C6H5CH(C6H5)Br > C6H5CH(CH3)Br > C6H5CH2Br (SN1)\nC6H5C(CH3)(C6H5)Br < C6H5CH(C6H5)Br < C6H5CH(CH3)Br < C6H5CH2Br (SN2)\nOf the two secondary bromides, the carbocation intermediate obtained\nfrom C6H5CH(C6H5)Br is more stable than obtained from C6H5CH(CH3)Br\nbecause it is stabilised by two phenyl groups due to resonance"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5523-5526", "Text": "Hence the above order is followed in SN1 The reactivity in SN2\nreactions follows the reverse order as the steric hinderance around the\nelectrophilic carbon increases in that order (ii) C6H5C(CH3)(C6H5)Br > C6H5CH(C6H5)Br > C6H5CH(CH3)Br > C6H5CH2Br (SN1)\nC6H5C(CH3)(C6H5)Br < C6H5CH(C6H5)Br < C6H5CH(CH3)Br < C6H5CH2Br (SN2)\nOf the two secondary bromides, the carbocation intermediate obtained\nfrom C6H5CH(C6H5)Br is more stable than obtained from C6H5CH(CH3)Br\nbecause it is stabilised by two phenyl groups due to resonance Therefore,\nthe former bromide is more reactive than the latter in SN1 reactions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5524-5527", "Text": "The reactivity in SN2\nreactions follows the reverse order as the steric hinderance around the\nelectrophilic carbon increases in that order (ii) C6H5C(CH3)(C6H5)Br > C6H5CH(C6H5)Br > C6H5CH(CH3)Br > C6H5CH2Br (SN1)\nC6H5C(CH3)(C6H5)Br < C6H5CH(C6H5)Br < C6H5CH(CH3)Br < C6H5CH2Br (SN2)\nOf the two secondary bromides, the carbocation intermediate obtained\nfrom C6H5CH(C6H5)Br is more stable than obtained from C6H5CH(CH3)Br\nbecause it is stabilised by two phenyl groups due to resonance Therefore,\nthe former bromide is more reactive than the latter in SN1 reactions A\nphenyl group is bulkier than a methyl group"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5525-5528", "Text": "(ii) C6H5C(CH3)(C6H5)Br > C6H5CH(C6H5)Br > C6H5CH(CH3)Br > C6H5CH2Br (SN1)\nC6H5C(CH3)(C6H5)Br < C6H5CH(C6H5)Br < C6H5CH(CH3)Br < C6H5CH2Br (SN2)\nOf the two secondary bromides, the carbocation intermediate obtained\nfrom C6H5CH(C6H5)Br is more stable than obtained from C6H5CH(CH3)Br\nbecause it is stabilised by two phenyl groups due to resonance Therefore,\nthe former bromide is more reactive than the latter in SN1 reactions A\nphenyl group is bulkier than a methyl group Therefore, C6H5CH(C6H5)Br\nis less reactive than C6H5CH(CH3)Br in SN2 reactions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5526-5529", "Text": "Therefore,\nthe former bromide is more reactive than the latter in SN1 reactions A\nphenyl group is bulkier than a methyl group Therefore, C6H5CH(C6H5)Br\nis less reactive than C6H5CH(CH3)Br in SN2 reactions Solution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nWilliam Nicol (1768-\n1851) developed the first\nprism that produced\nplane polarised light"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5527-5530", "Text": "A\nphenyl group is bulkier than a methyl group Therefore, C6H5CH(C6H5)Br\nis less reactive than C6H5CH(CH3)Br in SN2 reactions Solution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nWilliam Nicol (1768-\n1851) developed the first\nprism that produced\nplane polarised light Rationalised 2023-24\n176\nChemistry\ntwo types of crystals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5528-5531", "Text": "Therefore, C6H5CH(C6H5)Br\nis less reactive than C6H5CH(CH3)Br in SN2 reactions Solution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nWilliam Nicol (1768-\n1851) developed the first\nprism that produced\nplane polarised light Rationalised 2023-24\n176\nChemistry\ntwo types of crystals Dutch scientist, J"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5529-5532", "Text": "Solution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nWilliam Nicol (1768-\n1851) developed the first\nprism that produced\nplane polarised light Rationalised 2023-24\n176\nChemistry\ntwo types of crystals Dutch scientist, J Van\u2019t Hoff and French\nscientist, C"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5530-5533", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n176\nChemistry\ntwo types of crystals Dutch scientist, J Van\u2019t Hoff and French\nscientist, C Le Bel in the same year (1874), independently\nargued that the spatial arrangement of four groups (valencies)\naround a central carbon is tetrahedral and if all the substituents\nattached to that carbon are different, the mirror image of the\nmolecule is not superimposed (overlapped) on the molecule;\nsuch a carbon is called asymmetric carbon or stereocentre"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5531-5534", "Text": "Dutch scientist, J Van\u2019t Hoff and French\nscientist, C Le Bel in the same year (1874), independently\nargued that the spatial arrangement of four groups (valencies)\naround a central carbon is tetrahedral and if all the substituents\nattached to that carbon are different, the mirror image of the\nmolecule is not superimposed (overlapped) on the molecule;\nsuch a carbon is called asymmetric carbon or stereocentre The resulting molecule would lack symmetry and is referred to\nas asymmetric molecule"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5532-5535", "Text": "Van\u2019t Hoff and French\nscientist, C Le Bel in the same year (1874), independently\nargued that the spatial arrangement of four groups (valencies)\naround a central carbon is tetrahedral and if all the substituents\nattached to that carbon are different, the mirror image of the\nmolecule is not superimposed (overlapped) on the molecule;\nsuch a carbon is called asymmetric carbon or stereocentre The resulting molecule would lack symmetry and is referred to\nas asymmetric molecule The asymmetry of the molecule along\nwith non superimposability of mirror images is responsible for\nthe optical activity in such organic compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5533-5536", "Text": "Le Bel in the same year (1874), independently\nargued that the spatial arrangement of four groups (valencies)\naround a central carbon is tetrahedral and if all the substituents\nattached to that carbon are different, the mirror image of the\nmolecule is not superimposed (overlapped) on the molecule;\nsuch a carbon is called asymmetric carbon or stereocentre The resulting molecule would lack symmetry and is referred to\nas asymmetric molecule The asymmetry of the molecule along\nwith non superimposability of mirror images is responsible for\nthe optical activity in such organic compounds The symmetry and asymmetry are also observed in many day to day\nobjects: a sphere, a cube, a cone, are all identical to\ntheir mirror images and can be superimposed"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5534-5537", "Text": "The resulting molecule would lack symmetry and is referred to\nas asymmetric molecule The asymmetry of the molecule along\nwith non superimposability of mirror images is responsible for\nthe optical activity in such organic compounds The symmetry and asymmetry are also observed in many day to day\nobjects: a sphere, a cube, a cone, are all identical to\ntheir mirror images and can be superimposed However, many objects are non superimposable on\ntheir mirror images"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5535-5538", "Text": "The asymmetry of the molecule along\nwith non superimposability of mirror images is responsible for\nthe optical activity in such organic compounds The symmetry and asymmetry are also observed in many day to day\nobjects: a sphere, a cube, a cone, are all identical to\ntheir mirror images and can be superimposed However, many objects are non superimposable on\ntheir mirror images For example, your left and right\nhand look similar but if you put your left hand on\nyour right hand by moving them in the same plane,\nthey do not coincide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5536-5539", "Text": "The symmetry and asymmetry are also observed in many day to day\nobjects: a sphere, a cube, a cone, are all identical to\ntheir mirror images and can be superimposed However, many objects are non superimposable on\ntheir mirror images For example, your left and right\nhand look similar but if you put your left hand on\nyour right hand by moving them in the same plane,\nthey do not coincide The objects which are non-\nsuperimposable on their mirror image (like a pair\nof hands) are said to be chiral and this property is\nknown as chirality"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5537-5540", "Text": "However, many objects are non superimposable on\ntheir mirror images For example, your left and right\nhand look similar but if you put your left hand on\nyour right hand by moving them in the same plane,\nthey do not coincide The objects which are non-\nsuperimposable on their mirror image (like a pair\nof hands) are said to be chiral and this property is\nknown as chirality Chiral molecules are optically\nactive, while the objects, which are, superimposable\non their mirror images are called achiral"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5538-5541", "Text": "For example, your left and right\nhand look similar but if you put your left hand on\nyour right hand by moving them in the same plane,\nthey do not coincide The objects which are non-\nsuperimposable on their mirror image (like a pair\nof hands) are said to be chiral and this property is\nknown as chirality Chiral molecules are optically\nactive, while the objects, which are, superimposable\non their mirror images are called achiral These\nmolecules are optically inactive"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5539-5542", "Text": "The objects which are non-\nsuperimposable on their mirror image (like a pair\nof hands) are said to be chiral and this property is\nknown as chirality Chiral molecules are optically\nactive, while the objects, which are, superimposable\non their mirror images are called achiral These\nmolecules are optically inactive The above test of molecular chirality can be\napplied to organic molecules by constructing\nmodels and its mirror images or by drawing three\ndimensional structures and attempting to\nsuperimpose them in our minds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5540-5543", "Text": "Chiral molecules are optically\nactive, while the objects, which are, superimposable\non their mirror images are called achiral These\nmolecules are optically inactive The above test of molecular chirality can be\napplied to organic molecules by constructing\nmodels and its mirror images or by drawing three\ndimensional structures and attempting to\nsuperimpose them in our minds There are other\naids, however, that can assist us in recognising\nchiral molecules"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5541-5544", "Text": "These\nmolecules are optically inactive The above test of molecular chirality can be\napplied to organic molecules by constructing\nmodels and its mirror images or by drawing three\ndimensional structures and attempting to\nsuperimpose them in our minds There are other\naids, however, that can assist us in recognising\nchiral molecules One such aid is the presence of\nAs you can see very clearly, propan-2-ol (A) does not contain an asymmetric\ncarbon, as all the four groups attached to the tetrahedral carbon are not\ndifferent"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5542-5545", "Text": "The above test of molecular chirality can be\napplied to organic molecules by constructing\nmodels and its mirror images or by drawing three\ndimensional structures and attempting to\nsuperimpose them in our minds There are other\naids, however, that can assist us in recognising\nchiral molecules One such aid is the presence of\nAs you can see very clearly, propan-2-ol (A) does not contain an asymmetric\ncarbon, as all the four groups attached to the tetrahedral carbon are not\ndifferent We rotate the mirror image (B) of the molecule by 180\u00b0 (structure\nC) and try to overlap the structure (C) with the structure (A), these structures\ncompletely overlap"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5543-5546", "Text": "There are other\naids, however, that can assist us in recognising\nchiral molecules One such aid is the presence of\nAs you can see very clearly, propan-2-ol (A) does not contain an asymmetric\ncarbon, as all the four groups attached to the tetrahedral carbon are not\ndifferent We rotate the mirror image (B) of the molecule by 180\u00b0 (structure\nC) and try to overlap the structure (C) with the structure (A), these structures\ncompletely overlap Thus propan-2-ol is an achiral molecule"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5544-5547", "Text": "One such aid is the presence of\nAs you can see very clearly, propan-2-ol (A) does not contain an asymmetric\ncarbon, as all the four groups attached to the tetrahedral carbon are not\ndifferent We rotate the mirror image (B) of the molecule by 180\u00b0 (structure\nC) and try to overlap the structure (C) with the structure (A), these structures\ncompletely overlap Thus propan-2-ol is an achiral molecule Jacobus \nHendricus\nVan\u2019t Hoff (1852-1911)\nreceived the first Nobel\nPrize in Chemistry in\n1901 for his work on\nsolutions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5545-5548", "Text": "We rotate the mirror image (B) of the molecule by 180\u00b0 (structure\nC) and try to overlap the structure (C) with the structure (A), these structures\ncompletely overlap Thus propan-2-ol is an achiral molecule Jacobus \nHendricus\nVan\u2019t Hoff (1852-1911)\nreceived the first Nobel\nPrize in Chemistry in\n1901 for his work on\nsolutions Fig 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5546-5549", "Text": "Thus propan-2-ol is an achiral molecule Jacobus \nHendricus\nVan\u2019t Hoff (1852-1911)\nreceived the first Nobel\nPrize in Chemistry in\n1901 for his work on\nsolutions Fig 6 4:\nSome common examples of chiral and\nachiral objects\na single asymmetric carbon atom"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5547-5550", "Text": "Jacobus \nHendricus\nVan\u2019t Hoff (1852-1911)\nreceived the first Nobel\nPrize in Chemistry in\n1901 for his work on\nsolutions Fig 6 4:\nSome common examples of chiral and\nachiral objects\na single asymmetric carbon atom Let us consider\ntwo simple molecules propan-2-ol (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5548-5551", "Text": "Fig 6 4:\nSome common examples of chiral and\nachiral objects\na single asymmetric carbon atom Let us consider\ntwo simple molecules propan-2-ol (Fig 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5549-5552", "Text": "4:\nSome common examples of chiral and\nachiral objects\na single asymmetric carbon atom Let us consider\ntwo simple molecules propan-2-ol (Fig 6 5) and butan-2-ol (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5550-5553", "Text": "Let us consider\ntwo simple molecules propan-2-ol (Fig 6 5) and butan-2-ol (Fig 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5551-5554", "Text": "6 5) and butan-2-ol (Fig 6 6)\nand their mirror images"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5552-5555", "Text": "5) and butan-2-ol (Fig 6 6)\nand their mirror images Fig 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5553-5556", "Text": "6 6)\nand their mirror images Fig 6 5:\nB is mirror image of A; B is rotated by 180o and C is\nobtained; C is superimposable on A"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5554-5557", "Text": "6)\nand their mirror images Fig 6 5:\nB is mirror image of A; B is rotated by 180o and C is\nobtained; C is superimposable on A Rationalised 2023-24\n177 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nButan-2-ol has four different groups attached to\nthe tetrahedral carbon and as expected is chiral"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5555-5558", "Text": "Fig 6 5:\nB is mirror image of A; B is rotated by 180o and C is\nobtained; C is superimposable on A Rationalised 2023-24\n177 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nButan-2-ol has four different groups attached to\nthe tetrahedral carbon and as expected is chiral Some common\nexamples \nof \nchiral \nmolecules \nsuch \nas\n2-chlorobutane, 2, 3-dihyroxypropanal, (OHC\u2013CHOH\u2013CH2OH),\nbromochloro-iodomethane (BrClCHI), 2-bromopropanoic acid\n(H3C\u2013CHBr\u2013COOH), etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5556-5559", "Text": "5:\nB is mirror image of A; B is rotated by 180o and C is\nobtained; C is superimposable on A Rationalised 2023-24\n177 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nButan-2-ol has four different groups attached to\nthe tetrahedral carbon and as expected is chiral Some common\nexamples \nof \nchiral \nmolecules \nsuch \nas\n2-chlorobutane, 2, 3-dihyroxypropanal, (OHC\u2013CHOH\u2013CH2OH),\nbromochloro-iodomethane (BrClCHI), 2-bromopropanoic acid\n(H3C\u2013CHBr\u2013COOH), etc Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5557-5560", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n177 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nButan-2-ol has four different groups attached to\nthe tetrahedral carbon and as expected is chiral Some common\nexamples \nof \nchiral \nmolecules \nsuch \nas\n2-chlorobutane, 2, 3-dihyroxypropanal, (OHC\u2013CHOH\u2013CH2OH),\nbromochloro-iodomethane (BrClCHI), 2-bromopropanoic acid\n(H3C\u2013CHBr\u2013COOH), etc Fig 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5558-5561", "Text": "Some common\nexamples \nof \nchiral \nmolecules \nsuch \nas\n2-chlorobutane, 2, 3-dihyroxypropanal, (OHC\u2013CHOH\u2013CH2OH),\nbromochloro-iodomethane (BrClCHI), 2-bromopropanoic acid\n(H3C\u2013CHBr\u2013COOH), etc Fig 6 7:\nA chiral molecule\nand its mirror image\nThe stereoisomers related to each other as non-\nsuperimposable mirror images are called enantiomers\n(Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5559-5562", "Text": "Fig 6 7:\nA chiral molecule\nand its mirror image\nThe stereoisomers related to each other as non-\nsuperimposable mirror images are called enantiomers\n(Fig 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5560-5563", "Text": "6 7:\nA chiral molecule\nand its mirror image\nThe stereoisomers related to each other as non-\nsuperimposable mirror images are called enantiomers\n(Fig 6 7)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5561-5564", "Text": "7:\nA chiral molecule\nand its mirror image\nThe stereoisomers related to each other as non-\nsuperimposable mirror images are called enantiomers\n(Fig 6 7) A and B in Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5562-5565", "Text": "6 7) A and B in Fig 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5563-5566", "Text": "7) A and B in Fig 6 5 and D and E in Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5564-5567", "Text": "A and B in Fig 6 5 and D and E in Fig 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5565-5568", "Text": "6 5 and D and E in Fig 6 6 are\nenantiomers"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5566-5569", "Text": "5 and D and E in Fig 6 6 are\nenantiomers Enantiomers possess identical physical properties namely,\nmelting point, boiling point, refractive index, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5567-5570", "Text": "6 6 are\nenantiomers Enantiomers possess identical physical properties namely,\nmelting point, boiling point, refractive index, etc They only differ\nwith respect to the rotation of plane polarised light"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5568-5571", "Text": "6 are\nenantiomers Enantiomers possess identical physical properties namely,\nmelting point, boiling point, refractive index, etc They only differ\nwith respect to the rotation of plane polarised light If one of the\nenantiomer is dextro rotatory, the other will be laevo rotatory"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5569-5572", "Text": "Enantiomers possess identical physical properties namely,\nmelting point, boiling point, refractive index, etc They only differ\nwith respect to the rotation of plane polarised light If one of the\nenantiomer is dextro rotatory, the other will be laevo rotatory A mixture containing two enantiomers in equal proportions\nwill have zero optical rotation, as the rotation due to one isomer\nwill be cancelled by the rotation due to the other isomer"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5570-5573", "Text": "They only differ\nwith respect to the rotation of plane polarised light If one of the\nenantiomer is dextro rotatory, the other will be laevo rotatory A mixture containing two enantiomers in equal proportions\nwill have zero optical rotation, as the rotation due to one isomer\nwill be cancelled by the rotation due to the other isomer Such\na mixture is known as racemic mixture or racemic\nmodification"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5571-5574", "Text": "If one of the\nenantiomer is dextro rotatory, the other will be laevo rotatory A mixture containing two enantiomers in equal proportions\nwill have zero optical rotation, as the rotation due to one isomer\nwill be cancelled by the rotation due to the other isomer Such\na mixture is known as racemic mixture or racemic\nmodification A racemic mixture is represented by prefixing dl\nor (\u00b1) before the name, for example (\u00b1) butan-2-ol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5572-5575", "Text": "A mixture containing two enantiomers in equal proportions\nwill have zero optical rotation, as the rotation due to one isomer\nwill be cancelled by the rotation due to the other isomer Such\na mixture is known as racemic mixture or racemic\nmodification A racemic mixture is represented by prefixing dl\nor (\u00b1) before the name, for example (\u00b1) butan-2-ol The process\nof conversion of enantiomer into a racemic mixture is known as\nracemisation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5573-5576", "Text": "Such\na mixture is known as racemic mixture or racemic\nmodification A racemic mixture is represented by prefixing dl\nor (\u00b1) before the name, for example (\u00b1) butan-2-ol The process\nof conversion of enantiomer into a racemic mixture is known as\nracemisation Example 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5574-5577", "Text": "A racemic mixture is represented by prefixing dl\nor (\u00b1) before the name, for example (\u00b1) butan-2-ol The process\nof conversion of enantiomer into a racemic mixture is known as\nracemisation Example 6 8\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5575-5578", "Text": "The process\nof conversion of enantiomer into a racemic mixture is known as\nracemisation Example 6 8\nExample 6 8\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5576-5579", "Text": "Example 6 8\nExample 6 8\nExample 6 8\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5577-5580", "Text": "8\nExample 6 8\nExample 6 8\nExample 6 8\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5578-5581", "Text": "8\nExample 6 8\nExample 6 8\nExample 6 8\nIdentify chiral and achiral molecules in each of the following pair of\ncompounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5579-5582", "Text": "8\nExample 6 8\nExample 6 8\nIdentify chiral and achiral molecules in each of the following pair of\ncompounds (Wedge and Dash representations according to Class XI"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5580-5583", "Text": "8\nExample 6 8\nIdentify chiral and achiral molecules in each of the following pair of\ncompounds (Wedge and Dash representations according to Class XI Fig 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5581-5584", "Text": "8\nIdentify chiral and achiral molecules in each of the following pair of\ncompounds (Wedge and Dash representations according to Class XI Fig 6 6:\nE is mirror image of D; E is rotated by 180o to get F and F is\nnon superimposable on its mirror image D"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5582-5585", "Text": "(Wedge and Dash representations according to Class XI Fig 6 6:\nE is mirror image of D; E is rotated by 180o to get F and F is\nnon superimposable on its mirror image D However, the sign of optical rotation is not necessarily related to\nthe absolute (actual) configuration of the molecule"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5583-5586", "Text": "Fig 6 6:\nE is mirror image of D; E is rotated by 180o to get F and F is\nnon superimposable on its mirror image D However, the sign of optical rotation is not necessarily related to\nthe absolute (actual) configuration of the molecule Rationalised 2023-24\n178\nChemistry\n(iii) Retention: Retention of configuration is the preservation of the spatial\narrangement of bonds to an asymmetric centre during a chemical\nreaction or transformation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5584-5587", "Text": "6:\nE is mirror image of D; E is rotated by 180o to get F and F is\nnon superimposable on its mirror image D However, the sign of optical rotation is not necessarily related to\nthe absolute (actual) configuration of the molecule Rationalised 2023-24\n178\nChemistry\n(iii) Retention: Retention of configuration is the preservation of the spatial\narrangement of bonds to an asymmetric centre during a chemical\nreaction or transformation In general, if during a reaction, no bond to the stereocentre is broken,\nthe product will have the same general configuration of groups\naround the stereocentre as that of reactant"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5585-5588", "Text": "However, the sign of optical rotation is not necessarily related to\nthe absolute (actual) configuration of the molecule Rationalised 2023-24\n178\nChemistry\n(iii) Retention: Retention of configuration is the preservation of the spatial\narrangement of bonds to an asymmetric centre during a chemical\nreaction or transformation In general, if during a reaction, no bond to the stereocentre is broken,\nthe product will have the same general configuration of groups\naround the stereocentre as that of reactant Such a reaction is said\nto proceed with retention of the configuration"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5586-5589", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n178\nChemistry\n(iii) Retention: Retention of configuration is the preservation of the spatial\narrangement of bonds to an asymmetric centre during a chemical\nreaction or transformation In general, if during a reaction, no bond to the stereocentre is broken,\nthe product will have the same general configuration of groups\naround the stereocentre as that of reactant Such a reaction is said\nto proceed with retention of the configuration Consider as an\nexample, the reaction that takes place when (\u2013)-2-methylbutan-1-ol\nis heated with concentrated hydrochloric acid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5587-5590", "Text": "In general, if during a reaction, no bond to the stereocentre is broken,\nthe product will have the same general configuration of groups\naround the stereocentre as that of reactant Such a reaction is said\nto proceed with retention of the configuration Consider as an\nexample, the reaction that takes place when (\u2013)-2-methylbutan-1-ol\nis heated with concentrated hydrochloric acid Solution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nIt is important to note that configuration at a symmetric centre in\nthe reactant and product is same but the sign of optical rotation\nhas changed in the product"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5588-5591", "Text": "Such a reaction is said\nto proceed with retention of the configuration Consider as an\nexample, the reaction that takes place when (\u2013)-2-methylbutan-1-ol\nis heated with concentrated hydrochloric acid Solution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nIt is important to note that configuration at a symmetric centre in\nthe reactant and product is same but the sign of optical rotation\nhas changed in the product This is so because two different\ncompounds with same configuration at asymmetric centre may have\ndifferent optical rotation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5589-5592", "Text": "Consider as an\nexample, the reaction that takes place when (\u2013)-2-methylbutan-1-ol\nis heated with concentrated hydrochloric acid Solution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nIt is important to note that configuration at a symmetric centre in\nthe reactant and product is same but the sign of optical rotation\nhas changed in the product This is so because two different\ncompounds with same configuration at asymmetric centre may have\ndifferent optical rotation One may be dextrorotatory (plus sign of\noptical rotation) while other may be laevorotatory (negative sign of\noptical rotation)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5590-5593", "Text": "Solution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nIt is important to note that configuration at a symmetric centre in\nthe reactant and product is same but the sign of optical rotation\nhas changed in the product This is so because two different\ncompounds with same configuration at asymmetric centre may have\ndifferent optical rotation One may be dextrorotatory (plus sign of\noptical rotation) while other may be laevorotatory (negative sign of\noptical rotation) (iv) Inversion, retention and racemisation: There are three outcomes\nfor a reaction at an asymmetric carbon atom, when a bond directly\nlinked to an asymmetric carbon atom is broken"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5591-5594", "Text": "This is so because two different\ncompounds with same configuration at asymmetric centre may have\ndifferent optical rotation One may be dextrorotatory (plus sign of\noptical rotation) while other may be laevorotatory (negative sign of\noptical rotation) (iv) Inversion, retention and racemisation: There are three outcomes\nfor a reaction at an asymmetric carbon atom, when a bond directly\nlinked to an asymmetric carbon atom is broken Consider the\nreplacement of a group X by Y in the following reaction;\nIf (A) is the only compound obtained, the process is called retention\nof configuration"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5592-5595", "Text": "One may be dextrorotatory (plus sign of\noptical rotation) while other may be laevorotatory (negative sign of\noptical rotation) (iv) Inversion, retention and racemisation: There are three outcomes\nfor a reaction at an asymmetric carbon atom, when a bond directly\nlinked to an asymmetric carbon atom is broken Consider the\nreplacement of a group X by Y in the following reaction;\nIf (A) is the only compound obtained, the process is called retention\nof configuration Note that configuration has been rotated in A"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5593-5596", "Text": "(iv) Inversion, retention and racemisation: There are three outcomes\nfor a reaction at an asymmetric carbon atom, when a bond directly\nlinked to an asymmetric carbon atom is broken Consider the\nreplacement of a group X by Y in the following reaction;\nIf (A) is the only compound obtained, the process is called retention\nof configuration Note that configuration has been rotated in A If (B) is the only compound obtained, the process is called inversion\nof configuration"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5594-5597", "Text": "Consider the\nreplacement of a group X by Y in the following reaction;\nIf (A) is the only compound obtained, the process is called retention\nof configuration Note that configuration has been rotated in A If (B) is the only compound obtained, the process is called inversion\nof configuration Configuration has been inverted in B"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5595-5598", "Text": "Note that configuration has been rotated in A If (B) is the only compound obtained, the process is called inversion\nof configuration Configuration has been inverted in B Rationalised 2023-24\n179 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nIf a 50:50 mixture of A and B is obtained then the process is called\nracemisation and the product is optically inactive, as one isomer will\nrotate the plane polarised light in the direction opposite to another"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5596-5599", "Text": "If (B) is the only compound obtained, the process is called inversion\nof configuration Configuration has been inverted in B Rationalised 2023-24\n179 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nIf a 50:50 mixture of A and B is obtained then the process is called\nracemisation and the product is optically inactive, as one isomer will\nrotate the plane polarised light in the direction opposite to another Now let us have a fresh look at SN1 and SN2 mechanisms by\ntaking examples of optically active alkyl halides"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5597-5600", "Text": "Configuration has been inverted in B Rationalised 2023-24\n179 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nIf a 50:50 mixture of A and B is obtained then the process is called\nracemisation and the product is optically inactive, as one isomer will\nrotate the plane polarised light in the direction opposite to another Now let us have a fresh look at SN1 and SN2 mechanisms by\ntaking examples of optically active alkyl halides In case of optically active alkyl halides, the product formed as a\nresult of SN2 mechanism has the inverted configuration as compared\nto the reactant"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5598-5601", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n179 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nIf a 50:50 mixture of A and B is obtained then the process is called\nracemisation and the product is optically inactive, as one isomer will\nrotate the plane polarised light in the direction opposite to another Now let us have a fresh look at SN1 and SN2 mechanisms by\ntaking examples of optically active alkyl halides In case of optically active alkyl halides, the product formed as a\nresult of SN2 mechanism has the inverted configuration as compared\nto the reactant This is because the nucleophile attaches itself on the\nside opposite to the one where the halogen atom is present"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5599-5602", "Text": "Now let us have a fresh look at SN1 and SN2 mechanisms by\ntaking examples of optically active alkyl halides In case of optically active alkyl halides, the product formed as a\nresult of SN2 mechanism has the inverted configuration as compared\nto the reactant This is because the nucleophile attaches itself on the\nside opposite to the one where the halogen atom is present When\n(\u2013)-2-bromooctane is allowed to react with sodium hydroxide,\n(+)-octan-2-ol is formed with the \u2013OH group occupying the position\nopposite to what bromide had occupied"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5600-5603", "Text": "In case of optically active alkyl halides, the product formed as a\nresult of SN2 mechanism has the inverted configuration as compared\nto the reactant This is because the nucleophile attaches itself on the\nside opposite to the one where the halogen atom is present When\n(\u2013)-2-bromooctane is allowed to react with sodium hydroxide,\n(+)-octan-2-ol is formed with the \u2013OH group occupying the position\nopposite to what bromide had occupied Thus, SN2 reactions of optically active halides are accompanied by\ninversion of configuration"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5601-5604", "Text": "This is because the nucleophile attaches itself on the\nside opposite to the one where the halogen atom is present When\n(\u2013)-2-bromooctane is allowed to react with sodium hydroxide,\n(+)-octan-2-ol is formed with the \u2013OH group occupying the position\nopposite to what bromide had occupied Thus, SN2 reactions of optically active halides are accompanied by\ninversion of configuration In case of optically active alkyl halides, SN1 reactions are\naccompanied by racemisation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5602-5605", "Text": "When\n(\u2013)-2-bromooctane is allowed to react with sodium hydroxide,\n(+)-octan-2-ol is formed with the \u2013OH group occupying the position\nopposite to what bromide had occupied Thus, SN2 reactions of optically active halides are accompanied by\ninversion of configuration In case of optically active alkyl halides, SN1 reactions are\naccompanied by racemisation Can you think of the reason why it\nhappens"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5603-5606", "Text": "Thus, SN2 reactions of optically active halides are accompanied by\ninversion of configuration In case of optically active alkyl halides, SN1 reactions are\naccompanied by racemisation Can you think of the reason why it\nhappens Actually the carbocation formed in the slow step being sp\n2\nhybridised is planar (achiral)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5604-5607", "Text": "In case of optically active alkyl halides, SN1 reactions are\naccompanied by racemisation Can you think of the reason why it\nhappens Actually the carbocation formed in the slow step being sp\n2\nhybridised is planar (achiral) The attack of the nucleophile may be\naccomplished from either side of the plane of carbocation resulting in\na mixture of products, one having the same configuration (the \u2013OH\nattaching on the same position as halide ion) and the other having\nopposite configuration (the \u2013OH attaching on the side opposite to halide\nion)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5605-5608", "Text": "Can you think of the reason why it\nhappens Actually the carbocation formed in the slow step being sp\n2\nhybridised is planar (achiral) The attack of the nucleophile may be\naccomplished from either side of the plane of carbocation resulting in\na mixture of products, one having the same configuration (the \u2013OH\nattaching on the same position as halide ion) and the other having\nopposite configuration (the \u2013OH attaching on the side opposite to halide\nion) This may be illustrated by hydrolysis of optically active\n2-bromobutane, which results in the formation of (\u00b1)-butan-2-ol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5606-5609", "Text": "Actually the carbocation formed in the slow step being sp\n2\nhybridised is planar (achiral) The attack of the nucleophile may be\naccomplished from either side of the plane of carbocation resulting in\na mixture of products, one having the same configuration (the \u2013OH\nattaching on the same position as halide ion) and the other having\nopposite configuration (the \u2013OH attaching on the side opposite to halide\nion) This may be illustrated by hydrolysis of optically active\n2-bromobutane, which results in the formation of (\u00b1)-butan-2-ol 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5607-5610", "Text": "The attack of the nucleophile may be\naccomplished from either side of the plane of carbocation resulting in\na mixture of products, one having the same configuration (the \u2013OH\nattaching on the same position as halide ion) and the other having\nopposite configuration (the \u2013OH attaching on the side opposite to halide\nion) This may be illustrated by hydrolysis of optically active\n2-bromobutane, which results in the formation of (\u00b1)-butan-2-ol 2 Elimination reactions\nWhen a haloalkane with b-hydrogen atom is heated with alcoholic\nsolution of potassium hydroxide, there is elimination of hydrogen\natom from b-carbon and a halogen atom from the a-carbon atom"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5608-5611", "Text": "This may be illustrated by hydrolysis of optically active\n2-bromobutane, which results in the formation of (\u00b1)-butan-2-ol 2 Elimination reactions\nWhen a haloalkane with b-hydrogen atom is heated with alcoholic\nsolution of potassium hydroxide, there is elimination of hydrogen\natom from b-carbon and a halogen atom from the a-carbon atom Location of aaaaa and\nbbbbb carbon in a\nmolecule\nCarbon on which\nhalogen atom is\ndirectly attached is\ncalled a-carbon and\nthe carbon atom\nadjacent to this\ncarbon is called\nb-carbon"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5609-5612", "Text": "2 Elimination reactions\nWhen a haloalkane with b-hydrogen atom is heated with alcoholic\nsolution of potassium hydroxide, there is elimination of hydrogen\natom from b-carbon and a halogen atom from the a-carbon atom Location of aaaaa and\nbbbbb carbon in a\nmolecule\nCarbon on which\nhalogen atom is\ndirectly attached is\ncalled a-carbon and\nthe carbon atom\nadjacent to this\ncarbon is called\nb-carbon Rationalised 2023-24\n180\nChemistry\nAs a result, an alkene is formed as a product"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5610-5613", "Text": "Elimination reactions\nWhen a haloalkane with b-hydrogen atom is heated with alcoholic\nsolution of potassium hydroxide, there is elimination of hydrogen\natom from b-carbon and a halogen atom from the a-carbon atom Location of aaaaa and\nbbbbb carbon in a\nmolecule\nCarbon on which\nhalogen atom is\ndirectly attached is\ncalled a-carbon and\nthe carbon atom\nadjacent to this\ncarbon is called\nb-carbon Rationalised 2023-24\n180\nChemistry\nAs a result, an alkene is formed as a product Since b-hydrogen\natom is involved in elimination, it is often called bbbbb-elimination"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5611-5614", "Text": "Location of aaaaa and\nbbbbb carbon in a\nmolecule\nCarbon on which\nhalogen atom is\ndirectly attached is\ncalled a-carbon and\nthe carbon atom\nadjacent to this\ncarbon is called\nb-carbon Rationalised 2023-24\n180\nChemistry\nAs a result, an alkene is formed as a product Since b-hydrogen\natom is involved in elimination, it is often called bbbbb-elimination If there is possibility of formation of more than one alkene due to\nthe availability of more than one b-hydrogen atoms, usually one alkene\nis formed as the major product"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5612-5615", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n180\nChemistry\nAs a result, an alkene is formed as a product Since b-hydrogen\natom is involved in elimination, it is often called bbbbb-elimination If there is possibility of formation of more than one alkene due to\nthe availability of more than one b-hydrogen atoms, usually one alkene\nis formed as the major product These form part of a pattern first\nobserved by Russian chemist, Alexander Zaitsev (also pronounced as\nSaytzeff) who in 1875 formulated a rule which can be summarised as\n\u201cin dehydrohalogenation reactions, the preferred product is that\nalkene which has the greater number of alkyl groups attached to the\ndoubly bonded carbon atoms"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5613-5616", "Text": "Since b-hydrogen\natom is involved in elimination, it is often called bbbbb-elimination If there is possibility of formation of more than one alkene due to\nthe availability of more than one b-hydrogen atoms, usually one alkene\nis formed as the major product These form part of a pattern first\nobserved by Russian chemist, Alexander Zaitsev (also pronounced as\nSaytzeff) who in 1875 formulated a rule which can be summarised as\n\u201cin dehydrohalogenation reactions, the preferred product is that\nalkene which has the greater number of alkyl groups attached to the\ndoubly bonded carbon atoms \u201d Thus, 2-bromopentane gives\npent-2-ene as the major product"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5614-5617", "Text": "If there is possibility of formation of more than one alkene due to\nthe availability of more than one b-hydrogen atoms, usually one alkene\nis formed as the major product These form part of a pattern first\nobserved by Russian chemist, Alexander Zaitsev (also pronounced as\nSaytzeff) who in 1875 formulated a rule which can be summarised as\n\u201cin dehydrohalogenation reactions, the preferred product is that\nalkene which has the greater number of alkyl groups attached to the\ndoubly bonded carbon atoms \u201d Thus, 2-bromopentane gives\npent-2-ene as the major product 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5615-5618", "Text": "These form part of a pattern first\nobserved by Russian chemist, Alexander Zaitsev (also pronounced as\nSaytzeff) who in 1875 formulated a rule which can be summarised as\n\u201cin dehydrohalogenation reactions, the preferred product is that\nalkene which has the greater number of alkyl groups attached to the\ndoubly bonded carbon atoms \u201d Thus, 2-bromopentane gives\npent-2-ene as the major product 3 Reaction with metals\nMost organic chlorides, bromides and iodides react with certain\nmetals to give compounds containing carbon-metal bonds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5616-5619", "Text": "\u201d Thus, 2-bromopentane gives\npent-2-ene as the major product 3 Reaction with metals\nMost organic chlorides, bromides and iodides react with certain\nmetals to give compounds containing carbon-metal bonds Such\ncompounds are known as organo-metallic compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5617-5620", "Text": "3 Reaction with metals\nMost organic chlorides, bromides and iodides react with certain\nmetals to give compounds containing carbon-metal bonds Such\ncompounds are known as organo-metallic compounds An\nimportant class of organo-metallic compounds discovered by Victor\nGrignard in 1900 is alkyl magnesium halide, RMgX, referred as\nGrignard Reagents"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5618-5621", "Text": "Reaction with metals\nMost organic chlorides, bromides and iodides react with certain\nmetals to give compounds containing carbon-metal bonds Such\ncompounds are known as organo-metallic compounds An\nimportant class of organo-metallic compounds discovered by Victor\nGrignard in 1900 is alkyl magnesium halide, RMgX, referred as\nGrignard Reagents These reagents are obtained by the reaction of\nhaloalkanes with magnesium metal in dry ether"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5619-5622", "Text": "Such\ncompounds are known as organo-metallic compounds An\nimportant class of organo-metallic compounds discovered by Victor\nGrignard in 1900 is alkyl magnesium halide, RMgX, referred as\nGrignard Reagents These reagents are obtained by the reaction of\nhaloalkanes with magnesium metal in dry ether A chemical reaction is the result of competition; it is a race that is won by the fastest\nrunner"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5620-5623", "Text": "An\nimportant class of organo-metallic compounds discovered by Victor\nGrignard in 1900 is alkyl magnesium halide, RMgX, referred as\nGrignard Reagents These reagents are obtained by the reaction of\nhaloalkanes with magnesium metal in dry ether A chemical reaction is the result of competition; it is a race that is won by the fastest\nrunner A collection of molecules tend to do, by and large, what is easiest for them"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5621-5624", "Text": "These reagents are obtained by the reaction of\nhaloalkanes with magnesium metal in dry ether A chemical reaction is the result of competition; it is a race that is won by the fastest\nrunner A collection of molecules tend to do, by and large, what is easiest for them An\nalkyl halide with b-hydrogen atoms when reacted with a base or a nucleophile has two\ncompeting routes: substitution (SN1 and SN2) and elimination"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5622-5625", "Text": "A chemical reaction is the result of competition; it is a race that is won by the fastest\nrunner A collection of molecules tend to do, by and large, what is easiest for them An\nalkyl halide with b-hydrogen atoms when reacted with a base or a nucleophile has two\ncompeting routes: substitution (SN1 and SN2) and elimination Which route will be taken\nup depends upon the nature of alkyl halide, strength and size of base/nucleophile and\nreaction conditions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5623-5626", "Text": "A collection of molecules tend to do, by and large, what is easiest for them An\nalkyl halide with b-hydrogen atoms when reacted with a base or a nucleophile has two\ncompeting routes: substitution (SN1 and SN2) and elimination Which route will be taken\nup depends upon the nature of alkyl halide, strength and size of base/nucleophile and\nreaction conditions Thus, a bulkier nucleophile will prefer to act as a base and abstracts\na proton rather than approach a tetravalent carbon atom (steric reasons) and vice versa"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5624-5627", "Text": "An\nalkyl halide with b-hydrogen atoms when reacted with a base or a nucleophile has two\ncompeting routes: substitution (SN1 and SN2) and elimination Which route will be taken\nup depends upon the nature of alkyl halide, strength and size of base/nucleophile and\nreaction conditions Thus, a bulkier nucleophile will prefer to act as a base and abstracts\na proton rather than approach a tetravalent carbon atom (steric reasons) and vice versa Similarly, a primary alkyl halide will prefer a SN2 reaction, a secondary halide- SN2 or\nelimination depending upon the strength of base/nucleophile and a tertiary halide- SN1 or\nelimination depending upon the stability of carbocation or the more substituted alkene"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5625-5628", "Text": "Which route will be taken\nup depends upon the nature of alkyl halide, strength and size of base/nucleophile and\nreaction conditions Thus, a bulkier nucleophile will prefer to act as a base and abstracts\na proton rather than approach a tetravalent carbon atom (steric reasons) and vice versa Similarly, a primary alkyl halide will prefer a SN2 reaction, a secondary halide- SN2 or\nelimination depending upon the strength of base/nucleophile and a tertiary halide- SN1 or\nelimination depending upon the stability of carbocation or the more substituted alkene Elimination versus substitution\nElimination versus substitution\nElimination versus substitution\nElimination versus substitution\nElimination versus substitution\nRationalised 2023-24\n181 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nVictor Grignard had a strange start in academic life for a chemist - he\ntook a maths degree"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5626-5629", "Text": "Thus, a bulkier nucleophile will prefer to act as a base and abstracts\na proton rather than approach a tetravalent carbon atom (steric reasons) and vice versa Similarly, a primary alkyl halide will prefer a SN2 reaction, a secondary halide- SN2 or\nelimination depending upon the strength of base/nucleophile and a tertiary halide- SN1 or\nelimination depending upon the stability of carbocation or the more substituted alkene Elimination versus substitution\nElimination versus substitution\nElimination versus substitution\nElimination versus substitution\nElimination versus substitution\nRationalised 2023-24\n181 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nVictor Grignard had a strange start in academic life for a chemist - he\ntook a maths degree When he eventually switched to chemistry, it was\nnot to the mathematical province of physical chemistry but to organic\nchemistry"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5627-5630", "Text": "Similarly, a primary alkyl halide will prefer a SN2 reaction, a secondary halide- SN2 or\nelimination depending upon the strength of base/nucleophile and a tertiary halide- SN1 or\nelimination depending upon the stability of carbocation or the more substituted alkene Elimination versus substitution\nElimination versus substitution\nElimination versus substitution\nElimination versus substitution\nElimination versus substitution\nRationalised 2023-24\n181 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nVictor Grignard had a strange start in academic life for a chemist - he\ntook a maths degree When he eventually switched to chemistry, it was\nnot to the mathematical province of physical chemistry but to organic\nchemistry While attempting to find an efficient catalyst for the process\nof methylation, he noted that Zn in diethyl ether had been used for this\npurpose and wondered whether the Mg/ether combination might be\nsuccessful"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5628-5631", "Text": "Elimination versus substitution\nElimination versus substitution\nElimination versus substitution\nElimination versus substitution\nElimination versus substitution\nRationalised 2023-24\n181 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nVictor Grignard had a strange start in academic life for a chemist - he\ntook a maths degree When he eventually switched to chemistry, it was\nnot to the mathematical province of physical chemistry but to organic\nchemistry While attempting to find an efficient catalyst for the process\nof methylation, he noted that Zn in diethyl ether had been used for this\npurpose and wondered whether the Mg/ether combination might be\nsuccessful Grignard reagents were first reported in 1900 and Grignard\nused this work for his doctoral thesis in 1901"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5629-5632", "Text": "When he eventually switched to chemistry, it was\nnot to the mathematical province of physical chemistry but to organic\nchemistry While attempting to find an efficient catalyst for the process\nof methylation, he noted that Zn in diethyl ether had been used for this\npurpose and wondered whether the Mg/ether combination might be\nsuccessful Grignard reagents were first reported in 1900 and Grignard\nused this work for his doctoral thesis in 1901 In 1910, Grignard obtained\na professorship at the University of Nancy and in 1912, he was awarded\nthe Nobel prize for Chemistry which he shared with Paul Sabatier who\nhad made advances in nickel catalysed hydrogenation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5630-5633", "Text": "While attempting to find an efficient catalyst for the process\nof methylation, he noted that Zn in diethyl ether had been used for this\npurpose and wondered whether the Mg/ether combination might be\nsuccessful Grignard reagents were first reported in 1900 and Grignard\nused this work for his doctoral thesis in 1901 In 1910, Grignard obtained\na professorship at the University of Nancy and in 1912, he was awarded\nthe Nobel prize for Chemistry which he shared with Paul Sabatier who\nhad made advances in nickel catalysed hydrogenation In the Grignard reagent, the carbon-magnesium bond is covalent\nbut highly polar, with carbon pulling electrons from electropositive\nmagnesium; the magnesium halogen bond is essentially ionic"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5631-5634", "Text": "Grignard reagents were first reported in 1900 and Grignard\nused this work for his doctoral thesis in 1901 In 1910, Grignard obtained\na professorship at the University of Nancy and in 1912, he was awarded\nthe Nobel prize for Chemistry which he shared with Paul Sabatier who\nhad made advances in nickel catalysed hydrogenation In the Grignard reagent, the carbon-magnesium bond is covalent\nbut highly polar, with carbon pulling electrons from electropositive\nmagnesium; the magnesium halogen bond is essentially ionic Grignard reagents are highly reactive and react with any source of\nproton to give hydrocarbons"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5632-5635", "Text": "In 1910, Grignard obtained\na professorship at the University of Nancy and in 1912, he was awarded\nthe Nobel prize for Chemistry which he shared with Paul Sabatier who\nhad made advances in nickel catalysed hydrogenation In the Grignard reagent, the carbon-magnesium bond is covalent\nbut highly polar, with carbon pulling electrons from electropositive\nmagnesium; the magnesium halogen bond is essentially ionic Grignard reagents are highly reactive and react with any source of\nproton to give hydrocarbons Even water, alcohols, amines are sufficiently\nacidic to convert them to corresponding hydrocarbons"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5633-5636", "Text": "In the Grignard reagent, the carbon-magnesium bond is covalent\nbut highly polar, with carbon pulling electrons from electropositive\nmagnesium; the magnesium halogen bond is essentially ionic Grignard reagents are highly reactive and react with any source of\nproton to give hydrocarbons Even water, alcohols, amines are sufficiently\nacidic to convert them to corresponding hydrocarbons It is therefore necessary to avoid even traces of moisture from a Grignard\nreagent"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5634-5637", "Text": "Grignard reagents are highly reactive and react with any source of\nproton to give hydrocarbons Even water, alcohols, amines are sufficiently\nacidic to convert them to corresponding hydrocarbons It is therefore necessary to avoid even traces of moisture from a Grignard\nreagent That is why reaction is carried out in dry ether"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5635-5638", "Text": "Even water, alcohols, amines are sufficiently\nacidic to convert them to corresponding hydrocarbons It is therefore necessary to avoid even traces of moisture from a Grignard\nreagent That is why reaction is carried out in dry ether On the other\nhand, this could be considered as one of the methods for converting\nhalides to hydrocarbons"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5636-5639", "Text": "It is therefore necessary to avoid even traces of moisture from a Grignard\nreagent That is why reaction is carried out in dry ether On the other\nhand, this could be considered as one of the methods for converting\nhalides to hydrocarbons Wurtz reaction\nAlkyl halides react with sodium in dry ether to give hydrocarbons\ncontaining double the number of carbon atoms present in the halide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5637-5640", "Text": "That is why reaction is carried out in dry ether On the other\nhand, this could be considered as one of the methods for converting\nhalides to hydrocarbons Wurtz reaction\nAlkyl halides react with sodium in dry ether to give hydrocarbons\ncontaining double the number of carbon atoms present in the halide This reaction is known as Wurtz reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5638-5641", "Text": "On the other\nhand, this could be considered as one of the methods for converting\nhalides to hydrocarbons Wurtz reaction\nAlkyl halides react with sodium in dry ether to give hydrocarbons\ncontaining double the number of carbon atoms present in the halide This reaction is known as Wurtz reaction 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5639-5642", "Text": "Wurtz reaction\nAlkyl halides react with sodium in dry ether to give hydrocarbons\ncontaining double the number of carbon atoms present in the halide This reaction is known as Wurtz reaction 1 Nucleophilic substitution\nAryl halides are extremely less reactive towards nucleophilic\nsubstitution reactions due to the following reasons:\n(i) Resonance effect : In haloarenes, the electron pairs on halogen\natom are in conjugation with p-electrons of the ring and the\nfollowing resonating structures are possible"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5640-5643", "Text": "This reaction is known as Wurtz reaction 1 Nucleophilic substitution\nAryl halides are extremely less reactive towards nucleophilic\nsubstitution reactions due to the following reasons:\n(i) Resonance effect : In haloarenes, the electron pairs on halogen\natom are in conjugation with p-electrons of the ring and the\nfollowing resonating structures are possible C\u2014Cl bond acquires a partial double bond character due to\nresonance"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5641-5644", "Text": "1 Nucleophilic substitution\nAryl halides are extremely less reactive towards nucleophilic\nsubstitution reactions due to the following reasons:\n(i) Resonance effect : In haloarenes, the electron pairs on halogen\natom are in conjugation with p-electrons of the ring and the\nfollowing resonating structures are possible C\u2014Cl bond acquires a partial double bond character due to\nresonance As a result, the bond cleavage in haloarene is difficult\nthan haloalkane and therefore, they are less reactive towards\nnucleophilic substitution reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5642-5645", "Text": "Nucleophilic substitution\nAryl halides are extremely less reactive towards nucleophilic\nsubstitution reactions due to the following reasons:\n(i) Resonance effect : In haloarenes, the electron pairs on halogen\natom are in conjugation with p-electrons of the ring and the\nfollowing resonating structures are possible C\u2014Cl bond acquires a partial double bond character due to\nresonance As a result, the bond cleavage in haloarene is difficult\nthan haloalkane and therefore, they are less reactive towards\nnucleophilic substitution reaction 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5643-5646", "Text": "C\u2014Cl bond acquires a partial double bond character due to\nresonance As a result, the bond cleavage in haloarene is difficult\nthan haloalkane and therefore, they are less reactive towards\nnucleophilic substitution reaction 6 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5644-5647", "Text": "As a result, the bond cleavage in haloarene is difficult\nthan haloalkane and therefore, they are less reactive towards\nnucleophilic substitution reaction 6 7 2 Reactions of\nHaloarenes\nRationalised 2023-24\n182\nChemistry\n(ii) Difference in hybridisation of carbon atom in C\u2014X bond: In\nhaloalkane, the carbon atom attached to halogen is sp3\nhybridised while in case of haloarene, the carbon atom attached\nto halogen is sp2-hybridised"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5645-5648", "Text": "6 7 2 Reactions of\nHaloarenes\nRationalised 2023-24\n182\nChemistry\n(ii) Difference in hybridisation of carbon atom in C\u2014X bond: In\nhaloalkane, the carbon atom attached to halogen is sp3\nhybridised while in case of haloarene, the carbon atom attached\nto halogen is sp2-hybridised The sp2 hybridised carbon with a greater s-character is more\nelectronegative and can hold the electron pair of C\u2014X bond\nmore tightly than sp3-hybridised carbon in haloalkane with\nless s-chararcter"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5646-5649", "Text": "7 2 Reactions of\nHaloarenes\nRationalised 2023-24\n182\nChemistry\n(ii) Difference in hybridisation of carbon atom in C\u2014X bond: In\nhaloalkane, the carbon atom attached to halogen is sp3\nhybridised while in case of haloarene, the carbon atom attached\nto halogen is sp2-hybridised The sp2 hybridised carbon with a greater s-character is more\nelectronegative and can hold the electron pair of C\u2014X bond\nmore tightly than sp3-hybridised carbon in haloalkane with\nless s-chararcter Thus, C\u2014Cl bond length in haloalkane is\n177pm while in haloarene is 169 pm"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5647-5650", "Text": "2 Reactions of\nHaloarenes\nRationalised 2023-24\n182\nChemistry\n(ii) Difference in hybridisation of carbon atom in C\u2014X bond: In\nhaloalkane, the carbon atom attached to halogen is sp3\nhybridised while in case of haloarene, the carbon atom attached\nto halogen is sp2-hybridised The sp2 hybridised carbon with a greater s-character is more\nelectronegative and can hold the electron pair of C\u2014X bond\nmore tightly than sp3-hybridised carbon in haloalkane with\nless s-chararcter Thus, C\u2014Cl bond length in haloalkane is\n177pm while in haloarene is 169 pm Since it is difficult to\nbreak a shorter bond than a longer bond, therefore, haloarenes\nare less reactive than haloalkanes towards nucleophilic\nsubstitution reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5648-5651", "Text": "The sp2 hybridised carbon with a greater s-character is more\nelectronegative and can hold the electron pair of C\u2014X bond\nmore tightly than sp3-hybridised carbon in haloalkane with\nless s-chararcter Thus, C\u2014Cl bond length in haloalkane is\n177pm while in haloarene is 169 pm Since it is difficult to\nbreak a shorter bond than a longer bond, therefore, haloarenes\nare less reactive than haloalkanes towards nucleophilic\nsubstitution reaction (iii) Instability of phenyl cation: In case of haloarenes, the phenyl\ncation formed as a result of self-ionisation will not be stabilised\nby resonance and therefore, SN1 mechanism is ruled out"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5649-5652", "Text": "Thus, C\u2014Cl bond length in haloalkane is\n177pm while in haloarene is 169 pm Since it is difficult to\nbreak a shorter bond than a longer bond, therefore, haloarenes\nare less reactive than haloalkanes towards nucleophilic\nsubstitution reaction (iii) Instability of phenyl cation: In case of haloarenes, the phenyl\ncation formed as a result of self-ionisation will not be stabilised\nby resonance and therefore, SN1 mechanism is ruled out (iv) Because of the possible repulsion, it is less likely for the electron\nrich nucleophile to approach electron rich arenes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5650-5653", "Text": "Since it is difficult to\nbreak a shorter bond than a longer bond, therefore, haloarenes\nare less reactive than haloalkanes towards nucleophilic\nsubstitution reaction (iii) Instability of phenyl cation: In case of haloarenes, the phenyl\ncation formed as a result of self-ionisation will not be stabilised\nby resonance and therefore, SN1 mechanism is ruled out (iv) Because of the possible repulsion, it is less likely for the electron\nrich nucleophile to approach electron rich arenes Replacement by hydroxyl group\nChlorobenzene can be converted into phenol by heating in aqueous\nsodium hydroxide solution at a temperature of 623K and a pressure\nof 300 atmospheres"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5651-5654", "Text": "(iii) Instability of phenyl cation: In case of haloarenes, the phenyl\ncation formed as a result of self-ionisation will not be stabilised\nby resonance and therefore, SN1 mechanism is ruled out (iv) Because of the possible repulsion, it is less likely for the electron\nrich nucleophile to approach electron rich arenes Replacement by hydroxyl group\nChlorobenzene can be converted into phenol by heating in aqueous\nsodium hydroxide solution at a temperature of 623K and a pressure\nof 300 atmospheres The presence of an electron withdrawing group (-NO2) at ortho- and\npara-positions increases the reactivity of haloarenes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5652-5655", "Text": "(iv) Because of the possible repulsion, it is less likely for the electron\nrich nucleophile to approach electron rich arenes Replacement by hydroxyl group\nChlorobenzene can be converted into phenol by heating in aqueous\nsodium hydroxide solution at a temperature of 623K and a pressure\nof 300 atmospheres The presence of an electron withdrawing group (-NO2) at ortho- and\npara-positions increases the reactivity of haloarenes Rationalised 2023-24\n183 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nThe effect is pronounced when (-NO2) group is introduced at ortho-\nand para- positions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5653-5656", "Text": "Replacement by hydroxyl group\nChlorobenzene can be converted into phenol by heating in aqueous\nsodium hydroxide solution at a temperature of 623K and a pressure\nof 300 atmospheres The presence of an electron withdrawing group (-NO2) at ortho- and\npara-positions increases the reactivity of haloarenes Rationalised 2023-24\n183 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nThe effect is pronounced when (-NO2) group is introduced at ortho-\nand para- positions However, no effect on reactivity of haloarenes is\nobserved by the presence of electron withdrawing group at meta-position"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5654-5657", "Text": "The presence of an electron withdrawing group (-NO2) at ortho- and\npara-positions increases the reactivity of haloarenes Rationalised 2023-24\n183 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nThe effect is pronounced when (-NO2) group is introduced at ortho-\nand para- positions However, no effect on reactivity of haloarenes is\nobserved by the presence of electron withdrawing group at meta-position Mechanism of the reaction is as depicted:\nCan you think why does NO2 group show its effect only at ortho- and para- positions\nand not at meta- position"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5655-5658", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n183 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nThe effect is pronounced when (-NO2) group is introduced at ortho-\nand para- positions However, no effect on reactivity of haloarenes is\nobserved by the presence of electron withdrawing group at meta-position Mechanism of the reaction is as depicted:\nCan you think why does NO2 group show its effect only at ortho- and para- positions\nand not at meta- position As shown, the presence of nitro group at ortho- and para-positions withdraws the\nelectron density from the benzene ring and thus facilitates the attack of the nucleophile\non haloarene"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5656-5659", "Text": "However, no effect on reactivity of haloarenes is\nobserved by the presence of electron withdrawing group at meta-position Mechanism of the reaction is as depicted:\nCan you think why does NO2 group show its effect only at ortho- and para- positions\nand not at meta- position As shown, the presence of nitro group at ortho- and para-positions withdraws the\nelectron density from the benzene ring and thus facilitates the attack of the nucleophile\non haloarene The carbanion thus formed is stabilised through resonance"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5657-5660", "Text": "Mechanism of the reaction is as depicted:\nCan you think why does NO2 group show its effect only at ortho- and para- positions\nand not at meta- position As shown, the presence of nitro group at ortho- and para-positions withdraws the\nelectron density from the benzene ring and thus facilitates the attack of the nucleophile\non haloarene The carbanion thus formed is stabilised through resonance The negative\ncharge appeared at ortho- and para- positions with respect to the halogen substituent is\nstabilised by \u2013NO2 group while in case of meta-nitrobenzene, none of the resonating\nstructures bear the negative charge on carbon atom bearing the \u2013NO2 group"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5658-5661", "Text": "As shown, the presence of nitro group at ortho- and para-positions withdraws the\nelectron density from the benzene ring and thus facilitates the attack of the nucleophile\non haloarene The carbanion thus formed is stabilised through resonance The negative\ncharge appeared at ortho- and para- positions with respect to the halogen substituent is\nstabilised by \u2013NO2 group while in case of meta-nitrobenzene, none of the resonating\nstructures bear the negative charge on carbon atom bearing the \u2013NO2 group Therefore,\nthe presence of nitro group at meta- position does not stabilise the negative charge and\nno effect on reactivity is observed by the presence of \u2013NO2 group at meta-position"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5659-5662", "Text": "The carbanion thus formed is stabilised through resonance The negative\ncharge appeared at ortho- and para- positions with respect to the halogen substituent is\nstabilised by \u2013NO2 group while in case of meta-nitrobenzene, none of the resonating\nstructures bear the negative charge on carbon atom bearing the \u2013NO2 group Therefore,\nthe presence of nitro group at meta- position does not stabilise the negative charge and\nno effect on reactivity is observed by the presence of \u2013NO2 group at meta-position Rationalised 2023-24\n184\nChemistry\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5660-5663", "Text": "The negative\ncharge appeared at ortho- and para- positions with respect to the halogen substituent is\nstabilised by \u2013NO2 group while in case of meta-nitrobenzene, none of the resonating\nstructures bear the negative charge on carbon atom bearing the \u2013NO2 group Therefore,\nthe presence of nitro group at meta- position does not stabilise the negative charge and\nno effect on reactivity is observed by the presence of \u2013NO2 group at meta-position Rationalised 2023-24\n184\nChemistry\n2 Electrophilic substitution reactions\nHaloarenes undergo the usual electrophilic reactions of the benzene\nring such as halogenation, nitration, sulphonation and Friedel-Crafts\nreactions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5661-5664", "Text": "Therefore,\nthe presence of nitro group at meta- position does not stabilise the negative charge and\nno effect on reactivity is observed by the presence of \u2013NO2 group at meta-position Rationalised 2023-24\n184\nChemistry\n2 Electrophilic substitution reactions\nHaloarenes undergo the usual electrophilic reactions of the benzene\nring such as halogenation, nitration, sulphonation and Friedel-Crafts\nreactions Halogen atom besides being slightly deactivating is o, p-\ndirecting; therefore, further substitution occurs at ortho- and para-\npositions with respect to the halogen atom"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5662-5665", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n184\nChemistry\n2 Electrophilic substitution reactions\nHaloarenes undergo the usual electrophilic reactions of the benzene\nring such as halogenation, nitration, sulphonation and Friedel-Crafts\nreactions Halogen atom besides being slightly deactivating is o, p-\ndirecting; therefore, further substitution occurs at ortho- and para-\npositions with respect to the halogen atom The o, p-directing influence\nof halogen atom can be easily understood if we consider the resonating\nstructures of halobenzene as shown:\nDue to resonance, the electron density increases more at ortho- and\npara-positions than at meta-positions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5663-5666", "Text": "Electrophilic substitution reactions\nHaloarenes undergo the usual electrophilic reactions of the benzene\nring such as halogenation, nitration, sulphonation and Friedel-Crafts\nreactions Halogen atom besides being slightly deactivating is o, p-\ndirecting; therefore, further substitution occurs at ortho- and para-\npositions with respect to the halogen atom The o, p-directing influence\nof halogen atom can be easily understood if we consider the resonating\nstructures of halobenzene as shown:\nDue to resonance, the electron density increases more at ortho- and\npara-positions than at meta-positions Further, the halogen atom\nbecause of its \u2013I effect has some tendency to withdraw electrons from\nthe benzene ring"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5664-5667", "Text": "Halogen atom besides being slightly deactivating is o, p-\ndirecting; therefore, further substitution occurs at ortho- and para-\npositions with respect to the halogen atom The o, p-directing influence\nof halogen atom can be easily understood if we consider the resonating\nstructures of halobenzene as shown:\nDue to resonance, the electron density increases more at ortho- and\npara-positions than at meta-positions Further, the halogen atom\nbecause of its \u2013I effect has some tendency to withdraw electrons from\nthe benzene ring As a result, the ring gets somewhat deactivated as\ncompared to benzene and hence the electrophilic substitution reactions\nin haloarenes occur slowly and require more drastic conditions as\ncompared to those in benzene"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5665-5668", "Text": "The o, p-directing influence\nof halogen atom can be easily understood if we consider the resonating\nstructures of halobenzene as shown:\nDue to resonance, the electron density increases more at ortho- and\npara-positions than at meta-positions Further, the halogen atom\nbecause of its \u2013I effect has some tendency to withdraw electrons from\nthe benzene ring As a result, the ring gets somewhat deactivated as\ncompared to benzene and hence the electrophilic substitution reactions\nin haloarenes occur slowly and require more drastic conditions as\ncompared to those in benzene (i) Halogenation\n(ii) Nitration\n(iii) Sulphonation\nRationalised 2023-24\n185 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\n(iv) Friedel-Crafts reaction\nAlthough chlorine is an electron withdrawing group, yet it is ortho-,\npara- directing in electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5666-5669", "Text": "Further, the halogen atom\nbecause of its \u2013I effect has some tendency to withdraw electrons from\nthe benzene ring As a result, the ring gets somewhat deactivated as\ncompared to benzene and hence the electrophilic substitution reactions\nin haloarenes occur slowly and require more drastic conditions as\ncompared to those in benzene (i) Halogenation\n(ii) Nitration\n(iii) Sulphonation\nRationalised 2023-24\n185 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\n(iv) Friedel-Crafts reaction\nAlthough chlorine is an electron withdrawing group, yet it is ortho-,\npara- directing in electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions Why"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5667-5670", "Text": "As a result, the ring gets somewhat deactivated as\ncompared to benzene and hence the electrophilic substitution reactions\nin haloarenes occur slowly and require more drastic conditions as\ncompared to those in benzene (i) Halogenation\n(ii) Nitration\n(iii) Sulphonation\nRationalised 2023-24\n185 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\n(iv) Friedel-Crafts reaction\nAlthough chlorine is an electron withdrawing group, yet it is ortho-,\npara- directing in electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions Why Chlorine withdraws electrons through inductive effect and releases\nelectrons through resonance"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5668-5671", "Text": "(i) Halogenation\n(ii) Nitration\n(iii) Sulphonation\nRationalised 2023-24\n185 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\n(iv) Friedel-Crafts reaction\nAlthough chlorine is an electron withdrawing group, yet it is ortho-,\npara- directing in electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions Why Chlorine withdraws electrons through inductive effect and releases\nelectrons through resonance Through inductive effect, chlorine\ndestabilises the intermediate carbocation formed during the electrophilic\nsubstitution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5669-5672", "Text": "Why Chlorine withdraws electrons through inductive effect and releases\nelectrons through resonance Through inductive effect, chlorine\ndestabilises the intermediate carbocation formed during the electrophilic\nsubstitution Through resonance, halogen tends to stabilise the carbocation and\nthe effect is more pronounced at ortho- and para- positions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5670-5673", "Text": "Chlorine withdraws electrons through inductive effect and releases\nelectrons through resonance Through inductive effect, chlorine\ndestabilises the intermediate carbocation formed during the electrophilic\nsubstitution Through resonance, halogen tends to stabilise the carbocation and\nthe effect is more pronounced at ortho- and para- positions The\ninductive effect is stronger than resonance and causes net electron\nwithdrawal and thus causes net deactivation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5671-5674", "Text": "Through inductive effect, chlorine\ndestabilises the intermediate carbocation formed during the electrophilic\nsubstitution Through resonance, halogen tends to stabilise the carbocation and\nthe effect is more pronounced at ortho- and para- positions The\ninductive effect is stronger than resonance and causes net electron\nwithdrawal and thus causes net deactivation The resonance effect\ntends to oppose the inductive effect for the attack at ortho- and para-\npositions and hence makes the deactivation less for ortho- and para-\nattack"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5672-5675", "Text": "Through resonance, halogen tends to stabilise the carbocation and\nthe effect is more pronounced at ortho- and para- positions The\ninductive effect is stronger than resonance and causes net electron\nwithdrawal and thus causes net deactivation The resonance effect\ntends to oppose the inductive effect for the attack at ortho- and para-\npositions and hence makes the deactivation less for ortho- and para-\nattack Reactivity is thus controlled by the stronger inductive effect\nand orientation is controlled by resonance effect"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5673-5676", "Text": "The\ninductive effect is stronger than resonance and causes net electron\nwithdrawal and thus causes net deactivation The resonance effect\ntends to oppose the inductive effect for the attack at ortho- and para-\npositions and hence makes the deactivation less for ortho- and para-\nattack Reactivity is thus controlled by the stronger inductive effect\nand orientation is controlled by resonance effect Example 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5674-5677", "Text": "The resonance effect\ntends to oppose the inductive effect for the attack at ortho- and para-\npositions and hence makes the deactivation less for ortho- and para-\nattack Reactivity is thus controlled by the stronger inductive effect\nand orientation is controlled by resonance effect Example 6 9\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5675-5678", "Text": "Reactivity is thus controlled by the stronger inductive effect\nand orientation is controlled by resonance effect Example 6 9\nExample 6 9\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5676-5679", "Text": "Example 6 9\nExample 6 9\nExample 6 9\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5677-5680", "Text": "9\nExample 6 9\nExample 6 9\nExample 6 9\nExample 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5678-5681", "Text": "9\nExample 6 9\nExample 6 9\nExample 6 9\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n186\nChemistry\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5679-5682", "Text": "9\nExample 6 9\nExample 6 9\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n186\nChemistry\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n3 Reaction with metals\nWurtz-Fittig reaction\nA mixture of an alkyl halide and aryl halide gives an alkylarene when\ntreated with sodium in dry ether and is called Wurtz-Fittig reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5680-5683", "Text": "9\nExample 6 9\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n186\nChemistry\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n3 Reaction with metals\nWurtz-Fittig reaction\nA mixture of an alkyl halide and aryl halide gives an alkylarene when\ntreated with sodium in dry ether and is called Wurtz-Fittig reaction Fittig reaction\nAryl halides also give analogous compounds when treated with sodium\nin dry ether, in which two aryl groups are joined together"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5681-5684", "Text": "9\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n186\nChemistry\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n3 Reaction with metals\nWurtz-Fittig reaction\nA mixture of an alkyl halide and aryl halide gives an alkylarene when\ntreated with sodium in dry ether and is called Wurtz-Fittig reaction Fittig reaction\nAryl halides also give analogous compounds when treated with sodium\nin dry ether, in which two aryl groups are joined together It is called\nFittig reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5682-5685", "Text": "Reaction with metals\nWurtz-Fittig reaction\nA mixture of an alkyl halide and aryl halide gives an alkylarene when\ntreated with sodium in dry ether and is called Wurtz-Fittig reaction Fittig reaction\nAryl halides also give analogous compounds when treated with sodium\nin dry ether, in which two aryl groups are joined together It is called\nFittig reaction 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5683-5686", "Text": "Fittig reaction\nAryl halides also give analogous compounds when treated with sodium\nin dry ether, in which two aryl groups are joined together It is called\nFittig reaction 6 7\nWhich alkyl halide from the following pairs would you expect to react more\nrapidly by an SN2 mechanism"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5684-5687", "Text": "It is called\nFittig reaction 6 7\nWhich alkyl halide from the following pairs would you expect to react more\nrapidly by an SN2 mechanism Explain your answer"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5685-5688", "Text": "6 7\nWhich alkyl halide from the following pairs would you expect to react more\nrapidly by an SN2 mechanism Explain your answer 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5686-5689", "Text": "7\nWhich alkyl halide from the following pairs would you expect to react more\nrapidly by an SN2 mechanism Explain your answer 6 8\nIn the following pairs of halogen compounds, which compound undergoes faster\nSN1 reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5687-5690", "Text": "Explain your answer 6 8\nIn the following pairs of halogen compounds, which compound undergoes faster\nSN1 reaction 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5688-5691", "Text": "6 8\nIn the following pairs of halogen compounds, which compound undergoes faster\nSN1 reaction 6 9\nIdentify A, B, C, D, E, R and R\n1 in the following:\nRationalised 2023-24\n187 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nCarbon compounds containing more than one halogen atom are usually\nreferred to as polyhalogen compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5689-5692", "Text": "8\nIn the following pairs of halogen compounds, which compound undergoes faster\nSN1 reaction 6 9\nIdentify A, B, C, D, E, R and R\n1 in the following:\nRationalised 2023-24\n187 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nCarbon compounds containing more than one halogen atom are usually\nreferred to as polyhalogen compounds Many of these compounds are\nuseful in industry and agriculture"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5690-5693", "Text": "6 9\nIdentify A, B, C, D, E, R and R\n1 in the following:\nRationalised 2023-24\n187 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nCarbon compounds containing more than one halogen atom are usually\nreferred to as polyhalogen compounds Many of these compounds are\nuseful in industry and agriculture Some polyhalogen compounds are\ndescribed in this section"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5691-5694", "Text": "9\nIdentify A, B, C, D, E, R and R\n1 in the following:\nRationalised 2023-24\n187 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nCarbon compounds containing more than one halogen atom are usually\nreferred to as polyhalogen compounds Many of these compounds are\nuseful in industry and agriculture Some polyhalogen compounds are\ndescribed in this section Dichloromethane is widely used as a solvent as a paint remover, as a\npropellant in aerosols, and as a process solvent in the manufacture of\ndrugs"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5692-5695", "Text": "Many of these compounds are\nuseful in industry and agriculture Some polyhalogen compounds are\ndescribed in this section Dichloromethane is widely used as a solvent as a paint remover, as a\npropellant in aerosols, and as a process solvent in the manufacture of\ndrugs It is also used as a metal cleaning and finishing solvent"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5693-5696", "Text": "Some polyhalogen compounds are\ndescribed in this section Dichloromethane is widely used as a solvent as a paint remover, as a\npropellant in aerosols, and as a process solvent in the manufacture of\ndrugs It is also used as a metal cleaning and finishing solvent Methylene\nchloride harms the human central nervous system"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5694-5697", "Text": "Dichloromethane is widely used as a solvent as a paint remover, as a\npropellant in aerosols, and as a process solvent in the manufacture of\ndrugs It is also used as a metal cleaning and finishing solvent Methylene\nchloride harms the human central nervous system Exposure to lower\nlevels of methylene chloride in air can lead to slightly impaired hearing\nand vision"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5695-5698", "Text": "It is also used as a metal cleaning and finishing solvent Methylene\nchloride harms the human central nervous system Exposure to lower\nlevels of methylene chloride in air can lead to slightly impaired hearing\nand vision Higher levels of methylene chloride in air cause dizziness,\nnausea, tingling and numbness in the fingers and toes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5696-5699", "Text": "Methylene\nchloride harms the human central nervous system Exposure to lower\nlevels of methylene chloride in air can lead to slightly impaired hearing\nand vision Higher levels of methylene chloride in air cause dizziness,\nnausea, tingling and numbness in the fingers and toes In humans, direct\nskin contact with methylene chloride causes intense burning and mild\nredness of the skin"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5697-5700", "Text": "Exposure to lower\nlevels of methylene chloride in air can lead to slightly impaired hearing\nand vision Higher levels of methylene chloride in air cause dizziness,\nnausea, tingling and numbness in the fingers and toes In humans, direct\nskin contact with methylene chloride causes intense burning and mild\nredness of the skin Direct contact with the eyes can burn the cornea"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5698-5701", "Text": "Higher levels of methylene chloride in air cause dizziness,\nnausea, tingling and numbness in the fingers and toes In humans, direct\nskin contact with methylene chloride causes intense burning and mild\nredness of the skin Direct contact with the eyes can burn the cornea Chemically, chloroform is employed as a solvent for fats, alkaloids,\niodine and other substances"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5699-5702", "Text": "In humans, direct\nskin contact with methylene chloride causes intense burning and mild\nredness of the skin Direct contact with the eyes can burn the cornea Chemically, chloroform is employed as a solvent for fats, alkaloids,\niodine and other substances The major use of chloroform today is in\nthe production of the freon refrigerant R-22"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5700-5703", "Text": "Direct contact with the eyes can burn the cornea Chemically, chloroform is employed as a solvent for fats, alkaloids,\niodine and other substances The major use of chloroform today is in\nthe production of the freon refrigerant R-22 It was once used as a\ngeneral anaesthetic in surgery but has been replaced by less toxic,\nsafer anaesthetics, such as ether"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5701-5704", "Text": "Chemically, chloroform is employed as a solvent for fats, alkaloids,\niodine and other substances The major use of chloroform today is in\nthe production of the freon refrigerant R-22 It was once used as a\ngeneral anaesthetic in surgery but has been replaced by less toxic,\nsafer anaesthetics, such as ether As might be expected from its use as\nan anaesthetic, inhaling chloroform vapours depresses the central\nnervous system"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5702-5705", "Text": "The major use of chloroform today is in\nthe production of the freon refrigerant R-22 It was once used as a\ngeneral anaesthetic in surgery but has been replaced by less toxic,\nsafer anaesthetics, such as ether As might be expected from its use as\nan anaesthetic, inhaling chloroform vapours depresses the central\nnervous system Breathing about 900 parts of chloroform per million\nparts of air (900 parts per million) for a short time can cause dizziness,\nfatigue, and headache"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5703-5706", "Text": "It was once used as a\ngeneral anaesthetic in surgery but has been replaced by less toxic,\nsafer anaesthetics, such as ether As might be expected from its use as\nan anaesthetic, inhaling chloroform vapours depresses the central\nnervous system Breathing about 900 parts of chloroform per million\nparts of air (900 parts per million) for a short time can cause dizziness,\nfatigue, and headache Chronic chloroform exposure may cause damage\nto the liver (where chloroform is metabolised to phosgene) and to the\nkidneys, and some people develop sores when the skin is immersed in\nchloroform"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5704-5707", "Text": "As might be expected from its use as\nan anaesthetic, inhaling chloroform vapours depresses the central\nnervous system Breathing about 900 parts of chloroform per million\nparts of air (900 parts per million) for a short time can cause dizziness,\nfatigue, and headache Chronic chloroform exposure may cause damage\nto the liver (where chloroform is metabolised to phosgene) and to the\nkidneys, and some people develop sores when the skin is immersed in\nchloroform Chloroform is slowly oxidised by air in the presence of\nlight to an extremely poisonous gas, carbonyl chloride, also known as\nphosgene"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5705-5708", "Text": "Breathing about 900 parts of chloroform per million\nparts of air (900 parts per million) for a short time can cause dizziness,\nfatigue, and headache Chronic chloroform exposure may cause damage\nto the liver (where chloroform is metabolised to phosgene) and to the\nkidneys, and some people develop sores when the skin is immersed in\nchloroform Chloroform is slowly oxidised by air in the presence of\nlight to an extremely poisonous gas, carbonyl chloride, also known as\nphosgene It is therefore stored in closed dark coloured bottles\ncompletely filled so that air is kept out"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5706-5709", "Text": "Chronic chloroform exposure may cause damage\nto the liver (where chloroform is metabolised to phosgene) and to the\nkidneys, and some people develop sores when the skin is immersed in\nchloroform Chloroform is slowly oxidised by air in the presence of\nlight to an extremely poisonous gas, carbonyl chloride, also known as\nphosgene It is therefore stored in closed dark coloured bottles\ncompletely filled so that air is kept out It was used earlier as an antiseptic but the antiseptic properties are\ndue to the liberation of free iodine and not due to iodoform itself"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5707-5710", "Text": "Chloroform is slowly oxidised by air in the presence of\nlight to an extremely poisonous gas, carbonyl chloride, also known as\nphosgene It is therefore stored in closed dark coloured bottles\ncompletely filled so that air is kept out It was used earlier as an antiseptic but the antiseptic properties are\ndue to the liberation of free iodine and not due to iodoform itself Due\nto its objectionable smell, it has been replaced by other formulations\ncontaining iodine"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5708-5711", "Text": "It is therefore stored in closed dark coloured bottles\ncompletely filled so that air is kept out It was used earlier as an antiseptic but the antiseptic properties are\ndue to the liberation of free iodine and not due to iodoform itself Due\nto its objectionable smell, it has been replaced by other formulations\ncontaining iodine It is produced in large quantities for use in the manufacture of\nrefrigerants and propellants for aerosol cans"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5709-5712", "Text": "It was used earlier as an antiseptic but the antiseptic properties are\ndue to the liberation of free iodine and not due to iodoform itself Due\nto its objectionable smell, it has been replaced by other formulations\ncontaining iodine It is produced in large quantities for use in the manufacture of\nrefrigerants and propellants for aerosol cans It is also used as\nfeedstock in the synthesis of chlorofluorocarbons and other chemicals,\npharmaceutical manufacturing, and general solvent use"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5710-5713", "Text": "Due\nto its objectionable smell, it has been replaced by other formulations\ncontaining iodine It is produced in large quantities for use in the manufacture of\nrefrigerants and propellants for aerosol cans It is also used as\nfeedstock in the synthesis of chlorofluorocarbons and other chemicals,\npharmaceutical manufacturing, and general solvent use Until the mid\n1960s, it was also widely used as a cleaning fluid, both in industry,\nas a degreasing agent, and in the home, as a spot remover and as fire\nextinguisher"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5711-5714", "Text": "It is produced in large quantities for use in the manufacture of\nrefrigerants and propellants for aerosol cans It is also used as\nfeedstock in the synthesis of chlorofluorocarbons and other chemicals,\npharmaceutical manufacturing, and general solvent use Until the mid\n1960s, it was also widely used as a cleaning fluid, both in industry,\nas a degreasing agent, and in the home, as a spot remover and as fire\nextinguisher There is some evidence that exposure to carbon\ntetrachloride causes liver cancer in humans"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5712-5715", "Text": "It is also used as\nfeedstock in the synthesis of chlorofluorocarbons and other chemicals,\npharmaceutical manufacturing, and general solvent use Until the mid\n1960s, it was also widely used as a cleaning fluid, both in industry,\nas a degreasing agent, and in the home, as a spot remover and as fire\nextinguisher There is some evidence that exposure to carbon\ntetrachloride causes liver cancer in humans The most common effects\nare dizziness, light headedness, nausea and vomiting, which can cause\npermanent damage to nerve cells"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5713-5716", "Text": "Until the mid\n1960s, it was also widely used as a cleaning fluid, both in industry,\nas a degreasing agent, and in the home, as a spot remover and as fire\nextinguisher There is some evidence that exposure to carbon\ntetrachloride causes liver cancer in humans The most common effects\nare dizziness, light headedness, nausea and vomiting, which can cause\npermanent damage to nerve cells In severe cases, these effects can lead\nrapidly to stupor, coma, unconsciousness or death"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5714-5717", "Text": "There is some evidence that exposure to carbon\ntetrachloride causes liver cancer in humans The most common effects\nare dizziness, light headedness, nausea and vomiting, which can cause\npermanent damage to nerve cells In severe cases, these effects can lead\nrapidly to stupor, coma, unconsciousness or death Exposure to CCl4\ncan make the heart beat irregularly or stop"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5715-5718", "Text": "The most common effects\nare dizziness, light headedness, nausea and vomiting, which can cause\npermanent damage to nerve cells In severe cases, these effects can lead\nrapidly to stupor, coma, unconsciousness or death Exposure to CCl4\ncan make the heart beat irregularly or stop The chemical may irritate\nthe eyes on contact"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5716-5719", "Text": "In severe cases, these effects can lead\nrapidly to stupor, coma, unconsciousness or death Exposure to CCl4\ncan make the heart beat irregularly or stop The chemical may irritate\nthe eyes on contact When carbon tetrachloride is released into the air,\nit rises to the atmosphere and depletes the ozone layer"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5717-5720", "Text": "Exposure to CCl4\ncan make the heart beat irregularly or stop The chemical may irritate\nthe eyes on contact When carbon tetrachloride is released into the air,\nit rises to the atmosphere and depletes the ozone layer Depletion of the\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5718-5721", "Text": "The chemical may irritate\nthe eyes on contact When carbon tetrachloride is released into the air,\nit rises to the atmosphere and depletes the ozone layer Depletion of the\n6 8\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5719-5722", "Text": "When carbon tetrachloride is released into the air,\nit rises to the atmosphere and depletes the ozone layer Depletion of the\n6 8\n6 8\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5720-5723", "Text": "Depletion of the\n6 8\n6 8\n6 8\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5721-5724", "Text": "8\n6 8\n6 8\n6 8\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5722-5725", "Text": "8\n6 8\n6 8\n6 8\nPolyhalogen\nPolyhalogen\nPolyhalogen\nPolyhalogen\nPolyhalogen\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5723-5726", "Text": "8\n6 8\n6 8\nPolyhalogen\nPolyhalogen\nPolyhalogen\nPolyhalogen\nPolyhalogen\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\n6 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5724-5727", "Text": "8\n6 8\nPolyhalogen\nPolyhalogen\nPolyhalogen\nPolyhalogen\nPolyhalogen\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\n6 8 1\nDichloro-\nmethane\n(Methylene\nchloride)\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5725-5728", "Text": "8\nPolyhalogen\nPolyhalogen\nPolyhalogen\nPolyhalogen\nPolyhalogen\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\n6 8 1\nDichloro-\nmethane\n(Methylene\nchloride)\n6 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5726-5729", "Text": "8 1\nDichloro-\nmethane\n(Methylene\nchloride)\n6 8 3\nTriiodo-\nmethane\n(Iodoform)\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5727-5730", "Text": "1\nDichloro-\nmethane\n(Methylene\nchloride)\n6 8 3\nTriiodo-\nmethane\n(Iodoform)\n6 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5728-5731", "Text": "8 3\nTriiodo-\nmethane\n(Iodoform)\n6 8 4\nTetrachlo-\nromethane\n(Carbon\ntetrachloride)\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5729-5732", "Text": "3\nTriiodo-\nmethane\n(Iodoform)\n6 8 4\nTetrachlo-\nromethane\n(Carbon\ntetrachloride)\n6 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5730-5733", "Text": "8 4\nTetrachlo-\nromethane\n(Carbon\ntetrachloride)\n6 8 2\nTrichloro-\nmethane\n(Chloroform)\nRationalised 2023-24\n188\nChemistry\nozone layer is believed to increase human exposure to ultraviolet rays,\nleading to increased skin cancer, eye diseases and disorders, and\npossible disruption of the immune system"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5731-5734", "Text": "4\nTetrachlo-\nromethane\n(Carbon\ntetrachloride)\n6 8 2\nTrichloro-\nmethane\n(Chloroform)\nRationalised 2023-24\n188\nChemistry\nozone layer is believed to increase human exposure to ultraviolet rays,\nleading to increased skin cancer, eye diseases and disorders, and\npossible disruption of the immune system The chlorofluorocarbon compounds of methane and ethane are collectively\nknown as freons"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5732-5735", "Text": "8 2\nTrichloro-\nmethane\n(Chloroform)\nRationalised 2023-24\n188\nChemistry\nozone layer is believed to increase human exposure to ultraviolet rays,\nleading to increased skin cancer, eye diseases and disorders, and\npossible disruption of the immune system The chlorofluorocarbon compounds of methane and ethane are collectively\nknown as freons They are extremely stable, unreactive, non-toxic, non-\ncorrosive and easily liquefiable gases"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5733-5736", "Text": "2\nTrichloro-\nmethane\n(Chloroform)\nRationalised 2023-24\n188\nChemistry\nozone layer is believed to increase human exposure to ultraviolet rays,\nleading to increased skin cancer, eye diseases and disorders, and\npossible disruption of the immune system The chlorofluorocarbon compounds of methane and ethane are collectively\nknown as freons They are extremely stable, unreactive, non-toxic, non-\ncorrosive and easily liquefiable gases Freon 12 (CCl2F2) is one of the\nmost common freons in industrial use"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5734-5737", "Text": "The chlorofluorocarbon compounds of methane and ethane are collectively\nknown as freons They are extremely stable, unreactive, non-toxic, non-\ncorrosive and easily liquefiable gases Freon 12 (CCl2F2) is one of the\nmost common freons in industrial use It is manufactured from\ntetrachloromethane by Swarts reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5735-5738", "Text": "They are extremely stable, unreactive, non-toxic, non-\ncorrosive and easily liquefiable gases Freon 12 (CCl2F2) is one of the\nmost common freons in industrial use It is manufactured from\ntetrachloromethane by Swarts reaction These are usually produced\nfor aerosol propellants, refrigeration and air conditioning purposes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5736-5739", "Text": "Freon 12 (CCl2F2) is one of the\nmost common freons in industrial use It is manufactured from\ntetrachloromethane by Swarts reaction These are usually produced\nfor aerosol propellants, refrigeration and air conditioning purposes By\n1974, total freon production in the world was about 2 billion pounds\nannually"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5737-5740", "Text": "It is manufactured from\ntetrachloromethane by Swarts reaction These are usually produced\nfor aerosol propellants, refrigeration and air conditioning purposes By\n1974, total freon production in the world was about 2 billion pounds\nannually Most freon, even that used in refrigeration, eventually makes\nits way into the atmosphere where it diffuses unchanged into the\nstratosphere"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5738-5741", "Text": "These are usually produced\nfor aerosol propellants, refrigeration and air conditioning purposes By\n1974, total freon production in the world was about 2 billion pounds\nannually Most freon, even that used in refrigeration, eventually makes\nits way into the atmosphere where it diffuses unchanged into the\nstratosphere In stratosphere, freon is able to initiate radical chain\nreactions that can upset the natural ozone balance"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5739-5742", "Text": "By\n1974, total freon production in the world was about 2 billion pounds\nannually Most freon, even that used in refrigeration, eventually makes\nits way into the atmosphere where it diffuses unchanged into the\nstratosphere In stratosphere, freon is able to initiate radical chain\nreactions that can upset the natural ozone balance DDT, the first chlorinated organic insecticides, was originally prepared\nin 1873, but it was not until 1939 that Paul Muller of Geigy\nPharmaceuticals in Switzerland discovered the effectiveness of DDT as\nan insecticide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5740-5743", "Text": "Most freon, even that used in refrigeration, eventually makes\nits way into the atmosphere where it diffuses unchanged into the\nstratosphere In stratosphere, freon is able to initiate radical chain\nreactions that can upset the natural ozone balance DDT, the first chlorinated organic insecticides, was originally prepared\nin 1873, but it was not until 1939 that Paul Muller of Geigy\nPharmaceuticals in Switzerland discovered the effectiveness of DDT as\nan insecticide Paul Muller was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine\nand Physiology in 1948 for this discovery"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5741-5744", "Text": "In stratosphere, freon is able to initiate radical chain\nreactions that can upset the natural ozone balance DDT, the first chlorinated organic insecticides, was originally prepared\nin 1873, but it was not until 1939 that Paul Muller of Geigy\nPharmaceuticals in Switzerland discovered the effectiveness of DDT as\nan insecticide Paul Muller was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine\nand Physiology in 1948 for this discovery The use of DDT increased\nenormously on a worldwide basis after World War II, primarily because\nof its effectiveness against the mosquito that spreads malaria and lice\nthat carry typhus"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5742-5745", "Text": "DDT, the first chlorinated organic insecticides, was originally prepared\nin 1873, but it was not until 1939 that Paul Muller of Geigy\nPharmaceuticals in Switzerland discovered the effectiveness of DDT as\nan insecticide Paul Muller was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine\nand Physiology in 1948 for this discovery The use of DDT increased\nenormously on a worldwide basis after World War II, primarily because\nof its effectiveness against the mosquito that spreads malaria and lice\nthat carry typhus However, problems related to extensive use of DDT\nbegan to appear in the late 1940s"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5743-5746", "Text": "Paul Muller was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine\nand Physiology in 1948 for this discovery The use of DDT increased\nenormously on a worldwide basis after World War II, primarily because\nof its effectiveness against the mosquito that spreads malaria and lice\nthat carry typhus However, problems related to extensive use of DDT\nbegan to appear in the late 1940s Many species of insects developed\nresistance to DDT, and it was also discovered to have a high toxicity\ntowards fish"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5744-5747", "Text": "The use of DDT increased\nenormously on a worldwide basis after World War II, primarily because\nof its effectiveness against the mosquito that spreads malaria and lice\nthat carry typhus However, problems related to extensive use of DDT\nbegan to appear in the late 1940s Many species of insects developed\nresistance to DDT, and it was also discovered to have a high toxicity\ntowards fish The chemical stability of DDT and its fat solubility\ncompounded the problem"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5745-5748", "Text": "However, problems related to extensive use of DDT\nbegan to appear in the late 1940s Many species of insects developed\nresistance to DDT, and it was also discovered to have a high toxicity\ntowards fish The chemical stability of DDT and its fat solubility\ncompounded the problem DDT is not metabolised very rapidly by\nanimals; instead, it is deposited and stored in the fatty tissues"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5746-5749", "Text": "Many species of insects developed\nresistance to DDT, and it was also discovered to have a high toxicity\ntowards fish The chemical stability of DDT and its fat solubility\ncompounded the problem DDT is not metabolised very rapidly by\nanimals; instead, it is deposited and stored in the fatty tissues If\ningestion continues at a steady rate, DDT builds up within the animal\nover time"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5747-5750", "Text": "The chemical stability of DDT and its fat solubility\ncompounded the problem DDT is not metabolised very rapidly by\nanimals; instead, it is deposited and stored in the fatty tissues If\ningestion continues at a steady rate, DDT builds up within the animal\nover time The use of DDT was banned in the United States in 1973,\nalthough it is still in use in some other parts of the world"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5748-5751", "Text": "DDT is not metabolised very rapidly by\nanimals; instead, it is deposited and stored in the fatty tissues If\ningestion continues at a steady rate, DDT builds up within the animal\nover time The use of DDT was banned in the United States in 1973,\nalthough it is still in use in some other parts of the world 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5749-5752", "Text": "If\ningestion continues at a steady rate, DDT builds up within the animal\nover time The use of DDT was banned in the United States in 1973,\nalthough it is still in use in some other parts of the world 6 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5750-5753", "Text": "The use of DDT was banned in the United States in 1973,\nalthough it is still in use in some other parts of the world 6 8 5 Freons\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5751-5754", "Text": "6 8 5 Freons\n6 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5752-5755", "Text": "8 5 Freons\n6 8 6\np,p\u2019-Dichlo-\nrodiphenyl-\ntrichloro-\nethane(DDT)\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nAlkyl/ Aryl halides may be classified as mono, di, or polyhalogen (tri-, tetra-, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5753-5756", "Text": "5 Freons\n6 8 6\np,p\u2019-Dichlo-\nrodiphenyl-\ntrichloro-\nethane(DDT)\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nAlkyl/ Aryl halides may be classified as mono, di, or polyhalogen (tri-, tetra-, etc )\ncompounds depending on whether they contain one, two or more halogen atoms in\ntheir structures"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5754-5757", "Text": "8 6\np,p\u2019-Dichlo-\nrodiphenyl-\ntrichloro-\nethane(DDT)\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nAlkyl/ Aryl halides may be classified as mono, di, or polyhalogen (tri-, tetra-, etc )\ncompounds depending on whether they contain one, two or more halogen atoms in\ntheir structures Since halogen atoms are more electronegative than carbon, the carbon-\nhalogen bond of alkyl halide is polarised; the carbon atom bears a partial positive\ncharge, and the halogen atom bears a partial negative charge"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5755-5758", "Text": "6\np,p\u2019-Dichlo-\nrodiphenyl-\ntrichloro-\nethane(DDT)\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nAlkyl/ Aryl halides may be classified as mono, di, or polyhalogen (tri-, tetra-, etc )\ncompounds depending on whether they contain one, two or more halogen atoms in\ntheir structures Since halogen atoms are more electronegative than carbon, the carbon-\nhalogen bond of alkyl halide is polarised; the carbon atom bears a partial positive\ncharge, and the halogen atom bears a partial negative charge Alkyl halides are prepared by the free radical halogenation of alkanes, addition\nof halogen acids to alkenes, replacement of \u2013OH group of alcohols with halogens using\nRationalised 2023-24\n189 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nphosphorus halides, thionyl chloride or halogen acids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5756-5759", "Text": ")\ncompounds depending on whether they contain one, two or more halogen atoms in\ntheir structures Since halogen atoms are more electronegative than carbon, the carbon-\nhalogen bond of alkyl halide is polarised; the carbon atom bears a partial positive\ncharge, and the halogen atom bears a partial negative charge Alkyl halides are prepared by the free radical halogenation of alkanes, addition\nof halogen acids to alkenes, replacement of \u2013OH group of alcohols with halogens using\nRationalised 2023-24\n189 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nphosphorus halides, thionyl chloride or halogen acids Aryl halides are prepared by\nelectrophilic substitution to arenes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5757-5760", "Text": "Since halogen atoms are more electronegative than carbon, the carbon-\nhalogen bond of alkyl halide is polarised; the carbon atom bears a partial positive\ncharge, and the halogen atom bears a partial negative charge Alkyl halides are prepared by the free radical halogenation of alkanes, addition\nof halogen acids to alkenes, replacement of \u2013OH group of alcohols with halogens using\nRationalised 2023-24\n189 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nphosphorus halides, thionyl chloride or halogen acids Aryl halides are prepared by\nelectrophilic substitution to arenes Fluorides and iodides are best prepared by halogen\nexchange method"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5758-5761", "Text": "Alkyl halides are prepared by the free radical halogenation of alkanes, addition\nof halogen acids to alkenes, replacement of \u2013OH group of alcohols with halogens using\nRationalised 2023-24\n189 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\nphosphorus halides, thionyl chloride or halogen acids Aryl halides are prepared by\nelectrophilic substitution to arenes Fluorides and iodides are best prepared by halogen\nexchange method The boiling points of organohalogen compounds are comparatively higher than the\ncorresponding hydrocarbons because of strong dipole-dipole and van der Waals forces\nof attraction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5759-5762", "Text": "Aryl halides are prepared by\nelectrophilic substitution to arenes Fluorides and iodides are best prepared by halogen\nexchange method The boiling points of organohalogen compounds are comparatively higher than the\ncorresponding hydrocarbons because of strong dipole-dipole and van der Waals forces\nof attraction These are slightly soluble in water but completely soluble in organic\nsolvents"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5760-5763", "Text": "Fluorides and iodides are best prepared by halogen\nexchange method The boiling points of organohalogen compounds are comparatively higher than the\ncorresponding hydrocarbons because of strong dipole-dipole and van der Waals forces\nof attraction These are slightly soluble in water but completely soluble in organic\nsolvents The polarity of carbon-halogen bond of alkyl halides is responsible for their\nnucleophilic substitution, elimination and their reaction with metal atoms to form\norganometallic compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5761-5764", "Text": "The boiling points of organohalogen compounds are comparatively higher than the\ncorresponding hydrocarbons because of strong dipole-dipole and van der Waals forces\nof attraction These are slightly soluble in water but completely soluble in organic\nsolvents The polarity of carbon-halogen bond of alkyl halides is responsible for their\nnucleophilic substitution, elimination and their reaction with metal atoms to form\norganometallic compounds Nucleophilic substitution reactions are categorised into\nSN1 and SN2 on the basis of their kinetic properties"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5762-5765", "Text": "These are slightly soluble in water but completely soluble in organic\nsolvents The polarity of carbon-halogen bond of alkyl halides is responsible for their\nnucleophilic substitution, elimination and their reaction with metal atoms to form\norganometallic compounds Nucleophilic substitution reactions are categorised into\nSN1 and SN2 on the basis of their kinetic properties Chirality has a profound role in\nunderstanding the reaction mechanisms of SN1 and SN2 reactions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5763-5766", "Text": "The polarity of carbon-halogen bond of alkyl halides is responsible for their\nnucleophilic substitution, elimination and their reaction with metal atoms to form\norganometallic compounds Nucleophilic substitution reactions are categorised into\nSN1 and SN2 on the basis of their kinetic properties Chirality has a profound role in\nunderstanding the reaction mechanisms of SN1 and SN2 reactions SN2 reactions of\nchiral alkyl halides are characterised by the inversion of configuration while SN1 reactions\nare characterised by racemisation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5764-5767", "Text": "Nucleophilic substitution reactions are categorised into\nSN1 and SN2 on the basis of their kinetic properties Chirality has a profound role in\nunderstanding the reaction mechanisms of SN1 and SN2 reactions SN2 reactions of\nchiral alkyl halides are characterised by the inversion of configuration while SN1 reactions\nare characterised by racemisation A number of polyhalogen compounds e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5765-5768", "Text": "Chirality has a profound role in\nunderstanding the reaction mechanisms of SN1 and SN2 reactions SN2 reactions of\nchiral alkyl halides are characterised by the inversion of configuration while SN1 reactions\nare characterised by racemisation A number of polyhalogen compounds e g"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5766-5769", "Text": "SN2 reactions of\nchiral alkyl halides are characterised by the inversion of configuration while SN1 reactions\nare characterised by racemisation A number of polyhalogen compounds e g , dichloromethane, chloroform, iodoform,\ncarbon tetrachloride, freon and DDT have many industrial applications"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5767-5770", "Text": "A number of polyhalogen compounds e g , dichloromethane, chloroform, iodoform,\ncarbon tetrachloride, freon and DDT have many industrial applications However,\nsome of these compounds cannot be easily decomposed and even cause depletion of\nozone layer and are proving environmental hazards"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5768-5771", "Text": "g , dichloromethane, chloroform, iodoform,\ncarbon tetrachloride, freon and DDT have many industrial applications However,\nsome of these compounds cannot be easily decomposed and even cause depletion of\nozone layer and are proving environmental hazards 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5769-5772", "Text": ", dichloromethane, chloroform, iodoform,\ncarbon tetrachloride, freon and DDT have many industrial applications However,\nsome of these compounds cannot be easily decomposed and even cause depletion of\nozone layer and are proving environmental hazards 6 1\nName the following halides according to IUPAC system and classify them as\nalkyl, allyl, benzyl (primary, secondary, tertiary), vinyl or aryl halides:\n(i) (CH3)2CHCH(Cl)CH3\n(ii) CH3CH2CH(CH3)CH(C2H5)Cl\n(iii) CH3CH2C(CH3)2CH2I\n(iv) (CH3)3CCH2CH(Br)C6H5\n(v) CH3CH(CH3)CH(Br)CH3\n(vi) CH3C(C2H5)2CH2Br\n(vii) CH3C(Cl)(C2H5)CH2CH3\n(viii) CH3CH=C(Cl)CH2CH(CH3)2\n(ix) CH3CH=CHC(Br)(CH3)2\n(x) p-ClC6H4CH2CH(CH3)2\n(xi) m-ClCH2C6H4CH2C(CH3)3\n(xii) o-Br-C6H4CH(CH3)CH2CH3\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5770-5773", "Text": "However,\nsome of these compounds cannot be easily decomposed and even cause depletion of\nozone layer and are proving environmental hazards 6 1\nName the following halides according to IUPAC system and classify them as\nalkyl, allyl, benzyl (primary, secondary, tertiary), vinyl or aryl halides:\n(i) (CH3)2CHCH(Cl)CH3\n(ii) CH3CH2CH(CH3)CH(C2H5)Cl\n(iii) CH3CH2C(CH3)2CH2I\n(iv) (CH3)3CCH2CH(Br)C6H5\n(v) CH3CH(CH3)CH(Br)CH3\n(vi) CH3C(C2H5)2CH2Br\n(vii) CH3C(Cl)(C2H5)CH2CH3\n(viii) CH3CH=C(Cl)CH2CH(CH3)2\n(ix) CH3CH=CHC(Br)(CH3)2\n(x) p-ClC6H4CH2CH(CH3)2\n(xi) m-ClCH2C6H4CH2C(CH3)3\n(xii) o-Br-C6H4CH(CH3)CH2CH3\n6 2\nGive the IUPAC names of the following compounds:\n(i) CH3CH(Cl)CH(Br)CH3\n(ii) CHF2CBrClF\n(iii) ClCH2C\u00baCCH2Br\n(iv) (CCl3)3CCl\n(v) CH3C(p-ClC6H4)2CH(Br)CH3\n(vi) (CH3)3CCH=CClC6H4I-p\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5771-5774", "Text": "6 1\nName the following halides according to IUPAC system and classify them as\nalkyl, allyl, benzyl (primary, secondary, tertiary), vinyl or aryl halides:\n(i) (CH3)2CHCH(Cl)CH3\n(ii) CH3CH2CH(CH3)CH(C2H5)Cl\n(iii) CH3CH2C(CH3)2CH2I\n(iv) (CH3)3CCH2CH(Br)C6H5\n(v) CH3CH(CH3)CH(Br)CH3\n(vi) CH3C(C2H5)2CH2Br\n(vii) CH3C(Cl)(C2H5)CH2CH3\n(viii) CH3CH=C(Cl)CH2CH(CH3)2\n(ix) CH3CH=CHC(Br)(CH3)2\n(x) p-ClC6H4CH2CH(CH3)2\n(xi) m-ClCH2C6H4CH2C(CH3)3\n(xii) o-Br-C6H4CH(CH3)CH2CH3\n6 2\nGive the IUPAC names of the following compounds:\n(i) CH3CH(Cl)CH(Br)CH3\n(ii) CHF2CBrClF\n(iii) ClCH2C\u00baCCH2Br\n(iv) (CCl3)3CCl\n(v) CH3C(p-ClC6H4)2CH(Br)CH3\n(vi) (CH3)3CCH=CClC6H4I-p\n6 3\nWrite the structures of the following organic halogen compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5772-5775", "Text": "1\nName the following halides according to IUPAC system and classify them as\nalkyl, allyl, benzyl (primary, secondary, tertiary), vinyl or aryl halides:\n(i) (CH3)2CHCH(Cl)CH3\n(ii) CH3CH2CH(CH3)CH(C2H5)Cl\n(iii) CH3CH2C(CH3)2CH2I\n(iv) (CH3)3CCH2CH(Br)C6H5\n(v) CH3CH(CH3)CH(Br)CH3\n(vi) CH3C(C2H5)2CH2Br\n(vii) CH3C(Cl)(C2H5)CH2CH3\n(viii) CH3CH=C(Cl)CH2CH(CH3)2\n(ix) CH3CH=CHC(Br)(CH3)2\n(x) p-ClC6H4CH2CH(CH3)2\n(xi) m-ClCH2C6H4CH2C(CH3)3\n(xii) o-Br-C6H4CH(CH3)CH2CH3\n6 2\nGive the IUPAC names of the following compounds:\n(i) CH3CH(Cl)CH(Br)CH3\n(ii) CHF2CBrClF\n(iii) ClCH2C\u00baCCH2Br\n(iv) (CCl3)3CCl\n(v) CH3C(p-ClC6H4)2CH(Br)CH3\n(vi) (CH3)3CCH=CClC6H4I-p\n6 3\nWrite the structures of the following organic halogen compounds (i) 2-Chloro-3-methylpentane\n(ii) p-Bromochlorobenzene\n(iii) 1-Chloro-4-ethylcyclohexane\n(iv) 2-(2-Chlorophenyl)-1-iodooctane\n(v) 2-Bromobutane\n(vi) 4-tert-Butyl-3-iodoheptane\n(vii) 1-Bromo-4-sec-butyl-2-methylbenzene\n(viii) 1,4-Dibromobut-2-ene\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5773-5776", "Text": "2\nGive the IUPAC names of the following compounds:\n(i) CH3CH(Cl)CH(Br)CH3\n(ii) CHF2CBrClF\n(iii) ClCH2C\u00baCCH2Br\n(iv) (CCl3)3CCl\n(v) CH3C(p-ClC6H4)2CH(Br)CH3\n(vi) (CH3)3CCH=CClC6H4I-p\n6 3\nWrite the structures of the following organic halogen compounds (i) 2-Chloro-3-methylpentane\n(ii) p-Bromochlorobenzene\n(iii) 1-Chloro-4-ethylcyclohexane\n(iv) 2-(2-Chlorophenyl)-1-iodooctane\n(v) 2-Bromobutane\n(vi) 4-tert-Butyl-3-iodoheptane\n(vii) 1-Bromo-4-sec-butyl-2-methylbenzene\n(viii) 1,4-Dibromobut-2-ene\n6 4\nWhich one of the following has the highest dipole moment"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5774-5777", "Text": "3\nWrite the structures of the following organic halogen compounds (i) 2-Chloro-3-methylpentane\n(ii) p-Bromochlorobenzene\n(iii) 1-Chloro-4-ethylcyclohexane\n(iv) 2-(2-Chlorophenyl)-1-iodooctane\n(v) 2-Bromobutane\n(vi) 4-tert-Butyl-3-iodoheptane\n(vii) 1-Bromo-4-sec-butyl-2-methylbenzene\n(viii) 1,4-Dibromobut-2-ene\n6 4\nWhich one of the following has the highest dipole moment (i) CH2Cl2 (ii) CHCl3\n(iii) CCl4\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5775-5778", "Text": "(i) 2-Chloro-3-methylpentane\n(ii) p-Bromochlorobenzene\n(iii) 1-Chloro-4-ethylcyclohexane\n(iv) 2-(2-Chlorophenyl)-1-iodooctane\n(v) 2-Bromobutane\n(vi) 4-tert-Butyl-3-iodoheptane\n(vii) 1-Bromo-4-sec-butyl-2-methylbenzene\n(viii) 1,4-Dibromobut-2-ene\n6 4\nWhich one of the following has the highest dipole moment (i) CH2Cl2 (ii) CHCl3\n(iii) CCl4\n6 5\nA hydrocarbon C5H10 does not react with chlorine in dark but gives a single\nmonochloro compound C5H9Cl in bright sunlight"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5776-5779", "Text": "4\nWhich one of the following has the highest dipole moment (i) CH2Cl2 (ii) CHCl3\n(iii) CCl4\n6 5\nA hydrocarbon C5H10 does not react with chlorine in dark but gives a single\nmonochloro compound C5H9Cl in bright sunlight Identify the hydrocarbon"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5777-5780", "Text": "(i) CH2Cl2 (ii) CHCl3\n(iii) CCl4\n6 5\nA hydrocarbon C5H10 does not react with chlorine in dark but gives a single\nmonochloro compound C5H9Cl in bright sunlight Identify the hydrocarbon 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5778-5781", "Text": "5\nA hydrocarbon C5H10 does not react with chlorine in dark but gives a single\nmonochloro compound C5H9Cl in bright sunlight Identify the hydrocarbon 6 6\nWrite the isomers of the compound having formula C4H9Br"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5779-5782", "Text": "Identify the hydrocarbon 6 6\nWrite the isomers of the compound having formula C4H9Br 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5780-5783", "Text": "6 6\nWrite the isomers of the compound having formula C4H9Br 6 7\nWrite the equations for the preparation of 1-iodobutane from\n(i) 1-butanol\n(ii) 1-chlorobutane\n(iii) but-1-ene"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5781-5784", "Text": "6\nWrite the isomers of the compound having formula C4H9Br 6 7\nWrite the equations for the preparation of 1-iodobutane from\n(i) 1-butanol\n(ii) 1-chlorobutane\n(iii) but-1-ene 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5782-5785", "Text": "6 7\nWrite the equations for the preparation of 1-iodobutane from\n(i) 1-butanol\n(ii) 1-chlorobutane\n(iii) but-1-ene 6 8\nWhat are ambident nucleophiles"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5783-5786", "Text": "7\nWrite the equations for the preparation of 1-iodobutane from\n(i) 1-butanol\n(ii) 1-chlorobutane\n(iii) but-1-ene 6 8\nWhat are ambident nucleophiles Explain with an example"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5784-5787", "Text": "6 8\nWhat are ambident nucleophiles Explain with an example Exercises\nRationalised 2023-24\n190\nChemistry\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5785-5788", "Text": "8\nWhat are ambident nucleophiles Explain with an example Exercises\nRationalised 2023-24\n190\nChemistry\n6 9\nWhich compound in each of the following pairs will react faster in SN2 reaction\nwith \u2013OH"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5786-5789", "Text": "Explain with an example Exercises\nRationalised 2023-24\n190\nChemistry\n6 9\nWhich compound in each of the following pairs will react faster in SN2 reaction\nwith \u2013OH (i) CH3Br or CH3I\n(ii) (CH3)3CCl or CH3Cl\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5787-5790", "Text": "Exercises\nRationalised 2023-24\n190\nChemistry\n6 9\nWhich compound in each of the following pairs will react faster in SN2 reaction\nwith \u2013OH (i) CH3Br or CH3I\n(ii) (CH3)3CCl or CH3Cl\n6 10\nPredict all the alkenes that would be formed by dehydrohalogenation of the\nfollowing halides with sodium ethoxide in ethanol and identify the major alkene:\n(i) 1-Bromo-1-methylcyclohexane\n(ii) 2-Chloro-2-methylbutane\n(iii) 2,2,3-Trimethyl-3-bromopentane"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5788-5791", "Text": "9\nWhich compound in each of the following pairs will react faster in SN2 reaction\nwith \u2013OH (i) CH3Br or CH3I\n(ii) (CH3)3CCl or CH3Cl\n6 10\nPredict all the alkenes that would be formed by dehydrohalogenation of the\nfollowing halides with sodium ethoxide in ethanol and identify the major alkene:\n(i) 1-Bromo-1-methylcyclohexane\n(ii) 2-Chloro-2-methylbutane\n(iii) 2,2,3-Trimethyl-3-bromopentane 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5789-5792", "Text": "(i) CH3Br or CH3I\n(ii) (CH3)3CCl or CH3Cl\n6 10\nPredict all the alkenes that would be formed by dehydrohalogenation of the\nfollowing halides with sodium ethoxide in ethanol and identify the major alkene:\n(i) 1-Bromo-1-methylcyclohexane\n(ii) 2-Chloro-2-methylbutane\n(iii) 2,2,3-Trimethyl-3-bromopentane 6 11\nHow will you bring about the following conversions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5790-5793", "Text": "10\nPredict all the alkenes that would be formed by dehydrohalogenation of the\nfollowing halides with sodium ethoxide in ethanol and identify the major alkene:\n(i) 1-Bromo-1-methylcyclohexane\n(ii) 2-Chloro-2-methylbutane\n(iii) 2,2,3-Trimethyl-3-bromopentane 6 11\nHow will you bring about the following conversions (i) Ethanol to but-1-yne\n(ii) Ethane to bromoethene\n(iii) Propene to\n1-nitropropane\n(iv) Toluene to benzyl alcohol\n(v) Propene to propyne\n(vi) Ethanol to ethyl fluoride\n(vii) Bromomethane to propanone\n(viii) But-1-ene\nto but-2-ene\n(ix) 1-Chlorobutane to n-octane\n(x) Benzene to biphenyl"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5791-5794", "Text": "6 11\nHow will you bring about the following conversions (i) Ethanol to but-1-yne\n(ii) Ethane to bromoethene\n(iii) Propene to\n1-nitropropane\n(iv) Toluene to benzyl alcohol\n(v) Propene to propyne\n(vi) Ethanol to ethyl fluoride\n(vii) Bromomethane to propanone\n(viii) But-1-ene\nto but-2-ene\n(ix) 1-Chlorobutane to n-octane\n(x) Benzene to biphenyl 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5792-5795", "Text": "11\nHow will you bring about the following conversions (i) Ethanol to but-1-yne\n(ii) Ethane to bromoethene\n(iii) Propene to\n1-nitropropane\n(iv) Toluene to benzyl alcohol\n(v) Propene to propyne\n(vi) Ethanol to ethyl fluoride\n(vii) Bromomethane to propanone\n(viii) But-1-ene\nto but-2-ene\n(ix) 1-Chlorobutane to n-octane\n(x) Benzene to biphenyl 6 12\nExplain why\n(i) the dipole moment of chlorobenzene is lower than that of cyclohexyl chloride"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5793-5796", "Text": "(i) Ethanol to but-1-yne\n(ii) Ethane to bromoethene\n(iii) Propene to\n1-nitropropane\n(iv) Toluene to benzyl alcohol\n(v) Propene to propyne\n(vi) Ethanol to ethyl fluoride\n(vii) Bromomethane to propanone\n(viii) But-1-ene\nto but-2-ene\n(ix) 1-Chlorobutane to n-octane\n(x) Benzene to biphenyl 6 12\nExplain why\n(i) the dipole moment of chlorobenzene is lower than that of cyclohexyl chloride (ii) alkyl halides, though polar, are immiscible with water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5794-5797", "Text": "6 12\nExplain why\n(i) the dipole moment of chlorobenzene is lower than that of cyclohexyl chloride (ii) alkyl halides, though polar, are immiscible with water (iii) Grignard reagents should be prepared under anhydrous conditions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5795-5798", "Text": "12\nExplain why\n(i) the dipole moment of chlorobenzene is lower than that of cyclohexyl chloride (ii) alkyl halides, though polar, are immiscible with water (iii) Grignard reagents should be prepared under anhydrous conditions 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5796-5799", "Text": "(ii) alkyl halides, though polar, are immiscible with water (iii) Grignard reagents should be prepared under anhydrous conditions 6 13\nGive the uses of freon 12, DDT, carbon tetrachloride and iodoform"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5797-5800", "Text": "(iii) Grignard reagents should be prepared under anhydrous conditions 6 13\nGive the uses of freon 12, DDT, carbon tetrachloride and iodoform 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5798-5801", "Text": "6 13\nGive the uses of freon 12, DDT, carbon tetrachloride and iodoform 6 14\nWrite the structure of the major organic product in each of the following reactions:\n(i) CH3CH2CH2Cl + NaI \n(ii) (CH3)3CBr + KOH \n(iii) CH3CH(Br)CH2CH3 + NaOH \n(iv) CH3CH2Br + KCN \n(v) C6H5ONa + C2H5Cl \n(vi) CH3CH2CH2OH + SOCl2 \n(vii) CH3CH2CH = CH2 + HBr \n(viii) CH3CH = C(CH3)2 + HBr \n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5799-5802", "Text": "13\nGive the uses of freon 12, DDT, carbon tetrachloride and iodoform 6 14\nWrite the structure of the major organic product in each of the following reactions:\n(i) CH3CH2CH2Cl + NaI \n(ii) (CH3)3CBr + KOH \n(iii) CH3CH(Br)CH2CH3 + NaOH \n(iv) CH3CH2Br + KCN \n(v) C6H5ONa + C2H5Cl \n(vi) CH3CH2CH2OH + SOCl2 \n(vii) CH3CH2CH = CH2 + HBr \n(viii) CH3CH = C(CH3)2 + HBr \n6 15\nWrite the mechanism of the following reaction:\nnBuBr + KCN \n nBuCN\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5800-5803", "Text": "6 14\nWrite the structure of the major organic product in each of the following reactions:\n(i) CH3CH2CH2Cl + NaI \n(ii) (CH3)3CBr + KOH \n(iii) CH3CH(Br)CH2CH3 + NaOH \n(iv) CH3CH2Br + KCN \n(v) C6H5ONa + C2H5Cl \n(vi) CH3CH2CH2OH + SOCl2 \n(vii) CH3CH2CH = CH2 + HBr \n(viii) CH3CH = C(CH3)2 + HBr \n6 15\nWrite the mechanism of the following reaction:\nnBuBr + KCN \n nBuCN\n6 16\nArrange the compounds of each set in order of reactivity towards SN2\ndisplacement:\n(i) 2-Bromo-2-methylbutane, 1-Bromopentane, 2-Bromopentane\n(ii) 1-Bromo-3-methylbutane, 2-Bromo-2-methylbutane, 2-Bromo-3-methylbutane\n(iii) 1-Bromobutane, 1-Bromo-2,2-dimethylpropane, 1-Bromo-2-methylbutane,\n1-Bromo-3-methylbutane"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5801-5804", "Text": "14\nWrite the structure of the major organic product in each of the following reactions:\n(i) CH3CH2CH2Cl + NaI \n(ii) (CH3)3CBr + KOH \n(iii) CH3CH(Br)CH2CH3 + NaOH \n(iv) CH3CH2Br + KCN \n(v) C6H5ONa + C2H5Cl \n(vi) CH3CH2CH2OH + SOCl2 \n(vii) CH3CH2CH = CH2 + HBr \n(viii) CH3CH = C(CH3)2 + HBr \n6 15\nWrite the mechanism of the following reaction:\nnBuBr + KCN \n nBuCN\n6 16\nArrange the compounds of each set in order of reactivity towards SN2\ndisplacement:\n(i) 2-Bromo-2-methylbutane, 1-Bromopentane, 2-Bromopentane\n(ii) 1-Bromo-3-methylbutane, 2-Bromo-2-methylbutane, 2-Bromo-3-methylbutane\n(iii) 1-Bromobutane, 1-Bromo-2,2-dimethylpropane, 1-Bromo-2-methylbutane,\n1-Bromo-3-methylbutane 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5802-5805", "Text": "15\nWrite the mechanism of the following reaction:\nnBuBr + KCN \n nBuCN\n6 16\nArrange the compounds of each set in order of reactivity towards SN2\ndisplacement:\n(i) 2-Bromo-2-methylbutane, 1-Bromopentane, 2-Bromopentane\n(ii) 1-Bromo-3-methylbutane, 2-Bromo-2-methylbutane, 2-Bromo-3-methylbutane\n(iii) 1-Bromobutane, 1-Bromo-2,2-dimethylpropane, 1-Bromo-2-methylbutane,\n1-Bromo-3-methylbutane 6 17\nOut of C6H5CH2Cl and C6H5CHClC6H5, which is more easily hydrolysed by aqueous\nKOH"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5803-5806", "Text": "16\nArrange the compounds of each set in order of reactivity towards SN2\ndisplacement:\n(i) 2-Bromo-2-methylbutane, 1-Bromopentane, 2-Bromopentane\n(ii) 1-Bromo-3-methylbutane, 2-Bromo-2-methylbutane, 2-Bromo-3-methylbutane\n(iii) 1-Bromobutane, 1-Bromo-2,2-dimethylpropane, 1-Bromo-2-methylbutane,\n1-Bromo-3-methylbutane 6 17\nOut of C6H5CH2Cl and C6H5CHClC6H5, which is more easily hydrolysed by aqueous\nKOH 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5804-5807", "Text": "6 17\nOut of C6H5CH2Cl and C6H5CHClC6H5, which is more easily hydrolysed by aqueous\nKOH 6 18\np-Dichlorobenzene has higher m"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5805-5808", "Text": "17\nOut of C6H5CH2Cl and C6H5CHClC6H5, which is more easily hydrolysed by aqueous\nKOH 6 18\np-Dichlorobenzene has higher m p"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5806-5809", "Text": "6 18\np-Dichlorobenzene has higher m p than those of o- and m-isomers"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5807-5810", "Text": "18\np-Dichlorobenzene has higher m p than those of o- and m-isomers Discuss"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5808-5811", "Text": "p than those of o- and m-isomers Discuss 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5809-5812", "Text": "than those of o- and m-isomers Discuss 6 19\nHow the following conversions can be carried out"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5810-5813", "Text": "Discuss 6 19\nHow the following conversions can be carried out (i) Propene to propan-1-ol\n(ii) Ethanol to but-1-yne\n(iii) 1-Bromopropane to 2-bromopropane\nRationalised 2023-24\n191 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\n(iv) Toluene to benzyl alcohol\n(v) Benzene to 4-bromonitrobenzene\n(vi) Benzyl alcohol to 2-phenylethanoic acid\n(vii) Ethanol to propanenitrile\n(viii) Aniline to chlorobenzene\n(ix) 2-Chlorobutane to 3, 4-dimethylhexane\n(x) 2-Methyl-1-propene to 2-chloro-2-methylpropane\n(xi) Ethyl chloride to propanoic acid\n(xii) But-1-ene to n-butyliodide\n(xiii) 2-Chloropropane to 1-propanol\n(xiv) Isopropyl alcohol to iodoform\n(xv) Chlorobenzene to p-nitrophenol\n(xvi) 2-Bromopropane to 1-bromopropane\n(xvii) Chloroethane to butane\n(xviii) Benzene to diphenyl\n(xix) tert-Butyl bromide to isobutyl bromide\n(xx) Aniline to phenylisocyanide\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5811-5814", "Text": "6 19\nHow the following conversions can be carried out (i) Propene to propan-1-ol\n(ii) Ethanol to but-1-yne\n(iii) 1-Bromopropane to 2-bromopropane\nRationalised 2023-24\n191 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\n(iv) Toluene to benzyl alcohol\n(v) Benzene to 4-bromonitrobenzene\n(vi) Benzyl alcohol to 2-phenylethanoic acid\n(vii) Ethanol to propanenitrile\n(viii) Aniline to chlorobenzene\n(ix) 2-Chlorobutane to 3, 4-dimethylhexane\n(x) 2-Methyl-1-propene to 2-chloro-2-methylpropane\n(xi) Ethyl chloride to propanoic acid\n(xii) But-1-ene to n-butyliodide\n(xiii) 2-Chloropropane to 1-propanol\n(xiv) Isopropyl alcohol to iodoform\n(xv) Chlorobenzene to p-nitrophenol\n(xvi) 2-Bromopropane to 1-bromopropane\n(xvii) Chloroethane to butane\n(xviii) Benzene to diphenyl\n(xix) tert-Butyl bromide to isobutyl bromide\n(xx) Aniline to phenylisocyanide\n6 20\nThe treatment of alkyl chlorides with aqueous KOH leads to the formation of\nalcohols but in the presence of alcoholic KOH, alkenes are major products"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5812-5815", "Text": "19\nHow the following conversions can be carried out (i) Propene to propan-1-ol\n(ii) Ethanol to but-1-yne\n(iii) 1-Bromopropane to 2-bromopropane\nRationalised 2023-24\n191 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\n(iv) Toluene to benzyl alcohol\n(v) Benzene to 4-bromonitrobenzene\n(vi) Benzyl alcohol to 2-phenylethanoic acid\n(vii) Ethanol to propanenitrile\n(viii) Aniline to chlorobenzene\n(ix) 2-Chlorobutane to 3, 4-dimethylhexane\n(x) 2-Methyl-1-propene to 2-chloro-2-methylpropane\n(xi) Ethyl chloride to propanoic acid\n(xii) But-1-ene to n-butyliodide\n(xiii) 2-Chloropropane to 1-propanol\n(xiv) Isopropyl alcohol to iodoform\n(xv) Chlorobenzene to p-nitrophenol\n(xvi) 2-Bromopropane to 1-bromopropane\n(xvii) Chloroethane to butane\n(xviii) Benzene to diphenyl\n(xix) tert-Butyl bromide to isobutyl bromide\n(xx) Aniline to phenylisocyanide\n6 20\nThe treatment of alkyl chlorides with aqueous KOH leads to the formation of\nalcohols but in the presence of alcoholic KOH, alkenes are major products Explain"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5813-5816", "Text": "(i) Propene to propan-1-ol\n(ii) Ethanol to but-1-yne\n(iii) 1-Bromopropane to 2-bromopropane\nRationalised 2023-24\n191 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes\n(iv) Toluene to benzyl alcohol\n(v) Benzene to 4-bromonitrobenzene\n(vi) Benzyl alcohol to 2-phenylethanoic acid\n(vii) Ethanol to propanenitrile\n(viii) Aniline to chlorobenzene\n(ix) 2-Chlorobutane to 3, 4-dimethylhexane\n(x) 2-Methyl-1-propene to 2-chloro-2-methylpropane\n(xi) Ethyl chloride to propanoic acid\n(xii) But-1-ene to n-butyliodide\n(xiii) 2-Chloropropane to 1-propanol\n(xiv) Isopropyl alcohol to iodoform\n(xv) Chlorobenzene to p-nitrophenol\n(xvi) 2-Bromopropane to 1-bromopropane\n(xvii) Chloroethane to butane\n(xviii) Benzene to diphenyl\n(xix) tert-Butyl bromide to isobutyl bromide\n(xx) Aniline to phenylisocyanide\n6 20\nThe treatment of alkyl chlorides with aqueous KOH leads to the formation of\nalcohols but in the presence of alcoholic KOH, alkenes are major products Explain 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5814-5817", "Text": "20\nThe treatment of alkyl chlorides with aqueous KOH leads to the formation of\nalcohols but in the presence of alcoholic KOH, alkenes are major products Explain 6 21\nPrimary alkyl halide C4H9Br (a) reacted with alcoholic KOH to give compound (b)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5815-5818", "Text": "Explain 6 21\nPrimary alkyl halide C4H9Br (a) reacted with alcoholic KOH to give compound (b) Compound (b) is reacted with HBr to give (c) which is an isomer of (a)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5816-5819", "Text": "6 21\nPrimary alkyl halide C4H9Br (a) reacted with alcoholic KOH to give compound (b) Compound (b) is reacted with HBr to give (c) which is an isomer of (a) When\n(a) is reacted with sodium metal it gives compound (d), C8H18 which is different\nfrom the compound formed when n-butyl bromide is reacted with sodium"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5817-5820", "Text": "21\nPrimary alkyl halide C4H9Br (a) reacted with alcoholic KOH to give compound (b) Compound (b) is reacted with HBr to give (c) which is an isomer of (a) When\n(a) is reacted with sodium metal it gives compound (d), C8H18 which is different\nfrom the compound formed when n-butyl bromide is reacted with sodium Give the structural formula of (a) and write the equations for all the reactions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5818-5821", "Text": "Compound (b) is reacted with HBr to give (c) which is an isomer of (a) When\n(a) is reacted with sodium metal it gives compound (d), C8H18 which is different\nfrom the compound formed when n-butyl bromide is reacted with sodium Give the structural formula of (a) and write the equations for all the reactions 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5819-5822", "Text": "When\n(a) is reacted with sodium metal it gives compound (d), C8H18 which is different\nfrom the compound formed when n-butyl bromide is reacted with sodium Give the structural formula of (a) and write the equations for all the reactions 6 22\nWhat happens when\n(i) n-butyl chloride is treated with alcoholic KOH,\n(ii) bromobenzene is treated with Mg in the presence of dry ether,\n(iii) chlorobenzene is subjected to hydrolysis,\n(iv) ethyl chloride is treated with aqueous KOH,\n(v) methyl bromide is treated with sodium in the presence of dry ether,\n(vi) methyl chloride is treated with KCN"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5820-5823", "Text": "Give the structural formula of (a) and write the equations for all the reactions 6 22\nWhat happens when\n(i) n-butyl chloride is treated with alcoholic KOH,\n(ii) bromobenzene is treated with Mg in the presence of dry ether,\n(iii) chlorobenzene is subjected to hydrolysis,\n(iv) ethyl chloride is treated with aqueous KOH,\n(v) methyl bromide is treated with sodium in the presence of dry ether,\n(vi) methyl chloride is treated with KCN Answers to Some Intext Questions\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5821-5824", "Text": "6 22\nWhat happens when\n(i) n-butyl chloride is treated with alcoholic KOH,\n(ii) bromobenzene is treated with Mg in the presence of dry ether,\n(iii) chlorobenzene is subjected to hydrolysis,\n(iv) ethyl chloride is treated with aqueous KOH,\n(v) methyl bromide is treated with sodium in the presence of dry ether,\n(vi) methyl chloride is treated with KCN Answers to Some Intext Questions\n6 1\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5822-5825", "Text": "22\nWhat happens when\n(i) n-butyl chloride is treated with alcoholic KOH,\n(ii) bromobenzene is treated with Mg in the presence of dry ether,\n(iii) chlorobenzene is subjected to hydrolysis,\n(iv) ethyl chloride is treated with aqueous KOH,\n(v) methyl bromide is treated with sodium in the presence of dry ether,\n(vi) methyl chloride is treated with KCN Answers to Some Intext Questions\n6 1\n6 2\n(i) H2SO4 cannot be used along with KI in the conversion of an alcohol to\nan alkyl iodide as it converts KI to corresponding acid, HI which is then\noxidised by it to I2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5823-5826", "Text": "Answers to Some Intext Questions\n6 1\n6 2\n(i) H2SO4 cannot be used along with KI in the conversion of an alcohol to\nan alkyl iodide as it converts KI to corresponding acid, HI which is then\noxidised by it to I2 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5824-5827", "Text": "1\n6 2\n(i) H2SO4 cannot be used along with KI in the conversion of an alcohol to\nan alkyl iodide as it converts KI to corresponding acid, HI which is then\noxidised by it to I2 6 3\n(i) ClCH2CH2CH2Cl (ii) ClCH2CHClCH3 (iii) Cl2CHCH2CH3 (iv) CH3CCl2CH3\nRationalised 2023-24\n192\nChemistry\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5825-5828", "Text": "2\n(i) H2SO4 cannot be used along with KI in the conversion of an alcohol to\nan alkyl iodide as it converts KI to corresponding acid, HI which is then\noxidised by it to I2 6 3\n(i) ClCH2CH2CH2Cl (ii) ClCH2CHClCH3 (iii) Cl2CHCH2CH3 (iv) CH3CCl2CH3\nRationalised 2023-24\n192\nChemistry\n6 4\n \n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5826-5829", "Text": "6 3\n(i) ClCH2CH2CH2Cl (ii) ClCH2CHClCH3 (iii) Cl2CHCH2CH3 (iv) CH3CCl2CH3\nRationalised 2023-24\n192\nChemistry\n6 4\n \n6 5\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5827-5830", "Text": "3\n(i) ClCH2CH2CH2Cl (ii) ClCH2CHClCH3 (iii) Cl2CHCH2CH3 (iv) CH3CCl2CH3\nRationalised 2023-24\n192\nChemistry\n6 4\n \n6 5\n6 6\n(i) Chloromethane, Bromomethane, Dibromomethane, Bromoform"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5828-5831", "Text": "4\n \n6 5\n6 6\n(i) Chloromethane, Bromomethane, Dibromomethane, Bromoform Boiling point increases with increase in molecular mass"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5829-5832", "Text": "5\n6 6\n(i) Chloromethane, Bromomethane, Dibromomethane, Bromoform Boiling point increases with increase in molecular mass (ii) Isopropylchloride, \n1-Chloropropane, \n1-Chlorobutane"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5830-5833", "Text": "6\n(i) Chloromethane, Bromomethane, Dibromomethane, Bromoform Boiling point increases with increase in molecular mass (ii) Isopropylchloride, \n1-Chloropropane, \n1-Chlorobutane Isopropylchloride being branched has lower b"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5831-5834", "Text": "Boiling point increases with increase in molecular mass (ii) Isopropylchloride, \n1-Chloropropane, \n1-Chlorobutane Isopropylchloride being branched has lower b p"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5832-5835", "Text": "(ii) Isopropylchloride, \n1-Chloropropane, \n1-Chlorobutane Isopropylchloride being branched has lower b p than 1-\nChloropropane"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5833-5836", "Text": "Isopropylchloride being branched has lower b p than 1-\nChloropropane 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5834-5837", "Text": "p than 1-\nChloropropane 6 7\n(i) CH3CH2CH2CH2Br\nBeing primary halide, there won\u2019t be any\nsteric hindrance"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5835-5838", "Text": "than 1-\nChloropropane 6 7\n(i) CH3CH2CH2CH2Br\nBeing primary halide, there won\u2019t be any\nsteric hindrance (ii)\nSecondary halide reacts faster than tertiary\nhalide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5836-5839", "Text": "6 7\n(i) CH3CH2CH2CH2Br\nBeing primary halide, there won\u2019t be any\nsteric hindrance (ii)\nSecondary halide reacts faster than tertiary\nhalide (iii)\nThe presence of methyl group closer to the\nhalide group will increase the steric\nhindrance and decrease the rate"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5837-5840", "Text": "7\n(i) CH3CH2CH2CH2Br\nBeing primary halide, there won\u2019t be any\nsteric hindrance (ii)\nSecondary halide reacts faster than tertiary\nhalide (iii)\nThe presence of methyl group closer to the\nhalide group will increase the steric\nhindrance and decrease the rate The equivalent hydrogens are grouped as a, b and\nc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5838-5841", "Text": "(ii)\nSecondary halide reacts faster than tertiary\nhalide (iii)\nThe presence of methyl group closer to the\nhalide group will increase the steric\nhindrance and decrease the rate The equivalent hydrogens are grouped as a, b and\nc The replacement of equivalent hydrogens will\ngive the same product"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5839-5842", "Text": "(iii)\nThe presence of methyl group closer to the\nhalide group will increase the steric\nhindrance and decrease the rate The equivalent hydrogens are grouped as a, b and\nc The replacement of equivalent hydrogens will\ngive the same product All the hydrogen atoms are equivalent and replacement\nof any hydrogen will give the same product"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5840-5843", "Text": "The equivalent hydrogens are grouped as a, b and\nc The replacement of equivalent hydrogens will\ngive the same product All the hydrogen atoms are equivalent and replacement\nof any hydrogen will give the same product Similarly the equivalent hydrogens are grouped as\na, b, c and d"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5841-5844", "Text": "The replacement of equivalent hydrogens will\ngive the same product All the hydrogen atoms are equivalent and replacement\nof any hydrogen will give the same product Similarly the equivalent hydrogens are grouped as\na, b, c and d Thus, four isomeric products are\npossible"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5842-5845", "Text": "All the hydrogen atoms are equivalent and replacement\nof any hydrogen will give the same product Similarly the equivalent hydrogens are grouped as\na, b, c and d Thus, four isomeric products are\npossible 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5843-5846", "Text": "Similarly the equivalent hydrogens are grouped as\na, b, c and d Thus, four isomeric products are\npossible 6 8\n(i)\nTertiary halide reacts faster than secondary halide\nbecause of the greater stability of tert-carbocation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5844-5847", "Text": "Thus, four isomeric products are\npossible 6 8\n(i)\nTertiary halide reacts faster than secondary halide\nbecause of the greater stability of tert-carbocation (ii)\nBecause of greater stability of secondary carbocation than\nprimary"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5845-5848", "Text": "6 8\n(i)\nTertiary halide reacts faster than secondary halide\nbecause of the greater stability of tert-carbocation (ii)\nBecause of greater stability of secondary carbocation than\nprimary 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5846-5849", "Text": "8\n(i)\nTertiary halide reacts faster than secondary halide\nbecause of the greater stability of tert-carbocation (ii)\nBecause of greater stability of secondary carbocation than\nprimary 6 9\nRationalised 2023-24\nAfter studying this Unit, you will be\n\u2022able to\nname \nalcohols, \nphenols \nand\nethers according to the IUPAC\nsystem of nomenclature;\n\u2022\ndiscuss the reactions involved in\nthe preparation of alcohols from\nalkenes, aldehydes, ketones and\ncarboxylic acids;\n\u2022\ndiscuss the reactions involved in\nthe preparation of phenols from\nhaloarenes, benzene sulphonic\nacids, \ndiazonium \nsalts \nand\ncumene;\n\u2022\ndiscuss \nthe \nreactions \nfor\npreparation \nof \nethers \nfrom\n(i) alcohols and (ii) alkyl halides\nand sodium alkoxides/aryloxides;\n\u2022\ncorrelate physical properties of\nalcohols, phenols and ethers with\ntheir structures;\n\u2022\ndiscuss chemical reactions of the\nthree classes of compounds on\nthe basis of their functional\ngroups"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5847-5850", "Text": "(ii)\nBecause of greater stability of secondary carbocation than\nprimary 6 9\nRationalised 2023-24\nAfter studying this Unit, you will be\n\u2022able to\nname \nalcohols, \nphenols \nand\nethers according to the IUPAC\nsystem of nomenclature;\n\u2022\ndiscuss the reactions involved in\nthe preparation of alcohols from\nalkenes, aldehydes, ketones and\ncarboxylic acids;\n\u2022\ndiscuss the reactions involved in\nthe preparation of phenols from\nhaloarenes, benzene sulphonic\nacids, \ndiazonium \nsalts \nand\ncumene;\n\u2022\ndiscuss \nthe \nreactions \nfor\npreparation \nof \nethers \nfrom\n(i) alcohols and (ii) alkyl halides\nand sodium alkoxides/aryloxides;\n\u2022\ncorrelate physical properties of\nalcohols, phenols and ethers with\ntheir structures;\n\u2022\ndiscuss chemical reactions of the\nthree classes of compounds on\nthe basis of their functional\ngroups Objectives\nAlcohols, phenols and ethers are the basic compounds for the\nformation of detergents, antiseptics and fragrances, respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5848-5851", "Text": "6 9\nRationalised 2023-24\nAfter studying this Unit, you will be\n\u2022able to\nname \nalcohols, \nphenols \nand\nethers according to the IUPAC\nsystem of nomenclature;\n\u2022\ndiscuss the reactions involved in\nthe preparation of alcohols from\nalkenes, aldehydes, ketones and\ncarboxylic acids;\n\u2022\ndiscuss the reactions involved in\nthe preparation of phenols from\nhaloarenes, benzene sulphonic\nacids, \ndiazonium \nsalts \nand\ncumene;\n\u2022\ndiscuss \nthe \nreactions \nfor\npreparation \nof \nethers \nfrom\n(i) alcohols and (ii) alkyl halides\nand sodium alkoxides/aryloxides;\n\u2022\ncorrelate physical properties of\nalcohols, phenols and ethers with\ntheir structures;\n\u2022\ndiscuss chemical reactions of the\nthree classes of compounds on\nthe basis of their functional\ngroups Objectives\nAlcohols, phenols and ethers are the basic compounds for the\nformation of detergents, antiseptics and fragrances, respectively 7\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit7\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nAlcohols,,,,, Phenols\nPhenols\nPhenols\nPhenols\nPhenols\nand\nand\nand\nand\nand EEEEEther\nther\nther\nther\nthersssss\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nAlcohols,,,,, Phenols\nPhenols\nPhenols\nPhenols\nPhenols\nand\nand\nand\nand\nand EEEEEther\nther\nther\nther\nthersssss\nYou have learnt that substitution of one or more\nhydrogen atom(s) from a hydrocarbon by another atom\nor a group of atoms result in the formation of an entirely\nnew compound having altogether different properties\nand applications"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5849-5852", "Text": "9\nRationalised 2023-24\nAfter studying this Unit, you will be\n\u2022able to\nname \nalcohols, \nphenols \nand\nethers according to the IUPAC\nsystem of nomenclature;\n\u2022\ndiscuss the reactions involved in\nthe preparation of alcohols from\nalkenes, aldehydes, ketones and\ncarboxylic acids;\n\u2022\ndiscuss the reactions involved in\nthe preparation of phenols from\nhaloarenes, benzene sulphonic\nacids, \ndiazonium \nsalts \nand\ncumene;\n\u2022\ndiscuss \nthe \nreactions \nfor\npreparation \nof \nethers \nfrom\n(i) alcohols and (ii) alkyl halides\nand sodium alkoxides/aryloxides;\n\u2022\ncorrelate physical properties of\nalcohols, phenols and ethers with\ntheir structures;\n\u2022\ndiscuss chemical reactions of the\nthree classes of compounds on\nthe basis of their functional\ngroups Objectives\nAlcohols, phenols and ethers are the basic compounds for the\nformation of detergents, antiseptics and fragrances, respectively 7\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit7\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nAlcohols,,,,, Phenols\nPhenols\nPhenols\nPhenols\nPhenols\nand\nand\nand\nand\nand EEEEEther\nther\nther\nther\nthersssss\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nAlcohols,,,,, Phenols\nPhenols\nPhenols\nPhenols\nPhenols\nand\nand\nand\nand\nand EEEEEther\nther\nther\nther\nthersssss\nYou have learnt that substitution of one or more\nhydrogen atom(s) from a hydrocarbon by another atom\nor a group of atoms result in the formation of an entirely\nnew compound having altogether different properties\nand applications Alcohols and phenols are formed\nwhen a hydrogen atom in a hydrocarbon, aliphatic and\naromatic respectively, is replaced by \u2013OH group"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5850-5853", "Text": "Objectives\nAlcohols, phenols and ethers are the basic compounds for the\nformation of detergents, antiseptics and fragrances, respectively 7\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit7\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nAlcohols,,,,, Phenols\nPhenols\nPhenols\nPhenols\nPhenols\nand\nand\nand\nand\nand EEEEEther\nther\nther\nther\nthersssss\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nAlcohols,,,,, Phenols\nPhenols\nPhenols\nPhenols\nPhenols\nand\nand\nand\nand\nand EEEEEther\nther\nther\nther\nthersssss\nYou have learnt that substitution of one or more\nhydrogen atom(s) from a hydrocarbon by another atom\nor a group of atoms result in the formation of an entirely\nnew compound having altogether different properties\nand applications Alcohols and phenols are formed\nwhen a hydrogen atom in a hydrocarbon, aliphatic and\naromatic respectively, is replaced by \u2013OH group These\nclasses of compounds find wide applications in industry\nas well as in day-to-day life"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5851-5854", "Text": "7\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit7\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nAlcohols,,,,, Phenols\nPhenols\nPhenols\nPhenols\nPhenols\nand\nand\nand\nand\nand EEEEEther\nther\nther\nther\nthersssss\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nAlcohols,,,,, Phenols\nPhenols\nPhenols\nPhenols\nPhenols\nand\nand\nand\nand\nand EEEEEther\nther\nther\nther\nthersssss\nYou have learnt that substitution of one or more\nhydrogen atom(s) from a hydrocarbon by another atom\nor a group of atoms result in the formation of an entirely\nnew compound having altogether different properties\nand applications Alcohols and phenols are formed\nwhen a hydrogen atom in a hydrocarbon, aliphatic and\naromatic respectively, is replaced by \u2013OH group These\nclasses of compounds find wide applications in industry\nas well as in day-to-day life For instance, have you\never noticed that ordinary spirit used for polishing\nwooden furniture is chiefly a compound containing\nhydroxyl group, ethanol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5852-5855", "Text": "Alcohols and phenols are formed\nwhen a hydrogen atom in a hydrocarbon, aliphatic and\naromatic respectively, is replaced by \u2013OH group These\nclasses of compounds find wide applications in industry\nas well as in day-to-day life For instance, have you\never noticed that ordinary spirit used for polishing\nwooden furniture is chiefly a compound containing\nhydroxyl group, ethanol The sugar we eat, the cotton\nused for fabrics, the paper we use for writing, are all\nmade up of compounds containing \u2013OH groups"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5853-5856", "Text": "These\nclasses of compounds find wide applications in industry\nas well as in day-to-day life For instance, have you\never noticed that ordinary spirit used for polishing\nwooden furniture is chiefly a compound containing\nhydroxyl group, ethanol The sugar we eat, the cotton\nused for fabrics, the paper we use for writing, are all\nmade up of compounds containing \u2013OH groups Just\nthink of life without paper; no note-books, books, news-\npapers, currency notes, cheques, certificates, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5854-5857", "Text": "For instance, have you\never noticed that ordinary spirit used for polishing\nwooden furniture is chiefly a compound containing\nhydroxyl group, ethanol The sugar we eat, the cotton\nused for fabrics, the paper we use for writing, are all\nmade up of compounds containing \u2013OH groups Just\nthink of life without paper; no note-books, books, news-\npapers, currency notes, cheques, certificates, etc The\nmagazines carrying beautiful photographs and\ninteresting stories would disappear from our life"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5855-5858", "Text": "The sugar we eat, the cotton\nused for fabrics, the paper we use for writing, are all\nmade up of compounds containing \u2013OH groups Just\nthink of life without paper; no note-books, books, news-\npapers, currency notes, cheques, certificates, etc The\nmagazines carrying beautiful photographs and\ninteresting stories would disappear from our life It\nwould have been really a different world"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5856-5859", "Text": "Just\nthink of life without paper; no note-books, books, news-\npapers, currency notes, cheques, certificates, etc The\nmagazines carrying beautiful photographs and\ninteresting stories would disappear from our life It\nwould have been really a different world An alcohol contains one or more hydroxyl (OH)\ngroup(s) directly attached to carbon atom(s), of an\naliphatic system (CH3OH) while a phenol contains \u2013OH\ngroup(s) directly attached to carbon atom(s) of an\naromatic system (C6H5OH)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5857-5860", "Text": "The\nmagazines carrying beautiful photographs and\ninteresting stories would disappear from our life It\nwould have been really a different world An alcohol contains one or more hydroxyl (OH)\ngroup(s) directly attached to carbon atom(s), of an\naliphatic system (CH3OH) while a phenol contains \u2013OH\ngroup(s) directly attached to carbon atom(s) of an\naromatic system (C6H5OH) The substitution of a hydrogen atom in a\nhydrocarbon by an alkoxy or aryloxy group\n(R\u2013O/Ar\u2013O) yields another class of compounds known\nas \u2018ethers\u2019, for example, CH3OCH3 (dimethyl ether)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5858-5861", "Text": "It\nwould have been really a different world An alcohol contains one or more hydroxyl (OH)\ngroup(s) directly attached to carbon atom(s), of an\naliphatic system (CH3OH) while a phenol contains \u2013OH\ngroup(s) directly attached to carbon atom(s) of an\naromatic system (C6H5OH) The substitution of a hydrogen atom in a\nhydrocarbon by an alkoxy or aryloxy group\n(R\u2013O/Ar\u2013O) yields another class of compounds known\nas \u2018ethers\u2019, for example, CH3OCH3 (dimethyl ether) You\nmay also visualise ethers as compounds formed by\nRationalised 2023-24\n194\nChemistry\nsubstituting the hydrogen atom of hydroxyl group of an alcohol or\nphenol by an alkyl or aryl group"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5859-5862", "Text": "An alcohol contains one or more hydroxyl (OH)\ngroup(s) directly attached to carbon atom(s), of an\naliphatic system (CH3OH) while a phenol contains \u2013OH\ngroup(s) directly attached to carbon atom(s) of an\naromatic system (C6H5OH) The substitution of a hydrogen atom in a\nhydrocarbon by an alkoxy or aryloxy group\n(R\u2013O/Ar\u2013O) yields another class of compounds known\nas \u2018ethers\u2019, for example, CH3OCH3 (dimethyl ether) You\nmay also visualise ethers as compounds formed by\nRationalised 2023-24\n194\nChemistry\nsubstituting the hydrogen atom of hydroxyl group of an alcohol or\nphenol by an alkyl or aryl group In this unit, we shall discuss the chemistry of three classes of\ncompounds, namely \u2014 alcohols, phenols and ethers"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5860-5863", "Text": "The substitution of a hydrogen atom in a\nhydrocarbon by an alkoxy or aryloxy group\n(R\u2013O/Ar\u2013O) yields another class of compounds known\nas \u2018ethers\u2019, for example, CH3OCH3 (dimethyl ether) You\nmay also visualise ethers as compounds formed by\nRationalised 2023-24\n194\nChemistry\nsubstituting the hydrogen atom of hydroxyl group of an alcohol or\nphenol by an alkyl or aryl group In this unit, we shall discuss the chemistry of three classes of\ncompounds, namely \u2014 alcohols, phenols and ethers Monohydric alcohols may be further classified according to the\nhybridisation of the carbon atom to which the hydroxyl group is\nattached"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5861-5864", "Text": "You\nmay also visualise ethers as compounds formed by\nRationalised 2023-24\n194\nChemistry\nsubstituting the hydrogen atom of hydroxyl group of an alcohol or\nphenol by an alkyl or aryl group In this unit, we shall discuss the chemistry of three classes of\ncompounds, namely \u2014 alcohols, phenols and ethers Monohydric alcohols may be further classified according to the\nhybridisation of the carbon atom to which the hydroxyl group is\nattached (i) Compounds containing \nC3\nsp\uf02dOH\nbond: In this class of alcohols,\nthe \u2013OH group is attached to an sp\n3 hybridised carbon atom of an\nalkyl group"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5862-5865", "Text": "In this unit, we shall discuss the chemistry of three classes of\ncompounds, namely \u2014 alcohols, phenols and ethers Monohydric alcohols may be further classified according to the\nhybridisation of the carbon atom to which the hydroxyl group is\nattached (i) Compounds containing \nC3\nsp\uf02dOH\nbond: In this class of alcohols,\nthe \u2013OH group is attached to an sp\n3 hybridised carbon atom of an\nalkyl group They are further classified as follows:\nPrimary, secondary and tertiary alcohols: In these three types of\nalcohols, the \u2013OH group is attached to primary, secondary and\ntertiary carbon atom, respectively as depicted below:\nAllylic alcohols: In these alcohols, the \u2014OH group is attached to\na sp\n3 hybridised carbon adjacent to the carbon-carbon double\nbond, that is to an allylic carbon"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5863-5866", "Text": "Monohydric alcohols may be further classified according to the\nhybridisation of the carbon atom to which the hydroxyl group is\nattached (i) Compounds containing \nC3\nsp\uf02dOH\nbond: In this class of alcohols,\nthe \u2013OH group is attached to an sp\n3 hybridised carbon atom of an\nalkyl group They are further classified as follows:\nPrimary, secondary and tertiary alcohols: In these three types of\nalcohols, the \u2013OH group is attached to primary, secondary and\ntertiary carbon atom, respectively as depicted below:\nAllylic alcohols: In these alcohols, the \u2014OH group is attached to\na sp\n3 hybridised carbon adjacent to the carbon-carbon double\nbond, that is to an allylic carbon For example\nBenzylic alcohols: In these alcohols, the \u2014OH group is attached\nto a sp\n3\u2014hybridised carbon atom next to an aromatic ring"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5864-5867", "Text": "(i) Compounds containing \nC3\nsp\uf02dOH\nbond: In this class of alcohols,\nthe \u2013OH group is attached to an sp\n3 hybridised carbon atom of an\nalkyl group They are further classified as follows:\nPrimary, secondary and tertiary alcohols: In these three types of\nalcohols, the \u2013OH group is attached to primary, secondary and\ntertiary carbon atom, respectively as depicted below:\nAllylic alcohols: In these alcohols, the \u2014OH group is attached to\na sp\n3 hybridised carbon adjacent to the carbon-carbon double\nbond, that is to an allylic carbon For example\nBenzylic alcohols: In these alcohols, the \u2014OH group is attached\nto a sp\n3\u2014hybridised carbon atom next to an aromatic ring For\nexample"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5865-5868", "Text": "They are further classified as follows:\nPrimary, secondary and tertiary alcohols: In these three types of\nalcohols, the \u2013OH group is attached to primary, secondary and\ntertiary carbon atom, respectively as depicted below:\nAllylic alcohols: In these alcohols, the \u2014OH group is attached to\na sp\n3 hybridised carbon adjacent to the carbon-carbon double\nbond, that is to an allylic carbon For example\nBenzylic alcohols: In these alcohols, the \u2014OH group is attached\nto a sp\n3\u2014hybridised carbon atom next to an aromatic ring For\nexample The classification of compounds makes their study systematic and\nhence simpler"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5866-5869", "Text": "For example\nBenzylic alcohols: In these alcohols, the \u2014OH group is attached\nto a sp\n3\u2014hybridised carbon atom next to an aromatic ring For\nexample The classification of compounds makes their study systematic and\nhence simpler Therefore, let us first learn how are alcohols, phenols\nand ethers classified"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5867-5870", "Text": "For\nexample The classification of compounds makes their study systematic and\nhence simpler Therefore, let us first learn how are alcohols, phenols\nand ethers classified Alcohols and phenols may be classified as mono\u2013, di\u2013, tri- or\npolyhydric compounds depending on whether they contain one, two,\nthree or many hydroxyl groups respectively in their structures as\ngiven below:\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5868-5871", "Text": "The classification of compounds makes their study systematic and\nhence simpler Therefore, let us first learn how are alcohols, phenols\nand ethers classified Alcohols and phenols may be classified as mono\u2013, di\u2013, tri- or\npolyhydric compounds depending on whether they contain one, two,\nthree or many hydroxyl groups respectively in their structures as\ngiven below:\n7 1 \n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5869-5872", "Text": "Therefore, let us first learn how are alcohols, phenols\nand ethers classified Alcohols and phenols may be classified as mono\u2013, di\u2013, tri- or\npolyhydric compounds depending on whether they contain one, two,\nthree or many hydroxyl groups respectively in their structures as\ngiven below:\n7 1 \n7 1 \n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5870-5873", "Text": "Alcohols and phenols may be classified as mono\u2013, di\u2013, tri- or\npolyhydric compounds depending on whether they contain one, two,\nthree or many hydroxyl groups respectively in their structures as\ngiven below:\n7 1 \n7 1 \n7 1 \n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5871-5874", "Text": "1 \n7 1 \n7 1 \n7 1 \n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5872-5875", "Text": "1 \n7 1 \n7 1 \n7 1 Classification\nClassification\nClassification\nClassification\nClassification\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5873-5876", "Text": "1 \n7 1 \n7 1 Classification\nClassification\nClassification\nClassification\nClassification\n7 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5874-5877", "Text": "1 \n7 1 Classification\nClassification\nClassification\nClassification\nClassification\n7 1 1\nAlcohols\u2014\nMono, Di,\nTri or\nPolyhydric\nalcohols\nMonohydric\nDihydric\nTrihydric\nRationalised 2023-24\n195\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\nAllylic and benzylic alcohols may be primary, secondary or tertiary"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5875-5878", "Text": "1 Classification\nClassification\nClassification\nClassification\nClassification\n7 1 1\nAlcohols\u2014\nMono, Di,\nTri or\nPolyhydric\nalcohols\nMonohydric\nDihydric\nTrihydric\nRationalised 2023-24\n195\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\nAllylic and benzylic alcohols may be primary, secondary or tertiary (ii) Compounds containing \nC2\nsp\uf02dOH\n bond: These alcohols contain\n\u2014OH group bonded to a carbon-carbon double bond, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5876-5879", "Text": "1 1\nAlcohols\u2014\nMono, Di,\nTri or\nPolyhydric\nalcohols\nMonohydric\nDihydric\nTrihydric\nRationalised 2023-24\n195\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\nAllylic and benzylic alcohols may be primary, secondary or tertiary (ii) Compounds containing \nC2\nsp\uf02dOH\n bond: These alcohols contain\n\u2014OH group bonded to a carbon-carbon double bond, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5877-5880", "Text": "1\nAlcohols\u2014\nMono, Di,\nTri or\nPolyhydric\nalcohols\nMonohydric\nDihydric\nTrihydric\nRationalised 2023-24\n195\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\nAllylic and benzylic alcohols may be primary, secondary or tertiary (ii) Compounds containing \nC2\nsp\uf02dOH\n bond: These alcohols contain\n\u2014OH group bonded to a carbon-carbon double bond, i e , to a\nvinylic carbon or to an aryl carbon"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5878-5881", "Text": "(ii) Compounds containing \nC2\nsp\uf02dOH\n bond: These alcohols contain\n\u2014OH group bonded to a carbon-carbon double bond, i e , to a\nvinylic carbon or to an aryl carbon These alcohols are also known\nas vinylic alcohols"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5879-5882", "Text": "e , to a\nvinylic carbon or to an aryl carbon These alcohols are also known\nas vinylic alcohols Vinylic alcohol: CH2 = CH \u2013 OH\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5880-5883", "Text": ", to a\nvinylic carbon or to an aryl carbon These alcohols are also known\nas vinylic alcohols Vinylic alcohol: CH2 = CH \u2013 OH\n7 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5881-5884", "Text": "These alcohols are also known\nas vinylic alcohols Vinylic alcohol: CH2 = CH \u2013 OH\n7 1 3\nEthers\nCH3\nC\nCH OH\n2\nCH3\nCH3\n(i)\nH C\n2\nCH\nCH OH\n2\n(ii)\nCH3\nCH2\nCH\nOH\n2\n(iii)\nCH\nOH\nCH3\n(iv)\nCH2\nOH\nCH CH3\n(v)\nCH\nOH\nCH C\nCH3\nCH3\n(vi)\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5882-5885", "Text": "Vinylic alcohol: CH2 = CH \u2013 OH\n7 1 3\nEthers\nCH3\nC\nCH OH\n2\nCH3\nCH3\n(i)\nH C\n2\nCH\nCH OH\n2\n(ii)\nCH3\nCH2\nCH\nOH\n2\n(iii)\nCH\nOH\nCH3\n(iv)\nCH2\nOH\nCH CH3\n(v)\nCH\nOH\nCH C\nCH3\nCH3\n(vi)\n7 1 Classify the following as primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols:\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5883-5886", "Text": "1 3\nEthers\nCH3\nC\nCH OH\n2\nCH3\nCH3\n(i)\nH C\n2\nCH\nCH OH\n2\n(ii)\nCH3\nCH2\nCH\nOH\n2\n(iii)\nCH\nOH\nCH3\n(iv)\nCH2\nOH\nCH CH3\n(v)\nCH\nOH\nCH C\nCH3\nCH3\n(vi)\n7 1 Classify the following as primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols:\n7 2 Identify allylic alcohols in the above examples"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5884-5887", "Text": "3\nEthers\nCH3\nC\nCH OH\n2\nCH3\nCH3\n(i)\nH C\n2\nCH\nCH OH\n2\n(ii)\nCH3\nCH2\nCH\nOH\n2\n(iii)\nCH\nOH\nCH3\n(iv)\nCH2\nOH\nCH CH3\n(v)\nCH\nOH\nCH C\nCH3\nCH3\n(vi)\n7 1 Classify the following as primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols:\n7 2 Identify allylic alcohols in the above examples Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5885-5888", "Text": "1 Classify the following as primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols:\n7 2 Identify allylic alcohols in the above examples Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n7 2 Nomenclature\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5886-5889", "Text": "2 Identify allylic alcohols in the above examples Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n7 2 Nomenclature\n7 2 Nomenclature\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5887-5890", "Text": "Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n7 2 Nomenclature\n7 2 Nomenclature\n7 2 Nomenclature\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5888-5891", "Text": "2 Nomenclature\n7 2 Nomenclature\n7 2 Nomenclature\n7 2 Nomenclature\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5889-5892", "Text": "2 Nomenclature\n7 2 Nomenclature\n7 2 Nomenclature\n7 2 Nomenclature\n(a) Alcohols: The common name of an alcohol is derived from the\ncommon name of the alkyl group and adding the word alcohol to it"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5890-5893", "Text": "2 Nomenclature\n7 2 Nomenclature\n7 2 Nomenclature\n(a) Alcohols: The common name of an alcohol is derived from the\ncommon name of the alkyl group and adding the word alcohol to it For example, CH3OH is methyl alcohol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5891-5894", "Text": "2 Nomenclature\n7 2 Nomenclature\n(a) Alcohols: The common name of an alcohol is derived from the\ncommon name of the alkyl group and adding the word alcohol to it For example, CH3OH is methyl alcohol 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5892-5895", "Text": "2 Nomenclature\n(a) Alcohols: The common name of an alcohol is derived from the\ncommon name of the alkyl group and adding the word alcohol to it For example, CH3OH is methyl alcohol 7 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5893-5896", "Text": "For example, CH3OH is methyl alcohol 7 1 2\nPhenols\u2014\nMono, Di\nand\ntrihydric\nphenols\nEthers are classified as simple or symmetrical, if the alkyl or aryl\ngroups attached to the oxygen atom are the same, and mixed or\nunsymmetrical, if the two groups are different"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5894-5897", "Text": "7 1 2\nPhenols\u2014\nMono, Di\nand\ntrihydric\nphenols\nEthers are classified as simple or symmetrical, if the alkyl or aryl\ngroups attached to the oxygen atom are the same, and mixed or\nunsymmetrical, if the two groups are different Diethyl ether,\nC2H5OC2H5, is a symmetrical ether whereas C2H5OCH3 and C2H5OC6H5\nare unsymmetrical ethers"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5895-5898", "Text": "1 2\nPhenols\u2014\nMono, Di\nand\ntrihydric\nphenols\nEthers are classified as simple or symmetrical, if the alkyl or aryl\ngroups attached to the oxygen atom are the same, and mixed or\nunsymmetrical, if the two groups are different Diethyl ether,\nC2H5OC2H5, is a symmetrical ether whereas C2H5OCH3 and C2H5OC6H5\nare unsymmetrical ethers Monohydric\nRationalised 2023-24\n196\nChemistry\nAccording to IUPAC system, the name of an alcohol is derived from the\nname of the alkane from which the alcohol is derived, by substituting \u2018e\u2019\nof alkane with the suffix \u2018ol\u2019"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5896-5899", "Text": "2\nPhenols\u2014\nMono, Di\nand\ntrihydric\nphenols\nEthers are classified as simple or symmetrical, if the alkyl or aryl\ngroups attached to the oxygen atom are the same, and mixed or\nunsymmetrical, if the two groups are different Diethyl ether,\nC2H5OC2H5, is a symmetrical ether whereas C2H5OCH3 and C2H5OC6H5\nare unsymmetrical ethers Monohydric\nRationalised 2023-24\n196\nChemistry\nAccording to IUPAC system, the name of an alcohol is derived from the\nname of the alkane from which the alcohol is derived, by substituting \u2018e\u2019\nof alkane with the suffix \u2018ol\u2019 The position of substituents are indicated\nby numerals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5897-5900", "Text": "Diethyl ether,\nC2H5OC2H5, is a symmetrical ether whereas C2H5OCH3 and C2H5OC6H5\nare unsymmetrical ethers Monohydric\nRationalised 2023-24\n196\nChemistry\nAccording to IUPAC system, the name of an alcohol is derived from the\nname of the alkane from which the alcohol is derived, by substituting \u2018e\u2019\nof alkane with the suffix \u2018ol\u2019 The position of substituents are indicated\nby numerals For this, the longest carbon chain (parent chain) is\nnumbered starting at the end nearest to the hydroxyl group"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5898-5901", "Text": "Monohydric\nRationalised 2023-24\n196\nChemistry\nAccording to IUPAC system, the name of an alcohol is derived from the\nname of the alkane from which the alcohol is derived, by substituting \u2018e\u2019\nof alkane with the suffix \u2018ol\u2019 The position of substituents are indicated\nby numerals For this, the longest carbon chain (parent chain) is\nnumbered starting at the end nearest to the hydroxyl group The positions\nof the \u2013OH group and other substituents are indicated by using the\nnumbers of carbon atoms to which these are attached"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5899-5902", "Text": "The position of substituents are indicated\nby numerals For this, the longest carbon chain (parent chain) is\nnumbered starting at the end nearest to the hydroxyl group The positions\nof the \u2013OH group and other substituents are indicated by using the\nnumbers of carbon atoms to which these are attached For naming\npolyhydric alcohols, the \u2018e\u2019 of alkane is retained and the ending \u2018ol\u2019 is\nadded"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5900-5903", "Text": "For this, the longest carbon chain (parent chain) is\nnumbered starting at the end nearest to the hydroxyl group The positions\nof the \u2013OH group and other substituents are indicated by using the\nnumbers of carbon atoms to which these are attached For naming\npolyhydric alcohols, the \u2018e\u2019 of alkane is retained and the ending \u2018ol\u2019 is\nadded The number of \u2013OH groups is indicated by adding the\nmultiplicative prefix, di, tri, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5901-5904", "Text": "The positions\nof the \u2013OH group and other substituents are indicated by using the\nnumbers of carbon atoms to which these are attached For naming\npolyhydric alcohols, the \u2018e\u2019 of alkane is retained and the ending \u2018ol\u2019 is\nadded The number of \u2013OH groups is indicated by adding the\nmultiplicative prefix, di, tri, etc , before \u2018ol\u2019"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5902-5905", "Text": "For naming\npolyhydric alcohols, the \u2018e\u2019 of alkane is retained and the ending \u2018ol\u2019 is\nadded The number of \u2013OH groups is indicated by adding the\nmultiplicative prefix, di, tri, etc , before \u2018ol\u2019 The positions of \u2013OH groups\nare indicated by appropriate locants, e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5903-5906", "Text": "The number of \u2013OH groups is indicated by adding the\nmultiplicative prefix, di, tri, etc , before \u2018ol\u2019 The positions of \u2013OH groups\nare indicated by appropriate locants, e g"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5904-5907", "Text": ", before \u2018ol\u2019 The positions of \u2013OH groups\nare indicated by appropriate locants, e g , HO\u2013CH2\u2013CH2\u2013OH is named as\nethane\u20131, 2-diol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5905-5908", "Text": "The positions of \u2013OH groups\nare indicated by appropriate locants, e g , HO\u2013CH2\u2013CH2\u2013OH is named as\nethane\u20131, 2-diol Table 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5906-5909", "Text": "g , HO\u2013CH2\u2013CH2\u2013OH is named as\nethane\u20131, 2-diol Table 7 1 gives common and IUPAC names of a few\nalcohols as examples"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5907-5910", "Text": ", HO\u2013CH2\u2013CH2\u2013OH is named as\nethane\u20131, 2-diol Table 7 1 gives common and IUPAC names of a few\nalcohols as examples Table 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5908-5911", "Text": "Table 7 1 gives common and IUPAC names of a few\nalcohols as examples Table 7 1: Common and IUPAC Names of Some Alcohols\nCH3 \u2013 OH\nMethyl alcohol\nMethanol\nCH3 \u2013 CH2 \u2013 CH2 \u2013 OH\nn-Propyl alcohol\nPropan-1-ol\nIsopropyl alcohol\nPropan-2-ol\nCH3 \u2013 CH2 \u2013 CH2 \u2013 CH2 \u2013 OH\nn-Butyl alcohol\nButan-1-ol\nsec-Butyl alcohol\nButan-2-ol\nIsobutyl alcohol\n2-Methylpropan-1-ol\ntert-Butyl alcohol\n2-Methylpropan-2-ol\nHO\u2013H2C\u2013CH2\u2013OH\nEthylene glycol\nEthane-1,2-diol\nGlycerol\nPropane -1, 2, 3-triol\nCompound\nCommon name\nIUPAC name\nCyclic alcohols are named using the prefix cyclo and considering\nthe \u2014OH group attached to C\u20131"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5909-5912", "Text": "1 gives common and IUPAC names of a few\nalcohols as examples Table 7 1: Common and IUPAC Names of Some Alcohols\nCH3 \u2013 OH\nMethyl alcohol\nMethanol\nCH3 \u2013 CH2 \u2013 CH2 \u2013 OH\nn-Propyl alcohol\nPropan-1-ol\nIsopropyl alcohol\nPropan-2-ol\nCH3 \u2013 CH2 \u2013 CH2 \u2013 CH2 \u2013 OH\nn-Butyl alcohol\nButan-1-ol\nsec-Butyl alcohol\nButan-2-ol\nIsobutyl alcohol\n2-Methylpropan-1-ol\ntert-Butyl alcohol\n2-Methylpropan-2-ol\nHO\u2013H2C\u2013CH2\u2013OH\nEthylene glycol\nEthane-1,2-diol\nGlycerol\nPropane -1, 2, 3-triol\nCompound\nCommon name\nIUPAC name\nCyclic alcohols are named using the prefix cyclo and considering\nthe \u2014OH group attached to C\u20131 OH\nOH\nCH3\nCyclohexanol\n2-Methylcyclopentanol\n(b) Phenols: The simplest hydroxy derivative of benzene is phenol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5910-5913", "Text": "Table 7 1: Common and IUPAC Names of Some Alcohols\nCH3 \u2013 OH\nMethyl alcohol\nMethanol\nCH3 \u2013 CH2 \u2013 CH2 \u2013 OH\nn-Propyl alcohol\nPropan-1-ol\nIsopropyl alcohol\nPropan-2-ol\nCH3 \u2013 CH2 \u2013 CH2 \u2013 CH2 \u2013 OH\nn-Butyl alcohol\nButan-1-ol\nsec-Butyl alcohol\nButan-2-ol\nIsobutyl alcohol\n2-Methylpropan-1-ol\ntert-Butyl alcohol\n2-Methylpropan-2-ol\nHO\u2013H2C\u2013CH2\u2013OH\nEthylene glycol\nEthane-1,2-diol\nGlycerol\nPropane -1, 2, 3-triol\nCompound\nCommon name\nIUPAC name\nCyclic alcohols are named using the prefix cyclo and considering\nthe \u2014OH group attached to C\u20131 OH\nOH\nCH3\nCyclohexanol\n2-Methylcyclopentanol\n(b) Phenols: The simplest hydroxy derivative of benzene is phenol It is its common name and also an accepted IUPAC name"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5911-5914", "Text": "1: Common and IUPAC Names of Some Alcohols\nCH3 \u2013 OH\nMethyl alcohol\nMethanol\nCH3 \u2013 CH2 \u2013 CH2 \u2013 OH\nn-Propyl alcohol\nPropan-1-ol\nIsopropyl alcohol\nPropan-2-ol\nCH3 \u2013 CH2 \u2013 CH2 \u2013 CH2 \u2013 OH\nn-Butyl alcohol\nButan-1-ol\nsec-Butyl alcohol\nButan-2-ol\nIsobutyl alcohol\n2-Methylpropan-1-ol\ntert-Butyl alcohol\n2-Methylpropan-2-ol\nHO\u2013H2C\u2013CH2\u2013OH\nEthylene glycol\nEthane-1,2-diol\nGlycerol\nPropane -1, 2, 3-triol\nCompound\nCommon name\nIUPAC name\nCyclic alcohols are named using the prefix cyclo and considering\nthe \u2014OH group attached to C\u20131 OH\nOH\nCH3\nCyclohexanol\n2-Methylcyclopentanol\n(b) Phenols: The simplest hydroxy derivative of benzene is phenol It is its common name and also an accepted IUPAC name As structure\nof phenol involves a benzene ring, in its substituted compounds the\nterms ortho (1,2- disubstituted), meta (1,3-disubstituted) and para\n(1,4-disubstituted) are often used in the common names"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5912-5915", "Text": "OH\nOH\nCH3\nCyclohexanol\n2-Methylcyclopentanol\n(b) Phenols: The simplest hydroxy derivative of benzene is phenol It is its common name and also an accepted IUPAC name As structure\nof phenol involves a benzene ring, in its substituted compounds the\nterms ortho (1,2- disubstituted), meta (1,3-disubstituted) and para\n(1,4-disubstituted) are often used in the common names Rationalised 2023-24\n197\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\nCommon name\nPhenol\no-Cresol\nm-Cresol\np-Cresol\nIUPAC name\nPhenol\n2-Methylphenol\n3-Methylphenol\n4-Methylphenol\nDihydroxy derivatives of benzene are known as 1, 2-, 1, 3- and\n1, 4-benzenediol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5913-5916", "Text": "It is its common name and also an accepted IUPAC name As structure\nof phenol involves a benzene ring, in its substituted compounds the\nterms ortho (1,2- disubstituted), meta (1,3-disubstituted) and para\n(1,4-disubstituted) are often used in the common names Rationalised 2023-24\n197\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\nCommon name\nPhenol\no-Cresol\nm-Cresol\np-Cresol\nIUPAC name\nPhenol\n2-Methylphenol\n3-Methylphenol\n4-Methylphenol\nDihydroxy derivatives of benzene are known as 1, 2-, 1, 3- and\n1, 4-benzenediol OH\nCH3\nOH\nCH3\nOH\nCH3\nOH\nOH\nOH\nOH\nOH\nOH\nOH\nCommon name\nCatechol\nBenzene-\n1,2-diol\nResorcinol\nBenzene-\n1,3-diol\nHydroquinone or quinol\nBenzene-\n1,4-diol\nIUPAC name\n(c) Ethers: Common names of ethers are derived from the names of alkyl/\naryl groups written as separate words in alphabetical order and adding the\nword \u2018ether\u2019 at the end"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5914-5917", "Text": "As structure\nof phenol involves a benzene ring, in its substituted compounds the\nterms ortho (1,2- disubstituted), meta (1,3-disubstituted) and para\n(1,4-disubstituted) are often used in the common names Rationalised 2023-24\n197\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\nCommon name\nPhenol\no-Cresol\nm-Cresol\np-Cresol\nIUPAC name\nPhenol\n2-Methylphenol\n3-Methylphenol\n4-Methylphenol\nDihydroxy derivatives of benzene are known as 1, 2-, 1, 3- and\n1, 4-benzenediol OH\nCH3\nOH\nCH3\nOH\nCH3\nOH\nOH\nOH\nOH\nOH\nOH\nOH\nCommon name\nCatechol\nBenzene-\n1,2-diol\nResorcinol\nBenzene-\n1,3-diol\nHydroquinone or quinol\nBenzene-\n1,4-diol\nIUPAC name\n(c) Ethers: Common names of ethers are derived from the names of alkyl/\naryl groups written as separate words in alphabetical order and adding the\nword \u2018ether\u2019 at the end For example, CH3OC2H5 is ethylmethyl ether"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5915-5918", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n197\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\nCommon name\nPhenol\no-Cresol\nm-Cresol\np-Cresol\nIUPAC name\nPhenol\n2-Methylphenol\n3-Methylphenol\n4-Methylphenol\nDihydroxy derivatives of benzene are known as 1, 2-, 1, 3- and\n1, 4-benzenediol OH\nCH3\nOH\nCH3\nOH\nCH3\nOH\nOH\nOH\nOH\nOH\nOH\nOH\nCommon name\nCatechol\nBenzene-\n1,2-diol\nResorcinol\nBenzene-\n1,3-diol\nHydroquinone or quinol\nBenzene-\n1,4-diol\nIUPAC name\n(c) Ethers: Common names of ethers are derived from the names of alkyl/\naryl groups written as separate words in alphabetical order and adding the\nword \u2018ether\u2019 at the end For example, CH3OC2H5 is ethylmethyl ether Table 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5916-5919", "Text": "OH\nCH3\nOH\nCH3\nOH\nCH3\nOH\nOH\nOH\nOH\nOH\nOH\nOH\nCommon name\nCatechol\nBenzene-\n1,2-diol\nResorcinol\nBenzene-\n1,3-diol\nHydroquinone or quinol\nBenzene-\n1,4-diol\nIUPAC name\n(c) Ethers: Common names of ethers are derived from the names of alkyl/\naryl groups written as separate words in alphabetical order and adding the\nword \u2018ether\u2019 at the end For example, CH3OC2H5 is ethylmethyl ether Table 7 2: Common and IUPAC Names of Some Ethers\nCompound\nCommon name\nIUPAC name\nCH3OCH3\nDimethyl ether\nMethoxymethane\nC2H5OC2H5\nDiethyl ether\nEthoxyethane\nCH3OCH2CH2CH3\nMethyl n-propyl ether\n1-Methoxypropane\nC6H5OCH3\nMethyl phenyl ether\nMethoxybenzene\n(Anisole)\n(Anisole)\nC6H5OCH2CH3\nEthyl phenyl ether\nEthoxybenzene\n(Phenetole)\nC6H5O(CH2)6 \u2013 CH3\nHeptyl phenyl ether\n1-Phenoxyheptane\nCH3\nCH O\n3\nCH\nCH3\nMethyl isopropyl ether\n2-Methoxypropane\nPhenyl isopentyl ether\n3- Methylbutoxybenzene\nCH3\u2013 O \u2013 CH2 \u2013 CH2 \u2013 OCH3\n\u2014\n1,2-Dimethoxyethane\n\u2014\n2-Ethoxy-\n-1,1-dimethylcyclohexane\nRationalised 2023-24\n198\nChemistry\nIf both the alkyl groups are the same, the prefix \u2018di\u2019 is added before the alkyl\ngroup"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5917-5920", "Text": "For example, CH3OC2H5 is ethylmethyl ether Table 7 2: Common and IUPAC Names of Some Ethers\nCompound\nCommon name\nIUPAC name\nCH3OCH3\nDimethyl ether\nMethoxymethane\nC2H5OC2H5\nDiethyl ether\nEthoxyethane\nCH3OCH2CH2CH3\nMethyl n-propyl ether\n1-Methoxypropane\nC6H5OCH3\nMethyl phenyl ether\nMethoxybenzene\n(Anisole)\n(Anisole)\nC6H5OCH2CH3\nEthyl phenyl ether\nEthoxybenzene\n(Phenetole)\nC6H5O(CH2)6 \u2013 CH3\nHeptyl phenyl ether\n1-Phenoxyheptane\nCH3\nCH O\n3\nCH\nCH3\nMethyl isopropyl ether\n2-Methoxypropane\nPhenyl isopentyl ether\n3- Methylbutoxybenzene\nCH3\u2013 O \u2013 CH2 \u2013 CH2 \u2013 OCH3\n\u2014\n1,2-Dimethoxyethane\n\u2014\n2-Ethoxy-\n-1,1-dimethylcyclohexane\nRationalised 2023-24\n198\nChemistry\nIf both the alkyl groups are the same, the prefix \u2018di\u2019 is added before the alkyl\ngroup For example, C2H5OC2H5 is diethyl ether"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5918-5921", "Text": "Table 7 2: Common and IUPAC Names of Some Ethers\nCompound\nCommon name\nIUPAC name\nCH3OCH3\nDimethyl ether\nMethoxymethane\nC2H5OC2H5\nDiethyl ether\nEthoxyethane\nCH3OCH2CH2CH3\nMethyl n-propyl ether\n1-Methoxypropane\nC6H5OCH3\nMethyl phenyl ether\nMethoxybenzene\n(Anisole)\n(Anisole)\nC6H5OCH2CH3\nEthyl phenyl ether\nEthoxybenzene\n(Phenetole)\nC6H5O(CH2)6 \u2013 CH3\nHeptyl phenyl ether\n1-Phenoxyheptane\nCH3\nCH O\n3\nCH\nCH3\nMethyl isopropyl ether\n2-Methoxypropane\nPhenyl isopentyl ether\n3- Methylbutoxybenzene\nCH3\u2013 O \u2013 CH2 \u2013 CH2 \u2013 OCH3\n\u2014\n1,2-Dimethoxyethane\n\u2014\n2-Ethoxy-\n-1,1-dimethylcyclohexane\nRationalised 2023-24\n198\nChemistry\nIf both the alkyl groups are the same, the prefix \u2018di\u2019 is added before the alkyl\ngroup For example, C2H5OC2H5 is diethyl ether According to IUPAC system of nomenclature, ethers are regarded as\nhydrocarbon derivatives in which a hydrogen atom is replaced by an\n\u2013OR or \u2013OAr group, where R and Ar represent alkyl and aryl groups,\nrespectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5919-5922", "Text": "2: Common and IUPAC Names of Some Ethers\nCompound\nCommon name\nIUPAC name\nCH3OCH3\nDimethyl ether\nMethoxymethane\nC2H5OC2H5\nDiethyl ether\nEthoxyethane\nCH3OCH2CH2CH3\nMethyl n-propyl ether\n1-Methoxypropane\nC6H5OCH3\nMethyl phenyl ether\nMethoxybenzene\n(Anisole)\n(Anisole)\nC6H5OCH2CH3\nEthyl phenyl ether\nEthoxybenzene\n(Phenetole)\nC6H5O(CH2)6 \u2013 CH3\nHeptyl phenyl ether\n1-Phenoxyheptane\nCH3\nCH O\n3\nCH\nCH3\nMethyl isopropyl ether\n2-Methoxypropane\nPhenyl isopentyl ether\n3- Methylbutoxybenzene\nCH3\u2013 O \u2013 CH2 \u2013 CH2 \u2013 OCH3\n\u2014\n1,2-Dimethoxyethane\n\u2014\n2-Ethoxy-\n-1,1-dimethylcyclohexane\nRationalised 2023-24\n198\nChemistry\nIf both the alkyl groups are the same, the prefix \u2018di\u2019 is added before the alkyl\ngroup For example, C2H5OC2H5 is diethyl ether According to IUPAC system of nomenclature, ethers are regarded as\nhydrocarbon derivatives in which a hydrogen atom is replaced by an\n\u2013OR or \u2013OAr group, where R and Ar represent alkyl and aryl groups,\nrespectively The larger (R) group is chosen as the parent hydrocarbon"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5920-5923", "Text": "For example, C2H5OC2H5 is diethyl ether According to IUPAC system of nomenclature, ethers are regarded as\nhydrocarbon derivatives in which a hydrogen atom is replaced by an\n\u2013OR or \u2013OAr group, where R and Ar represent alkyl and aryl groups,\nrespectively The larger (R) group is chosen as the parent hydrocarbon The names of a few ethers are given as examples in Table 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5921-5924", "Text": "According to IUPAC system of nomenclature, ethers are regarded as\nhydrocarbon derivatives in which a hydrogen atom is replaced by an\n\u2013OR or \u2013OAr group, where R and Ar represent alkyl and aryl groups,\nrespectively The larger (R) group is chosen as the parent hydrocarbon The names of a few ethers are given as examples in Table 7 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5922-5925", "Text": "The larger (R) group is chosen as the parent hydrocarbon The names of a few ethers are given as examples in Table 7 2 (i) 4-Chloro-2,3-dimethylpentan-1-ol (ii) 2-Ethoxypropane\n(iii) 2,6-Dimethylphenol\n(iv) 1-Ethoxy-2-nitrocyclohexane\nNO2\nOC H\n2\n5\nExample 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5923-5926", "Text": "The names of a few ethers are given as examples in Table 7 2 (i) 4-Chloro-2,3-dimethylpentan-1-ol (ii) 2-Ethoxypropane\n(iii) 2,6-Dimethylphenol\n(iv) 1-Ethoxy-2-nitrocyclohexane\nNO2\nOC H\n2\n5\nExample 7 1\nExample 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5924-5927", "Text": "2 (i) 4-Chloro-2,3-dimethylpentan-1-ol (ii) 2-Ethoxypropane\n(iii) 2,6-Dimethylphenol\n(iv) 1-Ethoxy-2-nitrocyclohexane\nNO2\nOC H\n2\n5\nExample 7 1\nExample 7 1\nExample 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5925-5928", "Text": "(i) 4-Chloro-2,3-dimethylpentan-1-ol (ii) 2-Ethoxypropane\n(iii) 2,6-Dimethylphenol\n(iv) 1-Ethoxy-2-nitrocyclohexane\nNO2\nOC H\n2\n5\nExample 7 1\nExample 7 1\nExample 7 1\nExample 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5926-5929", "Text": "1\nExample 7 1\nExample 7 1\nExample 7 1\nExample 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5927-5930", "Text": "1\nExample 7 1\nExample 7 1\nExample 7 1\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nOH\nCH3\nH3C\n(i)\n(iii)\n(ii) CH3\nCH\nO\nCH2CH3\nCH3\n(ii)\nCH3\nCH\nCH OH\n2\nCl\nCH\nCH\nCH3\nCH3\n(i)\n(iv)\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5928-5931", "Text": "1\nExample 7 1\nExample 7 1\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nOH\nCH3\nH3C\n(i)\n(iii)\n(ii) CH3\nCH\nO\nCH2CH3\nCH3\n(ii)\nCH3\nCH\nCH OH\n2\nCl\nCH\nCH\nCH3\nCH3\n(i)\n(iv)\n7 3 Name the following compounds according to IUPAC system"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5929-5932", "Text": "1\nExample 7 1\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nOH\nCH3\nH3C\n(i)\n(iii)\n(ii) CH3\nCH\nO\nCH2CH3\nCH3\n(ii)\nCH3\nCH\nCH OH\n2\nCl\nCH\nCH\nCH3\nCH3\n(i)\n(iv)\n7 3 Name the following compounds according to IUPAC system Intext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n(i)\n(ii)\n(iii)\n(iv)\n(v)\nIn alcohols, the oxygen of the \u2013OH group is attached to carbon by a\nsigma (s ) bond formed by the overlap of a sp\n3 hybridised orbital of\ncarbon with a sp\n3 hybridised orbital of oxygen"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5930-5933", "Text": "1\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nOH\nCH3\nH3C\n(i)\n(iii)\n(ii) CH3\nCH\nO\nCH2CH3\nCH3\n(ii)\nCH3\nCH\nCH OH\n2\nCl\nCH\nCH\nCH3\nCH3\n(i)\n(iv)\n7 3 Name the following compounds according to IUPAC system Intext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n(i)\n(ii)\n(iii)\n(iv)\n(v)\nIn alcohols, the oxygen of the \u2013OH group is attached to carbon by a\nsigma (s ) bond formed by the overlap of a sp\n3 hybridised orbital of\ncarbon with a sp\n3 hybridised orbital of oxygen Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5931-5934", "Text": "3 Name the following compounds according to IUPAC system Intext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n(i)\n(ii)\n(iii)\n(iv)\n(v)\nIn alcohols, the oxygen of the \u2013OH group is attached to carbon by a\nsigma (s ) bond formed by the overlap of a sp\n3 hybridised orbital of\ncarbon with a sp\n3 hybridised orbital of oxygen Fig 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5932-5935", "Text": "Intext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n(i)\n(ii)\n(iii)\n(iv)\n(v)\nIn alcohols, the oxygen of the \u2013OH group is attached to carbon by a\nsigma (s ) bond formed by the overlap of a sp\n3 hybridised orbital of\ncarbon with a sp\n3 hybridised orbital of oxygen Fig 7 1 depicts\nstructural aspects of methanol, phenol and methoxymethane"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5933-5936", "Text": "Fig 7 1 depicts\nstructural aspects of methanol, phenol and methoxymethane 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5934-5937", "Text": "7 1 depicts\nstructural aspects of methanol, phenol and methoxymethane 7 3\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5935-5938", "Text": "1 depicts\nstructural aspects of methanol, phenol and methoxymethane 7 3\n7 3\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5936-5939", "Text": "7 3\n7 3\n7 3\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5937-5940", "Text": "3\n7 3\n7 3\n7 3\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5938-5941", "Text": "3\n7 3\n7 3\n7 3 Structures of\nStructures of\nStructures of\nStructures of\nStructures of\nFunctional\nFunctional\nFunctional\nFunctional\nFunctional\nGroups\nGroups\nGroups\nGroups\nGroups\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5939-5942", "Text": "3\n7 3\n7 3 Structures of\nStructures of\nStructures of\nStructures of\nStructures of\nFunctional\nFunctional\nFunctional\nFunctional\nFunctional\nGroups\nGroups\nGroups\nGroups\nGroups\nFig 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5940-5943", "Text": "3\n7 3 Structures of\nStructures of\nStructures of\nStructures of\nStructures of\nFunctional\nFunctional\nFunctional\nFunctional\nFunctional\nGroups\nGroups\nGroups\nGroups\nGroups\nFig 7 1: Structures of methanol, phenol and methoxymethane\nGive IUPAC names of the following compounds:\nRationalised 2023-24\n199\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\nThe bond angle \n in alcohols is slightly less than the tetrahedral\nangle (109\u00b0-28\u00a2)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5941-5944", "Text": "3 Structures of\nStructures of\nStructures of\nStructures of\nStructures of\nFunctional\nFunctional\nFunctional\nFunctional\nFunctional\nGroups\nGroups\nGroups\nGroups\nGroups\nFig 7 1: Structures of methanol, phenol and methoxymethane\nGive IUPAC names of the following compounds:\nRationalised 2023-24\n199\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\nThe bond angle \n in alcohols is slightly less than the tetrahedral\nangle (109\u00b0-28\u00a2) It is due to the repulsion between the unshared\nelectron pairs of oxygen"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5942-5945", "Text": "7 1: Structures of methanol, phenol and methoxymethane\nGive IUPAC names of the following compounds:\nRationalised 2023-24\n199\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\nThe bond angle \n in alcohols is slightly less than the tetrahedral\nangle (109\u00b0-28\u00a2) It is due to the repulsion between the unshared\nelectron pairs of oxygen In phenols, the \u2013OH group is attached to sp\n2\nhybridised carbon of an aromatic ring"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5943-5946", "Text": "1: Structures of methanol, phenol and methoxymethane\nGive IUPAC names of the following compounds:\nRationalised 2023-24\n199\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\nThe bond angle \n in alcohols is slightly less than the tetrahedral\nangle (109\u00b0-28\u00a2) It is due to the repulsion between the unshared\nelectron pairs of oxygen In phenols, the \u2013OH group is attached to sp\n2\nhybridised carbon of an aromatic ring The carbon\u2013 oxygen bond\nlength (136 pm) in phenol is slightly less than that in methanol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5944-5947", "Text": "It is due to the repulsion between the unshared\nelectron pairs of oxygen In phenols, the \u2013OH group is attached to sp\n2\nhybridised carbon of an aromatic ring The carbon\u2013 oxygen bond\nlength (136 pm) in phenol is slightly less than that in methanol This\nis due to (i) partial double bond character on account of the conjugation\nof unshared electron pair of oxygen with the aromatic ring\n(Section 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5945-5948", "Text": "In phenols, the \u2013OH group is attached to sp\n2\nhybridised carbon of an aromatic ring The carbon\u2013 oxygen bond\nlength (136 pm) in phenol is slightly less than that in methanol This\nis due to (i) partial double bond character on account of the conjugation\nof unshared electron pair of oxygen with the aromatic ring\n(Section 7 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5946-5949", "Text": "The carbon\u2013 oxygen bond\nlength (136 pm) in phenol is slightly less than that in methanol This\nis due to (i) partial double bond character on account of the conjugation\nof unshared electron pair of oxygen with the aromatic ring\n(Section 7 4 4) and (ii) sp\n2 hybridised state of carbon to which oxygen\nis attached"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5947-5950", "Text": "This\nis due to (i) partial double bond character on account of the conjugation\nof unshared electron pair of oxygen with the aromatic ring\n(Section 7 4 4) and (ii) sp\n2 hybridised state of carbon to which oxygen\nis attached In ethers, the four electron pairs, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5948-5951", "Text": "4 4) and (ii) sp\n2 hybridised state of carbon to which oxygen\nis attached In ethers, the four electron pairs, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5949-5952", "Text": "4) and (ii) sp\n2 hybridised state of carbon to which oxygen\nis attached In ethers, the four electron pairs, i e , the two bond pairs and two\nlone pairs of electrons on oxygen are arranged approximately in a\ntetrahedral arrangement"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5950-5953", "Text": "In ethers, the four electron pairs, i e , the two bond pairs and two\nlone pairs of electrons on oxygen are arranged approximately in a\ntetrahedral arrangement The bond angle is slightly greater than the\ntetrahedral angle due to the repulsive interaction between the two\nbulky (\u2013R) groups"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5951-5954", "Text": "e , the two bond pairs and two\nlone pairs of electrons on oxygen are arranged approximately in a\ntetrahedral arrangement The bond angle is slightly greater than the\ntetrahedral angle due to the repulsive interaction between the two\nbulky (\u2013R) groups The C\u2013O bond length (141 pm) is almost the same\nas in alcohols"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5952-5955", "Text": ", the two bond pairs and two\nlone pairs of electrons on oxygen are arranged approximately in a\ntetrahedral arrangement The bond angle is slightly greater than the\ntetrahedral angle due to the repulsive interaction between the two\nbulky (\u2013R) groups The C\u2013O bond length (141 pm) is almost the same\nas in alcohols 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5953-5956", "Text": "The bond angle is slightly greater than the\ntetrahedral angle due to the repulsive interaction between the two\nbulky (\u2013R) groups The C\u2013O bond length (141 pm) is almost the same\nas in alcohols 7 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5954-5957", "Text": "The C\u2013O bond length (141 pm) is almost the same\nas in alcohols 7 4 1\nPreparation of Alcohols\nAlcohols are prepared by the following methods:\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5955-5958", "Text": "7 4 1\nPreparation of Alcohols\nAlcohols are prepared by the following methods:\n1 From alkenes\n(i) By acid catalysed hydration: Alkenes react with water in the\npresence of acid as catalyst to form alcohols"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5956-5959", "Text": "4 1\nPreparation of Alcohols\nAlcohols are prepared by the following methods:\n1 From alkenes\n(i) By acid catalysed hydration: Alkenes react with water in the\npresence of acid as catalyst to form alcohols In case of\nunsymmetrical alkenes, the addition reaction takes place in\naccordance with Markovnikov\u2019s rule"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5957-5960", "Text": "1\nPreparation of Alcohols\nAlcohols are prepared by the following methods:\n1 From alkenes\n(i) By acid catalysed hydration: Alkenes react with water in the\npresence of acid as catalyst to form alcohols In case of\nunsymmetrical alkenes, the addition reaction takes place in\naccordance with Markovnikov\u2019s rule Mechanism\nThe mechanism of the reaction involves the following three steps:\nStep 1: Protonation of alkene to form carbocation by electrophilic\nattack of H3O\n+"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5958-5961", "Text": "From alkenes\n(i) By acid catalysed hydration: Alkenes react with water in the\npresence of acid as catalyst to form alcohols In case of\nunsymmetrical alkenes, the addition reaction takes place in\naccordance with Markovnikov\u2019s rule Mechanism\nThe mechanism of the reaction involves the following three steps:\nStep 1: Protonation of alkene to form carbocation by electrophilic\nattack of H3O\n+ H2O + H\n+ \u00ae H3O\n+\nStep 2: Nucleophilic attack of water on carbocation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5959-5962", "Text": "In case of\nunsymmetrical alkenes, the addition reaction takes place in\naccordance with Markovnikov\u2019s rule Mechanism\nThe mechanism of the reaction involves the following three steps:\nStep 1: Protonation of alkene to form carbocation by electrophilic\nattack of H3O\n+ H2O + H\n+ \u00ae H3O\n+\nStep 2: Nucleophilic attack of water on carbocation Step 3: Deprotonation to form an alcohol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5960-5963", "Text": "Mechanism\nThe mechanism of the reaction involves the following three steps:\nStep 1: Protonation of alkene to form carbocation by electrophilic\nattack of H3O\n+ H2O + H\n+ \u00ae H3O\n+\nStep 2: Nucleophilic attack of water on carbocation Step 3: Deprotonation to form an alcohol 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5961-5964", "Text": "H2O + H\n+ \u00ae H3O\n+\nStep 2: Nucleophilic attack of water on carbocation Step 3: Deprotonation to form an alcohol 7 4\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5962-5965", "Text": "Step 3: Deprotonation to form an alcohol 7 4\n7 4\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5963-5966", "Text": "7 4\n7 4\n7 4\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5964-5967", "Text": "4\n7 4\n7 4\n7 4\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5965-5968", "Text": "4\n7 4\n7 4\n7 4 Alcohols and\nAlcohols and\nAlcohols and\nAlcohols and\nAlcohols and\nPhenols\nPhenols\nPhenols\nPhenols\nPhenols\nRationalised 2023-24\n200\nChemistry\n(ii) By hydroboration\u2013oxidation: Diborane (BH3)2 reacts with alkenes\nto give trialkyl boranes as addition product"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5966-5969", "Text": "4\n7 4\n7 4 Alcohols and\nAlcohols and\nAlcohols and\nAlcohols and\nAlcohols and\nPhenols\nPhenols\nPhenols\nPhenols\nPhenols\nRationalised 2023-24\n200\nChemistry\n(ii) By hydroboration\u2013oxidation: Diborane (BH3)2 reacts with alkenes\nto give trialkyl boranes as addition product This is oxidised to\nalcohol by hydrogen peroxide in the presence of aqueous sodium\nhydroxide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5967-5970", "Text": "4\n7 4 Alcohols and\nAlcohols and\nAlcohols and\nAlcohols and\nAlcohols and\nPhenols\nPhenols\nPhenols\nPhenols\nPhenols\nRationalised 2023-24\n200\nChemistry\n(ii) By hydroboration\u2013oxidation: Diborane (BH3)2 reacts with alkenes\nto give trialkyl boranes as addition product This is oxidised to\nalcohol by hydrogen peroxide in the presence of aqueous sodium\nhydroxide The addition of borane to the double bond takes place in such\na manner that the boron atom gets attached to the sp\n2 carbon\ncarrying greater number of hydrogen atoms"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5968-5971", "Text": "4 Alcohols and\nAlcohols and\nAlcohols and\nAlcohols and\nAlcohols and\nPhenols\nPhenols\nPhenols\nPhenols\nPhenols\nRationalised 2023-24\n200\nChemistry\n(ii) By hydroboration\u2013oxidation: Diborane (BH3)2 reacts with alkenes\nto give trialkyl boranes as addition product This is oxidised to\nalcohol by hydrogen peroxide in the presence of aqueous sodium\nhydroxide The addition of borane to the double bond takes place in such\na manner that the boron atom gets attached to the sp\n2 carbon\ncarrying greater number of hydrogen atoms The alcohol so formed\nlooks as if it has been formed by the addition of water to the\nalkene in a way opposite to the Markovnikov\u2019s rule"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5969-5972", "Text": "This is oxidised to\nalcohol by hydrogen peroxide in the presence of aqueous sodium\nhydroxide The addition of borane to the double bond takes place in such\na manner that the boron atom gets attached to the sp\n2 carbon\ncarrying greater number of hydrogen atoms The alcohol so formed\nlooks as if it has been formed by the addition of water to the\nalkene in a way opposite to the Markovnikov\u2019s rule In this reaction,\nalcohol is obtained in excellent yield"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5970-5973", "Text": "The addition of borane to the double bond takes place in such\na manner that the boron atom gets attached to the sp\n2 carbon\ncarrying greater number of hydrogen atoms The alcohol so formed\nlooks as if it has been formed by the addition of water to the\nalkene in a way opposite to the Markovnikov\u2019s rule In this reaction,\nalcohol is obtained in excellent yield 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5971-5974", "Text": "The alcohol so formed\nlooks as if it has been formed by the addition of water to the\nalkene in a way opposite to the Markovnikov\u2019s rule In this reaction,\nalcohol is obtained in excellent yield 2 From carbonyl compounds\n(i) By reduction of aldehydes and ketones: Aldehydes and ketones\nare reduced to the corresponding alcohols by addition of\nhydrogen in the presence of catalysts (catalytic hydrogenation)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5972-5975", "Text": "In this reaction,\nalcohol is obtained in excellent yield 2 From carbonyl compounds\n(i) By reduction of aldehydes and ketones: Aldehydes and ketones\nare reduced to the corresponding alcohols by addition of\nhydrogen in the presence of catalysts (catalytic hydrogenation) The usual catalyst is a finely divided metal such as platinum,\npalladium or nickel"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5973-5976", "Text": "2 From carbonyl compounds\n(i) By reduction of aldehydes and ketones: Aldehydes and ketones\nare reduced to the corresponding alcohols by addition of\nhydrogen in the presence of catalysts (catalytic hydrogenation) The usual catalyst is a finely divided metal such as platinum,\npalladium or nickel It is also prepared by treating aldehydes\nand ketones with sodium borohydride (NaBH4) or lithium\naluminium hydride (LiAlH4)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5974-5977", "Text": "From carbonyl compounds\n(i) By reduction of aldehydes and ketones: Aldehydes and ketones\nare reduced to the corresponding alcohols by addition of\nhydrogen in the presence of catalysts (catalytic hydrogenation) The usual catalyst is a finely divided metal such as platinum,\npalladium or nickel It is also prepared by treating aldehydes\nand ketones with sodium borohydride (NaBH4) or lithium\naluminium hydride (LiAlH4) Aldehydes yield primary alcohols\nwhereas ketones give secondary alcohols"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5975-5978", "Text": "The usual catalyst is a finely divided metal such as platinum,\npalladium or nickel It is also prepared by treating aldehydes\nand ketones with sodium borohydride (NaBH4) or lithium\naluminium hydride (LiAlH4) Aldehydes yield primary alcohols\nwhereas ketones give secondary alcohols (ii) By reduction of carboxylic acids and esters: Carboxylic acids\nare reduced to primary alcohols in excellent yields by lithium\naluminium hydride, a strong reducing agent"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5976-5979", "Text": "It is also prepared by treating aldehydes\nand ketones with sodium borohydride (NaBH4) or lithium\naluminium hydride (LiAlH4) Aldehydes yield primary alcohols\nwhereas ketones give secondary alcohols (ii) By reduction of carboxylic acids and esters: Carboxylic acids\nare reduced to primary alcohols in excellent yields by lithium\naluminium hydride, a strong reducing agent RCOOH\n(i) LiAlH4\n(ii) H O\n2\nRCH OH\n2\nHowever, LiAlH4 is an expensive reagent, and therefore, used\nfor preparing special chemicals only"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5977-5980", "Text": "Aldehydes yield primary alcohols\nwhereas ketones give secondary alcohols (ii) By reduction of carboxylic acids and esters: Carboxylic acids\nare reduced to primary alcohols in excellent yields by lithium\naluminium hydride, a strong reducing agent RCOOH\n(i) LiAlH4\n(ii) H O\n2\nRCH OH\n2\nHowever, LiAlH4 is an expensive reagent, and therefore, used\nfor preparing special chemicals only Commercially, acids are\nreduced to alcohols by converting them to the esters (Section\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5978-5981", "Text": "(ii) By reduction of carboxylic acids and esters: Carboxylic acids\nare reduced to primary alcohols in excellent yields by lithium\naluminium hydride, a strong reducing agent RCOOH\n(i) LiAlH4\n(ii) H O\n2\nRCH OH\n2\nHowever, LiAlH4 is an expensive reagent, and therefore, used\nfor preparing special chemicals only Commercially, acids are\nreduced to alcohols by converting them to the esters (Section\n7 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5979-5982", "Text": "RCOOH\n(i) LiAlH4\n(ii) H O\n2\nRCH OH\n2\nHowever, LiAlH4 is an expensive reagent, and therefore, used\nfor preparing special chemicals only Commercially, acids are\nreduced to alcohols by converting them to the esters (Section\n7 4 4), followed by their reduction using hydrogen in the\npresence of catalyst (catalytic hydrogenation)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5980-5983", "Text": "Commercially, acids are\nreduced to alcohols by converting them to the esters (Section\n7 4 4), followed by their reduction using hydrogen in the\npresence of catalyst (catalytic hydrogenation) R'OH\nH\n+\nHydroboration -\noxidation was first\nreported by H"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5981-5984", "Text": "4 4), followed by their reduction using hydrogen in the\npresence of catalyst (catalytic hydrogenation) R'OH\nH\n+\nHydroboration -\noxidation was first\nreported by H C"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5982-5985", "Text": "4), followed by their reduction using hydrogen in the\npresence of catalyst (catalytic hydrogenation) R'OH\nH\n+\nHydroboration -\noxidation was first\nreported by H C Brown in 1959"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5983-5986", "Text": "R'OH\nH\n+\nHydroboration -\noxidation was first\nreported by H C Brown in 1959 For\nhis studies on boron\ncontaining organic\ncompounds, Brown\nshared the 1979 Nobel\nprize in Chemistry\nwith G"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5984-5987", "Text": "C Brown in 1959 For\nhis studies on boron\ncontaining organic\ncompounds, Brown\nshared the 1979 Nobel\nprize in Chemistry\nwith G Wittig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5985-5988", "Text": "Brown in 1959 For\nhis studies on boron\ncontaining organic\ncompounds, Brown\nshared the 1979 Nobel\nprize in Chemistry\nwith G Wittig The numbers in front\nof the reagents along\nthe arrow indicate\nthat the second\nreagent is added only\nwhen the reaction\nwith first is complete"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5986-5989", "Text": "For\nhis studies on boron\ncontaining organic\ncompounds, Brown\nshared the 1979 Nobel\nprize in Chemistry\nwith G Wittig The numbers in front\nof the reagents along\nthe arrow indicate\nthat the second\nreagent is added only\nwhen the reaction\nwith first is complete Rationalised 2023-24\n201\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5987-5990", "Text": "Wittig The numbers in front\nof the reagents along\nthe arrow indicate\nthat the second\nreagent is added only\nwhen the reaction\nwith first is complete Rationalised 2023-24\n201\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\n3 From Grignard reagents\nAlcohols are produced by the reaction of Grignard reagents (Unit 6,\nClass XII) with aldehydes and ketones"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5988-5991", "Text": "The numbers in front\nof the reagents along\nthe arrow indicate\nthat the second\nreagent is added only\nwhen the reaction\nwith first is complete Rationalised 2023-24\n201\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\n3 From Grignard reagents\nAlcohols are produced by the reaction of Grignard reagents (Unit 6,\nClass XII) with aldehydes and ketones The first step of the reaction is the nucleophilic addition of Grignard\nreagent to the carbonyl group to form an adduct"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5989-5992", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n201\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\n3 From Grignard reagents\nAlcohols are produced by the reaction of Grignard reagents (Unit 6,\nClass XII) with aldehydes and ketones The first step of the reaction is the nucleophilic addition of Grignard\nreagent to the carbonyl group to form an adduct Hydrolysis of the\nadduct yields an alcohol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5990-5993", "Text": "From Grignard reagents\nAlcohols are produced by the reaction of Grignard reagents (Unit 6,\nClass XII) with aldehydes and ketones The first step of the reaction is the nucleophilic addition of Grignard\nreagent to the carbonyl group to form an adduct Hydrolysis of the\nadduct yields an alcohol (i)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5991-5994", "Text": "The first step of the reaction is the nucleophilic addition of Grignard\nreagent to the carbonyl group to form an adduct Hydrolysis of the\nadduct yields an alcohol (i) (ii)\nThe overall reactions using different aldehydes and ketones are as\nfollows:\nYou will notice that the reaction produces a primary alcohol with\nmethanal, a secondary alcohol with other aldehydes and tertiary alcohol\nwith ketones"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5992-5995", "Text": "Hydrolysis of the\nadduct yields an alcohol (i) (ii)\nThe overall reactions using different aldehydes and ketones are as\nfollows:\nYou will notice that the reaction produces a primary alcohol with\nmethanal, a secondary alcohol with other aldehydes and tertiary alcohol\nwith ketones Give the structures and IUPAC names of the products expected from\nthe following reactions:\n(a) Catalytic reduction of butanal"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5993-5996", "Text": "(i) (ii)\nThe overall reactions using different aldehydes and ketones are as\nfollows:\nYou will notice that the reaction produces a primary alcohol with\nmethanal, a secondary alcohol with other aldehydes and tertiary alcohol\nwith ketones Give the structures and IUPAC names of the products expected from\nthe following reactions:\n(a) Catalytic reduction of butanal (b) Hydration of propene in the presence of dilute sulphuric acid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5994-5997", "Text": "(ii)\nThe overall reactions using different aldehydes and ketones are as\nfollows:\nYou will notice that the reaction produces a primary alcohol with\nmethanal, a secondary alcohol with other aldehydes and tertiary alcohol\nwith ketones Give the structures and IUPAC names of the products expected from\nthe following reactions:\n(a) Catalytic reduction of butanal (b) Hydration of propene in the presence of dilute sulphuric acid (c) Reaction of propanone with methylmagnesium bromide followed\nby hydrolysis"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5995-5998", "Text": "Give the structures and IUPAC names of the products expected from\nthe following reactions:\n(a) Catalytic reduction of butanal (b) Hydration of propene in the presence of dilute sulphuric acid (c) Reaction of propanone with methylmagnesium bromide followed\nby hydrolysis Example 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5996-5999", "Text": "(b) Hydration of propene in the presence of dilute sulphuric acid (c) Reaction of propanone with methylmagnesium bromide followed\nby hydrolysis Example 7 2\nExample 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5997-6000", "Text": "(c) Reaction of propanone with methylmagnesium bromide followed\nby hydrolysis Example 7 2\nExample 7 2\nExample 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5998-6001", "Text": "Example 7 2\nExample 7 2\nExample 7 2\nExample 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "5999-6002", "Text": "2\nExample 7 2\nExample 7 2\nExample 7 2\nExample 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6000-6003", "Text": "2\nExample 7 2\nExample 7 2\nExample 7 2\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n(a)\n(b)\nPhenol, also known as carbolic acid, was first isolated in the early\nnineteenth century from coal tar"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6001-6004", "Text": "2\nExample 7 2\nExample 7 2\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n(a)\n(b)\nPhenol, also known as carbolic acid, was first isolated in the early\nnineteenth century from coal tar Nowadays, phenol is commercially\nproduced synthetically"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6002-6005", "Text": "2\nExample 7 2\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n(a)\n(b)\nPhenol, also known as carbolic acid, was first isolated in the early\nnineteenth century from coal tar Nowadays, phenol is commercially\nproduced synthetically In the laboratory, phenols are prepared from\nbenzene derivatives by any of the following methods:\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6003-6006", "Text": "2\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n(a)\n(b)\nPhenol, also known as carbolic acid, was first isolated in the early\nnineteenth century from coal tar Nowadays, phenol is commercially\nproduced synthetically In the laboratory, phenols are prepared from\nbenzene derivatives by any of the following methods:\n7 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6004-6007", "Text": "Nowadays, phenol is commercially\nproduced synthetically In the laboratory, phenols are prepared from\nbenzene derivatives by any of the following methods:\n7 4 2\nPreparation\nof Phenols\nThe reaction of\nGrignard reagents\nwith methanal\nproduces a primary\nalcohol, with other\naldehydes, secondary\nalcohols and with\nketones, tertiary\nalcohols"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6005-6008", "Text": "In the laboratory, phenols are prepared from\nbenzene derivatives by any of the following methods:\n7 4 2\nPreparation\nof Phenols\nThe reaction of\nGrignard reagents\nwith methanal\nproduces a primary\nalcohol, with other\naldehydes, secondary\nalcohols and with\nketones, tertiary\nalcohols (c)\nRationalised 2023-24\n202\nChemistry\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6006-6009", "Text": "4 2\nPreparation\nof Phenols\nThe reaction of\nGrignard reagents\nwith methanal\nproduces a primary\nalcohol, with other\naldehydes, secondary\nalcohols and with\nketones, tertiary\nalcohols (c)\nRationalised 2023-24\n202\nChemistry\n1 From haloarenes\nChlorobenzene is fused with NaOH at 623K and 320 atmospheric\npressure"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6007-6010", "Text": "2\nPreparation\nof Phenols\nThe reaction of\nGrignard reagents\nwith methanal\nproduces a primary\nalcohol, with other\naldehydes, secondary\nalcohols and with\nketones, tertiary\nalcohols (c)\nRationalised 2023-24\n202\nChemistry\n1 From haloarenes\nChlorobenzene is fused with NaOH at 623K and 320 atmospheric\npressure Phenol is obtained by acidification of sodium phenoxide so\nproduced (Unit 6, Class XII)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6008-6011", "Text": "(c)\nRationalised 2023-24\n202\nChemistry\n1 From haloarenes\nChlorobenzene is fused with NaOH at 623K and 320 atmospheric\npressure Phenol is obtained by acidification of sodium phenoxide so\nproduced (Unit 6, Class XII) 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6009-6012", "Text": "From haloarenes\nChlorobenzene is fused with NaOH at 623K and 320 atmospheric\npressure Phenol is obtained by acidification of sodium phenoxide so\nproduced (Unit 6, Class XII) 2 From benzenesulphonic acid\nBenzene is sulphonated with oleum and benzene sulphonic acid so\nformed is converted to sodium phenoxide on heating with molten\nsodium hydroxide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6010-6013", "Text": "Phenol is obtained by acidification of sodium phenoxide so\nproduced (Unit 6, Class XII) 2 From benzenesulphonic acid\nBenzene is sulphonated with oleum and benzene sulphonic acid so\nformed is converted to sodium phenoxide on heating with molten\nsodium hydroxide Acidification of the sodium salt gives phenol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6011-6014", "Text": "2 From benzenesulphonic acid\nBenzene is sulphonated with oleum and benzene sulphonic acid so\nformed is converted to sodium phenoxide on heating with molten\nsodium hydroxide Acidification of the sodium salt gives phenol 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6012-6015", "Text": "From benzenesulphonic acid\nBenzene is sulphonated with oleum and benzene sulphonic acid so\nformed is converted to sodium phenoxide on heating with molten\nsodium hydroxide Acidification of the sodium salt gives phenol 3 From diazonium salts\nA diazonium salt is formed by treating an aromatic primary amine\nwith nitrous acid (NaNO2 + HCl) at 273-278 K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6013-6016", "Text": "Acidification of the sodium salt gives phenol 3 From diazonium salts\nA diazonium salt is formed by treating an aromatic primary amine\nwith nitrous acid (NaNO2 + HCl) at 273-278 K Diazonium salts are\nhydrolysed to phenols by warming with water or by treating with\ndilute acids (Unit 9, Class XII)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6014-6017", "Text": "3 From diazonium salts\nA diazonium salt is formed by treating an aromatic primary amine\nwith nitrous acid (NaNO2 + HCl) at 273-278 K Diazonium salts are\nhydrolysed to phenols by warming with water or by treating with\ndilute acids (Unit 9, Class XII) H O\nOH\nNH2\nNaNO2\n+HCl\nAniline\nN Cl\n2\n2\nN + HCl\n2\n+\nBenzene diazonium\nchloride\nWarm\n+\n\u2013\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6015-6018", "Text": "From diazonium salts\nA diazonium salt is formed by treating an aromatic primary amine\nwith nitrous acid (NaNO2 + HCl) at 273-278 K Diazonium salts are\nhydrolysed to phenols by warming with water or by treating with\ndilute acids (Unit 9, Class XII) H O\nOH\nNH2\nNaNO2\n+HCl\nAniline\nN Cl\n2\n2\nN + HCl\n2\n+\nBenzene diazonium\nchloride\nWarm\n+\n\u2013\n4 From cumene\nPhenol is manufactured from the hydrocarbon, cumene"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6016-6019", "Text": "Diazonium salts are\nhydrolysed to phenols by warming with water or by treating with\ndilute acids (Unit 9, Class XII) H O\nOH\nNH2\nNaNO2\n+HCl\nAniline\nN Cl\n2\n2\nN + HCl\n2\n+\nBenzene diazonium\nchloride\nWarm\n+\n\u2013\n4 From cumene\nPhenol is manufactured from the hydrocarbon, cumene Cumene\n(isopropylbenzene) is oxidised in the presence of air to cumene\nhydroperoxide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6017-6020", "Text": "H O\nOH\nNH2\nNaNO2\n+HCl\nAniline\nN Cl\n2\n2\nN + HCl\n2\n+\nBenzene diazonium\nchloride\nWarm\n+\n\u2013\n4 From cumene\nPhenol is manufactured from the hydrocarbon, cumene Cumene\n(isopropylbenzene) is oxidised in the presence of air to cumene\nhydroperoxide It is converted to phenol and acetone by treating it\nwith dilute acid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6018-6021", "Text": "From cumene\nPhenol is manufactured from the hydrocarbon, cumene Cumene\n(isopropylbenzene) is oxidised in the presence of air to cumene\nhydroperoxide It is converted to phenol and acetone by treating it\nwith dilute acid Acetone, a by-product of this reaction, is also\nobtained in large quantities by this method"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6019-6022", "Text": "Cumene\n(isopropylbenzene) is oxidised in the presence of air to cumene\nhydroperoxide It is converted to phenol and acetone by treating it\nwith dilute acid Acetone, a by-product of this reaction, is also\nobtained in large quantities by this method Most of the worldwide\nproduction of phenol is\nfrom cumene"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6020-6023", "Text": "It is converted to phenol and acetone by treating it\nwith dilute acid Acetone, a by-product of this reaction, is also\nobtained in large quantities by this method Most of the worldwide\nproduction of phenol is\nfrom cumene Rationalised 2023-24\n203\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\nAlcohols and phenols consist of two parts, an alkyl/aryl group and a\nhydroxyl group"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6021-6024", "Text": "Acetone, a by-product of this reaction, is also\nobtained in large quantities by this method Most of the worldwide\nproduction of phenol is\nfrom cumene Rationalised 2023-24\n203\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\nAlcohols and phenols consist of two parts, an alkyl/aryl group and a\nhydroxyl group The properties of alcohols and phenols are chiefly due\nto the hydroxyl group"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6022-6025", "Text": "Most of the worldwide\nproduction of phenol is\nfrom cumene Rationalised 2023-24\n203\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\nAlcohols and phenols consist of two parts, an alkyl/aryl group and a\nhydroxyl group The properties of alcohols and phenols are chiefly due\nto the hydroxyl group The nature of alkyl and aryl groups simply\nmodify these properties"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6023-6026", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n203\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\nAlcohols and phenols consist of two parts, an alkyl/aryl group and a\nhydroxyl group The properties of alcohols and phenols are chiefly due\nto the hydroxyl group The nature of alkyl and aryl groups simply\nmodify these properties Boiling Points\nThe boiling points of alcohols and phenols increase with increase in the\nnumber of carbon atoms (increase in van der Waals forces)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6024-6027", "Text": "The properties of alcohols and phenols are chiefly due\nto the hydroxyl group The nature of alkyl and aryl groups simply\nmodify these properties Boiling Points\nThe boiling points of alcohols and phenols increase with increase in the\nnumber of carbon atoms (increase in van der Waals forces) In alcohols,\nthe boiling points decrease with increase of branching in carbon chain\n(because of decrease in van der Waals forces with decrease in surface\narea)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6025-6028", "Text": "The nature of alkyl and aryl groups simply\nmodify these properties Boiling Points\nThe boiling points of alcohols and phenols increase with increase in the\nnumber of carbon atoms (increase in van der Waals forces) In alcohols,\nthe boiling points decrease with increase of branching in carbon chain\n(because of decrease in van der Waals forces with decrease in surface\narea) The \u2013OH group in alcohols and phenols is involved in intermolecular\nhydrogen bonding as shown below:\nIt is interesting to note that boiling points of alcohols and phenols\nare higher in comparison to other classes of compounds, namely\nhydrocarbons, ethers, haloalkanes and haloarenes of comparable\nmolecular masses"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6026-6029", "Text": "Boiling Points\nThe boiling points of alcohols and phenols increase with increase in the\nnumber of carbon atoms (increase in van der Waals forces) In alcohols,\nthe boiling points decrease with increase of branching in carbon chain\n(because of decrease in van der Waals forces with decrease in surface\narea) The \u2013OH group in alcohols and phenols is involved in intermolecular\nhydrogen bonding as shown below:\nIt is interesting to note that boiling points of alcohols and phenols\nare higher in comparison to other classes of compounds, namely\nhydrocarbons, ethers, haloalkanes and haloarenes of comparable\nmolecular masses For example, ethanol and propane have comparable\nmolecular masses but their boiling points differ widely"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6027-6030", "Text": "In alcohols,\nthe boiling points decrease with increase of branching in carbon chain\n(because of decrease in van der Waals forces with decrease in surface\narea) The \u2013OH group in alcohols and phenols is involved in intermolecular\nhydrogen bonding as shown below:\nIt is interesting to note that boiling points of alcohols and phenols\nare higher in comparison to other classes of compounds, namely\nhydrocarbons, ethers, haloalkanes and haloarenes of comparable\nmolecular masses For example, ethanol and propane have comparable\nmolecular masses but their boiling points differ widely The boiling\npoint of methoxymethane is intermediate of the two boiling points"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6028-6031", "Text": "The \u2013OH group in alcohols and phenols is involved in intermolecular\nhydrogen bonding as shown below:\nIt is interesting to note that boiling points of alcohols and phenols\nare higher in comparison to other classes of compounds, namely\nhydrocarbons, ethers, haloalkanes and haloarenes of comparable\nmolecular masses For example, ethanol and propane have comparable\nmolecular masses but their boiling points differ widely The boiling\npoint of methoxymethane is intermediate of the two boiling points 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6029-6032", "Text": "For example, ethanol and propane have comparable\nmolecular masses but their boiling points differ widely The boiling\npoint of methoxymethane is intermediate of the two boiling points 7 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6030-6033", "Text": "The boiling\npoint of methoxymethane is intermediate of the two boiling points 7 4 3\nPhysical\nProperties\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6031-6034", "Text": "7 4 3\nPhysical\nProperties\n7 4\nShow how are the following alcohols prepared by the reaction of a suitable\nGrignard reagent on methanal"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6032-6035", "Text": "4 3\nPhysical\nProperties\n7 4\nShow how are the following alcohols prepared by the reaction of a suitable\nGrignard reagent on methanal 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6033-6036", "Text": "3\nPhysical\nProperties\n7 4\nShow how are the following alcohols prepared by the reaction of a suitable\nGrignard reagent on methanal 7 5\nWrite structures of the products of the following reactions:\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n(ii)\n(iii)\n(i)\nRationalised 2023-24\n204\nChemistry\nThe high boiling points of alcohols are mainly due to the presence\nof intermolecular hydrogen bonding in them which is lacking in ethers\nand hydrocarbons"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6034-6037", "Text": "4\nShow how are the following alcohols prepared by the reaction of a suitable\nGrignard reagent on methanal 7 5\nWrite structures of the products of the following reactions:\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n(ii)\n(iii)\n(i)\nRationalised 2023-24\n204\nChemistry\nThe high boiling points of alcohols are mainly due to the presence\nof intermolecular hydrogen bonding in them which is lacking in ethers\nand hydrocarbons Solubility\nSolubility of alcohols and phenols in\nwater is due to their ability to form\nhydrogen bonds with water molecules\nas shown"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6035-6038", "Text": "7 5\nWrite structures of the products of the following reactions:\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n(ii)\n(iii)\n(i)\nRationalised 2023-24\n204\nChemistry\nThe high boiling points of alcohols are mainly due to the presence\nof intermolecular hydrogen bonding in them which is lacking in ethers\nand hydrocarbons Solubility\nSolubility of alcohols and phenols in\nwater is due to their ability to form\nhydrogen bonds with water molecules\nas shown The solubility decreases with\nincrease in size of alkyl/aryl (hydro-\nphobic) groups"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6036-6039", "Text": "5\nWrite structures of the products of the following reactions:\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n(ii)\n(iii)\n(i)\nRationalised 2023-24\n204\nChemistry\nThe high boiling points of alcohols are mainly due to the presence\nof intermolecular hydrogen bonding in them which is lacking in ethers\nand hydrocarbons Solubility\nSolubility of alcohols and phenols in\nwater is due to their ability to form\nhydrogen bonds with water molecules\nas shown The solubility decreases with\nincrease in size of alkyl/aryl (hydro-\nphobic) groups Several of the lower\nmolecular mass alcohols are miscible\nwith water in all proportions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6037-6040", "Text": "Solubility\nSolubility of alcohols and phenols in\nwater is due to their ability to form\nhydrogen bonds with water molecules\nas shown The solubility decreases with\nincrease in size of alkyl/aryl (hydro-\nphobic) groups Several of the lower\nmolecular mass alcohols are miscible\nwith water in all proportions Arrange the following sets of compounds in order of their increasing\nboiling points:\n(a) Pentan-1-ol, butan-1-ol, butan-2-ol, ethanol, propan-1-ol, methanol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6038-6041", "Text": "The solubility decreases with\nincrease in size of alkyl/aryl (hydro-\nphobic) groups Several of the lower\nmolecular mass alcohols are miscible\nwith water in all proportions Arrange the following sets of compounds in order of their increasing\nboiling points:\n(a) Pentan-1-ol, butan-1-ol, butan-2-ol, ethanol, propan-1-ol, methanol (b) Pentan-1-ol, n-butane, pentanal, ethoxyethane"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6039-6042", "Text": "Several of the lower\nmolecular mass alcohols are miscible\nwith water in all proportions Arrange the following sets of compounds in order of their increasing\nboiling points:\n(a) Pentan-1-ol, butan-1-ol, butan-2-ol, ethanol, propan-1-ol, methanol (b) Pentan-1-ol, n-butane, pentanal, ethoxyethane (a) Methanol, ethanol, propan-1-ol, butan-2-ol, butan-1-ol, pentan-1-ol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6040-6043", "Text": "Arrange the following sets of compounds in order of their increasing\nboiling points:\n(a) Pentan-1-ol, butan-1-ol, butan-2-ol, ethanol, propan-1-ol, methanol (b) Pentan-1-ol, n-butane, pentanal, ethoxyethane (a) Methanol, ethanol, propan-1-ol, butan-2-ol, butan-1-ol, pentan-1-ol (b) n-Butane, ethoxyethane, pentanal and pentan-1-ol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6041-6044", "Text": "(b) Pentan-1-ol, n-butane, pentanal, ethoxyethane (a) Methanol, ethanol, propan-1-ol, butan-2-ol, butan-1-ol, pentan-1-ol (b) n-Butane, ethoxyethane, pentanal and pentan-1-ol Example 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6042-6045", "Text": "(a) Methanol, ethanol, propan-1-ol, butan-2-ol, butan-1-ol, pentan-1-ol (b) n-Butane, ethoxyethane, pentanal and pentan-1-ol Example 7 3\nExample 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6043-6046", "Text": "(b) n-Butane, ethoxyethane, pentanal and pentan-1-ol Example 7 3\nExample 7 3\nExample 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6044-6047", "Text": "Example 7 3\nExample 7 3\nExample 7 3\nExample 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6045-6048", "Text": "3\nExample 7 3\nExample 7 3\nExample 7 3\nExample 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6046-6049", "Text": "3\nExample 7 3\nExample 7 3\nExample 7 3\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nAlcohols are versatile compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6047-6050", "Text": "3\nExample 7 3\nExample 7 3\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nAlcohols are versatile compounds They react both as nucleophiles and\nelectrophiles"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6048-6051", "Text": "3\nExample 7 3\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nAlcohols are versatile compounds They react both as nucleophiles and\nelectrophiles The bond between O\u2013H is broken when alcohols react as\nnucleophiles"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6049-6052", "Text": "3\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nAlcohols are versatile compounds They react both as nucleophiles and\nelectrophiles The bond between O\u2013H is broken when alcohols react as\nnucleophiles 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6050-6053", "Text": "They react both as nucleophiles and\nelectrophiles The bond between O\u2013H is broken when alcohols react as\nnucleophiles 7 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6051-6054", "Text": "The bond between O\u2013H is broken when alcohols react as\nnucleophiles 7 4 4\nChemical\nReactions\nAlcohols as nucleophiles (i) \n(ii) The bond between C\u2013O is broken when they react as\nelectrophiles"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6052-6055", "Text": "7 4 4\nChemical\nReactions\nAlcohols as nucleophiles (i) \n(ii) The bond between C\u2013O is broken when they react as\nelectrophiles Protonated alcohols react in this manner"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6053-6056", "Text": "4 4\nChemical\nReactions\nAlcohols as nucleophiles (i) \n(ii) The bond between C\u2013O is broken when they react as\nelectrophiles Protonated alcohols react in this manner Protonated alcohols as electrophiles\nBased on the cleavage of O\u2013H and C\u2013O bonds, the reactions\nof alcohols and phenols may be divided into two groups:\nRationalised 2023-24\n205\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\n(a) Reactions involving cleavage of O\u2013H bond\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6054-6057", "Text": "4\nChemical\nReactions\nAlcohols as nucleophiles (i) \n(ii) The bond between C\u2013O is broken when they react as\nelectrophiles Protonated alcohols react in this manner Protonated alcohols as electrophiles\nBased on the cleavage of O\u2013H and C\u2013O bonds, the reactions\nof alcohols and phenols may be divided into two groups:\nRationalised 2023-24\n205\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\n(a) Reactions involving cleavage of O\u2013H bond\n1 Acidity of alcohols and phenols\n(i) Reaction with metals: Alcohols and phenols react with active\nmetals such as sodium, potassium and aluminium to yield\ncorresponding alkoxides/phenoxides and hydrogen"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6055-6058", "Text": "Protonated alcohols react in this manner Protonated alcohols as electrophiles\nBased on the cleavage of O\u2013H and C\u2013O bonds, the reactions\nof alcohols and phenols may be divided into two groups:\nRationalised 2023-24\n205\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\n(a) Reactions involving cleavage of O\u2013H bond\n1 Acidity of alcohols and phenols\n(i) Reaction with metals: Alcohols and phenols react with active\nmetals such as sodium, potassium and aluminium to yield\ncorresponding alkoxides/phenoxides and hydrogen In addition to this, phenols react with aqueous sodium\nhydroxide to form sodium phenoxides"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6056-6059", "Text": "Protonated alcohols as electrophiles\nBased on the cleavage of O\u2013H and C\u2013O bonds, the reactions\nof alcohols and phenols may be divided into two groups:\nRationalised 2023-24\n205\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\n(a) Reactions involving cleavage of O\u2013H bond\n1 Acidity of alcohols and phenols\n(i) Reaction with metals: Alcohols and phenols react with active\nmetals such as sodium, potassium and aluminium to yield\ncorresponding alkoxides/phenoxides and hydrogen In addition to this, phenols react with aqueous sodium\nhydroxide to form sodium phenoxides Sodium phenoxide\n+ H O\n2\nOH\nONa\n+\nOH\nNa\nThe above reactions show that alcohols and phenols are\nacidic in nature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6057-6060", "Text": "Acidity of alcohols and phenols\n(i) Reaction with metals: Alcohols and phenols react with active\nmetals such as sodium, potassium and aluminium to yield\ncorresponding alkoxides/phenoxides and hydrogen In addition to this, phenols react with aqueous sodium\nhydroxide to form sodium phenoxides Sodium phenoxide\n+ H O\n2\nOH\nONa\n+\nOH\nNa\nThe above reactions show that alcohols and phenols are\nacidic in nature In fact, alcohols and phenols are Br\u00f6nsted\nacids i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6058-6061", "Text": "In addition to this, phenols react with aqueous sodium\nhydroxide to form sodium phenoxides Sodium phenoxide\n+ H O\n2\nOH\nONa\n+\nOH\nNa\nThe above reactions show that alcohols and phenols are\nacidic in nature In fact, alcohols and phenols are Br\u00f6nsted\nacids i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6059-6062", "Text": "Sodium phenoxide\n+ H O\n2\nOH\nONa\n+\nOH\nNa\nThe above reactions show that alcohols and phenols are\nacidic in nature In fact, alcohols and phenols are Br\u00f6nsted\nacids i e , they can donate a proton to a stronger base (B:)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6060-6063", "Text": "In fact, alcohols and phenols are Br\u00f6nsted\nacids i e , they can donate a proton to a stronger base (B:) (ii) Acidity of alcohols: The acidic character of alcohols is due to\nthe polar nature of O\u2013H bond"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6061-6064", "Text": "e , they can donate a proton to a stronger base (B:) (ii) Acidity of alcohols: The acidic character of alcohols is due to\nthe polar nature of O\u2013H bond An electron-releasing group\n(\u2013CH3, \u2013C2H5) increases electron density on oxygen tending to\ndecrease the polarity of O-H bond"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6062-6065", "Text": ", they can donate a proton to a stronger base (B:) (ii) Acidity of alcohols: The acidic character of alcohols is due to\nthe polar nature of O\u2013H bond An electron-releasing group\n(\u2013CH3, \u2013C2H5) increases electron density on oxygen tending to\ndecrease the polarity of O-H bond This decreases the acid\nstrength"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6063-6066", "Text": "(ii) Acidity of alcohols: The acidic character of alcohols is due to\nthe polar nature of O\u2013H bond An electron-releasing group\n(\u2013CH3, \u2013C2H5) increases electron density on oxygen tending to\ndecrease the polarity of O-H bond This decreases the acid\nstrength For this reason, the acid strength of alcohols decreases\nin the following order:\nRationalised 2023-24\n206\nChemistry\nAlcohols are, however, weaker acids than water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6064-6067", "Text": "An electron-releasing group\n(\u2013CH3, \u2013C2H5) increases electron density on oxygen tending to\ndecrease the polarity of O-H bond This decreases the acid\nstrength For this reason, the acid strength of alcohols decreases\nin the following order:\nRationalised 2023-24\n206\nChemistry\nAlcohols are, however, weaker acids than water This can be\nillustrated by the reaction of water with an alkoxide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6065-6068", "Text": "This decreases the acid\nstrength For this reason, the acid strength of alcohols decreases\nin the following order:\nRationalised 2023-24\n206\nChemistry\nAlcohols are, however, weaker acids than water This can be\nillustrated by the reaction of water with an alkoxide This reaction shows that water is a better proton donor (i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6066-6069", "Text": "For this reason, the acid strength of alcohols decreases\nin the following order:\nRationalised 2023-24\n206\nChemistry\nAlcohols are, however, weaker acids than water This can be\nillustrated by the reaction of water with an alkoxide This reaction shows that water is a better proton donor (i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6067-6070", "Text": "This can be\nillustrated by the reaction of water with an alkoxide This reaction shows that water is a better proton donor (i e ,\nstronger acid) than alcohol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6068-6071", "Text": "This reaction shows that water is a better proton donor (i e ,\nstronger acid) than alcohol Also, in the above reaction, we note\nthat an alkoxide ion is a better proton acceptor than hydroxide\nion, which suggests that alkoxides are stronger bases (sodium\nethoxide is a stronger base than sodium hydroxide)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6069-6072", "Text": "e ,\nstronger acid) than alcohol Also, in the above reaction, we note\nthat an alkoxide ion is a better proton acceptor than hydroxide\nion, which suggests that alkoxides are stronger bases (sodium\nethoxide is a stronger base than sodium hydroxide) Alcohols act as Bronsted bases as well"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6070-6073", "Text": ",\nstronger acid) than alcohol Also, in the above reaction, we note\nthat an alkoxide ion is a better proton acceptor than hydroxide\nion, which suggests that alkoxides are stronger bases (sodium\nethoxide is a stronger base than sodium hydroxide) Alcohols act as Bronsted bases as well It is due to the\npresence of unshared electron pairs on oxygen, which makes\nthem proton acceptors"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6071-6074", "Text": "Also, in the above reaction, we note\nthat an alkoxide ion is a better proton acceptor than hydroxide\nion, which suggests that alkoxides are stronger bases (sodium\nethoxide is a stronger base than sodium hydroxide) Alcohols act as Bronsted bases as well It is due to the\npresence of unshared electron pairs on oxygen, which makes\nthem proton acceptors (iii) Acidity of phenols: The reactions of phenol with metals (e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6072-6075", "Text": "Alcohols act as Bronsted bases as well It is due to the\npresence of unshared electron pairs on oxygen, which makes\nthem proton acceptors (iii) Acidity of phenols: The reactions of phenol with metals (e g"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6073-6076", "Text": "It is due to the\npresence of unshared electron pairs on oxygen, which makes\nthem proton acceptors (iii) Acidity of phenols: The reactions of phenol with metals (e g ,\nsodium, aluminium) and sodium hydroxide indicate its acidic\nnature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6074-6077", "Text": "(iii) Acidity of phenols: The reactions of phenol with metals (e g ,\nsodium, aluminium) and sodium hydroxide indicate its acidic\nnature The hydroxyl group, in phenol is directly attached to\nthe sp\n2 hybridised carbon of benzene ring which acts as an\nelectron withdrawing group"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6075-6078", "Text": "g ,\nsodium, aluminium) and sodium hydroxide indicate its acidic\nnature The hydroxyl group, in phenol is directly attached to\nthe sp\n2 hybridised carbon of benzene ring which acts as an\nelectron withdrawing group Due to this, the charge distribution\nin phenol molecule, as depicted in its resonance structures,\ncauses the oxygen of \u2013OH group to be positive"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6076-6079", "Text": ",\nsodium, aluminium) and sodium hydroxide indicate its acidic\nnature The hydroxyl group, in phenol is directly attached to\nthe sp\n2 hybridised carbon of benzene ring which acts as an\nelectron withdrawing group Due to this, the charge distribution\nin phenol molecule, as depicted in its resonance structures,\ncauses the oxygen of \u2013OH group to be positive The reaction of phenol with aqueous sodium hydroxide\nindicates that phenols are stronger acids than alcohols and water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6077-6080", "Text": "The hydroxyl group, in phenol is directly attached to\nthe sp\n2 hybridised carbon of benzene ring which acts as an\nelectron withdrawing group Due to this, the charge distribution\nin phenol molecule, as depicted in its resonance structures,\ncauses the oxygen of \u2013OH group to be positive The reaction of phenol with aqueous sodium hydroxide\nindicates that phenols are stronger acids than alcohols and water Let us examine how a compound in which hydroxyl group\nattached to an aromatic ring is more acidic than the one in\nwhich hydroxyl group is attached to an alkyl group"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6078-6081", "Text": "Due to this, the charge distribution\nin phenol molecule, as depicted in its resonance structures,\ncauses the oxygen of \u2013OH group to be positive The reaction of phenol with aqueous sodium hydroxide\nindicates that phenols are stronger acids than alcohols and water Let us examine how a compound in which hydroxyl group\nattached to an aromatic ring is more acidic than the one in\nwhich hydroxyl group is attached to an alkyl group The ionisation of an alcohol and a phenol takes place as follows:\nDue to the higher electronegativity of sp\n2 hybridised carbon\nof phenol to which \u2013OH is attached, electron density decreases\non oxygen"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6079-6082", "Text": "The reaction of phenol with aqueous sodium hydroxide\nindicates that phenols are stronger acids than alcohols and water Let us examine how a compound in which hydroxyl group\nattached to an aromatic ring is more acidic than the one in\nwhich hydroxyl group is attached to an alkyl group The ionisation of an alcohol and a phenol takes place as follows:\nDue to the higher electronegativity of sp\n2 hybridised carbon\nof phenol to which \u2013OH is attached, electron density decreases\non oxygen This increases the polarity of O\u2013H bond and results\nin an increase in ionisation of phenols than that of alcohols"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6080-6083", "Text": "Let us examine how a compound in which hydroxyl group\nattached to an aromatic ring is more acidic than the one in\nwhich hydroxyl group is attached to an alkyl group The ionisation of an alcohol and a phenol takes place as follows:\nDue to the higher electronegativity of sp\n2 hybridised carbon\nof phenol to which \u2013OH is attached, electron density decreases\non oxygen This increases the polarity of O\u2013H bond and results\nin an increase in ionisation of phenols than that of alcohols Now let us examine the stabilities of alkoxide and phenoxide\nions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6081-6084", "Text": "The ionisation of an alcohol and a phenol takes place as follows:\nDue to the higher electronegativity of sp\n2 hybridised carbon\nof phenol to which \u2013OH is attached, electron density decreases\non oxygen This increases the polarity of O\u2013H bond and results\nin an increase in ionisation of phenols than that of alcohols Now let us examine the stabilities of alkoxide and phenoxide\nions In alkoxide ion, the negative charge is localised on oxygen\nwhile in phenoxide ion, the charge is delocalised"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6082-6085", "Text": "This increases the polarity of O\u2013H bond and results\nin an increase in ionisation of phenols than that of alcohols Now let us examine the stabilities of alkoxide and phenoxide\nions In alkoxide ion, the negative charge is localised on oxygen\nwhile in phenoxide ion, the charge is delocalised The delocalisation of negative charge (structures I-V) makes\nRationalised 2023-24\n207\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\nphenoxide ion more stable and favours the ionisation of phenol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6083-6086", "Text": "Now let us examine the stabilities of alkoxide and phenoxide\nions In alkoxide ion, the negative charge is localised on oxygen\nwhile in phenoxide ion, the charge is delocalised The delocalisation of negative charge (structures I-V) makes\nRationalised 2023-24\n207\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\nphenoxide ion more stable and favours the ionisation of phenol Although there is also charge delocalisation in phenol, its\nresonance structures have charge separation due to which the\nphenol molecule is less stable than phenoxide ion"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6084-6087", "Text": "In alkoxide ion, the negative charge is localised on oxygen\nwhile in phenoxide ion, the charge is delocalised The delocalisation of negative charge (structures I-V) makes\nRationalised 2023-24\n207\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\nphenoxide ion more stable and favours the ionisation of phenol Although there is also charge delocalisation in phenol, its\nresonance structures have charge separation due to which the\nphenol molecule is less stable than phenoxide ion o-Nitrophenol\no\u2013O2N\u2013C6H4\u2013OH\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6085-6088", "Text": "The delocalisation of negative charge (structures I-V) makes\nRationalised 2023-24\n207\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\nphenoxide ion more stable and favours the ionisation of phenol Although there is also charge delocalisation in phenol, its\nresonance structures have charge separation due to which the\nphenol molecule is less stable than phenoxide ion o-Nitrophenol\no\u2013O2N\u2013C6H4\u2013OH\n7 2\nm-Nitrophenol\nm\u2013O2N\u2013C6H4\u2013OH\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6086-6089", "Text": "Although there is also charge delocalisation in phenol, its\nresonance structures have charge separation due to which the\nphenol molecule is less stable than phenoxide ion o-Nitrophenol\no\u2013O2N\u2013C6H4\u2013OH\n7 2\nm-Nitrophenol\nm\u2013O2N\u2013C6H4\u2013OH\n8 3\np-Nitrophenol\np-O2N\u2013C6H4\u2013OH\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6087-6090", "Text": "o-Nitrophenol\no\u2013O2N\u2013C6H4\u2013OH\n7 2\nm-Nitrophenol\nm\u2013O2N\u2013C6H4\u2013OH\n8 3\np-Nitrophenol\np-O2N\u2013C6H4\u2013OH\n7 1\nPhenol\nC6H5\u2013OH\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6088-6091", "Text": "2\nm-Nitrophenol\nm\u2013O2N\u2013C6H4\u2013OH\n8 3\np-Nitrophenol\np-O2N\u2013C6H4\u2013OH\n7 1\nPhenol\nC6H5\u2013OH\n10 0\no-Cresol\no-CH3\u2013C6H4\u2013OH\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6089-6092", "Text": "3\np-Nitrophenol\np-O2N\u2013C6H4\u2013OH\n7 1\nPhenol\nC6H5\u2013OH\n10 0\no-Cresol\no-CH3\u2013C6H4\u2013OH\n10 2\nm-Cresol\nm-CH3C6H4\u2013OH\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6090-6093", "Text": "1\nPhenol\nC6H5\u2013OH\n10 0\no-Cresol\no-CH3\u2013C6H4\u2013OH\n10 2\nm-Cresol\nm-CH3C6H4\u2013OH\n10 1\np-Cresol\np-CH3\u2013C6H4\u2013OH\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6091-6094", "Text": "0\no-Cresol\no-CH3\u2013C6H4\u2013OH\n10 2\nm-Cresol\nm-CH3C6H4\u2013OH\n10 1\np-Cresol\np-CH3\u2013C6H4\u2013OH\n10 2\nEthanol\nC2H5OH\n15"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6092-6095", "Text": "2\nm-Cresol\nm-CH3C6H4\u2013OH\n10 1\np-Cresol\np-CH3\u2013C6H4\u2013OH\n10 2\nEthanol\nC2H5OH\n15 9\nTable 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6093-6096", "Text": "1\np-Cresol\np-CH3\u2013C6H4\u2013OH\n10 2\nEthanol\nC2H5OH\n15 9\nTable 7 3: pKa Values of some Phenols and Ethanol\nCompound\nFormula\npKa\nFrom the above data, you will note that phenol is million times\nmore acidic than ethanol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6094-6097", "Text": "2\nEthanol\nC2H5OH\n15 9\nTable 7 3: pKa Values of some Phenols and Ethanol\nCompound\nFormula\npKa\nFrom the above data, you will note that phenol is million times\nmore acidic than ethanol Arrange the following compounds in increasing order of their acid strength:\nPropan-1-ol, 2,4,6-trinitrophenol, 3-nitrophenol, 3,5-dinitrophenol,\nphenol, 4-methylphenol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6095-6098", "Text": "9\nTable 7 3: pKa Values of some Phenols and Ethanol\nCompound\nFormula\npKa\nFrom the above data, you will note that phenol is million times\nmore acidic than ethanol Arrange the following compounds in increasing order of their acid strength:\nPropan-1-ol, 2,4,6-trinitrophenol, 3-nitrophenol, 3,5-dinitrophenol,\nphenol, 4-methylphenol Propan-1-ol, 4-methylphenol, phenol, 3-nitrophenol, 3,5-dinitrophenol,\n2,4, 6-trinitrophenol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6096-6099", "Text": "3: pKa Values of some Phenols and Ethanol\nCompound\nFormula\npKa\nFrom the above data, you will note that phenol is million times\nmore acidic than ethanol Arrange the following compounds in increasing order of their acid strength:\nPropan-1-ol, 2,4,6-trinitrophenol, 3-nitrophenol, 3,5-dinitrophenol,\nphenol, 4-methylphenol Propan-1-ol, 4-methylphenol, phenol, 3-nitrophenol, 3,5-dinitrophenol,\n2,4, 6-trinitrophenol Example 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6097-6100", "Text": "Arrange the following compounds in increasing order of their acid strength:\nPropan-1-ol, 2,4,6-trinitrophenol, 3-nitrophenol, 3,5-dinitrophenol,\nphenol, 4-methylphenol Propan-1-ol, 4-methylphenol, phenol, 3-nitrophenol, 3,5-dinitrophenol,\n2,4, 6-trinitrophenol Example 7 4\nExample 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6098-6101", "Text": "Propan-1-ol, 4-methylphenol, phenol, 3-nitrophenol, 3,5-dinitrophenol,\n2,4, 6-trinitrophenol Example 7 4\nExample 7 4\nExample 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6099-6102", "Text": "Example 7 4\nExample 7 4\nExample 7 4\nExample 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6100-6103", "Text": "4\nExample 7 4\nExample 7 4\nExample 7 4\nExample 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6101-6104", "Text": "4\nExample 7 4\nExample 7 4\nExample 7 4\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6102-6105", "Text": "4\nExample 7 4\nExample 7 4\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n2 Esterification\nAlcohols and phenols react with carboxylic acids, acid chlorides and\nacid anhydrides to form esters"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6103-6106", "Text": "4\nExample 7 4\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n2 Esterification\nAlcohols and phenols react with carboxylic acids, acid chlorides and\nacid anhydrides to form esters In substituted phenols, the presence of electron withdrawing\ngroups such as nitro group, enhances the acidic strength of\nphenol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6104-6107", "Text": "4\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n2 Esterification\nAlcohols and phenols react with carboxylic acids, acid chlorides and\nacid anhydrides to form esters In substituted phenols, the presence of electron withdrawing\ngroups such as nitro group, enhances the acidic strength of\nphenol This effect is more pronounced when such a group is\npresent at ortho and para positions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6105-6108", "Text": "Esterification\nAlcohols and phenols react with carboxylic acids, acid chlorides and\nacid anhydrides to form esters In substituted phenols, the presence of electron withdrawing\ngroups such as nitro group, enhances the acidic strength of\nphenol This effect is more pronounced when such a group is\npresent at ortho and para positions It is due to the effective\ndelocalisation of negative charge in phenoxide ion when\nsubstituent is at ortho or para position"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6106-6109", "Text": "In substituted phenols, the presence of electron withdrawing\ngroups such as nitro group, enhances the acidic strength of\nphenol This effect is more pronounced when such a group is\npresent at ortho and para positions It is due to the effective\ndelocalisation of negative charge in phenoxide ion when\nsubstituent is at ortho or para position On the other hand,\nelectron releasing groups, such as alkyl groups, in general, do\nnot favour the formation of phenoxide ion resulting in decrease\nin acid strength"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6107-6110", "Text": "This effect is more pronounced when such a group is\npresent at ortho and para positions It is due to the effective\ndelocalisation of negative charge in phenoxide ion when\nsubstituent is at ortho or para position On the other hand,\nelectron releasing groups, such as alkyl groups, in general, do\nnot favour the formation of phenoxide ion resulting in decrease\nin acid strength Cresols, for example, are less acidic than phenol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6108-6111", "Text": "It is due to the effective\ndelocalisation of negative charge in phenoxide ion when\nsubstituent is at ortho or para position On the other hand,\nelectron releasing groups, such as alkyl groups, in general, do\nnot favour the formation of phenoxide ion resulting in decrease\nin acid strength Cresols, for example, are less acidic than phenol The greater the pKa\nvalue, the weaker the\nacid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6109-6112", "Text": "On the other hand,\nelectron releasing groups, such as alkyl groups, in general, do\nnot favour the formation of phenoxide ion resulting in decrease\nin acid strength Cresols, for example, are less acidic than phenol The greater the pKa\nvalue, the weaker the\nacid Rationalised 2023-24\n208\nChemistry\nPyridine\nR/Ar\n+R\u2019\nl\nOH\nCOC\nR/ArOCOR + HCl\n\u2019\nThe reaction with carboxylic acid and acid anhydride is carried\nout in the presence of a small amount of concentrated sulphuric\nacid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6110-6113", "Text": "Cresols, for example, are less acidic than phenol The greater the pKa\nvalue, the weaker the\nacid Rationalised 2023-24\n208\nChemistry\nPyridine\nR/Ar\n+R\u2019\nl\nOH\nCOC\nR/ArOCOR + HCl\n\u2019\nThe reaction with carboxylic acid and acid anhydride is carried\nout in the presence of a small amount of concentrated sulphuric\nacid The reaction is reversible, and therefore, water is removed as\nsoon as it is formed"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6111-6114", "Text": "The greater the pKa\nvalue, the weaker the\nacid Rationalised 2023-24\n208\nChemistry\nPyridine\nR/Ar\n+R\u2019\nl\nOH\nCOC\nR/ArOCOR + HCl\n\u2019\nThe reaction with carboxylic acid and acid anhydride is carried\nout in the presence of a small amount of concentrated sulphuric\nacid The reaction is reversible, and therefore, water is removed as\nsoon as it is formed The reaction with acid chloride is carried out in\nthe presence of a base (pyridine) so as to neutralise HCl which is\nformed during the reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6112-6115", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n208\nChemistry\nPyridine\nR/Ar\n+R\u2019\nl\nOH\nCOC\nR/ArOCOR + HCl\n\u2019\nThe reaction with carboxylic acid and acid anhydride is carried\nout in the presence of a small amount of concentrated sulphuric\nacid The reaction is reversible, and therefore, water is removed as\nsoon as it is formed The reaction with acid chloride is carried out in\nthe presence of a base (pyridine) so as to neutralise HCl which is\nformed during the reaction It shifts the equilibrium to the right\nhand side"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6113-6116", "Text": "The reaction is reversible, and therefore, water is removed as\nsoon as it is formed The reaction with acid chloride is carried out in\nthe presence of a base (pyridine) so as to neutralise HCl which is\nformed during the reaction It shifts the equilibrium to the right\nhand side The introduction of acetyl (CH3CO) group in alcohols or\nphenols is known as acetylation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6114-6117", "Text": "The reaction with acid chloride is carried out in\nthe presence of a base (pyridine) so as to neutralise HCl which is\nformed during the reaction It shifts the equilibrium to the right\nhand side The introduction of acetyl (CH3CO) group in alcohols or\nphenols is known as acetylation Acetylation of salicylic acid\nproduces aspirin"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6115-6118", "Text": "It shifts the equilibrium to the right\nhand side The introduction of acetyl (CH3CO) group in alcohols or\nphenols is known as acetylation Acetylation of salicylic acid\nproduces aspirin (b) Reactions involving cleavage of carbon \u2013 oxygen (C\u2013O) bond in\nalcohols\nThe reactions involving cleavage of C\u2013O bond take place only in\nalcohols"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6116-6119", "Text": "The introduction of acetyl (CH3CO) group in alcohols or\nphenols is known as acetylation Acetylation of salicylic acid\nproduces aspirin (b) Reactions involving cleavage of carbon \u2013 oxygen (C\u2013O) bond in\nalcohols\nThe reactions involving cleavage of C\u2013O bond take place only in\nalcohols Phenols show this type of reaction only with zinc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6117-6120", "Text": "Acetylation of salicylic acid\nproduces aspirin (b) Reactions involving cleavage of carbon \u2013 oxygen (C\u2013O) bond in\nalcohols\nThe reactions involving cleavage of C\u2013O bond take place only in\nalcohols Phenols show this type of reaction only with zinc 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6118-6121", "Text": "(b) Reactions involving cleavage of carbon \u2013 oxygen (C\u2013O) bond in\nalcohols\nThe reactions involving cleavage of C\u2013O bond take place only in\nalcohols Phenols show this type of reaction only with zinc 1 Reaction with hydrogen halides: Alcohols react with hydrogen\nhalides to form alkyl halides (Refer Unit 6, Class XII)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6119-6122", "Text": "Phenols show this type of reaction only with zinc 1 Reaction with hydrogen halides: Alcohols react with hydrogen\nhalides to form alkyl halides (Refer Unit 6, Class XII) ROH + HX \u00ae R\u2013X + H2O\nThe difference in reactivity of three classes of alcohols with HCl\ndistinguishes them from one another (Lucas test)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6120-6123", "Text": "1 Reaction with hydrogen halides: Alcohols react with hydrogen\nhalides to form alkyl halides (Refer Unit 6, Class XII) ROH + HX \u00ae R\u2013X + H2O\nThe difference in reactivity of three classes of alcohols with HCl\ndistinguishes them from one another (Lucas test) Alcohols are soluble\nin Lucas reagent (conc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6121-6124", "Text": "Reaction with hydrogen halides: Alcohols react with hydrogen\nhalides to form alkyl halides (Refer Unit 6, Class XII) ROH + HX \u00ae R\u2013X + H2O\nThe difference in reactivity of three classes of alcohols with HCl\ndistinguishes them from one another (Lucas test) Alcohols are soluble\nin Lucas reagent (conc HCl and ZnCl2) while their halides are immiscible\nand produce turbidity in solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6122-6125", "Text": "ROH + HX \u00ae R\u2013X + H2O\nThe difference in reactivity of three classes of alcohols with HCl\ndistinguishes them from one another (Lucas test) Alcohols are soluble\nin Lucas reagent (conc HCl and ZnCl2) while their halides are immiscible\nand produce turbidity in solution In case of tertiary alcohols, turbidity\nis produced immediately as they form the halides easily"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6123-6126", "Text": "Alcohols are soluble\nin Lucas reagent (conc HCl and ZnCl2) while their halides are immiscible\nand produce turbidity in solution In case of tertiary alcohols, turbidity\nis produced immediately as they form the halides easily Primary\nalcohols do not produce turbidity at room temperature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6124-6127", "Text": "HCl and ZnCl2) while their halides are immiscible\nand produce turbidity in solution In case of tertiary alcohols, turbidity\nis produced immediately as they form the halides easily Primary\nalcohols do not produce turbidity at room temperature 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6125-6128", "Text": "In case of tertiary alcohols, turbidity\nis produced immediately as they form the halides easily Primary\nalcohols do not produce turbidity at room temperature 2 Reaction with phosphorus trihalides: Alcohols are converted to\nalkyl bromides by reaction with phosphorus tribromide (Refer\nUnit 6, Class XII)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6126-6129", "Text": "Primary\nalcohols do not produce turbidity at room temperature 2 Reaction with phosphorus trihalides: Alcohols are converted to\nalkyl bromides by reaction with phosphorus tribromide (Refer\nUnit 6, Class XII) 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6127-6130", "Text": "2 Reaction with phosphorus trihalides: Alcohols are converted to\nalkyl bromides by reaction with phosphorus tribromide (Refer\nUnit 6, Class XII) 3 Dehydration: Alcohols undergo dehydration (removal of a molecule\nof water) to form alkenes on treating with a protic acid e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6128-6131", "Text": "Reaction with phosphorus trihalides: Alcohols are converted to\nalkyl bromides by reaction with phosphorus tribromide (Refer\nUnit 6, Class XII) 3 Dehydration: Alcohols undergo dehydration (removal of a molecule\nof water) to form alkenes on treating with a protic acid e g"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6129-6132", "Text": "3 Dehydration: Alcohols undergo dehydration (removal of a molecule\nof water) to form alkenes on treating with a protic acid e g ,\nconcentrated H2SO4 or H3PO4, or catalysts such as anhydrous zinc\nchloride or alumina"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6130-6133", "Text": "Dehydration: Alcohols undergo dehydration (removal of a molecule\nof water) to form alkenes on treating with a protic acid e g ,\nconcentrated H2SO4 or H3PO4, or catalysts such as anhydrous zinc\nchloride or alumina Ethanol undergoes dehydration by heating it with concentrated\nH2SO4 at 443 K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6131-6134", "Text": "g ,\nconcentrated H2SO4 or H3PO4, or catalysts such as anhydrous zinc\nchloride or alumina Ethanol undergoes dehydration by heating it with concentrated\nH2SO4 at 443 K Aspirin possesses\nanalgesic, anti-\ninflammatory and\nantipyretic properties"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6132-6135", "Text": ",\nconcentrated H2SO4 or H3PO4, or catalysts such as anhydrous zinc\nchloride or alumina Ethanol undergoes dehydration by heating it with concentrated\nH2SO4 at 443 K Aspirin possesses\nanalgesic, anti-\ninflammatory and\nantipyretic properties Rationalised 2023-24\n209\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\nSecondary and tertiary alcohols are dehydrated under milder\nconditions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6133-6136", "Text": "Ethanol undergoes dehydration by heating it with concentrated\nH2SO4 at 443 K Aspirin possesses\nanalgesic, anti-\ninflammatory and\nantipyretic properties Rationalised 2023-24\n209\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\nSecondary and tertiary alcohols are dehydrated under milder\nconditions For example\nThus, the relative ease of dehydration of alcohols follows the\nfollowing order:\nTertiary\nSecondary\nPrimary\n>\n>\nThe mechanism of dehydration of ethanol involves the following steps:\nMechanism\nStep 1: Formation of protonated alcohol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6134-6137", "Text": "Aspirin possesses\nanalgesic, anti-\ninflammatory and\nantipyretic properties Rationalised 2023-24\n209\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\nSecondary and tertiary alcohols are dehydrated under milder\nconditions For example\nThus, the relative ease of dehydration of alcohols follows the\nfollowing order:\nTertiary\nSecondary\nPrimary\n>\n>\nThe mechanism of dehydration of ethanol involves the following steps:\nMechanism\nStep 1: Formation of protonated alcohol Step 2: Formation of carbocation: It is the slowest step and hence, the\nrate determining step of the reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6135-6138", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n209\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\nSecondary and tertiary alcohols are dehydrated under milder\nconditions For example\nThus, the relative ease of dehydration of alcohols follows the\nfollowing order:\nTertiary\nSecondary\nPrimary\n>\n>\nThe mechanism of dehydration of ethanol involves the following steps:\nMechanism\nStep 1: Formation of protonated alcohol Step 2: Formation of carbocation: It is the slowest step and hence, the\nrate determining step of the reaction Step 3: Formation of ethene by elimination of a proton"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6136-6139", "Text": "For example\nThus, the relative ease of dehydration of alcohols follows the\nfollowing order:\nTertiary\nSecondary\nPrimary\n>\n>\nThe mechanism of dehydration of ethanol involves the following steps:\nMechanism\nStep 1: Formation of protonated alcohol Step 2: Formation of carbocation: It is the slowest step and hence, the\nrate determining step of the reaction Step 3: Formation of ethene by elimination of a proton The acid used in step 1 is released in step 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6137-6140", "Text": "Step 2: Formation of carbocation: It is the slowest step and hence, the\nrate determining step of the reaction Step 3: Formation of ethene by elimination of a proton The acid used in step 1 is released in step 3 To drive the equilibrium\nto the right, ethene is removed as it is formed"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6138-6141", "Text": "Step 3: Formation of ethene by elimination of a proton The acid used in step 1 is released in step 3 To drive the equilibrium\nto the right, ethene is removed as it is formed 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6139-6142", "Text": "The acid used in step 1 is released in step 3 To drive the equilibrium\nto the right, ethene is removed as it is formed 4 Oxidation: Oxidation of alcohols involves the formation of a carbon-\noxygen double bond with cleavage of an O-H and C-H bonds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6140-6143", "Text": "To drive the equilibrium\nto the right, ethene is removed as it is formed 4 Oxidation: Oxidation of alcohols involves the formation of a carbon-\noxygen double bond with cleavage of an O-H and C-H bonds Such a cleavage and formation of bonds occur in oxidation\nreactions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6141-6144", "Text": "4 Oxidation: Oxidation of alcohols involves the formation of a carbon-\noxygen double bond with cleavage of an O-H and C-H bonds Such a cleavage and formation of bonds occur in oxidation\nreactions These are also known as dehydrogenation reactions as\nthese involve loss of dihydrogen from an alcohol molecule"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6142-6145", "Text": "Oxidation: Oxidation of alcohols involves the formation of a carbon-\noxygen double bond with cleavage of an O-H and C-H bonds Such a cleavage and formation of bonds occur in oxidation\nreactions These are also known as dehydrogenation reactions as\nthese involve loss of dihydrogen from an alcohol molecule Depending\non the oxidising agent used, a primary alcohol is oxidised to an\naldehyde which in turn is oxidised to a carboxylic acid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6143-6146", "Text": "Such a cleavage and formation of bonds occur in oxidation\nreactions These are also known as dehydrogenation reactions as\nthese involve loss of dihydrogen from an alcohol molecule Depending\non the oxidising agent used, a primary alcohol is oxidised to an\naldehyde which in turn is oxidised to a carboxylic acid Tertiary carbocations\nare more stable and\ntherefore are easier to\nform than secondary\nand primary\ncarbocations; tertiary\nalcohols are the easiest\nto dehydrate"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6144-6147", "Text": "These are also known as dehydrogenation reactions as\nthese involve loss of dihydrogen from an alcohol molecule Depending\non the oxidising agent used, a primary alcohol is oxidised to an\naldehyde which in turn is oxidised to a carboxylic acid Tertiary carbocations\nare more stable and\ntherefore are easier to\nform than secondary\nand primary\ncarbocations; tertiary\nalcohols are the easiest\nto dehydrate Rationalised 2023-24\n210\nChemistry\nStrong oxidising agents such as acidified potassium\npermanganate are used for getting carboxylic acids from alcohols\ndirectly"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6145-6148", "Text": "Depending\non the oxidising agent used, a primary alcohol is oxidised to an\naldehyde which in turn is oxidised to a carboxylic acid Tertiary carbocations\nare more stable and\ntherefore are easier to\nform than secondary\nand primary\ncarbocations; tertiary\nalcohols are the easiest\nto dehydrate Rationalised 2023-24\n210\nChemistry\nStrong oxidising agents such as acidified potassium\npermanganate are used for getting carboxylic acids from alcohols\ndirectly CrO3 in anhydrous medium is used as the oxidising agent\nfor the isolation of aldehydes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6146-6149", "Text": "Tertiary carbocations\nare more stable and\ntherefore are easier to\nform than secondary\nand primary\ncarbocations; tertiary\nalcohols are the easiest\nto dehydrate Rationalised 2023-24\n210\nChemistry\nStrong oxidising agents such as acidified potassium\npermanganate are used for getting carboxylic acids from alcohols\ndirectly CrO3 in anhydrous medium is used as the oxidising agent\nfor the isolation of aldehydes 3\n2\nCrO\nR H\nR\nC\nOH\nCHO\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\nA better reagent for oxidation of primary alcohols to aldehydes in\ngood yield is pyridinium chlorochromate (PCC), a complex of\nchromium trioxide with pyridine and HCl"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6147-6150", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n210\nChemistry\nStrong oxidising agents such as acidified potassium\npermanganate are used for getting carboxylic acids from alcohols\ndirectly CrO3 in anhydrous medium is used as the oxidising agent\nfor the isolation of aldehydes 3\n2\nCrO\nR H\nR\nC\nOH\nCHO\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\nA better reagent for oxidation of primary alcohols to aldehydes in\ngood yield is pyridinium chlorochromate (PCC), a complex of\nchromium trioxide with pyridine and HCl 3\n2\n3\nPCC\nO\nCH\nCH\nCH\nH\nCH\nCH\nO\nCH\nCH\nCH\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf0be\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\nSecondary alcohols are oxidised to ketones by chromic anhyride\n(CrO3)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6148-6151", "Text": "CrO3 in anhydrous medium is used as the oxidising agent\nfor the isolation of aldehydes 3\n2\nCrO\nR H\nR\nC\nOH\nCHO\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\nA better reagent for oxidation of primary alcohols to aldehydes in\ngood yield is pyridinium chlorochromate (PCC), a complex of\nchromium trioxide with pyridine and HCl 3\n2\n3\nPCC\nO\nCH\nCH\nCH\nH\nCH\nCH\nO\nCH\nCH\nCH\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf0be\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\nSecondary alcohols are oxidised to ketones by chromic anhyride\n(CrO3) Tertiary alcohols do not undergo oxidation reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6149-6152", "Text": "3\n2\nCrO\nR H\nR\nC\nOH\nCHO\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\nA better reagent for oxidation of primary alcohols to aldehydes in\ngood yield is pyridinium chlorochromate (PCC), a complex of\nchromium trioxide with pyridine and HCl 3\n2\n3\nPCC\nO\nCH\nCH\nCH\nH\nCH\nCH\nO\nCH\nCH\nCH\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf0be\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\nSecondary alcohols are oxidised to ketones by chromic anhyride\n(CrO3) Tertiary alcohols do not undergo oxidation reaction Under strong\nreaction conditions such as strong oxidising agents (KMnO4) and\nelevated temperatures, cleavage of various C-C bonds takes place\nand a mixture of carboxylic\nacids containing lesser number\nof carbon atoms is formed"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6150-6153", "Text": "3\n2\n3\nPCC\nO\nCH\nCH\nCH\nH\nCH\nCH\nO\nCH\nCH\nCH\n\uf02d\n\uf02d\n\uf0be\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf02d\n\uf03d\nSecondary alcohols are oxidised to ketones by chromic anhyride\n(CrO3) Tertiary alcohols do not undergo oxidation reaction Under strong\nreaction conditions such as strong oxidising agents (KMnO4) and\nelevated temperatures, cleavage of various C-C bonds takes place\nand a mixture of carboxylic\nacids containing lesser number\nof carbon atoms is formed When the vapours of a\nprimary or a secondary alcohol\nare passed over heated copper\nat 573 K, dehydrogenation\ntakes place and an aldehyde or\na ketone is formed while tertiary\nalcohols undergo dehydration"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6151-6154", "Text": "Tertiary alcohols do not undergo oxidation reaction Under strong\nreaction conditions such as strong oxidising agents (KMnO4) and\nelevated temperatures, cleavage of various C-C bonds takes place\nand a mixture of carboxylic\nacids containing lesser number\nof carbon atoms is formed When the vapours of a\nprimary or a secondary alcohol\nare passed over heated copper\nat 573 K, dehydrogenation\ntakes place and an aldehyde or\na ketone is formed while tertiary\nalcohols undergo dehydration Biological oxidation of methanol and ethanol in the body produces the corresponding\naldehyde followed by the acid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6152-6155", "Text": "Under strong\nreaction conditions such as strong oxidising agents (KMnO4) and\nelevated temperatures, cleavage of various C-C bonds takes place\nand a mixture of carboxylic\nacids containing lesser number\nof carbon atoms is formed When the vapours of a\nprimary or a secondary alcohol\nare passed over heated copper\nat 573 K, dehydrogenation\ntakes place and an aldehyde or\na ketone is formed while tertiary\nalcohols undergo dehydration Biological oxidation of methanol and ethanol in the body produces the corresponding\naldehyde followed by the acid At times the alcoholics, by mistake, drink ethanol,\nmixed with methanol also called denatured alcohol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6153-6156", "Text": "When the vapours of a\nprimary or a secondary alcohol\nare passed over heated copper\nat 573 K, dehydrogenation\ntakes place and an aldehyde or\na ketone is formed while tertiary\nalcohols undergo dehydration Biological oxidation of methanol and ethanol in the body produces the corresponding\naldehyde followed by the acid At times the alcoholics, by mistake, drink ethanol,\nmixed with methanol also called denatured alcohol In the body, methanol is oxidised\nfirst to methanal and then to methanoic acid, which may cause blindness and\ndeath"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6154-6157", "Text": "Biological oxidation of methanol and ethanol in the body produces the corresponding\naldehyde followed by the acid At times the alcoholics, by mistake, drink ethanol,\nmixed with methanol also called denatured alcohol In the body, methanol is oxidised\nfirst to methanal and then to methanoic acid, which may cause blindness and\ndeath A methanol poisoned patient is treated by giving intravenous infusions of\ndiluted ethanol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6155-6158", "Text": "At times the alcoholics, by mistake, drink ethanol,\nmixed with methanol also called denatured alcohol In the body, methanol is oxidised\nfirst to methanal and then to methanoic acid, which may cause blindness and\ndeath A methanol poisoned patient is treated by giving intravenous infusions of\ndiluted ethanol The enzyme responsible for oxidation of aldehyde (HCHO) to acid\nis swamped allowing time for kidneys to excrete methanol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6156-6159", "Text": "In the body, methanol is oxidised\nfirst to methanal and then to methanoic acid, which may cause blindness and\ndeath A methanol poisoned patient is treated by giving intravenous infusions of\ndiluted ethanol The enzyme responsible for oxidation of aldehyde (HCHO) to acid\nis swamped allowing time for kidneys to excrete methanol (c) Reactions of phenols\nFollowing reactions are shown by phenols only"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6157-6160", "Text": "A methanol poisoned patient is treated by giving intravenous infusions of\ndiluted ethanol The enzyme responsible for oxidation of aldehyde (HCHO) to acid\nis swamped allowing time for kidneys to excrete methanol (c) Reactions of phenols\nFollowing reactions are shown by phenols only Rationalised 2023-24\n211\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6158-6161", "Text": "The enzyme responsible for oxidation of aldehyde (HCHO) to acid\nis swamped allowing time for kidneys to excrete methanol (c) Reactions of phenols\nFollowing reactions are shown by phenols only Rationalised 2023-24\n211\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\n1 Electrophilic aromatic substitution\nIn phenols, the reactions that take place on the aromatic ring are\nelectrophilic substitution reactions (Unit 9, Class XI)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6159-6162", "Text": "(c) Reactions of phenols\nFollowing reactions are shown by phenols only Rationalised 2023-24\n211\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\n1 Electrophilic aromatic substitution\nIn phenols, the reactions that take place on the aromatic ring are\nelectrophilic substitution reactions (Unit 9, Class XI) The \u2013OH group\nattached to the benzene ring activates it towards electrophilic\nsubstitution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6160-6163", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n211\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\n1 Electrophilic aromatic substitution\nIn phenols, the reactions that take place on the aromatic ring are\nelectrophilic substitution reactions (Unit 9, Class XI) The \u2013OH group\nattached to the benzene ring activates it towards electrophilic\nsubstitution Also, it directs the incoming group to ortho and para\npositions in the ring as these positions become electron rich due to\nthe resonance effect caused by \u2013OH group"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6161-6164", "Text": "Electrophilic aromatic substitution\nIn phenols, the reactions that take place on the aromatic ring are\nelectrophilic substitution reactions (Unit 9, Class XI) The \u2013OH group\nattached to the benzene ring activates it towards electrophilic\nsubstitution Also, it directs the incoming group to ortho and para\npositions in the ring as these positions become electron rich due to\nthe resonance effect caused by \u2013OH group The resonance structures\nare shown under acidity of phenols"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6162-6165", "Text": "The \u2013OH group\nattached to the benzene ring activates it towards electrophilic\nsubstitution Also, it directs the incoming group to ortho and para\npositions in the ring as these positions become electron rich due to\nthe resonance effect caused by \u2013OH group The resonance structures\nare shown under acidity of phenols Common electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions taking place\nin phenol are as follows:\n(i) Nitration: With dilute nitric acid at low temperature (298 K),\nphenol yields a mixture of ortho and para nitrophenols"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6163-6166", "Text": "Also, it directs the incoming group to ortho and para\npositions in the ring as these positions become electron rich due to\nthe resonance effect caused by \u2013OH group The resonance structures\nare shown under acidity of phenols Common electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions taking place\nin phenol are as follows:\n(i) Nitration: With dilute nitric acid at low temperature (298 K),\nphenol yields a mixture of ortho and para nitrophenols The ortho and para isomers can be separated by steam\ndistillation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6164-6167", "Text": "The resonance structures\nare shown under acidity of phenols Common electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions taking place\nin phenol are as follows:\n(i) Nitration: With dilute nitric acid at low temperature (298 K),\nphenol yields a mixture of ortho and para nitrophenols The ortho and para isomers can be separated by steam\ndistillation o-Nitrophenol is steam volatile due to intramolecular\nhydrogen bonding while p-nitrophenol is less volatile due to\nintermolecular hydrogen bonding which causes the association\nof molecules"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6165-6168", "Text": "Common electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions taking place\nin phenol are as follows:\n(i) Nitration: With dilute nitric acid at low temperature (298 K),\nphenol yields a mixture of ortho and para nitrophenols The ortho and para isomers can be separated by steam\ndistillation o-Nitrophenol is steam volatile due to intramolecular\nhydrogen bonding while p-nitrophenol is less volatile due to\nintermolecular hydrogen bonding which causes the association\nof molecules With concentrated nitric acid, phenol is converted to\n2,4,6-trinitrophenol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6166-6169", "Text": "The ortho and para isomers can be separated by steam\ndistillation o-Nitrophenol is steam volatile due to intramolecular\nhydrogen bonding while p-nitrophenol is less volatile due to\nintermolecular hydrogen bonding which causes the association\nof molecules With concentrated nitric acid, phenol is converted to\n2,4,6-trinitrophenol The product is commonly known as picric\nacid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6167-6170", "Text": "o-Nitrophenol is steam volatile due to intramolecular\nhydrogen bonding while p-nitrophenol is less volatile due to\nintermolecular hydrogen bonding which causes the association\nof molecules With concentrated nitric acid, phenol is converted to\n2,4,6-trinitrophenol The product is commonly known as picric\nacid The yield of the reaction product is poor"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6168-6171", "Text": "With concentrated nitric acid, phenol is converted to\n2,4,6-trinitrophenol The product is commonly known as picric\nacid The yield of the reaction product is poor Nowadays picric acid is prepared by treating phenol first\nwith concentrated sulphuric acid which converts it to\nphenol-2,4-disulphonic acid, and then with concentrated nitric\nacid to get 2,4,6-trinitrophenol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6169-6172", "Text": "The product is commonly known as picric\nacid The yield of the reaction product is poor Nowadays picric acid is prepared by treating phenol first\nwith concentrated sulphuric acid which converts it to\nphenol-2,4-disulphonic acid, and then with concentrated nitric\nacid to get 2,4,6-trinitrophenol Can you write the equations of\nthe reactions involved"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6170-6173", "Text": "The yield of the reaction product is poor Nowadays picric acid is prepared by treating phenol first\nwith concentrated sulphuric acid which converts it to\nphenol-2,4-disulphonic acid, and then with concentrated nitric\nacid to get 2,4,6-trinitrophenol Can you write the equations of\nthe reactions involved 2, 4, 6 - Trinitrophenol\nis a strong acid due to\nthe presence of three\nelectron withdrawing\n\u2013NO2 groups which\nfacilitate the release of\nhydrogen ion"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6171-6174", "Text": "Nowadays picric acid is prepared by treating phenol first\nwith concentrated sulphuric acid which converts it to\nphenol-2,4-disulphonic acid, and then with concentrated nitric\nacid to get 2,4,6-trinitrophenol Can you write the equations of\nthe reactions involved 2, 4, 6 - Trinitrophenol\nis a strong acid due to\nthe presence of three\nelectron withdrawing\n\u2013NO2 groups which\nfacilitate the release of\nhydrogen ion Rationalised 2023-24\n212\nChemistry\n(ii) Halogenation: On treating phenol with bromine, different reaction\nproducts are formed under different experimental conditions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6172-6175", "Text": "Can you write the equations of\nthe reactions involved 2, 4, 6 - Trinitrophenol\nis a strong acid due to\nthe presence of three\nelectron withdrawing\n\u2013NO2 groups which\nfacilitate the release of\nhydrogen ion Rationalised 2023-24\n212\nChemistry\n(ii) Halogenation: On treating phenol with bromine, different reaction\nproducts are formed under different experimental conditions (a) When the reaction is carried out in solvents of low polarity\nsuch as CHCl3 or CS2 and at low temperature,\nmonobromophenols are formed"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6173-6176", "Text": "2, 4, 6 - Trinitrophenol\nis a strong acid due to\nthe presence of three\nelectron withdrawing\n\u2013NO2 groups which\nfacilitate the release of\nhydrogen ion Rationalised 2023-24\n212\nChemistry\n(ii) Halogenation: On treating phenol with bromine, different reaction\nproducts are formed under different experimental conditions (a) When the reaction is carried out in solvents of low polarity\nsuch as CHCl3 or CS2 and at low temperature,\nmonobromophenols are formed The usual halogenation of benzene takes place in the\npresence of a Lewis acid, such as FeBr3 (Unit 6, Class XII),\nwhich polarises the halogen molecule"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6174-6177", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n212\nChemistry\n(ii) Halogenation: On treating phenol with bromine, different reaction\nproducts are formed under different experimental conditions (a) When the reaction is carried out in solvents of low polarity\nsuch as CHCl3 or CS2 and at low temperature,\nmonobromophenols are formed The usual halogenation of benzene takes place in the\npresence of a Lewis acid, such as FeBr3 (Unit 6, Class XII),\nwhich polarises the halogen molecule In case of phenol, the\npolarisation of bromine molecule takes place even in the\nabsence of Lewis acid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6175-6178", "Text": "(a) When the reaction is carried out in solvents of low polarity\nsuch as CHCl3 or CS2 and at low temperature,\nmonobromophenols are formed The usual halogenation of benzene takes place in the\npresence of a Lewis acid, such as FeBr3 (Unit 6, Class XII),\nwhich polarises the halogen molecule In case of phenol, the\npolarisation of bromine molecule takes place even in the\nabsence of Lewis acid It is due to the highly activating\neffect of \u2013OH group attached to the benzene ring"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6176-6179", "Text": "The usual halogenation of benzene takes place in the\npresence of a Lewis acid, such as FeBr3 (Unit 6, Class XII),\nwhich polarises the halogen molecule In case of phenol, the\npolarisation of bromine molecule takes place even in the\nabsence of Lewis acid It is due to the highly activating\neffect of \u2013OH group attached to the benzene ring (b) When \nphenol \nis \ntreated \nwith \nbromine \nwater,\n2,4,6-tribromophenol is formed as white precipitate"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6177-6180", "Text": "In case of phenol, the\npolarisation of bromine molecule takes place even in the\nabsence of Lewis acid It is due to the highly activating\neffect of \u2013OH group attached to the benzene ring (b) When \nphenol \nis \ntreated \nwith \nbromine \nwater,\n2,4,6-tribromophenol is formed as white precipitate Write the structures of the major products expected from the following\nreactions:\n(a) Mononitration of 3-methylphenol\n(b) Dinitration of 3-methylphenol\n(c) Mononitration of phenyl methanoate"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6178-6181", "Text": "It is due to the highly activating\neffect of \u2013OH group attached to the benzene ring (b) When \nphenol \nis \ntreated \nwith \nbromine \nwater,\n2,4,6-tribromophenol is formed as white precipitate Write the structures of the major products expected from the following\nreactions:\n(a) Mononitration of 3-methylphenol\n(b) Dinitration of 3-methylphenol\n(c) Mononitration of phenyl methanoate The combined influence of \u2013OH and \u2013CH3 groups determine the\nposition of the incoming group"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6179-6182", "Text": "(b) When \nphenol \nis \ntreated \nwith \nbromine \nwater,\n2,4,6-tribromophenol is formed as white precipitate Write the structures of the major products expected from the following\nreactions:\n(a) Mononitration of 3-methylphenol\n(b) Dinitration of 3-methylphenol\n(c) Mononitration of phenyl methanoate The combined influence of \u2013OH and \u2013CH3 groups determine the\nposition of the incoming group Example 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6180-6183", "Text": "Write the structures of the major products expected from the following\nreactions:\n(a) Mononitration of 3-methylphenol\n(b) Dinitration of 3-methylphenol\n(c) Mononitration of phenyl methanoate The combined influence of \u2013OH and \u2013CH3 groups determine the\nposition of the incoming group Example 7 5\nExample 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6181-6184", "Text": "The combined influence of \u2013OH and \u2013CH3 groups determine the\nposition of the incoming group Example 7 5\nExample 7 5\nExample 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6182-6185", "Text": "Example 7 5\nExample 7 5\nExample 7 5\nExample 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6183-6186", "Text": "5\nExample 7 5\nExample 7 5\nExample 7 5\nExample 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6184-6187", "Text": "5\nExample 7 5\nExample 7 5\nExample 7 5\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6185-6188", "Text": "5\nExample 7 5\nExample 7 5\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n2 Kolbe\u2019s reaction\nPhenoxide ion generated by treating phenol with sodium hydroxide\nis even more reactive than phenol towards electrophilic aromatic\nsubstitution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6186-6189", "Text": "5\nExample 7 5\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n2 Kolbe\u2019s reaction\nPhenoxide ion generated by treating phenol with sodium hydroxide\nis even more reactive than phenol towards electrophilic aromatic\nsubstitution Hence, it undergoes electrophilic substitution with\ncarbon dioxide, a weak electrophile"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6187-6190", "Text": "5\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n2 Kolbe\u2019s reaction\nPhenoxide ion generated by treating phenol with sodium hydroxide\nis even more reactive than phenol towards electrophilic aromatic\nsubstitution Hence, it undergoes electrophilic substitution with\ncarbon dioxide, a weak electrophile Ortho hydroxybenzoic acid is\nformed as the main reaction product"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6188-6191", "Text": "Kolbe\u2019s reaction\nPhenoxide ion generated by treating phenol with sodium hydroxide\nis even more reactive than phenol towards electrophilic aromatic\nsubstitution Hence, it undergoes electrophilic substitution with\ncarbon dioxide, a weak electrophile Ortho hydroxybenzoic acid is\nformed as the main reaction product Rationalised 2023-24\n213\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6189-6192", "Text": "Hence, it undergoes electrophilic substitution with\ncarbon dioxide, a weak electrophile Ortho hydroxybenzoic acid is\nformed as the main reaction product Rationalised 2023-24\n213\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\n3 Reimer-Tiemann reaction\nOn treating phenol with chloroform in the presence of sodium\nhydroxide, a \u2013CHO group is introduced at ortho position of benzene\nring"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6190-6193", "Text": "Ortho hydroxybenzoic acid is\nformed as the main reaction product Rationalised 2023-24\n213\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\n3 Reimer-Tiemann reaction\nOn treating phenol with chloroform in the presence of sodium\nhydroxide, a \u2013CHO group is introduced at ortho position of benzene\nring This reaction is known as Reimer - Tiemann reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6191-6194", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n213\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\n3 Reimer-Tiemann reaction\nOn treating phenol with chloroform in the presence of sodium\nhydroxide, a \u2013CHO group is introduced at ortho position of benzene\nring This reaction is known as Reimer - Tiemann reaction The intermediate substituted benzal chloride is hydrolysed in the\npresence of alkali to produce salicylaldehyde"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6192-6195", "Text": "Reimer-Tiemann reaction\nOn treating phenol with chloroform in the presence of sodium\nhydroxide, a \u2013CHO group is introduced at ortho position of benzene\nring This reaction is known as Reimer - Tiemann reaction The intermediate substituted benzal chloride is hydrolysed in the\npresence of alkali to produce salicylaldehyde 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6193-6196", "Text": "This reaction is known as Reimer - Tiemann reaction The intermediate substituted benzal chloride is hydrolysed in the\npresence of alkali to produce salicylaldehyde 4 Reaction of phenol with zinc dust\nPhenol is converted to benzene on heating with zinc dust"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6194-6197", "Text": "The intermediate substituted benzal chloride is hydrolysed in the\npresence of alkali to produce salicylaldehyde 4 Reaction of phenol with zinc dust\nPhenol is converted to benzene on heating with zinc dust 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6195-6198", "Text": "4 Reaction of phenol with zinc dust\nPhenol is converted to benzene on heating with zinc dust 5 Oxidation\nOxidation of phenol with chromic\nacid produces a conjugated diketone\nknown as benzoquinone"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6196-6199", "Text": "Reaction of phenol with zinc dust\nPhenol is converted to benzene on heating with zinc dust 5 Oxidation\nOxidation of phenol with chromic\nacid produces a conjugated diketone\nknown as benzoquinone In the\npresence of air, phenols are slowly\noxidised to dark coloured mixtures\ncontaining quinones"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6197-6200", "Text": "5 Oxidation\nOxidation of phenol with chromic\nacid produces a conjugated diketone\nknown as benzoquinone In the\npresence of air, phenols are slowly\noxidised to dark coloured mixtures\ncontaining quinones 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6198-6201", "Text": "Oxidation\nOxidation of phenol with chromic\nacid produces a conjugated diketone\nknown as benzoquinone In the\npresence of air, phenols are slowly\noxidised to dark coloured mixtures\ncontaining quinones 7 6\nGive structures of the products you would expect when each of the\nfollowing alcohol reacts with (a) HCl \u2013ZnCl2 (b) HBr and (c) SOCl2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6199-6202", "Text": "In the\npresence of air, phenols are slowly\noxidised to dark coloured mixtures\ncontaining quinones 7 6\nGive structures of the products you would expect when each of the\nfollowing alcohol reacts with (a) HCl \u2013ZnCl2 (b) HBr and (c) SOCl2 (i) Butan-1-ol\n(ii) 2-Methylbutan-2-ol\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6200-6203", "Text": "7 6\nGive structures of the products you would expect when each of the\nfollowing alcohol reacts with (a) HCl \u2013ZnCl2 (b) HBr and (c) SOCl2 (i) Butan-1-ol\n(ii) 2-Methylbutan-2-ol\n7 7\nPredict the major product of acid catalysed dehydration of\n(i) 1-methylcyclohexanol and\n(ii) butan-1-ol\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6201-6204", "Text": "6\nGive structures of the products you would expect when each of the\nfollowing alcohol reacts with (a) HCl \u2013ZnCl2 (b) HBr and (c) SOCl2 (i) Butan-1-ol\n(ii) 2-Methylbutan-2-ol\n7 7\nPredict the major product of acid catalysed dehydration of\n(i) 1-methylcyclohexanol and\n(ii) butan-1-ol\n7 8\nOrtho and para nitrophenols are more acidic than phenol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6202-6205", "Text": "(i) Butan-1-ol\n(ii) 2-Methylbutan-2-ol\n7 7\nPredict the major product of acid catalysed dehydration of\n(i) 1-methylcyclohexanol and\n(ii) butan-1-ol\n7 8\nOrtho and para nitrophenols are more acidic than phenol Draw the\nresonance structures of the corresponding phenoxide ions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6203-6206", "Text": "7\nPredict the major product of acid catalysed dehydration of\n(i) 1-methylcyclohexanol and\n(ii) butan-1-ol\n7 8\nOrtho and para nitrophenols are more acidic than phenol Draw the\nresonance structures of the corresponding phenoxide ions 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6204-6207", "Text": "8\nOrtho and para nitrophenols are more acidic than phenol Draw the\nresonance structures of the corresponding phenoxide ions 7 9\nWrite the equations involved in the following reactions:\n(i) Reimer - Tiemann reaction\n(ii) Kolbe\u2019s reaction\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nRationalised 2023-24\n214\nChemistry\nMethanol and ethanol are among the two commercially important\nalcohols"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6205-6208", "Text": "Draw the\nresonance structures of the corresponding phenoxide ions 7 9\nWrite the equations involved in the following reactions:\n(i) Reimer - Tiemann reaction\n(ii) Kolbe\u2019s reaction\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nRationalised 2023-24\n214\nChemistry\nMethanol and ethanol are among the two commercially important\nalcohols 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6206-6209", "Text": "7 9\nWrite the equations involved in the following reactions:\n(i) Reimer - Tiemann reaction\n(ii) Kolbe\u2019s reaction\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nRationalised 2023-24\n214\nChemistry\nMethanol and ethanol are among the two commercially important\nalcohols 1 Methanol\nMethanol, CH3OH, also known as \u2018wood spirit\u2019, was produced by\ndestructive distillation of wood"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6207-6210", "Text": "9\nWrite the equations involved in the following reactions:\n(i) Reimer - Tiemann reaction\n(ii) Kolbe\u2019s reaction\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nRationalised 2023-24\n214\nChemistry\nMethanol and ethanol are among the two commercially important\nalcohols 1 Methanol\nMethanol, CH3OH, also known as \u2018wood spirit\u2019, was produced by\ndestructive distillation of wood Today, most of the methanol is\nproduced by catalytic hydrogenation of carbon monoxide at high\npressure and temperature and in the presence of ZnO \u2013 Cr2O3\ncatalyst"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6208-6211", "Text": "1 Methanol\nMethanol, CH3OH, also known as \u2018wood spirit\u2019, was produced by\ndestructive distillation of wood Today, most of the methanol is\nproduced by catalytic hydrogenation of carbon monoxide at high\npressure and temperature and in the presence of ZnO \u2013 Cr2O3\ncatalyst Methanol is a colourless liquid and boils at 337 K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6209-6212", "Text": "Methanol\nMethanol, CH3OH, also known as \u2018wood spirit\u2019, was produced by\ndestructive distillation of wood Today, most of the methanol is\nproduced by catalytic hydrogenation of carbon monoxide at high\npressure and temperature and in the presence of ZnO \u2013 Cr2O3\ncatalyst Methanol is a colourless liquid and boils at 337 K It is highly\npoisonous in nature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6210-6213", "Text": "Today, most of the methanol is\nproduced by catalytic hydrogenation of carbon monoxide at high\npressure and temperature and in the presence of ZnO \u2013 Cr2O3\ncatalyst Methanol is a colourless liquid and boils at 337 K It is highly\npoisonous in nature Ingestion of even small quantities of methanol\ncan cause blindness and large quantities causes even death"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6211-6214", "Text": "Methanol is a colourless liquid and boils at 337 K It is highly\npoisonous in nature Ingestion of even small quantities of methanol\ncan cause blindness and large quantities causes even death Methanol\nis used as a solvent in paints, varnishes and chiefly for making\nformaldehyde"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6212-6215", "Text": "It is highly\npoisonous in nature Ingestion of even small quantities of methanol\ncan cause blindness and large quantities causes even death Methanol\nis used as a solvent in paints, varnishes and chiefly for making\nformaldehyde 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6213-6216", "Text": "Ingestion of even small quantities of methanol\ncan cause blindness and large quantities causes even death Methanol\nis used as a solvent in paints, varnishes and chiefly for making\nformaldehyde 2 Ethanol\nEthanol, C2H5OH, is obtained commercially by fermentation, the\noldest method is from sugars"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6214-6217", "Text": "Methanol\nis used as a solvent in paints, varnishes and chiefly for making\nformaldehyde 2 Ethanol\nEthanol, C2H5OH, is obtained commercially by fermentation, the\noldest method is from sugars The sugar in molasses, sugarcane\nor fruits such as grapes is converted to glucose and fructose, (both\nof which have the formula C6H12O6), in the presence of an enzyme,\ninvertase"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6215-6218", "Text": "2 Ethanol\nEthanol, C2H5OH, is obtained commercially by fermentation, the\noldest method is from sugars The sugar in molasses, sugarcane\nor fruits such as grapes is converted to glucose and fructose, (both\nof which have the formula C6H12O6), in the presence of an enzyme,\ninvertase Glucose and fructose undergo fermentation in the\npresence of another enzyme, zymase, which is found in yeast"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6216-6219", "Text": "Ethanol\nEthanol, C2H5OH, is obtained commercially by fermentation, the\noldest method is from sugars The sugar in molasses, sugarcane\nor fruits such as grapes is converted to glucose and fructose, (both\nof which have the formula C6H12O6), in the presence of an enzyme,\ninvertase Glucose and fructose undergo fermentation in the\npresence of another enzyme, zymase, which is found in yeast In wine making, grapes are the source of sugars and yeast"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6217-6220", "Text": "The sugar in molasses, sugarcane\nor fruits such as grapes is converted to glucose and fructose, (both\nof which have the formula C6H12O6), in the presence of an enzyme,\ninvertase Glucose and fructose undergo fermentation in the\npresence of another enzyme, zymase, which is found in yeast In wine making, grapes are the source of sugars and yeast As\ngrapes ripen, the quantity of sugar increases and yeast grows on the\nouter skin"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6218-6221", "Text": "Glucose and fructose undergo fermentation in the\npresence of another enzyme, zymase, which is found in yeast In wine making, grapes are the source of sugars and yeast As\ngrapes ripen, the quantity of sugar increases and yeast grows on the\nouter skin When grapes are crushed, sugar and the enzyme come in\ncontact and fermentation starts"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6219-6222", "Text": "In wine making, grapes are the source of sugars and yeast As\ngrapes ripen, the quantity of sugar increases and yeast grows on the\nouter skin When grapes are crushed, sugar and the enzyme come in\ncontact and fermentation starts Fermentation takes place in\nanaerobic conditions i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6220-6223", "Text": "As\ngrapes ripen, the quantity of sugar increases and yeast grows on the\nouter skin When grapes are crushed, sugar and the enzyme come in\ncontact and fermentation starts Fermentation takes place in\nanaerobic conditions i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6221-6224", "Text": "When grapes are crushed, sugar and the enzyme come in\ncontact and fermentation starts Fermentation takes place in\nanaerobic conditions i e in absence of air"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6222-6225", "Text": "Fermentation takes place in\nanaerobic conditions i e in absence of air Carbon dioxide is released\nduring fermentation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6223-6226", "Text": "e in absence of air Carbon dioxide is released\nduring fermentation The action of zymase is inhibited once the percentage of alcohol\nformed exceeds 14 percent"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6224-6227", "Text": "in absence of air Carbon dioxide is released\nduring fermentation The action of zymase is inhibited once the percentage of alcohol\nformed exceeds 14 percent If air gets into fermentation mixture, the\noxygen of air oxidises ethanol to ethanoic acid which in turn destroys\nthe taste of alcoholic drinks"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6225-6228", "Text": "Carbon dioxide is released\nduring fermentation The action of zymase is inhibited once the percentage of alcohol\nformed exceeds 14 percent If air gets into fermentation mixture, the\noxygen of air oxidises ethanol to ethanoic acid which in turn destroys\nthe taste of alcoholic drinks Ethanol is a colourless liquid with boiling point 351 K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6226-6229", "Text": "The action of zymase is inhibited once the percentage of alcohol\nformed exceeds 14 percent If air gets into fermentation mixture, the\noxygen of air oxidises ethanol to ethanoic acid which in turn destroys\nthe taste of alcoholic drinks Ethanol is a colourless liquid with boiling point 351 K It is used\nas a solvent in paint industry and in the preparation of a number of\ncarbon compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6227-6230", "Text": "If air gets into fermentation mixture, the\noxygen of air oxidises ethanol to ethanoic acid which in turn destroys\nthe taste of alcoholic drinks Ethanol is a colourless liquid with boiling point 351 K It is used\nas a solvent in paint industry and in the preparation of a number of\ncarbon compounds The commercial alcohol is made unfit for drinking\nby mixing in it some copper sulphate (to give it a colour) and pyridine\n(a foul smelling liquid)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6228-6231", "Text": "Ethanol is a colourless liquid with boiling point 351 K It is used\nas a solvent in paint industry and in the preparation of a number of\ncarbon compounds The commercial alcohol is made unfit for drinking\nby mixing in it some copper sulphate (to give it a colour) and pyridine\n(a foul smelling liquid) It is known as denaturation of alcohol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6229-6232", "Text": "It is used\nas a solvent in paint industry and in the preparation of a number of\ncarbon compounds The commercial alcohol is made unfit for drinking\nby mixing in it some copper sulphate (to give it a colour) and pyridine\n(a foul smelling liquid) It is known as denaturation of alcohol Nowadays, large quantities of ethanol are obtained by hydration of\nethene (Section 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6230-6233", "Text": "The commercial alcohol is made unfit for drinking\nby mixing in it some copper sulphate (to give it a colour) and pyridine\n(a foul smelling liquid) It is known as denaturation of alcohol Nowadays, large quantities of ethanol are obtained by hydration of\nethene (Section 7 4)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6231-6234", "Text": "It is known as denaturation of alcohol Nowadays, large quantities of ethanol are obtained by hydration of\nethene (Section 7 4) 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6232-6235", "Text": "Nowadays, large quantities of ethanol are obtained by hydration of\nethene (Section 7 4) 7 5\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6233-6236", "Text": "4) 7 5\n7 5\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6234-6237", "Text": "7 5\n7 5\n7 5\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6235-6238", "Text": "5\n7 5\n7 5\n7 5\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6236-6239", "Text": "5\n7 5\n7 5\n7 5 Some\nSome\nSome\nSome\nSome\nCommercially\nCommercially\nCommercially\nCommercially\nCommercially\nImportant\nImportant\nImportant\nImportant\nImportant\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nIngestion of ethanol acts\non the central nervous\nsystem"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6237-6240", "Text": "5\n7 5\n7 5 Some\nSome\nSome\nSome\nSome\nCommercially\nCommercially\nCommercially\nCommercially\nCommercially\nImportant\nImportant\nImportant\nImportant\nImportant\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nIngestion of ethanol acts\non the central nervous\nsystem In moderate\namounts, it affects\njudgment and lowers\ninhibitions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6238-6241", "Text": "5\n7 5 Some\nSome\nSome\nSome\nSome\nCommercially\nCommercially\nCommercially\nCommercially\nCommercially\nImportant\nImportant\nImportant\nImportant\nImportant\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nIngestion of ethanol acts\non the central nervous\nsystem In moderate\namounts, it affects\njudgment and lowers\ninhibitions Higher\nconcentrations cause\nnausea and loss of\nconsciousness"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6239-6242", "Text": "5 Some\nSome\nSome\nSome\nSome\nCommercially\nCommercially\nCommercially\nCommercially\nCommercially\nImportant\nImportant\nImportant\nImportant\nImportant\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nAlcohols\nIngestion of ethanol acts\non the central nervous\nsystem In moderate\namounts, it affects\njudgment and lowers\ninhibitions Higher\nconcentrations cause\nnausea and loss of\nconsciousness Even at\nhigher concentrations,\nit interferes with\nspontaneous respiration\nand can be fatal"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6240-6243", "Text": "In moderate\namounts, it affects\njudgment and lowers\ninhibitions Higher\nconcentrations cause\nnausea and loss of\nconsciousness Even at\nhigher concentrations,\nit interferes with\nspontaneous respiration\nand can be fatal Rationalised 2023-24\n215\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6241-6244", "Text": "Higher\nconcentrations cause\nnausea and loss of\nconsciousness Even at\nhigher concentrations,\nit interferes with\nspontaneous respiration\nand can be fatal Rationalised 2023-24\n215\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\n1 By dehydration of alcohols\nAlcohols undergo dehydration in the presence of protic acids\n(H2SO4, H3PO4)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6242-6245", "Text": "Even at\nhigher concentrations,\nit interferes with\nspontaneous respiration\nand can be fatal Rationalised 2023-24\n215\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\n1 By dehydration of alcohols\nAlcohols undergo dehydration in the presence of protic acids\n(H2SO4, H3PO4) The formation of the reaction product, alkene or ether\ndepends on the reaction conditions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6243-6246", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n215\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\n1 By dehydration of alcohols\nAlcohols undergo dehydration in the presence of protic acids\n(H2SO4, H3PO4) The formation of the reaction product, alkene or ether\ndepends on the reaction conditions For example, ethanol is\ndehydrated to ethene in the presence of sulphuric acid at 443 K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6244-6247", "Text": "By dehydration of alcohols\nAlcohols undergo dehydration in the presence of protic acids\n(H2SO4, H3PO4) The formation of the reaction product, alkene or ether\ndepends on the reaction conditions For example, ethanol is\ndehydrated to ethene in the presence of sulphuric acid at 443 K At 413 K, ethoxyethane is the main product"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6245-6248", "Text": "The formation of the reaction product, alkene or ether\ndepends on the reaction conditions For example, ethanol is\ndehydrated to ethene in the presence of sulphuric acid at 443 K At 413 K, ethoxyethane is the main product The formation of ether is a nucleophilic bimolecular reaction (SN2)\ninvolving the attack of alcohol molecule on a protonated alcohol, as\nindicated below:\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6246-6249", "Text": "For example, ethanol is\ndehydrated to ethene in the presence of sulphuric acid at 443 K At 413 K, ethoxyethane is the main product The formation of ether is a nucleophilic bimolecular reaction (SN2)\ninvolving the attack of alcohol molecule on a protonated alcohol, as\nindicated below:\n7 6\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6247-6250", "Text": "At 413 K, ethoxyethane is the main product The formation of ether is a nucleophilic bimolecular reaction (SN2)\ninvolving the attack of alcohol molecule on a protonated alcohol, as\nindicated below:\n7 6\n7 6\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6248-6251", "Text": "The formation of ether is a nucleophilic bimolecular reaction (SN2)\ninvolving the attack of alcohol molecule on a protonated alcohol, as\nindicated below:\n7 6\n7 6\n7 6\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6249-6252", "Text": "6\n7 6\n7 6\n7 6\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6250-6253", "Text": "6\n7 6\n7 6\n7 6 Ethers\nEthers\nEthers\nEthers\nEthers\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6251-6254", "Text": "6\n7 6\n7 6 Ethers\nEthers\nEthers\nEthers\nEthers\n7 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6252-6255", "Text": "6\n7 6 Ethers\nEthers\nEthers\nEthers\nEthers\n7 6 1\nPreparation\nof Ethers\nAcidic dehydration of alcohols, to give an alkene is also associated\nwith substitution reaction to give an ether"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6253-6256", "Text": "6 Ethers\nEthers\nEthers\nEthers\nEthers\n7 6 1\nPreparation\nof Ethers\nAcidic dehydration of alcohols, to give an alkene is also associated\nwith substitution reaction to give an ether The method is suitable for the preparation of ethers having\nprimary alkyl groups only"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6254-6257", "Text": "6 1\nPreparation\nof Ethers\nAcidic dehydration of alcohols, to give an alkene is also associated\nwith substitution reaction to give an ether The method is suitable for the preparation of ethers having\nprimary alkyl groups only The alkyl group should be unhindered\nand the temperature be kept low"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6255-6258", "Text": "1\nPreparation\nof Ethers\nAcidic dehydration of alcohols, to give an alkene is also associated\nwith substitution reaction to give an ether The method is suitable for the preparation of ethers having\nprimary alkyl groups only The alkyl group should be unhindered\nand the temperature be kept low Otherwise the reaction favours the\nformation of alkene"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6256-6259", "Text": "The method is suitable for the preparation of ethers having\nprimary alkyl groups only The alkyl group should be unhindered\nand the temperature be kept low Otherwise the reaction favours the\nformation of alkene The reaction follows SN1 pathway when the alcohol\nis secondary or tertiary about which you will learn in higher classes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6257-6260", "Text": "The alkyl group should be unhindered\nand the temperature be kept low Otherwise the reaction favours the\nformation of alkene The reaction follows SN1 pathway when the alcohol\nis secondary or tertiary about which you will learn in higher classes However, the dehydration of secondary and tertiary alcohols to give\ncorresponding ethers is unsuccessful as elimination competes over\nsubstitution and as a consequence, alkenes are easily formed"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6258-6261", "Text": "Otherwise the reaction favours the\nformation of alkene The reaction follows SN1 pathway when the alcohol\nis secondary or tertiary about which you will learn in higher classes However, the dehydration of secondary and tertiary alcohols to give\ncorresponding ethers is unsuccessful as elimination competes over\nsubstitution and as a consequence, alkenes are easily formed Can you explain why is bimolecular dehydration not appropriate\nfor the preparation of ethyl methyl ether"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6259-6262", "Text": "The reaction follows SN1 pathway when the alcohol\nis secondary or tertiary about which you will learn in higher classes However, the dehydration of secondary and tertiary alcohols to give\ncorresponding ethers is unsuccessful as elimination competes over\nsubstitution and as a consequence, alkenes are easily formed Can you explain why is bimolecular dehydration not appropriate\nfor the preparation of ethyl methyl ether 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6260-6263", "Text": "However, the dehydration of secondary and tertiary alcohols to give\ncorresponding ethers is unsuccessful as elimination competes over\nsubstitution and as a consequence, alkenes are easily formed Can you explain why is bimolecular dehydration not appropriate\nfor the preparation of ethyl methyl ether 2 Williamson synthesis\nIt is an important laboratory method for the preparation of\nsymmetrical and unsymmetrical ethers"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6261-6264", "Text": "Can you explain why is bimolecular dehydration not appropriate\nfor the preparation of ethyl methyl ether 2 Williamson synthesis\nIt is an important laboratory method for the preparation of\nsymmetrical and unsymmetrical ethers In this method, an alkyl\nhalide is allowed to react with sodium alkoxide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6262-6265", "Text": "2 Williamson synthesis\nIt is an important laboratory method for the preparation of\nsymmetrical and unsymmetrical ethers In this method, an alkyl\nhalide is allowed to react with sodium alkoxide R\u2013X +\nR \u2013ONa\n\u2019\nR\u2013O\u2013R + Na X\n\u2019\n+\n\u2013\nEthers containing substituted alkyl groups (secondary or tertiary)\nmay also be prepared by this method"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6263-6266", "Text": "Williamson synthesis\nIt is an important laboratory method for the preparation of\nsymmetrical and unsymmetrical ethers In this method, an alkyl\nhalide is allowed to react with sodium alkoxide R\u2013X +\nR \u2013ONa\n\u2019\nR\u2013O\u2013R + Na X\n\u2019\n+\n\u2013\nEthers containing substituted alkyl groups (secondary or tertiary)\nmay also be prepared by this method The reaction involves SN2 attack\nof an alkoxide ion on primary alkyl halide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6264-6267", "Text": "In this method, an alkyl\nhalide is allowed to react with sodium alkoxide R\u2013X +\nR \u2013ONa\n\u2019\nR\u2013O\u2013R + Na X\n\u2019\n+\n\u2013\nEthers containing substituted alkyl groups (secondary or tertiary)\nmay also be prepared by this method The reaction involves SN2 attack\nof an alkoxide ion on primary alkyl halide Diethyl ether has been\nused widely as an\ninhalation anaesthetic"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6265-6268", "Text": "R\u2013X +\nR \u2013ONa\n\u2019\nR\u2013O\u2013R + Na X\n\u2019\n+\n\u2013\nEthers containing substituted alkyl groups (secondary or tertiary)\nmay also be prepared by this method The reaction involves SN2 attack\nof an alkoxide ion on primary alkyl halide Diethyl ether has been\nused widely as an\ninhalation anaesthetic But due to its slow\neffect and an\nunpleasant recovery\nperiod, it has been\nreplaced, as an\nanaesthetic, by other\ncompounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6266-6269", "Text": "The reaction involves SN2 attack\nof an alkoxide ion on primary alkyl halide Diethyl ether has been\nused widely as an\ninhalation anaesthetic But due to its slow\neffect and an\nunpleasant recovery\nperiod, it has been\nreplaced, as an\nanaesthetic, by other\ncompounds Alexander William\nWilliamson (1824\u20131904)\nwas born in London of\nScottish parents"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6267-6270", "Text": "Diethyl ether has been\nused widely as an\ninhalation anaesthetic But due to its slow\neffect and an\nunpleasant recovery\nperiod, it has been\nreplaced, as an\nanaesthetic, by other\ncompounds Alexander William\nWilliamson (1824\u20131904)\nwas born in London of\nScottish parents In\n1849, he became\nProfessor of Chemistry\nat University College,\nLondon"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6268-6271", "Text": "But due to its slow\neffect and an\nunpleasant recovery\nperiod, it has been\nreplaced, as an\nanaesthetic, by other\ncompounds Alexander William\nWilliamson (1824\u20131904)\nwas born in London of\nScottish parents In\n1849, he became\nProfessor of Chemistry\nat University College,\nLondon Rationalised 2023-24\n216\nChemistry\nO\nCH \u2013Br\n3\nNa +\nBetter results are obtained if the alkyl halide is primary"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6269-6272", "Text": "Alexander William\nWilliamson (1824\u20131904)\nwas born in London of\nScottish parents In\n1849, he became\nProfessor of Chemistry\nat University College,\nLondon Rationalised 2023-24\n216\nChemistry\nO\nCH \u2013Br\n3\nNa +\nBetter results are obtained if the alkyl halide is primary In case\nof secondary and tertiary alkyl halides, elimination competes over\nsubstitution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6270-6273", "Text": "In\n1849, he became\nProfessor of Chemistry\nat University College,\nLondon Rationalised 2023-24\n216\nChemistry\nO\nCH \u2013Br\n3\nNa +\nBetter results are obtained if the alkyl halide is primary In case\nof secondary and tertiary alkyl halides, elimination competes over\nsubstitution If a tertiary alkyl halide is used, an alkene is the only\nreaction product and no ether is formed"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6271-6274", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n216\nChemistry\nO\nCH \u2013Br\n3\nNa +\nBetter results are obtained if the alkyl halide is primary In case\nof secondary and tertiary alkyl halides, elimination competes over\nsubstitution If a tertiary alkyl halide is used, an alkene is the only\nreaction product and no ether is formed For example, the reaction of\nCH3ONa with (CH3)3C\u2013Br gives exclusively 2-methylpropene"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6272-6275", "Text": "In case\nof secondary and tertiary alkyl halides, elimination competes over\nsubstitution If a tertiary alkyl halide is used, an alkene is the only\nreaction product and no ether is formed For example, the reaction of\nCH3ONa with (CH3)3C\u2013Br gives exclusively 2-methylpropene It is because alkoxides are not only nucleophiles but strong bases\nas well"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6273-6276", "Text": "If a tertiary alkyl halide is used, an alkene is the only\nreaction product and no ether is formed For example, the reaction of\nCH3ONa with (CH3)3C\u2013Br gives exclusively 2-methylpropene It is because alkoxides are not only nucleophiles but strong bases\nas well They react with alkyl halides leading to elimination reactions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6274-6277", "Text": "For example, the reaction of\nCH3ONa with (CH3)3C\u2013Br gives exclusively 2-methylpropene It is because alkoxides are not only nucleophiles but strong bases\nas well They react with alkyl halides leading to elimination reactions The following is not an appropriate reaction for the preparation of\nt-butyl ethyl ether"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6275-6278", "Text": "It is because alkoxides are not only nucleophiles but strong bases\nas well They react with alkyl halides leading to elimination reactions The following is not an appropriate reaction for the preparation of\nt-butyl ethyl ether (i) What would be the major product of this reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6276-6279", "Text": "They react with alkyl halides leading to elimination reactions The following is not an appropriate reaction for the preparation of\nt-butyl ethyl ether (i) What would be the major product of this reaction (ii) Write a suitable reaction for the preparation of t-butylethyl ether"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6277-6280", "Text": "The following is not an appropriate reaction for the preparation of\nt-butyl ethyl ether (i) What would be the major product of this reaction (ii) Write a suitable reaction for the preparation of t-butylethyl ether (i) The major product of the given reaction is 2-methylprop-1-ene"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6278-6281", "Text": "(i) What would be the major product of this reaction (ii) Write a suitable reaction for the preparation of t-butylethyl ether (i) The major product of the given reaction is 2-methylprop-1-ene It is because sodium ethoxide is a strong nucleophile as well as\na strong base"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6279-6282", "Text": "(ii) Write a suitable reaction for the preparation of t-butylethyl ether (i) The major product of the given reaction is 2-methylprop-1-ene It is because sodium ethoxide is a strong nucleophile as well as\na strong base Thus elimination reaction predominates over\nsubstitution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6280-6283", "Text": "(i) The major product of the given reaction is 2-methylprop-1-ene It is because sodium ethoxide is a strong nucleophile as well as\na strong base Thus elimination reaction predominates over\nsubstitution Example 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6281-6284", "Text": "It is because sodium ethoxide is a strong nucleophile as well as\na strong base Thus elimination reaction predominates over\nsubstitution Example 7 6\nExample 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6282-6285", "Text": "Thus elimination reaction predominates over\nsubstitution Example 7 6\nExample 7 6\nExample 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6283-6286", "Text": "Example 7 6\nExample 7 6\nExample 7 6\nExample 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6284-6287", "Text": "6\nExample 7 6\nExample 7 6\nExample 7 6\nExample 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6285-6288", "Text": "6\nExample 7 6\nExample 7 6\nExample 7 6\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n(ii)\nPhenols are also converted to ethers by this method"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6286-6289", "Text": "6\nExample 7 6\nExample 7 6\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n(ii)\nPhenols are also converted to ethers by this method In this, phenol\nis used as the phenoxide moiety"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6287-6290", "Text": "6\nExample 7 6\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n(ii)\nPhenols are also converted to ethers by this method In this, phenol\nis used as the phenoxide moiety Rationalised 2023-24\n217\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\nThe C-O bonds in ethers are polar and thus, ethers have a net dipole\nmoment"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6288-6291", "Text": "6\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n(ii)\nPhenols are also converted to ethers by this method In this, phenol\nis used as the phenoxide moiety Rationalised 2023-24\n217\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\nThe C-O bonds in ethers are polar and thus, ethers have a net dipole\nmoment The weak polarity of ethers do not appreciably affect their\nboiling points which are comparable to those of the alkanes of\ncomparable molecular masses but are much lower than the boiling\npoints of alcohols as shown in the following cases:\nFormula\nCH3(CH2)3CH3\nC2H5-O-C2H5\nCH3(CH2)3-OH\nn-Pentane\nEthoxyethane\nButan-1-ol\nb"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6289-6292", "Text": "In this, phenol\nis used as the phenoxide moiety Rationalised 2023-24\n217\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\nThe C-O bonds in ethers are polar and thus, ethers have a net dipole\nmoment The weak polarity of ethers do not appreciably affect their\nboiling points which are comparable to those of the alkanes of\ncomparable molecular masses but are much lower than the boiling\npoints of alcohols as shown in the following cases:\nFormula\nCH3(CH2)3CH3\nC2H5-O-C2H5\nCH3(CH2)3-OH\nn-Pentane\nEthoxyethane\nButan-1-ol\nb p"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6290-6293", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n217\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\nThe C-O bonds in ethers are polar and thus, ethers have a net dipole\nmoment The weak polarity of ethers do not appreciably affect their\nboiling points which are comparable to those of the alkanes of\ncomparable molecular masses but are much lower than the boiling\npoints of alcohols as shown in the following cases:\nFormula\nCH3(CH2)3CH3\nC2H5-O-C2H5\nCH3(CH2)3-OH\nn-Pentane\nEthoxyethane\nButan-1-ol\nb p /K\n309"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6291-6294", "Text": "The weak polarity of ethers do not appreciably affect their\nboiling points which are comparable to those of the alkanes of\ncomparable molecular masses but are much lower than the boiling\npoints of alcohols as shown in the following cases:\nFormula\nCH3(CH2)3CH3\nC2H5-O-C2H5\nCH3(CH2)3-OH\nn-Pentane\nEthoxyethane\nButan-1-ol\nb p /K\n309 1\n307"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6292-6295", "Text": "p /K\n309 1\n307 6\n390\nThe large difference in boiling points of alcohols and ethers is due\nto the presence of hydrogen bonding in alcohols"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6293-6296", "Text": "/K\n309 1\n307 6\n390\nThe large difference in boiling points of alcohols and ethers is due\nto the presence of hydrogen bonding in alcohols The miscibility of ethers with water resembles those of alcohols of\nthe same molecular mass"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6294-6297", "Text": "1\n307 6\n390\nThe large difference in boiling points of alcohols and ethers is due\nto the presence of hydrogen bonding in alcohols The miscibility of ethers with water resembles those of alcohols of\nthe same molecular mass Both ethoxyethane and butan-1-ol are\nmiscible to almost the same extent i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6295-6298", "Text": "6\n390\nThe large difference in boiling points of alcohols and ethers is due\nto the presence of hydrogen bonding in alcohols The miscibility of ethers with water resembles those of alcohols of\nthe same molecular mass Both ethoxyethane and butan-1-ol are\nmiscible to almost the same extent i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6296-6299", "Text": "The miscibility of ethers with water resembles those of alcohols of\nthe same molecular mass Both ethoxyethane and butan-1-ol are\nmiscible to almost the same extent i e , 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6297-6300", "Text": "Both ethoxyethane and butan-1-ol are\nmiscible to almost the same extent i e , 7 5 and 9 g per 100 mL water,\nrespectively while pentane is essentially immiscible with water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6298-6301", "Text": "e , 7 5 and 9 g per 100 mL water,\nrespectively while pentane is essentially immiscible with water Can\nyou explain this observation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6299-6302", "Text": ", 7 5 and 9 g per 100 mL water,\nrespectively while pentane is essentially immiscible with water Can\nyou explain this observation This is due to the fact that just like\nalcohols, oxygen of ether can also form hydrogen bonds with water\nmolecule as shown:\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6300-6303", "Text": "5 and 9 g per 100 mL water,\nrespectively while pentane is essentially immiscible with water Can\nyou explain this observation This is due to the fact that just like\nalcohols, oxygen of ether can also form hydrogen bonds with water\nmolecule as shown:\n1 Cleavage of C\u2013O bond in ethers\nEthers are the least reactive of the functional groups"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6301-6304", "Text": "Can\nyou explain this observation This is due to the fact that just like\nalcohols, oxygen of ether can also form hydrogen bonds with water\nmolecule as shown:\n1 Cleavage of C\u2013O bond in ethers\nEthers are the least reactive of the functional groups The cleavage of\nC-O bond in ethers takes place under drastic conditions with excess\nof hydrogen halides"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6302-6305", "Text": "This is due to the fact that just like\nalcohols, oxygen of ether can also form hydrogen bonds with water\nmolecule as shown:\n1 Cleavage of C\u2013O bond in ethers\nEthers are the least reactive of the functional groups The cleavage of\nC-O bond in ethers takes place under drastic conditions with excess\nof hydrogen halides The reaction of dialkyl ether gives two alkyl\nhalide molecules"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6303-6306", "Text": "Cleavage of C\u2013O bond in ethers\nEthers are the least reactive of the functional groups The cleavage of\nC-O bond in ethers takes place under drastic conditions with excess\nof hydrogen halides The reaction of dialkyl ether gives two alkyl\nhalide molecules Alkyl aryl ethers are cleaved at the alkyl-oxygen bond due to the\nmore stable aryl-oxygen bond"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6304-6307", "Text": "The cleavage of\nC-O bond in ethers takes place under drastic conditions with excess\nof hydrogen halides The reaction of dialkyl ether gives two alkyl\nhalide molecules Alkyl aryl ethers are cleaved at the alkyl-oxygen bond due to the\nmore stable aryl-oxygen bond The reaction yields phenol and alkyl\nhalide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6305-6308", "Text": "The reaction of dialkyl ether gives two alkyl\nhalide molecules Alkyl aryl ethers are cleaved at the alkyl-oxygen bond due to the\nmore stable aryl-oxygen bond The reaction yields phenol and alkyl\nhalide Ethers with two different alkyl groups are also cleaved in the same\nmanner"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6306-6309", "Text": "Alkyl aryl ethers are cleaved at the alkyl-oxygen bond due to the\nmore stable aryl-oxygen bond The reaction yields phenol and alkyl\nhalide Ethers with two different alkyl groups are also cleaved in the same\nmanner The order of reactivity of hydrogen halides is as follows:\nHI > HBr > HCl"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6307-6310", "Text": "The reaction yields phenol and alkyl\nhalide Ethers with two different alkyl groups are also cleaved in the same\nmanner The order of reactivity of hydrogen halides is as follows:\nHI > HBr > HCl The cleavage of ethers takes place with concentrated\nHI or HBr at high temperature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6308-6311", "Text": "Ethers with two different alkyl groups are also cleaved in the same\nmanner The order of reactivity of hydrogen halides is as follows:\nHI > HBr > HCl The cleavage of ethers takes place with concentrated\nHI or HBr at high temperature 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6309-6312", "Text": "The order of reactivity of hydrogen halides is as follows:\nHI > HBr > HCl The cleavage of ethers takes place with concentrated\nHI or HBr at high temperature 7 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6310-6313", "Text": "The cleavage of ethers takes place with concentrated\nHI or HBr at high temperature 7 6 2\nPhysical\nProperties\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6311-6314", "Text": "7 6 2\nPhysical\nProperties\n7 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6312-6315", "Text": "6 2\nPhysical\nProperties\n7 6 3\nChemical\nReactions\nRationalised 2023-24\n218\nChemistry\nThe reaction of an ether with concentrated HI starts with protonation of ether molecule"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6313-6316", "Text": "2\nPhysical\nProperties\n7 6 3\nChemical\nReactions\nRationalised 2023-24\n218\nChemistry\nThe reaction of an ether with concentrated HI starts with protonation of ether molecule Step 1:\nThe reaction takes place with HBr or HI because these reagents are sufficiently acidic"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6314-6317", "Text": "6 3\nChemical\nReactions\nRationalised 2023-24\n218\nChemistry\nThe reaction of an ether with concentrated HI starts with protonation of ether molecule Step 1:\nThe reaction takes place with HBr or HI because these reagents are sufficiently acidic Step 2:\nIodide is a good nucleophile"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6315-6318", "Text": "3\nChemical\nReactions\nRationalised 2023-24\n218\nChemistry\nThe reaction of an ether with concentrated HI starts with protonation of ether molecule Step 1:\nThe reaction takes place with HBr or HI because these reagents are sufficiently acidic Step 2:\nIodide is a good nucleophile It attacks the least substituted carbon of the oxonium\nion formed in step 1 and displaces an alcohol molecule by SN2\n mechanism"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6316-6319", "Text": "Step 1:\nThe reaction takes place with HBr or HI because these reagents are sufficiently acidic Step 2:\nIodide is a good nucleophile It attacks the least substituted carbon of the oxonium\nion formed in step 1 and displaces an alcohol molecule by SN2\n mechanism Thus, in the cleavage of mixed ethers with two different alkyl groups, the alcohol\nand alkyl iodide formed, depend on the nature of alkyl groups"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6317-6320", "Text": "Step 2:\nIodide is a good nucleophile It attacks the least substituted carbon of the oxonium\nion formed in step 1 and displaces an alcohol molecule by SN2\n mechanism Thus, in the cleavage of mixed ethers with two different alkyl groups, the alcohol\nand alkyl iodide formed, depend on the nature of alkyl groups When primary or\nsecondary alkyl groups are present, it is the lower alkyl group that forms alkyl\niodide (SN2 reaction)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6318-6321", "Text": "It attacks the least substituted carbon of the oxonium\nion formed in step 1 and displaces an alcohol molecule by SN2\n mechanism Thus, in the cleavage of mixed ethers with two different alkyl groups, the alcohol\nand alkyl iodide formed, depend on the nature of alkyl groups When primary or\nsecondary alkyl groups are present, it is the lower alkyl group that forms alkyl\niodide (SN2 reaction) When HI is in excess and the reaction is carried out at high temperature,\nethanol reacts with another molecule of HI and is converted to ethyl iodide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6319-6322", "Text": "Thus, in the cleavage of mixed ethers with two different alkyl groups, the alcohol\nand alkyl iodide formed, depend on the nature of alkyl groups When primary or\nsecondary alkyl groups are present, it is the lower alkyl group that forms alkyl\niodide (SN2 reaction) When HI is in excess and the reaction is carried out at high temperature,\nethanol reacts with another molecule of HI and is converted to ethyl iodide Step 3:\nMechanism\nMechanism\nMechanism\nMechanism\nMechanism\nHowever, when one of the alkyl group is a tertiary group, the halide\nformed is a tertiary halide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6320-6323", "Text": "When primary or\nsecondary alkyl groups are present, it is the lower alkyl group that forms alkyl\niodide (SN2 reaction) When HI is in excess and the reaction is carried out at high temperature,\nethanol reacts with another molecule of HI and is converted to ethyl iodide Step 3:\nMechanism\nMechanism\nMechanism\nMechanism\nMechanism\nHowever, when one of the alkyl group is a tertiary group, the halide\nformed is a tertiary halide CH\nC\nCH +HI\nCH OH +CH\nC\nI\n3\n3\n3\n3\nCH3\nCH3\nCH3\nCH3\nO\nIt is because in step 2 of the reaction, the departure of leaving group\n(HO\u2013CH3) creates a more stable carbocation [(CH3)3C\n+], and the reaction\nfollows SN1 mechanism"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6321-6324", "Text": "When HI is in excess and the reaction is carried out at high temperature,\nethanol reacts with another molecule of HI and is converted to ethyl iodide Step 3:\nMechanism\nMechanism\nMechanism\nMechanism\nMechanism\nHowever, when one of the alkyl group is a tertiary group, the halide\nformed is a tertiary halide CH\nC\nCH +HI\nCH OH +CH\nC\nI\n3\n3\n3\n3\nCH3\nCH3\nCH3\nCH3\nO\nIt is because in step 2 of the reaction, the departure of leaving group\n(HO\u2013CH3) creates a more stable carbocation [(CH3)3C\n+], and the reaction\nfollows SN1 mechanism In case of anisole, methylphenyl\noxonium ion, \n is\nformed by protonation of ether"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6322-6325", "Text": "Step 3:\nMechanism\nMechanism\nMechanism\nMechanism\nMechanism\nHowever, when one of the alkyl group is a tertiary group, the halide\nformed is a tertiary halide CH\nC\nCH +HI\nCH OH +CH\nC\nI\n3\n3\n3\n3\nCH3\nCH3\nCH3\nCH3\nO\nIt is because in step 2 of the reaction, the departure of leaving group\n(HO\u2013CH3) creates a more stable carbocation [(CH3)3C\n+], and the reaction\nfollows SN1 mechanism In case of anisole, methylphenyl\noxonium ion, \n is\nformed by protonation of ether The\nbond between O\u2013CH3 is weaker\nthan the bond between O\u2013C6H5\nbecause the carbon of phenyl\ngroup is sp\n2 hybridised and there\nis a partial double bond character"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6323-6326", "Text": "CH\nC\nCH +HI\nCH OH +CH\nC\nI\n3\n3\n3\n3\nCH3\nCH3\nCH3\nCH3\nO\nIt is because in step 2 of the reaction, the departure of leaving group\n(HO\u2013CH3) creates a more stable carbocation [(CH3)3C\n+], and the reaction\nfollows SN1 mechanism In case of anisole, methylphenyl\noxonium ion, \n is\nformed by protonation of ether The\nbond between O\u2013CH3 is weaker\nthan the bond between O\u2013C6H5\nbecause the carbon of phenyl\ngroup is sp\n2 hybridised and there\nis a partial double bond character CH3\nC\nCH3\nCH3\nO\nH\n+\nCH3\nslow\nCH3\nC\nCH3\nCH3\n+ + CH OH\n3\nfast\nCH3\nC\nCH3\nCH3\nCH3\nC\nCH3\nCH3\n+\n+\nI\n\u2013\nI\nRationalised 2023-24\n219\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\nTherefore the attack by I\n\u2013 ion breaks O\u2013CH3 bond to form CH3I"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6324-6327", "Text": "In case of anisole, methylphenyl\noxonium ion, \n is\nformed by protonation of ether The\nbond between O\u2013CH3 is weaker\nthan the bond between O\u2013C6H5\nbecause the carbon of phenyl\ngroup is sp\n2 hybridised and there\nis a partial double bond character CH3\nC\nCH3\nCH3\nO\nH\n+\nCH3\nslow\nCH3\nC\nCH3\nCH3\n+ + CH OH\n3\nfast\nCH3\nC\nCH3\nCH3\nCH3\nC\nCH3\nCH3\n+\n+\nI\n\u2013\nI\nRationalised 2023-24\n219\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\nTherefore the attack by I\n\u2013 ion breaks O\u2013CH3 bond to form CH3I Phenols\ndo not react further to give halides because the sp\n2 hybridised carbon\nof phenol cannot undergo nucleophilic substitution reaction needed\nfor conversion to the halide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6325-6328", "Text": "The\nbond between O\u2013CH3 is weaker\nthan the bond between O\u2013C6H5\nbecause the carbon of phenyl\ngroup is sp\n2 hybridised and there\nis a partial double bond character CH3\nC\nCH3\nCH3\nO\nH\n+\nCH3\nslow\nCH3\nC\nCH3\nCH3\n+ + CH OH\n3\nfast\nCH3\nC\nCH3\nCH3\nCH3\nC\nCH3\nCH3\n+\n+\nI\n\u2013\nI\nRationalised 2023-24\n219\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\nTherefore the attack by I\n\u2013 ion breaks O\u2013CH3 bond to form CH3I Phenols\ndo not react further to give halides because the sp\n2 hybridised carbon\nof phenol cannot undergo nucleophilic substitution reaction needed\nfor conversion to the halide Give the major products that are formed by heating each of the following\nethers with HI"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6326-6329", "Text": "CH3\nC\nCH3\nCH3\nO\nH\n+\nCH3\nslow\nCH3\nC\nCH3\nCH3\n+ + CH OH\n3\nfast\nCH3\nC\nCH3\nCH3\nCH3\nC\nCH3\nCH3\n+\n+\nI\n\u2013\nI\nRationalised 2023-24\n219\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\nTherefore the attack by I\n\u2013 ion breaks O\u2013CH3 bond to form CH3I Phenols\ndo not react further to give halides because the sp\n2 hybridised carbon\nof phenol cannot undergo nucleophilic substitution reaction needed\nfor conversion to the halide Give the major products that are formed by heating each of the following\nethers with HI Example 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6327-6330", "Text": "Phenols\ndo not react further to give halides because the sp\n2 hybridised carbon\nof phenol cannot undergo nucleophilic substitution reaction needed\nfor conversion to the halide Give the major products that are formed by heating each of the following\nethers with HI Example 7 7\nExample 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6328-6331", "Text": "Give the major products that are formed by heating each of the following\nethers with HI Example 7 7\nExample 7 7\nExample 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6329-6332", "Text": "Example 7 7\nExample 7 7\nExample 7 7\nExample 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6330-6333", "Text": "7\nExample 7 7\nExample 7 7\nExample 7 7\nExample 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6331-6334", "Text": "7\nExample 7 7\nExample 7 7\nExample 7 7\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n(iii)\n(i)\n(ii)\n(iii)\n(i)\n(ii)\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6332-6335", "Text": "7\nExample 7 7\nExample 7 7\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n(iii)\n(i)\n(ii)\n(iii)\n(i)\n(ii)\n2 Electrophilic substitution\nThe alkoxy group (-OR) is ortho, para directing and activates the\naromatic ring towards electrophilic substitution in the same way as\nin phenol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6333-6336", "Text": "7\nExample 7 7\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n(iii)\n(i)\n(ii)\n(iii)\n(i)\n(ii)\n2 Electrophilic substitution\nThe alkoxy group (-OR) is ortho, para directing and activates the\naromatic ring towards electrophilic substitution in the same way as\nin phenol (i) Halogenation: Phenylalkyl ethers undergo usual halogenation\nin the benzene ring, e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6334-6337", "Text": "7\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n(iii)\n(i)\n(ii)\n(iii)\n(i)\n(ii)\n2 Electrophilic substitution\nThe alkoxy group (-OR) is ortho, para directing and activates the\naromatic ring towards electrophilic substitution in the same way as\nin phenol (i) Halogenation: Phenylalkyl ethers undergo usual halogenation\nin the benzene ring, e g"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6335-6338", "Text": "Electrophilic substitution\nThe alkoxy group (-OR) is ortho, para directing and activates the\naromatic ring towards electrophilic substitution in the same way as\nin phenol (i) Halogenation: Phenylalkyl ethers undergo usual halogenation\nin the benzene ring, e g , anisole undergoes bromination with\nbromine in ethanoic acid even in the absence of iron (III) bromide\ncatalyst"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6336-6339", "Text": "(i) Halogenation: Phenylalkyl ethers undergo usual halogenation\nin the benzene ring, e g , anisole undergoes bromination with\nbromine in ethanoic acid even in the absence of iron (III) bromide\ncatalyst It is due to the activation of benzene ring by the methoxy\ngroup"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6337-6340", "Text": "g , anisole undergoes bromination with\nbromine in ethanoic acid even in the absence of iron (III) bromide\ncatalyst It is due to the activation of benzene ring by the methoxy\ngroup Para isomer is obtained in 90% yield"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6338-6341", "Text": ", anisole undergoes bromination with\nbromine in ethanoic acid even in the absence of iron (III) bromide\ncatalyst It is due to the activation of benzene ring by the methoxy\ngroup Para isomer is obtained in 90% yield Rationalised 2023-24\n220\nChemistry\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6339-6342", "Text": "It is due to the activation of benzene ring by the methoxy\ngroup Para isomer is obtained in 90% yield Rationalised 2023-24\n220\nChemistry\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n7 10\nWrite the reactions of Williamson synthesis of 2-ethoxy-3-methylpentane\nstarting from ethanol and 3-methylpentan-2-ol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6340-6343", "Text": "Para isomer is obtained in 90% yield Rationalised 2023-24\n220\nChemistry\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n7 10\nWrite the reactions of Williamson synthesis of 2-ethoxy-3-methylpentane\nstarting from ethanol and 3-methylpentan-2-ol 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6341-6344", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n220\nChemistry\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n7 10\nWrite the reactions of Williamson synthesis of 2-ethoxy-3-methylpentane\nstarting from ethanol and 3-methylpentan-2-ol 7 11\nWhich of the following is an appropriate set of reactants for the\npreparation of 1-methoxy-4-nitrobenzene and why"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6342-6345", "Text": "10\nWrite the reactions of Williamson synthesis of 2-ethoxy-3-methylpentane\nstarting from ethanol and 3-methylpentan-2-ol 7 11\nWhich of the following is an appropriate set of reactants for the\npreparation of 1-methoxy-4-nitrobenzene and why (i)\n(ii)\n(ii) Friedel-Crafts reaction: Anisole undergoes Friedel-Crafts reaction,\ni"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6343-6346", "Text": "7 11\nWhich of the following is an appropriate set of reactants for the\npreparation of 1-methoxy-4-nitrobenzene and why (i)\n(ii)\n(ii) Friedel-Crafts reaction: Anisole undergoes Friedel-Crafts reaction,\ni e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6344-6347", "Text": "11\nWhich of the following is an appropriate set of reactants for the\npreparation of 1-methoxy-4-nitrobenzene and why (i)\n(ii)\n(ii) Friedel-Crafts reaction: Anisole undergoes Friedel-Crafts reaction,\ni e , the alkyl and acyl groups are introduced at ortho and para\npositions by reaction with alkyl halide and acyl halide in the\npresence of anhydrous aluminium chloride (a Lewis acid) as catalyst"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6345-6348", "Text": "(i)\n(ii)\n(ii) Friedel-Crafts reaction: Anisole undergoes Friedel-Crafts reaction,\ni e , the alkyl and acyl groups are introduced at ortho and para\npositions by reaction with alkyl halide and acyl halide in the\npresence of anhydrous aluminium chloride (a Lewis acid) as catalyst (iii) Nitration: Anisole reacts with a mixture of concentrated sulphuric\nand nitric acids to yield a mixture of ortho and para nitroanisole"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6346-6349", "Text": "e , the alkyl and acyl groups are introduced at ortho and para\npositions by reaction with alkyl halide and acyl halide in the\npresence of anhydrous aluminium chloride (a Lewis acid) as catalyst (iii) Nitration: Anisole reacts with a mixture of concentrated sulphuric\nand nitric acids to yield a mixture of ortho and para nitroanisole Rationalised 2023-24\n221\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6347-6350", "Text": ", the alkyl and acyl groups are introduced at ortho and para\npositions by reaction with alkyl halide and acyl halide in the\npresence of anhydrous aluminium chloride (a Lewis acid) as catalyst (iii) Nitration: Anisole reacts with a mixture of concentrated sulphuric\nand nitric acids to yield a mixture of ortho and para nitroanisole Rationalised 2023-24\n221\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\n7 12\nPredict the products of the following reactions:\n3\n2\n2\n3\nCH\nCH\nCH\nO \u2013 CH\nHBr\n\u2212\n\u2212\n\u2212\n+\n\u2192\nCH\nC\nOC H\nHI\n3\n3\n2\n5\n(\n)\n\u2212\n\uf8e7\n\u2192\n\uf8e7\uf8e7\n(iii)\n(ii)\n(iv)\nAlcohols and phenols are classified (i) on the basis of the number of hydroxyl\ngroups and (ii) according to the hybridisation of the carbon atom, sp\n3 or sp\n2 to\nwhich the \u2013OH group is attached"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6348-6351", "Text": "(iii) Nitration: Anisole reacts with a mixture of concentrated sulphuric\nand nitric acids to yield a mixture of ortho and para nitroanisole Rationalised 2023-24\n221\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\n7 12\nPredict the products of the following reactions:\n3\n2\n2\n3\nCH\nCH\nCH\nO \u2013 CH\nHBr\n\u2212\n\u2212\n\u2212\n+\n\u2192\nCH\nC\nOC H\nHI\n3\n3\n2\n5\n(\n)\n\u2212\n\uf8e7\n\u2192\n\uf8e7\uf8e7\n(iii)\n(ii)\n(iv)\nAlcohols and phenols are classified (i) on the basis of the number of hydroxyl\ngroups and (ii) according to the hybridisation of the carbon atom, sp\n3 or sp\n2 to\nwhich the \u2013OH group is attached Ethers are classified on the basis of groups\nattached to the oxygen atom"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6349-6352", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n221\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\n7 12\nPredict the products of the following reactions:\n3\n2\n2\n3\nCH\nCH\nCH\nO \u2013 CH\nHBr\n\u2212\n\u2212\n\u2212\n+\n\u2192\nCH\nC\nOC H\nHI\n3\n3\n2\n5\n(\n)\n\u2212\n\uf8e7\n\u2192\n\uf8e7\uf8e7\n(iii)\n(ii)\n(iv)\nAlcohols and phenols are classified (i) on the basis of the number of hydroxyl\ngroups and (ii) according to the hybridisation of the carbon atom, sp\n3 or sp\n2 to\nwhich the \u2013OH group is attached Ethers are classified on the basis of groups\nattached to the oxygen atom Alcohols may be prepared (1) by hydration of alkenes (i) in presence of an\nacid and (ii) by hydroboration-oxidation reaction (2) from carbonyl compounds by\n(i) catalytic reduction and (ii) the action of Grignard reagents"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6350-6353", "Text": "12\nPredict the products of the following reactions:\n3\n2\n2\n3\nCH\nCH\nCH\nO \u2013 CH\nHBr\n\u2212\n\u2212\n\u2212\n+\n\u2192\nCH\nC\nOC H\nHI\n3\n3\n2\n5\n(\n)\n\u2212\n\uf8e7\n\u2192\n\uf8e7\uf8e7\n(iii)\n(ii)\n(iv)\nAlcohols and phenols are classified (i) on the basis of the number of hydroxyl\ngroups and (ii) according to the hybridisation of the carbon atom, sp\n3 or sp\n2 to\nwhich the \u2013OH group is attached Ethers are classified on the basis of groups\nattached to the oxygen atom Alcohols may be prepared (1) by hydration of alkenes (i) in presence of an\nacid and (ii) by hydroboration-oxidation reaction (2) from carbonyl compounds by\n(i) catalytic reduction and (ii) the action of Grignard reagents Phenols may be\nprepared by (1) substitution of (i) halogen atom in haloarenes and (ii) sulphonic\nacid group in aryl sulphonic acids, by \u2013OH group (2) by hydrolysis of diazonium\nsalts and (3) industrially from cumene"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6351-6354", "Text": "Ethers are classified on the basis of groups\nattached to the oxygen atom Alcohols may be prepared (1) by hydration of alkenes (i) in presence of an\nacid and (ii) by hydroboration-oxidation reaction (2) from carbonyl compounds by\n(i) catalytic reduction and (ii) the action of Grignard reagents Phenols may be\nprepared by (1) substitution of (i) halogen atom in haloarenes and (ii) sulphonic\nacid group in aryl sulphonic acids, by \u2013OH group (2) by hydrolysis of diazonium\nsalts and (3) industrially from cumene Alcohols are higher boiling than other classes of compounds, namely\nhydrocarbons, ethers and haloalkanes of comparable molecular masses"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6352-6355", "Text": "Alcohols may be prepared (1) by hydration of alkenes (i) in presence of an\nacid and (ii) by hydroboration-oxidation reaction (2) from carbonyl compounds by\n(i) catalytic reduction and (ii) the action of Grignard reagents Phenols may be\nprepared by (1) substitution of (i) halogen atom in haloarenes and (ii) sulphonic\nacid group in aryl sulphonic acids, by \u2013OH group (2) by hydrolysis of diazonium\nsalts and (3) industrially from cumene Alcohols are higher boiling than other classes of compounds, namely\nhydrocarbons, ethers and haloalkanes of comparable molecular masses The\nability of alcohols, phenols and ethers to form intermolecular hydrogen bonding\nwith water makes them soluble in it"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6353-6356", "Text": "Phenols may be\nprepared by (1) substitution of (i) halogen atom in haloarenes and (ii) sulphonic\nacid group in aryl sulphonic acids, by \u2013OH group (2) by hydrolysis of diazonium\nsalts and (3) industrially from cumene Alcohols are higher boiling than other classes of compounds, namely\nhydrocarbons, ethers and haloalkanes of comparable molecular masses The\nability of alcohols, phenols and ethers to form intermolecular hydrogen bonding\nwith water makes them soluble in it Alcohols and phenols are acidic in nature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6354-6357", "Text": "Alcohols are higher boiling than other classes of compounds, namely\nhydrocarbons, ethers and haloalkanes of comparable molecular masses The\nability of alcohols, phenols and ethers to form intermolecular hydrogen bonding\nwith water makes them soluble in it Alcohols and phenols are acidic in nature Electron withdrawing groups in\nphenol increase its acidic strength and electron releasing groups decrease it"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6355-6358", "Text": "The\nability of alcohols, phenols and ethers to form intermolecular hydrogen bonding\nwith water makes them soluble in it Alcohols and phenols are acidic in nature Electron withdrawing groups in\nphenol increase its acidic strength and electron releasing groups decrease it Alcohols undergo nucleophilic substitution with hydrogen halides to yield\nalkyl halides"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6356-6359", "Text": "Alcohols and phenols are acidic in nature Electron withdrawing groups in\nphenol increase its acidic strength and electron releasing groups decrease it Alcohols undergo nucleophilic substitution with hydrogen halides to yield\nalkyl halides Dehydration of alcohols gives alkenes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6357-6360", "Text": "Electron withdrawing groups in\nphenol increase its acidic strength and electron releasing groups decrease it Alcohols undergo nucleophilic substitution with hydrogen halides to yield\nalkyl halides Dehydration of alcohols gives alkenes On oxidation, primary alcohols\nyield aldehydes with mild oxidising agents and carboxylic acids with strong\noxidising agents while secondary alcohols yield ketones"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6358-6361", "Text": "Alcohols undergo nucleophilic substitution with hydrogen halides to yield\nalkyl halides Dehydration of alcohols gives alkenes On oxidation, primary alcohols\nyield aldehydes with mild oxidising agents and carboxylic acids with strong\noxidising agents while secondary alcohols yield ketones Tertiary alcohols are\nresistant to oxidation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6359-6362", "Text": "Dehydration of alcohols gives alkenes On oxidation, primary alcohols\nyield aldehydes with mild oxidising agents and carboxylic acids with strong\noxidising agents while secondary alcohols yield ketones Tertiary alcohols are\nresistant to oxidation The presence of \u2013OH group in phenols activates the aromatic ring towards\nelectrophilic substitution and directs the incoming group to ortho and para\npositions due to resonance effect"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6360-6363", "Text": "On oxidation, primary alcohols\nyield aldehydes with mild oxidising agents and carboxylic acids with strong\noxidising agents while secondary alcohols yield ketones Tertiary alcohols are\nresistant to oxidation The presence of \u2013OH group in phenols activates the aromatic ring towards\nelectrophilic substitution and directs the incoming group to ortho and para\npositions due to resonance effect Reimer-Tiemann reaction of phenol yields\nsalicylaldehyde"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6361-6364", "Text": "Tertiary alcohols are\nresistant to oxidation The presence of \u2013OH group in phenols activates the aromatic ring towards\nelectrophilic substitution and directs the incoming group to ortho and para\npositions due to resonance effect Reimer-Tiemann reaction of phenol yields\nsalicylaldehyde In presence of sodium hydroxide, phenol generates phenoxide\nion which is even more reactive than phenol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6362-6365", "Text": "The presence of \u2013OH group in phenols activates the aromatic ring towards\nelectrophilic substitution and directs the incoming group to ortho and para\npositions due to resonance effect Reimer-Tiemann reaction of phenol yields\nsalicylaldehyde In presence of sodium hydroxide, phenol generates phenoxide\nion which is even more reactive than phenol Thus, in alkaline medium, phenol\nundergoes Kolbe\u2019s reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6363-6366", "Text": "Reimer-Tiemann reaction of phenol yields\nsalicylaldehyde In presence of sodium hydroxide, phenol generates phenoxide\nion which is even more reactive than phenol Thus, in alkaline medium, phenol\nundergoes Kolbe\u2019s reaction Ethers may be prepared by (i) dehydration of alcohols and (ii) Williamson\nsynthesis"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6364-6367", "Text": "In presence of sodium hydroxide, phenol generates phenoxide\nion which is even more reactive than phenol Thus, in alkaline medium, phenol\nundergoes Kolbe\u2019s reaction Ethers may be prepared by (i) dehydration of alcohols and (ii) Williamson\nsynthesis The boiling points of ethers resemble those of alkanes while their\nsolubility is comparable to those of alcohols having same molecular mass"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6365-6368", "Text": "Thus, in alkaline medium, phenol\nundergoes Kolbe\u2019s reaction Ethers may be prepared by (i) dehydration of alcohols and (ii) Williamson\nsynthesis The boiling points of ethers resemble those of alkanes while their\nsolubility is comparable to those of alcohols having same molecular mass The\nC\u2013O bond in ethers can be cleaved by hydrogen halides"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6366-6369", "Text": "Ethers may be prepared by (i) dehydration of alcohols and (ii) Williamson\nsynthesis The boiling points of ethers resemble those of alkanes while their\nsolubility is comparable to those of alcohols having same molecular mass The\nC\u2013O bond in ethers can be cleaved by hydrogen halides In electrophilic\nsubstitution, the alkoxy group activates the aromatic ring and directs the incoming\ngroup to ortho and para positions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6367-6370", "Text": "The boiling points of ethers resemble those of alkanes while their\nsolubility is comparable to those of alcohols having same molecular mass The\nC\u2013O bond in ethers can be cleaved by hydrogen halides In electrophilic\nsubstitution, the alkoxy group activates the aromatic ring and directs the incoming\ngroup to ortho and para positions Summary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\n(i)\nRationalised 2023-24\n222\nChemistry\nExercises\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6368-6371", "Text": "The\nC\u2013O bond in ethers can be cleaved by hydrogen halides In electrophilic\nsubstitution, the alkoxy group activates the aromatic ring and directs the incoming\ngroup to ortho and para positions Summary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\n(i)\nRationalised 2023-24\n222\nChemistry\nExercises\n7 1 Write IUPAC names of the following compounds:\n(i)\n(ii)\n(iii)\n(iv)\n(v)\n(vi)\n(vii)\n(viii)\n(ix)\n(x) C6H5\u2013O\u2013C2H5\n(xi) C6H5\u2013O\u2013C7H15(n\u2013)\n(xii)\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6369-6372", "Text": "In electrophilic\nsubstitution, the alkoxy group activates the aromatic ring and directs the incoming\ngroup to ortho and para positions Summary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\n(i)\nRationalised 2023-24\n222\nChemistry\nExercises\n7 1 Write IUPAC names of the following compounds:\n(i)\n(ii)\n(iii)\n(iv)\n(v)\n(vi)\n(vii)\n(viii)\n(ix)\n(x) C6H5\u2013O\u2013C2H5\n(xi) C6H5\u2013O\u2013C7H15(n\u2013)\n(xii)\n7 2 Write structures of the compounds whose IUPAC names are as follows:\n(i) 2-Methylbutan-2-ol\n(ii) 1-Phenylpropan-2-ol\n(iii) 3,5-Dimethylhexane \u20131, 3, 5-triol\n(iv) 2,3 \u2013 Diethylphenol\n(v) 1 \u2013 Ethoxypropane\n(vi) 2-Ethoxy-3-methylpentane\n(vii) Cyclohexylmethanol\n(viii) 3-Cyclohexylpentan-3-ol\n(ix) Cyclopent-3-en-1-ol\n(x) 4-Chloro-3-ethylbutan-1-ol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6370-6373", "Text": "Summary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\n(i)\nRationalised 2023-24\n222\nChemistry\nExercises\n7 1 Write IUPAC names of the following compounds:\n(i)\n(ii)\n(iii)\n(iv)\n(v)\n(vi)\n(vii)\n(viii)\n(ix)\n(x) C6H5\u2013O\u2013C2H5\n(xi) C6H5\u2013O\u2013C7H15(n\u2013)\n(xii)\n7 2 Write structures of the compounds whose IUPAC names are as follows:\n(i) 2-Methylbutan-2-ol\n(ii) 1-Phenylpropan-2-ol\n(iii) 3,5-Dimethylhexane \u20131, 3, 5-triol\n(iv) 2,3 \u2013 Diethylphenol\n(v) 1 \u2013 Ethoxypropane\n(vi) 2-Ethoxy-3-methylpentane\n(vii) Cyclohexylmethanol\n(viii) 3-Cyclohexylpentan-3-ol\n(ix) Cyclopent-3-en-1-ol\n(x) 4-Chloro-3-ethylbutan-1-ol 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6371-6374", "Text": "1 Write IUPAC names of the following compounds:\n(i)\n(ii)\n(iii)\n(iv)\n(v)\n(vi)\n(vii)\n(viii)\n(ix)\n(x) C6H5\u2013O\u2013C2H5\n(xi) C6H5\u2013O\u2013C7H15(n\u2013)\n(xii)\n7 2 Write structures of the compounds whose IUPAC names are as follows:\n(i) 2-Methylbutan-2-ol\n(ii) 1-Phenylpropan-2-ol\n(iii) 3,5-Dimethylhexane \u20131, 3, 5-triol\n(iv) 2,3 \u2013 Diethylphenol\n(v) 1 \u2013 Ethoxypropane\n(vi) 2-Ethoxy-3-methylpentane\n(vii) Cyclohexylmethanol\n(viii) 3-Cyclohexylpentan-3-ol\n(ix) Cyclopent-3-en-1-ol\n(x) 4-Chloro-3-ethylbutan-1-ol 7 3 (i)\nDraw the structures of all isomeric alcohols of molecular formula C5H12O\nand give their IUPAC names"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6372-6375", "Text": "2 Write structures of the compounds whose IUPAC names are as follows:\n(i) 2-Methylbutan-2-ol\n(ii) 1-Phenylpropan-2-ol\n(iii) 3,5-Dimethylhexane \u20131, 3, 5-triol\n(iv) 2,3 \u2013 Diethylphenol\n(v) 1 \u2013 Ethoxypropane\n(vi) 2-Ethoxy-3-methylpentane\n(vii) Cyclohexylmethanol\n(viii) 3-Cyclohexylpentan-3-ol\n(ix) Cyclopent-3-en-1-ol\n(x) 4-Chloro-3-ethylbutan-1-ol 7 3 (i)\nDraw the structures of all isomeric alcohols of molecular formula C5H12O\nand give their IUPAC names (ii) Classify the isomers of alcohols in question 11"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6373-6376", "Text": "7 3 (i)\nDraw the structures of all isomeric alcohols of molecular formula C5H12O\nand give their IUPAC names (ii) Classify the isomers of alcohols in question 11 3 (i) as primary, secondary\nand tertiary alcohols"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6374-6377", "Text": "3 (i)\nDraw the structures of all isomeric alcohols of molecular formula C5H12O\nand give their IUPAC names (ii) Classify the isomers of alcohols in question 11 3 (i) as primary, secondary\nand tertiary alcohols 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6375-6378", "Text": "(ii) Classify the isomers of alcohols in question 11 3 (i) as primary, secondary\nand tertiary alcohols 7 4 Explain why propanol has higher boiling point than that of the hydrocarbon,\nbutane"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6376-6379", "Text": "3 (i) as primary, secondary\nand tertiary alcohols 7 4 Explain why propanol has higher boiling point than that of the hydrocarbon,\nbutane 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6377-6380", "Text": "7 4 Explain why propanol has higher boiling point than that of the hydrocarbon,\nbutane 7 5 Alcohols are comparatively more soluble in water than hydrocarbons of\ncomparable molecular masses"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6378-6381", "Text": "4 Explain why propanol has higher boiling point than that of the hydrocarbon,\nbutane 7 5 Alcohols are comparatively more soluble in water than hydrocarbons of\ncomparable molecular masses Explain this fact"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6379-6382", "Text": "7 5 Alcohols are comparatively more soluble in water than hydrocarbons of\ncomparable molecular masses Explain this fact 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6380-6383", "Text": "5 Alcohols are comparatively more soluble in water than hydrocarbons of\ncomparable molecular masses Explain this fact 7 6 What is meant by hydroboration-oxidation reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6381-6384", "Text": "Explain this fact 7 6 What is meant by hydroboration-oxidation reaction Illustrate it with an example"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6382-6385", "Text": "7 6 What is meant by hydroboration-oxidation reaction Illustrate it with an example 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6383-6386", "Text": "6 What is meant by hydroboration-oxidation reaction Illustrate it with an example 7 7 Give the structures and IUPAC names of monohydric phenols of molecular\nformula, C7H8O"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6384-6387", "Text": "Illustrate it with an example 7 7 Give the structures and IUPAC names of monohydric phenols of molecular\nformula, C7H8O 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6385-6388", "Text": "7 7 Give the structures and IUPAC names of monohydric phenols of molecular\nformula, C7H8O 7 8 While separating a mixture of ortho and para nitrophenols by steam\ndistillation, name the isomer which will be steam volatile"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6386-6389", "Text": "7 Give the structures and IUPAC names of monohydric phenols of molecular\nformula, C7H8O 7 8 While separating a mixture of ortho and para nitrophenols by steam\ndistillation, name the isomer which will be steam volatile Give reason"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6387-6390", "Text": "7 8 While separating a mixture of ortho and para nitrophenols by steam\ndistillation, name the isomer which will be steam volatile Give reason 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6388-6391", "Text": "8 While separating a mixture of ortho and para nitrophenols by steam\ndistillation, name the isomer which will be steam volatile Give reason 7 9 Give the equations of reactions for the preparation of phenol from cumene"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6389-6392", "Text": "Give reason 7 9 Give the equations of reactions for the preparation of phenol from cumene 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6390-6393", "Text": "7 9 Give the equations of reactions for the preparation of phenol from cumene 7 10 Write chemical reaction for the preparation of phenol from chlorobenzene"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6391-6394", "Text": "9 Give the equations of reactions for the preparation of phenol from cumene 7 10 Write chemical reaction for the preparation of phenol from chlorobenzene 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6392-6395", "Text": "7 10 Write chemical reaction for the preparation of phenol from chlorobenzene 7 11 Write the mechanism of hydration of ethene to yield ethanol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6393-6396", "Text": "10 Write chemical reaction for the preparation of phenol from chlorobenzene 7 11 Write the mechanism of hydration of ethene to yield ethanol 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6394-6397", "Text": "7 11 Write the mechanism of hydration of ethene to yield ethanol 7 12 You are given benzene, conc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6395-6398", "Text": "11 Write the mechanism of hydration of ethene to yield ethanol 7 12 You are given benzene, conc H2SO4 and NaOH"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6396-6399", "Text": "7 12 You are given benzene, conc H2SO4 and NaOH Write the equations for the\npreparation of phenol using these reagents"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6397-6400", "Text": "12 You are given benzene, conc H2SO4 and NaOH Write the equations for the\npreparation of phenol using these reagents Rationalised 2023-24\n223\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6398-6401", "Text": "H2SO4 and NaOH Write the equations for the\npreparation of phenol using these reagents Rationalised 2023-24\n223\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\n7 13 Show how will you synthesise:\n(i) 1-phenylethanol from a suitable alkene"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6399-6402", "Text": "Write the equations for the\npreparation of phenol using these reagents Rationalised 2023-24\n223\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\n7 13 Show how will you synthesise:\n(i) 1-phenylethanol from a suitable alkene (ii) cyclohexylmethanol using an alkyl halide by an SN2 reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6400-6403", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n223\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\n7 13 Show how will you synthesise:\n(i) 1-phenylethanol from a suitable alkene (ii) cyclohexylmethanol using an alkyl halide by an SN2 reaction (iii) pentan-1-ol using a suitable alkyl halide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6401-6404", "Text": "13 Show how will you synthesise:\n(i) 1-phenylethanol from a suitable alkene (ii) cyclohexylmethanol using an alkyl halide by an SN2 reaction (iii) pentan-1-ol using a suitable alkyl halide 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6402-6405", "Text": "(ii) cyclohexylmethanol using an alkyl halide by an SN2 reaction (iii) pentan-1-ol using a suitable alkyl halide 7 14 Give two reactions that show the acidic nature of phenol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6403-6406", "Text": "(iii) pentan-1-ol using a suitable alkyl halide 7 14 Give two reactions that show the acidic nature of phenol Compare acidity\nof phenol with that of ethanol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6404-6407", "Text": "7 14 Give two reactions that show the acidic nature of phenol Compare acidity\nof phenol with that of ethanol 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6405-6408", "Text": "14 Give two reactions that show the acidic nature of phenol Compare acidity\nof phenol with that of ethanol 7 15 Explain why is ortho nitrophenol more acidic than ortho methoxyphenol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6406-6409", "Text": "Compare acidity\nof phenol with that of ethanol 7 15 Explain why is ortho nitrophenol more acidic than ortho methoxyphenol 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6407-6410", "Text": "7 15 Explain why is ortho nitrophenol more acidic than ortho methoxyphenol 7 16 Explain how does the \u2013OH group attached to a carbon of benzene ring\nactivate it towards electrophilic substitution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6408-6411", "Text": "15 Explain why is ortho nitrophenol more acidic than ortho methoxyphenol 7 16 Explain how does the \u2013OH group attached to a carbon of benzene ring\nactivate it towards electrophilic substitution 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6409-6412", "Text": "7 16 Explain how does the \u2013OH group attached to a carbon of benzene ring\nactivate it towards electrophilic substitution 7 17 Give equations of the following reactions:\n(i) Oxidation of propan-1-ol with alkaline KMnO4 solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6410-6413", "Text": "16 Explain how does the \u2013OH group attached to a carbon of benzene ring\nactivate it towards electrophilic substitution 7 17 Give equations of the following reactions:\n(i) Oxidation of propan-1-ol with alkaline KMnO4 solution (ii) Bromine in CS2 with phenol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6411-6414", "Text": "7 17 Give equations of the following reactions:\n(i) Oxidation of propan-1-ol with alkaline KMnO4 solution (ii) Bromine in CS2 with phenol (iii) Dilute HNO3 with phenol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6412-6415", "Text": "17 Give equations of the following reactions:\n(i) Oxidation of propan-1-ol with alkaline KMnO4 solution (ii) Bromine in CS2 with phenol (iii) Dilute HNO3 with phenol (iv) Treating phenol wih chloroform in presence of aqueous NaOH"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6413-6416", "Text": "(ii) Bromine in CS2 with phenol (iii) Dilute HNO3 with phenol (iv) Treating phenol wih chloroform in presence of aqueous NaOH 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6414-6417", "Text": "(iii) Dilute HNO3 with phenol (iv) Treating phenol wih chloroform in presence of aqueous NaOH 7 18 Explain the following with an example"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6415-6418", "Text": "(iv) Treating phenol wih chloroform in presence of aqueous NaOH 7 18 Explain the following with an example (i) Kolbe\u2019s reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6416-6419", "Text": "7 18 Explain the following with an example (i) Kolbe\u2019s reaction (ii) Reimer-Tiemann reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6417-6420", "Text": "18 Explain the following with an example (i) Kolbe\u2019s reaction (ii) Reimer-Tiemann reaction (iii) Williamson ether synthesis"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6418-6421", "Text": "(i) Kolbe\u2019s reaction (ii) Reimer-Tiemann reaction (iii) Williamson ether synthesis (iv) Unsymmetrical ether"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6419-6422", "Text": "(ii) Reimer-Tiemann reaction (iii) Williamson ether synthesis (iv) Unsymmetrical ether 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6420-6423", "Text": "(iii) Williamson ether synthesis (iv) Unsymmetrical ether 7 19 Write the mechanism of acid dehydration of ethanol to yield ethene"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6421-6424", "Text": "(iv) Unsymmetrical ether 7 19 Write the mechanism of acid dehydration of ethanol to yield ethene 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6422-6425", "Text": "7 19 Write the mechanism of acid dehydration of ethanol to yield ethene 7 20 How are the following conversions carried out"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6423-6426", "Text": "19 Write the mechanism of acid dehydration of ethanol to yield ethene 7 20 How are the following conversions carried out (i) Propene \u00ae Propan-2-ol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6424-6427", "Text": "7 20 How are the following conversions carried out (i) Propene \u00ae Propan-2-ol (ii) Benzyl chloride \u00ae Benzyl alcohol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6425-6428", "Text": "20 How are the following conversions carried out (i) Propene \u00ae Propan-2-ol (ii) Benzyl chloride \u00ae Benzyl alcohol (iii) Ethyl magnesium chloride \u00ae Propan-1-ol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6426-6429", "Text": "(i) Propene \u00ae Propan-2-ol (ii) Benzyl chloride \u00ae Benzyl alcohol (iii) Ethyl magnesium chloride \u00ae Propan-1-ol (iv) Methyl magnesium bromide \u00ae 2-Methylpropan-2-ol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6427-6430", "Text": "(ii) Benzyl chloride \u00ae Benzyl alcohol (iii) Ethyl magnesium chloride \u00ae Propan-1-ol (iv) Methyl magnesium bromide \u00ae 2-Methylpropan-2-ol 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6428-6431", "Text": "(iii) Ethyl magnesium chloride \u00ae Propan-1-ol (iv) Methyl magnesium bromide \u00ae 2-Methylpropan-2-ol 7 21 Name the reagents used in the following reactions:\n(i) Oxidation of a primary alcohol to carboxylic acid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6429-6432", "Text": "(iv) Methyl magnesium bromide \u00ae 2-Methylpropan-2-ol 7 21 Name the reagents used in the following reactions:\n(i) Oxidation of a primary alcohol to carboxylic acid (ii) Oxidation of a primary alcohol to aldehyde"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6430-6433", "Text": "7 21 Name the reagents used in the following reactions:\n(i) Oxidation of a primary alcohol to carboxylic acid (ii) Oxidation of a primary alcohol to aldehyde (iii) Bromination of phenol to 2,4,6-tribromophenol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6431-6434", "Text": "21 Name the reagents used in the following reactions:\n(i) Oxidation of a primary alcohol to carboxylic acid (ii) Oxidation of a primary alcohol to aldehyde (iii) Bromination of phenol to 2,4,6-tribromophenol (iv) Benzyl alcohol to benzoic acid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6432-6435", "Text": "(ii) Oxidation of a primary alcohol to aldehyde (iii) Bromination of phenol to 2,4,6-tribromophenol (iv) Benzyl alcohol to benzoic acid (v) Dehydration of propan-2-ol to propene"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6433-6436", "Text": "(iii) Bromination of phenol to 2,4,6-tribromophenol (iv) Benzyl alcohol to benzoic acid (v) Dehydration of propan-2-ol to propene (vi) Butan-2-one to butan-2-ol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6434-6437", "Text": "(iv) Benzyl alcohol to benzoic acid (v) Dehydration of propan-2-ol to propene (vi) Butan-2-one to butan-2-ol 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6435-6438", "Text": "(v) Dehydration of propan-2-ol to propene (vi) Butan-2-one to butan-2-ol 7 22 Give reason for the higher boiling point of ethanol in comparison to\nmethoxymethane"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6436-6439", "Text": "(vi) Butan-2-one to butan-2-ol 7 22 Give reason for the higher boiling point of ethanol in comparison to\nmethoxymethane Rationalised 2023-24\n224\nChemistry\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6437-6440", "Text": "7 22 Give reason for the higher boiling point of ethanol in comparison to\nmethoxymethane Rationalised 2023-24\n224\nChemistry\n7 23 Give IUPAC names of the following ethers:\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6438-6441", "Text": "22 Give reason for the higher boiling point of ethanol in comparison to\nmethoxymethane Rationalised 2023-24\n224\nChemistry\n7 23 Give IUPAC names of the following ethers:\n7 24 Write the names of reagents and equations for the preparation of the following\nethers by Williamson\u2019s synthesis:\n(i) 1-Propoxypropane\n(ii) Ethoxybenzene\n(iii) 2-Methoxy-2-methylpropane\n(iv) 1-Methoxyethane\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6439-6442", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n224\nChemistry\n7 23 Give IUPAC names of the following ethers:\n7 24 Write the names of reagents and equations for the preparation of the following\nethers by Williamson\u2019s synthesis:\n(i) 1-Propoxypropane\n(ii) Ethoxybenzene\n(iii) 2-Methoxy-2-methylpropane\n(iv) 1-Methoxyethane\n7 25 Illustrate with examples the limitations of Williamson synthesis for the\npreparation of certain types of ethers"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6440-6443", "Text": "23 Give IUPAC names of the following ethers:\n7 24 Write the names of reagents and equations for the preparation of the following\nethers by Williamson\u2019s synthesis:\n(i) 1-Propoxypropane\n(ii) Ethoxybenzene\n(iii) 2-Methoxy-2-methylpropane\n(iv) 1-Methoxyethane\n7 25 Illustrate with examples the limitations of Williamson synthesis for the\npreparation of certain types of ethers 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6441-6444", "Text": "24 Write the names of reagents and equations for the preparation of the following\nethers by Williamson\u2019s synthesis:\n(i) 1-Propoxypropane\n(ii) Ethoxybenzene\n(iii) 2-Methoxy-2-methylpropane\n(iv) 1-Methoxyethane\n7 25 Illustrate with examples the limitations of Williamson synthesis for the\npreparation of certain types of ethers 7 26 How is 1-propoxypropane synthesised from propan-1-ol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6442-6445", "Text": "25 Illustrate with examples the limitations of Williamson synthesis for the\npreparation of certain types of ethers 7 26 How is 1-propoxypropane synthesised from propan-1-ol Write mechanism\nof this reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6443-6446", "Text": "7 26 How is 1-propoxypropane synthesised from propan-1-ol Write mechanism\nof this reaction 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6444-6447", "Text": "26 How is 1-propoxypropane synthesised from propan-1-ol Write mechanism\nof this reaction 7 27 Preparation of ethers by acid dehydration of secondary or tertiary alcohols\nis not a suitable method"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6445-6448", "Text": "Write mechanism\nof this reaction 7 27 Preparation of ethers by acid dehydration of secondary or tertiary alcohols\nis not a suitable method Give reason"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6446-6449", "Text": "7 27 Preparation of ethers by acid dehydration of secondary or tertiary alcohols\nis not a suitable method Give reason 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6447-6450", "Text": "27 Preparation of ethers by acid dehydration of secondary or tertiary alcohols\nis not a suitable method Give reason 7 28 Write the equation of the reaction of hydrogen iodide with:\n(i) 1-propoxypropane (ii) methoxybenzene and (iii) benzyl ethyl ether"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6448-6451", "Text": "Give reason 7 28 Write the equation of the reaction of hydrogen iodide with:\n(i) 1-propoxypropane (ii) methoxybenzene and (iii) benzyl ethyl ether 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6449-6452", "Text": "7 28 Write the equation of the reaction of hydrogen iodide with:\n(i) 1-propoxypropane (ii) methoxybenzene and (iii) benzyl ethyl ether 7 29 Explain the fact that in aryl alkyl ethers (i) the alkoxy group activates the\nbenzene ring towards electrophilic substitution and (ii) it directs the\nincoming substituents to ortho and para positions in benzene ring"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6450-6453", "Text": "28 Write the equation of the reaction of hydrogen iodide with:\n(i) 1-propoxypropane (ii) methoxybenzene and (iii) benzyl ethyl ether 7 29 Explain the fact that in aryl alkyl ethers (i) the alkoxy group activates the\nbenzene ring towards electrophilic substitution and (ii) it directs the\nincoming substituents to ortho and para positions in benzene ring 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6451-6454", "Text": "7 29 Explain the fact that in aryl alkyl ethers (i) the alkoxy group activates the\nbenzene ring towards electrophilic substitution and (ii) it directs the\nincoming substituents to ortho and para positions in benzene ring 7 30 Write the mechanism of the reaction of HI with methoxymethane"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6452-6455", "Text": "29 Explain the fact that in aryl alkyl ethers (i) the alkoxy group activates the\nbenzene ring towards electrophilic substitution and (ii) it directs the\nincoming substituents to ortho and para positions in benzene ring 7 30 Write the mechanism of the reaction of HI with methoxymethane 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6453-6456", "Text": "7 30 Write the mechanism of the reaction of HI with methoxymethane 7 31 Write equations of the following reactions:\n(i) Friedel-Crafts reaction \u2013 alkylation of anisole"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6454-6457", "Text": "30 Write the mechanism of the reaction of HI with methoxymethane 7 31 Write equations of the following reactions:\n(i) Friedel-Crafts reaction \u2013 alkylation of anisole (ii) Nitration of anisole"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6455-6458", "Text": "7 31 Write equations of the following reactions:\n(i) Friedel-Crafts reaction \u2013 alkylation of anisole (ii) Nitration of anisole (iii) Bromination of anisole in ethanoic acid medium"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6456-6459", "Text": "31 Write equations of the following reactions:\n(i) Friedel-Crafts reaction \u2013 alkylation of anisole (ii) Nitration of anisole (iii) Bromination of anisole in ethanoic acid medium (iv) Friedel-Craft\u2019s acetylation of anisole"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6457-6460", "Text": "(ii) Nitration of anisole (iii) Bromination of anisole in ethanoic acid medium (iv) Friedel-Craft\u2019s acetylation of anisole 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6458-6461", "Text": "(iii) Bromination of anisole in ethanoic acid medium (iv) Friedel-Craft\u2019s acetylation of anisole 7 32 Show how would you synthesise the following alcohols from appropriate\nalkenes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6459-6462", "Text": "(iv) Friedel-Craft\u2019s acetylation of anisole 7 32 Show how would you synthesise the following alcohols from appropriate\nalkenes CH3\nOH\nOH\nOH\nOH\n(i)\n(ii)\n(iii)\n(iv)\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6460-6463", "Text": "7 32 Show how would you synthesise the following alcohols from appropriate\nalkenes CH3\nOH\nOH\nOH\nOH\n(i)\n(ii)\n(iii)\n(iv)\n7 33 When 3-methylbutan-2-ol is treated with HBr, the following reaction takes\nplace:\nGive a mechanism for this reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6461-6464", "Text": "32 Show how would you synthesise the following alcohols from appropriate\nalkenes CH3\nOH\nOH\nOH\nOH\n(i)\n(ii)\n(iii)\n(iv)\n7 33 When 3-methylbutan-2-ol is treated with HBr, the following reaction takes\nplace:\nGive a mechanism for this reaction (Hint : The secondary carbocation formed in step II rearranges to a more\nstable tertiary carbocation by a hydride ion shift from 3rd carbon atom"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6462-6465", "Text": "CH3\nOH\nOH\nOH\nOH\n(i)\n(ii)\n(iii)\n(iv)\n7 33 When 3-methylbutan-2-ol is treated with HBr, the following reaction takes\nplace:\nGive a mechanism for this reaction (Hint : The secondary carbocation formed in step II rearranges to a more\nstable tertiary carbocation by a hydride ion shift from 3rd carbon atom Rationalised 2023-24\n225\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\nAnswers to Some Intext Questions\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6463-6466", "Text": "33 When 3-methylbutan-2-ol is treated with HBr, the following reaction takes\nplace:\nGive a mechanism for this reaction (Hint : The secondary carbocation formed in step II rearranges to a more\nstable tertiary carbocation by a hydride ion shift from 3rd carbon atom Rationalised 2023-24\n225\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\nAnswers to Some Intext Questions\n7 1 Primary alcohols\n(i), (ii), (iii)\nSecondary alcohols\n(iv) and (v)\nTertiary alcohols\n(vi)\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6464-6467", "Text": "(Hint : The secondary carbocation formed in step II rearranges to a more\nstable tertiary carbocation by a hydride ion shift from 3rd carbon atom Rationalised 2023-24\n225\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\nAnswers to Some Intext Questions\n7 1 Primary alcohols\n(i), (ii), (iii)\nSecondary alcohols\n(iv) and (v)\nTertiary alcohols\n(vi)\n7 2 Allylic alcohols\n(ii) and (vi)\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6465-6468", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n225\nAlcohols, Phenols and Ethers\nAnswers to Some Intext Questions\n7 1 Primary alcohols\n(i), (ii), (iii)\nSecondary alcohols\n(iv) and (v)\nTertiary alcohols\n(vi)\n7 2 Allylic alcohols\n(ii) and (vi)\n7 3\n(i) 4-Chloro-3-ethyl-2-(1-methylethyl)-butan-1-ol\n(ii) 2, 5-Dimethylhexane-1,3-diol\n(iii) 3-Bromocyclohexanol\n(iv) Hex-1-en-3-ol\n(v) 2-Bromo-3-methylbut-2-en-1-ol\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6466-6469", "Text": "1 Primary alcohols\n(i), (ii), (iii)\nSecondary alcohols\n(iv) and (v)\nTertiary alcohols\n(vi)\n7 2 Allylic alcohols\n(ii) and (vi)\n7 3\n(i) 4-Chloro-3-ethyl-2-(1-methylethyl)-butan-1-ol\n(ii) 2, 5-Dimethylhexane-1,3-diol\n(iii) 3-Bromocyclohexanol\n(iv) Hex-1-en-3-ol\n(v) 2-Bromo-3-methylbut-2-en-1-ol\n7 4\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6467-6470", "Text": "2 Allylic alcohols\n(ii) and (vi)\n7 3\n(i) 4-Chloro-3-ethyl-2-(1-methylethyl)-butan-1-ol\n(ii) 2, 5-Dimethylhexane-1,3-diol\n(iii) 3-Bromocyclohexanol\n(iv) Hex-1-en-3-ol\n(v) 2-Bromo-3-methylbut-2-en-1-ol\n7 4\n7 5\n \nCH3\nCH3\nCH\n(i)\nOH\nOH\n(ii)\nCH2\nC\nOCH3\nO\nCH3\nCH OH\n2\nCH\n(iii)\nCH3\nCH2\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6468-6471", "Text": "3\n(i) 4-Chloro-3-ethyl-2-(1-methylethyl)-butan-1-ol\n(ii) 2, 5-Dimethylhexane-1,3-diol\n(iii) 3-Bromocyclohexanol\n(iv) Hex-1-en-3-ol\n(v) 2-Bromo-3-methylbut-2-en-1-ol\n7 4\n7 5\n \nCH3\nCH3\nCH\n(i)\nOH\nOH\n(ii)\nCH2\nC\nOCH3\nO\nCH3\nCH OH\n2\nCH\n(iii)\nCH3\nCH2\n7 7 (i) 1-Methylcyclohexene\n(ii)\nA Mixture of but-1-ene and but-2-ene"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6469-6472", "Text": "4\n7 5\n \nCH3\nCH3\nCH\n(i)\nOH\nOH\n(ii)\nCH2\nC\nOCH3\nO\nCH3\nCH OH\n2\nCH\n(iii)\nCH3\nCH2\n7 7 (i) 1-Methylcyclohexene\n(ii)\nA Mixture of but-1-ene and but-2-ene But-2-ene is the major product\nformed due to rearrangement to give secondary carbocation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6470-6473", "Text": "5\n \nCH3\nCH3\nCH\n(i)\nOH\nOH\n(ii)\nCH2\nC\nOCH3\nO\nCH3\nCH OH\n2\nCH\n(iii)\nCH3\nCH2\n7 7 (i) 1-Methylcyclohexene\n(ii)\nA Mixture of but-1-ene and but-2-ene But-2-ene is the major product\nformed due to rearrangement to give secondary carbocation 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6471-6474", "Text": "7 (i) 1-Methylcyclohexene\n(ii)\nA Mixture of but-1-ene and but-2-ene But-2-ene is the major product\nformed due to rearrangement to give secondary carbocation 7 10\nC H OH\n2\n5\nCH3 \u2013 CH2 \u2013 CH \u2013\nCH3\nCH \u2013 ONa\nCH3\nHBr\nC H Br\n2\n5\nC H Br\n2\n5\n+\nCH3 \u2013 CH2 \u2013 CH \u2013\nCH3\nCH \u2013 OC H\n2\n5\nCH3\n2-Ethoxy-3-methylpentane\nRationalised 2023-24\n226\nChemistry\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6472-6475", "Text": "But-2-ene is the major product\nformed due to rearrangement to give secondary carbocation 7 10\nC H OH\n2\n5\nCH3 \u2013 CH2 \u2013 CH \u2013\nCH3\nCH \u2013 ONa\nCH3\nHBr\nC H Br\n2\n5\nC H Br\n2\n5\n+\nCH3 \u2013 CH2 \u2013 CH \u2013\nCH3\nCH \u2013 OC H\n2\n5\nCH3\n2-Ethoxy-3-methylpentane\nRationalised 2023-24\n226\nChemistry\n7 11 (ii)\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6473-6476", "Text": "7 10\nC H OH\n2\n5\nCH3 \u2013 CH2 \u2013 CH \u2013\nCH3\nCH \u2013 ONa\nCH3\nHBr\nC H Br\n2\n5\nC H Br\n2\n5\n+\nCH3 \u2013 CH2 \u2013 CH \u2013\nCH3\nCH \u2013 OC H\n2\n5\nCH3\n2-Ethoxy-3-methylpentane\nRationalised 2023-24\n226\nChemistry\n7 11 (ii)\n7 12 (i)\n\uf02b\n3\n2\n2\n3\nCH CH CH OH\nCH Br\n(ii)\n(iii)\n(iv) \uf028\n3\uf029\n2\n5\n3\nCH\nC\nI\nC H OH\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\nRationalised 2023-24\nAfter studying this Unit, you will be\n\u2022able to\nwrite the common and IUPAC\nnames of aldehydes, ketones and\ncarboxylic acids;\n\u2022\nwrite \nthe \nstructures \nof \nthe\ncompounds containing functional\ngroups namely carbonyl and\ncarboxyl groups;\n\u2022\ndescribe the important methods\nof preparation and reactions of\nthese classes of compounds;\n\u2022\ncorrelate physical properties and\nchemical reactions of aldehydes,\nketones and carboxylic acids,\nwith their structures;\n\u2022\nexplain the mechanism of a few\nselected reactions of aldehydes\nand ketones;\n\u2022\nunderstand \nvarious \nfactors\naffecting the acidity of carboxylic\nacids and their reactions;\n\u2022\ndescribe the uses of aldehydes,\nketones and carboxylic acids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6474-6477", "Text": "10\nC H OH\n2\n5\nCH3 \u2013 CH2 \u2013 CH \u2013\nCH3\nCH \u2013 ONa\nCH3\nHBr\nC H Br\n2\n5\nC H Br\n2\n5\n+\nCH3 \u2013 CH2 \u2013 CH \u2013\nCH3\nCH \u2013 OC H\n2\n5\nCH3\n2-Ethoxy-3-methylpentane\nRationalised 2023-24\n226\nChemistry\n7 11 (ii)\n7 12 (i)\n\uf02b\n3\n2\n2\n3\nCH CH CH OH\nCH Br\n(ii)\n(iii)\n(iv) \uf028\n3\uf029\n2\n5\n3\nCH\nC\nI\nC H OH\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\nRationalised 2023-24\nAfter studying this Unit, you will be\n\u2022able to\nwrite the common and IUPAC\nnames of aldehydes, ketones and\ncarboxylic acids;\n\u2022\nwrite \nthe \nstructures \nof \nthe\ncompounds containing functional\ngroups namely carbonyl and\ncarboxyl groups;\n\u2022\ndescribe the important methods\nof preparation and reactions of\nthese classes of compounds;\n\u2022\ncorrelate physical properties and\nchemical reactions of aldehydes,\nketones and carboxylic acids,\nwith their structures;\n\u2022\nexplain the mechanism of a few\nselected reactions of aldehydes\nand ketones;\n\u2022\nunderstand \nvarious \nfactors\naffecting the acidity of carboxylic\nacids and their reactions;\n\u2022\ndescribe the uses of aldehydes,\nketones and carboxylic acids Objectives\nCarbonyl compounds are of utmost importance to organic\nchemistry"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6475-6478", "Text": "11 (ii)\n7 12 (i)\n\uf02b\n3\n2\n2\n3\nCH CH CH OH\nCH Br\n(ii)\n(iii)\n(iv) \uf028\n3\uf029\n2\n5\n3\nCH\nC\nI\nC H OH\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\nRationalised 2023-24\nAfter studying this Unit, you will be\n\u2022able to\nwrite the common and IUPAC\nnames of aldehydes, ketones and\ncarboxylic acids;\n\u2022\nwrite \nthe \nstructures \nof \nthe\ncompounds containing functional\ngroups namely carbonyl and\ncarboxyl groups;\n\u2022\ndescribe the important methods\nof preparation and reactions of\nthese classes of compounds;\n\u2022\ncorrelate physical properties and\nchemical reactions of aldehydes,\nketones and carboxylic acids,\nwith their structures;\n\u2022\nexplain the mechanism of a few\nselected reactions of aldehydes\nand ketones;\n\u2022\nunderstand \nvarious \nfactors\naffecting the acidity of carboxylic\nacids and their reactions;\n\u2022\ndescribe the uses of aldehydes,\nketones and carboxylic acids Objectives\nCarbonyl compounds are of utmost importance to organic\nchemistry They are constituents of fabrics, flavourings, plastics\nand drugs"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6476-6479", "Text": "12 (i)\n\uf02b\n3\n2\n2\n3\nCH CH CH OH\nCH Br\n(ii)\n(iii)\n(iv) \uf028\n3\uf029\n2\n5\n3\nCH\nC\nI\nC H OH\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\nRationalised 2023-24\nAfter studying this Unit, you will be\n\u2022able to\nwrite the common and IUPAC\nnames of aldehydes, ketones and\ncarboxylic acids;\n\u2022\nwrite \nthe \nstructures \nof \nthe\ncompounds containing functional\ngroups namely carbonyl and\ncarboxyl groups;\n\u2022\ndescribe the important methods\nof preparation and reactions of\nthese classes of compounds;\n\u2022\ncorrelate physical properties and\nchemical reactions of aldehydes,\nketones and carboxylic acids,\nwith their structures;\n\u2022\nexplain the mechanism of a few\nselected reactions of aldehydes\nand ketones;\n\u2022\nunderstand \nvarious \nfactors\naffecting the acidity of carboxylic\nacids and their reactions;\n\u2022\ndescribe the uses of aldehydes,\nketones and carboxylic acids Objectives\nCarbonyl compounds are of utmost importance to organic\nchemistry They are constituents of fabrics, flavourings, plastics\nand drugs 8\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit8\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nAldehydes,,,,, KKKKKeeeeetones\ntones\ntones\ntones\ntones\nand\nand\nand\nand\nand Carboxylic\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nAAAAAcids\ncids\ncids\ncids\ncids\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nAldehydes,,,,, KKKKKeeeeetones\ntones\ntones\ntones\ntones\nand\nand\nand\nand\nand Carboxylic\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nAAAAAcids\ncids\ncids\ncids\ncids\nIn the previous Unit, you have studied organic\ncompounds with functional groups containing carbon-\noxygen single bond"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6477-6480", "Text": "Objectives\nCarbonyl compounds are of utmost importance to organic\nchemistry They are constituents of fabrics, flavourings, plastics\nand drugs 8\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit8\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nAldehydes,,,,, KKKKKeeeeetones\ntones\ntones\ntones\ntones\nand\nand\nand\nand\nand Carboxylic\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nAAAAAcids\ncids\ncids\ncids\ncids\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nAldehydes,,,,, KKKKKeeeeetones\ntones\ntones\ntones\ntones\nand\nand\nand\nand\nand Carboxylic\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nAAAAAcids\ncids\ncids\ncids\ncids\nIn the previous Unit, you have studied organic\ncompounds with functional groups containing carbon-\noxygen single bond In this Unit, we will study about the\norganic compounds containing carbon-oxygen double\nbond (>C=O) called carbonyl group, which is one of the\nmost important functional groups in organic chemistry"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6478-6481", "Text": "They are constituents of fabrics, flavourings, plastics\nand drugs 8\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit8\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nAldehydes,,,,, KKKKKeeeeetones\ntones\ntones\ntones\ntones\nand\nand\nand\nand\nand Carboxylic\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nAAAAAcids\ncids\ncids\ncids\ncids\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nAldehydes,,,,, KKKKKeeeeetones\ntones\ntones\ntones\ntones\nand\nand\nand\nand\nand Carboxylic\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nAAAAAcids\ncids\ncids\ncids\ncids\nIn the previous Unit, you have studied organic\ncompounds with functional groups containing carbon-\noxygen single bond In this Unit, we will study about the\norganic compounds containing carbon-oxygen double\nbond (>C=O) called carbonyl group, which is one of the\nmost important functional groups in organic chemistry In aldehydes, the carbonyl group is bonded to a\ncarbon and hydrogen while in the ketones, it is bonded\nto two carbon atoms"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6479-6482", "Text": "8\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit8\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nAldehydes,,,,, KKKKKeeeeetones\ntones\ntones\ntones\ntones\nand\nand\nand\nand\nand Carboxylic\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nAAAAAcids\ncids\ncids\ncids\ncids\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nAldehydes,,,,, KKKKKeeeeetones\ntones\ntones\ntones\ntones\nand\nand\nand\nand\nand Carboxylic\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nAAAAAcids\ncids\ncids\ncids\ncids\nIn the previous Unit, you have studied organic\ncompounds with functional groups containing carbon-\noxygen single bond In this Unit, we will study about the\norganic compounds containing carbon-oxygen double\nbond (>C=O) called carbonyl group, which is one of the\nmost important functional groups in organic chemistry In aldehydes, the carbonyl group is bonded to a\ncarbon and hydrogen while in the ketones, it is bonded\nto two carbon atoms The carbonyl compounds in which\ncarbon of carbonyl group is bonded to carbon or\nhydrogen and oxygen of hydroxyl moiety (-OH) are\nknown as carboxylic acids, while in compounds where\ncarbon is attached to carbon or hydrogen and nitrogen\nof -NH2 moiety or to halogens are called amides and\nacyl halides respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6480-6483", "Text": "In this Unit, we will study about the\norganic compounds containing carbon-oxygen double\nbond (>C=O) called carbonyl group, which is one of the\nmost important functional groups in organic chemistry In aldehydes, the carbonyl group is bonded to a\ncarbon and hydrogen while in the ketones, it is bonded\nto two carbon atoms The carbonyl compounds in which\ncarbon of carbonyl group is bonded to carbon or\nhydrogen and oxygen of hydroxyl moiety (-OH) are\nknown as carboxylic acids, while in compounds where\ncarbon is attached to carbon or hydrogen and nitrogen\nof -NH2 moiety or to halogens are called amides and\nacyl halides respectively Esters and anhydrides are\nderivatives of carboxylic acids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6481-6484", "Text": "In aldehydes, the carbonyl group is bonded to a\ncarbon and hydrogen while in the ketones, it is bonded\nto two carbon atoms The carbonyl compounds in which\ncarbon of carbonyl group is bonded to carbon or\nhydrogen and oxygen of hydroxyl moiety (-OH) are\nknown as carboxylic acids, while in compounds where\ncarbon is attached to carbon or hydrogen and nitrogen\nof -NH2 moiety or to halogens are called amides and\nacyl halides respectively Esters and anhydrides are\nderivatives of carboxylic acids The general formulas of\nthese classes of compounds are given below:\nRationalised 2023-24\n228\nChemistry\nAldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids are widespread in plants\nand animal kingdom"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6482-6485", "Text": "The carbonyl compounds in which\ncarbon of carbonyl group is bonded to carbon or\nhydrogen and oxygen of hydroxyl moiety (-OH) are\nknown as carboxylic acids, while in compounds where\ncarbon is attached to carbon or hydrogen and nitrogen\nof -NH2 moiety or to halogens are called amides and\nacyl halides respectively Esters and anhydrides are\nderivatives of carboxylic acids The general formulas of\nthese classes of compounds are given below:\nRationalised 2023-24\n228\nChemistry\nAldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids are widespread in plants\nand animal kingdom They play an important role in biochemical\nprocesses of life"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6483-6486", "Text": "Esters and anhydrides are\nderivatives of carboxylic acids The general formulas of\nthese classes of compounds are given below:\nRationalised 2023-24\n228\nChemistry\nAldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids are widespread in plants\nand animal kingdom They play an important role in biochemical\nprocesses of life They add fragrance and flavour to nature, for example,\nvanillin (from vanilla beans), salicylaldehyde (from meadow sweet) and\ncinnamaldehyde (from cinnamon) have very pleasant fragrances"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6484-6487", "Text": "The general formulas of\nthese classes of compounds are given below:\nRationalised 2023-24\n228\nChemistry\nAldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids are widespread in plants\nand animal kingdom They play an important role in biochemical\nprocesses of life They add fragrance and flavour to nature, for example,\nvanillin (from vanilla beans), salicylaldehyde (from meadow sweet) and\ncinnamaldehyde (from cinnamon) have very pleasant fragrances 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6485-6488", "Text": "They play an important role in biochemical\nprocesses of life They add fragrance and flavour to nature, for example,\nvanillin (from vanilla beans), salicylaldehyde (from meadow sweet) and\ncinnamaldehyde (from cinnamon) have very pleasant fragrances 8 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6486-6489", "Text": "They add fragrance and flavour to nature, for example,\nvanillin (from vanilla beans), salicylaldehyde (from meadow sweet) and\ncinnamaldehyde (from cinnamon) have very pleasant fragrances 8 1 1\nNomenclature\nI"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6487-6490", "Text": "8 1 1\nNomenclature\nI Aldehydes and ketones\nAldehydes and ketones are the simplest and most important carbonyl\ncompounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6488-6491", "Text": "1 1\nNomenclature\nI Aldehydes and ketones\nAldehydes and ketones are the simplest and most important carbonyl\ncompounds There are two systems of nomenclature of aldehydes and ketones"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6489-6492", "Text": "1\nNomenclature\nI Aldehydes and ketones\nAldehydes and ketones are the simplest and most important carbonyl\ncompounds There are two systems of nomenclature of aldehydes and ketones (a) Common names\nAldehydes and ketones are often called by their common names\ninstead of IUPAC names"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6490-6493", "Text": "Aldehydes and ketones\nAldehydes and ketones are the simplest and most important carbonyl\ncompounds There are two systems of nomenclature of aldehydes and ketones (a) Common names\nAldehydes and ketones are often called by their common names\ninstead of IUPAC names The common names of most aldehydes are\nderived from the common names of the corresponding carboxylic\nacids [Section 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6491-6494", "Text": "There are two systems of nomenclature of aldehydes and ketones (a) Common names\nAldehydes and ketones are often called by their common names\ninstead of IUPAC names The common names of most aldehydes are\nderived from the common names of the corresponding carboxylic\nacids [Section 8 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6492-6495", "Text": "(a) Common names\nAldehydes and ketones are often called by their common names\ninstead of IUPAC names The common names of most aldehydes are\nderived from the common names of the corresponding carboxylic\nacids [Section 8 6 1] by replacing the ending \u2013ic of acid with aldehyde"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6493-6496", "Text": "The common names of most aldehydes are\nderived from the common names of the corresponding carboxylic\nacids [Section 8 6 1] by replacing the ending \u2013ic of acid with aldehyde At the same time, the names reflect the Latin or Greek term for the\noriginal source of the acid or aldehyde"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6494-6497", "Text": "6 1] by replacing the ending \u2013ic of acid with aldehyde At the same time, the names reflect the Latin or Greek term for the\noriginal source of the acid or aldehyde The location of the substituent\nin the carbon chain is indicated by Greek letters a, b, g, d, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6495-6498", "Text": "1] by replacing the ending \u2013ic of acid with aldehyde At the same time, the names reflect the Latin or Greek term for the\noriginal source of the acid or aldehyde The location of the substituent\nin the carbon chain is indicated by Greek letters a, b, g, d, etc The\na-carbon being the one directly linked to the aldehyde group, b-\ncarbon the next, and so on"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6496-6499", "Text": "At the same time, the names reflect the Latin or Greek term for the\noriginal source of the acid or aldehyde The location of the substituent\nin the carbon chain is indicated by Greek letters a, b, g, d, etc The\na-carbon being the one directly linked to the aldehyde group, b-\ncarbon the next, and so on For example\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6497-6500", "Text": "The location of the substituent\nin the carbon chain is indicated by Greek letters a, b, g, d, etc The\na-carbon being the one directly linked to the aldehyde group, b-\ncarbon the next, and so on For example\n8 1\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6498-6501", "Text": "The\na-carbon being the one directly linked to the aldehyde group, b-\ncarbon the next, and so on For example\n8 1\n8 1\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6499-6502", "Text": "For example\n8 1\n8 1\n8 1\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6500-6503", "Text": "1\n8 1\n8 1\n8 1\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6501-6504", "Text": "1\n8 1\n8 1\n8 1 Nomenclature and Structure of Carbonyl Group\nNomenclature and Structure of Carbonyl Group\nNomenclature and Structure of Carbonyl Group\nNomenclature and Structure of Carbonyl Group\nNomenclature and Structure of Carbonyl Group\nThey are used in many food products and pharmaceuticals to add\nflavours"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6502-6505", "Text": "1\n8 1\n8 1 Nomenclature and Structure of Carbonyl Group\nNomenclature and Structure of Carbonyl Group\nNomenclature and Structure of Carbonyl Group\nNomenclature and Structure of Carbonyl Group\nNomenclature and Structure of Carbonyl Group\nThey are used in many food products and pharmaceuticals to add\nflavours Some of these families are manufactured for use as solvents\n(i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6503-6506", "Text": "1\n8 1 Nomenclature and Structure of Carbonyl Group\nNomenclature and Structure of Carbonyl Group\nNomenclature and Structure of Carbonyl Group\nNomenclature and Structure of Carbonyl Group\nNomenclature and Structure of Carbonyl Group\nThey are used in many food products and pharmaceuticals to add\nflavours Some of these families are manufactured for use as solvents\n(i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6504-6507", "Text": "1 Nomenclature and Structure of Carbonyl Group\nNomenclature and Structure of Carbonyl Group\nNomenclature and Structure of Carbonyl Group\nNomenclature and Structure of Carbonyl Group\nNomenclature and Structure of Carbonyl Group\nThey are used in many food products and pharmaceuticals to add\nflavours Some of these families are manufactured for use as solvents\n(i e , acetone) and for preparing materials like adhesives, paints, resins,\nperfumes, plastics, fabrics, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6505-6508", "Text": "Some of these families are manufactured for use as solvents\n(i e , acetone) and for preparing materials like adhesives, paints, resins,\nperfumes, plastics, fabrics, etc Rationalised 2023-24\n229\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\nThe common names of ketones are derived by naming two alkyl\nor aryl groups bonded to the carbonyl group"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6506-6509", "Text": "e , acetone) and for preparing materials like adhesives, paints, resins,\nperfumes, plastics, fabrics, etc Rationalised 2023-24\n229\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\nThe common names of ketones are derived by naming two alkyl\nor aryl groups bonded to the carbonyl group The locations of\nsubstituents are indicated by Greek letters, a a\u00a2, b b\u00a2 and so on\nbeginning with the carbon atoms next to the carbonyl group,\nindicated as aa\u00a2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6507-6510", "Text": ", acetone) and for preparing materials like adhesives, paints, resins,\nperfumes, plastics, fabrics, etc Rationalised 2023-24\n229\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\nThe common names of ketones are derived by naming two alkyl\nor aryl groups bonded to the carbonyl group The locations of\nsubstituents are indicated by Greek letters, a a\u00a2, b b\u00a2 and so on\nbeginning with the carbon atoms next to the carbonyl group,\nindicated as aa\u00a2 Some ketones have historical common names,\nthe simplest dimethyl ketone is called acetone"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6508-6511", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n229\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\nThe common names of ketones are derived by naming two alkyl\nor aryl groups bonded to the carbonyl group The locations of\nsubstituents are indicated by Greek letters, a a\u00a2, b b\u00a2 and so on\nbeginning with the carbon atoms next to the carbonyl group,\nindicated as aa\u00a2 Some ketones have historical common names,\nthe simplest dimethyl ketone is called acetone Alkyl phenyl\nketones are usually named by adding the name of acyl group as\nprefix to the word phenone"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6509-6512", "Text": "The locations of\nsubstituents are indicated by Greek letters, a a\u00a2, b b\u00a2 and so on\nbeginning with the carbon atoms next to the carbonyl group,\nindicated as aa\u00a2 Some ketones have historical common names,\nthe simplest dimethyl ketone is called acetone Alkyl phenyl\nketones are usually named by adding the name of acyl group as\nprefix to the word phenone For example\n(b) IUPAC names\nThe IUPAC names of open chain aliphatic aldehydes and ketones\nare derived from the names of the corresponding alkanes by\nreplacing the ending \u2013e with \u2013al and \u2013one respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6510-6513", "Text": "Some ketones have historical common names,\nthe simplest dimethyl ketone is called acetone Alkyl phenyl\nketones are usually named by adding the name of acyl group as\nprefix to the word phenone For example\n(b) IUPAC names\nThe IUPAC names of open chain aliphatic aldehydes and ketones\nare derived from the names of the corresponding alkanes by\nreplacing the ending \u2013e with \u2013al and \u2013one respectively In case of\naldehydes the longest carbon chain is numbered starting from the\ncarbon of the aldehyde group while in case of ketones the\nnumbering begins from the end nearer to the carbonyl group"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6511-6514", "Text": "Alkyl phenyl\nketones are usually named by adding the name of acyl group as\nprefix to the word phenone For example\n(b) IUPAC names\nThe IUPAC names of open chain aliphatic aldehydes and ketones\nare derived from the names of the corresponding alkanes by\nreplacing the ending \u2013e with \u2013al and \u2013one respectively In case of\naldehydes the longest carbon chain is numbered starting from the\ncarbon of the aldehyde group while in case of ketones the\nnumbering begins from the end nearer to the carbonyl group The\nsubstituents are prefixed in alphabetical order along with numerals\nindicating their positions in the carbon chain"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6512-6515", "Text": "For example\n(b) IUPAC names\nThe IUPAC names of open chain aliphatic aldehydes and ketones\nare derived from the names of the corresponding alkanes by\nreplacing the ending \u2013e with \u2013al and \u2013one respectively In case of\naldehydes the longest carbon chain is numbered starting from the\ncarbon of the aldehyde group while in case of ketones the\nnumbering begins from the end nearer to the carbonyl group The\nsubstituents are prefixed in alphabetical order along with numerals\nindicating their positions in the carbon chain The same applies to\ncyclic ketones, where the carbonyl carbon is numbered one"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6513-6516", "Text": "In case of\naldehydes the longest carbon chain is numbered starting from the\ncarbon of the aldehyde group while in case of ketones the\nnumbering begins from the end nearer to the carbonyl group The\nsubstituents are prefixed in alphabetical order along with numerals\nindicating their positions in the carbon chain The same applies to\ncyclic ketones, where the carbonyl carbon is numbered one When\nthe aldehyde group is attached to a ring, the suffix carbaldehyde\nis added after the full name of the cycloalkane"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6514-6517", "Text": "The\nsubstituents are prefixed in alphabetical order along with numerals\nindicating their positions in the carbon chain The same applies to\ncyclic ketones, where the carbonyl carbon is numbered one When\nthe aldehyde group is attached to a ring, the suffix carbaldehyde\nis added after the full name of the cycloalkane The numbering of\nthe ring carbon atoms start from the carbon atom attached to the\naldehyde group"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6515-6518", "Text": "The same applies to\ncyclic ketones, where the carbonyl carbon is numbered one When\nthe aldehyde group is attached to a ring, the suffix carbaldehyde\nis added after the full name of the cycloalkane The numbering of\nthe ring carbon atoms start from the carbon atom attached to the\naldehyde group The name of the simplest aromatic aldehyde\ncarrying \nthe \naldehyde \ngroup \non \na \nbenzene \nring \nis\nbenzenecarbaldehyde"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6516-6519", "Text": "When\nthe aldehyde group is attached to a ring, the suffix carbaldehyde\nis added after the full name of the cycloalkane The numbering of\nthe ring carbon atoms start from the carbon atom attached to the\naldehyde group The name of the simplest aromatic aldehyde\ncarrying \nthe \naldehyde \ngroup \non \na \nbenzene \nring \nis\nbenzenecarbaldehyde However, the common name benzaldehyde\nis also accepted by IUPAC"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6517-6520", "Text": "The numbering of\nthe ring carbon atoms start from the carbon atom attached to the\naldehyde group The name of the simplest aromatic aldehyde\ncarrying \nthe \naldehyde \ngroup \non \na \nbenzene \nring \nis\nbenzenecarbaldehyde However, the common name benzaldehyde\nis also accepted by IUPAC Other aromatic aldehydes are hence\nnamed as substituted benzaldehydes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6518-6521", "Text": "The name of the simplest aromatic aldehyde\ncarrying \nthe \naldehyde \ngroup \non \na \nbenzene \nring \nis\nbenzenecarbaldehyde However, the common name benzaldehyde\nis also accepted by IUPAC Other aromatic aldehydes are hence\nnamed as substituted benzaldehydes Rationalised 2023-24\n230\nChemistry\nAldehydes\nHCHO\nFormaldehyde\nMethanal\nCH3CHO\nAcetaldehyde\nEthanal\n(CH3)2CHCHO\nIsobutyraldehyde\n2-Methylpropanal\ng-Methylcyclohexanecarbaldehyde\n3-Methylcyclohexanecarbaldehyde\nCH3CH(OCH3)CHO\na-Methoxypropionaldehyde\n2-Methoxypropanal\nCH3CH2CH2CH2CHO\nValeraldehyde\nPentanal\nCH2=CHCHO\nAcrolein\nProp-2-enal\nPhthaldehyde\nBenzene-1,2-dicarbaldehyde\nm-Bromobenzaldehyde\n 3-Bromobenzaldehyde\nKetones\nCH3COCH2CH2CH3\nMethyl n-propyl ketone\nPentan-2-one\n(CH3)2CHCOCH(CH3)2\nDiisopropyl ketone\n2,4-Dimethylpentan-3-one\na-Methylcyclohexanone\n2-Methylcyclohexanone\n(CH3)2C=CHCOCH3\nMesityl oxide\n4-Methylpent-3-en-2-one\nTable 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6519-6522", "Text": "However, the common name benzaldehyde\nis also accepted by IUPAC Other aromatic aldehydes are hence\nnamed as substituted benzaldehydes Rationalised 2023-24\n230\nChemistry\nAldehydes\nHCHO\nFormaldehyde\nMethanal\nCH3CHO\nAcetaldehyde\nEthanal\n(CH3)2CHCHO\nIsobutyraldehyde\n2-Methylpropanal\ng-Methylcyclohexanecarbaldehyde\n3-Methylcyclohexanecarbaldehyde\nCH3CH(OCH3)CHO\na-Methoxypropionaldehyde\n2-Methoxypropanal\nCH3CH2CH2CH2CHO\nValeraldehyde\nPentanal\nCH2=CHCHO\nAcrolein\nProp-2-enal\nPhthaldehyde\nBenzene-1,2-dicarbaldehyde\nm-Bromobenzaldehyde\n 3-Bromobenzaldehyde\nKetones\nCH3COCH2CH2CH3\nMethyl n-propyl ketone\nPentan-2-one\n(CH3)2CHCOCH(CH3)2\nDiisopropyl ketone\n2,4-Dimethylpentan-3-one\na-Methylcyclohexanone\n2-Methylcyclohexanone\n(CH3)2C=CHCOCH3\nMesityl oxide\n4-Methylpent-3-en-2-one\nTable 8 1: Common and IUPAC Names of Some Aldehydes and Ketones\nStructure\nCommon name\nIUPAC name\nThe common and IUPAC names of some aldehydes and ketones are\ngiven in Table 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6520-6523", "Text": "Other aromatic aldehydes are hence\nnamed as substituted benzaldehydes Rationalised 2023-24\n230\nChemistry\nAldehydes\nHCHO\nFormaldehyde\nMethanal\nCH3CHO\nAcetaldehyde\nEthanal\n(CH3)2CHCHO\nIsobutyraldehyde\n2-Methylpropanal\ng-Methylcyclohexanecarbaldehyde\n3-Methylcyclohexanecarbaldehyde\nCH3CH(OCH3)CHO\na-Methoxypropionaldehyde\n2-Methoxypropanal\nCH3CH2CH2CH2CHO\nValeraldehyde\nPentanal\nCH2=CHCHO\nAcrolein\nProp-2-enal\nPhthaldehyde\nBenzene-1,2-dicarbaldehyde\nm-Bromobenzaldehyde\n 3-Bromobenzaldehyde\nKetones\nCH3COCH2CH2CH3\nMethyl n-propyl ketone\nPentan-2-one\n(CH3)2CHCOCH(CH3)2\nDiisopropyl ketone\n2,4-Dimethylpentan-3-one\na-Methylcyclohexanone\n2-Methylcyclohexanone\n(CH3)2C=CHCOCH3\nMesityl oxide\n4-Methylpent-3-en-2-one\nTable 8 1: Common and IUPAC Names of Some Aldehydes and Ketones\nStructure\nCommon name\nIUPAC name\nThe common and IUPAC names of some aldehydes and ketones are\ngiven in Table 8 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6521-6524", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n230\nChemistry\nAldehydes\nHCHO\nFormaldehyde\nMethanal\nCH3CHO\nAcetaldehyde\nEthanal\n(CH3)2CHCHO\nIsobutyraldehyde\n2-Methylpropanal\ng-Methylcyclohexanecarbaldehyde\n3-Methylcyclohexanecarbaldehyde\nCH3CH(OCH3)CHO\na-Methoxypropionaldehyde\n2-Methoxypropanal\nCH3CH2CH2CH2CHO\nValeraldehyde\nPentanal\nCH2=CHCHO\nAcrolein\nProp-2-enal\nPhthaldehyde\nBenzene-1,2-dicarbaldehyde\nm-Bromobenzaldehyde\n 3-Bromobenzaldehyde\nKetones\nCH3COCH2CH2CH3\nMethyl n-propyl ketone\nPentan-2-one\n(CH3)2CHCOCH(CH3)2\nDiisopropyl ketone\n2,4-Dimethylpentan-3-one\na-Methylcyclohexanone\n2-Methylcyclohexanone\n(CH3)2C=CHCOCH3\nMesityl oxide\n4-Methylpent-3-en-2-one\nTable 8 1: Common and IUPAC Names of Some Aldehydes and Ketones\nStructure\nCommon name\nIUPAC name\nThe common and IUPAC names of some aldehydes and ketones are\ngiven in Table 8 1 or\n3-Bromobenzenecarbaldehyde\nRationalised 2023-24\n231\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\nThe carbonyl carbon atom is sp\n2-hybridised and forms three sigma (s)\nbonds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6522-6525", "Text": "1: Common and IUPAC Names of Some Aldehydes and Ketones\nStructure\nCommon name\nIUPAC name\nThe common and IUPAC names of some aldehydes and ketones are\ngiven in Table 8 1 or\n3-Bromobenzenecarbaldehyde\nRationalised 2023-24\n231\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\nThe carbonyl carbon atom is sp\n2-hybridised and forms three sigma (s)\nbonds The fourth valence electron of carbon remains in its p-orbital\nand forms a p-bond with oxygen by overlap with p-orbital of an oxygen"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6523-6526", "Text": "1 or\n3-Bromobenzenecarbaldehyde\nRationalised 2023-24\n231\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\nThe carbonyl carbon atom is sp\n2-hybridised and forms three sigma (s)\nbonds The fourth valence electron of carbon remains in its p-orbital\nand forms a p-bond with oxygen by overlap with p-orbital of an oxygen In addition, the oxygen atom also has two non bonding electron pairs"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6524-6527", "Text": "or\n3-Bromobenzenecarbaldehyde\nRationalised 2023-24\n231\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\nThe carbonyl carbon atom is sp\n2-hybridised and forms three sigma (s)\nbonds The fourth valence electron of carbon remains in its p-orbital\nand forms a p-bond with oxygen by overlap with p-orbital of an oxygen In addition, the oxygen atom also has two non bonding electron pairs Thus, the carbonyl carbon and the three atoms attached to it lie in the\nsame plane and the p-electron cloud is above and below this plane"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6525-6528", "Text": "The fourth valence electron of carbon remains in its p-orbital\nand forms a p-bond with oxygen by overlap with p-orbital of an oxygen In addition, the oxygen atom also has two non bonding electron pairs Thus, the carbonyl carbon and the three atoms attached to it lie in the\nsame plane and the p-electron cloud is above and below this plane The\nbond angles are approximately 120\u00b0 as expected of a trigonal coplanar\nstructure (Figure 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6526-6529", "Text": "In addition, the oxygen atom also has two non bonding electron pairs Thus, the carbonyl carbon and the three atoms attached to it lie in the\nsame plane and the p-electron cloud is above and below this plane The\nbond angles are approximately 120\u00b0 as expected of a trigonal coplanar\nstructure (Figure 8 1)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6527-6530", "Text": "Thus, the carbonyl carbon and the three atoms attached to it lie in the\nsame plane and the p-electron cloud is above and below this plane The\nbond angles are approximately 120\u00b0 as expected of a trigonal coplanar\nstructure (Figure 8 1) 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6528-6531", "Text": "The\nbond angles are approximately 120\u00b0 as expected of a trigonal coplanar\nstructure (Figure 8 1) 8 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6529-6532", "Text": "1) 8 1 2 Structure of\nthe\nCarbonyl\nGroup\n\u03c0\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6530-6533", "Text": "8 1 2 Structure of\nthe\nCarbonyl\nGroup\n\u03c0\nFig 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6531-6534", "Text": "1 2 Structure of\nthe\nCarbonyl\nGroup\n\u03c0\nFig 8 1 Orbital diagram for the formation of carbonyl group\nThe carbon-oxygen double bond is polarised due to higher\nelectronegativity of oxygen relative to carbon"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6532-6535", "Text": "2 Structure of\nthe\nCarbonyl\nGroup\n\u03c0\nFig 8 1 Orbital diagram for the formation of carbonyl group\nThe carbon-oxygen double bond is polarised due to higher\nelectronegativity of oxygen relative to carbon Hence, the carbonyl\ncarbon is an electrophilic (Lewis acid), and carbonyl\noxygen, a nucleophilic (Lewis base) centre"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6533-6536", "Text": "8 1 Orbital diagram for the formation of carbonyl group\nThe carbon-oxygen double bond is polarised due to higher\nelectronegativity of oxygen relative to carbon Hence, the carbonyl\ncarbon is an electrophilic (Lewis acid), and carbonyl\noxygen, a nucleophilic (Lewis base) centre Carbonyl\ncompounds have substantial dipole moments and are\npolar than ethers"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6534-6537", "Text": "1 Orbital diagram for the formation of carbonyl group\nThe carbon-oxygen double bond is polarised due to higher\nelectronegativity of oxygen relative to carbon Hence, the carbonyl\ncarbon is an electrophilic (Lewis acid), and carbonyl\noxygen, a nucleophilic (Lewis base) centre Carbonyl\ncompounds have substantial dipole moments and are\npolar than ethers The high polarity of the carbonyl group\nis explained on the basis of resonance involving a neutral\n(A) and a dipolar (B) structures as shown"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6535-6538", "Text": "Hence, the carbonyl\ncarbon is an electrophilic (Lewis acid), and carbonyl\noxygen, a nucleophilic (Lewis base) centre Carbonyl\ncompounds have substantial dipole moments and are\npolar than ethers The high polarity of the carbonyl group\nis explained on the basis of resonance involving a neutral\n(A) and a dipolar (B) structures as shown Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6536-6539", "Text": "Carbonyl\ncompounds have substantial dipole moments and are\npolar than ethers The high polarity of the carbonyl group\nis explained on the basis of resonance involving a neutral\n(A) and a dipolar (B) structures as shown Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n8 1\nWrite the structures of the following compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6537-6540", "Text": "The high polarity of the carbonyl group\nis explained on the basis of resonance involving a neutral\n(A) and a dipolar (B) structures as shown Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n8 1\nWrite the structures of the following compounds (i) a-Methoxypropionaldehyde\n(ii) 3-Hydroxybutanal\n(iii) 2-Hydroxycyclopentane carbaldehyde\n(iv) 4-Oxopentanal\n(v) Di-sec"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6538-6541", "Text": "Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n8 1\nWrite the structures of the following compounds (i) a-Methoxypropionaldehyde\n(ii) 3-Hydroxybutanal\n(iii) 2-Hydroxycyclopentane carbaldehyde\n(iv) 4-Oxopentanal\n(v) Di-sec butyl ketone\n(vi) 4-Fluoroacetophenone\nSome important methods for the preparation of aldehydes\nand ketones are as follows:\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6539-6542", "Text": "1\nWrite the structures of the following compounds (i) a-Methoxypropionaldehyde\n(ii) 3-Hydroxybutanal\n(iii) 2-Hydroxycyclopentane carbaldehyde\n(iv) 4-Oxopentanal\n(v) Di-sec butyl ketone\n(vi) 4-Fluoroacetophenone\nSome important methods for the preparation of aldehydes\nand ketones are as follows:\n1 By oxidation of alcohols\nAldehydes and ketones are generally prepared by oxidation of primary\nand secondary alcohols, respectively (Unit 7, Class XII)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6540-6543", "Text": "(i) a-Methoxypropionaldehyde\n(ii) 3-Hydroxybutanal\n(iii) 2-Hydroxycyclopentane carbaldehyde\n(iv) 4-Oxopentanal\n(v) Di-sec butyl ketone\n(vi) 4-Fluoroacetophenone\nSome important methods for the preparation of aldehydes\nand ketones are as follows:\n1 By oxidation of alcohols\nAldehydes and ketones are generally prepared by oxidation of primary\nand secondary alcohols, respectively (Unit 7, Class XII) 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6541-6544", "Text": "butyl ketone\n(vi) 4-Fluoroacetophenone\nSome important methods for the preparation of aldehydes\nand ketones are as follows:\n1 By oxidation of alcohols\nAldehydes and ketones are generally prepared by oxidation of primary\nand secondary alcohols, respectively (Unit 7, Class XII) 2 By dehydrogenation of alcohols\nThis method is suitable for volatile alcohols and is of industrial\napplication"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6542-6545", "Text": "By oxidation of alcohols\nAldehydes and ketones are generally prepared by oxidation of primary\nand secondary alcohols, respectively (Unit 7, Class XII) 2 By dehydrogenation of alcohols\nThis method is suitable for volatile alcohols and is of industrial\napplication In this method alcohol vapours are passed over heavy\nmetal catalysts (Ag or Cu)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6543-6546", "Text": "2 By dehydrogenation of alcohols\nThis method is suitable for volatile alcohols and is of industrial\napplication In this method alcohol vapours are passed over heavy\nmetal catalysts (Ag or Cu) Primary and secondary alcohols give\naldehydes and ketones, respectively (Unit 7, Class XII)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6544-6547", "Text": "By dehydrogenation of alcohols\nThis method is suitable for volatile alcohols and is of industrial\napplication In this method alcohol vapours are passed over heavy\nmetal catalysts (Ag or Cu) Primary and secondary alcohols give\naldehydes and ketones, respectively (Unit 7, Class XII) 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6545-6548", "Text": "In this method alcohol vapours are passed over heavy\nmetal catalysts (Ag or Cu) Primary and secondary alcohols give\naldehydes and ketones, respectively (Unit 7, Class XII) 3 From hydrocarbons\n(i) By ozonolysis of alkenes: As we know, ozonolysis of alkenes\nfollowed by reaction with zinc dust and water gives aldehydes,\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6546-6549", "Text": "Primary and secondary alcohols give\naldehydes and ketones, respectively (Unit 7, Class XII) 3 From hydrocarbons\n(i) By ozonolysis of alkenes: As we know, ozonolysis of alkenes\nfollowed by reaction with zinc dust and water gives aldehydes,\n8 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6547-6550", "Text": "3 From hydrocarbons\n(i) By ozonolysis of alkenes: As we know, ozonolysis of alkenes\nfollowed by reaction with zinc dust and water gives aldehydes,\n8 2 1\nPreparation\nof\nAldehydes\nand\nKetones\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6548-6551", "Text": "From hydrocarbons\n(i) By ozonolysis of alkenes: As we know, ozonolysis of alkenes\nfollowed by reaction with zinc dust and water gives aldehydes,\n8 2 1\nPreparation\nof\nAldehydes\nand\nKetones\n8 2\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6549-6552", "Text": "2 1\nPreparation\nof\nAldehydes\nand\nKetones\n8 2\n8 2\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6550-6553", "Text": "1\nPreparation\nof\nAldehydes\nand\nKetones\n8 2\n8 2\n8 2\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6551-6554", "Text": "2\n8 2\n8 2\n8 2\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6552-6555", "Text": "2\n8 2\n8 2\n8 2 Preparation of Aldehydes\nPreparation of Aldehydes\nPreparation of Aldehydes\nPreparation of Aldehydes\nPreparation of Aldehydes\nand Ketones\nand Ketones\nand Ketones\nand Ketones\nand Ketones\nRationalised 2023-24\n232\nChemistry\nketones or a mixture of both depending on the substitution\npattern of the alkene (Unit 9, Class XI)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6553-6556", "Text": "2\n8 2\n8 2 Preparation of Aldehydes\nPreparation of Aldehydes\nPreparation of Aldehydes\nPreparation of Aldehydes\nPreparation of Aldehydes\nand Ketones\nand Ketones\nand Ketones\nand Ketones\nand Ketones\nRationalised 2023-24\n232\nChemistry\nketones or a mixture of both depending on the substitution\npattern of the alkene (Unit 9, Class XI) (ii) By hydration of alkynes: Addition of water to ethyne in the\npresence of H2SO4 and HgSO4 gives acetaldehyde"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6554-6557", "Text": "2\n8 2 Preparation of Aldehydes\nPreparation of Aldehydes\nPreparation of Aldehydes\nPreparation of Aldehydes\nPreparation of Aldehydes\nand Ketones\nand Ketones\nand Ketones\nand Ketones\nand Ketones\nRationalised 2023-24\n232\nChemistry\nketones or a mixture of both depending on the substitution\npattern of the alkene (Unit 9, Class XI) (ii) By hydration of alkynes: Addition of water to ethyne in the\npresence of H2SO4 and HgSO4 gives acetaldehyde All other\nalkynes give ketones in this reaction (Unit 9, Class XI)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6555-6558", "Text": "2 Preparation of Aldehydes\nPreparation of Aldehydes\nPreparation of Aldehydes\nPreparation of Aldehydes\nPreparation of Aldehydes\nand Ketones\nand Ketones\nand Ketones\nand Ketones\nand Ketones\nRationalised 2023-24\n232\nChemistry\nketones or a mixture of both depending on the substitution\npattern of the alkene (Unit 9, Class XI) (ii) By hydration of alkynes: Addition of water to ethyne in the\npresence of H2SO4 and HgSO4 gives acetaldehyde All other\nalkynes give ketones in this reaction (Unit 9, Class XI) 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6556-6559", "Text": "(ii) By hydration of alkynes: Addition of water to ethyne in the\npresence of H2SO4 and HgSO4 gives acetaldehyde All other\nalkynes give ketones in this reaction (Unit 9, Class XI) 1 From acyl chloride (acid chloride)\nAcyl chloride (acid chloride) is hydrogenated over catalyst, palladium\non barium sulphate"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6557-6560", "Text": "All other\nalkynes give ketones in this reaction (Unit 9, Class XI) 1 From acyl chloride (acid chloride)\nAcyl chloride (acid chloride) is hydrogenated over catalyst, palladium\non barium sulphate This reaction is called Rosenmund reduction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6558-6561", "Text": "1 From acyl chloride (acid chloride)\nAcyl chloride (acid chloride) is hydrogenated over catalyst, palladium\non barium sulphate This reaction is called Rosenmund reduction 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6559-6562", "Text": "From acyl chloride (acid chloride)\nAcyl chloride (acid chloride) is hydrogenated over catalyst, palladium\non barium sulphate This reaction is called Rosenmund reduction 2 From nitriles and esters\nNitriles are reduced to corresponding imine with stannous chloride\nin the presence of hydrochloric acid, which on hydrolysis give\ncorresponding aldehyde"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6560-6563", "Text": "This reaction is called Rosenmund reduction 2 From nitriles and esters\nNitriles are reduced to corresponding imine with stannous chloride\nin the presence of hydrochloric acid, which on hydrolysis give\ncorresponding aldehyde This reaction is called Stephen reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6561-6564", "Text": "2 From nitriles and esters\nNitriles are reduced to corresponding imine with stannous chloride\nin the presence of hydrochloric acid, which on hydrolysis give\ncorresponding aldehyde This reaction is called Stephen reaction Alternatively, \nnitriles \nare \nselectively \nreduced \nby\ndiisobutylaluminium hydride, (DIBAL-H) to imines followed by\nhydrolysis to aldehydes:\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6562-6565", "Text": "From nitriles and esters\nNitriles are reduced to corresponding imine with stannous chloride\nin the presence of hydrochloric acid, which on hydrolysis give\ncorresponding aldehyde This reaction is called Stephen reaction Alternatively, \nnitriles \nare \nselectively \nreduced \nby\ndiisobutylaluminium hydride, (DIBAL-H) to imines followed by\nhydrolysis to aldehydes:\n8 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6563-6566", "Text": "This reaction is called Stephen reaction Alternatively, \nnitriles \nare \nselectively \nreduced \nby\ndiisobutylaluminium hydride, (DIBAL-H) to imines followed by\nhydrolysis to aldehydes:\n8 2 2\nPreparation\nof\nAldehydes\nSimilarly, esters are also reduced to aldehydes with DIBAL-H"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6564-6567", "Text": "Alternatively, \nnitriles \nare \nselectively \nreduced \nby\ndiisobutylaluminium hydride, (DIBAL-H) to imines followed by\nhydrolysis to aldehydes:\n8 2 2\nPreparation\nof\nAldehydes\nSimilarly, esters are also reduced to aldehydes with DIBAL-H 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6565-6568", "Text": "2 2\nPreparation\nof\nAldehydes\nSimilarly, esters are also reduced to aldehydes with DIBAL-H 3 From hydrocarbons\nAromatic aldehydes (benzaldehyde and its derivatives) are prepared\nfrom aromatic hydrocarbons by the following methods:\n(i) By oxidation of methylbenzene\nStrong oxidising agents oxidise toluene and its derivatives to\nbenzoic acids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6566-6569", "Text": "2\nPreparation\nof\nAldehydes\nSimilarly, esters are also reduced to aldehydes with DIBAL-H 3 From hydrocarbons\nAromatic aldehydes (benzaldehyde and its derivatives) are prepared\nfrom aromatic hydrocarbons by the following methods:\n(i) By oxidation of methylbenzene\nStrong oxidising agents oxidise toluene and its derivatives to\nbenzoic acids However, it is possible to stop the oxidation at\nthe aldehyde stage with suitable reagents that convert the methyl\ngroup to an intermediate that is difficult to oxidise further"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6567-6570", "Text": "3 From hydrocarbons\nAromatic aldehydes (benzaldehyde and its derivatives) are prepared\nfrom aromatic hydrocarbons by the following methods:\n(i) By oxidation of methylbenzene\nStrong oxidising agents oxidise toluene and its derivatives to\nbenzoic acids However, it is possible to stop the oxidation at\nthe aldehyde stage with suitable reagents that convert the methyl\ngroup to an intermediate that is difficult to oxidise further The\nfollowing methods are used for this purpose"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6568-6571", "Text": "From hydrocarbons\nAromatic aldehydes (benzaldehyde and its derivatives) are prepared\nfrom aromatic hydrocarbons by the following methods:\n(i) By oxidation of methylbenzene\nStrong oxidising agents oxidise toluene and its derivatives to\nbenzoic acids However, it is possible to stop the oxidation at\nthe aldehyde stage with suitable reagents that convert the methyl\ngroup to an intermediate that is difficult to oxidise further The\nfollowing methods are used for this purpose (a) Use of chromyl chloride (CrO2Cl2): Chromyl chloride oxidises\nmethyl group to a chromium complex, which on hydrolysis\ngives corresponding benzaldehyde"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6569-6572", "Text": "However, it is possible to stop the oxidation at\nthe aldehyde stage with suitable reagents that convert the methyl\ngroup to an intermediate that is difficult to oxidise further The\nfollowing methods are used for this purpose (a) Use of chromyl chloride (CrO2Cl2): Chromyl chloride oxidises\nmethyl group to a chromium complex, which on hydrolysis\ngives corresponding benzaldehyde Rationalised 2023-24\n233\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\nThis reaction is called Etard reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6570-6573", "Text": "The\nfollowing methods are used for this purpose (a) Use of chromyl chloride (CrO2Cl2): Chromyl chloride oxidises\nmethyl group to a chromium complex, which on hydrolysis\ngives corresponding benzaldehyde Rationalised 2023-24\n233\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\nThis reaction is called Etard reaction (b) Use of chromic oxide (CrO3): Toluene or substituted toluene\nis converted to benzylidene diacetate on treating with chromic\noxide in acetic anhydride"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6571-6574", "Text": "(a) Use of chromyl chloride (CrO2Cl2): Chromyl chloride oxidises\nmethyl group to a chromium complex, which on hydrolysis\ngives corresponding benzaldehyde Rationalised 2023-24\n233\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\nThis reaction is called Etard reaction (b) Use of chromic oxide (CrO3): Toluene or substituted toluene\nis converted to benzylidene diacetate on treating with chromic\noxide in acetic anhydride The benzylidene diacetate can be\nhydrolysed to corresponding benzaldehyde with aqueous acid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6572-6575", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n233\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\nThis reaction is called Etard reaction (b) Use of chromic oxide (CrO3): Toluene or substituted toluene\nis converted to benzylidene diacetate on treating with chromic\noxide in acetic anhydride The benzylidene diacetate can be\nhydrolysed to corresponding benzaldehyde with aqueous acid (iii) By Gatterman \u2013 Koch reaction\nWhen benzene or its derivative is treated with carbon monoxide\nand hydrogen chloride in the presence of anhydrous aluminium\nchloride or cuprous chloride, it gives benzaldehyde or substituted\nbenzaldehyde"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6573-6576", "Text": "(b) Use of chromic oxide (CrO3): Toluene or substituted toluene\nis converted to benzylidene diacetate on treating with chromic\noxide in acetic anhydride The benzylidene diacetate can be\nhydrolysed to corresponding benzaldehyde with aqueous acid (iii) By Gatterman \u2013 Koch reaction\nWhen benzene or its derivative is treated with carbon monoxide\nand hydrogen chloride in the presence of anhydrous aluminium\nchloride or cuprous chloride, it gives benzaldehyde or substituted\nbenzaldehyde (ii) By side chain chlorination followed by hydrolysis\nSide chain chlorination of toluene gives benzal chloride, which\non hydrolysis gives benzaldehyde"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6574-6577", "Text": "The benzylidene diacetate can be\nhydrolysed to corresponding benzaldehyde with aqueous acid (iii) By Gatterman \u2013 Koch reaction\nWhen benzene or its derivative is treated with carbon monoxide\nand hydrogen chloride in the presence of anhydrous aluminium\nchloride or cuprous chloride, it gives benzaldehyde or substituted\nbenzaldehyde (ii) By side chain chlorination followed by hydrolysis\nSide chain chlorination of toluene gives benzal chloride, which\non hydrolysis gives benzaldehyde This is a commercial method\nof manufacture of benzaldehyde"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6575-6578", "Text": "(iii) By Gatterman \u2013 Koch reaction\nWhen benzene or its derivative is treated with carbon monoxide\nand hydrogen chloride in the presence of anhydrous aluminium\nchloride or cuprous chloride, it gives benzaldehyde or substituted\nbenzaldehyde (ii) By side chain chlorination followed by hydrolysis\nSide chain chlorination of toluene gives benzal chloride, which\non hydrolysis gives benzaldehyde This is a commercial method\nof manufacture of benzaldehyde This reaction is known as Gatterman-Koch reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6576-6579", "Text": "(ii) By side chain chlorination followed by hydrolysis\nSide chain chlorination of toluene gives benzal chloride, which\non hydrolysis gives benzaldehyde This is a commercial method\nof manufacture of benzaldehyde This reaction is known as Gatterman-Koch reaction 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6577-6580", "Text": "This is a commercial method\nof manufacture of benzaldehyde This reaction is known as Gatterman-Koch reaction 1 From acyl chlorides\nTreatment of acyl chlorides with dialkylcadmium, prepared by the\nreaction of cadmium chloride with Grignard reagent, gives ketones"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6578-6581", "Text": "This reaction is known as Gatterman-Koch reaction 1 From acyl chlorides\nTreatment of acyl chlorides with dialkylcadmium, prepared by the\nreaction of cadmium chloride with Grignard reagent, gives ketones 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6579-6582", "Text": "1 From acyl chlorides\nTreatment of acyl chlorides with dialkylcadmium, prepared by the\nreaction of cadmium chloride with Grignard reagent, gives ketones 8 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6580-6583", "Text": "From acyl chlorides\nTreatment of acyl chlorides with dialkylcadmium, prepared by the\nreaction of cadmium chloride with Grignard reagent, gives ketones 8 2 3\nPreparation\nof Ketones\nRationalised 2023-24\n234\nChemistry\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6581-6584", "Text": "8 2 3\nPreparation\nof Ketones\nRationalised 2023-24\n234\nChemistry\n2 From nitriles\nTreating a nitrile with Grignard reagent followed by hydrolysis yields\na ketone"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6582-6585", "Text": "2 3\nPreparation\nof Ketones\nRationalised 2023-24\n234\nChemistry\n2 From nitriles\nTreating a nitrile with Grignard reagent followed by hydrolysis yields\na ketone Give names of the reagents to bring about the following\ntransformations:\n(i) Hexan-1-ol to hexanal\n(ii)\nCyclohexanol to cyclohexanone\n(iii) p-Fluorotoluene to\n(iv)\nEthanenitrile to ethanal\np-fluorobenzaldehyde\n(v) Allyl alcohol to propenal\n(vi)\nBut-2-ene to ethanal\n(i) C5H5NH+CrO3Cl-(PCC)\n(ii)\nAnhydrous CrO3\n(iii) CrO3 in the presence\n(iv)\n(Diisobutyl)aluminium\nof acetic anhydride/\nhydride (DIBAL-H)\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6583-6586", "Text": "3\nPreparation\nof Ketones\nRationalised 2023-24\n234\nChemistry\n2 From nitriles\nTreating a nitrile with Grignard reagent followed by hydrolysis yields\na ketone Give names of the reagents to bring about the following\ntransformations:\n(i) Hexan-1-ol to hexanal\n(ii)\nCyclohexanol to cyclohexanone\n(iii) p-Fluorotoluene to\n(iv)\nEthanenitrile to ethanal\np-fluorobenzaldehyde\n(v) Allyl alcohol to propenal\n(vi)\nBut-2-ene to ethanal\n(i) C5H5NH+CrO3Cl-(PCC)\n(ii)\nAnhydrous CrO3\n(iii) CrO3 in the presence\n(iv)\n(Diisobutyl)aluminium\nof acetic anhydride/\nhydride (DIBAL-H)\n1 CrO2Cl2 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6584-6587", "Text": "From nitriles\nTreating a nitrile with Grignard reagent followed by hydrolysis yields\na ketone Give names of the reagents to bring about the following\ntransformations:\n(i) Hexan-1-ol to hexanal\n(ii)\nCyclohexanol to cyclohexanone\n(iii) p-Fluorotoluene to\n(iv)\nEthanenitrile to ethanal\np-fluorobenzaldehyde\n(v) Allyl alcohol to propenal\n(vi)\nBut-2-ene to ethanal\n(i) C5H5NH+CrO3Cl-(PCC)\n(ii)\nAnhydrous CrO3\n(iii) CrO3 in the presence\n(iv)\n(Diisobutyl)aluminium\nof acetic anhydride/\nhydride (DIBAL-H)\n1 CrO2Cl2 2 HOH\n(v) PCC\n(vi)\nO3/H2O-Zn dust\nExample 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6585-6588", "Text": "Give names of the reagents to bring about the following\ntransformations:\n(i) Hexan-1-ol to hexanal\n(ii)\nCyclohexanol to cyclohexanone\n(iii) p-Fluorotoluene to\n(iv)\nEthanenitrile to ethanal\np-fluorobenzaldehyde\n(v) Allyl alcohol to propenal\n(vi)\nBut-2-ene to ethanal\n(i) C5H5NH+CrO3Cl-(PCC)\n(ii)\nAnhydrous CrO3\n(iii) CrO3 in the presence\n(iv)\n(Diisobutyl)aluminium\nof acetic anhydride/\nhydride (DIBAL-H)\n1 CrO2Cl2 2 HOH\n(v) PCC\n(vi)\nO3/H2O-Zn dust\nExample 8 1\nExample 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6586-6589", "Text": "CrO2Cl2 2 HOH\n(v) PCC\n(vi)\nO3/H2O-Zn dust\nExample 8 1\nExample 8 1\nExample 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6587-6590", "Text": "HOH\n(v) PCC\n(vi)\nO3/H2O-Zn dust\nExample 8 1\nExample 8 1\nExample 8 1\nExample 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6588-6591", "Text": "1\nExample 8 1\nExample 8 1\nExample 8 1\nExample 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6589-6592", "Text": "1\nExample 8 1\nExample 8 1\nExample 8 1\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n(C6H CH ) Cd + 2 CH\n5\n2 2\n3 COCl\nCH3\nNO2\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6590-6593", "Text": "1\nExample 8 1\nExample 8 1\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n(C6H CH ) Cd + 2 CH\n5\n2 2\n3 COCl\nCH3\nNO2\n1 CrO Cl\n2\n2\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6591-6594", "Text": "1\nExample 8 1\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n(C6H CH ) Cd + 2 CH\n5\n2 2\n3 COCl\nCH3\nNO2\n1 CrO Cl\n2\n2\n2 H3O+\n(iii)\nC\nC\nH\nHg\n2+, H SO\n2\n4\nH C\n3\n(iv)\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6592-6595", "Text": "1\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n(C6H CH ) Cd + 2 CH\n5\n2 2\n3 COCl\nCH3\nNO2\n1 CrO Cl\n2\n2\n2 H3O+\n(iii)\nC\nC\nH\nHg\n2+, H SO\n2\n4\nH C\n3\n(iv)\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n8 2 Write the structures of products of the following reactions;\n (i)\n(ii)\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6593-6596", "Text": "CrO Cl\n2\n2\n2 H3O+\n(iii)\nC\nC\nH\nHg\n2+, H SO\n2\n4\nH C\n3\n(iv)\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n8 2 Write the structures of products of the following reactions;\n (i)\n(ii)\n3 From benzene or substituted benzenes\nWhen benzene or substituted benzene is treated with acid chloride in\nthe presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride, it affords the\ncorresponding ketone"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6594-6597", "Text": "H3O+\n(iii)\nC\nC\nH\nHg\n2+, H SO\n2\n4\nH C\n3\n(iv)\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n8 2 Write the structures of products of the following reactions;\n (i)\n(ii)\n3 From benzene or substituted benzenes\nWhen benzene or substituted benzene is treated with acid chloride in\nthe presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride, it affords the\ncorresponding ketone This reaction is known as Friedel-Crafts\nacylation reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6595-6598", "Text": "2 Write the structures of products of the following reactions;\n (i)\n(ii)\n3 From benzene or substituted benzenes\nWhen benzene or substituted benzene is treated with acid chloride in\nthe presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride, it affords the\ncorresponding ketone This reaction is known as Friedel-Crafts\nacylation reaction Rationalised 2023-24\n235\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\nThe physical properties of aldehydes and ketones are described as\nfollows"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6596-6599", "Text": "From benzene or substituted benzenes\nWhen benzene or substituted benzene is treated with acid chloride in\nthe presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride, it affords the\ncorresponding ketone This reaction is known as Friedel-Crafts\nacylation reaction Rationalised 2023-24\n235\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\nThe physical properties of aldehydes and ketones are described as\nfollows Methanal is a gas at room temperature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6597-6600", "Text": "This reaction is known as Friedel-Crafts\nacylation reaction Rationalised 2023-24\n235\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\nThe physical properties of aldehydes and ketones are described as\nfollows Methanal is a gas at room temperature Ethanal is a volatile liquid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6598-6601", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n235\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\nThe physical properties of aldehydes and ketones are described as\nfollows Methanal is a gas at room temperature Ethanal is a volatile liquid Other aldehydes and ketones are liquid or solid at room temperature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6599-6602", "Text": "Methanal is a gas at room temperature Ethanal is a volatile liquid Other aldehydes and ketones are liquid or solid at room temperature The boiling points of aldehydes and ketones are higher than\nhydrocarbons and ethers of comparable molecular masses"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6600-6603", "Text": "Ethanal is a volatile liquid Other aldehydes and ketones are liquid or solid at room temperature The boiling points of aldehydes and ketones are higher than\nhydrocarbons and ethers of comparable molecular masses It is due to\nweak molecular association in aldehydes and ketones arising out of the\ndipole-dipole interactions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6601-6604", "Text": "Other aldehydes and ketones are liquid or solid at room temperature The boiling points of aldehydes and ketones are higher than\nhydrocarbons and ethers of comparable molecular masses It is due to\nweak molecular association in aldehydes and ketones arising out of the\ndipole-dipole interactions Also, their boiling points are lower than those\nof alcohols of similar molecular masses due to absence of intermolecular\nhydrogen bonding"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6602-6605", "Text": "The boiling points of aldehydes and ketones are higher than\nhydrocarbons and ethers of comparable molecular masses It is due to\nweak molecular association in aldehydes and ketones arising out of the\ndipole-dipole interactions Also, their boiling points are lower than those\nof alcohols of similar molecular masses due to absence of intermolecular\nhydrogen bonding The following compounds of molecular masses 58\nand 60 are ranked in order of increasing boiling points"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6603-6606", "Text": "It is due to\nweak molecular association in aldehydes and ketones arising out of the\ndipole-dipole interactions Also, their boiling points are lower than those\nof alcohols of similar molecular masses due to absence of intermolecular\nhydrogen bonding The following compounds of molecular masses 58\nand 60 are ranked in order of increasing boiling points b"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6604-6607", "Text": "Also, their boiling points are lower than those\nof alcohols of similar molecular masses due to absence of intermolecular\nhydrogen bonding The following compounds of molecular masses 58\nand 60 are ranked in order of increasing boiling points b p"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6605-6608", "Text": "The following compounds of molecular masses 58\nand 60 are ranked in order of increasing boiling points b p (K)\nMolecular Mass\nn-Butane\n273\n58\nMethoxyethane\n281\n60\nPropanal\n322\n58\nAcetone\n329\n58\nPropan-1-ol\n370\n60\nThe lower members of aldehydes and ketones such as methanal,\nethanal and propanone are miscible with water in all proportions,\nbecause they form hydrogen bond with water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6606-6609", "Text": "b p (K)\nMolecular Mass\nn-Butane\n273\n58\nMethoxyethane\n281\n60\nPropanal\n322\n58\nAcetone\n329\n58\nPropan-1-ol\n370\n60\nThe lower members of aldehydes and ketones such as methanal,\nethanal and propanone are miscible with water in all proportions,\nbecause they form hydrogen bond with water However, the solubility of aldehydes and ketones decreases rapidly\non increasing the length of alkyl chain"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6607-6610", "Text": "p (K)\nMolecular Mass\nn-Butane\n273\n58\nMethoxyethane\n281\n60\nPropanal\n322\n58\nAcetone\n329\n58\nPropan-1-ol\n370\n60\nThe lower members of aldehydes and ketones such as methanal,\nethanal and propanone are miscible with water in all proportions,\nbecause they form hydrogen bond with water However, the solubility of aldehydes and ketones decreases rapidly\non increasing the length of alkyl chain All aldehydes and ketones are\nfairly soluble in organic solvents like benzene, ether, methanol,\nchloroform, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6608-6611", "Text": "(K)\nMolecular Mass\nn-Butane\n273\n58\nMethoxyethane\n281\n60\nPropanal\n322\n58\nAcetone\n329\n58\nPropan-1-ol\n370\n60\nThe lower members of aldehydes and ketones such as methanal,\nethanal and propanone are miscible with water in all proportions,\nbecause they form hydrogen bond with water However, the solubility of aldehydes and ketones decreases rapidly\non increasing the length of alkyl chain All aldehydes and ketones are\nfairly soluble in organic solvents like benzene, ether, methanol,\nchloroform, etc The lower aldehydes have sharp pungent odours"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6609-6612", "Text": "However, the solubility of aldehydes and ketones decreases rapidly\non increasing the length of alkyl chain All aldehydes and ketones are\nfairly soluble in organic solvents like benzene, ether, methanol,\nchloroform, etc The lower aldehydes have sharp pungent odours As\nthe size of the molecule increases, the odour becomes less pungent\nand more fragrant"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6610-6613", "Text": "All aldehydes and ketones are\nfairly soluble in organic solvents like benzene, ether, methanol,\nchloroform, etc The lower aldehydes have sharp pungent odours As\nthe size of the molecule increases, the odour becomes less pungent\nand more fragrant In fact, many naturally occurring aldehydes and\nketones are used in the blending of perfumes and flavouring agents"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6611-6614", "Text": "The lower aldehydes have sharp pungent odours As\nthe size of the molecule increases, the odour becomes less pungent\nand more fragrant In fact, many naturally occurring aldehydes and\nketones are used in the blending of perfumes and flavouring agents 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6612-6615", "Text": "As\nthe size of the molecule increases, the odour becomes less pungent\nand more fragrant In fact, many naturally occurring aldehydes and\nketones are used in the blending of perfumes and flavouring agents 8 3 Physical\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6613-6616", "Text": "In fact, many naturally occurring aldehydes and\nketones are used in the blending of perfumes and flavouring agents 8 3 Physical\n8 3 Physical\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6614-6617", "Text": "8 3 Physical\n8 3 Physical\n8 3 Physical\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6615-6618", "Text": "3 Physical\n8 3 Physical\n8 3 Physical\n8 3 Physical\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6616-6619", "Text": "3 Physical\n8 3 Physical\n8 3 Physical\n8 3 Physical\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nArrange the following compounds in the increasing order of their\nboiling points:\nCH3CH2CH2CHO, CH3CH2CH2CH2OH, H5C2-O-C2H5, CH3CH2CH2CH3\nThe molecular masses of these compounds are in the range of 72 to\n74"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6617-6620", "Text": "3 Physical\n8 3 Physical\n8 3 Physical\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nArrange the following compounds in the increasing order of their\nboiling points:\nCH3CH2CH2CHO, CH3CH2CH2CH2OH, H5C2-O-C2H5, CH3CH2CH2CH3\nThe molecular masses of these compounds are in the range of 72 to\n74 Since only butan-1-ol molecules are associated due to extensive\nintermolecular hydrogen bonding, therefore, the boiling point of\nbutan-1-ol would be the highest"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6618-6621", "Text": "3 Physical\n8 3 Physical\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nArrange the following compounds in the increasing order of their\nboiling points:\nCH3CH2CH2CHO, CH3CH2CH2CH2OH, H5C2-O-C2H5, CH3CH2CH2CH3\nThe molecular masses of these compounds are in the range of 72 to\n74 Since only butan-1-ol molecules are associated due to extensive\nintermolecular hydrogen bonding, therefore, the boiling point of\nbutan-1-ol would be the highest Butanal is more polar than\nethoxyethane"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6619-6622", "Text": "3 Physical\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nArrange the following compounds in the increasing order of their\nboiling points:\nCH3CH2CH2CHO, CH3CH2CH2CH2OH, H5C2-O-C2H5, CH3CH2CH2CH3\nThe molecular masses of these compounds are in the range of 72 to\n74 Since only butan-1-ol molecules are associated due to extensive\nintermolecular hydrogen bonding, therefore, the boiling point of\nbutan-1-ol would be the highest Butanal is more polar than\nethoxyethane Therefore, the intermolecular dipole-dipole attraction\nis stronger in the former"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6620-6623", "Text": "Since only butan-1-ol molecules are associated due to extensive\nintermolecular hydrogen bonding, therefore, the boiling point of\nbutan-1-ol would be the highest Butanal is more polar than\nethoxyethane Therefore, the intermolecular dipole-dipole attraction\nis stronger in the former n-Pentane molecules have only weak van\nder Waals forces"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6621-6624", "Text": "Butanal is more polar than\nethoxyethane Therefore, the intermolecular dipole-dipole attraction\nis stronger in the former n-Pentane molecules have only weak van\nder Waals forces Hence increasing order of boiling points of the\ngiven compounds is as follows:\nCH3CH2CH2CH3 < H5C2-O-C2H5 < CH3CH2CH2CHO < CH3CH2CH2CH2OH\nExample 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6622-6625", "Text": "Therefore, the intermolecular dipole-dipole attraction\nis stronger in the former n-Pentane molecules have only weak van\nder Waals forces Hence increasing order of boiling points of the\ngiven compounds is as follows:\nCH3CH2CH2CH3 < H5C2-O-C2H5 < CH3CH2CH2CHO < CH3CH2CH2CH2OH\nExample 8 2\nExample 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6623-6626", "Text": "n-Pentane molecules have only weak van\nder Waals forces Hence increasing order of boiling points of the\ngiven compounds is as follows:\nCH3CH2CH2CH3 < H5C2-O-C2H5 < CH3CH2CH2CHO < CH3CH2CH2CH2OH\nExample 8 2\nExample 8 2\nExample 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6624-6627", "Text": "Hence increasing order of boiling points of the\ngiven compounds is as follows:\nCH3CH2CH2CH3 < H5C2-O-C2H5 < CH3CH2CH2CHO < CH3CH2CH2CH2OH\nExample 8 2\nExample 8 2\nExample 8 2\nExample 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6625-6628", "Text": "2\nExample 8 2\nExample 8 2\nExample 8 2\nExample 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6626-6629", "Text": "2\nExample 8 2\nExample 8 2\nExample 8 2\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n236\nChemistry\nSince aldehydes and ketones both possess the carbonyl functional\ngroup, they undergo similar chemical reactions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6627-6630", "Text": "2\nExample 8 2\nExample 8 2\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n236\nChemistry\nSince aldehydes and ketones both possess the carbonyl functional\ngroup, they undergo similar chemical reactions 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6628-6631", "Text": "2\nExample 8 2\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n236\nChemistry\nSince aldehydes and ketones both possess the carbonyl functional\ngroup, they undergo similar chemical reactions 1 Nucleophilic addition reactions\nContrary to electrophilic addition reactions observed in alkenes, the\naldehydes and ketones undergo nucleophilic addition reactions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6629-6632", "Text": "2\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n236\nChemistry\nSince aldehydes and ketones both possess the carbonyl functional\ngroup, they undergo similar chemical reactions 1 Nucleophilic addition reactions\nContrary to electrophilic addition reactions observed in alkenes, the\naldehydes and ketones undergo nucleophilic addition reactions (i) Mechanism of nucleophilic addition reactions\nA nucleophile attacks the electrophilic carbon atom of the polar\ncarbonyl group from a direction approximately perpendicular\nto the plane of sp\n2 hybridised orbitals of carbonyl carbon (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6630-6633", "Text": "1 Nucleophilic addition reactions\nContrary to electrophilic addition reactions observed in alkenes, the\naldehydes and ketones undergo nucleophilic addition reactions (i) Mechanism of nucleophilic addition reactions\nA nucleophile attacks the electrophilic carbon atom of the polar\ncarbonyl group from a direction approximately perpendicular\nto the plane of sp\n2 hybridised orbitals of carbonyl carbon (Fig 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6631-6634", "Text": "Nucleophilic addition reactions\nContrary to electrophilic addition reactions observed in alkenes, the\naldehydes and ketones undergo nucleophilic addition reactions (i) Mechanism of nucleophilic addition reactions\nA nucleophile attacks the electrophilic carbon atom of the polar\ncarbonyl group from a direction approximately perpendicular\nto the plane of sp\n2 hybridised orbitals of carbonyl carbon (Fig 8 2)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6632-6635", "Text": "(i) Mechanism of nucleophilic addition reactions\nA nucleophile attacks the electrophilic carbon atom of the polar\ncarbonyl group from a direction approximately perpendicular\nto the plane of sp\n2 hybridised orbitals of carbonyl carbon (Fig 8 2) The hybridisation of carbon changes from sp\n2 to sp\n3 in\nthis process, and a tetrahedral alkoxide intermediate is\nproduced"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6633-6636", "Text": "8 2) The hybridisation of carbon changes from sp\n2 to sp\n3 in\nthis process, and a tetrahedral alkoxide intermediate is\nproduced This intermediate captures a proton from the\nreaction medium to give\nthe electrically neutral\nproduct"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6634-6637", "Text": "2) The hybridisation of carbon changes from sp\n2 to sp\n3 in\nthis process, and a tetrahedral alkoxide intermediate is\nproduced This intermediate captures a proton from the\nreaction medium to give\nthe electrically neutral\nproduct The net result is\naddition of Nu\n\u2013 and H\n+\nacross the carbon oxygen\ndouble bond as shown in\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6635-6638", "Text": "The hybridisation of carbon changes from sp\n2 to sp\n3 in\nthis process, and a tetrahedral alkoxide intermediate is\nproduced This intermediate captures a proton from the\nreaction medium to give\nthe electrically neutral\nproduct The net result is\naddition of Nu\n\u2013 and H\n+\nacross the carbon oxygen\ndouble bond as shown in\nFig 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6636-6639", "Text": "This intermediate captures a proton from the\nreaction medium to give\nthe electrically neutral\nproduct The net result is\naddition of Nu\n\u2013 and H\n+\nacross the carbon oxygen\ndouble bond as shown in\nFig 8 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6637-6640", "Text": "The net result is\naddition of Nu\n\u2013 and H\n+\nacross the carbon oxygen\ndouble bond as shown in\nFig 8 2 Intext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6638-6641", "Text": "8 2 Intext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n8 3\nArrange the following compounds in increasing order of\ntheir boiling points"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6639-6642", "Text": "2 Intext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n8 3\nArrange the following compounds in increasing order of\ntheir boiling points CH3CHO, CH3CH2OH, CH3OCH3, CH3CH2CH3\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6640-6643", "Text": "Intext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n8 3\nArrange the following compounds in increasing order of\ntheir boiling points CH3CHO, CH3CH2OH, CH3OCH3, CH3CH2CH3\nFig 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6641-6644", "Text": "3\nArrange the following compounds in increasing order of\ntheir boiling points CH3CHO, CH3CH2OH, CH3OCH3, CH3CH2CH3\nFig 8 2: Nucleophilic attack on carbonyl carbon\nWould you expect benzaldehyde to be more reactive or less reactive in\nnucleophilic addition reactions than propanal"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6642-6645", "Text": "CH3CHO, CH3CH2OH, CH3OCH3, CH3CH2CH3\nFig 8 2: Nucleophilic attack on carbonyl carbon\nWould you expect benzaldehyde to be more reactive or less reactive in\nnucleophilic addition reactions than propanal Explain your answer"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6643-6646", "Text": "8 2: Nucleophilic attack on carbonyl carbon\nWould you expect benzaldehyde to be more reactive or less reactive in\nnucleophilic addition reactions than propanal Explain your answer The carbon atom of the carbonyl group of benzaldehyde is less\nelectrophilic than carbon atom of the carbonyl group present in\npropanal"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6644-6647", "Text": "2: Nucleophilic attack on carbonyl carbon\nWould you expect benzaldehyde to be more reactive or less reactive in\nnucleophilic addition reactions than propanal Explain your answer The carbon atom of the carbonyl group of benzaldehyde is less\nelectrophilic than carbon atom of the carbonyl group present in\npropanal The polarity of the carbonyl\ngroup is reduced in benzaldehyde due\nto resonance as shown below and\nhence it is less reactive than propanal"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6645-6648", "Text": "Explain your answer The carbon atom of the carbonyl group of benzaldehyde is less\nelectrophilic than carbon atom of the carbonyl group present in\npropanal The polarity of the carbonyl\ngroup is reduced in benzaldehyde due\nto resonance as shown below and\nhence it is less reactive than propanal Example 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6646-6649", "Text": "The carbon atom of the carbonyl group of benzaldehyde is less\nelectrophilic than carbon atom of the carbonyl group present in\npropanal The polarity of the carbonyl\ngroup is reduced in benzaldehyde due\nto resonance as shown below and\nhence it is less reactive than propanal Example 8 3\nExample 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6647-6650", "Text": "The polarity of the carbonyl\ngroup is reduced in benzaldehyde due\nto resonance as shown below and\nhence it is less reactive than propanal Example 8 3\nExample 8 3\nExample 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6648-6651", "Text": "Example 8 3\nExample 8 3\nExample 8 3\nExample 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6649-6652", "Text": "3\nExample 8 3\nExample 8 3\nExample 8 3\nExample 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6650-6653", "Text": "3\nExample 8 3\nExample 8 3\nExample 8 3\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n(ii) Reactivity\nAldehydes are generally more reactive than ketones in\nnucleophilic addition reactions due to steric and electronic\nreasons"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6651-6654", "Text": "3\nExample 8 3\nExample 8 3\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n(ii) Reactivity\nAldehydes are generally more reactive than ketones in\nnucleophilic addition reactions due to steric and electronic\nreasons Sterically, the presence of two relatively large\nsubstituents in ketones hinders the approach of nucleophile to\ncarbonyl carbon than in aldehydes having only one such\nsubstituent"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6652-6655", "Text": "3\nExample 8 3\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n(ii) Reactivity\nAldehydes are generally more reactive than ketones in\nnucleophilic addition reactions due to steric and electronic\nreasons Sterically, the presence of two relatively large\nsubstituents in ketones hinders the approach of nucleophile to\ncarbonyl carbon than in aldehydes having only one such\nsubstituent Electronically, aldehydes are more reactive than\nketones because two alkyl groups reduce the electrophilicity of\nthe carbonyl carbon more effectively than in former"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6653-6656", "Text": "3\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n(ii) Reactivity\nAldehydes are generally more reactive than ketones in\nnucleophilic addition reactions due to steric and electronic\nreasons Sterically, the presence of two relatively large\nsubstituents in ketones hinders the approach of nucleophile to\ncarbonyl carbon than in aldehydes having only one such\nsubstituent Electronically, aldehydes are more reactive than\nketones because two alkyl groups reduce the electrophilicity of\nthe carbonyl carbon more effectively than in former 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6654-6657", "Text": "Sterically, the presence of two relatively large\nsubstituents in ketones hinders the approach of nucleophile to\ncarbonyl carbon than in aldehydes having only one such\nsubstituent Electronically, aldehydes are more reactive than\nketones because two alkyl groups reduce the electrophilicity of\nthe carbonyl carbon more effectively than in former 8 4 Chemical\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6655-6658", "Text": "Electronically, aldehydes are more reactive than\nketones because two alkyl groups reduce the electrophilicity of\nthe carbonyl carbon more effectively than in former 8 4 Chemical\n8 4 Chemical\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6656-6659", "Text": "8 4 Chemical\n8 4 Chemical\n8 4 Chemical\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6657-6660", "Text": "4 Chemical\n8 4 Chemical\n8 4 Chemical\n8 4 Chemical\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6658-6661", "Text": "4 Chemical\n8 4 Chemical\n8 4 Chemical\n8 4 Chemical\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nRationalised 2023-24\n237\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\n(iii) Some important examples of nucleophilic addition and\nnucleophilic addition-elimination reactions:\n(a) Addition of hydrogen cyanide (HCN): Aldehydes\nand ketones react with hydrogen cyanide (HCN)\nto yield cyanohydrins"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6659-6662", "Text": "4 Chemical\n8 4 Chemical\n8 4 Chemical\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nRationalised 2023-24\n237\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\n(iii) Some important examples of nucleophilic addition and\nnucleophilic addition-elimination reactions:\n(a) Addition of hydrogen cyanide (HCN): Aldehydes\nand ketones react with hydrogen cyanide (HCN)\nto yield cyanohydrins This reaction occurs very\nslowly with pure HCN"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6660-6663", "Text": "4 Chemical\n8 4 Chemical\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nRationalised 2023-24\n237\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\n(iii) Some important examples of nucleophilic addition and\nnucleophilic addition-elimination reactions:\n(a) Addition of hydrogen cyanide (HCN): Aldehydes\nand ketones react with hydrogen cyanide (HCN)\nto yield cyanohydrins This reaction occurs very\nslowly with pure HCN Therefore, it is catalysed\nby a base and the generated cyanide ion (CN\nbeing a stronger nucleophile readily adds to-)\ncarbonyl compounds to yield corresponding\ncyanohydrin"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6661-6664", "Text": "4 Chemical\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nRationalised 2023-24\n237\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\n(iii) Some important examples of nucleophilic addition and\nnucleophilic addition-elimination reactions:\n(a) Addition of hydrogen cyanide (HCN): Aldehydes\nand ketones react with hydrogen cyanide (HCN)\nto yield cyanohydrins This reaction occurs very\nslowly with pure HCN Therefore, it is catalysed\nby a base and the generated cyanide ion (CN\nbeing a stronger nucleophile readily adds to-)\ncarbonyl compounds to yield corresponding\ncyanohydrin Cyanohydrins \nare \nuseful \nsynthetic\nintermediates"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6662-6665", "Text": "This reaction occurs very\nslowly with pure HCN Therefore, it is catalysed\nby a base and the generated cyanide ion (CN\nbeing a stronger nucleophile readily adds to-)\ncarbonyl compounds to yield corresponding\ncyanohydrin Cyanohydrins \nare \nuseful \nsynthetic\nintermediates (b) Addition of sodium hydrogensulphite: Sodium\nhydrogensulphite adds to aldehydes and\nketones to form the addition products"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6663-6666", "Text": "Therefore, it is catalysed\nby a base and the generated cyanide ion (CN\nbeing a stronger nucleophile readily adds to-)\ncarbonyl compounds to yield corresponding\ncyanohydrin Cyanohydrins \nare \nuseful \nsynthetic\nintermediates (b) Addition of sodium hydrogensulphite: Sodium\nhydrogensulphite adds to aldehydes and\nketones to form the addition products The position of\nthe equilibrium\nlies largely to\nthe right hand\nside for most\naldehydes and to\nthe left for most\nketones due to steric reasons"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6664-6667", "Text": "Cyanohydrins \nare \nuseful \nsynthetic\nintermediates (b) Addition of sodium hydrogensulphite: Sodium\nhydrogensulphite adds to aldehydes and\nketones to form the addition products The position of\nthe equilibrium\nlies largely to\nthe right hand\nside for most\naldehydes and to\nthe left for most\nketones due to steric reasons The hydrogensulphite addition\ncompound is water soluble and can be converted back to the\noriginal carbonyl compound by treating it with dilute mineral\nacid or alkali"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6665-6668", "Text": "(b) Addition of sodium hydrogensulphite: Sodium\nhydrogensulphite adds to aldehydes and\nketones to form the addition products The position of\nthe equilibrium\nlies largely to\nthe right hand\nside for most\naldehydes and to\nthe left for most\nketones due to steric reasons The hydrogensulphite addition\ncompound is water soluble and can be converted back to the\noriginal carbonyl compound by treating it with dilute mineral\nacid or alkali Therefore, these are useful for separation and\npurification of aldehydes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6666-6669", "Text": "The position of\nthe equilibrium\nlies largely to\nthe right hand\nside for most\naldehydes and to\nthe left for most\nketones due to steric reasons The hydrogensulphite addition\ncompound is water soluble and can be converted back to the\noriginal carbonyl compound by treating it with dilute mineral\nacid or alkali Therefore, these are useful for separation and\npurification of aldehydes (c) Addition of Grignard reagents: (refer Unit 7, Class XII)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6667-6670", "Text": "The hydrogensulphite addition\ncompound is water soluble and can be converted back to the\noriginal carbonyl compound by treating it with dilute mineral\nacid or alkali Therefore, these are useful for separation and\npurification of aldehydes (c) Addition of Grignard reagents: (refer Unit 7, Class XII) (d) Addition of alcohols: Aldehydes react with one equivalent of\nmonohydric alcohol in the presence of dry hydrogen chloride\nto yield alkoxyalcohol intermediate, known as hemiacetals,\nwhich further react with one more molecule of alcohol to\ngive a gem-dialkoxy\ncompound known as\nacetal as shown in the\nreaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6668-6671", "Text": "Therefore, these are useful for separation and\npurification of aldehydes (c) Addition of Grignard reagents: (refer Unit 7, Class XII) (d) Addition of alcohols: Aldehydes react with one equivalent of\nmonohydric alcohol in the presence of dry hydrogen chloride\nto yield alkoxyalcohol intermediate, known as hemiacetals,\nwhich further react with one more molecule of alcohol to\ngive a gem-dialkoxy\ncompound known as\nacetal as shown in the\nreaction Ketones react with\nethylene glycol under\nsimilar conditions to form\ncyclic products known as\nethylene glycol ketals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6669-6672", "Text": "(c) Addition of Grignard reagents: (refer Unit 7, Class XII) (d) Addition of alcohols: Aldehydes react with one equivalent of\nmonohydric alcohol in the presence of dry hydrogen chloride\nto yield alkoxyalcohol intermediate, known as hemiacetals,\nwhich further react with one more molecule of alcohol to\ngive a gem-dialkoxy\ncompound known as\nacetal as shown in the\nreaction Ketones react with\nethylene glycol under\nsimilar conditions to form\ncyclic products known as\nethylene glycol ketals Dry hydrogen chloride\nprotonates the oxygen of\nthe carbonyl compounds\nand therefore, increases\nthe electrophilicity of the\ncarbonyl carbon facilitating\nRationalised 2023-24\n238\nChemistry\nthe nucleophilic attack of ethylene glycol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6670-6673", "Text": "(d) Addition of alcohols: Aldehydes react with one equivalent of\nmonohydric alcohol in the presence of dry hydrogen chloride\nto yield alkoxyalcohol intermediate, known as hemiacetals,\nwhich further react with one more molecule of alcohol to\ngive a gem-dialkoxy\ncompound known as\nacetal as shown in the\nreaction Ketones react with\nethylene glycol under\nsimilar conditions to form\ncyclic products known as\nethylene glycol ketals Dry hydrogen chloride\nprotonates the oxygen of\nthe carbonyl compounds\nand therefore, increases\nthe electrophilicity of the\ncarbonyl carbon facilitating\nRationalised 2023-24\n238\nChemistry\nthe nucleophilic attack of ethylene glycol Acetals and ketals\nare hydrolysed with aqueous mineral acids to yield\ncorresponding aldehydes and ketones respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6671-6674", "Text": "Ketones react with\nethylene glycol under\nsimilar conditions to form\ncyclic products known as\nethylene glycol ketals Dry hydrogen chloride\nprotonates the oxygen of\nthe carbonyl compounds\nand therefore, increases\nthe electrophilicity of the\ncarbonyl carbon facilitating\nRationalised 2023-24\n238\nChemistry\nthe nucleophilic attack of ethylene glycol Acetals and ketals\nare hydrolysed with aqueous mineral acids to yield\ncorresponding aldehydes and ketones respectively (e) Addition of ammonia and its derivatives: Nucleophiles, such\nas ammonia and its derivatives H2N-Z add to the carbonyl\ngroup of aldehydes and ketones"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6672-6675", "Text": "Dry hydrogen chloride\nprotonates the oxygen of\nthe carbonyl compounds\nand therefore, increases\nthe electrophilicity of the\ncarbonyl carbon facilitating\nRationalised 2023-24\n238\nChemistry\nthe nucleophilic attack of ethylene glycol Acetals and ketals\nare hydrolysed with aqueous mineral acids to yield\ncorresponding aldehydes and ketones respectively (e) Addition of ammonia and its derivatives: Nucleophiles, such\nas ammonia and its derivatives H2N-Z add to the carbonyl\ngroup of aldehydes and ketones The reaction is reversible\nand catalysed by acid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6673-6676", "Text": "Acetals and ketals\nare hydrolysed with aqueous mineral acids to yield\ncorresponding aldehydes and ketones respectively (e) Addition of ammonia and its derivatives: Nucleophiles, such\nas ammonia and its derivatives H2N-Z add to the carbonyl\ngroup of aldehydes and ketones The reaction is reversible\nand catalysed by acid The \nequilibrium\nfavours the product\nformation due to rapid\ndehydration of the\nintermediate to form\n>C=N-Z"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6674-6677", "Text": "(e) Addition of ammonia and its derivatives: Nucleophiles, such\nas ammonia and its derivatives H2N-Z add to the carbonyl\ngroup of aldehydes and ketones The reaction is reversible\nand catalysed by acid The \nequilibrium\nfavours the product\nformation due to rapid\ndehydration of the\nintermediate to form\n>C=N-Z Z = Alkyl, aryl, OH, NH2, C6H5NH, NHCONH2, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6675-6678", "Text": "The reaction is reversible\nand catalysed by acid The \nequilibrium\nfavours the product\nformation due to rapid\ndehydration of the\nintermediate to form\n>C=N-Z Z = Alkyl, aryl, OH, NH2, C6H5NH, NHCONH2, etc Table 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6676-6679", "Text": "The \nequilibrium\nfavours the product\nformation due to rapid\ndehydration of the\nintermediate to form\n>C=N-Z Z = Alkyl, aryl, OH, NH2, C6H5NH, NHCONH2, etc Table 8 2: Some N-Substituted Derivatives of Aldehydes and Ketones (>C=N-Z)\n-H\nAmmonia\nImine\n-R\nAmine\n\u2014OH\nHydroxylamine\nOxime\n\u2014NH2\nHydrazine\nHydrazone\nPhenylhydrazine\nPhenylhydrazone\nZ\nReagent name\nCarbonyl derivative\nProduct name\nSubstituted imine\n(Schiff\u2019s base)\n* 2,4-DNP-derivatives are yellow, orange or red solids, useful for characterisation of aldehydes and ketones"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6677-6680", "Text": "Z = Alkyl, aryl, OH, NH2, C6H5NH, NHCONH2, etc Table 8 2: Some N-Substituted Derivatives of Aldehydes and Ketones (>C=N-Z)\n-H\nAmmonia\nImine\n-R\nAmine\n\u2014OH\nHydroxylamine\nOxime\n\u2014NH2\nHydrazine\nHydrazone\nPhenylhydrazine\nPhenylhydrazone\nZ\nReagent name\nCarbonyl derivative\nProduct name\nSubstituted imine\n(Schiff\u2019s base)\n* 2,4-DNP-derivatives are yellow, orange or red solids, useful for characterisation of aldehydes and ketones 2,4-Dinitrophenyl-\n2,4 Dinitrophenyl-\nSemicarbazide\nSemicarbazone\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6678-6681", "Text": "Table 8 2: Some N-Substituted Derivatives of Aldehydes and Ketones (>C=N-Z)\n-H\nAmmonia\nImine\n-R\nAmine\n\u2014OH\nHydroxylamine\nOxime\n\u2014NH2\nHydrazine\nHydrazone\nPhenylhydrazine\nPhenylhydrazone\nZ\nReagent name\nCarbonyl derivative\nProduct name\nSubstituted imine\n(Schiff\u2019s base)\n* 2,4-DNP-derivatives are yellow, orange or red solids, useful for characterisation of aldehydes and ketones 2,4-Dinitrophenyl-\n2,4 Dinitrophenyl-\nSemicarbazide\nSemicarbazone\n2 Reduction\n(i) Reduction to alcohols: Aldehydes and ketones are reduced to\nprimary and secondary alcohols respectively by sodium\nborohydride (NaBH4) or lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4) as\nwell as by catalytic hydrogenation (Unit 7, Class XII)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6679-6682", "Text": "2: Some N-Substituted Derivatives of Aldehydes and Ketones (>C=N-Z)\n-H\nAmmonia\nImine\n-R\nAmine\n\u2014OH\nHydroxylamine\nOxime\n\u2014NH2\nHydrazine\nHydrazone\nPhenylhydrazine\nPhenylhydrazone\nZ\nReagent name\nCarbonyl derivative\nProduct name\nSubstituted imine\n(Schiff\u2019s base)\n* 2,4-DNP-derivatives are yellow, orange or red solids, useful for characterisation of aldehydes and ketones 2,4-Dinitrophenyl-\n2,4 Dinitrophenyl-\nSemicarbazide\nSemicarbazone\n2 Reduction\n(i) Reduction to alcohols: Aldehydes and ketones are reduced to\nprimary and secondary alcohols respectively by sodium\nborohydride (NaBH4) or lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4) as\nwell as by catalytic hydrogenation (Unit 7, Class XII) (ii) Reduction to hydrocarbons: The carbonyl group of aldehydes\nand ketones is reduced to CH2 group on treatment with zinc-\namalgam and concentrated hydrochloric acid [Clemmensen\nhydrazone\nhydrazine\nRationalised 2023-24\n239\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\nreduction] or with hydrazine followed by heating with sodium\nor potassium hydroxide in high boiling solvent such as ethylene\nglycol (Wolff-Kishner reduction)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6680-6683", "Text": "2,4-Dinitrophenyl-\n2,4 Dinitrophenyl-\nSemicarbazide\nSemicarbazone\n2 Reduction\n(i) Reduction to alcohols: Aldehydes and ketones are reduced to\nprimary and secondary alcohols respectively by sodium\nborohydride (NaBH4) or lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4) as\nwell as by catalytic hydrogenation (Unit 7, Class XII) (ii) Reduction to hydrocarbons: The carbonyl group of aldehydes\nand ketones is reduced to CH2 group on treatment with zinc-\namalgam and concentrated hydrochloric acid [Clemmensen\nhydrazone\nhydrazine\nRationalised 2023-24\n239\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\nreduction] or with hydrazine followed by heating with sodium\nor potassium hydroxide in high boiling solvent such as ethylene\nglycol (Wolff-Kishner reduction) 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6681-6684", "Text": "Reduction\n(i) Reduction to alcohols: Aldehydes and ketones are reduced to\nprimary and secondary alcohols respectively by sodium\nborohydride (NaBH4) or lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4) as\nwell as by catalytic hydrogenation (Unit 7, Class XII) (ii) Reduction to hydrocarbons: The carbonyl group of aldehydes\nand ketones is reduced to CH2 group on treatment with zinc-\namalgam and concentrated hydrochloric acid [Clemmensen\nhydrazone\nhydrazine\nRationalised 2023-24\n239\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\nreduction] or with hydrazine followed by heating with sodium\nor potassium hydroxide in high boiling solvent such as ethylene\nglycol (Wolff-Kishner reduction) 3 Oxidation\nAldehydes differ from ketones in their oxidation reactions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6682-6685", "Text": "(ii) Reduction to hydrocarbons: The carbonyl group of aldehydes\nand ketones is reduced to CH2 group on treatment with zinc-\namalgam and concentrated hydrochloric acid [Clemmensen\nhydrazone\nhydrazine\nRationalised 2023-24\n239\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\nreduction] or with hydrazine followed by heating with sodium\nor potassium hydroxide in high boiling solvent such as ethylene\nglycol (Wolff-Kishner reduction) 3 Oxidation\nAldehydes differ from ketones in their oxidation reactions Aldehydes\nare easily oxidised to carboxylic acids on treatment with common\noxidising agents like nitric acid, potassium permanganate, potassium\ndichromate, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6683-6686", "Text": "3 Oxidation\nAldehydes differ from ketones in their oxidation reactions Aldehydes\nare easily oxidised to carboxylic acids on treatment with common\noxidising agents like nitric acid, potassium permanganate, potassium\ndichromate, etc Even mild oxidising agents, mainly Tollens\u2019 reagent\nand Fehlings\u2019 reagent also oxidise aldehydes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6684-6687", "Text": "Oxidation\nAldehydes differ from ketones in their oxidation reactions Aldehydes\nare easily oxidised to carboxylic acids on treatment with common\noxidising agents like nitric acid, potassium permanganate, potassium\ndichromate, etc Even mild oxidising agents, mainly Tollens\u2019 reagent\nand Fehlings\u2019 reagent also oxidise aldehydes Ketones are generally oxidised under vigorous conditions, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6685-6688", "Text": "Aldehydes\nare easily oxidised to carboxylic acids on treatment with common\noxidising agents like nitric acid, potassium permanganate, potassium\ndichromate, etc Even mild oxidising agents, mainly Tollens\u2019 reagent\nand Fehlings\u2019 reagent also oxidise aldehydes Ketones are generally oxidised under vigorous conditions, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6686-6689", "Text": "Even mild oxidising agents, mainly Tollens\u2019 reagent\nand Fehlings\u2019 reagent also oxidise aldehydes Ketones are generally oxidised under vigorous conditions, i e ,\nstrong oxidising agents and at elevated temperatures"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6687-6690", "Text": "Ketones are generally oxidised under vigorous conditions, i e ,\nstrong oxidising agents and at elevated temperatures Their oxidation\ninvolves carbon-carbon bond cleavage to afford a mixture of carboxylic\nacids having lesser number of carbon atoms than the parent ketone"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6688-6691", "Text": "e ,\nstrong oxidising agents and at elevated temperatures Their oxidation\ninvolves carbon-carbon bond cleavage to afford a mixture of carboxylic\nacids having lesser number of carbon atoms than the parent ketone The mild oxidising agents given below are used to distinguish\naldehydes from ketones:\n(i) Tollens\u2019 test: On warming an aldehyde with freshly prepared\nammoniacal silver nitrate solution (Tollens\u2019 reagent), a bright\nsilver mirror is produced due to the formation of silver metal"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6689-6692", "Text": ",\nstrong oxidising agents and at elevated temperatures Their oxidation\ninvolves carbon-carbon bond cleavage to afford a mixture of carboxylic\nacids having lesser number of carbon atoms than the parent ketone The mild oxidising agents given below are used to distinguish\naldehydes from ketones:\n(i) Tollens\u2019 test: On warming an aldehyde with freshly prepared\nammoniacal silver nitrate solution (Tollens\u2019 reagent), a bright\nsilver mirror is produced due to the formation of silver metal The aldehydes are oxidised to corresponding carboxylate anion"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6690-6693", "Text": "Their oxidation\ninvolves carbon-carbon bond cleavage to afford a mixture of carboxylic\nacids having lesser number of carbon atoms than the parent ketone The mild oxidising agents given below are used to distinguish\naldehydes from ketones:\n(i) Tollens\u2019 test: On warming an aldehyde with freshly prepared\nammoniacal silver nitrate solution (Tollens\u2019 reagent), a bright\nsilver mirror is produced due to the formation of silver metal The aldehydes are oxidised to corresponding carboxylate anion The reaction occurs in alkaline medium"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6691-6694", "Text": "The mild oxidising agents given below are used to distinguish\naldehydes from ketones:\n(i) Tollens\u2019 test: On warming an aldehyde with freshly prepared\nammoniacal silver nitrate solution (Tollens\u2019 reagent), a bright\nsilver mirror is produced due to the formation of silver metal The aldehydes are oxidised to corresponding carboxylate anion The reaction occurs in alkaline medium (ii) Fehling\u2019s test: Fehling reagent comprises of two solutions,\nFehling solution A and Fehling solution B"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6692-6695", "Text": "The aldehydes are oxidised to corresponding carboxylate anion The reaction occurs in alkaline medium (ii) Fehling\u2019s test: Fehling reagent comprises of two solutions,\nFehling solution A and Fehling solution B Fehling solution A is\naqueous copper sulphate and Fehling solution B is alkaline\nsodium potassium tartarate (Rochelle salt)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6693-6696", "Text": "The reaction occurs in alkaline medium (ii) Fehling\u2019s test: Fehling reagent comprises of two solutions,\nFehling solution A and Fehling solution B Fehling solution A is\naqueous copper sulphate and Fehling solution B is alkaline\nsodium potassium tartarate (Rochelle salt) These two solutions\nare mixed in equal amounts before test"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6694-6697", "Text": "(ii) Fehling\u2019s test: Fehling reagent comprises of two solutions,\nFehling solution A and Fehling solution B Fehling solution A is\naqueous copper sulphate and Fehling solution B is alkaline\nsodium potassium tartarate (Rochelle salt) These two solutions\nare mixed in equal amounts before test On heating an aldehyde\nwith Fehling\u2019s reagent, a reddish brown precipitate is obtained"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6695-6698", "Text": "Fehling solution A is\naqueous copper sulphate and Fehling solution B is alkaline\nsodium potassium tartarate (Rochelle salt) These two solutions\nare mixed in equal amounts before test On heating an aldehyde\nwith Fehling\u2019s reagent, a reddish brown precipitate is obtained Aldehydes are oxidised to corresponding carboxylate anion"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6696-6699", "Text": "These two solutions\nare mixed in equal amounts before test On heating an aldehyde\nwith Fehling\u2019s reagent, a reddish brown precipitate is obtained Aldehydes are oxidised to corresponding carboxylate anion Aromatic aldehydes do not respond to this test"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6697-6700", "Text": "On heating an aldehyde\nwith Fehling\u2019s reagent, a reddish brown precipitate is obtained Aldehydes are oxidised to corresponding carboxylate anion Aromatic aldehydes do not respond to this test Bernhard Tollens\n(1841-1918) was a\nProfessor of Chemistry\nat the University of\nGottingen, Germany"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6698-6701", "Text": "Aldehydes are oxidised to corresponding carboxylate anion Aromatic aldehydes do not respond to this test Bernhard Tollens\n(1841-1918) was a\nProfessor of Chemistry\nat the University of\nGottingen, Germany Rationalised 2023-24\n240\nChemistry\nExample 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6699-6702", "Text": "Aromatic aldehydes do not respond to this test Bernhard Tollens\n(1841-1918) was a\nProfessor of Chemistry\nat the University of\nGottingen, Germany Rationalised 2023-24\n240\nChemistry\nExample 8 4\nExample 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6700-6703", "Text": "Bernhard Tollens\n(1841-1918) was a\nProfessor of Chemistry\nat the University of\nGottingen, Germany Rationalised 2023-24\n240\nChemistry\nExample 8 4\nExample 8 4\nExample 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6701-6704", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n240\nChemistry\nExample 8 4\nExample 8 4\nExample 8 4\nExample 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6702-6705", "Text": "4\nExample 8 4\nExample 8 4\nExample 8 4\nExample 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6703-6706", "Text": "4\nExample 8 4\nExample 8 4\nExample 8 4\nAn organic compound (A) with molecular formula C8H8O forms an\norange-red precipitate with 2,4-DNP reagent and gives yellow\nprecipitate on heating with iodine in the presence of sodium\nhydroxide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6704-6707", "Text": "4\nExample 8 4\nExample 8 4\nAn organic compound (A) with molecular formula C8H8O forms an\norange-red precipitate with 2,4-DNP reagent and gives yellow\nprecipitate on heating with iodine in the presence of sodium\nhydroxide It neither reduces Tollens\u2019 or Fehlings\u2019 reagent, nor does\nit decolourise bromine water or Baeyer\u2019s reagent"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6705-6708", "Text": "4\nExample 8 4\nAn organic compound (A) with molecular formula C8H8O forms an\norange-red precipitate with 2,4-DNP reagent and gives yellow\nprecipitate on heating with iodine in the presence of sodium\nhydroxide It neither reduces Tollens\u2019 or Fehlings\u2019 reagent, nor does\nit decolourise bromine water or Baeyer\u2019s reagent On drastic oxidation\nwith chromic acid, it gives a carboxylic acid (B) having molecular\nformula C7H6O2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6706-6709", "Text": "4\nAn organic compound (A) with molecular formula C8H8O forms an\norange-red precipitate with 2,4-DNP reagent and gives yellow\nprecipitate on heating with iodine in the presence of sodium\nhydroxide It neither reduces Tollens\u2019 or Fehlings\u2019 reagent, nor does\nit decolourise bromine water or Baeyer\u2019s reagent On drastic oxidation\nwith chromic acid, it gives a carboxylic acid (B) having molecular\nformula C7H6O2 Identify the compounds (A) and (B) and explain the\nreactions involved"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6707-6710", "Text": "It neither reduces Tollens\u2019 or Fehlings\u2019 reagent, nor does\nit decolourise bromine water or Baeyer\u2019s reagent On drastic oxidation\nwith chromic acid, it gives a carboxylic acid (B) having molecular\nformula C7H6O2 Identify the compounds (A) and (B) and explain the\nreactions involved (A) forms 2,4-DNP derivative"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6708-6711", "Text": "On drastic oxidation\nwith chromic acid, it gives a carboxylic acid (B) having molecular\nformula C7H6O2 Identify the compounds (A) and (B) and explain the\nreactions involved (A) forms 2,4-DNP derivative Therefore, it is an aldehyde or a ketone"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6709-6712", "Text": "Identify the compounds (A) and (B) and explain the\nreactions involved (A) forms 2,4-DNP derivative Therefore, it is an aldehyde or a ketone Since it does not reduce Tollens\u2019 or Fehling reagent, (A) must be a ketone"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6710-6713", "Text": "(A) forms 2,4-DNP derivative Therefore, it is an aldehyde or a ketone Since it does not reduce Tollens\u2019 or Fehling reagent, (A) must be a ketone (A) responds to iodoform test"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6711-6714", "Text": "Therefore, it is an aldehyde or a ketone Since it does not reduce Tollens\u2019 or Fehling reagent, (A) must be a ketone (A) responds to iodoform test Therefore, it should be a methyl ketone"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6712-6715", "Text": "Since it does not reduce Tollens\u2019 or Fehling reagent, (A) must be a ketone (A) responds to iodoform test Therefore, it should be a methyl ketone The molecular formula of (A) indicates high degree of unsaturation, yet\nit does not decolourise bromine water or Baeyer\u2019s reagent"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6713-6716", "Text": "(A) responds to iodoform test Therefore, it should be a methyl ketone The molecular formula of (A) indicates high degree of unsaturation, yet\nit does not decolourise bromine water or Baeyer\u2019s reagent This indicates\nthe presence of unsaturation due to an aromatic ring"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6714-6717", "Text": "Therefore, it should be a methyl ketone The molecular formula of (A) indicates high degree of unsaturation, yet\nit does not decolourise bromine water or Baeyer\u2019s reagent This indicates\nthe presence of unsaturation due to an aromatic ring Compound (B), being an oxidation product of a ketone should be a\ncarboxylic acid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6715-6718", "Text": "The molecular formula of (A) indicates high degree of unsaturation, yet\nit does not decolourise bromine water or Baeyer\u2019s reagent This indicates\nthe presence of unsaturation due to an aromatic ring Compound (B), being an oxidation product of a ketone should be a\ncarboxylic acid The molecular formula of (B) indicates that it should\nbe benzoic acid and compound (A) should, therefore, be a\nmonosubstituted aromatic methyl ketone"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6716-6719", "Text": "This indicates\nthe presence of unsaturation due to an aromatic ring Compound (B), being an oxidation product of a ketone should be a\ncarboxylic acid The molecular formula of (B) indicates that it should\nbe benzoic acid and compound (A) should, therefore, be a\nmonosubstituted aromatic methyl ketone The molecular formula of\n(A) indicates that it should be phenyl methyl ketone (acetophenone)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6717-6720", "Text": "Compound (B), being an oxidation product of a ketone should be a\ncarboxylic acid The molecular formula of (B) indicates that it should\nbe benzoic acid and compound (A) should, therefore, be a\nmonosubstituted aromatic methyl ketone The molecular formula of\n(A) indicates that it should be phenyl methyl ketone (acetophenone) Reactions are as follows:\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n(iii) Oxidation of methyl ketones by haloform reaction:\nAldehydes and ketones having at least one methyl group\nlinked to the carbonyl carbon atom (methyl ketones)\nare oxidised by sodium hypohalite to sodium salts of\ncorresponding carboxylic\nacids having one carbon\natom less than that of\ncarbonyl compound"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6718-6721", "Text": "The molecular formula of (B) indicates that it should\nbe benzoic acid and compound (A) should, therefore, be a\nmonosubstituted aromatic methyl ketone The molecular formula of\n(A) indicates that it should be phenyl methyl ketone (acetophenone) Reactions are as follows:\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n(iii) Oxidation of methyl ketones by haloform reaction:\nAldehydes and ketones having at least one methyl group\nlinked to the carbonyl carbon atom (methyl ketones)\nare oxidised by sodium hypohalite to sodium salts of\ncorresponding carboxylic\nacids having one carbon\natom less than that of\ncarbonyl compound The\nmethyl \ngroup \nis\nconverted to haloform"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6719-6722", "Text": "The molecular formula of\n(A) indicates that it should be phenyl methyl ketone (acetophenone) Reactions are as follows:\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n(iii) Oxidation of methyl ketones by haloform reaction:\nAldehydes and ketones having at least one methyl group\nlinked to the carbonyl carbon atom (methyl ketones)\nare oxidised by sodium hypohalite to sodium salts of\ncorresponding carboxylic\nacids having one carbon\natom less than that of\ncarbonyl compound The\nmethyl \ngroup \nis\nconverted to haloform This oxidation does not\naffect a carbon-carbon\ndouble bond, if present\nin the molecule"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6720-6723", "Text": "Reactions are as follows:\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n(iii) Oxidation of methyl ketones by haloform reaction:\nAldehydes and ketones having at least one methyl group\nlinked to the carbonyl carbon atom (methyl ketones)\nare oxidised by sodium hypohalite to sodium salts of\ncorresponding carboxylic\nacids having one carbon\natom less than that of\ncarbonyl compound The\nmethyl \ngroup \nis\nconverted to haloform This oxidation does not\naffect a carbon-carbon\ndouble bond, if present\nin the molecule Iodoform reaction with sodium hypoiodite is also used for detection\nof CH3CO group or CH3CH(OH) group which produces CH3CO group\non oxidation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6721-6724", "Text": "The\nmethyl \ngroup \nis\nconverted to haloform This oxidation does not\naffect a carbon-carbon\ndouble bond, if present\nin the molecule Iodoform reaction with sodium hypoiodite is also used for detection\nof CH3CO group or CH3CH(OH) group which produces CH3CO group\non oxidation Rationalised 2023-24\n241\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6722-6725", "Text": "This oxidation does not\naffect a carbon-carbon\ndouble bond, if present\nin the molecule Iodoform reaction with sodium hypoiodite is also used for detection\nof CH3CO group or CH3CH(OH) group which produces CH3CO group\non oxidation Rationalised 2023-24\n241\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\n4 Reactions due to a-hydrogen\nAcidity of aaaaa-hydrogens of aldehydes and ketones: The aldehydes\nand ketones undergo a number of reactions due to the acidic nature\nof a-hydrogen"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6723-6726", "Text": "Iodoform reaction with sodium hypoiodite is also used for detection\nof CH3CO group or CH3CH(OH) group which produces CH3CO group\non oxidation Rationalised 2023-24\n241\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\n4 Reactions due to a-hydrogen\nAcidity of aaaaa-hydrogens of aldehydes and ketones: The aldehydes\nand ketones undergo a number of reactions due to the acidic nature\nof a-hydrogen The acidity of a-hydrogen atoms of carbonyl compounds is due\nto the strong electron withdrawing effect of the carbonyl group and\nresonance stabilisation of the conjugate base"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6724-6727", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n241\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\n4 Reactions due to a-hydrogen\nAcidity of aaaaa-hydrogens of aldehydes and ketones: The aldehydes\nand ketones undergo a number of reactions due to the acidic nature\nof a-hydrogen The acidity of a-hydrogen atoms of carbonyl compounds is due\nto the strong electron withdrawing effect of the carbonyl group and\nresonance stabilisation of the conjugate base (i) Aldol condensation: Aldehydes and ketones having at least one\na-hydrogen undergo a reaction in the presence of dilute alkali\nas catalyst to form b-hydroxy aldehydes (aldol) or b-hydroxy\nketones (ketol), respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6725-6728", "Text": "Reactions due to a-hydrogen\nAcidity of aaaaa-hydrogens of aldehydes and ketones: The aldehydes\nand ketones undergo a number of reactions due to the acidic nature\nof a-hydrogen The acidity of a-hydrogen atoms of carbonyl compounds is due\nto the strong electron withdrawing effect of the carbonyl group and\nresonance stabilisation of the conjugate base (i) Aldol condensation: Aldehydes and ketones having at least one\na-hydrogen undergo a reaction in the presence of dilute alkali\nas catalyst to form b-hydroxy aldehydes (aldol) or b-hydroxy\nketones (ketol), respectively This is known as Aldol reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6726-6729", "Text": "The acidity of a-hydrogen atoms of carbonyl compounds is due\nto the strong electron withdrawing effect of the carbonyl group and\nresonance stabilisation of the conjugate base (i) Aldol condensation: Aldehydes and ketones having at least one\na-hydrogen undergo a reaction in the presence of dilute alkali\nas catalyst to form b-hydroxy aldehydes (aldol) or b-hydroxy\nketones (ketol), respectively This is known as Aldol reaction The name aldol is derived from the names of the two\nfunctional groups, aldehyde and alcohol, present in the products"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6727-6730", "Text": "(i) Aldol condensation: Aldehydes and ketones having at least one\na-hydrogen undergo a reaction in the presence of dilute alkali\nas catalyst to form b-hydroxy aldehydes (aldol) or b-hydroxy\nketones (ketol), respectively This is known as Aldol reaction The name aldol is derived from the names of the two\nfunctional groups, aldehyde and alcohol, present in the products The aldol and ketol readily lose water to give a,b-unsaturated\ncarbonyl compounds which are aldol condensation products\nand the reaction is called Aldol condensation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6728-6731", "Text": "This is known as Aldol reaction The name aldol is derived from the names of the two\nfunctional groups, aldehyde and alcohol, present in the products The aldol and ketol readily lose water to give a,b-unsaturated\ncarbonyl compounds which are aldol condensation products\nand the reaction is called Aldol condensation Though ketones\ngive ketols (compounds containing a keto and alcohol groups),\nthe general name aldol condensation still applies to the reactions\nof ketones due to their similarity with aldehydes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6729-6732", "Text": "The name aldol is derived from the names of the two\nfunctional groups, aldehyde and alcohol, present in the products The aldol and ketol readily lose water to give a,b-unsaturated\ncarbonyl compounds which are aldol condensation products\nand the reaction is called Aldol condensation Though ketones\ngive ketols (compounds containing a keto and alcohol groups),\nthe general name aldol condensation still applies to the reactions\nof ketones due to their similarity with aldehydes Rationalised 2023-24\n242\nChemistry\n(ii) Cross aldol condensation: When aldol condensation is carried\nout between two different aldehydes and / or ketones, it is called\ncross aldol condensation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6730-6733", "Text": "The aldol and ketol readily lose water to give a,b-unsaturated\ncarbonyl compounds which are aldol condensation products\nand the reaction is called Aldol condensation Though ketones\ngive ketols (compounds containing a keto and alcohol groups),\nthe general name aldol condensation still applies to the reactions\nof ketones due to their similarity with aldehydes Rationalised 2023-24\n242\nChemistry\n(ii) Cross aldol condensation: When aldol condensation is carried\nout between two different aldehydes and / or ketones, it is called\ncross aldol condensation If both of them contain a-hydrogen\natoms, it gives a mixture of four products"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6731-6734", "Text": "Though ketones\ngive ketols (compounds containing a keto and alcohol groups),\nthe general name aldol condensation still applies to the reactions\nof ketones due to their similarity with aldehydes Rationalised 2023-24\n242\nChemistry\n(ii) Cross aldol condensation: When aldol condensation is carried\nout between two different aldehydes and / or ketones, it is called\ncross aldol condensation If both of them contain a-hydrogen\natoms, it gives a mixture of four products This is illustrated\nbelow by aldol reaction of a mixture of ethanal and propanal"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6732-6735", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n242\nChemistry\n(ii) Cross aldol condensation: When aldol condensation is carried\nout between two different aldehydes and / or ketones, it is called\ncross aldol condensation If both of them contain a-hydrogen\natoms, it gives a mixture of four products This is illustrated\nbelow by aldol reaction of a mixture of ethanal and propanal Ketones can also be used as one component in the cross aldol\nreactions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6733-6736", "Text": "If both of them contain a-hydrogen\natoms, it gives a mixture of four products This is illustrated\nbelow by aldol reaction of a mixture of ethanal and propanal Ketones can also be used as one component in the cross aldol\nreactions 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6734-6737", "Text": "This is illustrated\nbelow by aldol reaction of a mixture of ethanal and propanal Ketones can also be used as one component in the cross aldol\nreactions 5 Other reactions\n(i) Cannizzaro reaction: Aldehydes which do not have an\na-hydrogen atom, undergo self oxidation and reduction\n(disproportionation) reaction on heating with concentrated alkali"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6735-6738", "Text": "Ketones can also be used as one component in the cross aldol\nreactions 5 Other reactions\n(i) Cannizzaro reaction: Aldehydes which do not have an\na-hydrogen atom, undergo self oxidation and reduction\n(disproportionation) reaction on heating with concentrated alkali In this reaction, one molecule of the aldehyde is reduced to\nalcohol while another is oxidised to carboxylic acid salt"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6736-6739", "Text": "5 Other reactions\n(i) Cannizzaro reaction: Aldehydes which do not have an\na-hydrogen atom, undergo self oxidation and reduction\n(disproportionation) reaction on heating with concentrated alkali In this reaction, one molecule of the aldehyde is reduced to\nalcohol while another is oxidised to carboxylic acid salt D\nD\nRationalised 2023-24\n243\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\n(ii) Electrophilic substitution reaction: Aromatic aldehydes and ketones\nundergo electrophilic substitution at the ring in which the carbonyl\ngroup acts as a deactivating and meta-directing group"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6737-6740", "Text": "Other reactions\n(i) Cannizzaro reaction: Aldehydes which do not have an\na-hydrogen atom, undergo self oxidation and reduction\n(disproportionation) reaction on heating with concentrated alkali In this reaction, one molecule of the aldehyde is reduced to\nalcohol while another is oxidised to carboxylic acid salt D\nD\nRationalised 2023-24\n243\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\n(ii) Electrophilic substitution reaction: Aromatic aldehydes and ketones\nundergo electrophilic substitution at the ring in which the carbonyl\ngroup acts as a deactivating and meta-directing group Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6738-6741", "Text": "In this reaction, one molecule of the aldehyde is reduced to\nalcohol while another is oxidised to carboxylic acid salt D\nD\nRationalised 2023-24\n243\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\n(ii) Electrophilic substitution reaction: Aromatic aldehydes and ketones\nundergo electrophilic substitution at the ring in which the carbonyl\ngroup acts as a deactivating and meta-directing group Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n8 4\nArrange the following compounds in increasing order of their reactivity in\nnucleophilic addition reactions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6739-6742", "Text": "D\nD\nRationalised 2023-24\n243\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\n(ii) Electrophilic substitution reaction: Aromatic aldehydes and ketones\nundergo electrophilic substitution at the ring in which the carbonyl\ngroup acts as a deactivating and meta-directing group Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n8 4\nArrange the following compounds in increasing order of their reactivity in\nnucleophilic addition reactions (i)\nEthanal, Propanal, Propanone, Butanone"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6740-6743", "Text": "Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n8 4\nArrange the following compounds in increasing order of their reactivity in\nnucleophilic addition reactions (i)\nEthanal, Propanal, Propanone, Butanone (ii)\nBenzaldehyde, p-Tolualdehyde, p-Nitrobenzaldehyde, Acetophenone"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6741-6744", "Text": "4\nArrange the following compounds in increasing order of their reactivity in\nnucleophilic addition reactions (i)\nEthanal, Propanal, Propanone, Butanone (ii)\nBenzaldehyde, p-Tolualdehyde, p-Nitrobenzaldehyde, Acetophenone Hint: Consider steric effect and electronic effect"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6742-6745", "Text": "(i)\nEthanal, Propanal, Propanone, Butanone (ii)\nBenzaldehyde, p-Tolualdehyde, p-Nitrobenzaldehyde, Acetophenone Hint: Consider steric effect and electronic effect 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6743-6746", "Text": "(ii)\nBenzaldehyde, p-Tolualdehyde, p-Nitrobenzaldehyde, Acetophenone Hint: Consider steric effect and electronic effect 8 5\nPredict the products of the following reactions:\n(i)\n(ii)\n(iii)\n(iv)\nIn chemical industry aldehydes and ketones are used as solvents,\nstarting materials and reagents for the synthesis of other products"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6744-6747", "Text": "Hint: Consider steric effect and electronic effect 8 5\nPredict the products of the following reactions:\n(i)\n(ii)\n(iii)\n(iv)\nIn chemical industry aldehydes and ketones are used as solvents,\nstarting materials and reagents for the synthesis of other products Formaldehyde is well known as formalin (40%) solution used to preserve\nbiological specimens and to prepare bakelite (a phenol-formaldehyde\nresin), urea-formaldehyde glues and other polymeric products"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6745-6748", "Text": "8 5\nPredict the products of the following reactions:\n(i)\n(ii)\n(iii)\n(iv)\nIn chemical industry aldehydes and ketones are used as solvents,\nstarting materials and reagents for the synthesis of other products Formaldehyde is well known as formalin (40%) solution used to preserve\nbiological specimens and to prepare bakelite (a phenol-formaldehyde\nresin), urea-formaldehyde glues and other polymeric products Acetaldehyde is used primarily as a starting material in the manufacture\nof acetic acid, ethyl acetate, vinyl acetate, polymers and drugs"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6746-6749", "Text": "5\nPredict the products of the following reactions:\n(i)\n(ii)\n(iii)\n(iv)\nIn chemical industry aldehydes and ketones are used as solvents,\nstarting materials and reagents for the synthesis of other products Formaldehyde is well known as formalin (40%) solution used to preserve\nbiological specimens and to prepare bakelite (a phenol-formaldehyde\nresin), urea-formaldehyde glues and other polymeric products Acetaldehyde is used primarily as a starting material in the manufacture\nof acetic acid, ethyl acetate, vinyl acetate, polymers and drugs Benzaldehyde is used in perfumery and in dye industries"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6747-6750", "Text": "Formaldehyde is well known as formalin (40%) solution used to preserve\nbiological specimens and to prepare bakelite (a phenol-formaldehyde\nresin), urea-formaldehyde glues and other polymeric products Acetaldehyde is used primarily as a starting material in the manufacture\nof acetic acid, ethyl acetate, vinyl acetate, polymers and drugs Benzaldehyde is used in perfumery and in dye industries Acetone and\nethyl methyl ketone are common industrial solvents"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6748-6751", "Text": "Acetaldehyde is used primarily as a starting material in the manufacture\nof acetic acid, ethyl acetate, vinyl acetate, polymers and drugs Benzaldehyde is used in perfumery and in dye industries Acetone and\nethyl methyl ketone are common industrial solvents Many aldehydes\nand ketones, e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6749-6752", "Text": "Benzaldehyde is used in perfumery and in dye industries Acetone and\nethyl methyl ketone are common industrial solvents Many aldehydes\nand ketones, e g"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6750-6753", "Text": "Acetone and\nethyl methyl ketone are common industrial solvents Many aldehydes\nand ketones, e g , butyraldehyde, vanillin, acetophenone, camphor, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6751-6754", "Text": "Many aldehydes\nand ketones, e g , butyraldehyde, vanillin, acetophenone, camphor, etc are well known for their odours and flavours"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6752-6755", "Text": "g , butyraldehyde, vanillin, acetophenone, camphor, etc are well known for their odours and flavours 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6753-6756", "Text": ", butyraldehyde, vanillin, acetophenone, camphor, etc are well known for their odours and flavours 8 5\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6754-6757", "Text": "are well known for their odours and flavours 8 5\n8 5\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6755-6758", "Text": "8 5\n8 5\n8 5\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6756-6759", "Text": "5\n8 5\n8 5\n8 5\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6757-6760", "Text": "5\n8 5\n8 5\n8 5 Uses of\nUses of\nUses of\nUses of\nUses of\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nand Ketones\nand Ketones\nand Ketones\nand Ketones\nand Ketones\nRationalised 2023-24\n244\nChemistry\nStructure\nCommon name\nIUPAC name\nHCOOH\nFormic acid\nMethanoic acid\nCH3COOH\nAcetic acid\nEthanoic acid\nCH3CH2COOH\nPropionic acid\nPropanoic acid\nCH3CH2CH2COOH\nButyric acid\nButanoic acid\n(CH3)2CHCOOH\nIsobutyric acid\n2-Methylpropanoic acid\nHOOC-COOH\nOxalic acid\nEthanedioic acid\nHOOC -CH2-COOH\nMalonic acid\nPropanedioic acid\nHOOC -(CH2)2-COOH\nSuccinic acid\nButanedioic acid\nHOOC -(CH2)3-COOH\nGlutaric acid\nPentanedioic acid\nHOOC -(CH2)4-COOH\nAdipic acid\nHexanedioic acid\nHOOC -CH2-CH(COOH)-CH2-COOH\nTricarballylic acid\nPropane-1, 2, 3-\nor carballylic acid\ntricarboxylic acid\nCarboxylic Acids\nCarbon compounds containing a carboxyl functional group, \u2013COOH are\ncalled carboxylic acids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6758-6761", "Text": "5\n8 5\n8 5 Uses of\nUses of\nUses of\nUses of\nUses of\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nand Ketones\nand Ketones\nand Ketones\nand Ketones\nand Ketones\nRationalised 2023-24\n244\nChemistry\nStructure\nCommon name\nIUPAC name\nHCOOH\nFormic acid\nMethanoic acid\nCH3COOH\nAcetic acid\nEthanoic acid\nCH3CH2COOH\nPropionic acid\nPropanoic acid\nCH3CH2CH2COOH\nButyric acid\nButanoic acid\n(CH3)2CHCOOH\nIsobutyric acid\n2-Methylpropanoic acid\nHOOC-COOH\nOxalic acid\nEthanedioic acid\nHOOC -CH2-COOH\nMalonic acid\nPropanedioic acid\nHOOC -(CH2)2-COOH\nSuccinic acid\nButanedioic acid\nHOOC -(CH2)3-COOH\nGlutaric acid\nPentanedioic acid\nHOOC -(CH2)4-COOH\nAdipic acid\nHexanedioic acid\nHOOC -CH2-CH(COOH)-CH2-COOH\nTricarballylic acid\nPropane-1, 2, 3-\nor carballylic acid\ntricarboxylic acid\nCarboxylic Acids\nCarbon compounds containing a carboxyl functional group, \u2013COOH are\ncalled carboxylic acids The carboxyl group, consists of a carbonyl group\nattached to a hydroxyl group, hence its name carboxyl"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6759-6762", "Text": "5\n8 5 Uses of\nUses of\nUses of\nUses of\nUses of\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nand Ketones\nand Ketones\nand Ketones\nand Ketones\nand Ketones\nRationalised 2023-24\n244\nChemistry\nStructure\nCommon name\nIUPAC name\nHCOOH\nFormic acid\nMethanoic acid\nCH3COOH\nAcetic acid\nEthanoic acid\nCH3CH2COOH\nPropionic acid\nPropanoic acid\nCH3CH2CH2COOH\nButyric acid\nButanoic acid\n(CH3)2CHCOOH\nIsobutyric acid\n2-Methylpropanoic acid\nHOOC-COOH\nOxalic acid\nEthanedioic acid\nHOOC -CH2-COOH\nMalonic acid\nPropanedioic acid\nHOOC -(CH2)2-COOH\nSuccinic acid\nButanedioic acid\nHOOC -(CH2)3-COOH\nGlutaric acid\nPentanedioic acid\nHOOC -(CH2)4-COOH\nAdipic acid\nHexanedioic acid\nHOOC -CH2-CH(COOH)-CH2-COOH\nTricarballylic acid\nPropane-1, 2, 3-\nor carballylic acid\ntricarboxylic acid\nCarboxylic Acids\nCarbon compounds containing a carboxyl functional group, \u2013COOH are\ncalled carboxylic acids The carboxyl group, consists of a carbonyl group\nattached to a hydroxyl group, hence its name carboxyl Carboxylic acids\nmay be aliphatic (RCOOH) or aromatic (ArCOOH) depending on the group,\nalkyl or aryl, attached to carboxylic carbon"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6760-6763", "Text": "5 Uses of\nUses of\nUses of\nUses of\nUses of\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nAldehydes\nand Ketones\nand Ketones\nand Ketones\nand Ketones\nand Ketones\nRationalised 2023-24\n244\nChemistry\nStructure\nCommon name\nIUPAC name\nHCOOH\nFormic acid\nMethanoic acid\nCH3COOH\nAcetic acid\nEthanoic acid\nCH3CH2COOH\nPropionic acid\nPropanoic acid\nCH3CH2CH2COOH\nButyric acid\nButanoic acid\n(CH3)2CHCOOH\nIsobutyric acid\n2-Methylpropanoic acid\nHOOC-COOH\nOxalic acid\nEthanedioic acid\nHOOC -CH2-COOH\nMalonic acid\nPropanedioic acid\nHOOC -(CH2)2-COOH\nSuccinic acid\nButanedioic acid\nHOOC -(CH2)3-COOH\nGlutaric acid\nPentanedioic acid\nHOOC -(CH2)4-COOH\nAdipic acid\nHexanedioic acid\nHOOC -CH2-CH(COOH)-CH2-COOH\nTricarballylic acid\nPropane-1, 2, 3-\nor carballylic acid\ntricarboxylic acid\nCarboxylic Acids\nCarbon compounds containing a carboxyl functional group, \u2013COOH are\ncalled carboxylic acids The carboxyl group, consists of a carbonyl group\nattached to a hydroxyl group, hence its name carboxyl Carboxylic acids\nmay be aliphatic (RCOOH) or aromatic (ArCOOH) depending on the group,\nalkyl or aryl, attached to carboxylic carbon Large number of carboxylic\nacids are found in nature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6761-6764", "Text": "The carboxyl group, consists of a carbonyl group\nattached to a hydroxyl group, hence its name carboxyl Carboxylic acids\nmay be aliphatic (RCOOH) or aromatic (ArCOOH) depending on the group,\nalkyl or aryl, attached to carboxylic carbon Large number of carboxylic\nacids are found in nature Some higher members of aliphatic carboxylic\nacids (C12 \u2013 C18) known as fatty acids, occur in natural fats as esters of\nglycerol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6762-6765", "Text": "Carboxylic acids\nmay be aliphatic (RCOOH) or aromatic (ArCOOH) depending on the group,\nalkyl or aryl, attached to carboxylic carbon Large number of carboxylic\nacids are found in nature Some higher members of aliphatic carboxylic\nacids (C12 \u2013 C18) known as fatty acids, occur in natural fats as esters of\nglycerol Carboxylic acids serve as starting material for several other\nimportant organic compounds such as anhydrides, esters, acid chlorides,\namides, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6763-6766", "Text": "Large number of carboxylic\nacids are found in nature Some higher members of aliphatic carboxylic\nacids (C12 \u2013 C18) known as fatty acids, occur in natural fats as esters of\nglycerol Carboxylic acids serve as starting material for several other\nimportant organic compounds such as anhydrides, esters, acid chlorides,\namides, etc Since carboxylic acids are amongst the earliest organic compounds to\nbe isolated from nature, a large number of them are known by their\ncommon names"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6764-6767", "Text": "Some higher members of aliphatic carboxylic\nacids (C12 \u2013 C18) known as fatty acids, occur in natural fats as esters of\nglycerol Carboxylic acids serve as starting material for several other\nimportant organic compounds such as anhydrides, esters, acid chlorides,\namides, etc Since carboxylic acids are amongst the earliest organic compounds to\nbe isolated from nature, a large number of them are known by their\ncommon names The common names end with the suffix \u2013ic acid and\nhave been derived from Latin or Greek names of their natural sources"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6765-6768", "Text": "Carboxylic acids serve as starting material for several other\nimportant organic compounds such as anhydrides, esters, acid chlorides,\namides, etc Since carboxylic acids are amongst the earliest organic compounds to\nbe isolated from nature, a large number of them are known by their\ncommon names The common names end with the suffix \u2013ic acid and\nhave been derived from Latin or Greek names of their natural sources For example, formic acid (HCOOH) was first obtained from red ants\n(Latin: formica means ant), acetic acid (CH3COOH) from vinegar (Latin:\nacetum, means vinegar), butyric acid (CH3CH2CH2COOH) from rancid\nbutter (Latin: butyrum, means butter)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6766-6769", "Text": "Since carboxylic acids are amongst the earliest organic compounds to\nbe isolated from nature, a large number of them are known by their\ncommon names The common names end with the suffix \u2013ic acid and\nhave been derived from Latin or Greek names of their natural sources For example, formic acid (HCOOH) was first obtained from red ants\n(Latin: formica means ant), acetic acid (CH3COOH) from vinegar (Latin:\nacetum, means vinegar), butyric acid (CH3CH2CH2COOH) from rancid\nbutter (Latin: butyrum, means butter) In the IUPAC system, aliphatic carboxylic acids are named by\nreplacing the ending \u2013e in the name of the corresponding alkane with \u2013\noic acid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6767-6770", "Text": "The common names end with the suffix \u2013ic acid and\nhave been derived from Latin or Greek names of their natural sources For example, formic acid (HCOOH) was first obtained from red ants\n(Latin: formica means ant), acetic acid (CH3COOH) from vinegar (Latin:\nacetum, means vinegar), butyric acid (CH3CH2CH2COOH) from rancid\nbutter (Latin: butyrum, means butter) In the IUPAC system, aliphatic carboxylic acids are named by\nreplacing the ending \u2013e in the name of the corresponding alkane with \u2013\noic acid In numbering the carbon chain, the carboxylic carbon is\nnumbered one"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6768-6771", "Text": "For example, formic acid (HCOOH) was first obtained from red ants\n(Latin: formica means ant), acetic acid (CH3COOH) from vinegar (Latin:\nacetum, means vinegar), butyric acid (CH3CH2CH2COOH) from rancid\nbutter (Latin: butyrum, means butter) In the IUPAC system, aliphatic carboxylic acids are named by\nreplacing the ending \u2013e in the name of the corresponding alkane with \u2013\noic acid In numbering the carbon chain, the carboxylic carbon is\nnumbered one For naming compounds containing more than one\ncarboxyl group, the alkyl chain leaving carboxyl groups is numbered\nand the number of carboxyl groups is indicated by adding the\nmultiplicative prefix, dicarboxylic acid, tricarboxylic acid, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6769-6772", "Text": "In the IUPAC system, aliphatic carboxylic acids are named by\nreplacing the ending \u2013e in the name of the corresponding alkane with \u2013\noic acid In numbering the carbon chain, the carboxylic carbon is\nnumbered one For naming compounds containing more than one\ncarboxyl group, the alkyl chain leaving carboxyl groups is numbered\nand the number of carboxyl groups is indicated by adding the\nmultiplicative prefix, dicarboxylic acid, tricarboxylic acid, etc to the name\nof parent alkyl chain"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6770-6773", "Text": "In numbering the carbon chain, the carboxylic carbon is\nnumbered one For naming compounds containing more than one\ncarboxyl group, the alkyl chain leaving carboxyl groups is numbered\nand the number of carboxyl groups is indicated by adding the\nmultiplicative prefix, dicarboxylic acid, tricarboxylic acid, etc to the name\nof parent alkyl chain The position of \u2013COOH groups are indicated by the\narabic numeral before the multiplicative prefix"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6771-6774", "Text": "For naming compounds containing more than one\ncarboxyl group, the alkyl chain leaving carboxyl groups is numbered\nand the number of carboxyl groups is indicated by adding the\nmultiplicative prefix, dicarboxylic acid, tricarboxylic acid, etc to the name\nof parent alkyl chain The position of \u2013COOH groups are indicated by the\narabic numeral before the multiplicative prefix Some of the carboxylic\nacids along with their common and IUPAC names are listed in Table 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6772-6775", "Text": "to the name\nof parent alkyl chain The position of \u2013COOH groups are indicated by the\narabic numeral before the multiplicative prefix Some of the carboxylic\nacids along with their common and IUPAC names are listed in Table 8 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6773-6776", "Text": "The position of \u2013COOH groups are indicated by the\narabic numeral before the multiplicative prefix Some of the carboxylic\nacids along with their common and IUPAC names are listed in Table 8 3 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6774-6777", "Text": "Some of the carboxylic\nacids along with their common and IUPAC names are listed in Table 8 3 8 6\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6775-6778", "Text": "3 8 6\n8 6\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6776-6779", "Text": "8 6\n8 6\n8 6\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6777-6780", "Text": "6\n8 6\n8 6\n8 6\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6778-6781", "Text": "6\n8 6\n8 6\n8 6\nNomenclature and Structure of Carboxyl Group\nNomenclature and Structure of Carboxyl Group\nNomenclature and Structure of Carboxyl Group\nNomenclature and Structure of Carboxyl Group\nNomenclature and Structure of Carboxyl Group\nTable 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6779-6782", "Text": "6\n8 6\n8 6\nNomenclature and Structure of Carboxyl Group\nNomenclature and Structure of Carboxyl Group\nNomenclature and Structure of Carboxyl Group\nNomenclature and Structure of Carboxyl Group\nNomenclature and Structure of Carboxyl Group\nTable 8 3 Names and Structures of Some Carboxylic Acids\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6780-6783", "Text": "6\n8 6\nNomenclature and Structure of Carboxyl Group\nNomenclature and Structure of Carboxyl Group\nNomenclature and Structure of Carboxyl Group\nNomenclature and Structure of Carboxyl Group\nNomenclature and Structure of Carboxyl Group\nTable 8 3 Names and Structures of Some Carboxylic Acids\n8 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6781-6784", "Text": "6\nNomenclature and Structure of Carboxyl Group\nNomenclature and Structure of Carboxyl Group\nNomenclature and Structure of Carboxyl Group\nNomenclature and Structure of Carboxyl Group\nNomenclature and Structure of Carboxyl Group\nTable 8 3 Names and Structures of Some Carboxylic Acids\n8 6 1\nNomenclature\nRationalised 2023-24\n245\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\nBenzoic acid\nBenzenecarboxylic acid\n(Benzoic acid)\nPhenylacetic acid\n2-Phenylethanoic acid\nPhthalic acid\nBenzene-1, 2-dicarboxylic\nacid\nIn carboxylic acids, the bonds to the carboxyl carbon lie in one plane\nand are separated by about 120\u00b0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6782-6785", "Text": "3 Names and Structures of Some Carboxylic Acids\n8 6 1\nNomenclature\nRationalised 2023-24\n245\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\nBenzoic acid\nBenzenecarboxylic acid\n(Benzoic acid)\nPhenylacetic acid\n2-Phenylethanoic acid\nPhthalic acid\nBenzene-1, 2-dicarboxylic\nacid\nIn carboxylic acids, the bonds to the carboxyl carbon lie in one plane\nand are separated by about 120\u00b0 The carboxylic carbon is less\nelectrophilic than carbonyl carbon because of the possible resonance\nstructure shown below:\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6783-6786", "Text": "6 1\nNomenclature\nRationalised 2023-24\n245\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\nBenzoic acid\nBenzenecarboxylic acid\n(Benzoic acid)\nPhenylacetic acid\n2-Phenylethanoic acid\nPhthalic acid\nBenzene-1, 2-dicarboxylic\nacid\nIn carboxylic acids, the bonds to the carboxyl carbon lie in one plane\nand are separated by about 120\u00b0 The carboxylic carbon is less\nelectrophilic than carbonyl carbon because of the possible resonance\nstructure shown below:\n8 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6784-6787", "Text": "1\nNomenclature\nRationalised 2023-24\n245\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\nBenzoic acid\nBenzenecarboxylic acid\n(Benzoic acid)\nPhenylacetic acid\n2-Phenylethanoic acid\nPhthalic acid\nBenzene-1, 2-dicarboxylic\nacid\nIn carboxylic acids, the bonds to the carboxyl carbon lie in one plane\nand are separated by about 120\u00b0 The carboxylic carbon is less\nelectrophilic than carbonyl carbon because of the possible resonance\nstructure shown below:\n8 6 2\nStructure\nof Carboxyl\nGroup\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6785-6788", "Text": "The carboxylic carbon is less\nelectrophilic than carbonyl carbon because of the possible resonance\nstructure shown below:\n8 6 2\nStructure\nof Carboxyl\nGroup\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n8 6\nGive the IUPAC names of the following compounds:\n(i)\nPh CH2CH2COOH\n(ii)\n(CH3)2C=CHCOOH\n(iii)\nCOOH\nCH3\n(iv)\nSome important methods of preparation of carboxylic acids are as follows"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6786-6789", "Text": "6 2\nStructure\nof Carboxyl\nGroup\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n8 6\nGive the IUPAC names of the following compounds:\n(i)\nPh CH2CH2COOH\n(ii)\n(CH3)2C=CHCOOH\n(iii)\nCOOH\nCH3\n(iv)\nSome important methods of preparation of carboxylic acids are as follows 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6787-6790", "Text": "2\nStructure\nof Carboxyl\nGroup\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n8 6\nGive the IUPAC names of the following compounds:\n(i)\nPh CH2CH2COOH\n(ii)\n(CH3)2C=CHCOOH\n(iii)\nCOOH\nCH3\n(iv)\nSome important methods of preparation of carboxylic acids are as follows 1 From primary alcohols and aldehydes\nPrimary alcohols are readily oxidised to carboxylic acids with common\noxidising agents such as potassium permanganate (KMnO4) in\nneutral, acidic or alkaline media or by potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7)\nand chromium trioxide (CrO3) in acidic media (Jones reagent)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6788-6791", "Text": "6\nGive the IUPAC names of the following compounds:\n(i)\nPh CH2CH2COOH\n(ii)\n(CH3)2C=CHCOOH\n(iii)\nCOOH\nCH3\n(iv)\nSome important methods of preparation of carboxylic acids are as follows 1 From primary alcohols and aldehydes\nPrimary alcohols are readily oxidised to carboxylic acids with common\noxidising agents such as potassium permanganate (KMnO4) in\nneutral, acidic or alkaline media or by potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7)\nand chromium trioxide (CrO3) in acidic media (Jones reagent) 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6789-6792", "Text": "1 From primary alcohols and aldehydes\nPrimary alcohols are readily oxidised to carboxylic acids with common\noxidising agents such as potassium permanganate (KMnO4) in\nneutral, acidic or alkaline media or by potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7)\nand chromium trioxide (CrO3) in acidic media (Jones reagent) 8 7\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6790-6793", "Text": "From primary alcohols and aldehydes\nPrimary alcohols are readily oxidised to carboxylic acids with common\noxidising agents such as potassium permanganate (KMnO4) in\nneutral, acidic or alkaline media or by potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7)\nand chromium trioxide (CrO3) in acidic media (Jones reagent) 8 7\n8 7\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6791-6794", "Text": "8 7\n8 7\n8 7\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6792-6795", "Text": "7\n8 7\n8 7\n8 7\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6793-6796", "Text": "7\n8 7\n8 7\n8 7 Methods of\nMethods of\nMethods of\nMethods of\nMethods of\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nof Carboxylic\nof Carboxylic\nof Carboxylic\nof Carboxylic\nof Carboxylic\nAcids\nAcids\nAcids\nAcids\nAcids\n+\nJones reagent\nRationalised 2023-24\n246\nChemistry\nCarboxylic acids are also prepared from aldehydes by the use of\nmild oxidising agents (Section 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6794-6797", "Text": "7\n8 7\n8 7 Methods of\nMethods of\nMethods of\nMethods of\nMethods of\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nof Carboxylic\nof Carboxylic\nof Carboxylic\nof Carboxylic\nof Carboxylic\nAcids\nAcids\nAcids\nAcids\nAcids\n+\nJones reagent\nRationalised 2023-24\n246\nChemistry\nCarboxylic acids are also prepared from aldehydes by the use of\nmild oxidising agents (Section 8 4)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6795-6798", "Text": "7\n8 7 Methods of\nMethods of\nMethods of\nMethods of\nMethods of\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nof Carboxylic\nof Carboxylic\nof Carboxylic\nof Carboxylic\nof Carboxylic\nAcids\nAcids\nAcids\nAcids\nAcids\n+\nJones reagent\nRationalised 2023-24\n246\nChemistry\nCarboxylic acids are also prepared from aldehydes by the use of\nmild oxidising agents (Section 8 4) 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6796-6799", "Text": "7 Methods of\nMethods of\nMethods of\nMethods of\nMethods of\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nof Carboxylic\nof Carboxylic\nof Carboxylic\nof Carboxylic\nof Carboxylic\nAcids\nAcids\nAcids\nAcids\nAcids\n+\nJones reagent\nRationalised 2023-24\n246\nChemistry\nCarboxylic acids are also prepared from aldehydes by the use of\nmild oxidising agents (Section 8 4) 2 From alkylbenzenes\nAromatic carboxylic acids can be prepared by vigorous oxidation of\nalkyl benzenes with chromic acid or acidic or alkaline potassium\npermanganate"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6797-6800", "Text": "4) 2 From alkylbenzenes\nAromatic carboxylic acids can be prepared by vigorous oxidation of\nalkyl benzenes with chromic acid or acidic or alkaline potassium\npermanganate The entire side chain is oxidised to the carboxyl group\nirrespective of length of the side chain"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6798-6801", "Text": "2 From alkylbenzenes\nAromatic carboxylic acids can be prepared by vigorous oxidation of\nalkyl benzenes with chromic acid or acidic or alkaline potassium\npermanganate The entire side chain is oxidised to the carboxyl group\nirrespective of length of the side chain Primary and secondary alkyl\ngroups are oxidised in this manner while tertiary group is not affected"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6799-6802", "Text": "From alkylbenzenes\nAromatic carboxylic acids can be prepared by vigorous oxidation of\nalkyl benzenes with chromic acid or acidic or alkaline potassium\npermanganate The entire side chain is oxidised to the carboxyl group\nirrespective of length of the side chain Primary and secondary alkyl\ngroups are oxidised in this manner while tertiary group is not affected Suitably substituted alkenes are also oxidised to carboxylic acids\nwith these oxidising reagents"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6800-6803", "Text": "The entire side chain is oxidised to the carboxyl group\nirrespective of length of the side chain Primary and secondary alkyl\ngroups are oxidised in this manner while tertiary group is not affected Suitably substituted alkenes are also oxidised to carboxylic acids\nwith these oxidising reagents 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6801-6804", "Text": "Primary and secondary alkyl\ngroups are oxidised in this manner while tertiary group is not affected Suitably substituted alkenes are also oxidised to carboxylic acids\nwith these oxidising reagents 3 From nitriles and amides\nNitriles are hydrolysed to amides and then to acids in the presence of\nH\n+ or OH\n\uf02d\nas catalyst"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6802-6805", "Text": "Suitably substituted alkenes are also oxidised to carboxylic acids\nwith these oxidising reagents 3 From nitriles and amides\nNitriles are hydrolysed to amides and then to acids in the presence of\nH\n+ or OH\n\uf02d\nas catalyst Mild reaction conditions are used to stop the\nreaction at the amide stage"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6803-6806", "Text": "3 From nitriles and amides\nNitriles are hydrolysed to amides and then to acids in the presence of\nH\n+ or OH\n\uf02d\nas catalyst Mild reaction conditions are used to stop the\nreaction at the amide stage 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6804-6807", "Text": "From nitriles and amides\nNitriles are hydrolysed to amides and then to acids in the presence of\nH\n+ or OH\n\uf02d\nas catalyst Mild reaction conditions are used to stop the\nreaction at the amide stage 4 From Grignard reagents\nGrignard reagents react with carbon dioxide (dry ice) to form salts of\ncarboxylic acids which in turn give corresponding carboxylic acids\nafter acidification with mineral acid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6805-6808", "Text": "Mild reaction conditions are used to stop the\nreaction at the amide stage 4 From Grignard reagents\nGrignard reagents react with carbon dioxide (dry ice) to form salts of\ncarboxylic acids which in turn give corresponding carboxylic acids\nafter acidification with mineral acid As we know, the Grignard reagents and nitriles can be prepared\nfrom alkyl halides (refer Unit 6, Class XII)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6806-6809", "Text": "4 From Grignard reagents\nGrignard reagents react with carbon dioxide (dry ice) to form salts of\ncarboxylic acids which in turn give corresponding carboxylic acids\nafter acidification with mineral acid As we know, the Grignard reagents and nitriles can be prepared\nfrom alkyl halides (refer Unit 6, Class XII) The above methods\nRationalised 2023-24\n247\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\n(3 and 4) are useful for converting alkyl halides into corresponding\ncarboxylic acids having one carbon atom more than that present in\nalkyl halides (ascending the series)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6807-6810", "Text": "From Grignard reagents\nGrignard reagents react with carbon dioxide (dry ice) to form salts of\ncarboxylic acids which in turn give corresponding carboxylic acids\nafter acidification with mineral acid As we know, the Grignard reagents and nitriles can be prepared\nfrom alkyl halides (refer Unit 6, Class XII) The above methods\nRationalised 2023-24\n247\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\n(3 and 4) are useful for converting alkyl halides into corresponding\ncarboxylic acids having one carbon atom more than that present in\nalkyl halides (ascending the series) 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6808-6811", "Text": "As we know, the Grignard reagents and nitriles can be prepared\nfrom alkyl halides (refer Unit 6, Class XII) The above methods\nRationalised 2023-24\n247\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\n(3 and 4) are useful for converting alkyl halides into corresponding\ncarboxylic acids having one carbon atom more than that present in\nalkyl halides (ascending the series) 5 From acyl halides and anhydrides\nAcid chlorides when hydrolysed with water give carboxylic acids or more\nreadily hydrolysed with aqueous base to give carboxylate ions which on\nacidification provide corresponding carboxylic acids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6809-6812", "Text": "The above methods\nRationalised 2023-24\n247\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\n(3 and 4) are useful for converting alkyl halides into corresponding\ncarboxylic acids having one carbon atom more than that present in\nalkyl halides (ascending the series) 5 From acyl halides and anhydrides\nAcid chlorides when hydrolysed with water give carboxylic acids or more\nreadily hydrolysed with aqueous base to give carboxylate ions which on\nacidification provide corresponding carboxylic acids Anhydrides on the\nother hand are hydrolysed to corresponding acid(s) with water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6810-6813", "Text": "5 From acyl halides and anhydrides\nAcid chlorides when hydrolysed with water give carboxylic acids or more\nreadily hydrolysed with aqueous base to give carboxylate ions which on\nacidification provide corresponding carboxylic acids Anhydrides on the\nother hand are hydrolysed to corresponding acid(s) with water 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6811-6814", "Text": "From acyl halides and anhydrides\nAcid chlorides when hydrolysed with water give carboxylic acids or more\nreadily hydrolysed with aqueous base to give carboxylate ions which on\nacidification provide corresponding carboxylic acids Anhydrides on the\nother hand are hydrolysed to corresponding acid(s) with water 6 From esters\nAcidic hydrolysis of esters gives directly carboxylic acids while basic\nhydrolysis gives carboxylates, which on acidification give\ncorresponding carboxylic acids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6812-6815", "Text": "Anhydrides on the\nother hand are hydrolysed to corresponding acid(s) with water 6 From esters\nAcidic hydrolysis of esters gives directly carboxylic acids while basic\nhydrolysis gives carboxylates, which on acidification give\ncorresponding carboxylic acids Example 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6813-6816", "Text": "6 From esters\nAcidic hydrolysis of esters gives directly carboxylic acids while basic\nhydrolysis gives carboxylates, which on acidification give\ncorresponding carboxylic acids Example 8 5\nExample 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6814-6817", "Text": "From esters\nAcidic hydrolysis of esters gives directly carboxylic acids while basic\nhydrolysis gives carboxylates, which on acidification give\ncorresponding carboxylic acids Example 8 5\nExample 8 5\nExample 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6815-6818", "Text": "Example 8 5\nExample 8 5\nExample 8 5\nExample 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6816-6819", "Text": "5\nExample 8 5\nExample 8 5\nExample 8 5\nExample 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6817-6820", "Text": "5\nExample 8 5\nExample 8 5\nExample 8 5\nWrite chemical reactions to affect the following transformations:\n(i)\nButan-1-ol to butanoic acid\n(ii)\nBenzyl alcohol to phenylethanoic acid\n(iii) 3-Nitrobromobenzene to 3-nitrobenzoic acid\n(iv) 4-Methylacetophenone to benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid\n(v)\nCyclohexene to hexane-1,6-dioic acid\n(vi) Butanal to butanoic acid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6818-6821", "Text": "5\nExample 8 5\nExample 8 5\nWrite chemical reactions to affect the following transformations:\n(i)\nButan-1-ol to butanoic acid\n(ii)\nBenzyl alcohol to phenylethanoic acid\n(iii) 3-Nitrobromobenzene to 3-nitrobenzoic acid\n(iv) 4-Methylacetophenone to benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid\n(v)\nCyclohexene to hexane-1,6-dioic acid\n(vi) Butanal to butanoic acid Rationalised 2023-24\n248\nChemistry\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6819-6822", "Text": "5\nExample 8 5\nWrite chemical reactions to affect the following transformations:\n(i)\nButan-1-ol to butanoic acid\n(ii)\nBenzyl alcohol to phenylethanoic acid\n(iii) 3-Nitrobromobenzene to 3-nitrobenzoic acid\n(iv) 4-Methylacetophenone to benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid\n(v)\nCyclohexene to hexane-1,6-dioic acid\n(vi) Butanal to butanoic acid Rationalised 2023-24\n248\nChemistry\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n8 7\nShow how each of the following compounds can be\nconverted to benzoic acid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6820-6823", "Text": "5\nWrite chemical reactions to affect the following transformations:\n(i)\nButan-1-ol to butanoic acid\n(ii)\nBenzyl alcohol to phenylethanoic acid\n(iii) 3-Nitrobromobenzene to 3-nitrobenzoic acid\n(iv) 4-Methylacetophenone to benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid\n(v)\nCyclohexene to hexane-1,6-dioic acid\n(vi) Butanal to butanoic acid Rationalised 2023-24\n248\nChemistry\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n8 7\nShow how each of the following compounds can be\nconverted to benzoic acid (i)\nEthylbenzene\n(ii)\nAcetophenone\n(iii)\nBromobenzene\n(iv)\nPhenylethene (Styrene)\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n(i)\n(ii)\n(iii)\n(iv)\n(v)\n(vi)\nRationalised 2023-24\n249\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\nAliphatic carboxylic acids upto nine carbon atoms are colourless\nliquids at room temperature with unpleasant odours"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6821-6824", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n248\nChemistry\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n8 7\nShow how each of the following compounds can be\nconverted to benzoic acid (i)\nEthylbenzene\n(ii)\nAcetophenone\n(iii)\nBromobenzene\n(iv)\nPhenylethene (Styrene)\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n(i)\n(ii)\n(iii)\n(iv)\n(v)\n(vi)\nRationalised 2023-24\n249\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\nAliphatic carboxylic acids upto nine carbon atoms are colourless\nliquids at room temperature with unpleasant odours The higher\nacids are wax like solids and are practically odourless due\nto their low volatility"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6822-6825", "Text": "7\nShow how each of the following compounds can be\nconverted to benzoic acid (i)\nEthylbenzene\n(ii)\nAcetophenone\n(iii)\nBromobenzene\n(iv)\nPhenylethene (Styrene)\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n(i)\n(ii)\n(iii)\n(iv)\n(v)\n(vi)\nRationalised 2023-24\n249\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\nAliphatic carboxylic acids upto nine carbon atoms are colourless\nliquids at room temperature with unpleasant odours The higher\nacids are wax like solids and are practically odourless due\nto their low volatility Carboxylic acids are higher boiling\nliquids than aldehydes, ketones and even alcohols of\ncomparable molecular masses"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6823-6826", "Text": "(i)\nEthylbenzene\n(ii)\nAcetophenone\n(iii)\nBromobenzene\n(iv)\nPhenylethene (Styrene)\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\n(i)\n(ii)\n(iii)\n(iv)\n(v)\n(vi)\nRationalised 2023-24\n249\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\nAliphatic carboxylic acids upto nine carbon atoms are colourless\nliquids at room temperature with unpleasant odours The higher\nacids are wax like solids and are practically odourless due\nto their low volatility Carboxylic acids are higher boiling\nliquids than aldehydes, ketones and even alcohols of\ncomparable molecular masses This is due to more extensive\nassociation of carboxylic acid molecules through\nintermolecular hydrogen bonding"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6824-6827", "Text": "The higher\nacids are wax like solids and are practically odourless due\nto their low volatility Carboxylic acids are higher boiling\nliquids than aldehydes, ketones and even alcohols of\ncomparable molecular masses This is due to more extensive\nassociation of carboxylic acid molecules through\nintermolecular hydrogen bonding The hydrogen bonds are\nnot broken completely even in the vapour phase"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6825-6828", "Text": "Carboxylic acids are higher boiling\nliquids than aldehydes, ketones and even alcohols of\ncomparable molecular masses This is due to more extensive\nassociation of carboxylic acid molecules through\nintermolecular hydrogen bonding The hydrogen bonds are\nnot broken completely even in the vapour phase In fact,\nmost carboxylic acids exist as dimer in the vapour phase\nor in the aprotic solvents"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6826-6829", "Text": "This is due to more extensive\nassociation of carboxylic acid molecules through\nintermolecular hydrogen bonding The hydrogen bonds are\nnot broken completely even in the vapour phase In fact,\nmost carboxylic acids exist as dimer in the vapour phase\nor in the aprotic solvents Simple aliphatic carboxylic acids having upto four\ncarbon atoms are miscible in water due to the formation\nof hydrogen bonds with water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6827-6830", "Text": "The hydrogen bonds are\nnot broken completely even in the vapour phase In fact,\nmost carboxylic acids exist as dimer in the vapour phase\nor in the aprotic solvents Simple aliphatic carboxylic acids having upto four\ncarbon atoms are miscible in water due to the formation\nof hydrogen bonds with water The solubility decreases\nwith increasing number of carbon atoms"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6828-6831", "Text": "In fact,\nmost carboxylic acids exist as dimer in the vapour phase\nor in the aprotic solvents Simple aliphatic carboxylic acids having upto four\ncarbon atoms are miscible in water due to the formation\nof hydrogen bonds with water The solubility decreases\nwith increasing number of carbon atoms Higher\ncarboxylic acids are practically insoluble in water due to\nthe increased hydrophobic interaction of hydrocarbon\npart"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6829-6832", "Text": "Simple aliphatic carboxylic acids having upto four\ncarbon atoms are miscible in water due to the formation\nof hydrogen bonds with water The solubility decreases\nwith increasing number of carbon atoms Higher\ncarboxylic acids are practically insoluble in water due to\nthe increased hydrophobic interaction of hydrocarbon\npart Benzoic acid, the simplest aromatic carboxylic acid\nis nearly insoluble in cold water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6830-6833", "Text": "The solubility decreases\nwith increasing number of carbon atoms Higher\ncarboxylic acids are practically insoluble in water due to\nthe increased hydrophobic interaction of hydrocarbon\npart Benzoic acid, the simplest aromatic carboxylic acid\nis nearly insoluble in cold water Carboxylic acids are\nalso soluble in less polar organic solvents like benzene,\nether, alcohol, chloroform, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6831-6834", "Text": "Higher\ncarboxylic acids are practically insoluble in water due to\nthe increased hydrophobic interaction of hydrocarbon\npart Benzoic acid, the simplest aromatic carboxylic acid\nis nearly insoluble in cold water Carboxylic acids are\nalso soluble in less polar organic solvents like benzene,\nether, alcohol, chloroform, etc The reaction of carboxylic acids are classified as follows:\nAcidity\nReactions with metals and alkalies\nThe carboxylic acids like alcohols evolve hydrogen with electropositive\nmetals and form salts with alkalies similar to phenols"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6832-6835", "Text": "Benzoic acid, the simplest aromatic carboxylic acid\nis nearly insoluble in cold water Carboxylic acids are\nalso soluble in less polar organic solvents like benzene,\nether, alcohol, chloroform, etc The reaction of carboxylic acids are classified as follows:\nAcidity\nReactions with metals and alkalies\nThe carboxylic acids like alcohols evolve hydrogen with electropositive\nmetals and form salts with alkalies similar to phenols However, unlike\nphenols they react with weaker bases such as carbonates and\nhydrogencarbonates to evolve carbon dioxide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6833-6836", "Text": "Carboxylic acids are\nalso soluble in less polar organic solvents like benzene,\nether, alcohol, chloroform, etc The reaction of carboxylic acids are classified as follows:\nAcidity\nReactions with metals and alkalies\nThe carboxylic acids like alcohols evolve hydrogen with electropositive\nmetals and form salts with alkalies similar to phenols However, unlike\nphenols they react with weaker bases such as carbonates and\nhydrogencarbonates to evolve carbon dioxide This reaction is used to\ndetect the presence of carboxyl group in an organic compound"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6834-6837", "Text": "The reaction of carboxylic acids are classified as follows:\nAcidity\nReactions with metals and alkalies\nThe carboxylic acids like alcohols evolve hydrogen with electropositive\nmetals and form salts with alkalies similar to phenols However, unlike\nphenols they react with weaker bases such as carbonates and\nhydrogencarbonates to evolve carbon dioxide This reaction is used to\ndetect the presence of carboxyl group in an organic compound Carboxylic acids dissociate in water to give resonance stabilised\ncarboxylate anions and hydronium ion"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6835-6838", "Text": "However, unlike\nphenols they react with weaker bases such as carbonates and\nhydrogencarbonates to evolve carbon dioxide This reaction is used to\ndetect the presence of carboxyl group in an organic compound Carboxylic acids dissociate in water to give resonance stabilised\ncarboxylate anions and hydronium ion 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6836-6839", "Text": "This reaction is used to\ndetect the presence of carboxyl group in an organic compound Carboxylic acids dissociate in water to give resonance stabilised\ncarboxylate anions and hydronium ion 8 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6837-6840", "Text": "Carboxylic acids dissociate in water to give resonance stabilised\ncarboxylate anions and hydronium ion 8 9 1\nReactions\nInvolving\nCleavage of\nO\u2013H Bond\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6838-6841", "Text": "8 9 1\nReactions\nInvolving\nCleavage of\nO\u2013H Bond\n8 8\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6839-6842", "Text": "9 1\nReactions\nInvolving\nCleavage of\nO\u2013H Bond\n8 8\n8 8\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6840-6843", "Text": "1\nReactions\nInvolving\nCleavage of\nO\u2013H Bond\n8 8\n8 8\n8 8\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6841-6844", "Text": "8\n8 8\n8 8\n8 8\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6842-6845", "Text": "8\n8 8\n8 8\n8 8 Physical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6843-6846", "Text": "8\n8 8\n8 8 Physical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\n8 9\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6844-6847", "Text": "8\n8 8 Physical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\n8 9\n8 9\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6845-6848", "Text": "8 Physical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\n8 9\n8 9\n8 9\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6846-6849", "Text": "9\n8 9\n8 9\n8 9\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6847-6850", "Text": "9\n8 9\n8 9\n8 9 Chemical Reactions\nChemical Reactions\nChemical Reactions\nChemical Reactions\nChemical Reactions\nIn vapour state or in\naprotic solvent\nHydrogen bonding of\nRCOOH with H2O\nRationalised 2023-24\n250\nChemistry\nwhere Keq, is equilibrium constant and Ka is the acid dissociation\nconstant"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6848-6851", "Text": "9\n8 9\n8 9 Chemical Reactions\nChemical Reactions\nChemical Reactions\nChemical Reactions\nChemical Reactions\nIn vapour state or in\naprotic solvent\nHydrogen bonding of\nRCOOH with H2O\nRationalised 2023-24\n250\nChemistry\nwhere Keq, is equilibrium constant and Ka is the acid dissociation\nconstant For convenience, the strength of an acid is generally indicated by\nits pKa value rather than its Ka value"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6849-6852", "Text": "9\n8 9 Chemical Reactions\nChemical Reactions\nChemical Reactions\nChemical Reactions\nChemical Reactions\nIn vapour state or in\naprotic solvent\nHydrogen bonding of\nRCOOH with H2O\nRationalised 2023-24\n250\nChemistry\nwhere Keq, is equilibrium constant and Ka is the acid dissociation\nconstant For convenience, the strength of an acid is generally indicated by\nits pKa value rather than its Ka value pKa = \u2013 log Ka\nThe pKa of hydrochloric acid is \u20137"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6850-6853", "Text": "9 Chemical Reactions\nChemical Reactions\nChemical Reactions\nChemical Reactions\nChemical Reactions\nIn vapour state or in\naprotic solvent\nHydrogen bonding of\nRCOOH with H2O\nRationalised 2023-24\n250\nChemistry\nwhere Keq, is equilibrium constant and Ka is the acid dissociation\nconstant For convenience, the strength of an acid is generally indicated by\nits pKa value rather than its Ka value pKa = \u2013 log Ka\nThe pKa of hydrochloric acid is \u20137 0, where as pKa of trifluoroacetic\nacid (the strongest carboxylic acid), benzoic acid and acetic acid are\n0"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6851-6854", "Text": "For convenience, the strength of an acid is generally indicated by\nits pKa value rather than its Ka value pKa = \u2013 log Ka\nThe pKa of hydrochloric acid is \u20137 0, where as pKa of trifluoroacetic\nacid (the strongest carboxylic acid), benzoic acid and acetic acid are\n0 23, 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6852-6855", "Text": "pKa = \u2013 log Ka\nThe pKa of hydrochloric acid is \u20137 0, where as pKa of trifluoroacetic\nacid (the strongest carboxylic acid), benzoic acid and acetic acid are\n0 23, 4 19 and 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6853-6856", "Text": "0, where as pKa of trifluoroacetic\nacid (the strongest carboxylic acid), benzoic acid and acetic acid are\n0 23, 4 19 and 4 76, respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6854-6857", "Text": "23, 4 19 and 4 76, respectively Smaller the pKa, the stronger the acid ( the better it is as a proton\ndonor)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6855-6858", "Text": "19 and 4 76, respectively Smaller the pKa, the stronger the acid ( the better it is as a proton\ndonor) Strong acids have pKa values < 1, the acids with pKa values\nbetween 1 and 5 are considered to be moderately strong acids, weak\nacids have pKa values between 5 and 15, and extremely weak acids\nhave pKa values >15"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6856-6859", "Text": "76, respectively Smaller the pKa, the stronger the acid ( the better it is as a proton\ndonor) Strong acids have pKa values < 1, the acids with pKa values\nbetween 1 and 5 are considered to be moderately strong acids, weak\nacids have pKa values between 5 and 15, and extremely weak acids\nhave pKa values >15 Carboxylic acids are weaker than mineral acids, but they are stronger\nacids than alcohols and many simple phenols (pKa is ~16 for ethanol\nand 10 for phenol)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6857-6860", "Text": "Smaller the pKa, the stronger the acid ( the better it is as a proton\ndonor) Strong acids have pKa values < 1, the acids with pKa values\nbetween 1 and 5 are considered to be moderately strong acids, weak\nacids have pKa values between 5 and 15, and extremely weak acids\nhave pKa values >15 Carboxylic acids are weaker than mineral acids, but they are stronger\nacids than alcohols and many simple phenols (pKa is ~16 for ethanol\nand 10 for phenol) In fact, carboxylic acids are amongst the most acidic\norganic compounds you have studied so far"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6858-6861", "Text": "Strong acids have pKa values < 1, the acids with pKa values\nbetween 1 and 5 are considered to be moderately strong acids, weak\nacids have pKa values between 5 and 15, and extremely weak acids\nhave pKa values >15 Carboxylic acids are weaker than mineral acids, but they are stronger\nacids than alcohols and many simple phenols (pKa is ~16 for ethanol\nand 10 for phenol) In fact, carboxylic acids are amongst the most acidic\norganic compounds you have studied so far You already know why\nphenols are more acidic than alcohols"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6859-6862", "Text": "Carboxylic acids are weaker than mineral acids, but they are stronger\nacids than alcohols and many simple phenols (pKa is ~16 for ethanol\nand 10 for phenol) In fact, carboxylic acids are amongst the most acidic\norganic compounds you have studied so far You already know why\nphenols are more acidic than alcohols The higher acidity of carboxylic\nacids as compared to phenols can be understood similarly"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6860-6863", "Text": "In fact, carboxylic acids are amongst the most acidic\norganic compounds you have studied so far You already know why\nphenols are more acidic than alcohols The higher acidity of carboxylic\nacids as compared to phenols can be understood similarly The conjugate\nbase of carboxylic acid, a carboxylate ion, is stabilised by two equivalent\nresonance structures in which the negative charge is at the more\nelectronegative oxygen atom"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6861-6864", "Text": "You already know why\nphenols are more acidic than alcohols The higher acidity of carboxylic\nacids as compared to phenols can be understood similarly The conjugate\nbase of carboxylic acid, a carboxylate ion, is stabilised by two equivalent\nresonance structures in which the negative charge is at the more\nelectronegative oxygen atom The conjugate base of phenol, a phenoxide\nion, has non-equivalent resonance structures in which the negative charge\nis at the less electronegative carbon atom"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6862-6865", "Text": "The higher acidity of carboxylic\nacids as compared to phenols can be understood similarly The conjugate\nbase of carboxylic acid, a carboxylate ion, is stabilised by two equivalent\nresonance structures in which the negative charge is at the more\nelectronegative oxygen atom The conjugate base of phenol, a phenoxide\nion, has non-equivalent resonance structures in which the negative charge\nis at the less electronegative carbon atom Therefore, resonance in\nphenoxide ion is not as important as it is in carboxylate ion"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6863-6866", "Text": "The conjugate\nbase of carboxylic acid, a carboxylate ion, is stabilised by two equivalent\nresonance structures in which the negative charge is at the more\nelectronegative oxygen atom The conjugate base of phenol, a phenoxide\nion, has non-equivalent resonance structures in which the negative charge\nis at the less electronegative carbon atom Therefore, resonance in\nphenoxide ion is not as important as it is in carboxylate ion Further, the\nnegative charge is delocalised over two electronegative oxygen atoms in\ncarboxylate ion whereas it is less effectively delocalised over one oxygen\natom and less electronegative carbon atoms in phenoxide ion (Unit 7,\nClass XII)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6864-6867", "Text": "The conjugate base of phenol, a phenoxide\nion, has non-equivalent resonance structures in which the negative charge\nis at the less electronegative carbon atom Therefore, resonance in\nphenoxide ion is not as important as it is in carboxylate ion Further, the\nnegative charge is delocalised over two electronegative oxygen atoms in\ncarboxylate ion whereas it is less effectively delocalised over one oxygen\natom and less electronegative carbon atoms in phenoxide ion (Unit 7,\nClass XII) Thus, the carboxylate ion is more stabilised than phenoxide\nion, so carboxylic acids are more acidic than phenols"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6865-6868", "Text": "Therefore, resonance in\nphenoxide ion is not as important as it is in carboxylate ion Further, the\nnegative charge is delocalised over two electronegative oxygen atoms in\ncarboxylate ion whereas it is less effectively delocalised over one oxygen\natom and less electronegative carbon atoms in phenoxide ion (Unit 7,\nClass XII) Thus, the carboxylate ion is more stabilised than phenoxide\nion, so carboxylic acids are more acidic than phenols Effect of substituents on the acidity of carboxylic acids:\nSubstituents may affect the stability of the conjugate base and thus,\nalso affect the acidity of the carboxylic acids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6866-6869", "Text": "Further, the\nnegative charge is delocalised over two electronegative oxygen atoms in\ncarboxylate ion whereas it is less effectively delocalised over one oxygen\natom and less electronegative carbon atoms in phenoxide ion (Unit 7,\nClass XII) Thus, the carboxylate ion is more stabilised than phenoxide\nion, so carboxylic acids are more acidic than phenols Effect of substituents on the acidity of carboxylic acids:\nSubstituents may affect the stability of the conjugate base and thus,\nalso affect the acidity of the carboxylic acids Electron withdrawing\ngroups increase the acidity of carboxylic acids by stabilising the\nconjugate base through delocalisation of the negative charge by\ninductive and/or resonance effects"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6867-6870", "Text": "Thus, the carboxylate ion is more stabilised than phenoxide\nion, so carboxylic acids are more acidic than phenols Effect of substituents on the acidity of carboxylic acids:\nSubstituents may affect the stability of the conjugate base and thus,\nalso affect the acidity of the carboxylic acids Electron withdrawing\ngroups increase the acidity of carboxylic acids by stabilising the\nconjugate base through delocalisation of the negative charge by\ninductive and/or resonance effects Conversely, electron donating groups\ndecrease the acidity by destabilising the conjugate base"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6868-6871", "Text": "Effect of substituents on the acidity of carboxylic acids:\nSubstituents may affect the stability of the conjugate base and thus,\nalso affect the acidity of the carboxylic acids Electron withdrawing\ngroups increase the acidity of carboxylic acids by stabilising the\nconjugate base through delocalisation of the negative charge by\ninductive and/or resonance effects Conversely, electron donating groups\ndecrease the acidity by destabilising the conjugate base Electron withdrawing group (EWG)\nstabilises the carboxylate anion\nand strengthens the acid\nElectron donating group (EDG)\ndestabilises the carboxylate\nanion and weakens the acid\nFor the above reaction:\nRationalised 2023-24\n251\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\nThe effect of the following groups in increasing acidity order is\nPh < I < Br < Cl < F < CN < NO2 < CF3\nThus, the following acids are arranged in order of increasing acidity\n(based on pKa values):\nCF3COOH > CCl3COOH > CHCl2COOH > NO2CH2COOH > NC-CH2COOH >\nFCH2COOH > ClCH2COOH > BrCH2COOH > HCOOH > ClCH2CH2COOH >\n (continue)\nC6H5COOH > C6H5CH2COOH > CH3COOH > CH3CH2COOH\n (continue )\nDirect attachment of groups such as phenyl or vinyl to the carboxylic\nacid, increases the acidity of corresponding carboxylic acid, contrary to\nthe decrease expected due to resonance effect shown below:\nThis is because of greater electronegativity of sp\n2 hybridised carbon\nto which carboxyl carbon is attached"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6869-6872", "Text": "Electron withdrawing\ngroups increase the acidity of carboxylic acids by stabilising the\nconjugate base through delocalisation of the negative charge by\ninductive and/or resonance effects Conversely, electron donating groups\ndecrease the acidity by destabilising the conjugate base Electron withdrawing group (EWG)\nstabilises the carboxylate anion\nand strengthens the acid\nElectron donating group (EDG)\ndestabilises the carboxylate\nanion and weakens the acid\nFor the above reaction:\nRationalised 2023-24\n251\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\nThe effect of the following groups in increasing acidity order is\nPh < I < Br < Cl < F < CN < NO2 < CF3\nThus, the following acids are arranged in order of increasing acidity\n(based on pKa values):\nCF3COOH > CCl3COOH > CHCl2COOH > NO2CH2COOH > NC-CH2COOH >\nFCH2COOH > ClCH2COOH > BrCH2COOH > HCOOH > ClCH2CH2COOH >\n (continue)\nC6H5COOH > C6H5CH2COOH > CH3COOH > CH3CH2COOH\n (continue )\nDirect attachment of groups such as phenyl or vinyl to the carboxylic\nacid, increases the acidity of corresponding carboxylic acid, contrary to\nthe decrease expected due to resonance effect shown below:\nThis is because of greater electronegativity of sp\n2 hybridised carbon\nto which carboxyl carbon is attached The presence of electron\nwithdrawing group on the phenyl of aromatic carboxylic acid increases\ntheir acidity while electron donating groups decrease their acidity"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6870-6873", "Text": "Conversely, electron donating groups\ndecrease the acidity by destabilising the conjugate base Electron withdrawing group (EWG)\nstabilises the carboxylate anion\nand strengthens the acid\nElectron donating group (EDG)\ndestabilises the carboxylate\nanion and weakens the acid\nFor the above reaction:\nRationalised 2023-24\n251\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\nThe effect of the following groups in increasing acidity order is\nPh < I < Br < Cl < F < CN < NO2 < CF3\nThus, the following acids are arranged in order of increasing acidity\n(based on pKa values):\nCF3COOH > CCl3COOH > CHCl2COOH > NO2CH2COOH > NC-CH2COOH >\nFCH2COOH > ClCH2COOH > BrCH2COOH > HCOOH > ClCH2CH2COOH >\n (continue)\nC6H5COOH > C6H5CH2COOH > CH3COOH > CH3CH2COOH\n (continue )\nDirect attachment of groups such as phenyl or vinyl to the carboxylic\nacid, increases the acidity of corresponding carboxylic acid, contrary to\nthe decrease expected due to resonance effect shown below:\nThis is because of greater electronegativity of sp\n2 hybridised carbon\nto which carboxyl carbon is attached The presence of electron\nwithdrawing group on the phenyl of aromatic carboxylic acid increases\ntheir acidity while electron donating groups decrease their acidity COOH\nOCH3\nCOOH\nCOOH\nNO2\n4-Methoxy\nbenzoic acid\n(p\n= 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6871-6874", "Text": "Electron withdrawing group (EWG)\nstabilises the carboxylate anion\nand strengthens the acid\nElectron donating group (EDG)\ndestabilises the carboxylate\nanion and weakens the acid\nFor the above reaction:\nRationalised 2023-24\n251\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\nThe effect of the following groups in increasing acidity order is\nPh < I < Br < Cl < F < CN < NO2 < CF3\nThus, the following acids are arranged in order of increasing acidity\n(based on pKa values):\nCF3COOH > CCl3COOH > CHCl2COOH > NO2CH2COOH > NC-CH2COOH >\nFCH2COOH > ClCH2COOH > BrCH2COOH > HCOOH > ClCH2CH2COOH >\n (continue)\nC6H5COOH > C6H5CH2COOH > CH3COOH > CH3CH2COOH\n (continue )\nDirect attachment of groups such as phenyl or vinyl to the carboxylic\nacid, increases the acidity of corresponding carboxylic acid, contrary to\nthe decrease expected due to resonance effect shown below:\nThis is because of greater electronegativity of sp\n2 hybridised carbon\nto which carboxyl carbon is attached The presence of electron\nwithdrawing group on the phenyl of aromatic carboxylic acid increases\ntheir acidity while electron donating groups decrease their acidity COOH\nOCH3\nCOOH\nCOOH\nNO2\n4-Methoxy\nbenzoic acid\n(p\n= 4 46)\nKa\nBenzoic acid\n(p\n= 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6872-6875", "Text": "The presence of electron\nwithdrawing group on the phenyl of aromatic carboxylic acid increases\ntheir acidity while electron donating groups decrease their acidity COOH\nOCH3\nCOOH\nCOOH\nNO2\n4-Methoxy\nbenzoic acid\n(p\n= 4 46)\nKa\nBenzoic acid\n(p\n= 4 19)\nKa\n4-Nitrobenzoic\nacid\n(p\n= 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6873-6876", "Text": "COOH\nOCH3\nCOOH\nCOOH\nNO2\n4-Methoxy\nbenzoic acid\n(p\n= 4 46)\nKa\nBenzoic acid\n(p\n= 4 19)\nKa\n4-Nitrobenzoic\nacid\n(p\n= 3 41)\nKa\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6874-6877", "Text": "46)\nKa\nBenzoic acid\n(p\n= 4 19)\nKa\n4-Nitrobenzoic\nacid\n(p\n= 3 41)\nKa\n1 Formation of anhydride\nCarboxylic acids on heating with mineral acids such as H2SO4 or with\nP2O5 give corresponding anhydride"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6875-6878", "Text": "19)\nKa\n4-Nitrobenzoic\nacid\n(p\n= 3 41)\nKa\n1 Formation of anhydride\nCarboxylic acids on heating with mineral acids such as H2SO4 or with\nP2O5 give corresponding anhydride 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6876-6879", "Text": "41)\nKa\n1 Formation of anhydride\nCarboxylic acids on heating with mineral acids such as H2SO4 or with\nP2O5 give corresponding anhydride 2 Esterification\nCarboxylic acids are esterified with alcohols or phenols in the presence\nof a mineral acid such as concentrated H2SO4 or HCl gas as a catalyst"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6877-6880", "Text": "Formation of anhydride\nCarboxylic acids on heating with mineral acids such as H2SO4 or with\nP2O5 give corresponding anhydride 2 Esterification\nCarboxylic acids are esterified with alcohols or phenols in the presence\nof a mineral acid such as concentrated H2SO4 or HCl gas as a catalyst 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6878-6881", "Text": "2 Esterification\nCarboxylic acids are esterified with alcohols or phenols in the presence\nof a mineral acid such as concentrated H2SO4 or HCl gas as a catalyst 8 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6879-6882", "Text": "Esterification\nCarboxylic acids are esterified with alcohols or phenols in the presence\nof a mineral acid such as concentrated H2SO4 or HCl gas as a catalyst 8 9 2\nReactions\nInvolving\nCleavage of\nC\u2013OH Bond\nRationalised 2023-24\n252\nChemistry\nMechanism of esterification of carboxylic acids: The esterification of carboxylic\nacids with alcohols is a kind of nucleophilic acyl substitution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6880-6883", "Text": "8 9 2\nReactions\nInvolving\nCleavage of\nC\u2013OH Bond\nRationalised 2023-24\n252\nChemistry\nMechanism of esterification of carboxylic acids: The esterification of carboxylic\nacids with alcohols is a kind of nucleophilic acyl substitution Protonation of the\ncarbonyl oxygen activates the carbonyl group towards nucleophilic addition of the\nalcohol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6881-6884", "Text": "9 2\nReactions\nInvolving\nCleavage of\nC\u2013OH Bond\nRationalised 2023-24\n252\nChemistry\nMechanism of esterification of carboxylic acids: The esterification of carboxylic\nacids with alcohols is a kind of nucleophilic acyl substitution Protonation of the\ncarbonyl oxygen activates the carbonyl group towards nucleophilic addition of the\nalcohol Proton transfer in the tetrahedral intermediate converts the hydroxyl group\ninto \u2013\n+OH2 group, which, being a better leaving group, is eliminated as neutral water\nmolecule"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6882-6885", "Text": "2\nReactions\nInvolving\nCleavage of\nC\u2013OH Bond\nRationalised 2023-24\n252\nChemistry\nMechanism of esterification of carboxylic acids: The esterification of carboxylic\nacids with alcohols is a kind of nucleophilic acyl substitution Protonation of the\ncarbonyl oxygen activates the carbonyl group towards nucleophilic addition of the\nalcohol Proton transfer in the tetrahedral intermediate converts the hydroxyl group\ninto \u2013\n+OH2 group, which, being a better leaving group, is eliminated as neutral water\nmolecule The protonated ester so formed finally loses a proton to give the ester"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6883-6886", "Text": "Protonation of the\ncarbonyl oxygen activates the carbonyl group towards nucleophilic addition of the\nalcohol Proton transfer in the tetrahedral intermediate converts the hydroxyl group\ninto \u2013\n+OH2 group, which, being a better leaving group, is eliminated as neutral water\nmolecule The protonated ester so formed finally loses a proton to give the ester 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6884-6887", "Text": "Proton transfer in the tetrahedral intermediate converts the hydroxyl group\ninto \u2013\n+OH2 group, which, being a better leaving group, is eliminated as neutral water\nmolecule The protonated ester so formed finally loses a proton to give the ester 3 Reactions with PCl5, PCl3 and SOCl2\nThe hydroxyl group of carboxylic acids, behaves like that of alcohols\nand is easily replaced by chlorine atom on treating with PCl5, PCl3 or\nSOCl2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6885-6888", "Text": "The protonated ester so formed finally loses a proton to give the ester 3 Reactions with PCl5, PCl3 and SOCl2\nThe hydroxyl group of carboxylic acids, behaves like that of alcohols\nand is easily replaced by chlorine atom on treating with PCl5, PCl3 or\nSOCl2 Thionyl chloride (SOCl2) is preferred because the other two\nproducts are gaseous and escape the reaction mixture making the\npurification of the products easier"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6886-6889", "Text": "3 Reactions with PCl5, PCl3 and SOCl2\nThe hydroxyl group of carboxylic acids, behaves like that of alcohols\nand is easily replaced by chlorine atom on treating with PCl5, PCl3 or\nSOCl2 Thionyl chloride (SOCl2) is preferred because the other two\nproducts are gaseous and escape the reaction mixture making the\npurification of the products easier 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6887-6890", "Text": "Reactions with PCl5, PCl3 and SOCl2\nThe hydroxyl group of carboxylic acids, behaves like that of alcohols\nand is easily replaced by chlorine atom on treating with PCl5, PCl3 or\nSOCl2 Thionyl chloride (SOCl2) is preferred because the other two\nproducts are gaseous and escape the reaction mixture making the\npurification of the products easier 4 Reaction with ammonia\nCarboxylic acids react with ammonia to give ammonium salt which\non further heating at high temperature give amides"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6888-6891", "Text": "Thionyl chloride (SOCl2) is preferred because the other two\nproducts are gaseous and escape the reaction mixture making the\npurification of the products easier 4 Reaction with ammonia\nCarboxylic acids react with ammonia to give ammonium salt which\non further heating at high temperature give amides For example:\nRationalised 2023-24\n253\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6889-6892", "Text": "4 Reaction with ammonia\nCarboxylic acids react with ammonia to give ammonium salt which\non further heating at high temperature give amides For example:\nRationalised 2023-24\n253\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\n8 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6890-6893", "Text": "Reaction with ammonia\nCarboxylic acids react with ammonia to give ammonium salt which\non further heating at high temperature give amides For example:\nRationalised 2023-24\n253\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\n8 9 3\nReactions\nInvolving\n\u2013COOH\nGroup\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6891-6894", "Text": "For example:\nRationalised 2023-24\n253\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\n8 9 3\nReactions\nInvolving\n\u2013COOH\nGroup\n1 Reduction\nCarboxylic acids are reduced to primary alcohols by lithium\naluminium hydride or better with diborane"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6892-6895", "Text": "9 3\nReactions\nInvolving\n\u2013COOH\nGroup\n1 Reduction\nCarboxylic acids are reduced to primary alcohols by lithium\naluminium hydride or better with diborane Diborane does not easily\nreduce functional groups such as ester, nitro, halo, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6893-6896", "Text": "3\nReactions\nInvolving\n\u2013COOH\nGroup\n1 Reduction\nCarboxylic acids are reduced to primary alcohols by lithium\naluminium hydride or better with diborane Diborane does not easily\nreduce functional groups such as ester, nitro, halo, etc Sodium\nborohydride does not reduce the carboxyl group"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6894-6897", "Text": "Reduction\nCarboxylic acids are reduced to primary alcohols by lithium\naluminium hydride or better with diborane Diborane does not easily\nreduce functional groups such as ester, nitro, halo, etc Sodium\nborohydride does not reduce the carboxyl group 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6895-6898", "Text": "Diborane does not easily\nreduce functional groups such as ester, nitro, halo, etc Sodium\nborohydride does not reduce the carboxyl group 2 Decarboxylation\nCarboxylic acids lose carbon dioxide to form hydrocarbons when their\nsodium salts are heated with sodalime (NaOH and CaO in the ratio of\n3 : 1)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6896-6899", "Text": "Sodium\nborohydride does not reduce the carboxyl group 2 Decarboxylation\nCarboxylic acids lose carbon dioxide to form hydrocarbons when their\nsodium salts are heated with sodalime (NaOH and CaO in the ratio of\n3 : 1) The reaction is known as decarboxylation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6897-6900", "Text": "2 Decarboxylation\nCarboxylic acids lose carbon dioxide to form hydrocarbons when their\nsodium salts are heated with sodalime (NaOH and CaO in the ratio of\n3 : 1) The reaction is known as decarboxylation Alkali metal salts of carboxylic acids also undergo decarboxylation\non electrolysis of their aqueous solutions and form hydrocarbons having\ntwice the number of carbon atoms present in the alkyl group of the acid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6898-6901", "Text": "Decarboxylation\nCarboxylic acids lose carbon dioxide to form hydrocarbons when their\nsodium salts are heated with sodalime (NaOH and CaO in the ratio of\n3 : 1) The reaction is known as decarboxylation Alkali metal salts of carboxylic acids also undergo decarboxylation\non electrolysis of their aqueous solutions and form hydrocarbons having\ntwice the number of carbon atoms present in the alkyl group of the acid The reaction is known as Kolbe electrolysis (Unit 9, Class XI)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6899-6902", "Text": "The reaction is known as decarboxylation Alkali metal salts of carboxylic acids also undergo decarboxylation\non electrolysis of their aqueous solutions and form hydrocarbons having\ntwice the number of carbon atoms present in the alkyl group of the acid The reaction is known as Kolbe electrolysis (Unit 9, Class XI) 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6900-6903", "Text": "Alkali metal salts of carboxylic acids also undergo decarboxylation\non electrolysis of their aqueous solutions and form hydrocarbons having\ntwice the number of carbon atoms present in the alkyl group of the acid The reaction is known as Kolbe electrolysis (Unit 9, Class XI) 1 Halogenation\nCarboxylic acids having an a-hydrogen are halogenated at the\na-position on treatment with chlorine or bromine in the presence of\nsmall amount of red phosphorus to give a-halocarboxylic acids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6901-6904", "Text": "The reaction is known as Kolbe electrolysis (Unit 9, Class XI) 1 Halogenation\nCarboxylic acids having an a-hydrogen are halogenated at the\na-position on treatment with chlorine or bromine in the presence of\nsmall amount of red phosphorus to give a-halocarboxylic acids The\nreaction is known as Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6902-6905", "Text": "1 Halogenation\nCarboxylic acids having an a-hydrogen are halogenated at the\na-position on treatment with chlorine or bromine in the presence of\nsmall amount of red phosphorus to give a-halocarboxylic acids The\nreaction is known as Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky reaction 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6903-6906", "Text": "Halogenation\nCarboxylic acids having an a-hydrogen are halogenated at the\na-position on treatment with chlorine or bromine in the presence of\nsmall amount of red phosphorus to give a-halocarboxylic acids The\nreaction is known as Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky reaction 8 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6904-6907", "Text": "The\nreaction is known as Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky reaction 8 9 4 Substitution\nReactions in the\nHydrocarbon Part\nRationalised 2023-24\n254\nChemistry\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6905-6908", "Text": "8 9 4 Substitution\nReactions in the\nHydrocarbon Part\nRationalised 2023-24\n254\nChemistry\n8 10\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6906-6909", "Text": "9 4 Substitution\nReactions in the\nHydrocarbon Part\nRationalised 2023-24\n254\nChemistry\n8 10\n8 10\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6907-6910", "Text": "4 Substitution\nReactions in the\nHydrocarbon Part\nRationalised 2023-24\n254\nChemistry\n8 10\n8 10\n8 10\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6908-6911", "Text": "10\n8 10\n8 10\n8 10\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6909-6912", "Text": "10\n8 10\n8 10\n8 10 Uses of\nUses of\nUses of\nUses of\nUses of\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nAcids\nAcids\nAcids\nAcids\nAcids\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nAldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids are some of the important classes of\norganic compounds containing carbonyl group"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6910-6913", "Text": "10\n8 10\n8 10 Uses of\nUses of\nUses of\nUses of\nUses of\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nAcids\nAcids\nAcids\nAcids\nAcids\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nAldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids are some of the important classes of\norganic compounds containing carbonyl group These are highly polar molecules"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6911-6914", "Text": "10\n8 10 Uses of\nUses of\nUses of\nUses of\nUses of\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nAcids\nAcids\nAcids\nAcids\nAcids\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nAldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids are some of the important classes of\norganic compounds containing carbonyl group These are highly polar molecules Therefore, they boil at higher temperatures than the hydrocarbons and weakly\npolar compounds such as ethers of comparable molecular masses"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6912-6915", "Text": "10 Uses of\nUses of\nUses of\nUses of\nUses of\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nCarboxylic\nAcids\nAcids\nAcids\nAcids\nAcids\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nAldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids are some of the important classes of\norganic compounds containing carbonyl group These are highly polar molecules Therefore, they boil at higher temperatures than the hydrocarbons and weakly\npolar compounds such as ethers of comparable molecular masses The lower\nmembers are more soluble in water because they form hydrogen bonds with water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6913-6916", "Text": "These are highly polar molecules Therefore, they boil at higher temperatures than the hydrocarbons and weakly\npolar compounds such as ethers of comparable molecular masses The lower\nmembers are more soluble in water because they form hydrogen bonds with water The higher members, because of large size of hydrophobic chain of carbon atoms,\nare insoluble in water but soluble in common organic solvents"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6914-6917", "Text": "Therefore, they boil at higher temperatures than the hydrocarbons and weakly\npolar compounds such as ethers of comparable molecular masses The lower\nmembers are more soluble in water because they form hydrogen bonds with water The higher members, because of large size of hydrophobic chain of carbon atoms,\nare insoluble in water but soluble in common organic solvents Aldehydes are\nprepared by dehydrogenation or controlled oxidation of primary alcohols and\ncontrolled or selective reduction of acyl halides"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6915-6918", "Text": "The lower\nmembers are more soluble in water because they form hydrogen bonds with water The higher members, because of large size of hydrophobic chain of carbon atoms,\nare insoluble in water but soluble in common organic solvents Aldehydes are\nprepared by dehydrogenation or controlled oxidation of primary alcohols and\ncontrolled or selective reduction of acyl halides Aromatic aldehydes may also be\nprepared by oxidation of (i) methylbenzene with chromyl chloride or CrO3 in the\npresence of acetic anhydride, (ii) formylation of arenes with carbon monoxide and\nhydrochloric acid in the presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride, and (iii) cuprous\nchloride or by hydrolysis of benzal chloride"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6916-6919", "Text": "The higher members, because of large size of hydrophobic chain of carbon atoms,\nare insoluble in water but soluble in common organic solvents Aldehydes are\nprepared by dehydrogenation or controlled oxidation of primary alcohols and\ncontrolled or selective reduction of acyl halides Aromatic aldehydes may also be\nprepared by oxidation of (i) methylbenzene with chromyl chloride or CrO3 in the\npresence of acetic anhydride, (ii) formylation of arenes with carbon monoxide and\nhydrochloric acid in the presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride, and (iii) cuprous\nchloride or by hydrolysis of benzal chloride Ketones are prepared by oxidation of\nsecondary alcohols and hydration of alkynes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6917-6920", "Text": "Aldehydes are\nprepared by dehydrogenation or controlled oxidation of primary alcohols and\ncontrolled or selective reduction of acyl halides Aromatic aldehydes may also be\nprepared by oxidation of (i) methylbenzene with chromyl chloride or CrO3 in the\npresence of acetic anhydride, (ii) formylation of arenes with carbon monoxide and\nhydrochloric acid in the presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride, and (iii) cuprous\nchloride or by hydrolysis of benzal chloride Ketones are prepared by oxidation of\nsecondary alcohols and hydration of alkynes Ketones are also prepared by reaction\nof acyl chloride with dialkylcadmium"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6918-6921", "Text": "Aromatic aldehydes may also be\nprepared by oxidation of (i) methylbenzene with chromyl chloride or CrO3 in the\npresence of acetic anhydride, (ii) formylation of arenes with carbon monoxide and\nhydrochloric acid in the presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride, and (iii) cuprous\nchloride or by hydrolysis of benzal chloride Ketones are prepared by oxidation of\nsecondary alcohols and hydration of alkynes Ketones are also prepared by reaction\nof acyl chloride with dialkylcadmium A good method for the preparation of aromatic\nketones is the Friedel-Crafts acylation of aromatic hydrocarbons with acyl chlorides\nor anhydrides"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6919-6922", "Text": "Ketones are prepared by oxidation of\nsecondary alcohols and hydration of alkynes Ketones are also prepared by reaction\nof acyl chloride with dialkylcadmium A good method for the preparation of aromatic\nketones is the Friedel-Crafts acylation of aromatic hydrocarbons with acyl chlorides\nor anhydrides Both aldehydes and ketones can be prepared by ozonolysis of alkenes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6920-6923", "Text": "Ketones are also prepared by reaction\nof acyl chloride with dialkylcadmium A good method for the preparation of aromatic\nketones is the Friedel-Crafts acylation of aromatic hydrocarbons with acyl chlorides\nor anhydrides Both aldehydes and ketones can be prepared by ozonolysis of alkenes Aldehydes and ketones undergo nucleophilic addition reactions onto the carbonyl\ngroup with a number of nucleophiles such as, HCN, NaHSO3, alcohols (or diols),\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6921-6924", "Text": "A good method for the preparation of aromatic\nketones is the Friedel-Crafts acylation of aromatic hydrocarbons with acyl chlorides\nor anhydrides Both aldehydes and ketones can be prepared by ozonolysis of alkenes Aldehydes and ketones undergo nucleophilic addition reactions onto the carbonyl\ngroup with a number of nucleophiles such as, HCN, NaHSO3, alcohols (or diols),\n2 Ring substitution\nAromatic carboxylic acids undergo electrophilic substitution reactions\nin which the carboxyl group acts as a deactivating and meta-directing\ngroup"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6922-6925", "Text": "Both aldehydes and ketones can be prepared by ozonolysis of alkenes Aldehydes and ketones undergo nucleophilic addition reactions onto the carbonyl\ngroup with a number of nucleophiles such as, HCN, NaHSO3, alcohols (or diols),\n2 Ring substitution\nAromatic carboxylic acids undergo electrophilic substitution reactions\nin which the carboxyl group acts as a deactivating and meta-directing\ngroup They however, do not undergo Friedel-Crafts reaction\n(because the carboxyl group is deactivating and the catalyst\naluminium chloride (Lewis acid) gets bonded to the carboxyl group)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6923-6926", "Text": "Aldehydes and ketones undergo nucleophilic addition reactions onto the carbonyl\ngroup with a number of nucleophiles such as, HCN, NaHSO3, alcohols (or diols),\n2 Ring substitution\nAromatic carboxylic acids undergo electrophilic substitution reactions\nin which the carboxyl group acts as a deactivating and meta-directing\ngroup They however, do not undergo Friedel-Crafts reaction\n(because the carboxyl group is deactivating and the catalyst\naluminium chloride (Lewis acid) gets bonded to the carboxyl group) Intext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6924-6927", "Text": "Ring substitution\nAromatic carboxylic acids undergo electrophilic substitution reactions\nin which the carboxyl group acts as a deactivating and meta-directing\ngroup They however, do not undergo Friedel-Crafts reaction\n(because the carboxyl group is deactivating and the catalyst\naluminium chloride (Lewis acid) gets bonded to the carboxyl group) Intext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n8 8\nWhich acid of each pair shown here would you expect to be stronger"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6925-6928", "Text": "They however, do not undergo Friedel-Crafts reaction\n(because the carboxyl group is deactivating and the catalyst\naluminium chloride (Lewis acid) gets bonded to the carboxyl group) Intext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n8 8\nWhich acid of each pair shown here would you expect to be stronger (i) CH3CO2H or CH2FCO2H\n(ii) CH2FCO2H or CH2ClCO2H\n(iii) CH2FCH2CH2CO2H or CH3CHFCH2CO2H\nMethanoic acid is used in rubber, textile, dyeing, leather and electroplating\nindustries"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6926-6929", "Text": "Intext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\n8 8\nWhich acid of each pair shown here would you expect to be stronger (i) CH3CO2H or CH2FCO2H\n(ii) CH2FCO2H or CH2ClCO2H\n(iii) CH2FCH2CH2CO2H or CH3CHFCH2CO2H\nMethanoic acid is used in rubber, textile, dyeing, leather and electroplating\nindustries Ethanoic acid is used as solvent and as vinegar in food industry"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6927-6930", "Text": "8\nWhich acid of each pair shown here would you expect to be stronger (i) CH3CO2H or CH2FCO2H\n(ii) CH2FCO2H or CH2ClCO2H\n(iii) CH2FCH2CH2CO2H or CH3CHFCH2CO2H\nMethanoic acid is used in rubber, textile, dyeing, leather and electroplating\nindustries Ethanoic acid is used as solvent and as vinegar in food industry Hexanedioic acid is used in the manufacture of nylon-6, 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6928-6931", "Text": "(i) CH3CO2H or CH2FCO2H\n(ii) CH2FCO2H or CH2ClCO2H\n(iii) CH2FCH2CH2CO2H or CH3CHFCH2CO2H\nMethanoic acid is used in rubber, textile, dyeing, leather and electroplating\nindustries Ethanoic acid is used as solvent and as vinegar in food industry Hexanedioic acid is used in the manufacture of nylon-6, 6 Esters of benzoic\nacid are used in perfumery"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6929-6932", "Text": "Ethanoic acid is used as solvent and as vinegar in food industry Hexanedioic acid is used in the manufacture of nylon-6, 6 Esters of benzoic\nacid are used in perfumery Sodium benzoate is used as a food preservative"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6930-6933", "Text": "Hexanedioic acid is used in the manufacture of nylon-6, 6 Esters of benzoic\nacid are used in perfumery Sodium benzoate is used as a food preservative Higher fatty acids are used for the manufacture of soaps and detergents"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6931-6934", "Text": "Esters of benzoic\nacid are used in perfumery Sodium benzoate is used as a food preservative Higher fatty acids are used for the manufacture of soaps and detergents (iv)\nRationalised 2023-24\n255\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\nammonia derivatives, and Grignard reagents"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6932-6935", "Text": "Sodium benzoate is used as a food preservative Higher fatty acids are used for the manufacture of soaps and detergents (iv)\nRationalised 2023-24\n255\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\nammonia derivatives, and Grignard reagents The a-hydrogens in aldehydes and\nketones are acidic"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6933-6936", "Text": "Higher fatty acids are used for the manufacture of soaps and detergents (iv)\nRationalised 2023-24\n255\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\nammonia derivatives, and Grignard reagents The a-hydrogens in aldehydes and\nketones are acidic Therefore, aldehydes and ketones having at least one a-hydrogen,\nundergo Aldol condensation in the presence of a base to give a-hydroxyaldehydes\n(aldol) and a-hydroxyketones(ketol), respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6934-6937", "Text": "(iv)\nRationalised 2023-24\n255\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\nammonia derivatives, and Grignard reagents The a-hydrogens in aldehydes and\nketones are acidic Therefore, aldehydes and ketones having at least one a-hydrogen,\nundergo Aldol condensation in the presence of a base to give a-hydroxyaldehydes\n(aldol) and a-hydroxyketones(ketol), respectively Aldehydes having no a-hydrogen\nundergo Cannizzaro reaction in the presence of concentrated alkali"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6935-6938", "Text": "The a-hydrogens in aldehydes and\nketones are acidic Therefore, aldehydes and ketones having at least one a-hydrogen,\nundergo Aldol condensation in the presence of a base to give a-hydroxyaldehydes\n(aldol) and a-hydroxyketones(ketol), respectively Aldehydes having no a-hydrogen\nundergo Cannizzaro reaction in the presence of concentrated alkali Aldehydes\nand ketones are reduced to alcohols with NaBH4, LiAlH4, or by catalytic hydrogenation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6936-6939", "Text": "Therefore, aldehydes and ketones having at least one a-hydrogen,\nundergo Aldol condensation in the presence of a base to give a-hydroxyaldehydes\n(aldol) and a-hydroxyketones(ketol), respectively Aldehydes having no a-hydrogen\nundergo Cannizzaro reaction in the presence of concentrated alkali Aldehydes\nand ketones are reduced to alcohols with NaBH4, LiAlH4, or by catalytic hydrogenation The carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketones can be reduced to a methylene group\nby Clemmensen reduction or Wolff-Kishner reduction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6937-6940", "Text": "Aldehydes having no a-hydrogen\nundergo Cannizzaro reaction in the presence of concentrated alkali Aldehydes\nand ketones are reduced to alcohols with NaBH4, LiAlH4, or by catalytic hydrogenation The carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketones can be reduced to a methylene group\nby Clemmensen reduction or Wolff-Kishner reduction Aldehydes are easily\noxidised to carboxylic acids by mild oxidising reagents such as Tollens\u2019 reagent and\nFehling\u2019s reagent"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6938-6941", "Text": "Aldehydes\nand ketones are reduced to alcohols with NaBH4, LiAlH4, or by catalytic hydrogenation The carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketones can be reduced to a methylene group\nby Clemmensen reduction or Wolff-Kishner reduction Aldehydes are easily\noxidised to carboxylic acids by mild oxidising reagents such as Tollens\u2019 reagent and\nFehling\u2019s reagent These oxidation reactions are used to distinguish aldehydes from\nketones"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6939-6942", "Text": "The carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketones can be reduced to a methylene group\nby Clemmensen reduction or Wolff-Kishner reduction Aldehydes are easily\noxidised to carboxylic acids by mild oxidising reagents such as Tollens\u2019 reagent and\nFehling\u2019s reagent These oxidation reactions are used to distinguish aldehydes from\nketones Carboxylic acids are prepared by the oxidation of primary alcohols, aldehydes\nand alkenes by hydrolysis of nitriles, and by treatment of Grignard reagents with\ncarbon dioxide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6940-6943", "Text": "Aldehydes are easily\noxidised to carboxylic acids by mild oxidising reagents such as Tollens\u2019 reagent and\nFehling\u2019s reagent These oxidation reactions are used to distinguish aldehydes from\nketones Carboxylic acids are prepared by the oxidation of primary alcohols, aldehydes\nand alkenes by hydrolysis of nitriles, and by treatment of Grignard reagents with\ncarbon dioxide Aromatic carboxylic acids are also prepared by side-chain oxidation\nof alkylbenzenes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6941-6944", "Text": "These oxidation reactions are used to distinguish aldehydes from\nketones Carboxylic acids are prepared by the oxidation of primary alcohols, aldehydes\nand alkenes by hydrolysis of nitriles, and by treatment of Grignard reagents with\ncarbon dioxide Aromatic carboxylic acids are also prepared by side-chain oxidation\nof alkylbenzenes Carboxylic acids are considerably more acidic than alcohols and\nmost of simple phenols"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6942-6945", "Text": "Carboxylic acids are prepared by the oxidation of primary alcohols, aldehydes\nand alkenes by hydrolysis of nitriles, and by treatment of Grignard reagents with\ncarbon dioxide Aromatic carboxylic acids are also prepared by side-chain oxidation\nof alkylbenzenes Carboxylic acids are considerably more acidic than alcohols and\nmost of simple phenols Carboxylic acids are reduced to primary alcohols with LiAlH4,\nor better with diborane in ether solution and also undergo a-halogenation with Cl2\nand Br2 in the presence of red phosphorus (Hell-Volhard Zelinsky reaction)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6943-6946", "Text": "Aromatic carboxylic acids are also prepared by side-chain oxidation\nof alkylbenzenes Carboxylic acids are considerably more acidic than alcohols and\nmost of simple phenols Carboxylic acids are reduced to primary alcohols with LiAlH4,\nor better with diborane in ether solution and also undergo a-halogenation with Cl2\nand Br2 in the presence of red phosphorus (Hell-Volhard Zelinsky reaction) Methanal, ethanal, propanone, benzaldehyde, formic acid, acetic acid and benzoic\nacid are highly useful compounds in industry"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6944-6947", "Text": "Carboxylic acids are considerably more acidic than alcohols and\nmost of simple phenols Carboxylic acids are reduced to primary alcohols with LiAlH4,\nor better with diborane in ether solution and also undergo a-halogenation with Cl2\nand Br2 in the presence of red phosphorus (Hell-Volhard Zelinsky reaction) Methanal, ethanal, propanone, benzaldehyde, formic acid, acetic acid and benzoic\nacid are highly useful compounds in industry Exercises\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6945-6948", "Text": "Carboxylic acids are reduced to primary alcohols with LiAlH4,\nor better with diborane in ether solution and also undergo a-halogenation with Cl2\nand Br2 in the presence of red phosphorus (Hell-Volhard Zelinsky reaction) Methanal, ethanal, propanone, benzaldehyde, formic acid, acetic acid and benzoic\nacid are highly useful compounds in industry Exercises\n8 1\nWhat is meant by the following terms"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6946-6949", "Text": "Methanal, ethanal, propanone, benzaldehyde, formic acid, acetic acid and benzoic\nacid are highly useful compounds in industry Exercises\n8 1\nWhat is meant by the following terms Give an example of the reaction in\neach case"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6947-6950", "Text": "Exercises\n8 1\nWhat is meant by the following terms Give an example of the reaction in\neach case (i) Cyanohydrin\n(ii) Acetal\n(iii) Semicarbazone\n(iv) Aldol\n(v) Hemiacetal\n(vi) Oxime\n(vii) Ketal\n(vii) Imine\n(ix) 2,4-DNP-derivative\n(x) Schiff\u2019s base\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6948-6951", "Text": "1\nWhat is meant by the following terms Give an example of the reaction in\neach case (i) Cyanohydrin\n(ii) Acetal\n(iii) Semicarbazone\n(iv) Aldol\n(v) Hemiacetal\n(vi) Oxime\n(vii) Ketal\n(vii) Imine\n(ix) 2,4-DNP-derivative\n(x) Schiff\u2019s base\n8 2\nName the following compounds according to IUPAC system of nomenclature:\n(i) CH3CH(CH3)CH2CH2CHO\n(ii) CH3CH2COCH(C2H5)CH2CH2Cl\n(iii) CH3CH=CHCHO\n(iv) CH3COCH2COCH3\n(v) CH3CH(CH3)CH2C(CH3)2COCH3\n(vi) (CH3)3CCH2COOH\n(vii) OHCC6H4CHO-p\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6949-6952", "Text": "Give an example of the reaction in\neach case (i) Cyanohydrin\n(ii) Acetal\n(iii) Semicarbazone\n(iv) Aldol\n(v) Hemiacetal\n(vi) Oxime\n(vii) Ketal\n(vii) Imine\n(ix) 2,4-DNP-derivative\n(x) Schiff\u2019s base\n8 2\nName the following compounds according to IUPAC system of nomenclature:\n(i) CH3CH(CH3)CH2CH2CHO\n(ii) CH3CH2COCH(C2H5)CH2CH2Cl\n(iii) CH3CH=CHCHO\n(iv) CH3COCH2COCH3\n(v) CH3CH(CH3)CH2C(CH3)2COCH3\n(vi) (CH3)3CCH2COOH\n(vii) OHCC6H4CHO-p\n8 3\nDraw the structures of the following compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6950-6953", "Text": "(i) Cyanohydrin\n(ii) Acetal\n(iii) Semicarbazone\n(iv) Aldol\n(v) Hemiacetal\n(vi) Oxime\n(vii) Ketal\n(vii) Imine\n(ix) 2,4-DNP-derivative\n(x) Schiff\u2019s base\n8 2\nName the following compounds according to IUPAC system of nomenclature:\n(i) CH3CH(CH3)CH2CH2CHO\n(ii) CH3CH2COCH(C2H5)CH2CH2Cl\n(iii) CH3CH=CHCHO\n(iv) CH3COCH2COCH3\n(v) CH3CH(CH3)CH2C(CH3)2COCH3\n(vi) (CH3)3CCH2COOH\n(vii) OHCC6H4CHO-p\n8 3\nDraw the structures of the following compounds (i) 3-Methylbutanal\n(ii) p-Nitropropiophenone\n(iii) p-Methylbenzaldehyde\n(iv) 4-Methylpent-3-en-2-one\n(v) 4-Chloropentan-2-one\n(vi) 3-Bromo-4-phenylpentanoic acid\n(vii) p,p\u2019-Dihydroxybenzophenone\n(viii) Hex-2-en-4-ynoic acid\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6951-6954", "Text": "2\nName the following compounds according to IUPAC system of nomenclature:\n(i) CH3CH(CH3)CH2CH2CHO\n(ii) CH3CH2COCH(C2H5)CH2CH2Cl\n(iii) CH3CH=CHCHO\n(iv) CH3COCH2COCH3\n(v) CH3CH(CH3)CH2C(CH3)2COCH3\n(vi) (CH3)3CCH2COOH\n(vii) OHCC6H4CHO-p\n8 3\nDraw the structures of the following compounds (i) 3-Methylbutanal\n(ii) p-Nitropropiophenone\n(iii) p-Methylbenzaldehyde\n(iv) 4-Methylpent-3-en-2-one\n(v) 4-Chloropentan-2-one\n(vi) 3-Bromo-4-phenylpentanoic acid\n(vii) p,p\u2019-Dihydroxybenzophenone\n(viii) Hex-2-en-4-ynoic acid\n8 4\nWrite the IUPAC names of the following ketones and aldehydes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6952-6955", "Text": "3\nDraw the structures of the following compounds (i) 3-Methylbutanal\n(ii) p-Nitropropiophenone\n(iii) p-Methylbenzaldehyde\n(iv) 4-Methylpent-3-en-2-one\n(v) 4-Chloropentan-2-one\n(vi) 3-Bromo-4-phenylpentanoic acid\n(vii) p,p\u2019-Dihydroxybenzophenone\n(viii) Hex-2-en-4-ynoic acid\n8 4\nWrite the IUPAC names of the following ketones and aldehydes Wherever\npossible, give also common names"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6953-6956", "Text": "(i) 3-Methylbutanal\n(ii) p-Nitropropiophenone\n(iii) p-Methylbenzaldehyde\n(iv) 4-Methylpent-3-en-2-one\n(v) 4-Chloropentan-2-one\n(vi) 3-Bromo-4-phenylpentanoic acid\n(vii) p,p\u2019-Dihydroxybenzophenone\n(viii) Hex-2-en-4-ynoic acid\n8 4\nWrite the IUPAC names of the following ketones and aldehydes Wherever\npossible, give also common names (i) CH3CO(CH2)4CH3\n(ii) CH3CH2CHBrCH2CH(CH3)CHO\n(iii) CH3(CH2)5CHO\n(iv) Ph-CH=CH-CHO\n(v)\nCHO\n(vi) PhCOPh\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6954-6957", "Text": "4\nWrite the IUPAC names of the following ketones and aldehydes Wherever\npossible, give also common names (i) CH3CO(CH2)4CH3\n(ii) CH3CH2CHBrCH2CH(CH3)CHO\n(iii) CH3(CH2)5CHO\n(iv) Ph-CH=CH-CHO\n(v)\nCHO\n(vi) PhCOPh\n8 5\nDraw structures of the following derivatives"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6955-6958", "Text": "Wherever\npossible, give also common names (i) CH3CO(CH2)4CH3\n(ii) CH3CH2CHBrCH2CH(CH3)CHO\n(iii) CH3(CH2)5CHO\n(iv) Ph-CH=CH-CHO\n(v)\nCHO\n(vi) PhCOPh\n8 5\nDraw structures of the following derivatives (i) The 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazone of benzaldehyde\n(ii) Cyclopropanone oxime\n(iii) Acetaldehydedimethylacetal\n(iv) The semicarbazone of cyclobutanone\n(v) The ethylene ketal of hexan-3-one\n(vi) The methyl hemiacetal of formaldehyde\nRationalised 2023-24\n256\nChemistry\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6956-6959", "Text": "(i) CH3CO(CH2)4CH3\n(ii) CH3CH2CHBrCH2CH(CH3)CHO\n(iii) CH3(CH2)5CHO\n(iv) Ph-CH=CH-CHO\n(v)\nCHO\n(vi) PhCOPh\n8 5\nDraw structures of the following derivatives (i) The 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazone of benzaldehyde\n(ii) Cyclopropanone oxime\n(iii) Acetaldehydedimethylacetal\n(iv) The semicarbazone of cyclobutanone\n(v) The ethylene ketal of hexan-3-one\n(vi) The methyl hemiacetal of formaldehyde\nRationalised 2023-24\n256\nChemistry\n8 6\nPredict the products formed when cyclohexanecarbaldehyde reacts with\nfollowing reagents"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6957-6960", "Text": "5\nDraw structures of the following derivatives (i) The 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazone of benzaldehyde\n(ii) Cyclopropanone oxime\n(iii) Acetaldehydedimethylacetal\n(iv) The semicarbazone of cyclobutanone\n(v) The ethylene ketal of hexan-3-one\n(vi) The methyl hemiacetal of formaldehyde\nRationalised 2023-24\n256\nChemistry\n8 6\nPredict the products formed when cyclohexanecarbaldehyde reacts with\nfollowing reagents (i) PhMgBr and then H3O\n+\n(ii) Tollens\u2019 reagent\n(iii) Semicarbazide and weak acid\n(iv) Excess ethanol and acid\n(v) Zinc amalgam and dilute hydrochloric acid\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6958-6961", "Text": "(i) The 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazone of benzaldehyde\n(ii) Cyclopropanone oxime\n(iii) Acetaldehydedimethylacetal\n(iv) The semicarbazone of cyclobutanone\n(v) The ethylene ketal of hexan-3-one\n(vi) The methyl hemiacetal of formaldehyde\nRationalised 2023-24\n256\nChemistry\n8 6\nPredict the products formed when cyclohexanecarbaldehyde reacts with\nfollowing reagents (i) PhMgBr and then H3O\n+\n(ii) Tollens\u2019 reagent\n(iii) Semicarbazide and weak acid\n(iv) Excess ethanol and acid\n(v) Zinc amalgam and dilute hydrochloric acid\n8 7\nWhich of the following compounds would undergo aldol condensation, which\nthe Cannizzaro reaction and which neither"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6959-6962", "Text": "6\nPredict the products formed when cyclohexanecarbaldehyde reacts with\nfollowing reagents (i) PhMgBr and then H3O\n+\n(ii) Tollens\u2019 reagent\n(iii) Semicarbazide and weak acid\n(iv) Excess ethanol and acid\n(v) Zinc amalgam and dilute hydrochloric acid\n8 7\nWhich of the following compounds would undergo aldol condensation, which\nthe Cannizzaro reaction and which neither Write the structures of the expected\nproducts of aldol condensation and Cannizzaro reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6960-6963", "Text": "(i) PhMgBr and then H3O\n+\n(ii) Tollens\u2019 reagent\n(iii) Semicarbazide and weak acid\n(iv) Excess ethanol and acid\n(v) Zinc amalgam and dilute hydrochloric acid\n8 7\nWhich of the following compounds would undergo aldol condensation, which\nthe Cannizzaro reaction and which neither Write the structures of the expected\nproducts of aldol condensation and Cannizzaro reaction (i) Methanal\n(ii) 2-Methylpentanal\n(iii) Benzaldehyde\n(iv) Benzophenone\n(v) Cyclohexanone\n(vi) 1-Phenylpropanone\n(vii) Phenylacetaldehyde\n(viii) Butan-1-ol\n(ix) 2,2-Dimethylbutanal\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6961-6964", "Text": "7\nWhich of the following compounds would undergo aldol condensation, which\nthe Cannizzaro reaction and which neither Write the structures of the expected\nproducts of aldol condensation and Cannizzaro reaction (i) Methanal\n(ii) 2-Methylpentanal\n(iii) Benzaldehyde\n(iv) Benzophenone\n(v) Cyclohexanone\n(vi) 1-Phenylpropanone\n(vii) Phenylacetaldehyde\n(viii) Butan-1-ol\n(ix) 2,2-Dimethylbutanal\n8 8\nHow will you convert ethanal into the following compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6962-6965", "Text": "Write the structures of the expected\nproducts of aldol condensation and Cannizzaro reaction (i) Methanal\n(ii) 2-Methylpentanal\n(iii) Benzaldehyde\n(iv) Benzophenone\n(v) Cyclohexanone\n(vi) 1-Phenylpropanone\n(vii) Phenylacetaldehyde\n(viii) Butan-1-ol\n(ix) 2,2-Dimethylbutanal\n8 8\nHow will you convert ethanal into the following compounds (i) Butane-1,3-diol\n(ii) But-2-enal\n(iii) But-2-enoic acid\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6963-6966", "Text": "(i) Methanal\n(ii) 2-Methylpentanal\n(iii) Benzaldehyde\n(iv) Benzophenone\n(v) Cyclohexanone\n(vi) 1-Phenylpropanone\n(vii) Phenylacetaldehyde\n(viii) Butan-1-ol\n(ix) 2,2-Dimethylbutanal\n8 8\nHow will you convert ethanal into the following compounds (i) Butane-1,3-diol\n(ii) But-2-enal\n(iii) But-2-enoic acid\n8 9\nWrite structural formulas and names of four possible aldol condensation\nproducts from propanal and butanal"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6964-6967", "Text": "8\nHow will you convert ethanal into the following compounds (i) Butane-1,3-diol\n(ii) But-2-enal\n(iii) But-2-enoic acid\n8 9\nWrite structural formulas and names of four possible aldol condensation\nproducts from propanal and butanal In each case, indicate which aldehyde\nacts as nucleophile and which as electrophile"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6965-6968", "Text": "(i) Butane-1,3-diol\n(ii) But-2-enal\n(iii) But-2-enoic acid\n8 9\nWrite structural formulas and names of four possible aldol condensation\nproducts from propanal and butanal In each case, indicate which aldehyde\nacts as nucleophile and which as electrophile 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6966-6969", "Text": "9\nWrite structural formulas and names of four possible aldol condensation\nproducts from propanal and butanal In each case, indicate which aldehyde\nacts as nucleophile and which as electrophile 8 10\nAn organic compound with the molecular formula C9H10O forms 2,4-DNP derivative,\nreduces Tollens\u2019 reagent and undergoes Cannizzaro reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6967-6970", "Text": "In each case, indicate which aldehyde\nacts as nucleophile and which as electrophile 8 10\nAn organic compound with the molecular formula C9H10O forms 2,4-DNP derivative,\nreduces Tollens\u2019 reagent and undergoes Cannizzaro reaction On vigorous oxidation,\nit gives 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6968-6971", "Text": "8 10\nAn organic compound with the molecular formula C9H10O forms 2,4-DNP derivative,\nreduces Tollens\u2019 reagent and undergoes Cannizzaro reaction On vigorous oxidation,\nit gives 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid Identify the compound"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6969-6972", "Text": "10\nAn organic compound with the molecular formula C9H10O forms 2,4-DNP derivative,\nreduces Tollens\u2019 reagent and undergoes Cannizzaro reaction On vigorous oxidation,\nit gives 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid Identify the compound 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6970-6973", "Text": "On vigorous oxidation,\nit gives 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid Identify the compound 8 11\nAn organic compound (A) (molecular formula C8H16O2) was hydrolysed with\ndilute sulphuric acid to give a carboxylic acid (B) and an alcohol (C)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6971-6974", "Text": "Identify the compound 8 11\nAn organic compound (A) (molecular formula C8H16O2) was hydrolysed with\ndilute sulphuric acid to give a carboxylic acid (B) and an alcohol (C) Oxidation\nof (C) with chromic acid produced (B)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6972-6975", "Text": "8 11\nAn organic compound (A) (molecular formula C8H16O2) was hydrolysed with\ndilute sulphuric acid to give a carboxylic acid (B) and an alcohol (C) Oxidation\nof (C) with chromic acid produced (B) (C) on dehydration gives but-1-ene"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6973-6976", "Text": "11\nAn organic compound (A) (molecular formula C8H16O2) was hydrolysed with\ndilute sulphuric acid to give a carboxylic acid (B) and an alcohol (C) Oxidation\nof (C) with chromic acid produced (B) (C) on dehydration gives but-1-ene Write equations for the reactions involved"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6974-6977", "Text": "Oxidation\nof (C) with chromic acid produced (B) (C) on dehydration gives but-1-ene Write equations for the reactions involved 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6975-6978", "Text": "(C) on dehydration gives but-1-ene Write equations for the reactions involved 8 12\nArrange the following compounds in increasing order of their property as indicated:\n(i) Acetaldehyde, Acetone, Di-tert-butyl ketone, Methyl tert-butyl ketone\n(reactivity towards HCN)\n(ii) CH3CH2CH(Br)COOH, CH3CH(Br)CH2COOH, (CH3)2CHCOOH,\nCH3CH2CH2COOH (acid strength)\n(iii) Benzoic acid, 4-Nitrobenzoic acid, 3,4-Dinitrobenzoic acid,\n4-Methoxybenzoic acid (acid strength)\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6976-6979", "Text": "Write equations for the reactions involved 8 12\nArrange the following compounds in increasing order of their property as indicated:\n(i) Acetaldehyde, Acetone, Di-tert-butyl ketone, Methyl tert-butyl ketone\n(reactivity towards HCN)\n(ii) CH3CH2CH(Br)COOH, CH3CH(Br)CH2COOH, (CH3)2CHCOOH,\nCH3CH2CH2COOH (acid strength)\n(iii) Benzoic acid, 4-Nitrobenzoic acid, 3,4-Dinitrobenzoic acid,\n4-Methoxybenzoic acid (acid strength)\n8 13\nGive simple chemical tests to distinguish between the following pairs of compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6977-6980", "Text": "8 12\nArrange the following compounds in increasing order of their property as indicated:\n(i) Acetaldehyde, Acetone, Di-tert-butyl ketone, Methyl tert-butyl ketone\n(reactivity towards HCN)\n(ii) CH3CH2CH(Br)COOH, CH3CH(Br)CH2COOH, (CH3)2CHCOOH,\nCH3CH2CH2COOH (acid strength)\n(iii) Benzoic acid, 4-Nitrobenzoic acid, 3,4-Dinitrobenzoic acid,\n4-Methoxybenzoic acid (acid strength)\n8 13\nGive simple chemical tests to distinguish between the following pairs of compounds (i) Propanal and Propanone\n(ii) Acetophenone and Benzophenone\n(iii) Phenol and Benzoic acid\n(iv) Benzoic acid and Ethyl benzoate\n(v) Pentan-2-one and Pentan-3-one (vi) Benzaldehyde and Acetophenone\n(vii) Ethanal and Propanal\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6978-6981", "Text": "12\nArrange the following compounds in increasing order of their property as indicated:\n(i) Acetaldehyde, Acetone, Di-tert-butyl ketone, Methyl tert-butyl ketone\n(reactivity towards HCN)\n(ii) CH3CH2CH(Br)COOH, CH3CH(Br)CH2COOH, (CH3)2CHCOOH,\nCH3CH2CH2COOH (acid strength)\n(iii) Benzoic acid, 4-Nitrobenzoic acid, 3,4-Dinitrobenzoic acid,\n4-Methoxybenzoic acid (acid strength)\n8 13\nGive simple chemical tests to distinguish between the following pairs of compounds (i) Propanal and Propanone\n(ii) Acetophenone and Benzophenone\n(iii) Phenol and Benzoic acid\n(iv) Benzoic acid and Ethyl benzoate\n(v) Pentan-2-one and Pentan-3-one (vi) Benzaldehyde and Acetophenone\n(vii) Ethanal and Propanal\n8 14\nHow will you prepare the following compounds from benzene"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6979-6982", "Text": "13\nGive simple chemical tests to distinguish between the following pairs of compounds (i) Propanal and Propanone\n(ii) Acetophenone and Benzophenone\n(iii) Phenol and Benzoic acid\n(iv) Benzoic acid and Ethyl benzoate\n(v) Pentan-2-one and Pentan-3-one (vi) Benzaldehyde and Acetophenone\n(vii) Ethanal and Propanal\n8 14\nHow will you prepare the following compounds from benzene You may use\nany inorganic reagent and any organic reagent having not more than one\ncarbon atom\n(i) Methyl benzoate\n(ii) m-Nitrobenzoic acid\n(iii) p-Nitrobenzoic acid\n(iv) Phenylacetic acid\n(v) p-Nitrobenzaldehyde"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6980-6983", "Text": "(i) Propanal and Propanone\n(ii) Acetophenone and Benzophenone\n(iii) Phenol and Benzoic acid\n(iv) Benzoic acid and Ethyl benzoate\n(v) Pentan-2-one and Pentan-3-one (vi) Benzaldehyde and Acetophenone\n(vii) Ethanal and Propanal\n8 14\nHow will you prepare the following compounds from benzene You may use\nany inorganic reagent and any organic reagent having not more than one\ncarbon atom\n(i) Methyl benzoate\n(ii) m-Nitrobenzoic acid\n(iii) p-Nitrobenzoic acid\n(iv) Phenylacetic acid\n(v) p-Nitrobenzaldehyde 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6981-6984", "Text": "14\nHow will you prepare the following compounds from benzene You may use\nany inorganic reagent and any organic reagent having not more than one\ncarbon atom\n(i) Methyl benzoate\n(ii) m-Nitrobenzoic acid\n(iii) p-Nitrobenzoic acid\n(iv) Phenylacetic acid\n(v) p-Nitrobenzaldehyde 8 15\nHow will you bring about the following conversions in not more than two steps"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6982-6985", "Text": "You may use\nany inorganic reagent and any organic reagent having not more than one\ncarbon atom\n(i) Methyl benzoate\n(ii) m-Nitrobenzoic acid\n(iii) p-Nitrobenzoic acid\n(iv) Phenylacetic acid\n(v) p-Nitrobenzaldehyde 8 15\nHow will you bring about the following conversions in not more than two steps (i) Propanone to Propene\n(ii) Benzoic acid to Benzaldehyde\n(iii) Ethanol to 3-Hydroxybutanal\n(iv) Benzene to m-Nitroacetophenone\n(v) Benzaldehyde to Benzophenone\n(vii) Benzaldehyde to 3-Phenylpropan-1-ol(vi) Bromobenzene to 1-Phenylethanol\n(viii) Benazaldehyde to a-Hydroxyphenylacetic acid\n(ix) Benzoic acid to m- Nitrobenzyl alcohol\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6983-6986", "Text": "8 15\nHow will you bring about the following conversions in not more than two steps (i) Propanone to Propene\n(ii) Benzoic acid to Benzaldehyde\n(iii) Ethanol to 3-Hydroxybutanal\n(iv) Benzene to m-Nitroacetophenone\n(v) Benzaldehyde to Benzophenone\n(vii) Benzaldehyde to 3-Phenylpropan-1-ol(vi) Bromobenzene to 1-Phenylethanol\n(viii) Benazaldehyde to a-Hydroxyphenylacetic acid\n(ix) Benzoic acid to m- Nitrobenzyl alcohol\n8 16\nDescribe the following:\n(i) Acetylation\n(ii) Cannizzaro reaction\n(iii) Cross aldol condensation\n(iv) Decarboxylation\nRationalised 2023-24\n257\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6984-6987", "Text": "15\nHow will you bring about the following conversions in not more than two steps (i) Propanone to Propene\n(ii) Benzoic acid to Benzaldehyde\n(iii) Ethanol to 3-Hydroxybutanal\n(iv) Benzene to m-Nitroacetophenone\n(v) Benzaldehyde to Benzophenone\n(vii) Benzaldehyde to 3-Phenylpropan-1-ol(vi) Bromobenzene to 1-Phenylethanol\n(viii) Benazaldehyde to a-Hydroxyphenylacetic acid\n(ix) Benzoic acid to m- Nitrobenzyl alcohol\n8 16\nDescribe the following:\n(i) Acetylation\n(ii) Cannizzaro reaction\n(iii) Cross aldol condensation\n(iv) Decarboxylation\nRationalised 2023-24\n257\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\n8 17\nComplete each synthesis by giving missing starting material, reagent or products\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6985-6988", "Text": "(i) Propanone to Propene\n(ii) Benzoic acid to Benzaldehyde\n(iii) Ethanol to 3-Hydroxybutanal\n(iv) Benzene to m-Nitroacetophenone\n(v) Benzaldehyde to Benzophenone\n(vii) Benzaldehyde to 3-Phenylpropan-1-ol(vi) Bromobenzene to 1-Phenylethanol\n(viii) Benazaldehyde to a-Hydroxyphenylacetic acid\n(ix) Benzoic acid to m- Nitrobenzyl alcohol\n8 16\nDescribe the following:\n(i) Acetylation\n(ii) Cannizzaro reaction\n(iii) Cross aldol condensation\n(iv) Decarboxylation\nRationalised 2023-24\n257\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\n8 17\nComplete each synthesis by giving missing starting material, reagent or products\n8 18\nGive plausible explanation for each of the following:\n(i) Cyclohexanone forms cyanohydrin in good yield but 2,2,6-trimethylcyclo-\nhexanone does not"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6986-6989", "Text": "16\nDescribe the following:\n(i) Acetylation\n(ii) Cannizzaro reaction\n(iii) Cross aldol condensation\n(iv) Decarboxylation\nRationalised 2023-24\n257\nAldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids\n8 17\nComplete each synthesis by giving missing starting material, reagent or products\n8 18\nGive plausible explanation for each of the following:\n(i) Cyclohexanone forms cyanohydrin in good yield but 2,2,6-trimethylcyclo-\nhexanone does not (ii) There are two \u2013NH2 groups in semicarbazide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6987-6990", "Text": "17\nComplete each synthesis by giving missing starting material, reagent or products\n8 18\nGive plausible explanation for each of the following:\n(i) Cyclohexanone forms cyanohydrin in good yield but 2,2,6-trimethylcyclo-\nhexanone does not (ii) There are two \u2013NH2 groups in semicarbazide However, only one is involved\nin the formation of semicarbazones"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6988-6991", "Text": "18\nGive plausible explanation for each of the following:\n(i) Cyclohexanone forms cyanohydrin in good yield but 2,2,6-trimethylcyclo-\nhexanone does not (ii) There are two \u2013NH2 groups in semicarbazide However, only one is involved\nin the formation of semicarbazones (iii) During the preparation of esters from a carboxylic acid and an alcohol in\nthe presence of an acid catalyst, the water or the ester should be removed\nas soon as it is formed"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6989-6992", "Text": "(ii) There are two \u2013NH2 groups in semicarbazide However, only one is involved\nin the formation of semicarbazones (iii) During the preparation of esters from a carboxylic acid and an alcohol in\nthe presence of an acid catalyst, the water or the ester should be removed\nas soon as it is formed 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6990-6993", "Text": "However, only one is involved\nin the formation of semicarbazones (iii) During the preparation of esters from a carboxylic acid and an alcohol in\nthe presence of an acid catalyst, the water or the ester should be removed\nas soon as it is formed 8 19\nAn organic compound contains 69"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6991-6994", "Text": "(iii) During the preparation of esters from a carboxylic acid and an alcohol in\nthe presence of an acid catalyst, the water or the ester should be removed\nas soon as it is formed 8 19\nAn organic compound contains 69 77% carbon, 11"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6992-6995", "Text": "8 19\nAn organic compound contains 69 77% carbon, 11 63% hydrogen and rest oxygen"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6993-6996", "Text": "19\nAn organic compound contains 69 77% carbon, 11 63% hydrogen and rest oxygen The molecular mass of the compound is 86"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6994-6997", "Text": "77% carbon, 11 63% hydrogen and rest oxygen The molecular mass of the compound is 86 It does not reduce Tollens\u2019 reagent\nbut forms an addition compound with sodium hydrogensulphite and give positive\niodoform test"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6995-6998", "Text": "63% hydrogen and rest oxygen The molecular mass of the compound is 86 It does not reduce Tollens\u2019 reagent\nbut forms an addition compound with sodium hydrogensulphite and give positive\niodoform test On vigorous oxidation it gives ethanoic and propanoic acid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6996-6999", "Text": "The molecular mass of the compound is 86 It does not reduce Tollens\u2019 reagent\nbut forms an addition compound with sodium hydrogensulphite and give positive\niodoform test On vigorous oxidation it gives ethanoic and propanoic acid Write\nthe possible structure of the compound"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6997-7000", "Text": "It does not reduce Tollens\u2019 reagent\nbut forms an addition compound with sodium hydrogensulphite and give positive\niodoform test On vigorous oxidation it gives ethanoic and propanoic acid Write\nthe possible structure of the compound 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6998-7001", "Text": "On vigorous oxidation it gives ethanoic and propanoic acid Write\nthe possible structure of the compound 8 20\nAlthough phenoxide ion has more number of resonating structures than\ncarboxylate ion, carboxylic acid is a stronger acid than phenol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "6999-7002", "Text": "Write\nthe possible structure of the compound 8 20\nAlthough phenoxide ion has more number of resonating structures than\ncarboxylate ion, carboxylic acid is a stronger acid than phenol Why"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7000-7003", "Text": "8 20\nAlthough phenoxide ion has more number of resonating structures than\ncarboxylate ion, carboxylic acid is a stronger acid than phenol Why Answers to Some Intext Questions\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7001-7004", "Text": "20\nAlthough phenoxide ion has more number of resonating structures than\ncarboxylate ion, carboxylic acid is a stronger acid than phenol Why Answers to Some Intext Questions\n8 1\n(i)\n(iv)\n(ii)\n(v)\n(iii)\n(vi)\nRationalised 2023-24\n258\nChemistry\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7002-7005", "Text": "Why Answers to Some Intext Questions\n8 1\n(i)\n(iv)\n(ii)\n(v)\n(iii)\n(vi)\nRationalised 2023-24\n258\nChemistry\n8 2\n(i)\n(iii)\n(ii)\n(iv)\n(i)\n(iii)\n(ii)\n(iv)\n(i)\n(ii)\n(iii)\n(iv)\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7003-7006", "Text": "Answers to Some Intext Questions\n8 1\n(i)\n(iv)\n(ii)\n(v)\n(iii)\n(vi)\nRationalised 2023-24\n258\nChemistry\n8 2\n(i)\n(iii)\n(ii)\n(iv)\n(i)\n(iii)\n(ii)\n(iv)\n(i)\n(ii)\n(iii)\n(iv)\n8 3\nCH3CH2CH3 < CH3OCH3 < CH3CHO < CH3CH2OH\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7004-7007", "Text": "1\n(i)\n(iv)\n(ii)\n(v)\n(iii)\n(vi)\nRationalised 2023-24\n258\nChemistry\n8 2\n(i)\n(iii)\n(ii)\n(iv)\n(i)\n(iii)\n(ii)\n(iv)\n(i)\n(ii)\n(iii)\n(iv)\n8 3\nCH3CH2CH3 < CH3OCH3 < CH3CHO < CH3CH2OH\n8 4\n(i)\nButanone < Propanone < Propanal < Ethanal\n(ii)\nAcetophenone < p-Tolualdehyde , Benzaldehyde < p-Nitrobenzaldehyde"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7005-7008", "Text": "2\n(i)\n(iii)\n(ii)\n(iv)\n(i)\n(iii)\n(ii)\n(iv)\n(i)\n(ii)\n(iii)\n(iv)\n8 3\nCH3CH2CH3 < CH3OCH3 < CH3CHO < CH3CH2OH\n8 4\n(i)\nButanone < Propanone < Propanal < Ethanal\n(ii)\nAcetophenone < p-Tolualdehyde , Benzaldehyde < p-Nitrobenzaldehyde 8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7006-7009", "Text": "3\nCH3CH2CH3 < CH3OCH3 < CH3CHO < CH3CH2OH\n8 4\n(i)\nButanone < Propanone < Propanal < Ethanal\n(ii)\nAcetophenone < p-Tolualdehyde , Benzaldehyde < p-Nitrobenzaldehyde 8 5\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7007-7010", "Text": "4\n(i)\nButanone < Propanone < Propanal < Ethanal\n(ii)\nAcetophenone < p-Tolualdehyde , Benzaldehyde < p-Nitrobenzaldehyde 8 5\n8 6\n(i)\n3-Phenylpropanoic acid\n(ii) 3-Methylbut-2-enoic acid\n(iii)\n2-Methylcyclopentanecarboxylic acid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7008-7011", "Text": "8 5\n8 6\n(i)\n3-Phenylpropanoic acid\n(ii) 3-Methylbut-2-enoic acid\n(iii)\n2-Methylcyclopentanecarboxylic acid (iv) 2,4,6-Trinitrobenzoic acid\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7009-7012", "Text": "5\n8 6\n(i)\n3-Phenylpropanoic acid\n(ii) 3-Methylbut-2-enoic acid\n(iii)\n2-Methylcyclopentanecarboxylic acid (iv) 2,4,6-Trinitrobenzoic acid\n8 7\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7010-7013", "Text": "6\n(i)\n3-Phenylpropanoic acid\n(ii) 3-Methylbut-2-enoic acid\n(iii)\n2-Methylcyclopentanecarboxylic acid (iv) 2,4,6-Trinitrobenzoic acid\n8 7\n8 8\nRationalised 2023-24\nAmines constitute an important class of organic\ncompounds derived by replacing one or more hydrogen\natoms of ammonia molecule by alkyl/aryl group(s)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7011-7014", "Text": "(iv) 2,4,6-Trinitrobenzoic acid\n8 7\n8 8\nRationalised 2023-24\nAmines constitute an important class of organic\ncompounds derived by replacing one or more hydrogen\natoms of ammonia molecule by alkyl/aryl group(s) In\nnature, they occur among proteins, vitamins, alkaloids\nand hormones"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7012-7015", "Text": "7\n8 8\nRationalised 2023-24\nAmines constitute an important class of organic\ncompounds derived by replacing one or more hydrogen\natoms of ammonia molecule by alkyl/aryl group(s) In\nnature, they occur among proteins, vitamins, alkaloids\nand hormones Synthetic examples include polymers,\ndye stuffs and drugs"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7013-7016", "Text": "8\nRationalised 2023-24\nAmines constitute an important class of organic\ncompounds derived by replacing one or more hydrogen\natoms of ammonia molecule by alkyl/aryl group(s) In\nnature, they occur among proteins, vitamins, alkaloids\nand hormones Synthetic examples include polymers,\ndye stuffs and drugs Two biologically active\ncompounds, namely adrenaline and ephedrine, both\ncontaining secondary amino group, are used to increase\nblood pressure"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7014-7017", "Text": "In\nnature, they occur among proteins, vitamins, alkaloids\nand hormones Synthetic examples include polymers,\ndye stuffs and drugs Two biologically active\ncompounds, namely adrenaline and ephedrine, both\ncontaining secondary amino group, are used to increase\nblood pressure Novocain, a synthetic amino compound,\nis used as an anaesthetic in dentistry"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7015-7018", "Text": "Synthetic examples include polymers,\ndye stuffs and drugs Two biologically active\ncompounds, namely adrenaline and ephedrine, both\ncontaining secondary amino group, are used to increase\nblood pressure Novocain, a synthetic amino compound,\nis used as an anaesthetic in dentistry Benadryl, a well\nknown antihistaminic drug also contains tertiary amino\ngroup"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7016-7019", "Text": "Two biologically active\ncompounds, namely adrenaline and ephedrine, both\ncontaining secondary amino group, are used to increase\nblood pressure Novocain, a synthetic amino compound,\nis used as an anaesthetic in dentistry Benadryl, a well\nknown antihistaminic drug also contains tertiary amino\ngroup Quaternary ammonium salts are used as\nsurfactants"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7017-7020", "Text": "Novocain, a synthetic amino compound,\nis used as an anaesthetic in dentistry Benadryl, a well\nknown antihistaminic drug also contains tertiary amino\ngroup Quaternary ammonium salts are used as\nsurfactants Diazonium salts are intermediates in the\npreparation of a variety of aromatic compounds\nincluding dyes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7018-7021", "Text": "Benadryl, a well\nknown antihistaminic drug also contains tertiary amino\ngroup Quaternary ammonium salts are used as\nsurfactants Diazonium salts are intermediates in the\npreparation of a variety of aromatic compounds\nincluding dyes In this Unit, you will learn about amines\nand diazonium salts"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7019-7022", "Text": "Quaternary ammonium salts are used as\nsurfactants Diazonium salts are intermediates in the\npreparation of a variety of aromatic compounds\nincluding dyes In this Unit, you will learn about amines\nand diazonium salts I"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7020-7023", "Text": "Diazonium salts are intermediates in the\npreparation of a variety of aromatic compounds\nincluding dyes In this Unit, you will learn about amines\nand diazonium salts I AMINES\nAmines can be considered as derivatives of ammonia,\nobtained by replacement of one, two or all the three\nhydrogen atoms by alkyl and/or aryl groups"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7021-7024", "Text": "In this Unit, you will learn about amines\nand diazonium salts I AMINES\nAmines can be considered as derivatives of ammonia,\nobtained by replacement of one, two or all the three\nhydrogen atoms by alkyl and/or aryl groups For example:\nLike ammonia, nitrogen atom of amines is trivalent and\ncarries an unshared pair of electrons"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7022-7025", "Text": "I AMINES\nAmines can be considered as derivatives of ammonia,\nobtained by replacement of one, two or all the three\nhydrogen atoms by alkyl and/or aryl groups For example:\nLike ammonia, nitrogen atom of amines is trivalent and\ncarries an unshared pair of electrons Nitrogen orbitals\nin amines are therefore, sp3 hybridised and the geometry\nof amines is pyramidal"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7023-7026", "Text": "AMINES\nAmines can be considered as derivatives of ammonia,\nobtained by replacement of one, two or all the three\nhydrogen atoms by alkyl and/or aryl groups For example:\nLike ammonia, nitrogen atom of amines is trivalent and\ncarries an unshared pair of electrons Nitrogen orbitals\nin amines are therefore, sp3 hybridised and the geometry\nof amines is pyramidal Each of the three sp3 hybridised\norbitals of nitrogen overlap with orbitals of hydrogen or\ncarbon depending upon the composition of the amines"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7024-7027", "Text": "For example:\nLike ammonia, nitrogen atom of amines is trivalent and\ncarries an unshared pair of electrons Nitrogen orbitals\nin amines are therefore, sp3 hybridised and the geometry\nof amines is pyramidal Each of the three sp3 hybridised\norbitals of nitrogen overlap with orbitals of hydrogen or\ncarbon depending upon the composition of the amines The fourth orbital of nitrogen in all amines contains an\nunshared pair of electrons"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7025-7028", "Text": "Nitrogen orbitals\nin amines are therefore, sp3 hybridised and the geometry\nof amines is pyramidal Each of the three sp3 hybridised\norbitals of nitrogen overlap with orbitals of hydrogen or\ncarbon depending upon the composition of the amines The fourth orbital of nitrogen in all amines contains an\nunshared pair of electrons Due to the presence of\nunshared pair of electrons, the angle C\u2013N\u2013E, (where E is\nAfter studying this Unit, you will be\n\u00b7able to\ndescribe amines as derivatives of\nammonia having a pyramidal\nstructure;\n\u00b7\nclassify amines as primary,\nsecondary and tertiary;\n\u00b7\nname amines by common names\nand IUPAC system;\n\u00b7\ndescribe some of the important\nmethods of preparation of amines;\n\u00b7\nexplain the properties of amines;\n\u00b7\ndistinguish between primary,\nsecondary and tertiary amines;\n\u00b7\ndescribe the method of prepara-\ntion of diazonium salts and their\nimportance in the synthesis of a\nseries of aromatic compounds\nincluding azo dyes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7026-7029", "Text": "Each of the three sp3 hybridised\norbitals of nitrogen overlap with orbitals of hydrogen or\ncarbon depending upon the composition of the amines The fourth orbital of nitrogen in all amines contains an\nunshared pair of electrons Due to the presence of\nunshared pair of electrons, the angle C\u2013N\u2013E, (where E is\nAfter studying this Unit, you will be\n\u00b7able to\ndescribe amines as derivatives of\nammonia having a pyramidal\nstructure;\n\u00b7\nclassify amines as primary,\nsecondary and tertiary;\n\u00b7\nname amines by common names\nand IUPAC system;\n\u00b7\ndescribe some of the important\nmethods of preparation of amines;\n\u00b7\nexplain the properties of amines;\n\u00b7\ndistinguish between primary,\nsecondary and tertiary amines;\n\u00b7\ndescribe the method of prepara-\ntion of diazonium salts and their\nimportance in the synthesis of a\nseries of aromatic compounds\nincluding azo dyes Objectives\n\u201cThe chief commercial use of amines is as intermediates in the\nsynthesis of medicines and fibres\u201d"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7027-7030", "Text": "The fourth orbital of nitrogen in all amines contains an\nunshared pair of electrons Due to the presence of\nunshared pair of electrons, the angle C\u2013N\u2013E, (where E is\nAfter studying this Unit, you will be\n\u00b7able to\ndescribe amines as derivatives of\nammonia having a pyramidal\nstructure;\n\u00b7\nclassify amines as primary,\nsecondary and tertiary;\n\u00b7\nname amines by common names\nand IUPAC system;\n\u00b7\ndescribe some of the important\nmethods of preparation of amines;\n\u00b7\nexplain the properties of amines;\n\u00b7\ndistinguish between primary,\nsecondary and tertiary amines;\n\u00b7\ndescribe the method of prepara-\ntion of diazonium salts and their\nimportance in the synthesis of a\nseries of aromatic compounds\nincluding azo dyes Objectives\n\u201cThe chief commercial use of amines is as intermediates in the\nsynthesis of medicines and fibres\u201d Unit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit9Unit\nAAAAAmines\nmines\nmines\nmines9mines\nAAAAAmines\nmines\nmines\nmines\nmines\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7028-7031", "Text": "Due to the presence of\nunshared pair of electrons, the angle C\u2013N\u2013E, (where E is\nAfter studying this Unit, you will be\n\u00b7able to\ndescribe amines as derivatives of\nammonia having a pyramidal\nstructure;\n\u00b7\nclassify amines as primary,\nsecondary and tertiary;\n\u00b7\nname amines by common names\nand IUPAC system;\n\u00b7\ndescribe some of the important\nmethods of preparation of amines;\n\u00b7\nexplain the properties of amines;\n\u00b7\ndistinguish between primary,\nsecondary and tertiary amines;\n\u00b7\ndescribe the method of prepara-\ntion of diazonium salts and their\nimportance in the synthesis of a\nseries of aromatic compounds\nincluding azo dyes Objectives\n\u201cThe chief commercial use of amines is as intermediates in the\nsynthesis of medicines and fibres\u201d Unit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit9Unit\nAAAAAmines\nmines\nmines\nmines9mines\nAAAAAmines\nmines\nmines\nmines\nmines\n9 1 Structure of Amines\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7029-7032", "Text": "Objectives\n\u201cThe chief commercial use of amines is as intermediates in the\nsynthesis of medicines and fibres\u201d Unit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit9Unit\nAAAAAmines\nmines\nmines\nmines9mines\nAAAAAmines\nmines\nmines\nmines\nmines\n9 1 Structure of Amines\n9 1 Structure of Amines\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7030-7033", "Text": "Unit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit9Unit\nAAAAAmines\nmines\nmines\nmines9mines\nAAAAAmines\nmines\nmines\nmines\nmines\n9 1 Structure of Amines\n9 1 Structure of Amines\n9 1 Structure of Amines\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7031-7034", "Text": "1 Structure of Amines\n9 1 Structure of Amines\n9 1 Structure of Amines\n9 1 Structure of Amines\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7032-7035", "Text": "1 Structure of Amines\n9 1 Structure of Amines\n9 1 Structure of Amines\n9 1 Structure of Amines\nRationalised 2023-24\n260\nChemistry\nC or H) is less than 109"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7033-7036", "Text": "1 Structure of Amines\n9 1 Structure of Amines\n9 1 Structure of Amines\nRationalised 2023-24\n260\nChemistry\nC or H) is less than 109 5\u00b0; for instance, it is 108o in case of\ntrimethylamine as shown in Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7034-7037", "Text": "1 Structure of Amines\n9 1 Structure of Amines\nRationalised 2023-24\n260\nChemistry\nC or H) is less than 109 5\u00b0; for instance, it is 108o in case of\ntrimethylamine as shown in Fig 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7035-7038", "Text": "1 Structure of Amines\nRationalised 2023-24\n260\nChemistry\nC or H) is less than 109 5\u00b0; for instance, it is 108o in case of\ntrimethylamine as shown in Fig 9 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7036-7039", "Text": "5\u00b0; for instance, it is 108o in case of\ntrimethylamine as shown in Fig 9 1 Amines are classified as primary (1o), secondary (2o) and tertiary (3o)\ndepending upon the number of hydrogen atoms replaced by alkyl or\naryl groups in ammonia molecule"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7037-7040", "Text": "9 1 Amines are classified as primary (1o), secondary (2o) and tertiary (3o)\ndepending upon the number of hydrogen atoms replaced by alkyl or\naryl groups in ammonia molecule If one hydrogen atom of ammonia\nis replaced by R or Ar , we get RNH2 or ArNH2, a primary amine (1o)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7038-7041", "Text": "1 Amines are classified as primary (1o), secondary (2o) and tertiary (3o)\ndepending upon the number of hydrogen atoms replaced by alkyl or\naryl groups in ammonia molecule If one hydrogen atom of ammonia\nis replaced by R or Ar , we get RNH2 or ArNH2, a primary amine (1o) If two hydrogen atoms of ammonia or one hydrogen atom of R-NH2 are\nreplaced by another alkyl/aryl(R\u2019) group, what would you get"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7039-7042", "Text": "Amines are classified as primary (1o), secondary (2o) and tertiary (3o)\ndepending upon the number of hydrogen atoms replaced by alkyl or\naryl groups in ammonia molecule If one hydrogen atom of ammonia\nis replaced by R or Ar , we get RNH2 or ArNH2, a primary amine (1o) If two hydrogen atoms of ammonia or one hydrogen atom of R-NH2 are\nreplaced by another alkyl/aryl(R\u2019) group, what would you get You\nget R-NHR\u2019, secondary amine"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7040-7043", "Text": "If one hydrogen atom of ammonia\nis replaced by R or Ar , we get RNH2 or ArNH2, a primary amine (1o) If two hydrogen atoms of ammonia or one hydrogen atom of R-NH2 are\nreplaced by another alkyl/aryl(R\u2019) group, what would you get You\nget R-NHR\u2019, secondary amine The second alkyl/aryl group may be\nsame or different"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7041-7044", "Text": "If two hydrogen atoms of ammonia or one hydrogen atom of R-NH2 are\nreplaced by another alkyl/aryl(R\u2019) group, what would you get You\nget R-NHR\u2019, secondary amine The second alkyl/aryl group may be\nsame or different Replacement of another hydrogen atom by alkyl/aryl\ngroup leads to the formation of tertiary amine"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7042-7045", "Text": "You\nget R-NHR\u2019, secondary amine The second alkyl/aryl group may be\nsame or different Replacement of another hydrogen atom by alkyl/aryl\ngroup leads to the formation of tertiary amine Amines are said to be\n\u2018simple\u2019 when all the alkyl or aryl groups are the same, and \u2018mixed\u2019\nwhen they are different"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7043-7046", "Text": "The second alkyl/aryl group may be\nsame or different Replacement of another hydrogen atom by alkyl/aryl\ngroup leads to the formation of tertiary amine Amines are said to be\n\u2018simple\u2019 when all the alkyl or aryl groups are the same, and \u2018mixed\u2019\nwhen they are different In common system, an aliphatic amine is named by prefixing alkyl\ngroup to amine, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7044-7047", "Text": "Replacement of another hydrogen atom by alkyl/aryl\ngroup leads to the formation of tertiary amine Amines are said to be\n\u2018simple\u2019 when all the alkyl or aryl groups are the same, and \u2018mixed\u2019\nwhen they are different In common system, an aliphatic amine is named by prefixing alkyl\ngroup to amine, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7045-7048", "Text": "Amines are said to be\n\u2018simple\u2019 when all the alkyl or aryl groups are the same, and \u2018mixed\u2019\nwhen they are different In common system, an aliphatic amine is named by prefixing alkyl\ngroup to amine, i e , alkylamine as one word (e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7046-7049", "Text": "In common system, an aliphatic amine is named by prefixing alkyl\ngroup to amine, i e , alkylamine as one word (e g"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7047-7050", "Text": "e , alkylamine as one word (e g , methylamine)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7048-7051", "Text": ", alkylamine as one word (e g , methylamine) In\nsecondary and tertiary amines, when two or more groups are the same,\nthe prefix di or tri is appended before the name of alkyl group"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7049-7052", "Text": "g , methylamine) In\nsecondary and tertiary amines, when two or more groups are the same,\nthe prefix di or tri is appended before the name of alkyl group In\nIUPAC system, primary amines are named as alkanamines"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7050-7053", "Text": ", methylamine) In\nsecondary and tertiary amines, when two or more groups are the same,\nthe prefix di or tri is appended before the name of alkyl group In\nIUPAC system, primary amines are named as alkanamines The name\nis derived by replacement of \u2018e\u2019 of alkane by the word amine"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7051-7054", "Text": "In\nsecondary and tertiary amines, when two or more groups are the same,\nthe prefix di or tri is appended before the name of alkyl group In\nIUPAC system, primary amines are named as alkanamines The name\nis derived by replacement of \u2018e\u2019 of alkane by the word amine For\nexample, CH3NH2 is named as methanamine"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7052-7055", "Text": "In\nIUPAC system, primary amines are named as alkanamines The name\nis derived by replacement of \u2018e\u2019 of alkane by the word amine For\nexample, CH3NH2 is named as methanamine In case, more than one\namino group is present at different positions in the parent chain, their\npositions are specified by giving numbers to the carbon atoms bearing\n\u2013NH2 groups and suitable prefix such as di, tri, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7053-7056", "Text": "The name\nis derived by replacement of \u2018e\u2019 of alkane by the word amine For\nexample, CH3NH2 is named as methanamine In case, more than one\namino group is present at different positions in the parent chain, their\npositions are specified by giving numbers to the carbon atoms bearing\n\u2013NH2 groups and suitable prefix such as di, tri, etc is attached to the\namine"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7054-7057", "Text": "For\nexample, CH3NH2 is named as methanamine In case, more than one\namino group is present at different positions in the parent chain, their\npositions are specified by giving numbers to the carbon atoms bearing\n\u2013NH2 groups and suitable prefix such as di, tri, etc is attached to the\namine The letter \u2018e\u2019 of the suffix of the hydrocarbon part is retained"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7055-7058", "Text": "In case, more than one\namino group is present at different positions in the parent chain, their\npositions are specified by giving numbers to the carbon atoms bearing\n\u2013NH2 groups and suitable prefix such as di, tri, etc is attached to the\namine The letter \u2018e\u2019 of the suffix of the hydrocarbon part is retained For\nexample, H2N\u2013CH2\u2013CH2\u2013NH2 is named as ethane-1, 2-diamine"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7056-7059", "Text": "is attached to the\namine The letter \u2018e\u2019 of the suffix of the hydrocarbon part is retained For\nexample, H2N\u2013CH2\u2013CH2\u2013NH2 is named as ethane-1, 2-diamine To name secondary and tertiary amines, we use locant N to designate\nsubstituent attached to a nitrogen atom"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7057-7060", "Text": "The letter \u2018e\u2019 of the suffix of the hydrocarbon part is retained For\nexample, H2N\u2013CH2\u2013CH2\u2013NH2 is named as ethane-1, 2-diamine To name secondary and tertiary amines, we use locant N to designate\nsubstituent attached to a nitrogen atom For example, CH3 NHCH2CH3 is\n 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7058-7061", "Text": "For\nexample, H2N\u2013CH2\u2013CH2\u2013NH2 is named as ethane-1, 2-diamine To name secondary and tertiary amines, we use locant N to designate\nsubstituent attached to a nitrogen atom For example, CH3 NHCH2CH3 is\n 9 2\n 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7059-7062", "Text": "To name secondary and tertiary amines, we use locant N to designate\nsubstituent attached to a nitrogen atom For example, CH3 NHCH2CH3 is\n 9 2\n 9 2\n 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7060-7063", "Text": "For example, CH3 NHCH2CH3 is\n 9 2\n 9 2\n 9 2\n 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7061-7064", "Text": "2\n 9 2\n 9 2\n 9 2\n 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7062-7065", "Text": "2\n 9 2\n 9 2\n 9 2\nClassification\nClassification\nClassification\nClassification\nClassification\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7063-7066", "Text": "2\n 9 2\n 9 2\nClassification\nClassification\nClassification\nClassification\nClassification\nFig 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7064-7067", "Text": "2\n 9 2\nClassification\nClassification\nClassification\nClassification\nClassification\nFig 9 1 Pyramidal shape of trimethylamine\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7065-7068", "Text": "2\nClassification\nClassification\nClassification\nClassification\nClassification\nFig 9 1 Pyramidal shape of trimethylamine\n9 3\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7066-7069", "Text": "9 1 Pyramidal shape of trimethylamine\n9 3\n9 3\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7067-7070", "Text": "1 Pyramidal shape of trimethylamine\n9 3\n9 3\n9 3\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7068-7071", "Text": "3\n9 3\n9 3\n9 3\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7069-7072", "Text": "3\n9 3\n9 3\n9 3\nNomenclature\nNomenclature\nNomenclature\nNomenclature\nNomenclature\nRationalised 2023-24\n261\nAmines\nnamed as N-methylethanamine and (CH3CH2)3N is named as N, N-\ndiethylethanamine"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7070-7073", "Text": "3\n9 3\n9 3\nNomenclature\nNomenclature\nNomenclature\nNomenclature\nNomenclature\nRationalised 2023-24\n261\nAmines\nnamed as N-methylethanamine and (CH3CH2)3N is named as N, N-\ndiethylethanamine More examples are given in Table 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7071-7074", "Text": "3\n9 3\nNomenclature\nNomenclature\nNomenclature\nNomenclature\nNomenclature\nRationalised 2023-24\n261\nAmines\nnamed as N-methylethanamine and (CH3CH2)3N is named as N, N-\ndiethylethanamine More examples are given in Table 9 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7072-7075", "Text": "3\nNomenclature\nNomenclature\nNomenclature\nNomenclature\nNomenclature\nRationalised 2023-24\n261\nAmines\nnamed as N-methylethanamine and (CH3CH2)3N is named as N, N-\ndiethylethanamine More examples are given in Table 9 1 In arylamines, \u2013NH2 group is directly attached to the benzene ring"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7073-7076", "Text": "More examples are given in Table 9 1 In arylamines, \u2013NH2 group is directly attached to the benzene ring C6H5NH2 is the simplest example of arylamine"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7074-7077", "Text": "1 In arylamines, \u2013NH2 group is directly attached to the benzene ring C6H5NH2 is the simplest example of arylamine In common system, it\nis known as aniline"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7075-7078", "Text": "In arylamines, \u2013NH2 group is directly attached to the benzene ring C6H5NH2 is the simplest example of arylamine In common system, it\nis known as aniline It is also an accepted IUPAC name"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7076-7079", "Text": "C6H5NH2 is the simplest example of arylamine In common system, it\nis known as aniline It is also an accepted IUPAC name While naming\narylamines according to IUPAC system, suffix \u2018e\u2019 of arene is replaced by\n\u2018amine\u2019"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7077-7080", "Text": "In common system, it\nis known as aniline It is also an accepted IUPAC name While naming\narylamines according to IUPAC system, suffix \u2018e\u2019 of arene is replaced by\n\u2018amine\u2019 Thus in IUPAC system, C6H5\u2013NH2 is named as benzenamine"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7078-7081", "Text": "It is also an accepted IUPAC name While naming\narylamines according to IUPAC system, suffix \u2018e\u2019 of arene is replaced by\n\u2018amine\u2019 Thus in IUPAC system, C6H5\u2013NH2 is named as benzenamine Common and IUPAC names of some alkylamines and arylamines are\ngiven in Table 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7079-7082", "Text": "While naming\narylamines according to IUPAC system, suffix \u2018e\u2019 of arene is replaced by\n\u2018amine\u2019 Thus in IUPAC system, C6H5\u2013NH2 is named as benzenamine Common and IUPAC names of some alkylamines and arylamines are\ngiven in Table 9 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7080-7083", "Text": "Thus in IUPAC system, C6H5\u2013NH2 is named as benzenamine Common and IUPAC names of some alkylamines and arylamines are\ngiven in Table 9 1 Amine\nCommon name\nIUPAC name\nCH3-\u2013CH2\u2013NH2\nEthylamine\nEthanamine\nCH3\u2013CH2\u2013CH2\u2013NH2\nn-Propylamine\nPropan-1-amine\nIsopropylamine\nPropan-2-amine\nEthylmethylamine\nN-Methylethanamine\nTrimethylamine\nN,N-Dimethylmethanamine\nN,N-Diethylbutylamine\nN,N-Diethylbutan-1-amine\nAllylamine\nProp-2-en-1-amine\nHexamethylenediamine\nHexane-1,6-diamine\nAniline\nAniline or Benzenamine\no-Toluidine\n2-Methylaniline\np-Bromoaniline\n4-Bromobenzenamine\nor\n4-Bromoaniline\nN,N-Dimethylaniline\nN,N-Dimethylbenzenamine\nTable 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7081-7084", "Text": "Common and IUPAC names of some alkylamines and arylamines are\ngiven in Table 9 1 Amine\nCommon name\nIUPAC name\nCH3-\u2013CH2\u2013NH2\nEthylamine\nEthanamine\nCH3\u2013CH2\u2013CH2\u2013NH2\nn-Propylamine\nPropan-1-amine\nIsopropylamine\nPropan-2-amine\nEthylmethylamine\nN-Methylethanamine\nTrimethylamine\nN,N-Dimethylmethanamine\nN,N-Diethylbutylamine\nN,N-Diethylbutan-1-amine\nAllylamine\nProp-2-en-1-amine\nHexamethylenediamine\nHexane-1,6-diamine\nAniline\nAniline or Benzenamine\no-Toluidine\n2-Methylaniline\np-Bromoaniline\n4-Bromobenzenamine\nor\n4-Bromoaniline\nN,N-Dimethylaniline\nN,N-Dimethylbenzenamine\nTable 9 1: Nomenclature of Some Alkylamines and Arylamines\nRationalised 2023-24\n262\nChemistry\nAmines are prepared by the following methods:\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7082-7085", "Text": "1 Amine\nCommon name\nIUPAC name\nCH3-\u2013CH2\u2013NH2\nEthylamine\nEthanamine\nCH3\u2013CH2\u2013CH2\u2013NH2\nn-Propylamine\nPropan-1-amine\nIsopropylamine\nPropan-2-amine\nEthylmethylamine\nN-Methylethanamine\nTrimethylamine\nN,N-Dimethylmethanamine\nN,N-Diethylbutylamine\nN,N-Diethylbutan-1-amine\nAllylamine\nProp-2-en-1-amine\nHexamethylenediamine\nHexane-1,6-diamine\nAniline\nAniline or Benzenamine\no-Toluidine\n2-Methylaniline\np-Bromoaniline\n4-Bromobenzenamine\nor\n4-Bromoaniline\nN,N-Dimethylaniline\nN,N-Dimethylbenzenamine\nTable 9 1: Nomenclature of Some Alkylamines and Arylamines\nRationalised 2023-24\n262\nChemistry\nAmines are prepared by the following methods:\n1 Reduction of nitro compounds\nNitro compounds are reduced to amines by passing hydrogen gas\nin the presence of finely divided nickel, palladium or platinum and\nalso by reduction with metals in acidic medium"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7083-7086", "Text": "Amine\nCommon name\nIUPAC name\nCH3-\u2013CH2\u2013NH2\nEthylamine\nEthanamine\nCH3\u2013CH2\u2013CH2\u2013NH2\nn-Propylamine\nPropan-1-amine\nIsopropylamine\nPropan-2-amine\nEthylmethylamine\nN-Methylethanamine\nTrimethylamine\nN,N-Dimethylmethanamine\nN,N-Diethylbutylamine\nN,N-Diethylbutan-1-amine\nAllylamine\nProp-2-en-1-amine\nHexamethylenediamine\nHexane-1,6-diamine\nAniline\nAniline or Benzenamine\no-Toluidine\n2-Methylaniline\np-Bromoaniline\n4-Bromobenzenamine\nor\n4-Bromoaniline\nN,N-Dimethylaniline\nN,N-Dimethylbenzenamine\nTable 9 1: Nomenclature of Some Alkylamines and Arylamines\nRationalised 2023-24\n262\nChemistry\nAmines are prepared by the following methods:\n1 Reduction of nitro compounds\nNitro compounds are reduced to amines by passing hydrogen gas\nin the presence of finely divided nickel, palladium or platinum and\nalso by reduction with metals in acidic medium Nitroalkanes can\nalso be similarly reduced to the corresponding alkanamines"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7084-7087", "Text": "1: Nomenclature of Some Alkylamines and Arylamines\nRationalised 2023-24\n262\nChemistry\nAmines are prepared by the following methods:\n1 Reduction of nitro compounds\nNitro compounds are reduced to amines by passing hydrogen gas\nin the presence of finely divided nickel, palladium or platinum and\nalso by reduction with metals in acidic medium Nitroalkanes can\nalso be similarly reduced to the corresponding alkanamines Reduction with iron scrap and hydrochloric acid is preferred because\nFeCl2 formed gets hydrolysed to release hydrochloric acid during the\nreaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7085-7088", "Text": "Reduction of nitro compounds\nNitro compounds are reduced to amines by passing hydrogen gas\nin the presence of finely divided nickel, palladium or platinum and\nalso by reduction with metals in acidic medium Nitroalkanes can\nalso be similarly reduced to the corresponding alkanamines Reduction with iron scrap and hydrochloric acid is preferred because\nFeCl2 formed gets hydrolysed to release hydrochloric acid during the\nreaction Thus, only a small amount of hydrochloric acid is required\nto initiate the reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7086-7089", "Text": "Nitroalkanes can\nalso be similarly reduced to the corresponding alkanamines Reduction with iron scrap and hydrochloric acid is preferred because\nFeCl2 formed gets hydrolysed to release hydrochloric acid during the\nreaction Thus, only a small amount of hydrochloric acid is required\nto initiate the reaction 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7087-7090", "Text": "Reduction with iron scrap and hydrochloric acid is preferred because\nFeCl2 formed gets hydrolysed to release hydrochloric acid during the\nreaction Thus, only a small amount of hydrochloric acid is required\nto initiate the reaction 2 Ammonolysis of alkyl halides\nYou have read (Unit 6, Class XII) that the carbon - halogen bond in\nalkyl or benzyl halides can be easily cleaved by a nucleophile"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7088-7091", "Text": "Thus, only a small amount of hydrochloric acid is required\nto initiate the reaction 2 Ammonolysis of alkyl halides\nYou have read (Unit 6, Class XII) that the carbon - halogen bond in\nalkyl or benzyl halides can be easily cleaved by a nucleophile Hence,\nan alkyl or benzyl halide on reaction with an ethanolic solution of\nammonia undergoes nucleophilic substitution reaction in which the\nhalogen atom is replaced by an amino (\u2013NH2) group"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7089-7092", "Text": "2 Ammonolysis of alkyl halides\nYou have read (Unit 6, Class XII) that the carbon - halogen bond in\nalkyl or benzyl halides can be easily cleaved by a nucleophile Hence,\nan alkyl or benzyl halide on reaction with an ethanolic solution of\nammonia undergoes nucleophilic substitution reaction in which the\nhalogen atom is replaced by an amino (\u2013NH2) group This process of\ncleavage of the C\u2013X bond by ammonia molecule is known as\nammonolysis"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7090-7093", "Text": "Ammonolysis of alkyl halides\nYou have read (Unit 6, Class XII) that the carbon - halogen bond in\nalkyl or benzyl halides can be easily cleaved by a nucleophile Hence,\nan alkyl or benzyl halide on reaction with an ethanolic solution of\nammonia undergoes nucleophilic substitution reaction in which the\nhalogen atom is replaced by an amino (\u2013NH2) group This process of\ncleavage of the C\u2013X bond by ammonia molecule is known as\nammonolysis The reaction is carried out in a sealed tube at 373\nK"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7091-7094", "Text": "Hence,\nan alkyl or benzyl halide on reaction with an ethanolic solution of\nammonia undergoes nucleophilic substitution reaction in which the\nhalogen atom is replaced by an amino (\u2013NH2) group This process of\ncleavage of the C\u2013X bond by ammonia molecule is known as\nammonolysis The reaction is carried out in a sealed tube at 373\nK The primary amine thus obtained behaves as a nucleophile and\ncan further react with alkyl halide to form secondary and tertiary\namines, and finally quaternary ammonium salt"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7092-7095", "Text": "This process of\ncleavage of the C\u2013X bond by ammonia molecule is known as\nammonolysis The reaction is carried out in a sealed tube at 373\nK The primary amine thus obtained behaves as a nucleophile and\ncan further react with alkyl halide to form secondary and tertiary\namines, and finally quaternary ammonium salt 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7093-7096", "Text": "The reaction is carried out in a sealed tube at 373\nK The primary amine thus obtained behaves as a nucleophile and\ncan further react with alkyl halide to form secondary and tertiary\namines, and finally quaternary ammonium salt 9 4\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7094-7097", "Text": "The primary amine thus obtained behaves as a nucleophile and\ncan further react with alkyl halide to form secondary and tertiary\namines, and finally quaternary ammonium salt 9 4\n9 4\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7095-7098", "Text": "9 4\n9 4\n9 4\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7096-7099", "Text": "4\n9 4\n9 4\n9 4\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7097-7100", "Text": "4\n9 4\n9 4\n9 4 Preparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nof Amines\nof Amines\nof Amines\nof Amines\nof Amines\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7098-7101", "Text": "4\n9 4\n9 4 Preparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nof Amines\nof Amines\nof Amines\nof Amines\nof Amines\n9 1\nClassify the following amines as primary, secondary or tertiary:\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7099-7102", "Text": "4\n9 4 Preparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nof Amines\nof Amines\nof Amines\nof Amines\nof Amines\n9 1\nClassify the following amines as primary, secondary or tertiary:\n9 2\n(i) Write structures of different isomeric amines corresponding to the molecular\nformula, C4H11N"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7100-7103", "Text": "4 Preparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nof Amines\nof Amines\nof Amines\nof Amines\nof Amines\n9 1\nClassify the following amines as primary, secondary or tertiary:\n9 2\n(i) Write structures of different isomeric amines corresponding to the molecular\nformula, C4H11N (ii) Write IUPAC names of all the isomers"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7101-7104", "Text": "1\nClassify the following amines as primary, secondary or tertiary:\n9 2\n(i) Write structures of different isomeric amines corresponding to the molecular\nformula, C4H11N (ii) Write IUPAC names of all the isomers (iii) What type of isomerism is exhibited by different pairs of amines"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7102-7105", "Text": "2\n(i) Write structures of different isomeric amines corresponding to the molecular\nformula, C4H11N (ii) Write IUPAC names of all the isomers (iii) What type of isomerism is exhibited by different pairs of amines Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nRationalised 2023-24\n263\nAmines\nThe free amine can be obtained from the ammonium salt by treatment\nwith a strong base:\nAmmonolysis has the disadvantage of yielding a mixture of primary,\nsecondary and tertiary amines and also a quaternary ammonium salt"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7103-7106", "Text": "(ii) Write IUPAC names of all the isomers (iii) What type of isomerism is exhibited by different pairs of amines Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nRationalised 2023-24\n263\nAmines\nThe free amine can be obtained from the ammonium salt by treatment\nwith a strong base:\nAmmonolysis has the disadvantage of yielding a mixture of primary,\nsecondary and tertiary amines and also a quaternary ammonium salt However, primary amine is obtained as a major product by taking\nlarge excess of ammonia"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7104-7107", "Text": "(iii) What type of isomerism is exhibited by different pairs of amines Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nRationalised 2023-24\n263\nAmines\nThe free amine can be obtained from the ammonium salt by treatment\nwith a strong base:\nAmmonolysis has the disadvantage of yielding a mixture of primary,\nsecondary and tertiary amines and also a quaternary ammonium salt However, primary amine is obtained as a major product by taking\nlarge excess of ammonia The order of reactivity of halides with amines is RI > RBr >RCl"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7105-7108", "Text": "Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nRationalised 2023-24\n263\nAmines\nThe free amine can be obtained from the ammonium salt by treatment\nwith a strong base:\nAmmonolysis has the disadvantage of yielding a mixture of primary,\nsecondary and tertiary amines and also a quaternary ammonium salt However, primary amine is obtained as a major product by taking\nlarge excess of ammonia The order of reactivity of halides with amines is RI > RBr >RCl 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7106-7109", "Text": "However, primary amine is obtained as a major product by taking\nlarge excess of ammonia The order of reactivity of halides with amines is RI > RBr >RCl 3 Reduction of nitriles\nNitriles on reduction with lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4) or\ncatalytic hydrogenation produce primary amines"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7107-7110", "Text": "The order of reactivity of halides with amines is RI > RBr >RCl 3 Reduction of nitriles\nNitriles on reduction with lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4) or\ncatalytic hydrogenation produce primary amines This reaction is\nused for ascent of amine series, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7108-7111", "Text": "3 Reduction of nitriles\nNitriles on reduction with lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4) or\ncatalytic hydrogenation produce primary amines This reaction is\nused for ascent of amine series, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7109-7112", "Text": "Reduction of nitriles\nNitriles on reduction with lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4) or\ncatalytic hydrogenation produce primary amines This reaction is\nused for ascent of amine series, i e , for preparation of amines\ncontaining one carbon atom more than the starting amine"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7110-7113", "Text": "This reaction is\nused for ascent of amine series, i e , for preparation of amines\ncontaining one carbon atom more than the starting amine 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7111-7114", "Text": "e , for preparation of amines\ncontaining one carbon atom more than the starting amine 4 Reduction of amides\nThe amides on reduction with lithium aluminium hydride yield\namines"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7112-7115", "Text": ", for preparation of amines\ncontaining one carbon atom more than the starting amine 4 Reduction of amides\nThe amides on reduction with lithium aluminium hydride yield\namines Example 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7113-7116", "Text": "4 Reduction of amides\nThe amides on reduction with lithium aluminium hydride yield\namines Example 9 1\nExample 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7114-7117", "Text": "Reduction of amides\nThe amides on reduction with lithium aluminium hydride yield\namines Example 9 1\nExample 9 1\nExample 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7115-7118", "Text": "Example 9 1\nExample 9 1\nExample 9 1\nExample 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7116-7119", "Text": "1\nExample 9 1\nExample 9 1\nExample 9 1\nExample 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7117-7120", "Text": "1\nExample 9 1\nExample 9 1\nExample 9 1\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nWrite chemical equations for the following reactions:\n(i) Reaction of ethanolic NH3 with C2H5Cl"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7118-7121", "Text": "1\nExample 9 1\nExample 9 1\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nWrite chemical equations for the following reactions:\n(i) Reaction of ethanolic NH3 with C2H5Cl (ii) Ammonolysis of benzyl chloride and reaction of amine so formed\nwith two moles of CH3Cl"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7119-7122", "Text": "1\nExample 9 1\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nWrite chemical equations for the following reactions:\n(i) Reaction of ethanolic NH3 with C2H5Cl (ii) Ammonolysis of benzyl chloride and reaction of amine so formed\nwith two moles of CH3Cl Rationalised 2023-24\n264\nChemistry\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7120-7123", "Text": "1\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nWrite chemical equations for the following reactions:\n(i) Reaction of ethanolic NH3 with C2H5Cl (ii) Ammonolysis of benzyl chloride and reaction of amine so formed\nwith two moles of CH3Cl Rationalised 2023-24\n264\nChemistry\n5 Gabriel phthalimide synthesis\nGabriel synthesis is used for the preparation of primary amines"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7121-7124", "Text": "(ii) Ammonolysis of benzyl chloride and reaction of amine so formed\nwith two moles of CH3Cl Rationalised 2023-24\n264\nChemistry\n5 Gabriel phthalimide synthesis\nGabriel synthesis is used for the preparation of primary amines Phthalimide on treatment with ethanolic potassium hydroxide forms\npotassium salt of phthalimide which on heating with alkyl halide\nfollowed by alkaline hydrolysis produces the corresponding primary\namine"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7122-7125", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n264\nChemistry\n5 Gabriel phthalimide synthesis\nGabriel synthesis is used for the preparation of primary amines Phthalimide on treatment with ethanolic potassium hydroxide forms\npotassium salt of phthalimide which on heating with alkyl halide\nfollowed by alkaline hydrolysis produces the corresponding primary\namine Aromatic primary amines cannot be prepared by this method\nbecause aryl halides do not undergo nucleophilic substitution with\nthe anion formed by phthalimide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7123-7126", "Text": "Gabriel phthalimide synthesis\nGabriel synthesis is used for the preparation of primary amines Phthalimide on treatment with ethanolic potassium hydroxide forms\npotassium salt of phthalimide which on heating with alkyl halide\nfollowed by alkaline hydrolysis produces the corresponding primary\namine Aromatic primary amines cannot be prepared by this method\nbecause aryl halides do not undergo nucleophilic substitution with\nthe anion formed by phthalimide 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7124-7127", "Text": "Phthalimide on treatment with ethanolic potassium hydroxide forms\npotassium salt of phthalimide which on heating with alkyl halide\nfollowed by alkaline hydrolysis produces the corresponding primary\namine Aromatic primary amines cannot be prepared by this method\nbecause aryl halides do not undergo nucleophilic substitution with\nthe anion formed by phthalimide 6 Hoffmann bromamide degradation reaction\nHoffmann developed a method for preparation of primary amines by\ntreating an amide with bromine in an aqueous or ethanolic solution\nof sodium hydroxide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7125-7128", "Text": "Aromatic primary amines cannot be prepared by this method\nbecause aryl halides do not undergo nucleophilic substitution with\nthe anion formed by phthalimide 6 Hoffmann bromamide degradation reaction\nHoffmann developed a method for preparation of primary amines by\ntreating an amide with bromine in an aqueous or ethanolic solution\nof sodium hydroxide In this degradation reaction, migration of an\nalkyl or aryl group takes place from carbonyl carbon of the amide\nto the nitrogen atom"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7126-7129", "Text": "6 Hoffmann bromamide degradation reaction\nHoffmann developed a method for preparation of primary amines by\ntreating an amide with bromine in an aqueous or ethanolic solution\nof sodium hydroxide In this degradation reaction, migration of an\nalkyl or aryl group takes place from carbonyl carbon of the amide\nto the nitrogen atom The amine so formed contains one carbon less\nthan that present in the amide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7127-7130", "Text": "Hoffmann bromamide degradation reaction\nHoffmann developed a method for preparation of primary amines by\ntreating an amide with bromine in an aqueous or ethanolic solution\nof sodium hydroxide In this degradation reaction, migration of an\nalkyl or aryl group takes place from carbonyl carbon of the amide\nto the nitrogen atom The amine so formed contains one carbon less\nthan that present in the amide Write chemical equations for the following conversions:\n(i) CH3\u2013CH2\u2013Cl into CH3\u2013CH2\u2013CH2\u2013NH2\n(ii) C6H5\u2013CH2\u2013Cl into C6H5\u2013CH2\u2013CH2\u2013NH2\nExample 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7128-7131", "Text": "In this degradation reaction, migration of an\nalkyl or aryl group takes place from carbonyl carbon of the amide\nto the nitrogen atom The amine so formed contains one carbon less\nthan that present in the amide Write chemical equations for the following conversions:\n(i) CH3\u2013CH2\u2013Cl into CH3\u2013CH2\u2013CH2\u2013NH2\n(ii) C6H5\u2013CH2\u2013Cl into C6H5\u2013CH2\u2013CH2\u2013NH2\nExample 9 2\nExample 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7129-7132", "Text": "The amine so formed contains one carbon less\nthan that present in the amide Write chemical equations for the following conversions:\n(i) CH3\u2013CH2\u2013Cl into CH3\u2013CH2\u2013CH2\u2013NH2\n(ii) C6H5\u2013CH2\u2013Cl into C6H5\u2013CH2\u2013CH2\u2013NH2\nExample 9 2\nExample 9 2\nExample 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7130-7133", "Text": "Write chemical equations for the following conversions:\n(i) CH3\u2013CH2\u2013Cl into CH3\u2013CH2\u2013CH2\u2013NH2\n(ii) C6H5\u2013CH2\u2013Cl into C6H5\u2013CH2\u2013CH2\u2013NH2\nExample 9 2\nExample 9 2\nExample 9 2\nExample 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7131-7134", "Text": "2\nExample 9 2\nExample 9 2\nExample 9 2\nExample 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7132-7135", "Text": "2\nExample 9 2\nExample 9 2\nExample 9 2\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n265\nAmines\nThe lower aliphatic amines are gases with fishy odour"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7133-7136", "Text": "2\nExample 9 2\nExample 9 2\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n265\nAmines\nThe lower aliphatic amines are gases with fishy odour Primary amines\nwith three or more carbon atoms are liquid and still higher ones are\nsolid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7134-7137", "Text": "2\nExample 9 2\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n265\nAmines\nThe lower aliphatic amines are gases with fishy odour Primary amines\nwith three or more carbon atoms are liquid and still higher ones are\nsolid Aniline and other arylamines are usually colourless but get\ncoloured on storage due to atmospheric oxidation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7135-7138", "Text": "2\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n265\nAmines\nThe lower aliphatic amines are gases with fishy odour Primary amines\nwith three or more carbon atoms are liquid and still higher ones are\nsolid Aniline and other arylamines are usually colourless but get\ncoloured on storage due to atmospheric oxidation Lower aliphatic amines are soluble in water because they can form\nhydrogen bonds with water molecules"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7136-7139", "Text": "Primary amines\nwith three or more carbon atoms are liquid and still higher ones are\nsolid Aniline and other arylamines are usually colourless but get\ncoloured on storage due to atmospheric oxidation Lower aliphatic amines are soluble in water because they can form\nhydrogen bonds with water molecules However, solubility decreases\nwith increase in molar mass of amines due to increase in size of the\nhydrophobic alkyl part"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7137-7140", "Text": "Aniline and other arylamines are usually colourless but get\ncoloured on storage due to atmospheric oxidation Lower aliphatic amines are soluble in water because they can form\nhydrogen bonds with water molecules However, solubility decreases\nwith increase in molar mass of amines due to increase in size of the\nhydrophobic alkyl part Higher amines are essentially insoluble in water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7138-7141", "Text": "Lower aliphatic amines are soluble in water because they can form\nhydrogen bonds with water molecules However, solubility decreases\nwith increase in molar mass of amines due to increase in size of the\nhydrophobic alkyl part Higher amines are essentially insoluble in water Considering the electronegativity of nitrogen of amine and oxygen of\nalcohol as 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7139-7142", "Text": "However, solubility decreases\nwith increase in molar mass of amines due to increase in size of the\nhydrophobic alkyl part Higher amines are essentially insoluble in water Considering the electronegativity of nitrogen of amine and oxygen of\nalcohol as 3 0 and 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7140-7143", "Text": "Higher amines are essentially insoluble in water Considering the electronegativity of nitrogen of amine and oxygen of\nalcohol as 3 0 and 3 5 respectively, you can predict the pattern of\nsolubility of amines and alcohols in water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7141-7144", "Text": "Considering the electronegativity of nitrogen of amine and oxygen of\nalcohol as 3 0 and 3 5 respectively, you can predict the pattern of\nsolubility of amines and alcohols in water Out of butan-1-ol and\nbutan-1-amine, which will be more soluble in water and why"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7142-7145", "Text": "0 and 3 5 respectively, you can predict the pattern of\nsolubility of amines and alcohols in water Out of butan-1-ol and\nbutan-1-amine, which will be more soluble in water and why Amines\nare soluble in organic solvents like alcohol, ether and benzene"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7143-7146", "Text": "5 respectively, you can predict the pattern of\nsolubility of amines and alcohols in water Out of butan-1-ol and\nbutan-1-amine, which will be more soluble in water and why Amines\nare soluble in organic solvents like alcohol, ether and benzene You\nmay remember that alcohols are more polar than amines and form\nstronger intermolecular hydrogen bonds than amines"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7144-7147", "Text": "Out of butan-1-ol and\nbutan-1-amine, which will be more soluble in water and why Amines\nare soluble in organic solvents like alcohol, ether and benzene You\nmay remember that alcohols are more polar than amines and form\nstronger intermolecular hydrogen bonds than amines Primary and secondary amines are engaged in intermolecular\nassociation due to hydrogen bonding between nitrogen of one and\nhydrogen of another molecule"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7145-7148", "Text": "Amines\nare soluble in organic solvents like alcohol, ether and benzene You\nmay remember that alcohols are more polar than amines and form\nstronger intermolecular hydrogen bonds than amines Primary and secondary amines are engaged in intermolecular\nassociation due to hydrogen bonding between nitrogen of one and\nhydrogen of another molecule This intermolecular association is more\nin primary amines than in secondary amines as there are two hydrogen\natoms available for hydrogen bond formation in it"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7146-7149", "Text": "You\nmay remember that alcohols are more polar than amines and form\nstronger intermolecular hydrogen bonds than amines Primary and secondary amines are engaged in intermolecular\nassociation due to hydrogen bonding between nitrogen of one and\nhydrogen of another molecule This intermolecular association is more\nin primary amines than in secondary amines as there are two hydrogen\natoms available for hydrogen bond formation in it Tertiary amines do\nnot have intermolecular association due to the absence of hydrogen\natom available for hydrogen bond formation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7147-7150", "Text": "Primary and secondary amines are engaged in intermolecular\nassociation due to hydrogen bonding between nitrogen of one and\nhydrogen of another molecule This intermolecular association is more\nin primary amines than in secondary amines as there are two hydrogen\natoms available for hydrogen bond formation in it Tertiary amines do\nnot have intermolecular association due to the absence of hydrogen\natom available for hydrogen bond formation Therefore, the order of\nboiling points of isomeric amines is as follows:\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7148-7151", "Text": "This intermolecular association is more\nin primary amines than in secondary amines as there are two hydrogen\natoms available for hydrogen bond formation in it Tertiary amines do\nnot have intermolecular association due to the absence of hydrogen\natom available for hydrogen bond formation Therefore, the order of\nboiling points of isomeric amines is as follows:\n9 5\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7149-7152", "Text": "Tertiary amines do\nnot have intermolecular association due to the absence of hydrogen\natom available for hydrogen bond formation Therefore, the order of\nboiling points of isomeric amines is as follows:\n9 5\n9 5\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7150-7153", "Text": "Therefore, the order of\nboiling points of isomeric amines is as follows:\n9 5\n9 5\n9 5\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7151-7154", "Text": "5\n9 5\n9 5\n9 5\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7152-7155", "Text": "5\n9 5\n9 5\n9 5 Physical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7153-7156", "Text": "5\n9 5\n9 5 Physical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\n9 3\nHow will you convert\n(i) Benzene into aniline (ii) Benzene into N, N-dimethylaniline\n(iii) Cl\u2013(CH2)4\u2013Cl into hexan-1,6-diamine"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7154-7157", "Text": "5\n9 5 Physical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\n9 3\nHow will you convert\n(i) Benzene into aniline (ii) Benzene into N, N-dimethylaniline\n(iii) Cl\u2013(CH2)4\u2013Cl into hexan-1,6-diamine Intext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nWrite structures and IUPAC names of\n(i) the amide which gives propanamine by Hoffmann bromamide\nreaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7155-7158", "Text": "5 Physical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\n9 3\nHow will you convert\n(i) Benzene into aniline (ii) Benzene into N, N-dimethylaniline\n(iii) Cl\u2013(CH2)4\u2013Cl into hexan-1,6-diamine Intext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nWrite structures and IUPAC names of\n(i) the amide which gives propanamine by Hoffmann bromamide\nreaction (ii) the amine produced by the Hoffmann degradation of benzamide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7156-7159", "Text": "3\nHow will you convert\n(i) Benzene into aniline (ii) Benzene into N, N-dimethylaniline\n(iii) Cl\u2013(CH2)4\u2013Cl into hexan-1,6-diamine Intext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nWrite structures and IUPAC names of\n(i) the amide which gives propanamine by Hoffmann bromamide\nreaction (ii) the amine produced by the Hoffmann degradation of benzamide (i) Propanamine contains three carbons"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7157-7160", "Text": "Intext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nWrite structures and IUPAC names of\n(i) the amide which gives propanamine by Hoffmann bromamide\nreaction (ii) the amine produced by the Hoffmann degradation of benzamide (i) Propanamine contains three carbons Hence, the amide molecule must\ncontain four carbon atoms"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7158-7161", "Text": "(ii) the amine produced by the Hoffmann degradation of benzamide (i) Propanamine contains three carbons Hence, the amide molecule must\ncontain four carbon atoms Structure and IUPAC name of the starting\namide with four carbon atoms are given below:\nButanamide\n(ii) Benzamide is an aromatic amide containing seven carbon atoms"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7159-7162", "Text": "(i) Propanamine contains three carbons Hence, the amide molecule must\ncontain four carbon atoms Structure and IUPAC name of the starting\namide with four carbon atoms are given below:\nButanamide\n(ii) Benzamide is an aromatic amide containing seven carbon atoms Hence, the amine formed from benzamide is aromatic primary amine\ncontaining six carbon atoms"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7160-7163", "Text": "Hence, the amide molecule must\ncontain four carbon atoms Structure and IUPAC name of the starting\namide with four carbon atoms are given below:\nButanamide\n(ii) Benzamide is an aromatic amide containing seven carbon atoms Hence, the amine formed from benzamide is aromatic primary amine\ncontaining six carbon atoms Aniline or benzenamine\nExample 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7161-7164", "Text": "Structure and IUPAC name of the starting\namide with four carbon atoms are given below:\nButanamide\n(ii) Benzamide is an aromatic amide containing seven carbon atoms Hence, the amine formed from benzamide is aromatic primary amine\ncontaining six carbon atoms Aniline or benzenamine\nExample 9 3\nExample 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7162-7165", "Text": "Hence, the amine formed from benzamide is aromatic primary amine\ncontaining six carbon atoms Aniline or benzenamine\nExample 9 3\nExample 9 3\nExample 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7163-7166", "Text": "Aniline or benzenamine\nExample 9 3\nExample 9 3\nExample 9 3\nExample 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7164-7167", "Text": "3\nExample 9 3\nExample 9 3\nExample 9 3\nExample 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7165-7168", "Text": "3\nExample 9 3\nExample 9 3\nExample 9 3\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n266\nChemistry\nPrimary > Secondary > Tertiary\nIntermolecular hydrogen bonding in primary amines is shown in\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7166-7169", "Text": "3\nExample 9 3\nExample 9 3\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n266\nChemistry\nPrimary > Secondary > Tertiary\nIntermolecular hydrogen bonding in primary amines is shown in\nFig 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7167-7170", "Text": "3\nExample 9 3\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n266\nChemistry\nPrimary > Secondary > Tertiary\nIntermolecular hydrogen bonding in primary amines is shown in\nFig 9 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7168-7171", "Text": "3\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n266\nChemistry\nPrimary > Secondary > Tertiary\nIntermolecular hydrogen bonding in primary amines is shown in\nFig 9 2 Boiling points of amines, alcohols and alkanes of almost the same\nmolar mass are shown in Table 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7169-7172", "Text": "9 2 Boiling points of amines, alcohols and alkanes of almost the same\nmolar mass are shown in Table 9 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7170-7173", "Text": "2 Boiling points of amines, alcohols and alkanes of almost the same\nmolar mass are shown in Table 9 2 Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7171-7174", "Text": "Boiling points of amines, alcohols and alkanes of almost the same\nmolar mass are shown in Table 9 2 Fig 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7172-7175", "Text": "2 Fig 9 2 Intermolecular hydrogen bonding in primary amines\nTable 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7173-7176", "Text": "Fig 9 2 Intermolecular hydrogen bonding in primary amines\nTable 9 2:\nComparison of Boiling Points of Amines, Alcohols and\nAlkanes of Similar Molecular Masses\nSl"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7174-7177", "Text": "9 2 Intermolecular hydrogen bonding in primary amines\nTable 9 2:\nComparison of Boiling Points of Amines, Alcohols and\nAlkanes of Similar Molecular Masses\nSl No"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7175-7178", "Text": "2 Intermolecular hydrogen bonding in primary amines\nTable 9 2:\nComparison of Boiling Points of Amines, Alcohols and\nAlkanes of Similar Molecular Masses\nSl No Compound\nMolar mass\nb"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7176-7179", "Text": "2:\nComparison of Boiling Points of Amines, Alcohols and\nAlkanes of Similar Molecular Masses\nSl No Compound\nMolar mass\nb p"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7177-7180", "Text": "No Compound\nMolar mass\nb p /K\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7178-7181", "Text": "Compound\nMolar mass\nb p /K\n1 n-C4H9NH2\n73\n350"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7179-7182", "Text": "p /K\n1 n-C4H9NH2\n73\n350 8\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7180-7183", "Text": "/K\n1 n-C4H9NH2\n73\n350 8\n2 (C2H5)2NH\n73\n329"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7181-7184", "Text": "n-C4H9NH2\n73\n350 8\n2 (C2H5)2NH\n73\n329 3\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7182-7185", "Text": "8\n2 (C2H5)2NH\n73\n329 3\n3 C2H5N(CH3)2\n73\n310"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7183-7186", "Text": "(C2H5)2NH\n73\n329 3\n3 C2H5N(CH3)2\n73\n310 5\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7184-7187", "Text": "3\n3 C2H5N(CH3)2\n73\n310 5\n4 C2H5CH(CH3)2\n72\n300"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7185-7188", "Text": "C2H5N(CH3)2\n73\n310 5\n4 C2H5CH(CH3)2\n72\n300 8\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7186-7189", "Text": "5\n4 C2H5CH(CH3)2\n72\n300 8\n5 n-C4H9OH\n74\n390"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7187-7190", "Text": "C2H5CH(CH3)2\n72\n300 8\n5 n-C4H9OH\n74\n390 3\nDifference in electronegativity between nitrogen and hydrogen atoms and\nthe presence of unshared pair of electrons over the nitrogen atom makes\namines reactive"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7188-7191", "Text": "8\n5 n-C4H9OH\n74\n390 3\nDifference in electronegativity between nitrogen and hydrogen atoms and\nthe presence of unshared pair of electrons over the nitrogen atom makes\namines reactive The number of hydrogen atoms attached to nitrogen\natom also decides the course of reaction of amines; that is why primary\n(\u2013NH2), secondary \nN\nH and tertiary amines \nN\ndiffer in many\nreactions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7189-7192", "Text": "n-C4H9OH\n74\n390 3\nDifference in electronegativity between nitrogen and hydrogen atoms and\nthe presence of unshared pair of electrons over the nitrogen atom makes\namines reactive The number of hydrogen atoms attached to nitrogen\natom also decides the course of reaction of amines; that is why primary\n(\u2013NH2), secondary \nN\nH and tertiary amines \nN\ndiffer in many\nreactions Moreover, amines behave as nucleophiles due to the presence\nof unshared electron pair"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7190-7193", "Text": "3\nDifference in electronegativity between nitrogen and hydrogen atoms and\nthe presence of unshared pair of electrons over the nitrogen atom makes\namines reactive The number of hydrogen atoms attached to nitrogen\natom also decides the course of reaction of amines; that is why primary\n(\u2013NH2), secondary \nN\nH and tertiary amines \nN\ndiffer in many\nreactions Moreover, amines behave as nucleophiles due to the presence\nof unshared electron pair Some of the reactions of amines are described\nbelow:\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7191-7194", "Text": "The number of hydrogen atoms attached to nitrogen\natom also decides the course of reaction of amines; that is why primary\n(\u2013NH2), secondary \nN\nH and tertiary amines \nN\ndiffer in many\nreactions Moreover, amines behave as nucleophiles due to the presence\nof unshared electron pair Some of the reactions of amines are described\nbelow:\n1 Basic character of amines\nAmines, being basic in nature, react with acids to form salts"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7192-7195", "Text": "Moreover, amines behave as nucleophiles due to the presence\nof unshared electron pair Some of the reactions of amines are described\nbelow:\n1 Basic character of amines\nAmines, being basic in nature, react with acids to form salts 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7193-7196", "Text": "Some of the reactions of amines are described\nbelow:\n1 Basic character of amines\nAmines, being basic in nature, react with acids to form salts 9 6\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7194-7197", "Text": "Basic character of amines\nAmines, being basic in nature, react with acids to form salts 9 6\n9 6\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7195-7198", "Text": "9 6\n9 6\n9 6\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7196-7199", "Text": "6\n9 6\n9 6\n9 6\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7197-7200", "Text": "6\n9 6\n9 6\n9 6 Chemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nRationalised 2023-24\n267\nAmines\nAmine salts on treatment with a base like NaOH, regenerate the\nparent amine"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7198-7201", "Text": "6\n9 6\n9 6 Chemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nRationalised 2023-24\n267\nAmines\nAmine salts on treatment with a base like NaOH, regenerate the\nparent amine Amine salts are soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvents\nlike ether"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7199-7202", "Text": "6\n9 6 Chemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nRationalised 2023-24\n267\nAmines\nAmine salts on treatment with a base like NaOH, regenerate the\nparent amine Amine salts are soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvents\nlike ether This reaction is the basis for the separation of amines from\nthe non basic organic compounds insoluble in water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7200-7203", "Text": "6 Chemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nRationalised 2023-24\n267\nAmines\nAmine salts on treatment with a base like NaOH, regenerate the\nparent amine Amine salts are soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvents\nlike ether This reaction is the basis for the separation of amines from\nthe non basic organic compounds insoluble in water The reaction of amines with mineral acids to form ammonium salts\nshows that these are basic in nature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7201-7204", "Text": "Amine salts are soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvents\nlike ether This reaction is the basis for the separation of amines from\nthe non basic organic compounds insoluble in water The reaction of amines with mineral acids to form ammonium salts\nshows that these are basic in nature Amines have an unshared pair\nof electrons on nitrogen atom due to which they behave as Lewis base"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7202-7205", "Text": "This reaction is the basis for the separation of amines from\nthe non basic organic compounds insoluble in water The reaction of amines with mineral acids to form ammonium salts\nshows that these are basic in nature Amines have an unshared pair\nof electrons on nitrogen atom due to which they behave as Lewis base Basic character of amines can be better understood in terms of their Kb\nand pKb values as explained below:\nK = \uf05b\n\uf05d\uf05b\n\uf05d\n3\n2\n2\nR\nOH\nR\nH\nNH\nNH\nO\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9 \uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf02d\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n\uf02d\n2\nor\nK[H O]\n= \n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n3\n2\nO\nH\nN H\nH\nR\nR\nN\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9 \uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf02d\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n\uf02d\nor\nKb\n=\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n3\n2\nO\nN H\nNH\nH\nR\nR\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9 \uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf02d\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n\uf02d\npKb = \u2013log Kb\nLarger the value of Kb or smaller the value of pKb, stronger is the\nbase"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7203-7206", "Text": "The reaction of amines with mineral acids to form ammonium salts\nshows that these are basic in nature Amines have an unshared pair\nof electrons on nitrogen atom due to which they behave as Lewis base Basic character of amines can be better understood in terms of their Kb\nand pKb values as explained below:\nK = \uf05b\n\uf05d\uf05b\n\uf05d\n3\n2\n2\nR\nOH\nR\nH\nNH\nNH\nO\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9 \uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf02d\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n\uf02d\n2\nor\nK[H O]\n= \n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n3\n2\nO\nH\nN H\nH\nR\nR\nN\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9 \uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf02d\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n\uf02d\nor\nKb\n=\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n3\n2\nO\nN H\nNH\nH\nR\nR\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9 \uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf02d\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n\uf02d\npKb = \u2013log Kb\nLarger the value of Kb or smaller the value of pKb, stronger is the\nbase The pKb values of few amines are given in Table 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7204-7207", "Text": "Amines have an unshared pair\nof electrons on nitrogen atom due to which they behave as Lewis base Basic character of amines can be better understood in terms of their Kb\nand pKb values as explained below:\nK = \uf05b\n\uf05d\uf05b\n\uf05d\n3\n2\n2\nR\nOH\nR\nH\nNH\nNH\nO\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9 \uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf02d\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n\uf02d\n2\nor\nK[H O]\n= \n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n3\n2\nO\nH\nN H\nH\nR\nR\nN\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9 \uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf02d\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n\uf02d\nor\nKb\n=\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n3\n2\nO\nN H\nNH\nH\nR\nR\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9 \uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf02d\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n\uf02d\npKb = \u2013log Kb\nLarger the value of Kb or smaller the value of pKb, stronger is the\nbase The pKb values of few amines are given in Table 9 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7205-7208", "Text": "Basic character of amines can be better understood in terms of their Kb\nand pKb values as explained below:\nK = \uf05b\n\uf05d\uf05b\n\uf05d\n3\n2\n2\nR\nOH\nR\nH\nNH\nNH\nO\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9 \uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf02d\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n\uf02d\n2\nor\nK[H O]\n= \n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n3\n2\nO\nH\nN H\nH\nR\nR\nN\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9 \uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf02d\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n\uf02d\nor\nKb\n=\n\uf05b\n\uf05d\n3\n2\nO\nN H\nNH\nH\nR\nR\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf0e9\n\uf0f9 \uf0e9\n\uf0f9\n\uf02d\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n\uf0eb\n\uf0fb\n\uf02d\npKb = \u2013log Kb\nLarger the value of Kb or smaller the value of pKb, stronger is the\nbase The pKb values of few amines are given in Table 9 3 pKb value of ammonia is 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7206-7209", "Text": "The pKb values of few amines are given in Table 9 3 pKb value of ammonia is 4 75"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7207-7210", "Text": "3 pKb value of ammonia is 4 75 Aliphatic amines are stronger bases\nthan ammonia due to +I effect of alkyl groups leading to high electron\ndensity on the nitrogen atom"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7208-7211", "Text": "pKb value of ammonia is 4 75 Aliphatic amines are stronger bases\nthan ammonia due to +I effect of alkyl groups leading to high electron\ndensity on the nitrogen atom Their pKb values lie in the range of 3 to\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7209-7212", "Text": "75 Aliphatic amines are stronger bases\nthan ammonia due to +I effect of alkyl groups leading to high electron\ndensity on the nitrogen atom Their pKb values lie in the range of 3 to\n4 22"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7210-7213", "Text": "Aliphatic amines are stronger bases\nthan ammonia due to +I effect of alkyl groups leading to high electron\ndensity on the nitrogen atom Their pKb values lie in the range of 3 to\n4 22 On the other hand, aromatic amines are weaker bases than\nammonia due to the electron withdrawing nature of the aryl group"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7211-7214", "Text": "Their pKb values lie in the range of 3 to\n4 22 On the other hand, aromatic amines are weaker bases than\nammonia due to the electron withdrawing nature of the aryl group Name of amine\npKb\nMethanamine\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7212-7215", "Text": "22 On the other hand, aromatic amines are weaker bases than\nammonia due to the electron withdrawing nature of the aryl group Name of amine\npKb\nMethanamine\n3 38\nN-Methylmethanamine\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7213-7216", "Text": "On the other hand, aromatic amines are weaker bases than\nammonia due to the electron withdrawing nature of the aryl group Name of amine\npKb\nMethanamine\n3 38\nN-Methylmethanamine\n3 27\nN,N-Dimethylmethanamine\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7214-7217", "Text": "Name of amine\npKb\nMethanamine\n3 38\nN-Methylmethanamine\n3 27\nN,N-Dimethylmethanamine\n4 22\nEthanamine\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7215-7218", "Text": "38\nN-Methylmethanamine\n3 27\nN,N-Dimethylmethanamine\n4 22\nEthanamine\n3 29\nN-Ethylethanamine\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7216-7219", "Text": "27\nN,N-Dimethylmethanamine\n4 22\nEthanamine\n3 29\nN-Ethylethanamine\n3 00\nN,N-Diethylethanamine\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7217-7220", "Text": "22\nEthanamine\n3 29\nN-Ethylethanamine\n3 00\nN,N-Diethylethanamine\n3 25\nBenzenamine\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7218-7221", "Text": "29\nN-Ethylethanamine\n3 00\nN,N-Diethylethanamine\n3 25\nBenzenamine\n9 38\nPhenylmethanamine\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7219-7222", "Text": "00\nN,N-Diethylethanamine\n3 25\nBenzenamine\n9 38\nPhenylmethanamine\n4 70\nN-Methylaniline\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7220-7223", "Text": "25\nBenzenamine\n9 38\nPhenylmethanamine\n4 70\nN-Methylaniline\n9 30\nN,N-Dimethylaniline\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7221-7224", "Text": "38\nPhenylmethanamine\n4 70\nN-Methylaniline\n9 30\nN,N-Dimethylaniline\n8 92\n Table 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7222-7225", "Text": "70\nN-Methylaniline\n9 30\nN,N-Dimethylaniline\n8 92\n Table 9 3: pKb Values of Amines in Aqueous Phase\nRationalised 2023-24\n268\nChemistry\nYou may find some discrepancies while trying to interpret the Kb\nvalues of amines on the basis of +I or \u2013I effect of the substituents\npresent in amines"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7223-7226", "Text": "30\nN,N-Dimethylaniline\n8 92\n Table 9 3: pKb Values of Amines in Aqueous Phase\nRationalised 2023-24\n268\nChemistry\nYou may find some discrepancies while trying to interpret the Kb\nvalues of amines on the basis of +I or \u2013I effect of the substituents\npresent in amines Besides inductive effect, there are other effects like\nsolvation effect, steric hinderance, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7224-7227", "Text": "92\n Table 9 3: pKb Values of Amines in Aqueous Phase\nRationalised 2023-24\n268\nChemistry\nYou may find some discrepancies while trying to interpret the Kb\nvalues of amines on the basis of +I or \u2013I effect of the substituents\npresent in amines Besides inductive effect, there are other effects like\nsolvation effect, steric hinderance, etc , which affect the basic strength\nof amines"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7225-7228", "Text": "3: pKb Values of Amines in Aqueous Phase\nRationalised 2023-24\n268\nChemistry\nYou may find some discrepancies while trying to interpret the Kb\nvalues of amines on the basis of +I or \u2013I effect of the substituents\npresent in amines Besides inductive effect, there are other effects like\nsolvation effect, steric hinderance, etc , which affect the basic strength\nof amines Just ponder over"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7226-7229", "Text": "Besides inductive effect, there are other effects like\nsolvation effect, steric hinderance, etc , which affect the basic strength\nof amines Just ponder over You may get the answer in the following\nparagraphs"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7227-7230", "Text": ", which affect the basic strength\nof amines Just ponder over You may get the answer in the following\nparagraphs Structure-basicity relationship of amines\nBasicity of amines is related to their structure"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7228-7231", "Text": "Just ponder over You may get the answer in the following\nparagraphs Structure-basicity relationship of amines\nBasicity of amines is related to their structure Basic character of an\namine depends upon the ease of formation of the cation by accepting\na proton from the acid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7229-7232", "Text": "You may get the answer in the following\nparagraphs Structure-basicity relationship of amines\nBasicity of amines is related to their structure Basic character of an\namine depends upon the ease of formation of the cation by accepting\na proton from the acid The more stable the cation is relative to the\namine, more basic is the amine"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7230-7233", "Text": "Structure-basicity relationship of amines\nBasicity of amines is related to their structure Basic character of an\namine depends upon the ease of formation of the cation by accepting\na proton from the acid The more stable the cation is relative to the\namine, more basic is the amine (a) Alkanamines versus ammonia\nLet us consider the reaction of an alkanamine and ammonia with\na proton to compare their basicity"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7231-7234", "Text": "Basic character of an\namine depends upon the ease of formation of the cation by accepting\na proton from the acid The more stable the cation is relative to the\namine, more basic is the amine (a) Alkanamines versus ammonia\nLet us consider the reaction of an alkanamine and ammonia with\na proton to compare their basicity Due to the electron releasing nature of alkyl group, it (R) pushes\nelectrons towards nitrogen and thus makes the unshared electron\npair more available for sharing with the proton of the acid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7232-7235", "Text": "The more stable the cation is relative to the\namine, more basic is the amine (a) Alkanamines versus ammonia\nLet us consider the reaction of an alkanamine and ammonia with\na proton to compare their basicity Due to the electron releasing nature of alkyl group, it (R) pushes\nelectrons towards nitrogen and thus makes the unshared electron\npair more available for sharing with the proton of the acid Moreover,\nthe substituted ammonium ion formed from the amine gets stabilised\ndue to dispersal of the positive charge by the +I effect of the alkyl\ngroup"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7233-7236", "Text": "(a) Alkanamines versus ammonia\nLet us consider the reaction of an alkanamine and ammonia with\na proton to compare their basicity Due to the electron releasing nature of alkyl group, it (R) pushes\nelectrons towards nitrogen and thus makes the unshared electron\npair more available for sharing with the proton of the acid Moreover,\nthe substituted ammonium ion formed from the amine gets stabilised\ndue to dispersal of the positive charge by the +I effect of the alkyl\ngroup Hence, alkylamines are stronger bases than ammonia"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7234-7237", "Text": "Due to the electron releasing nature of alkyl group, it (R) pushes\nelectrons towards nitrogen and thus makes the unshared electron\npair more available for sharing with the proton of the acid Moreover,\nthe substituted ammonium ion formed from the amine gets stabilised\ndue to dispersal of the positive charge by the +I effect of the alkyl\ngroup Hence, alkylamines are stronger bases than ammonia Thus, the basic nature of aliphatic amines should increase with\nincrease in the number of alkyl groups"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7235-7238", "Text": "Moreover,\nthe substituted ammonium ion formed from the amine gets stabilised\ndue to dispersal of the positive charge by the +I effect of the alkyl\ngroup Hence, alkylamines are stronger bases than ammonia Thus, the basic nature of aliphatic amines should increase with\nincrease in the number of alkyl groups This trend is followed in\nthe gaseous phase"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7236-7239", "Text": "Hence, alkylamines are stronger bases than ammonia Thus, the basic nature of aliphatic amines should increase with\nincrease in the number of alkyl groups This trend is followed in\nthe gaseous phase The order of basicity of amines in the gaseous\nphase follows the expected order: tertiary amine > secondary amine\n> primary amine > NH3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7237-7240", "Text": "Thus, the basic nature of aliphatic amines should increase with\nincrease in the number of alkyl groups This trend is followed in\nthe gaseous phase The order of basicity of amines in the gaseous\nphase follows the expected order: tertiary amine > secondary amine\n> primary amine > NH3 The trend is not regular in the aqueous\nstate as evident by their pKb values given in Table 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7238-7241", "Text": "This trend is followed in\nthe gaseous phase The order of basicity of amines in the gaseous\nphase follows the expected order: tertiary amine > secondary amine\n> primary amine > NH3 The trend is not regular in the aqueous\nstate as evident by their pKb values given in Table 9 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7239-7242", "Text": "The order of basicity of amines in the gaseous\nphase follows the expected order: tertiary amine > secondary amine\n> primary amine > NH3 The trend is not regular in the aqueous\nstate as evident by their pKb values given in Table 9 3 In the\naqueous phase, the substituted ammonium cations get stabilised\nnot only by electron releasing effect of the alkyl group (+I) but also\nby solvation with water molecules"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7240-7243", "Text": "The trend is not regular in the aqueous\nstate as evident by their pKb values given in Table 9 3 In the\naqueous phase, the substituted ammonium cations get stabilised\nnot only by electron releasing effect of the alkyl group (+I) but also\nby solvation with water molecules The greater the size of the ion,\nlesser will be the solvation and the less stabilised is the ion"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7241-7244", "Text": "3 In the\naqueous phase, the substituted ammonium cations get stabilised\nnot only by electron releasing effect of the alkyl group (+I) but also\nby solvation with water molecules The greater the size of the ion,\nlesser will be the solvation and the less stabilised is the ion The\norder of stability of ions are as follows:\nDecreasing order of extent of H-bonding in water and order of\nstability of ions by solvation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7242-7245", "Text": "In the\naqueous phase, the substituted ammonium cations get stabilised\nnot only by electron releasing effect of the alkyl group (+I) but also\nby solvation with water molecules The greater the size of the ion,\nlesser will be the solvation and the less stabilised is the ion The\norder of stability of ions are as follows:\nDecreasing order of extent of H-bonding in water and order of\nstability of ions by solvation Rationalised 2023-24\n269\nAmines\nGreater is the stability of the substituted ammonium cation, stronger\nshould be the corresponding amine as a base"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7243-7246", "Text": "The greater the size of the ion,\nlesser will be the solvation and the less stabilised is the ion The\norder of stability of ions are as follows:\nDecreasing order of extent of H-bonding in water and order of\nstability of ions by solvation Rationalised 2023-24\n269\nAmines\nGreater is the stability of the substituted ammonium cation, stronger\nshould be the corresponding amine as a base Thus, the order of basicity\nof aliphatic amines should be: primary > secondary > tertiary, which\nis opposite to the inductive effect based order"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7244-7247", "Text": "The\norder of stability of ions are as follows:\nDecreasing order of extent of H-bonding in water and order of\nstability of ions by solvation Rationalised 2023-24\n269\nAmines\nGreater is the stability of the substituted ammonium cation, stronger\nshould be the corresponding amine as a base Thus, the order of basicity\nof aliphatic amines should be: primary > secondary > tertiary, which\nis opposite to the inductive effect based order Secondly, when the\nalkyl group is small, like \u2013CH3 group, there is no steric hindrance to\nH-bonding"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7245-7248", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n269\nAmines\nGreater is the stability of the substituted ammonium cation, stronger\nshould be the corresponding amine as a base Thus, the order of basicity\nof aliphatic amines should be: primary > secondary > tertiary, which\nis opposite to the inductive effect based order Secondly, when the\nalkyl group is small, like \u2013CH3 group, there is no steric hindrance to\nH-bonding In case the alkyl group is bigger than CH3 group, there will\nbe steric hinderance to H-bonding"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7246-7249", "Text": "Thus, the order of basicity\nof aliphatic amines should be: primary > secondary > tertiary, which\nis opposite to the inductive effect based order Secondly, when the\nalkyl group is small, like \u2013CH3 group, there is no steric hindrance to\nH-bonding In case the alkyl group is bigger than CH3 group, there will\nbe steric hinderance to H-bonding Therefore, the change of nature of\nthe alkyl group, e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7247-7250", "Text": "Secondly, when the\nalkyl group is small, like \u2013CH3 group, there is no steric hindrance to\nH-bonding In case the alkyl group is bigger than CH3 group, there will\nbe steric hinderance to H-bonding Therefore, the change of nature of\nthe alkyl group, e g"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7248-7251", "Text": "In case the alkyl group is bigger than CH3 group, there will\nbe steric hinderance to H-bonding Therefore, the change of nature of\nthe alkyl group, e g , from \u2013CH3 to \u2013C2H5 results in change of the order\nof basic strength"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7249-7252", "Text": "Therefore, the change of nature of\nthe alkyl group, e g , from \u2013CH3 to \u2013C2H5 results in change of the order\nof basic strength Thus, there is a subtle interplay of the inductive\neffect, solvation effect and steric hinderance of the alkyl group which\ndecides the basic strength of alkyl amines in the aqueous state"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7250-7253", "Text": "g , from \u2013CH3 to \u2013C2H5 results in change of the order\nof basic strength Thus, there is a subtle interplay of the inductive\neffect, solvation effect and steric hinderance of the alkyl group which\ndecides the basic strength of alkyl amines in the aqueous state The\norder of basic strength in case of methyl substituted amines and ethyl\nsubstituted amines in aqueous solution is as follows:\n(C2H5)2NH > (C2H5)3N > C2H5NH2 > NH3\n(CH3)2NH > CH3NH2 > (CH3)3N > NH3\n(b) Arylamines versus ammonia\npKb value of aniline is quite high"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7251-7254", "Text": ", from \u2013CH3 to \u2013C2H5 results in change of the order\nof basic strength Thus, there is a subtle interplay of the inductive\neffect, solvation effect and steric hinderance of the alkyl group which\ndecides the basic strength of alkyl amines in the aqueous state The\norder of basic strength in case of methyl substituted amines and ethyl\nsubstituted amines in aqueous solution is as follows:\n(C2H5)2NH > (C2H5)3N > C2H5NH2 > NH3\n(CH3)2NH > CH3NH2 > (CH3)3N > NH3\n(b) Arylamines versus ammonia\npKb value of aniline is quite high Why is it so"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7252-7255", "Text": "Thus, there is a subtle interplay of the inductive\neffect, solvation effect and steric hinderance of the alkyl group which\ndecides the basic strength of alkyl amines in the aqueous state The\norder of basic strength in case of methyl substituted amines and ethyl\nsubstituted amines in aqueous solution is as follows:\n(C2H5)2NH > (C2H5)3N > C2H5NH2 > NH3\n(CH3)2NH > CH3NH2 > (CH3)3N > NH3\n(b) Arylamines versus ammonia\npKb value of aniline is quite high Why is it so It is because in\naniline or other arylamines, the -NH2 group is attached directly to\nthe benzene ring"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7253-7256", "Text": "The\norder of basic strength in case of methyl substituted amines and ethyl\nsubstituted amines in aqueous solution is as follows:\n(C2H5)2NH > (C2H5)3N > C2H5NH2 > NH3\n(CH3)2NH > CH3NH2 > (CH3)3N > NH3\n(b) Arylamines versus ammonia\npKb value of aniline is quite high Why is it so It is because in\naniline or other arylamines, the -NH2 group is attached directly to\nthe benzene ring It results in the unshared electron pair on nitrogen\natom to be in conjugation with the benzene ring and thus making\nit less available for protonation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7254-7257", "Text": "Why is it so It is because in\naniline or other arylamines, the -NH2 group is attached directly to\nthe benzene ring It results in the unshared electron pair on nitrogen\natom to be in conjugation with the benzene ring and thus making\nit less available for protonation If you write different resonating\nstructures of aniline, you will find that aniline is a resonance\nhybrid of the following five structures"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7255-7258", "Text": "It is because in\naniline or other arylamines, the -NH2 group is attached directly to\nthe benzene ring It results in the unshared electron pair on nitrogen\natom to be in conjugation with the benzene ring and thus making\nit less available for protonation If you write different resonating\nstructures of aniline, you will find that aniline is a resonance\nhybrid of the following five structures On the other hand, anilinium ion obtained by accepting a proton\ncan have only two resonating structures (kekule)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7256-7259", "Text": "It results in the unshared electron pair on nitrogen\natom to be in conjugation with the benzene ring and thus making\nit less available for protonation If you write different resonating\nstructures of aniline, you will find that aniline is a resonance\nhybrid of the following five structures On the other hand, anilinium ion obtained by accepting a proton\ncan have only two resonating structures (kekule) We know that greater the number of resonating structures, greater\nis the stability"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7257-7260", "Text": "If you write different resonating\nstructures of aniline, you will find that aniline is a resonance\nhybrid of the following five structures On the other hand, anilinium ion obtained by accepting a proton\ncan have only two resonating structures (kekule) We know that greater the number of resonating structures, greater\nis the stability Thus you can infer that aniline (five resonating\nstructures) is more stable than anilinium ion"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7258-7261", "Text": "On the other hand, anilinium ion obtained by accepting a proton\ncan have only two resonating structures (kekule) We know that greater the number of resonating structures, greater\nis the stability Thus you can infer that aniline (five resonating\nstructures) is more stable than anilinium ion Hence, the proton\nacceptability or the basic nature of aniline or other aromatic amines\nwould be less than that of ammonia"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7259-7262", "Text": "We know that greater the number of resonating structures, greater\nis the stability Thus you can infer that aniline (five resonating\nstructures) is more stable than anilinium ion Hence, the proton\nacceptability or the basic nature of aniline or other aromatic amines\nwould be less than that of ammonia In case of substituted aniline, it\nis observed that electron releasing groups like \u2013OCH3, \u2013CH3 increase\nbasic strength whereas electron withdrawing groups like \u2013NO2, \u2013SO3H,\n\u2013COOH, \u2013X decrease it"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7260-7263", "Text": "Thus you can infer that aniline (five resonating\nstructures) is more stable than anilinium ion Hence, the proton\nacceptability or the basic nature of aniline or other aromatic amines\nwould be less than that of ammonia In case of substituted aniline, it\nis observed that electron releasing groups like \u2013OCH3, \u2013CH3 increase\nbasic strength whereas electron withdrawing groups like \u2013NO2, \u2013SO3H,\n\u2013COOH, \u2013X decrease it Rationalised 2023-24\n270\nChemistry\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7261-7264", "Text": "Hence, the proton\nacceptability or the basic nature of aniline or other aromatic amines\nwould be less than that of ammonia In case of substituted aniline, it\nis observed that electron releasing groups like \u2013OCH3, \u2013CH3 increase\nbasic strength whereas electron withdrawing groups like \u2013NO2, \u2013SO3H,\n\u2013COOH, \u2013X decrease it Rationalised 2023-24\n270\nChemistry\n2 Alkylation\nAmines undergo alkylation on reaction with alkyl halides (refer Unit\n6, Class XII)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7262-7265", "Text": "In case of substituted aniline, it\nis observed that electron releasing groups like \u2013OCH3, \u2013CH3 increase\nbasic strength whereas electron withdrawing groups like \u2013NO2, \u2013SO3H,\n\u2013COOH, \u2013X decrease it Rationalised 2023-24\n270\nChemistry\n2 Alkylation\nAmines undergo alkylation on reaction with alkyl halides (refer Unit\n6, Class XII) 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7263-7266", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n270\nChemistry\n2 Alkylation\nAmines undergo alkylation on reaction with alkyl halides (refer Unit\n6, Class XII) 3 Acylation\nAliphatic and aromatic primary and secondary amines react with\nacid chlorides, anhydrides and esters by nucleophilic substitution\nreaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7264-7267", "Text": "Alkylation\nAmines undergo alkylation on reaction with alkyl halides (refer Unit\n6, Class XII) 3 Acylation\nAliphatic and aromatic primary and secondary amines react with\nacid chlorides, anhydrides and esters by nucleophilic substitution\nreaction This reaction is known as acylation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7265-7268", "Text": "3 Acylation\nAliphatic and aromatic primary and secondary amines react with\nacid chlorides, anhydrides and esters by nucleophilic substitution\nreaction This reaction is known as acylation You can consider\nthis reaction as the replacement of hydrogen atom of \u2013NH2 or >N\u2013H\ngroup by the acyl group"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7266-7269", "Text": "Acylation\nAliphatic and aromatic primary and secondary amines react with\nacid chlorides, anhydrides and esters by nucleophilic substitution\nreaction This reaction is known as acylation You can consider\nthis reaction as the replacement of hydrogen atom of \u2013NH2 or >N\u2013H\ngroup by the acyl group The products obtained by acylation reaction\nare known as amides"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7267-7270", "Text": "This reaction is known as acylation You can consider\nthis reaction as the replacement of hydrogen atom of \u2013NH2 or >N\u2013H\ngroup by the acyl group The products obtained by acylation reaction\nare known as amides The reaction is carried out in the presence of\na base stronger than the amine, like pyridine, which removes HCl so\nformed and shifts the equilibrium to the right hand side"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7268-7271", "Text": "You can consider\nthis reaction as the replacement of hydrogen atom of \u2013NH2 or >N\u2013H\ngroup by the acyl group The products obtained by acylation reaction\nare known as amides The reaction is carried out in the presence of\na base stronger than the amine, like pyridine, which removes HCl so\nformed and shifts the equilibrium to the right hand side Amines also react with benzoyl chloride (C6H5COCl)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7269-7272", "Text": "The products obtained by acylation reaction\nare known as amides The reaction is carried out in the presence of\na base stronger than the amine, like pyridine, which removes HCl so\nformed and shifts the equilibrium to the right hand side Amines also react with benzoyl chloride (C6H5COCl) This reaction\nis known as benzoylation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7270-7273", "Text": "The reaction is carried out in the presence of\na base stronger than the amine, like pyridine, which removes HCl so\nformed and shifts the equilibrium to the right hand side Amines also react with benzoyl chloride (C6H5COCl) This reaction\nis known as benzoylation 3\n6\n5\n6\n5\n2\n3\nMethanamine\nBenzoyl chloride\nN\nMethylbenzamide\nNH\nC C\nO\nCH\nC H\nCH\nC H\nH l\nNH\nl\nC\nC\nO\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf0ae\n\uf02b\nWhat do you think is the product of the reaction of amines with\ncarboxylic acids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7271-7274", "Text": "Amines also react with benzoyl chloride (C6H5COCl) This reaction\nis known as benzoylation 3\n6\n5\n6\n5\n2\n3\nMethanamine\nBenzoyl chloride\nN\nMethylbenzamide\nNH\nC C\nO\nCH\nC H\nCH\nC H\nH l\nNH\nl\nC\nC\nO\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf0ae\n\uf02b\nWhat do you think is the product of the reaction of amines with\ncarboxylic acids They form salts with amines at room temperature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7272-7275", "Text": "This reaction\nis known as benzoylation 3\n6\n5\n6\n5\n2\n3\nMethanamine\nBenzoyl chloride\nN\nMethylbenzamide\nNH\nC C\nO\nCH\nC H\nCH\nC H\nH l\nNH\nl\nC\nC\nO\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf0ae\n\uf02b\nWhat do you think is the product of the reaction of amines with\ncarboxylic acids They form salts with amines at room temperature Arrange the following in decreasing order of their basic strength:\nC6H5NH2, C2H5NH2, (C2H5)2NH, NH3\nThe decreasing order of basic strength of the above amines and ammonia\nfollows the following order:\n(C2H5)2NH > C2H5NH2 > NH3 > C6H5NH2\nExample 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7273-7276", "Text": "3\n6\n5\n6\n5\n2\n3\nMethanamine\nBenzoyl chloride\nN\nMethylbenzamide\nNH\nC C\nO\nCH\nC H\nCH\nC H\nH l\nNH\nl\nC\nC\nO\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf0ae\n\uf02b\nWhat do you think is the product of the reaction of amines with\ncarboxylic acids They form salts with amines at room temperature Arrange the following in decreasing order of their basic strength:\nC6H5NH2, C2H5NH2, (C2H5)2NH, NH3\nThe decreasing order of basic strength of the above amines and ammonia\nfollows the following order:\n(C2H5)2NH > C2H5NH2 > NH3 > C6H5NH2\nExample 9 4\nExample 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7274-7277", "Text": "They form salts with amines at room temperature Arrange the following in decreasing order of their basic strength:\nC6H5NH2, C2H5NH2, (C2H5)2NH, NH3\nThe decreasing order of basic strength of the above amines and ammonia\nfollows the following order:\n(C2H5)2NH > C2H5NH2 > NH3 > C6H5NH2\nExample 9 4\nExample 9 4\nExample 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7275-7278", "Text": "Arrange the following in decreasing order of their basic strength:\nC6H5NH2, C2H5NH2, (C2H5)2NH, NH3\nThe decreasing order of basic strength of the above amines and ammonia\nfollows the following order:\n(C2H5)2NH > C2H5NH2 > NH3 > C6H5NH2\nExample 9 4\nExample 9 4\nExample 9 4\nExample 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7276-7279", "Text": "4\nExample 9 4\nExample 9 4\nExample 9 4\nExample 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7277-7280", "Text": "4\nExample 9 4\nExample 9 4\nExample 9 4\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n271\nAmines\nS\nO\nO\nCl\n+\nH\nN\nC H\n2\n5\nS\nO\nO\nN\nC H\n2\n5 + HCl\nN,N-Diethylbenzenesulphonamide\nC H\n2\n5\nC H\n2\n5\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7278-7281", "Text": "4\nExample 9 4\nExample 9 4\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n271\nAmines\nS\nO\nO\nCl\n+\nH\nN\nC H\n2\n5\nS\nO\nO\nN\nC H\n2\n5 + HCl\nN,N-Diethylbenzenesulphonamide\nC H\n2\n5\nC H\n2\n5\n4 Carbylamine reaction\nAliphatic and aromatic primary amines on heating with chloroform\nand ethanolic potassium hydroxide form isocyanides or carbylamines\nwhich are foul smelling substances"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7279-7282", "Text": "4\nExample 9 4\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n271\nAmines\nS\nO\nO\nCl\n+\nH\nN\nC H\n2\n5\nS\nO\nO\nN\nC H\n2\n5 + HCl\nN,N-Diethylbenzenesulphonamide\nC H\n2\n5\nC H\n2\n5\n4 Carbylamine reaction\nAliphatic and aromatic primary amines on heating with chloroform\nand ethanolic potassium hydroxide form isocyanides or carbylamines\nwhich are foul smelling substances Secondary and tertiary amines\ndo not show this reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7280-7283", "Text": "4\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nRationalised 2023-24\n271\nAmines\nS\nO\nO\nCl\n+\nH\nN\nC H\n2\n5\nS\nO\nO\nN\nC H\n2\n5 + HCl\nN,N-Diethylbenzenesulphonamide\nC H\n2\n5\nC H\n2\n5\n4 Carbylamine reaction\nAliphatic and aromatic primary amines on heating with chloroform\nand ethanolic potassium hydroxide form isocyanides or carbylamines\nwhich are foul smelling substances Secondary and tertiary amines\ndo not show this reaction This reaction is known as carbylamine\nreaction or isocyanide test and is used as a test for primary amines"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7281-7284", "Text": "Carbylamine reaction\nAliphatic and aromatic primary amines on heating with chloroform\nand ethanolic potassium hydroxide form isocyanides or carbylamines\nwhich are foul smelling substances Secondary and tertiary amines\ndo not show this reaction This reaction is known as carbylamine\nreaction or isocyanide test and is used as a test for primary amines 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7282-7285", "Text": "Secondary and tertiary amines\ndo not show this reaction This reaction is known as carbylamine\nreaction or isocyanide test and is used as a test for primary amines 5 Reaction with nitrous acid\nThree classes of amines react differently with nitrous acid which is\nprepared in situ from a mineral acid and sodium nitrite"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7283-7286", "Text": "This reaction is known as carbylamine\nreaction or isocyanide test and is used as a test for primary amines 5 Reaction with nitrous acid\nThree classes of amines react differently with nitrous acid which is\nprepared in situ from a mineral acid and sodium nitrite (a) Primary aliphatic amines react with nitrous acid to form aliphatic\ndiazonium salts which being unstable, liberate nitrogen gas\nquantitatively and alcohols"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7284-7287", "Text": "5 Reaction with nitrous acid\nThree classes of amines react differently with nitrous acid which is\nprepared in situ from a mineral acid and sodium nitrite (a) Primary aliphatic amines react with nitrous acid to form aliphatic\ndiazonium salts which being unstable, liberate nitrogen gas\nquantitatively and alcohols Quantitative evolution of nitrogen is\nused in estimation of amino acids and proteins"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7285-7288", "Text": "Reaction with nitrous acid\nThree classes of amines react differently with nitrous acid which is\nprepared in situ from a mineral acid and sodium nitrite (a) Primary aliphatic amines react with nitrous acid to form aliphatic\ndiazonium salts which being unstable, liberate nitrogen gas\nquantitatively and alcohols Quantitative evolution of nitrogen is\nused in estimation of amino acids and proteins (b) Aromatic amines react with nitrous acid at low temperatures\n(273-278 K) to form diazonium salts, a very important class of\ncompounds used for synthesis of a variety of aromatic compounds\ndiscussed in Section 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7286-7289", "Text": "(a) Primary aliphatic amines react with nitrous acid to form aliphatic\ndiazonium salts which being unstable, liberate nitrogen gas\nquantitatively and alcohols Quantitative evolution of nitrogen is\nused in estimation of amino acids and proteins (b) Aromatic amines react with nitrous acid at low temperatures\n(273-278 K) to form diazonium salts, a very important class of\ncompounds used for synthesis of a variety of aromatic compounds\ndiscussed in Section 9 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7287-7290", "Text": "Quantitative evolution of nitrogen is\nused in estimation of amino acids and proteins (b) Aromatic amines react with nitrous acid at low temperatures\n(273-278 K) to form diazonium salts, a very important class of\ncompounds used for synthesis of a variety of aromatic compounds\ndiscussed in Section 9 7 Secondary and tertiary amines react with nitrous acid in a\ndifferent manner"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7288-7291", "Text": "(b) Aromatic amines react with nitrous acid at low temperatures\n(273-278 K) to form diazonium salts, a very important class of\ncompounds used for synthesis of a variety of aromatic compounds\ndiscussed in Section 9 7 Secondary and tertiary amines react with nitrous acid in a\ndifferent manner 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7289-7292", "Text": "7 Secondary and tertiary amines react with nitrous acid in a\ndifferent manner 6 Reaction with arylsulphonyl chloride\nBenzenesulphonyl chloride (C6H5SO2Cl), which is also known as\nHinsberg\u2019s reagent, reacts with primary and secondary amines to\nform sulphonamides"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7290-7293", "Text": "Secondary and tertiary amines react with nitrous acid in a\ndifferent manner 6 Reaction with arylsulphonyl chloride\nBenzenesulphonyl chloride (C6H5SO2Cl), which is also known as\nHinsberg\u2019s reagent, reacts with primary and secondary amines to\nform sulphonamides (a) The reaction of benzenesulphonyl chloride with primary amine\nyields N-ethylbenzenesulphonyl amide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7291-7294", "Text": "6 Reaction with arylsulphonyl chloride\nBenzenesulphonyl chloride (C6H5SO2Cl), which is also known as\nHinsberg\u2019s reagent, reacts with primary and secondary amines to\nform sulphonamides (a) The reaction of benzenesulphonyl chloride with primary amine\nyields N-ethylbenzenesulphonyl amide The hydrogen attached to nitrogen in sulphonamide is strongly\nacidic due to the presence of strong electron withdrawing sulphonyl\ngroup"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7292-7295", "Text": "Reaction with arylsulphonyl chloride\nBenzenesulphonyl chloride (C6H5SO2Cl), which is also known as\nHinsberg\u2019s reagent, reacts with primary and secondary amines to\nform sulphonamides (a) The reaction of benzenesulphonyl chloride with primary amine\nyields N-ethylbenzenesulphonyl amide The hydrogen attached to nitrogen in sulphonamide is strongly\nacidic due to the presence of strong electron withdrawing sulphonyl\ngroup Hence, it is soluble in alkali"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7293-7296", "Text": "(a) The reaction of benzenesulphonyl chloride with primary amine\nyields N-ethylbenzenesulphonyl amide The hydrogen attached to nitrogen in sulphonamide is strongly\nacidic due to the presence of strong electron withdrawing sulphonyl\ngroup Hence, it is soluble in alkali (b) In the reaction with secondary amine, N,N-diethyl-\nbenzenesulphonamide is formed"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7294-7297", "Text": "The hydrogen attached to nitrogen in sulphonamide is strongly\nacidic due to the presence of strong electron withdrawing sulphonyl\ngroup Hence, it is soluble in alkali (b) In the reaction with secondary amine, N,N-diethyl-\nbenzenesulphonamide is formed Rationalised 2023-24\n272\nChemistry\nSince N, N-diethylbenzene sulphonamide does not contain any\nhydrogen atom attached to nitrogen atom, it is not acidic and hence\ninsoluble in alkali"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7295-7298", "Text": "Hence, it is soluble in alkali (b) In the reaction with secondary amine, N,N-diethyl-\nbenzenesulphonamide is formed Rationalised 2023-24\n272\nChemistry\nSince N, N-diethylbenzene sulphonamide does not contain any\nhydrogen atom attached to nitrogen atom, it is not acidic and hence\ninsoluble in alkali (c) Tertiary amines do not react with benzenesulphonyl chloride"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7296-7299", "Text": "(b) In the reaction with secondary amine, N,N-diethyl-\nbenzenesulphonamide is formed Rationalised 2023-24\n272\nChemistry\nSince N, N-diethylbenzene sulphonamide does not contain any\nhydrogen atom attached to nitrogen atom, it is not acidic and hence\ninsoluble in alkali (c) Tertiary amines do not react with benzenesulphonyl chloride This property of amines reacting with benzenesulphonyl chloride\nin a different manner is used for the distinction of primary,\nsecondary and tertiary amines and also for the separation of a\nmixture of amines"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7297-7300", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n272\nChemistry\nSince N, N-diethylbenzene sulphonamide does not contain any\nhydrogen atom attached to nitrogen atom, it is not acidic and hence\ninsoluble in alkali (c) Tertiary amines do not react with benzenesulphonyl chloride This property of amines reacting with benzenesulphonyl chloride\nin a different manner is used for the distinction of primary,\nsecondary and tertiary amines and also for the separation of a\nmixture of amines However, these days benzenesulphonyl\nchloride is replaced by p-toluenesulphonyl chloride"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7298-7301", "Text": "(c) Tertiary amines do not react with benzenesulphonyl chloride This property of amines reacting with benzenesulphonyl chloride\nin a different manner is used for the distinction of primary,\nsecondary and tertiary amines and also for the separation of a\nmixture of amines However, these days benzenesulphonyl\nchloride is replaced by p-toluenesulphonyl chloride 7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7299-7302", "Text": "This property of amines reacting with benzenesulphonyl chloride\nin a different manner is used for the distinction of primary,\nsecondary and tertiary amines and also for the separation of a\nmixture of amines However, these days benzenesulphonyl\nchloride is replaced by p-toluenesulphonyl chloride 7 Electrophilic substitution\nYou have read earlier that aniline is a resonance hybrid of five\nstructures"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7300-7303", "Text": "However, these days benzenesulphonyl\nchloride is replaced by p-toluenesulphonyl chloride 7 Electrophilic substitution\nYou have read earlier that aniline is a resonance hybrid of five\nstructures Where do you find the maximum electron density in\nthese structures"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7301-7304", "Text": "7 Electrophilic substitution\nYou have read earlier that aniline is a resonance hybrid of five\nstructures Where do you find the maximum electron density in\nthese structures Ortho- and para-positions to the \u2013NH2 group\nbecome centres of high electron density"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7302-7305", "Text": "Electrophilic substitution\nYou have read earlier that aniline is a resonance hybrid of five\nstructures Where do you find the maximum electron density in\nthese structures Ortho- and para-positions to the \u2013NH2 group\nbecome centres of high electron density Thus \u2013NH2 group is ortho\nand para directing and a powerful activating group"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7303-7306", "Text": "Where do you find the maximum electron density in\nthese structures Ortho- and para-positions to the \u2013NH2 group\nbecome centres of high electron density Thus \u2013NH2 group is ortho\nand para directing and a powerful activating group (a) Bromination: Aniline reacts with bromine water at room\ntemperature to give a white precipitate of 2,4,6-tribromoaniline"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7304-7307", "Text": "Ortho- and para-positions to the \u2013NH2 group\nbecome centres of high electron density Thus \u2013NH2 group is ortho\nand para directing and a powerful activating group (a) Bromination: Aniline reacts with bromine water at room\ntemperature to give a white precipitate of 2,4,6-tribromoaniline The main problem encountered during electrophilic substitution\nreactions of aromatic amines is that of their very high reactivity"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7305-7308", "Text": "Thus \u2013NH2 group is ortho\nand para directing and a powerful activating group (a) Bromination: Aniline reacts with bromine water at room\ntemperature to give a white precipitate of 2,4,6-tribromoaniline The main problem encountered during electrophilic substitution\nreactions of aromatic amines is that of their very high reactivity Substitution tends to occur at ortho- and para-positions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7306-7309", "Text": "(a) Bromination: Aniline reacts with bromine water at room\ntemperature to give a white precipitate of 2,4,6-tribromoaniline The main problem encountered during electrophilic substitution\nreactions of aromatic amines is that of their very high reactivity Substitution tends to occur at ortho- and para-positions If we\nhave to prepare monosubstituted aniline derivative, how can\nthe activating effect of \u2013NH2 group be controlled"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7307-7310", "Text": "The main problem encountered during electrophilic substitution\nreactions of aromatic amines is that of their very high reactivity Substitution tends to occur at ortho- and para-positions If we\nhave to prepare monosubstituted aniline derivative, how can\nthe activating effect of \u2013NH2 group be controlled This can be\ndone by protecting the -NH2 group by acetylation with acetic\nanhydride, then carrying out the desired substitution followed\nby hydrolysis of the substituted amide to the substituted amine"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7308-7311", "Text": "Substitution tends to occur at ortho- and para-positions If we\nhave to prepare monosubstituted aniline derivative, how can\nthe activating effect of \u2013NH2 group be controlled This can be\ndone by protecting the -NH2 group by acetylation with acetic\nanhydride, then carrying out the desired substitution followed\nby hydrolysis of the substituted amide to the substituted amine The lone pair of electrons on nitrogen of acetanilide interacts\nwith oxygen atom due to resonance as shown below:\nRationalised 2023-24\n273\nAmines\nHence, the lone pair of electrons on nitrogen is less available for\ndonation to benzene ring by resonance"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7309-7312", "Text": "If we\nhave to prepare monosubstituted aniline derivative, how can\nthe activating effect of \u2013NH2 group be controlled This can be\ndone by protecting the -NH2 group by acetylation with acetic\nanhydride, then carrying out the desired substitution followed\nby hydrolysis of the substituted amide to the substituted amine The lone pair of electrons on nitrogen of acetanilide interacts\nwith oxygen atom due to resonance as shown below:\nRationalised 2023-24\n273\nAmines\nHence, the lone pair of electrons on nitrogen is less available for\ndonation to benzene ring by resonance Therefore, activating\neffect of \u2013NHCOCH3 group is less than that of amino group"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7310-7313", "Text": "This can be\ndone by protecting the -NH2 group by acetylation with acetic\nanhydride, then carrying out the desired substitution followed\nby hydrolysis of the substituted amide to the substituted amine The lone pair of electrons on nitrogen of acetanilide interacts\nwith oxygen atom due to resonance as shown below:\nRationalised 2023-24\n273\nAmines\nHence, the lone pair of electrons on nitrogen is less available for\ndonation to benzene ring by resonance Therefore, activating\neffect of \u2013NHCOCH3 group is less than that of amino group (b) Nitration: Direct nitration of aniline yields tarry oxidation\nproducts in addition to the nitro derivatives"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7311-7314", "Text": "The lone pair of electrons on nitrogen of acetanilide interacts\nwith oxygen atom due to resonance as shown below:\nRationalised 2023-24\n273\nAmines\nHence, the lone pair of electrons on nitrogen is less available for\ndonation to benzene ring by resonance Therefore, activating\neffect of \u2013NHCOCH3 group is less than that of amino group (b) Nitration: Direct nitration of aniline yields tarry oxidation\nproducts in addition to the nitro derivatives Moreover, in the\nstrongly acidic medium, aniline is protonated to form the\nanilinium ion which is meta directing"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7312-7315", "Text": "Therefore, activating\neffect of \u2013NHCOCH3 group is less than that of amino group (b) Nitration: Direct nitration of aniline yields tarry oxidation\nproducts in addition to the nitro derivatives Moreover, in the\nstrongly acidic medium, aniline is protonated to form the\nanilinium ion which is meta directing That is why besides the\northo and para derivatives, significant amount of meta derivative\nis also formed"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7313-7316", "Text": "(b) Nitration: Direct nitration of aniline yields tarry oxidation\nproducts in addition to the nitro derivatives Moreover, in the\nstrongly acidic medium, aniline is protonated to form the\nanilinium ion which is meta directing That is why besides the\northo and para derivatives, significant amount of meta derivative\nis also formed However, by protecting the \u2013NH2 group by acetylation reaction\nwith acetic anhydride, the nitration reaction can be controlled\nand the p-nitro derivative can be obtained as the major product"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7314-7317", "Text": "Moreover, in the\nstrongly acidic medium, aniline is protonated to form the\nanilinium ion which is meta directing That is why besides the\northo and para derivatives, significant amount of meta derivative\nis also formed However, by protecting the \u2013NH2 group by acetylation reaction\nwith acetic anhydride, the nitration reaction can be controlled\nand the p-nitro derivative can be obtained as the major product (c) Sulphonation: Aniline reacts with concentrated sulphuric acid\nto form anilinium hydrogensulphate which on heating with\nsulphuric acid at 453-473K produces p-aminobenzene sulphonic\nacid, commonly known as sulphanilic acid, as the major product"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7315-7318", "Text": "That is why besides the\northo and para derivatives, significant amount of meta derivative\nis also formed However, by protecting the \u2013NH2 group by acetylation reaction\nwith acetic anhydride, the nitration reaction can be controlled\nand the p-nitro derivative can be obtained as the major product (c) Sulphonation: Aniline reacts with concentrated sulphuric acid\nto form anilinium hydrogensulphate which on heating with\nsulphuric acid at 453-473K produces p-aminobenzene sulphonic\nacid, commonly known as sulphanilic acid, as the major product Aniline does not undergo Friedel-Crafts reaction (alkylation and\nacetylation) due to salt formation with aluminium chloride, the\nLewis acid, which is used as a catalyst"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7316-7319", "Text": "However, by protecting the \u2013NH2 group by acetylation reaction\nwith acetic anhydride, the nitration reaction can be controlled\nand the p-nitro derivative can be obtained as the major product (c) Sulphonation: Aniline reacts with concentrated sulphuric acid\nto form anilinium hydrogensulphate which on heating with\nsulphuric acid at 453-473K produces p-aminobenzene sulphonic\nacid, commonly known as sulphanilic acid, as the major product Aniline does not undergo Friedel-Crafts reaction (alkylation and\nacetylation) due to salt formation with aluminium chloride, the\nLewis acid, which is used as a catalyst Due to this, nitrogen of\naniline acquires positive charge and hence acts as a strong\ndeactivating group for further reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7317-7320", "Text": "(c) Sulphonation: Aniline reacts with concentrated sulphuric acid\nto form anilinium hydrogensulphate which on heating with\nsulphuric acid at 453-473K produces p-aminobenzene sulphonic\nacid, commonly known as sulphanilic acid, as the major product Aniline does not undergo Friedel-Crafts reaction (alkylation and\nacetylation) due to salt formation with aluminium chloride, the\nLewis acid, which is used as a catalyst Due to this, nitrogen of\naniline acquires positive charge and hence acts as a strong\ndeactivating group for further reaction Rationalised 2023-24\n274\nChemistry\nII"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7318-7321", "Text": "Aniline does not undergo Friedel-Crafts reaction (alkylation and\nacetylation) due to salt formation with aluminium chloride, the\nLewis acid, which is used as a catalyst Due to this, nitrogen of\naniline acquires positive charge and hence acts as a strong\ndeactivating group for further reaction Rationalised 2023-24\n274\nChemistry\nII DIAZONIUM SALTS\nThe diazonium salts have the general formula \n\u2013\n2\nR N X\n\uf02b\n where R stands\nfor an aryl group and \n\u2013\nX ion may be Cl\n\u2013 Br,\n\u2013 \n4\nHSO\uf02d , \n4\nBF\uf02d , etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7319-7322", "Text": "Due to this, nitrogen of\naniline acquires positive charge and hence acts as a strong\ndeactivating group for further reaction Rationalised 2023-24\n274\nChemistry\nII DIAZONIUM SALTS\nThe diazonium salts have the general formula \n\u2013\n2\nR N X\n\uf02b\n where R stands\nfor an aryl group and \n\u2013\nX ion may be Cl\n\u2013 Br,\n\u2013 \n4\nHSO\uf02d , \n4\nBF\uf02d , etc They are\nnamed by suffixing diazonium to the name of the parent hydrocarbon\nfrom which they are formed, followed by the name of anion such as\nchloride, hydrogensulphate, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7320-7323", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n274\nChemistry\nII DIAZONIUM SALTS\nThe diazonium salts have the general formula \n\u2013\n2\nR N X\n\uf02b\n where R stands\nfor an aryl group and \n\u2013\nX ion may be Cl\n\u2013 Br,\n\u2013 \n4\nHSO\uf02d , \n4\nBF\uf02d , etc They are\nnamed by suffixing diazonium to the name of the parent hydrocarbon\nfrom which they are formed, followed by the name of anion such as\nchloride, hydrogensulphate, etc The \nN2\n\uf02b group is called diazonium\ngroup"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7321-7324", "Text": "DIAZONIUM SALTS\nThe diazonium salts have the general formula \n\u2013\n2\nR N X\n\uf02b\n where R stands\nfor an aryl group and \n\u2013\nX ion may be Cl\n\u2013 Br,\n\u2013 \n4\nHSO\uf02d , \n4\nBF\uf02d , etc They are\nnamed by suffixing diazonium to the name of the parent hydrocarbon\nfrom which they are formed, followed by the name of anion such as\nchloride, hydrogensulphate, etc The \nN2\n\uf02b group is called diazonium\ngroup For example, \n\u2013\n2\n6\nC H5\nN\nCl\n\uf02b\n is named as benzenediazonium\nchloride and C6H5N2\n+HSO4\n\u2013 is known as benzenediazonium\nhydrogensulphate"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7322-7325", "Text": "They are\nnamed by suffixing diazonium to the name of the parent hydrocarbon\nfrom which they are formed, followed by the name of anion such as\nchloride, hydrogensulphate, etc The \nN2\n\uf02b group is called diazonium\ngroup For example, \n\u2013\n2\n6\nC H5\nN\nCl\n\uf02b\n is named as benzenediazonium\nchloride and C6H5N2\n+HSO4\n\u2013 is known as benzenediazonium\nhydrogensulphate Primary aliphatic amines form highly unstable alkyldiazonium salts\n(refer to Section 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7323-7326", "Text": "The \nN2\n\uf02b group is called diazonium\ngroup For example, \n\u2013\n2\n6\nC H5\nN\nCl\n\uf02b\n is named as benzenediazonium\nchloride and C6H5N2\n+HSO4\n\u2013 is known as benzenediazonium\nhydrogensulphate Primary aliphatic amines form highly unstable alkyldiazonium salts\n(refer to Section 9 6)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7324-7327", "Text": "For example, \n\u2013\n2\n6\nC H5\nN\nCl\n\uf02b\n is named as benzenediazonium\nchloride and C6H5N2\n+HSO4\n\u2013 is known as benzenediazonium\nhydrogensulphate Primary aliphatic amines form highly unstable alkyldiazonium salts\n(refer to Section 9 6) Primary aromatic amines form arenediazonium\nsalts which are stable for a short time in solution at low temperatures\n(273-278 K)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7325-7328", "Text": "Primary aliphatic amines form highly unstable alkyldiazonium salts\n(refer to Section 9 6) Primary aromatic amines form arenediazonium\nsalts which are stable for a short time in solution at low temperatures\n(273-278 K) The stability of arenediazonium ion is explained on the\nbasis of resonance"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7326-7329", "Text": "6) Primary aromatic amines form arenediazonium\nsalts which are stable for a short time in solution at low temperatures\n(273-278 K) The stability of arenediazonium ion is explained on the\nbasis of resonance Benzenediazonium chloride is prepared by the reaction of aniline with\nnitrous acid at 273-278K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7327-7330", "Text": "Primary aromatic amines form arenediazonium\nsalts which are stable for a short time in solution at low temperatures\n(273-278 K) The stability of arenediazonium ion is explained on the\nbasis of resonance Benzenediazonium chloride is prepared by the reaction of aniline with\nnitrous acid at 273-278K Nitrous acid is produced in the reaction\nmixture by the reaction of sodium nitrite with hydrochloric acid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7328-7331", "Text": "The stability of arenediazonium ion is explained on the\nbasis of resonance Benzenediazonium chloride is prepared by the reaction of aniline with\nnitrous acid at 273-278K Nitrous acid is produced in the reaction\nmixture by the reaction of sodium nitrite with hydrochloric acid The\nconversion of primary aromatic amines into diazonium salts is known\nas diazotisation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7329-7332", "Text": "Benzenediazonium chloride is prepared by the reaction of aniline with\nnitrous acid at 273-278K Nitrous acid is produced in the reaction\nmixture by the reaction of sodium nitrite with hydrochloric acid The\nconversion of primary aromatic amines into diazonium salts is known\nas diazotisation Due to its instability, the diazonium salt is not\ngenerally stored and is used immediately after its preparation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7330-7333", "Text": "Nitrous acid is produced in the reaction\nmixture by the reaction of sodium nitrite with hydrochloric acid The\nconversion of primary aromatic amines into diazonium salts is known\nas diazotisation Due to its instability, the diazonium salt is not\ngenerally stored and is used immediately after its preparation \uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf02b\n\uf02b\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf02b\n\uf02b\n2\n273 278K\n6\n5\n2\n\u2013\n6\n5\n2\n2\nC H\nNaNO\n2H\nC H\nNa\nCl\nCl\nCl\nH\nN\n2H\nN\nO\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7331-7334", "Text": "The\nconversion of primary aromatic amines into diazonium salts is known\nas diazotisation Due to its instability, the diazonium salt is not\ngenerally stored and is used immediately after its preparation \uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf02b\n\uf02b\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf02b\n\uf02b\n2\n273 278K\n6\n5\n2\n\u2013\n6\n5\n2\n2\nC H\nNaNO\n2H\nC H\nNa\nCl\nCl\nCl\nH\nN\n2H\nN\nO\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n9 4\nArrange the following in increasing order of their basic strength:\n(i) C2H5NH2, C6H5NH2, NH3, C6H5CH2NH2 and (C2H5)2NH\n(ii) C2H5NH2, (C2H5)2NH, (C2H5)3N, C6H5NH2\n(iii) CH3NH2, (CH3)2NH, (CH3)3N, C6H5NH2, C6H5CH2NH2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7332-7335", "Text": "Due to its instability, the diazonium salt is not\ngenerally stored and is used immediately after its preparation \uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf02b\n\uf02b\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf02b\n\uf02b\n2\n273 278K\n6\n5\n2\n\u2013\n6\n5\n2\n2\nC H\nNaNO\n2H\nC H\nNa\nCl\nCl\nCl\nH\nN\n2H\nN\nO\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n9 4\nArrange the following in increasing order of their basic strength:\n(i) C2H5NH2, C6H5NH2, NH3, C6H5CH2NH2 and (C2H5)2NH\n(ii) C2H5NH2, (C2H5)2NH, (C2H5)3N, C6H5NH2\n(iii) CH3NH2, (CH3)2NH, (CH3)3N, C6H5NH2, C6H5CH2NH2 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7333-7336", "Text": "\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf02b\n\uf02b\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf02b\n\uf02b\n2\n273 278K\n6\n5\n2\n\u2013\n6\n5\n2\n2\nC H\nNaNO\n2H\nC H\nNa\nCl\nCl\nCl\nH\nN\n2H\nN\nO\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n9 4\nArrange the following in increasing order of their basic strength:\n(i) C2H5NH2, C6H5NH2, NH3, C6H5CH2NH2 and (C2H5)2NH\n(ii) C2H5NH2, (C2H5)2NH, (C2H5)3N, C6H5NH2\n(iii) CH3NH2, (CH3)2NH, (CH3)3N, C6H5NH2, C6H5CH2NH2 9 5\nComplete the following acid-base reactions and name the products:\n(i) CH3CH2CH2NH2 + HCl \u00ae\n(ii) (C2H5)3N + HCl \u00ae\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7334-7337", "Text": "4\nArrange the following in increasing order of their basic strength:\n(i) C2H5NH2, C6H5NH2, NH3, C6H5CH2NH2 and (C2H5)2NH\n(ii) C2H5NH2, (C2H5)2NH, (C2H5)3N, C6H5NH2\n(iii) CH3NH2, (CH3)2NH, (CH3)3N, C6H5NH2, C6H5CH2NH2 9 5\nComplete the following acid-base reactions and name the products:\n(i) CH3CH2CH2NH2 + HCl \u00ae\n(ii) (C2H5)3N + HCl \u00ae\n9 6\nWrite reactions of the final alkylation product of aniline with excess of methyl\niodide in the presence of sodium carbonate solution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7335-7338", "Text": "9 5\nComplete the following acid-base reactions and name the products:\n(i) CH3CH2CH2NH2 + HCl \u00ae\n(ii) (C2H5)3N + HCl \u00ae\n9 6\nWrite reactions of the final alkylation product of aniline with excess of methyl\niodide in the presence of sodium carbonate solution 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7336-7339", "Text": "5\nComplete the following acid-base reactions and name the products:\n(i) CH3CH2CH2NH2 + HCl \u00ae\n(ii) (C2H5)3N + HCl \u00ae\n9 6\nWrite reactions of the final alkylation product of aniline with excess of methyl\niodide in the presence of sodium carbonate solution 9 7\nWrite chemical reaction of aniline with benzoyl chloride and write the name of\nthe product obtained"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7337-7340", "Text": "6\nWrite reactions of the final alkylation product of aniline with excess of methyl\niodide in the presence of sodium carbonate solution 9 7\nWrite chemical reaction of aniline with benzoyl chloride and write the name of\nthe product obtained 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7338-7341", "Text": "9 7\nWrite chemical reaction of aniline with benzoyl chloride and write the name of\nthe product obtained 9 8\nWrite structures of different isomers corresponding to the molecular formula,\nC3H9N"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7339-7342", "Text": "7\nWrite chemical reaction of aniline with benzoyl chloride and write the name of\nthe product obtained 9 8\nWrite structures of different isomers corresponding to the molecular formula,\nC3H9N Write IUPAC names of the isomers which will liberate nitrogen gas on\ntreatment with nitrous acid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7340-7343", "Text": "9 8\nWrite structures of different isomers corresponding to the molecular formula,\nC3H9N Write IUPAC names of the isomers which will liberate nitrogen gas on\ntreatment with nitrous acid 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7341-7344", "Text": "8\nWrite structures of different isomers corresponding to the molecular formula,\nC3H9N Write IUPAC names of the isomers which will liberate nitrogen gas on\ntreatment with nitrous acid 9 7\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7342-7345", "Text": "Write IUPAC names of the isomers which will liberate nitrogen gas on\ntreatment with nitrous acid 9 7\n9 7\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7343-7346", "Text": "9 7\n9 7\n9 7\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7344-7347", "Text": "7\n9 7\n9 7\n9 7\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7345-7348", "Text": "7\n9 7\n9 7\n9 7 Method of\nMethod of\nMethod of\nMethod of\nMethod of\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nof Diazoniun\nof Diazoniun\nof Diazoniun\nof Diazoniun\nof Diazoniun\nSalts\nSalts\nSalts\nSalts\nSalts\nRationalised 2023-24\n275\nAmines\nBenzenediazonium chloride is a colourless crystalline solid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7346-7349", "Text": "7\n9 7\n9 7 Method of\nMethod of\nMethod of\nMethod of\nMethod of\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nof Diazoniun\nof Diazoniun\nof Diazoniun\nof Diazoniun\nof Diazoniun\nSalts\nSalts\nSalts\nSalts\nSalts\nRationalised 2023-24\n275\nAmines\nBenzenediazonium chloride is a colourless crystalline solid It is readily\nsoluble in water and is stable in cold but reacts with water when\nwarmed"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7347-7350", "Text": "7\n9 7 Method of\nMethod of\nMethod of\nMethod of\nMethod of\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nof Diazoniun\nof Diazoniun\nof Diazoniun\nof Diazoniun\nof Diazoniun\nSalts\nSalts\nSalts\nSalts\nSalts\nRationalised 2023-24\n275\nAmines\nBenzenediazonium chloride is a colourless crystalline solid It is readily\nsoluble in water and is stable in cold but reacts with water when\nwarmed It decomposes easily in the dry state"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7348-7351", "Text": "7 Method of\nMethod of\nMethod of\nMethod of\nMethod of\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nPreparation\nof Diazoniun\nof Diazoniun\nof Diazoniun\nof Diazoniun\nof Diazoniun\nSalts\nSalts\nSalts\nSalts\nSalts\nRationalised 2023-24\n275\nAmines\nBenzenediazonium chloride is a colourless crystalline solid It is readily\nsoluble in water and is stable in cold but reacts with water when\nwarmed It decomposes easily in the dry state Benzenediazonium\nfluoroborate is water insoluble and stable at room temperature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7349-7352", "Text": "It is readily\nsoluble in water and is stable in cold but reacts with water when\nwarmed It decomposes easily in the dry state Benzenediazonium\nfluoroborate is water insoluble and stable at room temperature The reactions of diazonium salts can be broadly divided into two\ncategories, namely (A) reactions involving displacement of nitrogen and\n(B) reactions involving retention of diazo group"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7350-7353", "Text": "It decomposes easily in the dry state Benzenediazonium\nfluoroborate is water insoluble and stable at room temperature The reactions of diazonium salts can be broadly divided into two\ncategories, namely (A) reactions involving displacement of nitrogen and\n(B) reactions involving retention of diazo group A"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7351-7354", "Text": "Benzenediazonium\nfluoroborate is water insoluble and stable at room temperature The reactions of diazonium salts can be broadly divided into two\ncategories, namely (A) reactions involving displacement of nitrogen and\n(B) reactions involving retention of diazo group A Reactions involving displacement of nitrogen\nDiazonium group being a very good leaving group, is substituted\nby other groups such as Cl\n\u2013, Br\n\u2013\n, I\n\u2013\n, CN\n\u2013\n and OH\n\u2013 which displace\nnitrogen from the aromatic ring"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7352-7355", "Text": "The reactions of diazonium salts can be broadly divided into two\ncategories, namely (A) reactions involving displacement of nitrogen and\n(B) reactions involving retention of diazo group A Reactions involving displacement of nitrogen\nDiazonium group being a very good leaving group, is substituted\nby other groups such as Cl\n\u2013, Br\n\u2013\n, I\n\u2013\n, CN\n\u2013\n and OH\n\u2013 which displace\nnitrogen from the aromatic ring The nitrogen formed escapes from\nthe reaction mixture as a gas"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7353-7356", "Text": "A Reactions involving displacement of nitrogen\nDiazonium group being a very good leaving group, is substituted\nby other groups such as Cl\n\u2013, Br\n\u2013\n, I\n\u2013\n, CN\n\u2013\n and OH\n\u2013 which displace\nnitrogen from the aromatic ring The nitrogen formed escapes from\nthe reaction mixture as a gas 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7354-7357", "Text": "Reactions involving displacement of nitrogen\nDiazonium group being a very good leaving group, is substituted\nby other groups such as Cl\n\u2013, Br\n\u2013\n, I\n\u2013\n, CN\n\u2013\n and OH\n\u2013 which displace\nnitrogen from the aromatic ring The nitrogen formed escapes from\nthe reaction mixture as a gas 1 Replacement by halide or cyanide ion: The Cl\n\u2013, Br\n\u2013 and CN\n\u2013\nnucleophiles can easily be introduced in the benzene ring in the\npresence of Cu(I) ion"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7355-7358", "Text": "The nitrogen formed escapes from\nthe reaction mixture as a gas 1 Replacement by halide or cyanide ion: The Cl\n\u2013, Br\n\u2013 and CN\n\u2013\nnucleophiles can easily be introduced in the benzene ring in the\npresence of Cu(I) ion This reaction is called Sandmeyer reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7356-7359", "Text": "1 Replacement by halide or cyanide ion: The Cl\n\u2013, Br\n\u2013 and CN\n\u2013\nnucleophiles can easily be introduced in the benzene ring in the\npresence of Cu(I) ion This reaction is called Sandmeyer reaction Alternatively, chlorine or bromine can also be introduced in the\nbenzene ring by treating the diazonium salt solution with corresponding\nhalogen acid in the presence of copper powder"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7357-7360", "Text": "Replacement by halide or cyanide ion: The Cl\n\u2013, Br\n\u2013 and CN\n\u2013\nnucleophiles can easily be introduced in the benzene ring in the\npresence of Cu(I) ion This reaction is called Sandmeyer reaction Alternatively, chlorine or bromine can also be introduced in the\nbenzene ring by treating the diazonium salt solution with corresponding\nhalogen acid in the presence of copper powder This is referred as\nGatterman reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7358-7361", "Text": "This reaction is called Sandmeyer reaction Alternatively, chlorine or bromine can also be introduced in the\nbenzene ring by treating the diazonium salt solution with corresponding\nhalogen acid in the presence of copper powder This is referred as\nGatterman reaction The yield in Sandmeyer reaction is found to be better than\nGattermann reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7359-7362", "Text": "Alternatively, chlorine or bromine can also be introduced in the\nbenzene ring by treating the diazonium salt solution with corresponding\nhalogen acid in the presence of copper powder This is referred as\nGatterman reaction The yield in Sandmeyer reaction is found to be better than\nGattermann reaction 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7360-7363", "Text": "This is referred as\nGatterman reaction The yield in Sandmeyer reaction is found to be better than\nGattermann reaction 2 Replacement by iodide ion: Iodine is not easily introduced into\nthe benzene ring directly, but, when the diazonium salt solution\nis treated with potassium iodide, iodobenzene is formed"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7361-7364", "Text": "The yield in Sandmeyer reaction is found to be better than\nGattermann reaction 2 Replacement by iodide ion: Iodine is not easily introduced into\nthe benzene ring directly, but, when the diazonium salt solution\nis treated with potassium iodide, iodobenzene is formed 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7362-7365", "Text": "2 Replacement by iodide ion: Iodine is not easily introduced into\nthe benzene ring directly, but, when the diazonium salt solution\nis treated with potassium iodide, iodobenzene is formed 3 Replacement by fluoride ion: When arenediazonium chloride is\ntreated with fluoroboric acid, arene diazonium fluoroborate is\nprecipitated which on heating decomposes to yield aryl fluoride"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7363-7366", "Text": "Replacement by iodide ion: Iodine is not easily introduced into\nthe benzene ring directly, but, when the diazonium salt solution\nis treated with potassium iodide, iodobenzene is formed 3 Replacement by fluoride ion: When arenediazonium chloride is\ntreated with fluoroboric acid, arene diazonium fluoroborate is\nprecipitated which on heating decomposes to yield aryl fluoride 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7364-7367", "Text": "3 Replacement by fluoride ion: When arenediazonium chloride is\ntreated with fluoroboric acid, arene diazonium fluoroborate is\nprecipitated which on heating decomposes to yield aryl fluoride 4 Replacement by H: Certain mild reducing agents like\nhypophosphorous acid (phosphinic acid) or ethanol reduce\ndiazonium salts to arenes and themselves get oxidised to\nphosphorous acid and ethanal, respectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7365-7368", "Text": "Replacement by fluoride ion: When arenediazonium chloride is\ntreated with fluoroboric acid, arene diazonium fluoroborate is\nprecipitated which on heating decomposes to yield aryl fluoride 4 Replacement by H: Certain mild reducing agents like\nhypophosphorous acid (phosphinic acid) or ethanol reduce\ndiazonium salts to arenes and themselves get oxidised to\nphosphorous acid and ethanal, respectively 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7366-7369", "Text": "4 Replacement by H: Certain mild reducing agents like\nhypophosphorous acid (phosphinic acid) or ethanol reduce\ndiazonium salts to arenes and themselves get oxidised to\nphosphorous acid and ethanal, respectively 9 8\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7367-7370", "Text": "Replacement by H: Certain mild reducing agents like\nhypophosphorous acid (phosphinic acid) or ethanol reduce\ndiazonium salts to arenes and themselves get oxidised to\nphosphorous acid and ethanal, respectively 9 8\n9 8\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7368-7371", "Text": "9 8\n9 8\n9 8\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7369-7372", "Text": "8\n9 8\n9 8\n9 8\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7370-7373", "Text": "8\n9 8\n9 8\n9 8\nPhysical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7371-7374", "Text": "8\n9 8\n9 8\nPhysical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\n9 9\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7372-7375", "Text": "8\n9 8\nPhysical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\n9 9\n9 9\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7373-7376", "Text": "8\nPhysical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nPhysical\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\nProperties\n9 9\n9 9\n9 9\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7374-7377", "Text": "9\n9 9\n9 9\n9 9\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7375-7378", "Text": "9\n9 9\n9 9\n9 9 Chemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\n2\n2\n2\n2\nRationalised 2023-24\n276\nChemistry\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7376-7379", "Text": "9\n9 9\n9 9 Chemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\n2\n2\n2\n2\nRationalised 2023-24\n276\nChemistry\n5 Replacement by hydroxyl group: If the temperature of the\ndiazonium salt solution is allowed to rise upto 283 K, the salt\ngets hydrolysed to phenol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7377-7380", "Text": "9\n9 9 Chemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\n2\n2\n2\n2\nRationalised 2023-24\n276\nChemistry\n5 Replacement by hydroxyl group: If the temperature of the\ndiazonium salt solution is allowed to rise upto 283 K, the salt\ngets hydrolysed to phenol 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7378-7381", "Text": "9 Chemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nChemical\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\nReactions\n2\n2\n2\n2\nRationalised 2023-24\n276\nChemistry\n5 Replacement by hydroxyl group: If the temperature of the\ndiazonium salt solution is allowed to rise upto 283 K, the salt\ngets hydrolysed to phenol 6 Replacement by \u2013NO2 group: When diazonium fluoroborate is\nheated with aqueous sodium nitrite solution in the presence of\ncopper, the diazonium group is replaced by \u2013NO2 group"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7379-7382", "Text": "Replacement by hydroxyl group: If the temperature of the\ndiazonium salt solution is allowed to rise upto 283 K, the salt\ngets hydrolysed to phenol 6 Replacement by \u2013NO2 group: When diazonium fluoroborate is\nheated with aqueous sodium nitrite solution in the presence of\ncopper, the diazonium group is replaced by \u2013NO2 group B"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7380-7383", "Text": "6 Replacement by \u2013NO2 group: When diazonium fluoroborate is\nheated with aqueous sodium nitrite solution in the presence of\ncopper, the diazonium group is replaced by \u2013NO2 group B Reactions involving retention of diazo group\ncoupling reactions\nThe azo products obtained have an extended conjugate system having\nboth the aromatic rings joined through the \u2013N=N\u2013 bond"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7381-7384", "Text": "Replacement by \u2013NO2 group: When diazonium fluoroborate is\nheated with aqueous sodium nitrite solution in the presence of\ncopper, the diazonium group is replaced by \u2013NO2 group B Reactions involving retention of diazo group\ncoupling reactions\nThe azo products obtained have an extended conjugate system having\nboth the aromatic rings joined through the \u2013N=N\u2013 bond These compounds\nare often coloured and are used as dyes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7382-7385", "Text": "B Reactions involving retention of diazo group\ncoupling reactions\nThe azo products obtained have an extended conjugate system having\nboth the aromatic rings joined through the \u2013N=N\u2013 bond These compounds\nare often coloured and are used as dyes Benzene diazonium chloride\nreacts with phenol in which the phenol molecule at its para position is\ncoupled with the diazonium salt to form p-hydroxyazobenzene"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7383-7386", "Text": "Reactions involving retention of diazo group\ncoupling reactions\nThe azo products obtained have an extended conjugate system having\nboth the aromatic rings joined through the \u2013N=N\u2013 bond These compounds\nare often coloured and are used as dyes Benzene diazonium chloride\nreacts with phenol in which the phenol molecule at its para position is\ncoupled with the diazonium salt to form p-hydroxyazobenzene This\ntype of reaction is known as coupling reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7384-7387", "Text": "These compounds\nare often coloured and are used as dyes Benzene diazonium chloride\nreacts with phenol in which the phenol molecule at its para position is\ncoupled with the diazonium salt to form p-hydroxyazobenzene This\ntype of reaction is known as coupling reaction Similarly the reaction of\ndiazonium salt with aniline yields p-aminoazobenzene"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7385-7388", "Text": "Benzene diazonium chloride\nreacts with phenol in which the phenol molecule at its para position is\ncoupled with the diazonium salt to form p-hydroxyazobenzene This\ntype of reaction is known as coupling reaction Similarly the reaction of\ndiazonium salt with aniline yields p-aminoazobenzene This is an example\nof electrophilic substitution reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7386-7389", "Text": "This\ntype of reaction is known as coupling reaction Similarly the reaction of\ndiazonium salt with aniline yields p-aminoazobenzene This is an example\nof electrophilic substitution reaction From the above reactions, it is clear that the diazonium salts are very\ngood intermediates for the introduction of \u2013F, \u2013Cl, \u2013Br, \u2013I, \u2013CN, \u2013OH,\n\u2013NO2 groups into the aromatic ring"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7387-7390", "Text": "Similarly the reaction of\ndiazonium salt with aniline yields p-aminoazobenzene This is an example\nof electrophilic substitution reaction From the above reactions, it is clear that the diazonium salts are very\ngood intermediates for the introduction of \u2013F, \u2013Cl, \u2013Br, \u2013I, \u2013CN, \u2013OH,\n\u2013NO2 groups into the aromatic ring Aryl fluorides and iodides cannot be prepared by direct halogenation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7388-7391", "Text": "This is an example\nof electrophilic substitution reaction From the above reactions, it is clear that the diazonium salts are very\ngood intermediates for the introduction of \u2013F, \u2013Cl, \u2013Br, \u2013I, \u2013CN, \u2013OH,\n\u2013NO2 groups into the aromatic ring Aryl fluorides and iodides cannot be prepared by direct halogenation The cyano group cannot be introduced by nucleophilic substitution of\nchlorine in chlorobenzene but cyanobenzene can be easily obtained\nfrom diazonium salt"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7389-7392", "Text": "From the above reactions, it is clear that the diazonium salts are very\ngood intermediates for the introduction of \u2013F, \u2013Cl, \u2013Br, \u2013I, \u2013CN, \u2013OH,\n\u2013NO2 groups into the aromatic ring Aryl fluorides and iodides cannot be prepared by direct halogenation The cyano group cannot be introduced by nucleophilic substitution of\nchlorine in chlorobenzene but cyanobenzene can be easily obtained\nfrom diazonium salt Thus, the replacement of diazo group by other groups is helpful in\n99999"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7390-7393", "Text": "Aryl fluorides and iodides cannot be prepared by direct halogenation The cyano group cannot be introduced by nucleophilic substitution of\nchlorine in chlorobenzene but cyanobenzene can be easily obtained\nfrom diazonium salt Thus, the replacement of diazo group by other groups is helpful in\n99999 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7391-7394", "Text": "The cyano group cannot be introduced by nucleophilic substitution of\nchlorine in chlorobenzene but cyanobenzene can be easily obtained\nfrom diazonium salt Thus, the replacement of diazo group by other groups is helpful in\n99999 10 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7392-7395", "Text": "Thus, the replacement of diazo group by other groups is helpful in\n99999 10 10 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7393-7396", "Text": "10 10 10 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7394-7397", "Text": "10 10 10 10 Importance\nImportance\nImportance\nImportance\nImportance\nofofofofof Diazonium\nDiazonium\nDiazonium\nDiazonium\nDiazonium\nSalts in\nSalts in\nSalts in\nSalts in\nSalts in\nSynthesis\nSynthesis\nSynthesis\nSynthesis\nSynthesis\nof Aromatic\nof Aromatic\nof Aromatic\nof Aromatic\nof Aromatic\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nRationalised 2023-24\n277\nAmines\npreparing those substituted aromatic compounds which cannot be\nprepared by direct substitution in benzene or substituted benzene"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7395-7398", "Text": "10 10 10 Importance\nImportance\nImportance\nImportance\nImportance\nofofofofof Diazonium\nDiazonium\nDiazonium\nDiazonium\nDiazonium\nSalts in\nSalts in\nSalts in\nSalts in\nSalts in\nSynthesis\nSynthesis\nSynthesis\nSynthesis\nSynthesis\nof Aromatic\nof Aromatic\nof Aromatic\nof Aromatic\nof Aromatic\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nRationalised 2023-24\n277\nAmines\npreparing those substituted aromatic compounds which cannot be\nprepared by direct substitution in benzene or substituted benzene 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7396-7399", "Text": "10 10 Importance\nImportance\nImportance\nImportance\nImportance\nofofofofof Diazonium\nDiazonium\nDiazonium\nDiazonium\nDiazonium\nSalts in\nSalts in\nSalts in\nSalts in\nSalts in\nSynthesis\nSynthesis\nSynthesis\nSynthesis\nSynthesis\nof Aromatic\nof Aromatic\nof Aromatic\nof Aromatic\nof Aromatic\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nRationalised 2023-24\n277\nAmines\npreparing those substituted aromatic compounds which cannot be\nprepared by direct substitution in benzene or substituted benzene 9 9\nConvert\n(i) 3-Methylaniline into 3-nitrotoluene"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7397-7400", "Text": "10 Importance\nImportance\nImportance\nImportance\nImportance\nofofofofof Diazonium\nDiazonium\nDiazonium\nDiazonium\nDiazonium\nSalts in\nSalts in\nSalts in\nSalts in\nSalts in\nSynthesis\nSynthesis\nSynthesis\nSynthesis\nSynthesis\nof Aromatic\nof Aromatic\nof Aromatic\nof Aromatic\nof Aromatic\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nCompounds\nRationalised 2023-24\n277\nAmines\npreparing those substituted aromatic compounds which cannot be\nprepared by direct substitution in benzene or substituted benzene 9 9\nConvert\n(i) 3-Methylaniline into 3-nitrotoluene (ii) Aniline into 1,3,5 - tribromobenzene"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7398-7401", "Text": "9 9\nConvert\n(i) 3-Methylaniline into 3-nitrotoluene (ii) Aniline into 1,3,5 - tribromobenzene Intext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nHow will you convert 4-nitrotoluene to 2-bromobenzoic acid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7399-7402", "Text": "9\nConvert\n(i) 3-Methylaniline into 3-nitrotoluene (ii) Aniline into 1,3,5 - tribromobenzene Intext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nHow will you convert 4-nitrotoluene to 2-bromobenzoic acid Example 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7400-7403", "Text": "(ii) Aniline into 1,3,5 - tribromobenzene Intext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nHow will you convert 4-nitrotoluene to 2-bromobenzoic acid Example 9 5\nExample 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7401-7404", "Text": "Intext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nIntext Question\nHow will you convert 4-nitrotoluene to 2-bromobenzoic acid Example 9 5\nExample 9 5\nExample 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7402-7405", "Text": "Example 9 5\nExample 9 5\nExample 9 5\nExample 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7403-7406", "Text": "5\nExample 9 5\nExample 9 5\nExample 9 5\nExample 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7404-7407", "Text": "5\nExample 9 5\nExample 9 5\nExample 9 5\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nAmines can be considered as derivatives of ammonia obtained by replacement of\nhydrogen atoms with alkyl or aryl groups"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7405-7408", "Text": "5\nExample 9 5\nExample 9 5\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nAmines can be considered as derivatives of ammonia obtained by replacement of\nhydrogen atoms with alkyl or aryl groups Replacement of one hydrogen atom of\nammonia gives rise to structure of the type R-NH2, known as primary amine"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7406-7409", "Text": "5\nExample 9 5\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nAmines can be considered as derivatives of ammonia obtained by replacement of\nhydrogen atoms with alkyl or aryl groups Replacement of one hydrogen atom of\nammonia gives rise to structure of the type R-NH2, known as primary amine Secondary amines are characterised by the structure R2NH or R-NHR\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2 and tertiary\namines by R3N, RNR\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2R\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2 or R2NR\u00a2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7407-7410", "Text": "5\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nSolution\nAmines can be considered as derivatives of ammonia obtained by replacement of\nhydrogen atoms with alkyl or aryl groups Replacement of one hydrogen atom of\nammonia gives rise to structure of the type R-NH2, known as primary amine Secondary amines are characterised by the structure R2NH or R-NHR\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2 and tertiary\namines by R3N, RNR\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2R\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2 or R2NR\u00a2 \u00a2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7408-7411", "Text": "Replacement of one hydrogen atom of\nammonia gives rise to structure of the type R-NH2, known as primary amine Secondary amines are characterised by the structure R2NH or R-NHR\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2 and tertiary\namines by R3N, RNR\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2R\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2 or R2NR\u00a2 \u00a2 \u00a2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7409-7412", "Text": "Secondary amines are characterised by the structure R2NH or R-NHR\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2 and tertiary\namines by R3N, RNR\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2R\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2\u00a2 or R2NR\u00a2 \u00a2 \u00a2 \u00a2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7410-7413", "Text": "\u00a2 \u00a2 \u00a2 \u00a2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7411-7414", "Text": "\u00a2 \u00a2 \u00a2 Secondary and tertiary amines are known as\nsimple amines if the alkyl or aryl groups are the same and mixed amines if the\ngroups are different"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7412-7415", "Text": "\u00a2 \u00a2 Secondary and tertiary amines are known as\nsimple amines if the alkyl or aryl groups are the same and mixed amines if the\ngroups are different Like ammonia, all the three types of amines have one unshared\nelectron pair on nitrogen atom due to which they behave as Lewis bases"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7413-7416", "Text": "\u00a2 Secondary and tertiary amines are known as\nsimple amines if the alkyl or aryl groups are the same and mixed amines if the\ngroups are different Like ammonia, all the three types of amines have one unshared\nelectron pair on nitrogen atom due to which they behave as Lewis bases Amines are usually formed from nitro compounds, halides, amides, imides, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7414-7417", "Text": "Secondary and tertiary amines are known as\nsimple amines if the alkyl or aryl groups are the same and mixed amines if the\ngroups are different Like ammonia, all the three types of amines have one unshared\nelectron pair on nitrogen atom due to which they behave as Lewis bases Amines are usually formed from nitro compounds, halides, amides, imides, etc They exhibit hydrogen bonding which influence their physical properties"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7415-7418", "Text": "Like ammonia, all the three types of amines have one unshared\nelectron pair on nitrogen atom due to which they behave as Lewis bases Amines are usually formed from nitro compounds, halides, amides, imides, etc They exhibit hydrogen bonding which influence their physical properties In\nalkylamines, a combination of electron releasing, steric and H-bonding factors\ninfluence the stability of the substituted ammonium cations in protic polar solvents\nand thus affect the basic nature of amines"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7416-7419", "Text": "Amines are usually formed from nitro compounds, halides, amides, imides, etc They exhibit hydrogen bonding which influence their physical properties In\nalkylamines, a combination of electron releasing, steric and H-bonding factors\ninfluence the stability of the substituted ammonium cations in protic polar solvents\nand thus affect the basic nature of amines Alkyl amines are found to be stronger\nbases than ammonia"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7417-7420", "Text": "They exhibit hydrogen bonding which influence their physical properties In\nalkylamines, a combination of electron releasing, steric and H-bonding factors\ninfluence the stability of the substituted ammonium cations in protic polar solvents\nand thus affect the basic nature of amines Alkyl amines are found to be stronger\nbases than ammonia In aromatic amines, electron releasing and withdrawing groups,\nrespectively increase and decrease their basic character"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7418-7421", "Text": "In\nalkylamines, a combination of electron releasing, steric and H-bonding factors\ninfluence the stability of the substituted ammonium cations in protic polar solvents\nand thus affect the basic nature of amines Alkyl amines are found to be stronger\nbases than ammonia In aromatic amines, electron releasing and withdrawing groups,\nrespectively increase and decrease their basic character Aniline is a weaker base\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nRationalised 2023-24\n278\nChemistry\nthan ammonia"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7419-7422", "Text": "Alkyl amines are found to be stronger\nbases than ammonia In aromatic amines, electron releasing and withdrawing groups,\nrespectively increase and decrease their basic character Aniline is a weaker base\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nRationalised 2023-24\n278\nChemistry\nthan ammonia Reactions of amines are governed by availability of the unshared pair\nof electrons on nitrogen"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7420-7423", "Text": "In aromatic amines, electron releasing and withdrawing groups,\nrespectively increase and decrease their basic character Aniline is a weaker base\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nRationalised 2023-24\n278\nChemistry\nthan ammonia Reactions of amines are governed by availability of the unshared pair\nof electrons on nitrogen Influence of the number of hydrogen atoms at nitrogen atom\non the type of reactions and nature of products is responsible for identification and\ndistinction between primary, secondary and tertiary amines"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7421-7424", "Text": "Aniline is a weaker base\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nRationalised 2023-24\n278\nChemistry\nthan ammonia Reactions of amines are governed by availability of the unshared pair\nof electrons on nitrogen Influence of the number of hydrogen atoms at nitrogen atom\non the type of reactions and nature of products is responsible for identification and\ndistinction between primary, secondary and tertiary amines p-Toluenesulphonyl chloride\nis used for the identification of primary, secondary and tertiary amines"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7422-7425", "Text": "Reactions of amines are governed by availability of the unshared pair\nof electrons on nitrogen Influence of the number of hydrogen atoms at nitrogen atom\non the type of reactions and nature of products is responsible for identification and\ndistinction between primary, secondary and tertiary amines p-Toluenesulphonyl chloride\nis used for the identification of primary, secondary and tertiary amines Presence of\namino group in aromatic ring enhances reactivity of the aromatic amines"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7423-7426", "Text": "Influence of the number of hydrogen atoms at nitrogen atom\non the type of reactions and nature of products is responsible for identification and\ndistinction between primary, secondary and tertiary amines p-Toluenesulphonyl chloride\nis used for the identification of primary, secondary and tertiary amines Presence of\namino group in aromatic ring enhances reactivity of the aromatic amines Reactivity of\naromatic amines can be controlled by acylation process, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7424-7427", "Text": "p-Toluenesulphonyl chloride\nis used for the identification of primary, secondary and tertiary amines Presence of\namino group in aromatic ring enhances reactivity of the aromatic amines Reactivity of\naromatic amines can be controlled by acylation process, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7425-7428", "Text": "Presence of\namino group in aromatic ring enhances reactivity of the aromatic amines Reactivity of\naromatic amines can be controlled by acylation process, i e , by treating with acetyl\nchloride or acetic anhydride"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7426-7429", "Text": "Reactivity of\naromatic amines can be controlled by acylation process, i e , by treating with acetyl\nchloride or acetic anhydride Tertiary amines like trimethylamine are used as insect\nattractants"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7427-7430", "Text": "e , by treating with acetyl\nchloride or acetic anhydride Tertiary amines like trimethylamine are used as insect\nattractants Aryldiazonium salts, usually obtained from arylamines, undergo replacement of\nthe diazonium group with a variety of nucleophiles to provide advantageous methods\nfor producing aryl halides, cyanides, phenols and arenes by reductive removal of the\ndiazo group"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7428-7431", "Text": ", by treating with acetyl\nchloride or acetic anhydride Tertiary amines like trimethylamine are used as insect\nattractants Aryldiazonium salts, usually obtained from arylamines, undergo replacement of\nthe diazonium group with a variety of nucleophiles to provide advantageous methods\nfor producing aryl halides, cyanides, phenols and arenes by reductive removal of the\ndiazo group Coupling reaction of aryldiazonium salts with phenols or arylamines give\nrise to the formation of azo dyes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7429-7432", "Text": "Tertiary amines like trimethylamine are used as insect\nattractants Aryldiazonium salts, usually obtained from arylamines, undergo replacement of\nthe diazonium group with a variety of nucleophiles to provide advantageous methods\nfor producing aryl halides, cyanides, phenols and arenes by reductive removal of the\ndiazo group Coupling reaction of aryldiazonium salts with phenols or arylamines give\nrise to the formation of azo dyes 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7430-7433", "Text": "Aryldiazonium salts, usually obtained from arylamines, undergo replacement of\nthe diazonium group with a variety of nucleophiles to provide advantageous methods\nfor producing aryl halides, cyanides, phenols and arenes by reductive removal of the\ndiazo group Coupling reaction of aryldiazonium salts with phenols or arylamines give\nrise to the formation of azo dyes 9 1\nWrite IUPAC names of the following compounds and classify them into primary,\nsecondary and tertiary amines"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7431-7434", "Text": "Coupling reaction of aryldiazonium salts with phenols or arylamines give\nrise to the formation of azo dyes 9 1\nWrite IUPAC names of the following compounds and classify them into primary,\nsecondary and tertiary amines (i) (CH3)2CHNH2\n(ii) CH3(CH2)2NH2\n(iii) CH3NHCH(CH3)2\n(iv) (CH3)3CNH2\n(v) C6H5NHCH3\n(vi) (CH3CH2)2NCH3\n(vii) m\u2013BrC6H4NH2\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7432-7435", "Text": "9 1\nWrite IUPAC names of the following compounds and classify them into primary,\nsecondary and tertiary amines (i) (CH3)2CHNH2\n(ii) CH3(CH2)2NH2\n(iii) CH3NHCH(CH3)2\n(iv) (CH3)3CNH2\n(v) C6H5NHCH3\n(vi) (CH3CH2)2NCH3\n(vii) m\u2013BrC6H4NH2\n9 2\nGive one chemical test to distinguish between the following pairs of compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7433-7436", "Text": "1\nWrite IUPAC names of the following compounds and classify them into primary,\nsecondary and tertiary amines (i) (CH3)2CHNH2\n(ii) CH3(CH2)2NH2\n(iii) CH3NHCH(CH3)2\n(iv) (CH3)3CNH2\n(v) C6H5NHCH3\n(vi) (CH3CH2)2NCH3\n(vii) m\u2013BrC6H4NH2\n9 2\nGive one chemical test to distinguish between the following pairs of compounds (i) Methylamine and dimethylamine\n(ii) Secondary and tertiary amines\n(iii) Ethylamine and aniline\n(iv) Aniline and benzylamine\n(v) Aniline and N-methylaniline"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7434-7437", "Text": "(i) (CH3)2CHNH2\n(ii) CH3(CH2)2NH2\n(iii) CH3NHCH(CH3)2\n(iv) (CH3)3CNH2\n(v) C6H5NHCH3\n(vi) (CH3CH2)2NCH3\n(vii) m\u2013BrC6H4NH2\n9 2\nGive one chemical test to distinguish between the following pairs of compounds (i) Methylamine and dimethylamine\n(ii) Secondary and tertiary amines\n(iii) Ethylamine and aniline\n(iv) Aniline and benzylamine\n(v) Aniline and N-methylaniline 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7435-7438", "Text": "2\nGive one chemical test to distinguish between the following pairs of compounds (i) Methylamine and dimethylamine\n(ii) Secondary and tertiary amines\n(iii) Ethylamine and aniline\n(iv) Aniline and benzylamine\n(v) Aniline and N-methylaniline 9 3\nAccount for the following:\n(i) pKb of aniline is more than that of methylamine"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7436-7439", "Text": "(i) Methylamine and dimethylamine\n(ii) Secondary and tertiary amines\n(iii) Ethylamine and aniline\n(iv) Aniline and benzylamine\n(v) Aniline and N-methylaniline 9 3\nAccount for the following:\n(i) pKb of aniline is more than that of methylamine (ii) Ethylamine is soluble in water whereas aniline is not"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7437-7440", "Text": "9 3\nAccount for the following:\n(i) pKb of aniline is more than that of methylamine (ii) Ethylamine is soluble in water whereas aniline is not (iii) Methylamine in water reacts with ferric chloride to precipitate hydrated\nferric oxide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7438-7441", "Text": "3\nAccount for the following:\n(i) pKb of aniline is more than that of methylamine (ii) Ethylamine is soluble in water whereas aniline is not (iii) Methylamine in water reacts with ferric chloride to precipitate hydrated\nferric oxide (iv) Although amino group is o\u2013 and p\u2013 directing in aromatic electrophilic\nsubstitution reactions, aniline on nitration gives a substantial amount of\nm-nitroaniline"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7439-7442", "Text": "(ii) Ethylamine is soluble in water whereas aniline is not (iii) Methylamine in water reacts with ferric chloride to precipitate hydrated\nferric oxide (iv) Although amino group is o\u2013 and p\u2013 directing in aromatic electrophilic\nsubstitution reactions, aniline on nitration gives a substantial amount of\nm-nitroaniline (v) Aniline does not undergo Friedel-Crafts reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7440-7443", "Text": "(iii) Methylamine in water reacts with ferric chloride to precipitate hydrated\nferric oxide (iv) Although amino group is o\u2013 and p\u2013 directing in aromatic electrophilic\nsubstitution reactions, aniline on nitration gives a substantial amount of\nm-nitroaniline (v) Aniline does not undergo Friedel-Crafts reaction (vi) Diazonium salts of aromatic amines are more stable than those of aliphatic\namines"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7441-7444", "Text": "(iv) Although amino group is o\u2013 and p\u2013 directing in aromatic electrophilic\nsubstitution reactions, aniline on nitration gives a substantial amount of\nm-nitroaniline (v) Aniline does not undergo Friedel-Crafts reaction (vi) Diazonium salts of aromatic amines are more stable than those of aliphatic\namines (vii) Gabriel phthalimide synthesis is preferred for synthesising primary amines"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7442-7445", "Text": "(v) Aniline does not undergo Friedel-Crafts reaction (vi) Diazonium salts of aromatic amines are more stable than those of aliphatic\namines (vii) Gabriel phthalimide synthesis is preferred for synthesising primary amines 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7443-7446", "Text": "(vi) Diazonium salts of aromatic amines are more stable than those of aliphatic\namines (vii) Gabriel phthalimide synthesis is preferred for synthesising primary amines 9 4\nArrange the following:\n(i) In decreasing order of the pKb values:\nC2H5NH2, C6H5NHCH3, (C2H5)2NH and C6H5NH2\n(ii) In increasing order of basic strength:\nC6H5NH2, C6H5N(CH3)2, (C2H5)2NH and CH3NH2\n(iii) In increasing order of basic strength:\n(a) Aniline, p-nitroaniline and p-toluidine\nExercises\nRationalised 2023-24\n279\nAmines\n(b) C6H5NH2, C6H5NHCH3, C6H5CH2NH2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7444-7447", "Text": "(vii) Gabriel phthalimide synthesis is preferred for synthesising primary amines 9 4\nArrange the following:\n(i) In decreasing order of the pKb values:\nC2H5NH2, C6H5NHCH3, (C2H5)2NH and C6H5NH2\n(ii) In increasing order of basic strength:\nC6H5NH2, C6H5N(CH3)2, (C2H5)2NH and CH3NH2\n(iii) In increasing order of basic strength:\n(a) Aniline, p-nitroaniline and p-toluidine\nExercises\nRationalised 2023-24\n279\nAmines\n(b) C6H5NH2, C6H5NHCH3, C6H5CH2NH2 (iv) In decreasing order of basic strength in gas phase:\nC2H5NH2, (C2H5)2NH, (C2H5)3N and NH3\n(v) In increasing order of boiling point:\nC2H5OH, (CH3)2NH, C2H5NH2\n(vi) In increasing order of solubility in water:\nC6H5NH2, (C2H5)2NH, C2H5NH2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7445-7448", "Text": "9 4\nArrange the following:\n(i) In decreasing order of the pKb values:\nC2H5NH2, C6H5NHCH3, (C2H5)2NH and C6H5NH2\n(ii) In increasing order of basic strength:\nC6H5NH2, C6H5N(CH3)2, (C2H5)2NH and CH3NH2\n(iii) In increasing order of basic strength:\n(a) Aniline, p-nitroaniline and p-toluidine\nExercises\nRationalised 2023-24\n279\nAmines\n(b) C6H5NH2, C6H5NHCH3, C6H5CH2NH2 (iv) In decreasing order of basic strength in gas phase:\nC2H5NH2, (C2H5)2NH, (C2H5)3N and NH3\n(v) In increasing order of boiling point:\nC2H5OH, (CH3)2NH, C2H5NH2\n(vi) In increasing order of solubility in water:\nC6H5NH2, (C2H5)2NH, C2H5NH2 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7446-7449", "Text": "4\nArrange the following:\n(i) In decreasing order of the pKb values:\nC2H5NH2, C6H5NHCH3, (C2H5)2NH and C6H5NH2\n(ii) In increasing order of basic strength:\nC6H5NH2, C6H5N(CH3)2, (C2H5)2NH and CH3NH2\n(iii) In increasing order of basic strength:\n(a) Aniline, p-nitroaniline and p-toluidine\nExercises\nRationalised 2023-24\n279\nAmines\n(b) C6H5NH2, C6H5NHCH3, C6H5CH2NH2 (iv) In decreasing order of basic strength in gas phase:\nC2H5NH2, (C2H5)2NH, (C2H5)3N and NH3\n(v) In increasing order of boiling point:\nC2H5OH, (CH3)2NH, C2H5NH2\n(vi) In increasing order of solubility in water:\nC6H5NH2, (C2H5)2NH, C2H5NH2 9 5\nHow will you convert:\n(i) Ethanoic acid into methanamine\n(ii) Hexanenitrile into 1-aminopentane\n(iii) Methanol to ethanoic acid\n(iv) Ethanamine into methanamine\n(v) Ethanoic acid into propanoic acid\n(vi) Methanamine into ethanamine\n(vii) Nitromethane into dimethylamine\n(viii) Propanoic acid into ethanoic acid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7447-7450", "Text": "(iv) In decreasing order of basic strength in gas phase:\nC2H5NH2, (C2H5)2NH, (C2H5)3N and NH3\n(v) In increasing order of boiling point:\nC2H5OH, (CH3)2NH, C2H5NH2\n(vi) In increasing order of solubility in water:\nC6H5NH2, (C2H5)2NH, C2H5NH2 9 5\nHow will you convert:\n(i) Ethanoic acid into methanamine\n(ii) Hexanenitrile into 1-aminopentane\n(iii) Methanol to ethanoic acid\n(iv) Ethanamine into methanamine\n(v) Ethanoic acid into propanoic acid\n(vi) Methanamine into ethanamine\n(vii) Nitromethane into dimethylamine\n(viii) Propanoic acid into ethanoic acid 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7448-7451", "Text": "9 5\nHow will you convert:\n(i) Ethanoic acid into methanamine\n(ii) Hexanenitrile into 1-aminopentane\n(iii) Methanol to ethanoic acid\n(iv) Ethanamine into methanamine\n(v) Ethanoic acid into propanoic acid\n(vi) Methanamine into ethanamine\n(vii) Nitromethane into dimethylamine\n(viii) Propanoic acid into ethanoic acid 9 6\nDescribe a method for the identification of primary, secondary and tertiary amines"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7449-7452", "Text": "5\nHow will you convert:\n(i) Ethanoic acid into methanamine\n(ii) Hexanenitrile into 1-aminopentane\n(iii) Methanol to ethanoic acid\n(iv) Ethanamine into methanamine\n(v) Ethanoic acid into propanoic acid\n(vi) Methanamine into ethanamine\n(vii) Nitromethane into dimethylamine\n(viii) Propanoic acid into ethanoic acid 9 6\nDescribe a method for the identification of primary, secondary and tertiary amines Also write chemical equations of the reactions involved"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7450-7453", "Text": "9 6\nDescribe a method for the identification of primary, secondary and tertiary amines Also write chemical equations of the reactions involved 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7451-7454", "Text": "6\nDescribe a method for the identification of primary, secondary and tertiary amines Also write chemical equations of the reactions involved 9 7\nWrite short notes on the following:\n(i) Carbylamine reaction\n(ii) Diazotisation\n(iii) Hofmann\u2019s bromamide reaction\n(iv) Coupling reaction\n(v) Ammonolysis\n(vi) Acetylation\n(vii) Gabriel phthalimide synthesis"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7452-7455", "Text": "Also write chemical equations of the reactions involved 9 7\nWrite short notes on the following:\n(i) Carbylamine reaction\n(ii) Diazotisation\n(iii) Hofmann\u2019s bromamide reaction\n(iv) Coupling reaction\n(v) Ammonolysis\n(vi) Acetylation\n(vii) Gabriel phthalimide synthesis 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7453-7456", "Text": "9 7\nWrite short notes on the following:\n(i) Carbylamine reaction\n(ii) Diazotisation\n(iii) Hofmann\u2019s bromamide reaction\n(iv) Coupling reaction\n(v) Ammonolysis\n(vi) Acetylation\n(vii) Gabriel phthalimide synthesis 9 8\nAccomplish the following conversions:\n(i) Nitrobenzene to benzoic acid\n(ii) Benzene to m-bromophenol\n(iii) Benzoic acid to aniline\n(iv) Aniline to 2,4,6-tribromofluorobenzene\n(v) Benzyl chloride to 2-phenylethanamine\n(vi) Chlorobenzene to p-chloroaniline\n(vii) Aniline to p-bromoaniline\n(viii) Benzamide to toluene\n(ix) Aniline to benzyl alcohol"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7454-7457", "Text": "7\nWrite short notes on the following:\n(i) Carbylamine reaction\n(ii) Diazotisation\n(iii) Hofmann\u2019s bromamide reaction\n(iv) Coupling reaction\n(v) Ammonolysis\n(vi) Acetylation\n(vii) Gabriel phthalimide synthesis 9 8\nAccomplish the following conversions:\n(i) Nitrobenzene to benzoic acid\n(ii) Benzene to m-bromophenol\n(iii) Benzoic acid to aniline\n(iv) Aniline to 2,4,6-tribromofluorobenzene\n(v) Benzyl chloride to 2-phenylethanamine\n(vi) Chlorobenzene to p-chloroaniline\n(vii) Aniline to p-bromoaniline\n(viii) Benzamide to toluene\n(ix) Aniline to benzyl alcohol 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7455-7458", "Text": "9 8\nAccomplish the following conversions:\n(i) Nitrobenzene to benzoic acid\n(ii) Benzene to m-bromophenol\n(iii) Benzoic acid to aniline\n(iv) Aniline to 2,4,6-tribromofluorobenzene\n(v) Benzyl chloride to 2-phenylethanamine\n(vi) Chlorobenzene to p-chloroaniline\n(vii) Aniline to p-bromoaniline\n(viii) Benzamide to toluene\n(ix) Aniline to benzyl alcohol 9 9\nGive the structures of A, B and C in the following reactions:\n(i)\nNaOH Br2\nNaCN\nOH\n3\n2\nPartial hydrolysis\nCH CH I\nA\nB\nC\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n(ii)\n3\n2\nNH\nH O/H\nCuCN\n6\n5\n2\nC H N Cl\nA\nB\nC\n\uf02b\n\uf044\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n(iii)\n4\n2\nLiAlH\nHNO\nKCN\n3\n2\n0 C\nCH CH Br\nA\nB\nC\n\uf0b0\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n(iv)\n2\n2\nNaNO\nHCl\nH O/H\nFe /HCl\n6\n5\n2\n273 K\nC H NO\nA\nB\nC\n\uf02b\n\uf02b\n\uf044\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n(v)\n3\n2\nNH\nNaNO /HCl\nNaOBr\n3\nCH COOH\nA\nB\nC\n\uf044\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n(vi)\n6\n5\n2\nC H OH\nHNO\nFe/HCl\n6\n5\n2\n273K\nC H NO\nA\nB\nC\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\nRationalised 2023-24\n280\nChemistry\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7456-7459", "Text": "8\nAccomplish the following conversions:\n(i) Nitrobenzene to benzoic acid\n(ii) Benzene to m-bromophenol\n(iii) Benzoic acid to aniline\n(iv) Aniline to 2,4,6-tribromofluorobenzene\n(v) Benzyl chloride to 2-phenylethanamine\n(vi) Chlorobenzene to p-chloroaniline\n(vii) Aniline to p-bromoaniline\n(viii) Benzamide to toluene\n(ix) Aniline to benzyl alcohol 9 9\nGive the structures of A, B and C in the following reactions:\n(i)\nNaOH Br2\nNaCN\nOH\n3\n2\nPartial hydrolysis\nCH CH I\nA\nB\nC\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n(ii)\n3\n2\nNH\nH O/H\nCuCN\n6\n5\n2\nC H N Cl\nA\nB\nC\n\uf02b\n\uf044\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n(iii)\n4\n2\nLiAlH\nHNO\nKCN\n3\n2\n0 C\nCH CH Br\nA\nB\nC\n\uf0b0\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n(iv)\n2\n2\nNaNO\nHCl\nH O/H\nFe /HCl\n6\n5\n2\n273 K\nC H NO\nA\nB\nC\n\uf02b\n\uf02b\n\uf044\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n(v)\n3\n2\nNH\nNaNO /HCl\nNaOBr\n3\nCH COOH\nA\nB\nC\n\uf044\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n(vi)\n6\n5\n2\nC H OH\nHNO\nFe/HCl\n6\n5\n2\n273K\nC H NO\nA\nB\nC\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\nRationalised 2023-24\n280\nChemistry\n9 10\nAn aromatic compound \u2018A\u2019 on treatment with aqueous ammonia and heating\nforms compound \u2018B\u2019 which on heating with Br2 and KOH forms a compound \u2018C\u2019\nof molecular formula C6H7N"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7457-7460", "Text": "9 9\nGive the structures of A, B and C in the following reactions:\n(i)\nNaOH Br2\nNaCN\nOH\n3\n2\nPartial hydrolysis\nCH CH I\nA\nB\nC\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n(ii)\n3\n2\nNH\nH O/H\nCuCN\n6\n5\n2\nC H N Cl\nA\nB\nC\n\uf02b\n\uf044\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n(iii)\n4\n2\nLiAlH\nHNO\nKCN\n3\n2\n0 C\nCH CH Br\nA\nB\nC\n\uf0b0\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n(iv)\n2\n2\nNaNO\nHCl\nH O/H\nFe /HCl\n6\n5\n2\n273 K\nC H NO\nA\nB\nC\n\uf02b\n\uf02b\n\uf044\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n(v)\n3\n2\nNH\nNaNO /HCl\nNaOBr\n3\nCH COOH\nA\nB\nC\n\uf044\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n(vi)\n6\n5\n2\nC H OH\nHNO\nFe/HCl\n6\n5\n2\n273K\nC H NO\nA\nB\nC\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\nRationalised 2023-24\n280\nChemistry\n9 10\nAn aromatic compound \u2018A\u2019 on treatment with aqueous ammonia and heating\nforms compound \u2018B\u2019 which on heating with Br2 and KOH forms a compound \u2018C\u2019\nof molecular formula C6H7N Write the structures and IUPAC names of compounds\nA, B and C"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7458-7461", "Text": "9\nGive the structures of A, B and C in the following reactions:\n(i)\nNaOH Br2\nNaCN\nOH\n3\n2\nPartial hydrolysis\nCH CH I\nA\nB\nC\n\uf02d\n\uf02b\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n(ii)\n3\n2\nNH\nH O/H\nCuCN\n6\n5\n2\nC H N Cl\nA\nB\nC\n\uf02b\n\uf044\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n(iii)\n4\n2\nLiAlH\nHNO\nKCN\n3\n2\n0 C\nCH CH Br\nA\nB\nC\n\uf0b0\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n(iv)\n2\n2\nNaNO\nHCl\nH O/H\nFe /HCl\n6\n5\n2\n273 K\nC H NO\nA\nB\nC\n\uf02b\n\uf02b\n\uf044\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n(v)\n3\n2\nNH\nNaNO /HCl\nNaOBr\n3\nCH COOH\nA\nB\nC\n\uf044\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n(vi)\n6\n5\n2\nC H OH\nHNO\nFe/HCl\n6\n5\n2\n273K\nC H NO\nA\nB\nC\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\nRationalised 2023-24\n280\nChemistry\n9 10\nAn aromatic compound \u2018A\u2019 on treatment with aqueous ammonia and heating\nforms compound \u2018B\u2019 which on heating with Br2 and KOH forms a compound \u2018C\u2019\nof molecular formula C6H7N Write the structures and IUPAC names of compounds\nA, B and C 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7459-7462", "Text": "10\nAn aromatic compound \u2018A\u2019 on treatment with aqueous ammonia and heating\nforms compound \u2018B\u2019 which on heating with Br2 and KOH forms a compound \u2018C\u2019\nof molecular formula C6H7N Write the structures and IUPAC names of compounds\nA, B and C 9 11\nComplete the following reactions:\n(i)\n6\n5\n2\n3\nC H NH\nCHCl\nalc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7460-7463", "Text": "Write the structures and IUPAC names of compounds\nA, B and C 9 11\nComplete the following reactions:\n(i)\n6\n5\n2\n3\nC H NH\nCHCl\nalc KOH\n\uf02b\n\uf02b\n\uf0ae\n(ii)\n6\n5\n2\n3\n2\n2\nC H N Cl\nH PO\nH O\n\uf02b\n\uf02b\n\uf0ae\n(iii)\n\uf028\n\uf029\n6\n5\n2\n2\n4\nC H NH\nH SO\nconc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7461-7464", "Text": "9 11\nComplete the following reactions:\n(i)\n6\n5\n2\n3\nC H NH\nCHCl\nalc KOH\n\uf02b\n\uf02b\n\uf0ae\n(ii)\n6\n5\n2\n3\n2\n2\nC H N Cl\nH PO\nH O\n\uf02b\n\uf02b\n\uf0ae\n(iii)\n\uf028\n\uf029\n6\n5\n2\n2\n4\nC H NH\nH SO\nconc \uf02b\n\uf0ae\n(iv)\n6\n5\n2\n2\n5\nC H N Cl\n\uf02bC H OH\n\uf0ae\n(v)\n\uf028\n\uf029\n6\n5\n2\n2\nC H NH\nBr\naq\n\uf02b\n\uf0ae\n(vi)\n\uf028\n\uf029\n3\n6\n5\n2\nCH CO2\nC H NH\nO\n\uf02b\n\uf0ae\n(vii)\n\uf028 \uf029\n\uf028 \uf029\n4\n2\niHBF\n6\n5\n2\niiNaNO /Cu,\nC H N Cl\n\uf044\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7462-7465", "Text": "11\nComplete the following reactions:\n(i)\n6\n5\n2\n3\nC H NH\nCHCl\nalc KOH\n\uf02b\n\uf02b\n\uf0ae\n(ii)\n6\n5\n2\n3\n2\n2\nC H N Cl\nH PO\nH O\n\uf02b\n\uf02b\n\uf0ae\n(iii)\n\uf028\n\uf029\n6\n5\n2\n2\n4\nC H NH\nH SO\nconc \uf02b\n\uf0ae\n(iv)\n6\n5\n2\n2\n5\nC H N Cl\n\uf02bC H OH\n\uf0ae\n(v)\n\uf028\n\uf029\n6\n5\n2\n2\nC H NH\nBr\naq\n\uf02b\n\uf0ae\n(vi)\n\uf028\n\uf029\n3\n6\n5\n2\nCH CO2\nC H NH\nO\n\uf02b\n\uf0ae\n(vii)\n\uf028 \uf029\n\uf028 \uf029\n4\n2\niHBF\n6\n5\n2\niiNaNO /Cu,\nC H N Cl\n\uf044\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n9 12\nWhy cannot aromatic primary amines be prepared by Gabriel phthalimide\nsynthesis"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7463-7466", "Text": "KOH\n\uf02b\n\uf02b\n\uf0ae\n(ii)\n6\n5\n2\n3\n2\n2\nC H N Cl\nH PO\nH O\n\uf02b\n\uf02b\n\uf0ae\n(iii)\n\uf028\n\uf029\n6\n5\n2\n2\n4\nC H NH\nH SO\nconc \uf02b\n\uf0ae\n(iv)\n6\n5\n2\n2\n5\nC H N Cl\n\uf02bC H OH\n\uf0ae\n(v)\n\uf028\n\uf029\n6\n5\n2\n2\nC H NH\nBr\naq\n\uf02b\n\uf0ae\n(vi)\n\uf028\n\uf029\n3\n6\n5\n2\nCH CO2\nC H NH\nO\n\uf02b\n\uf0ae\n(vii)\n\uf028 \uf029\n\uf028 \uf029\n4\n2\niHBF\n6\n5\n2\niiNaNO /Cu,\nC H N Cl\n\uf044\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n9 12\nWhy cannot aromatic primary amines be prepared by Gabriel phthalimide\nsynthesis 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7464-7467", "Text": "\uf02b\n\uf0ae\n(iv)\n6\n5\n2\n2\n5\nC H N Cl\n\uf02bC H OH\n\uf0ae\n(v)\n\uf028\n\uf029\n6\n5\n2\n2\nC H NH\nBr\naq\n\uf02b\n\uf0ae\n(vi)\n\uf028\n\uf029\n3\n6\n5\n2\nCH CO2\nC H NH\nO\n\uf02b\n\uf0ae\n(vii)\n\uf028 \uf029\n\uf028 \uf029\n4\n2\niHBF\n6\n5\n2\niiNaNO /Cu,\nC H N Cl\n\uf044\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\n9 12\nWhy cannot aromatic primary amines be prepared by Gabriel phthalimide\nsynthesis 9 13\nWrite the reactions of (i) aromatic and (ii) aliphatic primary amines with nitrous\nacid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7465-7468", "Text": "12\nWhy cannot aromatic primary amines be prepared by Gabriel phthalimide\nsynthesis 9 13\nWrite the reactions of (i) aromatic and (ii) aliphatic primary amines with nitrous\nacid 9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7466-7469", "Text": "9 13\nWrite the reactions of (i) aromatic and (ii) aliphatic primary amines with nitrous\nacid 9 14\nGive plausible explanation for each of the following:\n(i) Why are amines less acidic than alcohols of comparable molecular masses"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7467-7470", "Text": "13\nWrite the reactions of (i) aromatic and (ii) aliphatic primary amines with nitrous\nacid 9 14\nGive plausible explanation for each of the following:\n(i) Why are amines less acidic than alcohols of comparable molecular masses (ii) Why do primary amines have higher boiling point than tertiary amines"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7468-7471", "Text": "9 14\nGive plausible explanation for each of the following:\n(i) Why are amines less acidic than alcohols of comparable molecular masses (ii) Why do primary amines have higher boiling point than tertiary amines (iii) Why are aliphatic amines stronger bases than aromatic amines"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7469-7472", "Text": "14\nGive plausible explanation for each of the following:\n(i) Why are amines less acidic than alcohols of comparable molecular masses (ii) Why do primary amines have higher boiling point than tertiary amines (iii) Why are aliphatic amines stronger bases than aromatic amines Answers to Some Intext Questions\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7470-7473", "Text": "(ii) Why do primary amines have higher boiling point than tertiary amines (iii) Why are aliphatic amines stronger bases than aromatic amines Answers to Some Intext Questions\n9 4\n(i) C6H5NH2 < NH3 < C6H5CH2NH2 < C2H5NH2 < (C2H5)2NH\n(ii) C6H5NH2 < C2H5NH2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7471-7474", "Text": "(iii) Why are aliphatic amines stronger bases than aromatic amines Answers to Some Intext Questions\n9 4\n(i) C6H5NH2 < NH3 < C6H5CH2NH2 < C2H5NH2 < (C2H5)2NH\n(ii) C6H5NH2 < C2H5NH2 < (C2H5)3N < (C2H5)2NH\n(iii) C6H5NH2 < C6H5CH2NH2 < (CH3)3N < CH3NH2 < (CH3)2NH\nRationalised 2023-24\nA living system grows, sustains and reproduces itself"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7472-7475", "Text": "Answers to Some Intext Questions\n9 4\n(i) C6H5NH2 < NH3 < C6H5CH2NH2 < C2H5NH2 < (C2H5)2NH\n(ii) C6H5NH2 < C2H5NH2 < (C2H5)3N < (C2H5)2NH\n(iii) C6H5NH2 < C6H5CH2NH2 < (CH3)3N < CH3NH2 < (CH3)2NH\nRationalised 2023-24\nA living system grows, sustains and reproduces itself The most amazing thing about a living system is that it\nis composed of non-living atoms and molecules"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7473-7476", "Text": "4\n(i) C6H5NH2 < NH3 < C6H5CH2NH2 < C2H5NH2 < (C2H5)2NH\n(ii) C6H5NH2 < C2H5NH2 < (C2H5)3N < (C2H5)2NH\n(iii) C6H5NH2 < C6H5CH2NH2 < (CH3)3N < CH3NH2 < (CH3)2NH\nRationalised 2023-24\nA living system grows, sustains and reproduces itself The most amazing thing about a living system is that it\nis composed of non-living atoms and molecules The\npursuit of knowledge of what goes on chemically within\na living system falls in the domain of biochemistry"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7474-7477", "Text": "< (C2H5)3N < (C2H5)2NH\n(iii) C6H5NH2 < C6H5CH2NH2 < (CH3)3N < CH3NH2 < (CH3)2NH\nRationalised 2023-24\nA living system grows, sustains and reproduces itself The most amazing thing about a living system is that it\nis composed of non-living atoms and molecules The\npursuit of knowledge of what goes on chemically within\na living system falls in the domain of biochemistry Living\nsystems are made up of various complex biomolecules\nlike carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7475-7478", "Text": "The most amazing thing about a living system is that it\nis composed of non-living atoms and molecules The\npursuit of knowledge of what goes on chemically within\na living system falls in the domain of biochemistry Living\nsystems are made up of various complex biomolecules\nlike carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, etc Proteins and carbohydrates are essential constituents of\nour food"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7476-7479", "Text": "The\npursuit of knowledge of what goes on chemically within\na living system falls in the domain of biochemistry Living\nsystems are made up of various complex biomolecules\nlike carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, etc Proteins and carbohydrates are essential constituents of\nour food These biomolecules interact with each other\nand constitute the molecular logic of life processes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7477-7480", "Text": "Living\nsystems are made up of various complex biomolecules\nlike carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, etc Proteins and carbohydrates are essential constituents of\nour food These biomolecules interact with each other\nand constitute the molecular logic of life processes In\naddition, some simple molecules like vitamins and\nmineral salts also play an important role in the functions\nof organisms"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7478-7481", "Text": "Proteins and carbohydrates are essential constituents of\nour food These biomolecules interact with each other\nand constitute the molecular logic of life processes In\naddition, some simple molecules like vitamins and\nmineral salts also play an important role in the functions\nof organisms Structures and functions of some of these\nbiomolecules are discussed in this Unit"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7479-7482", "Text": "These biomolecules interact with each other\nand constitute the molecular logic of life processes In\naddition, some simple molecules like vitamins and\nmineral salts also play an important role in the functions\nof organisms Structures and functions of some of these\nbiomolecules are discussed in this Unit Biomolecules\nBiomolecules\nBiomolecules\nBiomolecules\nBiomolecules\nBiomolecules\nBiomolecules\nBiomolecules\nBiomolecules\nBiomolecules\nAfter studying this Unit, you will be\n\u2022able to\nexplain the characteristics of\nbiomolecules like carbohydrates,\nproteins and nucleic acids and\nhormones;\n\u2022\nclassify carbohydrates, proteins,\nnucleic acids and vitamins on the\nbasis of their structures;\n\u2022\nexplain the difference between\nDNA and RNA;\n\u2022\ndescribe the role of biomolecules\nin biosystem"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7480-7483", "Text": "In\naddition, some simple molecules like vitamins and\nmineral salts also play an important role in the functions\nof organisms Structures and functions of some of these\nbiomolecules are discussed in this Unit Biomolecules\nBiomolecules\nBiomolecules\nBiomolecules\nBiomolecules\nBiomolecules\nBiomolecules\nBiomolecules\nBiomolecules\nBiomolecules\nAfter studying this Unit, you will be\n\u2022able to\nexplain the characteristics of\nbiomolecules like carbohydrates,\nproteins and nucleic acids and\nhormones;\n\u2022\nclassify carbohydrates, proteins,\nnucleic acids and vitamins on the\nbasis of their structures;\n\u2022\nexplain the difference between\nDNA and RNA;\n\u2022\ndescribe the role of biomolecules\nin biosystem Objectives\n\u201cIt is the harmonious and synchronous progress of chemical\nreactions in body which leads to life\u201d"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7481-7484", "Text": "Structures and functions of some of these\nbiomolecules are discussed in this Unit Biomolecules\nBiomolecules\nBiomolecules\nBiomolecules\nBiomolecules\nBiomolecules\nBiomolecules\nBiomolecules\nBiomolecules\nBiomolecules\nAfter studying this Unit, you will be\n\u2022able to\nexplain the characteristics of\nbiomolecules like carbohydrates,\nproteins and nucleic acids and\nhormones;\n\u2022\nclassify carbohydrates, proteins,\nnucleic acids and vitamins on the\nbasis of their structures;\n\u2022\nexplain the difference between\nDNA and RNA;\n\u2022\ndescribe the role of biomolecules\nin biosystem Objectives\n\u201cIt is the harmonious and synchronous progress of chemical\nreactions in body which leads to life\u201d 10\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit10\nCarbohydrates are primarily produced by plants and form a very large\ngroup of naturally occurring organic compounds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7482-7485", "Text": "Biomolecules\nBiomolecules\nBiomolecules\nBiomolecules\nBiomolecules\nBiomolecules\nBiomolecules\nBiomolecules\nBiomolecules\nBiomolecules\nAfter studying this Unit, you will be\n\u2022able to\nexplain the characteristics of\nbiomolecules like carbohydrates,\nproteins and nucleic acids and\nhormones;\n\u2022\nclassify carbohydrates, proteins,\nnucleic acids and vitamins on the\nbasis of their structures;\n\u2022\nexplain the difference between\nDNA and RNA;\n\u2022\ndescribe the role of biomolecules\nin biosystem Objectives\n\u201cIt is the harmonious and synchronous progress of chemical\nreactions in body which leads to life\u201d 10\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit10\nCarbohydrates are primarily produced by plants and form a very large\ngroup of naturally occurring organic compounds Some common\nexamples of carbohydrates are cane sugar, glucose, starch, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7483-7486", "Text": "Objectives\n\u201cIt is the harmonious and synchronous progress of chemical\nreactions in body which leads to life\u201d 10\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit10\nCarbohydrates are primarily produced by plants and form a very large\ngroup of naturally occurring organic compounds Some common\nexamples of carbohydrates are cane sugar, glucose, starch, etc Most of\nthem have a general formula, Cx(H2O)y, and were considered as hydrates\nof carbon from where the name carbohydrate was derived"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7484-7487", "Text": "10\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit\nUnit10\nCarbohydrates are primarily produced by plants and form a very large\ngroup of naturally occurring organic compounds Some common\nexamples of carbohydrates are cane sugar, glucose, starch, etc Most of\nthem have a general formula, Cx(H2O)y, and were considered as hydrates\nof carbon from where the name carbohydrate was derived For example,\nthe molecular formula of glucose (C6H12O6) fits into this general formula,\nC6(H2O)6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7485-7488", "Text": "Some common\nexamples of carbohydrates are cane sugar, glucose, starch, etc Most of\nthem have a general formula, Cx(H2O)y, and were considered as hydrates\nof carbon from where the name carbohydrate was derived For example,\nthe molecular formula of glucose (C6H12O6) fits into this general formula,\nC6(H2O)6 But all the compounds which fit into this formula may not be\nclassified as carbohydrates"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7486-7489", "Text": "Most of\nthem have a general formula, Cx(H2O)y, and were considered as hydrates\nof carbon from where the name carbohydrate was derived For example,\nthe molecular formula of glucose (C6H12O6) fits into this general formula,\nC6(H2O)6 But all the compounds which fit into this formula may not be\nclassified as carbohydrates For example acetic acid (CH3COOH) fits into\nthis general formula, C2(H2O)2 but is not a carbohydrate"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7487-7490", "Text": "For example,\nthe molecular formula of glucose (C6H12O6) fits into this general formula,\nC6(H2O)6 But all the compounds which fit into this formula may not be\nclassified as carbohydrates For example acetic acid (CH3COOH) fits into\nthis general formula, C2(H2O)2 but is not a carbohydrate Similarly,\nrhamnose, C6H12O5 is a carbohydrate but does not fit in this definition"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7488-7491", "Text": "But all the compounds which fit into this formula may not be\nclassified as carbohydrates For example acetic acid (CH3COOH) fits into\nthis general formula, C2(H2O)2 but is not a carbohydrate Similarly,\nrhamnose, C6H12O5 is a carbohydrate but does not fit in this definition A large number of their reactions have shown that they contain specific\nfunctional groups"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7489-7492", "Text": "For example acetic acid (CH3COOH) fits into\nthis general formula, C2(H2O)2 but is not a carbohydrate Similarly,\nrhamnose, C6H12O5 is a carbohydrate but does not fit in this definition A large number of their reactions have shown that they contain specific\nfunctional groups Chemically, the carbohydrates may be defined as\noptically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or the compounds\nwhich produce such units on hydrolysis"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7490-7493", "Text": "Similarly,\nrhamnose, C6H12O5 is a carbohydrate but does not fit in this definition A large number of their reactions have shown that they contain specific\nfunctional groups Chemically, the carbohydrates may be defined as\noptically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or the compounds\nwhich produce such units on hydrolysis Some of the carbohydrates,\nwhich are sweet in taste, are also called sugars"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7491-7494", "Text": "A large number of their reactions have shown that they contain specific\nfunctional groups Chemically, the carbohydrates may be defined as\noptically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or the compounds\nwhich produce such units on hydrolysis Some of the carbohydrates,\nwhich are sweet in taste, are also called sugars The most common\nsugar, used in our homes is named as sucrose whereas the sugar present\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7492-7495", "Text": "Chemically, the carbohydrates may be defined as\noptically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or the compounds\nwhich produce such units on hydrolysis Some of the carbohydrates,\nwhich are sweet in taste, are also called sugars The most common\nsugar, used in our homes is named as sucrose whereas the sugar present\n10 1\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7493-7496", "Text": "Some of the carbohydrates,\nwhich are sweet in taste, are also called sugars The most common\nsugar, used in our homes is named as sucrose whereas the sugar present\n10 1\n10 1\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7494-7497", "Text": "The most common\nsugar, used in our homes is named as sucrose whereas the sugar present\n10 1\n10 1\n10 1\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7495-7498", "Text": "1\n10 1\n10 1\n10 1\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7496-7499", "Text": "1\n10 1\n10 1\n10 1 Carbohydrates\nCarbohydrates\nCarbohydrates\nCarbohydrates\nCarbohydrates\nRationalised 2023-24\n282\nChemistry\nin milk is known as lactose"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7497-7500", "Text": "1\n10 1\n10 1 Carbohydrates\nCarbohydrates\nCarbohydrates\nCarbohydrates\nCarbohydrates\nRationalised 2023-24\n282\nChemistry\nin milk is known as lactose Carbohydrates are also called saccharides\n(Greek: sakcharon means sugar)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7498-7501", "Text": "1\n10 1 Carbohydrates\nCarbohydrates\nCarbohydrates\nCarbohydrates\nCarbohydrates\nRationalised 2023-24\n282\nChemistry\nin milk is known as lactose Carbohydrates are also called saccharides\n(Greek: sakcharon means sugar) Carbohydrates are classified on the basis of their behaviour on\nhydrolysis"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7499-7502", "Text": "1 Carbohydrates\nCarbohydrates\nCarbohydrates\nCarbohydrates\nCarbohydrates\nRationalised 2023-24\n282\nChemistry\nin milk is known as lactose Carbohydrates are also called saccharides\n(Greek: sakcharon means sugar) Carbohydrates are classified on the basis of their behaviour on\nhydrolysis They have been broadly divided into following three groups"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7500-7503", "Text": "Carbohydrates are also called saccharides\n(Greek: sakcharon means sugar) Carbohydrates are classified on the basis of their behaviour on\nhydrolysis They have been broadly divided into following three groups (i) Monosaccharides: A carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolysed further\nto give simpler unit of polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone is called a\nmonosaccharide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7501-7504", "Text": "Carbohydrates are classified on the basis of their behaviour on\nhydrolysis They have been broadly divided into following three groups (i) Monosaccharides: A carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolysed further\nto give simpler unit of polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone is called a\nmonosaccharide About 20 monosaccharides are known to occur in\nnature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7502-7505", "Text": "They have been broadly divided into following three groups (i) Monosaccharides: A carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolysed further\nto give simpler unit of polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone is called a\nmonosaccharide About 20 monosaccharides are known to occur in\nnature Some common examples are glucose, fructose, ribose, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7503-7506", "Text": "(i) Monosaccharides: A carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolysed further\nto give simpler unit of polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone is called a\nmonosaccharide About 20 monosaccharides are known to occur in\nnature Some common examples are glucose, fructose, ribose, etc (ii) Oligosaccharides: Carbohydrates \nthat \nyield \ntwo \nto \nten\nmonosaccharide units, on hydrolysis, are called oligosaccharides"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7504-7507", "Text": "About 20 monosaccharides are known to occur in\nnature Some common examples are glucose, fructose, ribose, etc (ii) Oligosaccharides: Carbohydrates \nthat \nyield \ntwo \nto \nten\nmonosaccharide units, on hydrolysis, are called oligosaccharides They\nare further classified as disaccharides, trisaccharides, tetrasaccharides,\netc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7505-7508", "Text": "Some common examples are glucose, fructose, ribose, etc (ii) Oligosaccharides: Carbohydrates \nthat \nyield \ntwo \nto \nten\nmonosaccharide units, on hydrolysis, are called oligosaccharides They\nare further classified as disaccharides, trisaccharides, tetrasaccharides,\netc , depending upon the number of monosaccharides, they provide\non hydrolysis"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7506-7509", "Text": "(ii) Oligosaccharides: Carbohydrates \nthat \nyield \ntwo \nto \nten\nmonosaccharide units, on hydrolysis, are called oligosaccharides They\nare further classified as disaccharides, trisaccharides, tetrasaccharides,\netc , depending upon the number of monosaccharides, they provide\non hydrolysis Amongst these the most common are disaccharides"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7507-7510", "Text": "They\nare further classified as disaccharides, trisaccharides, tetrasaccharides,\netc , depending upon the number of monosaccharides, they provide\non hydrolysis Amongst these the most common are disaccharides The two monosaccharide units obtained on hydrolysis of a disaccharide\nmay be same or different"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7508-7511", "Text": ", depending upon the number of monosaccharides, they provide\non hydrolysis Amongst these the most common are disaccharides The two monosaccharide units obtained on hydrolysis of a disaccharide\nmay be same or different For example, one molecule of sucrose on\nhydrolysis gives one molecule of glucose and one molecule of fructose\nwhereas maltose gives two molecules of only glucose"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7509-7512", "Text": "Amongst these the most common are disaccharides The two monosaccharide units obtained on hydrolysis of a disaccharide\nmay be same or different For example, one molecule of sucrose on\nhydrolysis gives one molecule of glucose and one molecule of fructose\nwhereas maltose gives two molecules of only glucose (iii) Polysaccharides: Carbohydrates which yield a large number of\nmonosaccharide units on hydrolysis are called polysaccharides"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7510-7513", "Text": "The two monosaccharide units obtained on hydrolysis of a disaccharide\nmay be same or different For example, one molecule of sucrose on\nhydrolysis gives one molecule of glucose and one molecule of fructose\nwhereas maltose gives two molecules of only glucose (iii) Polysaccharides: Carbohydrates which yield a large number of\nmonosaccharide units on hydrolysis are called polysaccharides Some common examples are starch, cellulose, glycogen, gums,\netc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7511-7514", "Text": "For example, one molecule of sucrose on\nhydrolysis gives one molecule of glucose and one molecule of fructose\nwhereas maltose gives two molecules of only glucose (iii) Polysaccharides: Carbohydrates which yield a large number of\nmonosaccharide units on hydrolysis are called polysaccharides Some common examples are starch, cellulose, glycogen, gums,\netc Polysaccharides are not sweet in taste, hence they are also\ncalled non-sugars"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7512-7515", "Text": "(iii) Polysaccharides: Carbohydrates which yield a large number of\nmonosaccharide units on hydrolysis are called polysaccharides Some common examples are starch, cellulose, glycogen, gums,\netc Polysaccharides are not sweet in taste, hence they are also\ncalled non-sugars The carbohydrates may also be classified as either reducing or non-\nreducing sugars"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7513-7516", "Text": "Some common examples are starch, cellulose, glycogen, gums,\netc Polysaccharides are not sweet in taste, hence they are also\ncalled non-sugars The carbohydrates may also be classified as either reducing or non-\nreducing sugars All those carbohydrates which reduce Fehling\u2019s\nsolution and Tollens\u2019 reagent are referred to as reducing sugars"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7514-7517", "Text": "Polysaccharides are not sweet in taste, hence they are also\ncalled non-sugars The carbohydrates may also be classified as either reducing or non-\nreducing sugars All those carbohydrates which reduce Fehling\u2019s\nsolution and Tollens\u2019 reagent are referred to as reducing sugars All\nmonosaccharides whether aldose or ketose are reducing sugars"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7515-7518", "Text": "The carbohydrates may also be classified as either reducing or non-\nreducing sugars All those carbohydrates which reduce Fehling\u2019s\nsolution and Tollens\u2019 reagent are referred to as reducing sugars All\nmonosaccharides whether aldose or ketose are reducing sugars Monosaccharides are further classified on the basis of number of carbon\natoms and the functional group present in them"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7516-7519", "Text": "All those carbohydrates which reduce Fehling\u2019s\nsolution and Tollens\u2019 reagent are referred to as reducing sugars All\nmonosaccharides whether aldose or ketose are reducing sugars Monosaccharides are further classified on the basis of number of carbon\natoms and the functional group present in them If a monosaccharide\ncontains an aldehyde group, it is known as an aldose and if it contains\na keto group, it is known as a ketose"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7517-7520", "Text": "All\nmonosaccharides whether aldose or ketose are reducing sugars Monosaccharides are further classified on the basis of number of carbon\natoms and the functional group present in them If a monosaccharide\ncontains an aldehyde group, it is known as an aldose and if it contains\na keto group, it is known as a ketose Number of carbon atoms\nconstituting the monosaccharide is also introduced in the name as is\nevident from the examples given in Table 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7518-7521", "Text": "Monosaccharides are further classified on the basis of number of carbon\natoms and the functional group present in them If a monosaccharide\ncontains an aldehyde group, it is known as an aldose and if it contains\na keto group, it is known as a ketose Number of carbon atoms\nconstituting the monosaccharide is also introduced in the name as is\nevident from the examples given in Table 10 1\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7519-7522", "Text": "If a monosaccharide\ncontains an aldehyde group, it is known as an aldose and if it contains\na keto group, it is known as a ketose Number of carbon atoms\nconstituting the monosaccharide is also introduced in the name as is\nevident from the examples given in Table 10 1\n10 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7520-7523", "Text": "Number of carbon atoms\nconstituting the monosaccharide is also introduced in the name as is\nevident from the examples given in Table 10 1\n10 1 1\nClassification of\nCarbohydrates\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7521-7524", "Text": "1\n10 1 1\nClassification of\nCarbohydrates\n10 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7522-7525", "Text": "1 1\nClassification of\nCarbohydrates\n10 1 2\nMonosaccharides\n3\nTriose\nAldotriose\nKetotriose\n4\nTetrose\nAldotetrose\nKetotetrose\n5\nPentose\nAldopentose\nKetopentose\n6\nHexose\nAldohexose\nKetohexose\n7\nHeptose\nAldoheptose\nKetoheptose\nCarbon atoms\nGeneral term\nAldehyde\nKetone\nTable 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7523-7526", "Text": "1\nClassification of\nCarbohydrates\n10 1 2\nMonosaccharides\n3\nTriose\nAldotriose\nKetotriose\n4\nTetrose\nAldotetrose\nKetotetrose\n5\nPentose\nAldopentose\nKetopentose\n6\nHexose\nAldohexose\nKetohexose\n7\nHeptose\nAldoheptose\nKetoheptose\nCarbon atoms\nGeneral term\nAldehyde\nKetone\nTable 10 1: Different Types of Monosaccharides\nGlucose occurs freely in nature as well as in the combined form"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7524-7527", "Text": "1 2\nMonosaccharides\n3\nTriose\nAldotriose\nKetotriose\n4\nTetrose\nAldotetrose\nKetotetrose\n5\nPentose\nAldopentose\nKetopentose\n6\nHexose\nAldohexose\nKetohexose\n7\nHeptose\nAldoheptose\nKetoheptose\nCarbon atoms\nGeneral term\nAldehyde\nKetone\nTable 10 1: Different Types of Monosaccharides\nGlucose occurs freely in nature as well as in the combined form It is\npresent in sweet fruits and honey"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7525-7528", "Text": "2\nMonosaccharides\n3\nTriose\nAldotriose\nKetotriose\n4\nTetrose\nAldotetrose\nKetotetrose\n5\nPentose\nAldopentose\nKetopentose\n6\nHexose\nAldohexose\nKetohexose\n7\nHeptose\nAldoheptose\nKetoheptose\nCarbon atoms\nGeneral term\nAldehyde\nKetone\nTable 10 1: Different Types of Monosaccharides\nGlucose occurs freely in nature as well as in the combined form It is\npresent in sweet fruits and honey Ripe grapes also contain glucose\nin large amounts"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7526-7529", "Text": "1: Different Types of Monosaccharides\nGlucose occurs freely in nature as well as in the combined form It is\npresent in sweet fruits and honey Ripe grapes also contain glucose\nin large amounts It is prepared as follows:\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7527-7530", "Text": "It is\npresent in sweet fruits and honey Ripe grapes also contain glucose\nin large amounts It is prepared as follows:\n1 From sucrose (Cane sugar): If sucrose is boiled with dilute HCl or\nH2SO4 in alcoholic solution, glucose and fructose are obtained in\nequal amounts"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7528-7531", "Text": "Ripe grapes also contain glucose\nin large amounts It is prepared as follows:\n1 From sucrose (Cane sugar): If sucrose is boiled with dilute HCl or\nH2SO4 in alcoholic solution, glucose and fructose are obtained in\nequal amounts Preparation of\nGlucose\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7529-7532", "Text": "It is prepared as follows:\n1 From sucrose (Cane sugar): If sucrose is boiled with dilute HCl or\nH2SO4 in alcoholic solution, glucose and fructose are obtained in\nequal amounts Preparation of\nGlucose\n10 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7530-7533", "Text": "From sucrose (Cane sugar): If sucrose is boiled with dilute HCl or\nH2SO4 in alcoholic solution, glucose and fructose are obtained in\nequal amounts Preparation of\nGlucose\n10 1 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7531-7534", "Text": "Preparation of\nGlucose\n10 1 2 1 Glucose\nRationalised 2023-24\n283\nBiomolecules\n+\nH\n12\n22\n11\n2\n6\n12\n6\n6\n12\n6\nC H O\nH O\nC H O\n+ C H O\n+\n\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\u2192\n Sucrose\n Glucose\n Fructose\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7532-7535", "Text": "1 2 1 Glucose\nRationalised 2023-24\n283\nBiomolecules\n+\nH\n12\n22\n11\n2\n6\n12\n6\n6\n12\n6\nC H O\nH O\nC H O\n+ C H O\n+\n\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\u2192\n Sucrose\n Glucose\n Fructose\n2 From starch: Commercially glucose is obtained by hydrolysis of\nstarch by boiling it with dilute H2SO4 at 393 K under pressure"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7533-7536", "Text": "2 1 Glucose\nRationalised 2023-24\n283\nBiomolecules\n+\nH\n12\n22\n11\n2\n6\n12\n6\n6\n12\n6\nC H O\nH O\nC H O\n+ C H O\n+\n\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\u2192\n Sucrose\n Glucose\n Fructose\n2 From starch: Commercially glucose is obtained by hydrolysis of\nstarch by boiling it with dilute H2SO4 at 393 K under pressure +\nH\n6\n10\n5 n\n2\n6\n12\n6\n393K; 2-3 atm\n(C H\nO )\n+ nH O\nnC H\nO\n\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\u2192\n Starch or cellulose\n Glucose\nGlucose is an aldohexose and is also known as dextrose"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7534-7537", "Text": "1 Glucose\nRationalised 2023-24\n283\nBiomolecules\n+\nH\n12\n22\n11\n2\n6\n12\n6\n6\n12\n6\nC H O\nH O\nC H O\n+ C H O\n+\n\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\u2192\n Sucrose\n Glucose\n Fructose\n2 From starch: Commercially glucose is obtained by hydrolysis of\nstarch by boiling it with dilute H2SO4 at 393 K under pressure +\nH\n6\n10\n5 n\n2\n6\n12\n6\n393K; 2-3 atm\n(C H\nO )\n+ nH O\nnC H\nO\n\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\u2192\n Starch or cellulose\n Glucose\nGlucose is an aldohexose and is also known as dextrose It is the\nmonomer of many of the larger carbohydrates, namely starch, cellulose"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7535-7538", "Text": "From starch: Commercially glucose is obtained by hydrolysis of\nstarch by boiling it with dilute H2SO4 at 393 K under pressure +\nH\n6\n10\n5 n\n2\n6\n12\n6\n393K; 2-3 atm\n(C H\nO )\n+ nH O\nnC H\nO\n\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\u2192\n Starch or cellulose\n Glucose\nGlucose is an aldohexose and is also known as dextrose It is the\nmonomer of many of the larger carbohydrates, namely starch, cellulose It is probably the most abundant organic compound on earth"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7536-7539", "Text": "+\nH\n6\n10\n5 n\n2\n6\n12\n6\n393K; 2-3 atm\n(C H\nO )\n+ nH O\nnC H\nO\n\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\uf8e7\u2192\n Starch or cellulose\n Glucose\nGlucose is an aldohexose and is also known as dextrose It is the\nmonomer of many of the larger carbohydrates, namely starch, cellulose It is probably the most abundant organic compound on earth It was\nassigned the structure given below on the basis of the following\nevidences:\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7537-7540", "Text": "It is the\nmonomer of many of the larger carbohydrates, namely starch, cellulose It is probably the most abundant organic compound on earth It was\nassigned the structure given below on the basis of the following\nevidences:\n1 Its molecular formula was found to be C6H12O6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7538-7541", "Text": "It is probably the most abundant organic compound on earth It was\nassigned the structure given below on the basis of the following\nevidences:\n1 Its molecular formula was found to be C6H12O6 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7539-7542", "Text": "It was\nassigned the structure given below on the basis of the following\nevidences:\n1 Its molecular formula was found to be C6H12O6 2 On prolonged heating with HI, it forms n-hexane, suggesting that all\nthe six carbon atoms are linked in a straight chain"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7540-7543", "Text": "Its molecular formula was found to be C6H12O6 2 On prolonged heating with HI, it forms n-hexane, suggesting that all\nthe six carbon atoms are linked in a straight chain 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7541-7544", "Text": "2 On prolonged heating with HI, it forms n-hexane, suggesting that all\nthe six carbon atoms are linked in a straight chain 3 Glucose reacts with hydroxylamine to form an oxime and adds a\nmolecule of hydrogen cyanide to give cyanohydrin"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7542-7545", "Text": "On prolonged heating with HI, it forms n-hexane, suggesting that all\nthe six carbon atoms are linked in a straight chain 3 Glucose reacts with hydroxylamine to form an oxime and adds a\nmolecule of hydrogen cyanide to give cyanohydrin These reactions\nconfirm the presence of a carbonyl group (>C = O) in glucose"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7543-7546", "Text": "3 Glucose reacts with hydroxylamine to form an oxime and adds a\nmolecule of hydrogen cyanide to give cyanohydrin These reactions\nconfirm the presence of a carbonyl group (>C = O) in glucose 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7544-7547", "Text": "Glucose reacts with hydroxylamine to form an oxime and adds a\nmolecule of hydrogen cyanide to give cyanohydrin These reactions\nconfirm the presence of a carbonyl group (>C = O) in glucose 4 Glucose gets oxidised to six carbon carboxylic acid (gluconic acid)\non reaction with a mild oxidising agent like bromine water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7545-7548", "Text": "These reactions\nconfirm the presence of a carbonyl group (>C = O) in glucose 4 Glucose gets oxidised to six carbon carboxylic acid (gluconic acid)\non reaction with a mild oxidising agent like bromine water This\nindicates that the carbonyl group is present as an aldehydic group"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7546-7549", "Text": "4 Glucose gets oxidised to six carbon carboxylic acid (gluconic acid)\non reaction with a mild oxidising agent like bromine water This\nindicates that the carbonyl group is present as an aldehydic group CHO\n(CH\nOH)4\n(CH\n)4\nOH\nCH2OH\nCH2OH\nBr water\n2\nCOOH\nGluconic acid\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7547-7550", "Text": "Glucose gets oxidised to six carbon carboxylic acid (gluconic acid)\non reaction with a mild oxidising agent like bromine water This\nindicates that the carbonyl group is present as an aldehydic group CHO\n(CH\nOH)4\n(CH\n)4\nOH\nCH2OH\nCH2OH\nBr water\n2\nCOOH\nGluconic acid\n5 Acetylation of glucose with acetic anhydride gives glucose\npentaacetate which confirms the presence of five \u2013OH groups"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7548-7551", "Text": "This\nindicates that the carbonyl group is present as an aldehydic group CHO\n(CH\nOH)4\n(CH\n)4\nOH\nCH2OH\nCH2OH\nBr water\n2\nCOOH\nGluconic acid\n5 Acetylation of glucose with acetic anhydride gives glucose\npentaacetate which confirms the presence of five \u2013OH groups Since\nit exists as a stable compound, five \u2013OH groups should be attached\nto different carbon atoms"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7549-7552", "Text": "CHO\n(CH\nOH)4\n(CH\n)4\nOH\nCH2OH\nCH2OH\nBr water\n2\nCOOH\nGluconic acid\n5 Acetylation of glucose with acetic anhydride gives glucose\npentaacetate which confirms the presence of five \u2013OH groups Since\nit exists as a stable compound, five \u2013OH groups should be attached\nto different carbon atoms Structure of\nGlucose\nCHO\n(CH\n)4\nOH\nCH2OH\nGlucose\nRationalised 2023-24\n284\nChemistry\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7550-7553", "Text": "Acetylation of glucose with acetic anhydride gives glucose\npentaacetate which confirms the presence of five \u2013OH groups Since\nit exists as a stable compound, five \u2013OH groups should be attached\nto different carbon atoms Structure of\nGlucose\nCHO\n(CH\n)4\nOH\nCH2OH\nGlucose\nRationalised 2023-24\n284\nChemistry\n6 On oxidation with nitric acid, glucose as well as gluconic acid both\nyield a dicarboxylic acid, saccharic acid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7551-7554", "Text": "Since\nit exists as a stable compound, five \u2013OH groups should be attached\nto different carbon atoms Structure of\nGlucose\nCHO\n(CH\n)4\nOH\nCH2OH\nGlucose\nRationalised 2023-24\n284\nChemistry\n6 On oxidation with nitric acid, glucose as well as gluconic acid both\nyield a dicarboxylic acid, saccharic acid This indicates the presence\nof a primary alcoholic (\u2013OH) group in glucose"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7552-7555", "Text": "Structure of\nGlucose\nCHO\n(CH\n)4\nOH\nCH2OH\nGlucose\nRationalised 2023-24\n284\nChemistry\n6 On oxidation with nitric acid, glucose as well as gluconic acid both\nyield a dicarboxylic acid, saccharic acid This indicates the presence\nof a primary alcoholic (\u2013OH) group in glucose CHO\n(CH\n)4\nOH\nCH OH\n2\nOxidation\n(CH\n)4\nOH\nCH OH\n2\nCOOH\n(CH\n)4\nOH\nCOOH\nCOOH\nOxidation\nSaccharic\nacid\nGluconic\nacid\nThe exact spatial arrangement of different \u2014OH groups was given\nby Fischer after studying many other properties"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7553-7556", "Text": "On oxidation with nitric acid, glucose as well as gluconic acid both\nyield a dicarboxylic acid, saccharic acid This indicates the presence\nof a primary alcoholic (\u2013OH) group in glucose CHO\n(CH\n)4\nOH\nCH OH\n2\nOxidation\n(CH\n)4\nOH\nCH OH\n2\nCOOH\n(CH\n)4\nOH\nCOOH\nCOOH\nOxidation\nSaccharic\nacid\nGluconic\nacid\nThe exact spatial arrangement of different \u2014OH groups was given\nby Fischer after studying many other properties Its configuration is\ncorrectly represented as I"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7554-7557", "Text": "This indicates the presence\nof a primary alcoholic (\u2013OH) group in glucose CHO\n(CH\n)4\nOH\nCH OH\n2\nOxidation\n(CH\n)4\nOH\nCH OH\n2\nCOOH\n(CH\n)4\nOH\nCOOH\nCOOH\nOxidation\nSaccharic\nacid\nGluconic\nacid\nThe exact spatial arrangement of different \u2014OH groups was given\nby Fischer after studying many other properties Its configuration is\ncorrectly represented as I So gluconic acid is represented as II and\nsaccharic acid as III"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7555-7558", "Text": "CHO\n(CH\n)4\nOH\nCH OH\n2\nOxidation\n(CH\n)4\nOH\nCH OH\n2\nCOOH\n(CH\n)4\nOH\nCOOH\nCOOH\nOxidation\nSaccharic\nacid\nGluconic\nacid\nThe exact spatial arrangement of different \u2014OH groups was given\nby Fischer after studying many other properties Its configuration is\ncorrectly represented as I So gluconic acid is represented as II and\nsaccharic acid as III CHO\nH\nOH\nOH\nH\nH\nOH\nH\nOH\nCH2OH\nI\nCOOH\nH\nOH\nOH\nH\nH\nOH\nH\nOH\nCH2OH\nII\nCOOH\nH\nOH\nOH\nH\nH\nOH\nH\nOH\nCOOH\nIII\nGlucose is correctly named as D(+)-glucose"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7556-7559", "Text": "Its configuration is\ncorrectly represented as I So gluconic acid is represented as II and\nsaccharic acid as III CHO\nH\nOH\nOH\nH\nH\nOH\nH\nOH\nCH2OH\nI\nCOOH\nH\nOH\nOH\nH\nH\nOH\nH\nOH\nCH2OH\nII\nCOOH\nH\nOH\nOH\nH\nH\nOH\nH\nOH\nCOOH\nIII\nGlucose is correctly named as D(+)-glucose \u2018D\u2019 before the name\nof glucose represents the configuration whereas \u2018(+)\u2019 represents\ndextrorotatory nature of the molecule"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7557-7560", "Text": "So gluconic acid is represented as II and\nsaccharic acid as III CHO\nH\nOH\nOH\nH\nH\nOH\nH\nOH\nCH2OH\nI\nCOOH\nH\nOH\nOH\nH\nH\nOH\nH\nOH\nCH2OH\nII\nCOOH\nH\nOH\nOH\nH\nH\nOH\nH\nOH\nCOOH\nIII\nGlucose is correctly named as D(+)-glucose \u2018D\u2019 before the name\nof glucose represents the configuration whereas \u2018(+)\u2019 represents\ndextrorotatory nature of the molecule It should be remembered that\n\u2018D\u2019 and \u2018L\u2019 have no relation with the optical activity of the compound"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7558-7561", "Text": "CHO\nH\nOH\nOH\nH\nH\nOH\nH\nOH\nCH2OH\nI\nCOOH\nH\nOH\nOH\nH\nH\nOH\nH\nOH\nCH2OH\nII\nCOOH\nH\nOH\nOH\nH\nH\nOH\nH\nOH\nCOOH\nIII\nGlucose is correctly named as D(+)-glucose \u2018D\u2019 before the name\nof glucose represents the configuration whereas \u2018(+)\u2019 represents\ndextrorotatory nature of the molecule It should be remembered that\n\u2018D\u2019 and \u2018L\u2019 have no relation with the optical activity of the compound They are also not related to letter \u2018d\u2019 and \u2018l\u2019 (see Unit 6)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7559-7562", "Text": "\u2018D\u2019 before the name\nof glucose represents the configuration whereas \u2018(+)\u2019 represents\ndextrorotatory nature of the molecule It should be remembered that\n\u2018D\u2019 and \u2018L\u2019 have no relation with the optical activity of the compound They are also not related to letter \u2018d\u2019 and \u2018l\u2019 (see Unit 6) The meaning\nof D\u2013 and L\u2013 notations is as follows"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7560-7563", "Text": "It should be remembered that\n\u2018D\u2019 and \u2018L\u2019 have no relation with the optical activity of the compound They are also not related to letter \u2018d\u2019 and \u2018l\u2019 (see Unit 6) The meaning\nof D\u2013 and L\u2013 notations is as follows The letters \u2018D\u2019 or \u2018L\u2019 before the name of any compound indicate the\nrelative configuration of a particular stereoisomer of a compound with\nrespect to configuration of some other compound, configuration of\nwhich is known"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7561-7564", "Text": "They are also not related to letter \u2018d\u2019 and \u2018l\u2019 (see Unit 6) The meaning\nof D\u2013 and L\u2013 notations is as follows The letters \u2018D\u2019 or \u2018L\u2019 before the name of any compound indicate the\nrelative configuration of a particular stereoisomer of a compound with\nrespect to configuration of some other compound, configuration of\nwhich is known In the case of carbohydrates, this refers to their\nrelation with a particular isomer of glyceraldehyde"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7562-7565", "Text": "The meaning\nof D\u2013 and L\u2013 notations is as follows The letters \u2018D\u2019 or \u2018L\u2019 before the name of any compound indicate the\nrelative configuration of a particular stereoisomer of a compound with\nrespect to configuration of some other compound, configuration of\nwhich is known In the case of carbohydrates, this refers to their\nrelation with a particular isomer of glyceraldehyde Glyceraldehyde\ncontains one asymmetric carbon atom and exists in two enantiomeric\nforms as shown below"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7563-7566", "Text": "The letters \u2018D\u2019 or \u2018L\u2019 before the name of any compound indicate the\nrelative configuration of a particular stereoisomer of a compound with\nrespect to configuration of some other compound, configuration of\nwhich is known In the case of carbohydrates, this refers to their\nrelation with a particular isomer of glyceraldehyde Glyceraldehyde\ncontains one asymmetric carbon atom and exists in two enantiomeric\nforms as shown below (+) Isomer of glyceraldehyde has \u2018D\u2019 configuration"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7564-7567", "Text": "In the case of carbohydrates, this refers to their\nrelation with a particular isomer of glyceraldehyde Glyceraldehyde\ncontains one asymmetric carbon atom and exists in two enantiomeric\nforms as shown below (+) Isomer of glyceraldehyde has \u2018D\u2019 configuration It means that when\nits structural formula is written on paper following specific conventions\nwhich you will study in higher classes, the \u2013OH group lies on right hand\nside in the structure"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7565-7568", "Text": "Glyceraldehyde\ncontains one asymmetric carbon atom and exists in two enantiomeric\nforms as shown below (+) Isomer of glyceraldehyde has \u2018D\u2019 configuration It means that when\nits structural formula is written on paper following specific conventions\nwhich you will study in higher classes, the \u2013OH group lies on right hand\nside in the structure All those compounds which can be chemically\ncorrelated to D (+) isomer of glyceraldehyde are said to have D-\nconfiguration whereas those which can be correlated to \u2018L\u2019 (\u2013) isomer of\nglyceraldehyde are said to have L\u2014configuration"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7566-7569", "Text": "(+) Isomer of glyceraldehyde has \u2018D\u2019 configuration It means that when\nits structural formula is written on paper following specific conventions\nwhich you will study in higher classes, the \u2013OH group lies on right hand\nside in the structure All those compounds which can be chemically\ncorrelated to D (+) isomer of glyceraldehyde are said to have D-\nconfiguration whereas those which can be correlated to \u2018L\u2019 (\u2013) isomer of\nglyceraldehyde are said to have L\u2014configuration In L (\u2013) isomer \u2013OH\ngroup is on left hand side as you can see in the structure"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7567-7570", "Text": "It means that when\nits structural formula is written on paper following specific conventions\nwhich you will study in higher classes, the \u2013OH group lies on right hand\nside in the structure All those compounds which can be chemically\ncorrelated to D (+) isomer of glyceraldehyde are said to have D-\nconfiguration whereas those which can be correlated to \u2018L\u2019 (\u2013) isomer of\nglyceraldehyde are said to have L\u2014configuration In L (\u2013) isomer \u2013OH\ngroup is on left hand side as you can see in the structure For assigning\nRationalised 2023-24\n285\nBiomolecules\nthe configuration of monosaccharides, it is the lowest asymmetric carbon\natom (as shown below) which is compared"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7568-7571", "Text": "All those compounds which can be chemically\ncorrelated to D (+) isomer of glyceraldehyde are said to have D-\nconfiguration whereas those which can be correlated to \u2018L\u2019 (\u2013) isomer of\nglyceraldehyde are said to have L\u2014configuration In L (\u2013) isomer \u2013OH\ngroup is on left hand side as you can see in the structure For assigning\nRationalised 2023-24\n285\nBiomolecules\nthe configuration of monosaccharides, it is the lowest asymmetric carbon\natom (as shown below) which is compared As in (+) glucose, \u2014OH on\nthe lowest asymmetric carbon is on the right side which is comparable\nto (+) glyceraldehyde, so (+) glucose is assigned D-configuration"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7569-7572", "Text": "In L (\u2013) isomer \u2013OH\ngroup is on left hand side as you can see in the structure For assigning\nRationalised 2023-24\n285\nBiomolecules\nthe configuration of monosaccharides, it is the lowest asymmetric carbon\natom (as shown below) which is compared As in (+) glucose, \u2014OH on\nthe lowest asymmetric carbon is on the right side which is comparable\nto (+) glyceraldehyde, so (+) glucose is assigned D-configuration Other\nasymmetric carbon atoms of glucose are not considered for this\ncomparison"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7570-7573", "Text": "For assigning\nRationalised 2023-24\n285\nBiomolecules\nthe configuration of monosaccharides, it is the lowest asymmetric carbon\natom (as shown below) which is compared As in (+) glucose, \u2014OH on\nthe lowest asymmetric carbon is on the right side which is comparable\nto (+) glyceraldehyde, so (+) glucose is assigned D-configuration Other\nasymmetric carbon atoms of glucose are not considered for this\ncomparison Also, the structure of glucose and glyceraldehyde is written\nin a way that most oxidised carbon (in this case \u2013CHO)is at the top"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7571-7574", "Text": "As in (+) glucose, \u2014OH on\nthe lowest asymmetric carbon is on the right side which is comparable\nto (+) glyceraldehyde, so (+) glucose is assigned D-configuration Other\nasymmetric carbon atoms of glucose are not considered for this\ncomparison Also, the structure of glucose and glyceraldehyde is written\nin a way that most oxidised carbon (in this case \u2013CHO)is at the top CHO\nH\nOH\nOH\nH\nH\nOH\nH\nOH\nCH2OH\nD\u2013(+) \u2013 Glucose\nCHO\nCH2OH\nH\nOH\nD\u2013 (+) \u2013 Glyceraldehyde\nThe structure (I) of glucose explained most of its properties but the\nfollowing reactions and facts could not be explained by this structure"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7572-7575", "Text": "Other\nasymmetric carbon atoms of glucose are not considered for this\ncomparison Also, the structure of glucose and glyceraldehyde is written\nin a way that most oxidised carbon (in this case \u2013CHO)is at the top CHO\nH\nOH\nOH\nH\nH\nOH\nH\nOH\nCH2OH\nD\u2013(+) \u2013 Glucose\nCHO\nCH2OH\nH\nOH\nD\u2013 (+) \u2013 Glyceraldehyde\nThe structure (I) of glucose explained most of its properties but the\nfollowing reactions and facts could not be explained by this structure 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7573-7576", "Text": "Also, the structure of glucose and glyceraldehyde is written\nin a way that most oxidised carbon (in this case \u2013CHO)is at the top CHO\nH\nOH\nOH\nH\nH\nOH\nH\nOH\nCH2OH\nD\u2013(+) \u2013 Glucose\nCHO\nCH2OH\nH\nOH\nD\u2013 (+) \u2013 Glyceraldehyde\nThe structure (I) of glucose explained most of its properties but the\nfollowing reactions and facts could not be explained by this structure 1 Despite having the aldehyde group, glucose does not give Schiff\u2019s\ntest and it does not form the hydrogensulphite addition product with\nNaHSO3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7574-7577", "Text": "CHO\nH\nOH\nOH\nH\nH\nOH\nH\nOH\nCH2OH\nD\u2013(+) \u2013 Glucose\nCHO\nCH2OH\nH\nOH\nD\u2013 (+) \u2013 Glyceraldehyde\nThe structure (I) of glucose explained most of its properties but the\nfollowing reactions and facts could not be explained by this structure 1 Despite having the aldehyde group, glucose does not give Schiff\u2019s\ntest and it does not form the hydrogensulphite addition product with\nNaHSO3 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7575-7578", "Text": "1 Despite having the aldehyde group, glucose does not give Schiff\u2019s\ntest and it does not form the hydrogensulphite addition product with\nNaHSO3 2 The pentaacetate of glucose does not react with hydroxylamine\nindicating the absence of free \u2014CHO group"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7576-7579", "Text": "Despite having the aldehyde group, glucose does not give Schiff\u2019s\ntest and it does not form the hydrogensulphite addition product with\nNaHSO3 2 The pentaacetate of glucose does not react with hydroxylamine\nindicating the absence of free \u2014CHO group 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7577-7580", "Text": "2 The pentaacetate of glucose does not react with hydroxylamine\nindicating the absence of free \u2014CHO group 3 Glucose is found to exist in two different crystalline forms which are\nnamed as a and b"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7578-7581", "Text": "The pentaacetate of glucose does not react with hydroxylamine\nindicating the absence of free \u2014CHO group 3 Glucose is found to exist in two different crystalline forms which are\nnamed as a and b The a-form of glucose (m"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7579-7582", "Text": "3 Glucose is found to exist in two different crystalline forms which are\nnamed as a and b The a-form of glucose (m p"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7580-7583", "Text": "Glucose is found to exist in two different crystalline forms which are\nnamed as a and b The a-form of glucose (m p 419 K) is obtained by\ncrystallisation from concentrated solution of glucose at 303 K while\nthe b-form (m"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7581-7584", "Text": "The a-form of glucose (m p 419 K) is obtained by\ncrystallisation from concentrated solution of glucose at 303 K while\nthe b-form (m p"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7582-7585", "Text": "p 419 K) is obtained by\ncrystallisation from concentrated solution of glucose at 303 K while\nthe b-form (m p 423 K) is obtained by crystallisation from hot and\nsaturated aqueous solution at 371 K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7583-7586", "Text": "419 K) is obtained by\ncrystallisation from concentrated solution of glucose at 303 K while\nthe b-form (m p 423 K) is obtained by crystallisation from hot and\nsaturated aqueous solution at 371 K This behaviour could not be explained by the open chain structure\n(I) for glucose"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7584-7587", "Text": "p 423 K) is obtained by crystallisation from hot and\nsaturated aqueous solution at 371 K This behaviour could not be explained by the open chain structure\n(I) for glucose It was proposed that one of the \u2014OH groups may add\nto the \u2014CHO group and form a cyclic hemiacetal structure"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7585-7588", "Text": "423 K) is obtained by crystallisation from hot and\nsaturated aqueous solution at 371 K This behaviour could not be explained by the open chain structure\n(I) for glucose It was proposed that one of the \u2014OH groups may add\nto the \u2014CHO group and form a cyclic hemiacetal structure It was\nfound that glucose forms a six-membered ring in which \u2014OH at C-5\nis involved in ring formation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7586-7589", "Text": "This behaviour could not be explained by the open chain structure\n(I) for glucose It was proposed that one of the \u2014OH groups may add\nto the \u2014CHO group and form a cyclic hemiacetal structure It was\nfound that glucose forms a six-membered ring in which \u2014OH at C-5\nis involved in ring formation This explains the absence of \u2014CHO\ngroup and also existence of glucose in two forms as shown below"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7587-7590", "Text": "It was proposed that one of the \u2014OH groups may add\nto the \u2014CHO group and form a cyclic hemiacetal structure It was\nfound that glucose forms a six-membered ring in which \u2014OH at C-5\nis involved in ring formation This explains the absence of \u2014CHO\ngroup and also existence of glucose in two forms as shown below These two cyclic forms exist in equilibrium with open chain structure"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7588-7591", "Text": "It was\nfound that glucose forms a six-membered ring in which \u2014OH at C-5\nis involved in ring formation This explains the absence of \u2014CHO\ngroup and also existence of glucose in two forms as shown below These two cyclic forms exist in equilibrium with open chain structure The two cyclic hemiacetal forms of glucose differ only in the\nconfiguration of the hydroxyl group at C1, called anomeric carbon\nCyclic\nStructure\nof Glucose\nRationalised 2023-24\n286\nChemistry\n(the aldehyde carbon before cyclisation)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7589-7592", "Text": "This explains the absence of \u2014CHO\ngroup and also existence of glucose in two forms as shown below These two cyclic forms exist in equilibrium with open chain structure The two cyclic hemiacetal forms of glucose differ only in the\nconfiguration of the hydroxyl group at C1, called anomeric carbon\nCyclic\nStructure\nof Glucose\nRationalised 2023-24\n286\nChemistry\n(the aldehyde carbon before cyclisation) Such isomers, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7590-7593", "Text": "These two cyclic forms exist in equilibrium with open chain structure The two cyclic hemiacetal forms of glucose differ only in the\nconfiguration of the hydroxyl group at C1, called anomeric carbon\nCyclic\nStructure\nof Glucose\nRationalised 2023-24\n286\nChemistry\n(the aldehyde carbon before cyclisation) Such isomers, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7591-7594", "Text": "The two cyclic hemiacetal forms of glucose differ only in the\nconfiguration of the hydroxyl group at C1, called anomeric carbon\nCyclic\nStructure\nof Glucose\nRationalised 2023-24\n286\nChemistry\n(the aldehyde carbon before cyclisation) Such isomers, i e , a-form\nand b-form, are called anomers"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7592-7595", "Text": "Such isomers, i e , a-form\nand b-form, are called anomers The six membered cyclic structure\nof glucose is called pyranose structure (a\u2013 or b\u2013), in analogy with\npyran"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7593-7596", "Text": "e , a-form\nand b-form, are called anomers The six membered cyclic structure\nof glucose is called pyranose structure (a\u2013 or b\u2013), in analogy with\npyran Pyran is a cyclic organic compound with one oxygen atom\nand five carbon atoms in the ring"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7594-7597", "Text": ", a-form\nand b-form, are called anomers The six membered cyclic structure\nof glucose is called pyranose structure (a\u2013 or b\u2013), in analogy with\npyran Pyran is a cyclic organic compound with one oxygen atom\nand five carbon atoms in the ring The cyclic structure of glucose is\nmore correctly represented by Haworth structure as given below"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7595-7598", "Text": "The six membered cyclic structure\nof glucose is called pyranose structure (a\u2013 or b\u2013), in analogy with\npyran Pyran is a cyclic organic compound with one oxygen atom\nand five carbon atoms in the ring The cyclic structure of glucose is\nmore correctly represented by Haworth structure as given below Fructose is an important ketohexose"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7596-7599", "Text": "Pyran is a cyclic organic compound with one oxygen atom\nand five carbon atoms in the ring The cyclic structure of glucose is\nmore correctly represented by Haworth structure as given below Fructose is an important ketohexose It is obtained along with glucose\nby the hydrolysis of disaccharide, sucrose"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7597-7600", "Text": "The cyclic structure of glucose is\nmore correctly represented by Haworth structure as given below Fructose is an important ketohexose It is obtained along with glucose\nby the hydrolysis of disaccharide, sucrose It is a natural\nmonosaccharide found in fruits, honey and vegetables"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7598-7601", "Text": "Fructose is an important ketohexose It is obtained along with glucose\nby the hydrolysis of disaccharide, sucrose It is a natural\nmonosaccharide found in fruits, honey and vegetables In its pure\nform it is used as a sweetner"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7599-7602", "Text": "It is obtained along with glucose\nby the hydrolysis of disaccharide, sucrose It is a natural\nmonosaccharide found in fruits, honey and vegetables In its pure\nform it is used as a sweetner It is also an important ketohexose"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7600-7603", "Text": "It is a natural\nmonosaccharide found in fruits, honey and vegetables In its pure\nform it is used as a sweetner It is also an important ketohexose Fructose also has the molecular formula C6H12O6 and\non the basis of its reactions it was found to contain a\nketonic functional group at carbon number 2 and six\ncarbons in straight chain as in the case of glucose"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7601-7604", "Text": "In its pure\nform it is used as a sweetner It is also an important ketohexose Fructose also has the molecular formula C6H12O6 and\non the basis of its reactions it was found to contain a\nketonic functional group at carbon number 2 and six\ncarbons in straight chain as in the case of glucose It\nbelongs to D-series and is a laevorotatory compound"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7602-7605", "Text": "It is also an important ketohexose Fructose also has the molecular formula C6H12O6 and\non the basis of its reactions it was found to contain a\nketonic functional group at carbon number 2 and six\ncarbons in straight chain as in the case of glucose It\nbelongs to D-series and is a laevorotatory compound It is appropriately written as D-(\u2013)-fructose"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7603-7606", "Text": "Fructose also has the molecular formula C6H12O6 and\non the basis of its reactions it was found to contain a\nketonic functional group at carbon number 2 and six\ncarbons in straight chain as in the case of glucose It\nbelongs to D-series and is a laevorotatory compound It is appropriately written as D-(\u2013)-fructose Its open\nchain structure is as shown"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7604-7607", "Text": "It\nbelongs to D-series and is a laevorotatory compound It is appropriately written as D-(\u2013)-fructose Its open\nchain structure is as shown It also exists in two cyclic forms which are obtained\nby the addition of \u2014OH at C5 to the (\n) group"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7605-7608", "Text": "It is appropriately written as D-(\u2013)-fructose Its open\nchain structure is as shown It also exists in two cyclic forms which are obtained\nby the addition of \u2014OH at C5 to the (\n) group The ring, thus formed\nis a five membered ring and is named as furanose with analogy to the\ncompound furan"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7606-7609", "Text": "Its open\nchain structure is as shown It also exists in two cyclic forms which are obtained\nby the addition of \u2014OH at C5 to the (\n) group The ring, thus formed\nis a five membered ring and is named as furanose with analogy to the\ncompound furan Furan is a five membered cyclic compound with one\noxygen and four carbon atoms"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7607-7610", "Text": "It also exists in two cyclic forms which are obtained\nby the addition of \u2014OH at C5 to the (\n) group The ring, thus formed\nis a five membered ring and is named as furanose with analogy to the\ncompound furan Furan is a five membered cyclic compound with one\noxygen and four carbon atoms Structure\nof Fructose\nThe cyclic structures of two anomers of fructose are represented by\nHaworth structures as given"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7608-7611", "Text": "The ring, thus formed\nis a five membered ring and is named as furanose with analogy to the\ncompound furan Furan is a five membered cyclic compound with one\noxygen and four carbon atoms Structure\nof Fructose\nThe cyclic structures of two anomers of fructose are represented by\nHaworth structures as given 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7609-7612", "Text": "Furan is a five membered cyclic compound with one\noxygen and four carbon atoms Structure\nof Fructose\nThe cyclic structures of two anomers of fructose are represented by\nHaworth structures as given 10 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7610-7613", "Text": "Structure\nof Fructose\nThe cyclic structures of two anomers of fructose are represented by\nHaworth structures as given 10 1 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7611-7614", "Text": "10 1 2 2 Fructose\nRationalised 2023-24\n287\nBiomolecules\nYou have already read that disaccharides on hydrolysis with dilute\nacids or enzymes yield two molecules of either the same or different\nmonosaccharides"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7612-7615", "Text": "1 2 2 Fructose\nRationalised 2023-24\n287\nBiomolecules\nYou have already read that disaccharides on hydrolysis with dilute\nacids or enzymes yield two molecules of either the same or different\nmonosaccharides The two monosaccharides are joined together by an\noxide linkage formed by the loss of a water molecule"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7613-7616", "Text": "2 2 Fructose\nRationalised 2023-24\n287\nBiomolecules\nYou have already read that disaccharides on hydrolysis with dilute\nacids or enzymes yield two molecules of either the same or different\nmonosaccharides The two monosaccharides are joined together by an\noxide linkage formed by the loss of a water molecule Such a linkage\nbetween two monosaccharide units through oxygen atom is called\nglycosidic linkage"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7614-7617", "Text": "2 Fructose\nRationalised 2023-24\n287\nBiomolecules\nYou have already read that disaccharides on hydrolysis with dilute\nacids or enzymes yield two molecules of either the same or different\nmonosaccharides The two monosaccharides are joined together by an\noxide linkage formed by the loss of a water molecule Such a linkage\nbetween two monosaccharide units through oxygen atom is called\nglycosidic linkage In disaccharides, if the reducing groups of monosaccharides i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7615-7618", "Text": "The two monosaccharides are joined together by an\noxide linkage formed by the loss of a water molecule Such a linkage\nbetween two monosaccharide units through oxygen atom is called\nglycosidic linkage In disaccharides, if the reducing groups of monosaccharides i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7616-7619", "Text": "Such a linkage\nbetween two monosaccharide units through oxygen atom is called\nglycosidic linkage In disaccharides, if the reducing groups of monosaccharides i e ,\naldehydic or ketonic groups are bonded, these are non-reducing sugars,\ne"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7617-7620", "Text": "In disaccharides, if the reducing groups of monosaccharides i e ,\naldehydic or ketonic groups are bonded, these are non-reducing sugars,\ne g"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7618-7621", "Text": "e ,\naldehydic or ketonic groups are bonded, these are non-reducing sugars,\ne g , sucrose"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7619-7622", "Text": ",\naldehydic or ketonic groups are bonded, these are non-reducing sugars,\ne g , sucrose On the other hand, sugars in which these functional groups\nare free, are called reducing sugars, for example, maltose and lactose"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7620-7623", "Text": "g , sucrose On the other hand, sugars in which these functional groups\nare free, are called reducing sugars, for example, maltose and lactose (i) Sucrose: One of the common disaccharides is sucrose which on\nhydrolysis gives equimolar mixture of D-(+)-glucose and D-(-) fructose"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7621-7624", "Text": ", sucrose On the other hand, sugars in which these functional groups\nare free, are called reducing sugars, for example, maltose and lactose (i) Sucrose: One of the common disaccharides is sucrose which on\nhydrolysis gives equimolar mixture of D-(+)-glucose and D-(-) fructose 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7622-7625", "Text": "On the other hand, sugars in which these functional groups\nare free, are called reducing sugars, for example, maltose and lactose (i) Sucrose: One of the common disaccharides is sucrose which on\nhydrolysis gives equimolar mixture of D-(+)-glucose and D-(-) fructose 10 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7623-7626", "Text": "(i) Sucrose: One of the common disaccharides is sucrose which on\nhydrolysis gives equimolar mixture of D-(+)-glucose and D-(-) fructose 10 1 3\nDisaccharides\nThese two monosaccharides are held together by a glycosidic\nlinkage between C1 of a-D-glucose and C2 of b-D-fructose"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7624-7627", "Text": "10 1 3\nDisaccharides\nThese two monosaccharides are held together by a glycosidic\nlinkage between C1 of a-D-glucose and C2 of b-D-fructose Since\nthe reducing groups of glucose and fructose are involved in\nglycosidic bond formation, sucrose is a non reducing sugar"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7625-7628", "Text": "1 3\nDisaccharides\nThese two monosaccharides are held together by a glycosidic\nlinkage between C1 of a-D-glucose and C2 of b-D-fructose Since\nthe reducing groups of glucose and fructose are involved in\nglycosidic bond formation, sucrose is a non reducing sugar Sucrose is dextrorotatory but after hydrolysis gives\ndextrorotatory glucose and laevorotatory fructose"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7626-7629", "Text": "3\nDisaccharides\nThese two monosaccharides are held together by a glycosidic\nlinkage between C1 of a-D-glucose and C2 of b-D-fructose Since\nthe reducing groups of glucose and fructose are involved in\nglycosidic bond formation, sucrose is a non reducing sugar Sucrose is dextrorotatory but after hydrolysis gives\ndextrorotatory glucose and laevorotatory fructose Since the\nlaevorotation of fructose (\u201392"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7627-7630", "Text": "Since\nthe reducing groups of glucose and fructose are involved in\nglycosidic bond formation, sucrose is a non reducing sugar Sucrose is dextrorotatory but after hydrolysis gives\ndextrorotatory glucose and laevorotatory fructose Since the\nlaevorotation of fructose (\u201392 4\u00b0) is more than dextrorotation of\nglucose (+ 52"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7628-7631", "Text": "Sucrose is dextrorotatory but after hydrolysis gives\ndextrorotatory glucose and laevorotatory fructose Since the\nlaevorotation of fructose (\u201392 4\u00b0) is more than dextrorotation of\nglucose (+ 52 5\u00b0), the mixture is laevorotatory"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7629-7632", "Text": "Since the\nlaevorotation of fructose (\u201392 4\u00b0) is more than dextrorotation of\nglucose (+ 52 5\u00b0), the mixture is laevorotatory Thus, hydrolysis of\nsucrose brings about a change in the sign of rotation, from dextro\n(+) to laevo (\u2013) and the product is named as invert sugar"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7630-7633", "Text": "4\u00b0) is more than dextrorotation of\nglucose (+ 52 5\u00b0), the mixture is laevorotatory Thus, hydrolysis of\nsucrose brings about a change in the sign of rotation, from dextro\n(+) to laevo (\u2013) and the product is named as invert sugar (ii) Maltose: Another disaccharide, maltose is composed of two\na-D-glucose units in which C1 of one glucose (I) is linked to C4\nof another glucose unit (II)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7631-7634", "Text": "5\u00b0), the mixture is laevorotatory Thus, hydrolysis of\nsucrose brings about a change in the sign of rotation, from dextro\n(+) to laevo (\u2013) and the product is named as invert sugar (ii) Maltose: Another disaccharide, maltose is composed of two\na-D-glucose units in which C1 of one glucose (I) is linked to C4\nof another glucose unit (II) The free aldehyde group can be\nproduced at C1 of second glucose in solution and it shows reducing\nproperties so it is a reducing sugar"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7632-7635", "Text": "Thus, hydrolysis of\nsucrose brings about a change in the sign of rotation, from dextro\n(+) to laevo (\u2013) and the product is named as invert sugar (ii) Maltose: Another disaccharide, maltose is composed of two\na-D-glucose units in which C1 of one glucose (I) is linked to C4\nof another glucose unit (II) The free aldehyde group can be\nproduced at C1 of second glucose in solution and it shows reducing\nproperties so it is a reducing sugar Rationalised 2023-24\n288\nChemistry\n(iii) Lactose: It is more commonly known as milk sugar since this\ndisaccharide is found in milk"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7633-7636", "Text": "(ii) Maltose: Another disaccharide, maltose is composed of two\na-D-glucose units in which C1 of one glucose (I) is linked to C4\nof another glucose unit (II) The free aldehyde group can be\nproduced at C1 of second glucose in solution and it shows reducing\nproperties so it is a reducing sugar Rationalised 2023-24\n288\nChemistry\n(iii) Lactose: It is more commonly known as milk sugar since this\ndisaccharide is found in milk It is composed of b-D-galactose and\nb-D-glucose"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7634-7637", "Text": "The free aldehyde group can be\nproduced at C1 of second glucose in solution and it shows reducing\nproperties so it is a reducing sugar Rationalised 2023-24\n288\nChemistry\n(iii) Lactose: It is more commonly known as milk sugar since this\ndisaccharide is found in milk It is composed of b-D-galactose and\nb-D-glucose The linkage is between C1 of galactose and C4 of\nglucose"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7635-7638", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n288\nChemistry\n(iii) Lactose: It is more commonly known as milk sugar since this\ndisaccharide is found in milk It is composed of b-D-galactose and\nb-D-glucose The linkage is between C1 of galactose and C4 of\nglucose Free aldehyde group may be produced at C-1 of glucose\nunit, hence it is also a reducing sugar"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7636-7639", "Text": "It is composed of b-D-galactose and\nb-D-glucose The linkage is between C1 of galactose and C4 of\nglucose Free aldehyde group may be produced at C-1 of glucose\nunit, hence it is also a reducing sugar Polysaccharides contain a large number of monosaccharide units joined\ntogether by glycosidic linkages"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7637-7640", "Text": "The linkage is between C1 of galactose and C4 of\nglucose Free aldehyde group may be produced at C-1 of glucose\nunit, hence it is also a reducing sugar Polysaccharides contain a large number of monosaccharide units joined\ntogether by glycosidic linkages These are the most commonly\nencountered carbohydrates in nature"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7638-7641", "Text": "Free aldehyde group may be produced at C-1 of glucose\nunit, hence it is also a reducing sugar Polysaccharides contain a large number of monosaccharide units joined\ntogether by glycosidic linkages These are the most commonly\nencountered carbohydrates in nature They mainly act as the food\nstorage or structural materials"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7639-7642", "Text": "Polysaccharides contain a large number of monosaccharide units joined\ntogether by glycosidic linkages These are the most commonly\nencountered carbohydrates in nature They mainly act as the food\nstorage or structural materials (i) Starch: Starch is the main storage polysaccharide of plants"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7640-7643", "Text": "These are the most commonly\nencountered carbohydrates in nature They mainly act as the food\nstorage or structural materials (i) Starch: Starch is the main storage polysaccharide of plants It is\nthe most important dietary source for human beings"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7641-7644", "Text": "They mainly act as the food\nstorage or structural materials (i) Starch: Starch is the main storage polysaccharide of plants It is\nthe most important dietary source for human beings High content\nof starch is found in cereals, roots, tubers and some vegetables"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7642-7645", "Text": "(i) Starch: Starch is the main storage polysaccharide of plants It is\nthe most important dietary source for human beings High content\nof starch is found in cereals, roots, tubers and some vegetables It\nis a polymer of a-glucose and consists of two components\u2014\nAmylose and Amylopectin"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7643-7646", "Text": "It is\nthe most important dietary source for human beings High content\nof starch is found in cereals, roots, tubers and some vegetables It\nis a polymer of a-glucose and consists of two components\u2014\nAmylose and Amylopectin Amylose is water soluble component\nwhich constitutes about 15-20% of starch"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7644-7647", "Text": "High content\nof starch is found in cereals, roots, tubers and some vegetables It\nis a polymer of a-glucose and consists of two components\u2014\nAmylose and Amylopectin Amylose is water soluble component\nwhich constitutes about 15-20% of starch Chemically amylose is\na long unbranched chain with 200-1000 a-D-(+)-glucose units\nheld together by C1\u2013 C4 glycosidic linkage"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7645-7648", "Text": "It\nis a polymer of a-glucose and consists of two components\u2014\nAmylose and Amylopectin Amylose is water soluble component\nwhich constitutes about 15-20% of starch Chemically amylose is\na long unbranched chain with 200-1000 a-D-(+)-glucose units\nheld together by C1\u2013 C4 glycosidic linkage Amylopectin is insoluble in water and constitutes about 80-\n85% of starch"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7646-7649", "Text": "Amylose is water soluble component\nwhich constitutes about 15-20% of starch Chemically amylose is\na long unbranched chain with 200-1000 a-D-(+)-glucose units\nheld together by C1\u2013 C4 glycosidic linkage Amylopectin is insoluble in water and constitutes about 80-\n85% of starch It is a branched chain polymer of a-D-glucose\nunits in which chain is formed by C1\u2013C4 glycosidic linkage whereas\nbranching occurs by C1\u2013C6 glycosidic linkage"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7647-7650", "Text": "Chemically amylose is\na long unbranched chain with 200-1000 a-D-(+)-glucose units\nheld together by C1\u2013 C4 glycosidic linkage Amylopectin is insoluble in water and constitutes about 80-\n85% of starch It is a branched chain polymer of a-D-glucose\nunits in which chain is formed by C1\u2013C4 glycosidic linkage whereas\nbranching occurs by C1\u2013C6 glycosidic linkage 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7648-7651", "Text": "Amylopectin is insoluble in water and constitutes about 80-\n85% of starch It is a branched chain polymer of a-D-glucose\nunits in which chain is formed by C1\u2013C4 glycosidic linkage whereas\nbranching occurs by C1\u2013C6 glycosidic linkage 10 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7649-7652", "Text": "It is a branched chain polymer of a-D-glucose\nunits in which chain is formed by C1\u2013C4 glycosidic linkage whereas\nbranching occurs by C1\u2013C6 glycosidic linkage 10 1 4\nPolysaccharides\nRationalised 2023-24\n289\nBiomolecules\n(ii) Cellulose: Cellulose occurs exclusively in plants and it is the most\nabundant organic substance in plant kingdom"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7650-7653", "Text": "10 1 4\nPolysaccharides\nRationalised 2023-24\n289\nBiomolecules\n(ii) Cellulose: Cellulose occurs exclusively in plants and it is the most\nabundant organic substance in plant kingdom It is a predominant\nconstituent of cell wall of plant cells"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7651-7654", "Text": "1 4\nPolysaccharides\nRationalised 2023-24\n289\nBiomolecules\n(ii) Cellulose: Cellulose occurs exclusively in plants and it is the most\nabundant organic substance in plant kingdom It is a predominant\nconstituent of cell wall of plant cells Cellulose is a straight chain\npolysaccharide composed only of b-D-glucose units which are\njoined by glycosidic linkage between C1 of one glucose unit and\nC4 of the next glucose unit"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7652-7655", "Text": "4\nPolysaccharides\nRationalised 2023-24\n289\nBiomolecules\n(ii) Cellulose: Cellulose occurs exclusively in plants and it is the most\nabundant organic substance in plant kingdom It is a predominant\nconstituent of cell wall of plant cells Cellulose is a straight chain\npolysaccharide composed only of b-D-glucose units which are\njoined by glycosidic linkage between C1 of one glucose unit and\nC4 of the next glucose unit (iii) Glycogen: The carbohydrates are stored in animal body as glycogen"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7653-7656", "Text": "It is a predominant\nconstituent of cell wall of plant cells Cellulose is a straight chain\npolysaccharide composed only of b-D-glucose units which are\njoined by glycosidic linkage between C1 of one glucose unit and\nC4 of the next glucose unit (iii) Glycogen: The carbohydrates are stored in animal body as glycogen It is also known as animal starch because its structure is similar to\namylopectin and is rather more highly branched"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7654-7657", "Text": "Cellulose is a straight chain\npolysaccharide composed only of b-D-glucose units which are\njoined by glycosidic linkage between C1 of one glucose unit and\nC4 of the next glucose unit (iii) Glycogen: The carbohydrates are stored in animal body as glycogen It is also known as animal starch because its structure is similar to\namylopectin and is rather more highly branched It is present in liver,\nmuscles and brain"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7655-7658", "Text": "(iii) Glycogen: The carbohydrates are stored in animal body as glycogen It is also known as animal starch because its structure is similar to\namylopectin and is rather more highly branched It is present in liver,\nmuscles and brain When the body needs glucose, enzymes break the\nglycogen down to glucose"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7656-7659", "Text": "It is also known as animal starch because its structure is similar to\namylopectin and is rather more highly branched It is present in liver,\nmuscles and brain When the body needs glucose, enzymes break the\nglycogen down to glucose Glycogen is also found in yeast and fungi"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7657-7660", "Text": "It is present in liver,\nmuscles and brain When the body needs glucose, enzymes break the\nglycogen down to glucose Glycogen is also found in yeast and fungi Carbohydrates are essential for life in both plants and animals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7658-7661", "Text": "When the body needs glucose, enzymes break the\nglycogen down to glucose Glycogen is also found in yeast and fungi Carbohydrates are essential for life in both plants and animals They\nform a major portion of our food"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7659-7662", "Text": "Glycogen is also found in yeast and fungi Carbohydrates are essential for life in both plants and animals They\nform a major portion of our food Honey has been used for a long time\nas an instant source of energy by \u2018Vaids\u2019 in ayurvedic system of\nmedicine"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7660-7663", "Text": "Carbohydrates are essential for life in both plants and animals They\nform a major portion of our food Honey has been used for a long time\nas an instant source of energy by \u2018Vaids\u2019 in ayurvedic system of\nmedicine Carbohydrates are used as storage molecules as starch in\nplants and glycogen in animals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7661-7664", "Text": "They\nform a major portion of our food Honey has been used for a long time\nas an instant source of energy by \u2018Vaids\u2019 in ayurvedic system of\nmedicine Carbohydrates are used as storage molecules as starch in\nplants and glycogen in animals Cell wall of bacteria and plants is\nmade up of cellulose"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7662-7665", "Text": "Honey has been used for a long time\nas an instant source of energy by \u2018Vaids\u2019 in ayurvedic system of\nmedicine Carbohydrates are used as storage molecules as starch in\nplants and glycogen in animals Cell wall of bacteria and plants is\nmade up of cellulose We build furniture, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7663-7666", "Text": "Carbohydrates are used as storage molecules as starch in\nplants and glycogen in animals Cell wall of bacteria and plants is\nmade up of cellulose We build furniture, etc from cellulose in the form\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7664-7667", "Text": "Cell wall of bacteria and plants is\nmade up of cellulose We build furniture, etc from cellulose in the form\n10 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7665-7668", "Text": "We build furniture, etc from cellulose in the form\n10 1 5\nImportance of\nCarbohydrates\nRationalised 2023-24\n290\nChemistry\nof wood and clothe ourselves with cellulose in the form of cotton fibre"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7666-7669", "Text": "from cellulose in the form\n10 1 5\nImportance of\nCarbohydrates\nRationalised 2023-24\n290\nChemistry\nof wood and clothe ourselves with cellulose in the form of cotton fibre They provide raw materials for many important industries like textiles,\npaper, lacquers and breweries"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7667-7670", "Text": "1 5\nImportance of\nCarbohydrates\nRationalised 2023-24\n290\nChemistry\nof wood and clothe ourselves with cellulose in the form of cotton fibre They provide raw materials for many important industries like textiles,\npaper, lacquers and breweries Two aldopentoses viz"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7668-7671", "Text": "5\nImportance of\nCarbohydrates\nRationalised 2023-24\n290\nChemistry\nof wood and clothe ourselves with cellulose in the form of cotton fibre They provide raw materials for many important industries like textiles,\npaper, lacquers and breweries Two aldopentoses viz D-ribose and 2-deoxy-D-ribose (Section\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7669-7672", "Text": "They provide raw materials for many important industries like textiles,\npaper, lacquers and breweries Two aldopentoses viz D-ribose and 2-deoxy-D-ribose (Section\n10 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7670-7673", "Text": "Two aldopentoses viz D-ribose and 2-deoxy-D-ribose (Section\n10 5 1, Class XII) are present in nucleic acids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7671-7674", "Text": "D-ribose and 2-deoxy-D-ribose (Section\n10 5 1, Class XII) are present in nucleic acids Carbohydrates are found\nin biosystem in combination with many proteins and lipids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7672-7675", "Text": "5 1, Class XII) are present in nucleic acids Carbohydrates are found\nin biosystem in combination with many proteins and lipids 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7673-7676", "Text": "1, Class XII) are present in nucleic acids Carbohydrates are found\nin biosystem in combination with many proteins and lipids 10 1\nGlucose or sucrose are soluble in water but cyclohexane or\nbenzene (simple six membered ring compounds) are insoluble in\nwater"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7674-7677", "Text": "Carbohydrates are found\nin biosystem in combination with many proteins and lipids 10 1\nGlucose or sucrose are soluble in water but cyclohexane or\nbenzene (simple six membered ring compounds) are insoluble in\nwater Explain"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7675-7678", "Text": "10 1\nGlucose or sucrose are soluble in water but cyclohexane or\nbenzene (simple six membered ring compounds) are insoluble in\nwater Explain 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7676-7679", "Text": "1\nGlucose or sucrose are soluble in water but cyclohexane or\nbenzene (simple six membered ring compounds) are insoluble in\nwater Explain 10 2\nWhat are the expected products of hydrolysis of lactose"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7677-7680", "Text": "Explain 10 2\nWhat are the expected products of hydrolysis of lactose 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7678-7681", "Text": "10 2\nWhat are the expected products of hydrolysis of lactose 10 3\nHow do you explain the absence of aldehyde group in the\npentaacetate of D-glucose"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7679-7682", "Text": "2\nWhat are the expected products of hydrolysis of lactose 10 3\nHow do you explain the absence of aldehyde group in the\npentaacetate of D-glucose Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nProteins are the most abundant biomolecules of the living system"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7680-7683", "Text": "10 3\nHow do you explain the absence of aldehyde group in the\npentaacetate of D-glucose Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nProteins are the most abundant biomolecules of the living system Chief sources of proteins are milk, cheese, pulses, peanuts, fish, meat,\netc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7681-7684", "Text": "3\nHow do you explain the absence of aldehyde group in the\npentaacetate of D-glucose Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nProteins are the most abundant biomolecules of the living system Chief sources of proteins are milk, cheese, pulses, peanuts, fish, meat,\netc They occur in every part of the body and form the fundamental\nbasis of structure and functions of life"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7682-7685", "Text": "Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nProteins are the most abundant biomolecules of the living system Chief sources of proteins are milk, cheese, pulses, peanuts, fish, meat,\netc They occur in every part of the body and form the fundamental\nbasis of structure and functions of life They are also required for\ngrowth and maintenance of body"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7683-7686", "Text": "Chief sources of proteins are milk, cheese, pulses, peanuts, fish, meat,\netc They occur in every part of the body and form the fundamental\nbasis of structure and functions of life They are also required for\ngrowth and maintenance of body The word protein is derived from\nGreek word, \u201cproteios\u201d which means primary or of prime importance"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7684-7687", "Text": "They occur in every part of the body and form the fundamental\nbasis of structure and functions of life They are also required for\ngrowth and maintenance of body The word protein is derived from\nGreek word, \u201cproteios\u201d which means primary or of prime importance All proteins are polymers of a-amino acids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7685-7688", "Text": "They are also required for\ngrowth and maintenance of body The word protein is derived from\nGreek word, \u201cproteios\u201d which means primary or of prime importance All proteins are polymers of a-amino acids Amino acids contain amino (\u2013NH2) and carboxyl (\u2013COOH) functional\ngroups"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7686-7689", "Text": "The word protein is derived from\nGreek word, \u201cproteios\u201d which means primary or of prime importance All proteins are polymers of a-amino acids Amino acids contain amino (\u2013NH2) and carboxyl (\u2013COOH) functional\ngroups Depending upon the relative position of amino group with\nrespect to carboxyl group, the amino acids can be\nclassified as a, b, g, d and so on"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7687-7690", "Text": "All proteins are polymers of a-amino acids Amino acids contain amino (\u2013NH2) and carboxyl (\u2013COOH) functional\ngroups Depending upon the relative position of amino group with\nrespect to carboxyl group, the amino acids can be\nclassified as a, b, g, d and so on Only a-amino\nacids are obtained on hydrolysis of proteins"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7688-7691", "Text": "Amino acids contain amino (\u2013NH2) and carboxyl (\u2013COOH) functional\ngroups Depending upon the relative position of amino group with\nrespect to carboxyl group, the amino acids can be\nclassified as a, b, g, d and so on Only a-amino\nacids are obtained on hydrolysis of proteins They\nmay contain other functional groups also"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7689-7692", "Text": "Depending upon the relative position of amino group with\nrespect to carboxyl group, the amino acids can be\nclassified as a, b, g, d and so on Only a-amino\nacids are obtained on hydrolysis of proteins They\nmay contain other functional groups also All a-amino acids have trivial names, which\nusually reflect the property of that compound or\nits source"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7690-7693", "Text": "Only a-amino\nacids are obtained on hydrolysis of proteins They\nmay contain other functional groups also All a-amino acids have trivial names, which\nusually reflect the property of that compound or\nits source Glycine is so named since it has sweet taste (in Greek glykos\nmeans sweet) and tyrosine was first obtained from cheese (in Greek, tyros\nmeans cheese"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7691-7694", "Text": "They\nmay contain other functional groups also All a-amino acids have trivial names, which\nusually reflect the property of that compound or\nits source Glycine is so named since it has sweet taste (in Greek glykos\nmeans sweet) and tyrosine was first obtained from cheese (in Greek, tyros\nmeans cheese ) Amino acids are generally represented by a three letter\nsymbol, sometimes one letter symbol is also used"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7692-7695", "Text": "All a-amino acids have trivial names, which\nusually reflect the property of that compound or\nits source Glycine is so named since it has sweet taste (in Greek glykos\nmeans sweet) and tyrosine was first obtained from cheese (in Greek, tyros\nmeans cheese ) Amino acids are generally represented by a three letter\nsymbol, sometimes one letter symbol is also used Structures of some\ncommonly occurring amino acids along with their 3-letter and 1-letter\nsymbols are given in Table 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7693-7696", "Text": "Glycine is so named since it has sweet taste (in Greek glykos\nmeans sweet) and tyrosine was first obtained from cheese (in Greek, tyros\nmeans cheese ) Amino acids are generally represented by a three letter\nsymbol, sometimes one letter symbol is also used Structures of some\ncommonly occurring amino acids along with their 3-letter and 1-letter\nsymbols are given in Table 10 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7694-7697", "Text": ") Amino acids are generally represented by a three letter\nsymbol, sometimes one letter symbol is also used Structures of some\ncommonly occurring amino acids along with their 3-letter and 1-letter\nsymbols are given in Table 10 2 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7695-7698", "Text": "Structures of some\ncommonly occurring amino acids along with their 3-letter and 1-letter\nsymbols are given in Table 10 2 1 Glycine\nH\nGly\nG\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7696-7699", "Text": "2 1 Glycine\nH\nGly\nG\n2 Alanine\n\u2013 CH3\nAla\nA\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7697-7700", "Text": "1 Glycine\nH\nGly\nG\n2 Alanine\n\u2013 CH3\nAla\nA\n3 Valine*\n(H3C)2CH-\nVal\nV\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7698-7701", "Text": "Glycine\nH\nGly\nG\n2 Alanine\n\u2013 CH3\nAla\nA\n3 Valine*\n(H3C)2CH-\nVal\nV\n4 Leucine*\n(H3C)2CH-CH2-\nLeu\nL\nName of the\nCharacteristic feature\nThree letter\nOne letter\namino acids\nof side chain, R\nsymbol\ncode\nTable 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7699-7702", "Text": "Alanine\n\u2013 CH3\nAla\nA\n3 Valine*\n(H3C)2CH-\nVal\nV\n4 Leucine*\n(H3C)2CH-CH2-\nLeu\nL\nName of the\nCharacteristic feature\nThree letter\nOne letter\namino acids\nof side chain, R\nsymbol\ncode\nTable 10 2: Natural Amino Acids\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7700-7703", "Text": "Valine*\n(H3C)2CH-\nVal\nV\n4 Leucine*\n(H3C)2CH-CH2-\nLeu\nL\nName of the\nCharacteristic feature\nThree letter\nOne letter\namino acids\nof side chain, R\nsymbol\ncode\nTable 10 2: Natural Amino Acids\n10 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7701-7704", "Text": "Leucine*\n(H3C)2CH-CH2-\nLeu\nL\nName of the\nCharacteristic feature\nThree letter\nOne letter\namino acids\nof side chain, R\nsymbol\ncode\nTable 10 2: Natural Amino Acids\n10 2 1 Amino\nAcids\nR\nCH\nCOOH\nNH2\n\ufffd-amino acid\n(R = side chain)\n COOH\nH2N\n H\n R\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7702-7705", "Text": "2: Natural Amino Acids\n10 2 1 Amino\nAcids\nR\nCH\nCOOH\nNH2\n\ufffd-amino acid\n(R = side chain)\n COOH\nH2N\n H\n R\n10 2\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7703-7706", "Text": "2 1 Amino\nAcids\nR\nCH\nCOOH\nNH2\n\ufffd-amino acid\n(R = side chain)\n COOH\nH2N\n H\n R\n10 2\n10 2\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7704-7707", "Text": "1 Amino\nAcids\nR\nCH\nCOOH\nNH2\n\ufffd-amino acid\n(R = side chain)\n COOH\nH2N\n H\n R\n10 2\n10 2\n10 2\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7705-7708", "Text": "2\n10 2\n10 2\n10 2\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7706-7709", "Text": "2\n10 2\n10 2\n10 2\nProteins\nProteins\nProteins\nProteins\nProteins\nRationalised 2023-24\n291\nBiomolecules\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7707-7710", "Text": "2\n10 2\n10 2\nProteins\nProteins\nProteins\nProteins\nProteins\nRationalised 2023-24\n291\nBiomolecules\n5 Isoleucine*\nH3C-CH2-CH-\nIle\nI\n |\n CH3\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7708-7711", "Text": "2\n10 2\nProteins\nProteins\nProteins\nProteins\nProteins\nRationalised 2023-24\n291\nBiomolecules\n5 Isoleucine*\nH3C-CH2-CH-\nIle\nI\n |\n CH3\n6 Arginine*\nHN=C-NH-(CH2)3-\nArg\nR\n|\nNH2\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7709-7712", "Text": "2\nProteins\nProteins\nProteins\nProteins\nProteins\nRationalised 2023-24\n291\nBiomolecules\n5 Isoleucine*\nH3C-CH2-CH-\nIle\nI\n |\n CH3\n6 Arginine*\nHN=C-NH-(CH2)3-\nArg\nR\n|\nNH2\n7 Lysine*\nH2N-(CH2)4-\nLys\nK\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7710-7713", "Text": "Isoleucine*\nH3C-CH2-CH-\nIle\nI\n |\n CH3\n6 Arginine*\nHN=C-NH-(CH2)3-\nArg\nR\n|\nNH2\n7 Lysine*\nH2N-(CH2)4-\nLys\nK\n8 Glutamic acid\nHOOC-CH2-CH2-\nGlu\nE\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7711-7714", "Text": "Arginine*\nHN=C-NH-(CH2)3-\nArg\nR\n|\nNH2\n7 Lysine*\nH2N-(CH2)4-\nLys\nK\n8 Glutamic acid\nHOOC-CH2-CH2-\nGlu\nE\n9 Aspartic acid\nHOOC-CH2-\nAsp\nD\nO\n||\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7712-7715", "Text": "Lysine*\nH2N-(CH2)4-\nLys\nK\n8 Glutamic acid\nHOOC-CH2-CH2-\nGlu\nE\n9 Aspartic acid\nHOOC-CH2-\nAsp\nD\nO\n||\n10 Glutamine\nH2N-C-CH2-CH2-\nGln\nQ\nO\n||\n11"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7713-7716", "Text": "Glutamic acid\nHOOC-CH2-CH2-\nGlu\nE\n9 Aspartic acid\nHOOC-CH2-\nAsp\nD\nO\n||\n10 Glutamine\nH2N-C-CH2-CH2-\nGln\nQ\nO\n||\n11 Asparagine\nH2N-C-CH2-\nAsn\nN\n12"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7714-7717", "Text": "Aspartic acid\nHOOC-CH2-\nAsp\nD\nO\n||\n10 Glutamine\nH2N-C-CH2-CH2-\nGln\nQ\nO\n||\n11 Asparagine\nH2N-C-CH2-\nAsn\nN\n12 Threonine*\nH3C-CHOH-\nThr\nT\n13"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7715-7718", "Text": "Glutamine\nH2N-C-CH2-CH2-\nGln\nQ\nO\n||\n11 Asparagine\nH2N-C-CH2-\nAsn\nN\n12 Threonine*\nH3C-CHOH-\nThr\nT\n13 Serine\nHO-CH2-\nSer\nS\n14"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7716-7719", "Text": "Asparagine\nH2N-C-CH2-\nAsn\nN\n12 Threonine*\nH3C-CHOH-\nThr\nT\n13 Serine\nHO-CH2-\nSer\nS\n14 Cysteine\nHS-CH2-\nCys\nC\n15"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7717-7720", "Text": "Threonine*\nH3C-CHOH-\nThr\nT\n13 Serine\nHO-CH2-\nSer\nS\n14 Cysteine\nHS-CH2-\nCys\nC\n15 Methionine*\nH3C-S-CH2-CH2-\nMet\nM\n16"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7718-7721", "Text": "Serine\nHO-CH2-\nSer\nS\n14 Cysteine\nHS-CH2-\nCys\nC\n15 Methionine*\nH3C-S-CH2-CH2-\nMet\nM\n16 Phenylalanine*\nC6H5-CH2-\nPhe\nF\n17"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7719-7722", "Text": "Cysteine\nHS-CH2-\nCys\nC\n15 Methionine*\nH3C-S-CH2-CH2-\nMet\nM\n16 Phenylalanine*\nC6H5-CH2-\nPhe\nF\n17 Tyrosine\n(p)HO-C6H4-CH2-\nTyr\nY\n18"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7720-7723", "Text": "Methionine*\nH3C-S-CH2-CH2-\nMet\nM\n16 Phenylalanine*\nC6H5-CH2-\nPhe\nF\n17 Tyrosine\n(p)HO-C6H4-CH2-\nTyr\nY\n18 Tryptophan*\n\u2013CH2\nN\nH\nTrp\nW\n19"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7721-7724", "Text": "Phenylalanine*\nC6H5-CH2-\nPhe\nF\n17 Tyrosine\n(p)HO-C6H4-CH2-\nTyr\nY\n18 Tryptophan*\n\u2013CH2\nN\nH\nTrp\nW\n19 Histidine*\nHis\nH\n20"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7722-7725", "Text": "Tyrosine\n(p)HO-C6H4-CH2-\nTyr\nY\n18 Tryptophan*\n\u2013CH2\nN\nH\nTrp\nW\n19 Histidine*\nHis\nH\n20 Proline\nPro\nP\n* essential amino acid, a = entire structure\nAmino acids are classified as acidic, basic or neutral depending upon\nthe relative number of amino and carboxyl groups in their molecule"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7723-7726", "Text": "Tryptophan*\n\u2013CH2\nN\nH\nTrp\nW\n19 Histidine*\nHis\nH\n20 Proline\nPro\nP\n* essential amino acid, a = entire structure\nAmino acids are classified as acidic, basic or neutral depending upon\nthe relative number of amino and carboxyl groups in their molecule Equal number of amino and carboxyl groups makes it neutral; more\nnumber of amino than carboxyl groups makes it basic and more\ncarboxyl groups as compared to amino groups makes it acidic"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7724-7727", "Text": "Histidine*\nHis\nH\n20 Proline\nPro\nP\n* essential amino acid, a = entire structure\nAmino acids are classified as acidic, basic or neutral depending upon\nthe relative number of amino and carboxyl groups in their molecule Equal number of amino and carboxyl groups makes it neutral; more\nnumber of amino than carboxyl groups makes it basic and more\ncarboxyl groups as compared to amino groups makes it acidic The\namino acids, which can be synthesised in the body, are known as non-\nessential amino acids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7725-7728", "Text": "Proline\nPro\nP\n* essential amino acid, a = entire structure\nAmino acids are classified as acidic, basic or neutral depending upon\nthe relative number of amino and carboxyl groups in their molecule Equal number of amino and carboxyl groups makes it neutral; more\nnumber of amino than carboxyl groups makes it basic and more\ncarboxyl groups as compared to amino groups makes it acidic The\namino acids, which can be synthesised in the body, are known as non-\nessential amino acids On the other hand, those which cannot be\nsynthesised in the body and must be obtained through diet, are known\nas essential amino acids (marked with asterisk in Table 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7726-7729", "Text": "Equal number of amino and carboxyl groups makes it neutral; more\nnumber of amino than carboxyl groups makes it basic and more\ncarboxyl groups as compared to amino groups makes it acidic The\namino acids, which can be synthesised in the body, are known as non-\nessential amino acids On the other hand, those which cannot be\nsynthesised in the body and must be obtained through diet, are known\nas essential amino acids (marked with asterisk in Table 10 2)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7727-7730", "Text": "The\namino acids, which can be synthesised in the body, are known as non-\nessential amino acids On the other hand, those which cannot be\nsynthesised in the body and must be obtained through diet, are known\nas essential amino acids (marked with asterisk in Table 10 2) 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7728-7731", "Text": "On the other hand, those which cannot be\nsynthesised in the body and must be obtained through diet, are known\nas essential amino acids (marked with asterisk in Table 10 2) 10 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7729-7732", "Text": "2) 10 2 2\nClassification of\nAmino Acids\nRationalised 2023-24\n292\nChemistry\nAmino acids are usually colourless, crystalline solids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7730-7733", "Text": "10 2 2\nClassification of\nAmino Acids\nRationalised 2023-24\n292\nChemistry\nAmino acids are usually colourless, crystalline solids These are\nwater-soluble, high melting solids and behave like salts rather than\nsimple amines or carboxylic acids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7731-7734", "Text": "2 2\nClassification of\nAmino Acids\nRationalised 2023-24\n292\nChemistry\nAmino acids are usually colourless, crystalline solids These are\nwater-soluble, high melting solids and behave like salts rather than\nsimple amines or carboxylic acids This behaviour is due to the presence\nof both acidic (carboxyl group) and basic (amino\ngroup) groups in the same molecule"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7732-7735", "Text": "2\nClassification of\nAmino Acids\nRationalised 2023-24\n292\nChemistry\nAmino acids are usually colourless, crystalline solids These are\nwater-soluble, high melting solids and behave like salts rather than\nsimple amines or carboxylic acids This behaviour is due to the presence\nof both acidic (carboxyl group) and basic (amino\ngroup) groups in the same molecule In aqueous\nsolution, the carboxyl group can lose a proton\nand amino group can accept a proton, giving rise\nto a dipolar ion known as zwitter ion"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7733-7736", "Text": "These are\nwater-soluble, high melting solids and behave like salts rather than\nsimple amines or carboxylic acids This behaviour is due to the presence\nof both acidic (carboxyl group) and basic (amino\ngroup) groups in the same molecule In aqueous\nsolution, the carboxyl group can lose a proton\nand amino group can accept a proton, giving rise\nto a dipolar ion known as zwitter ion This is\nneutral but contains both positive and negative\ncharges"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7734-7737", "Text": "This behaviour is due to the presence\nof both acidic (carboxyl group) and basic (amino\ngroup) groups in the same molecule In aqueous\nsolution, the carboxyl group can lose a proton\nand amino group can accept a proton, giving rise\nto a dipolar ion known as zwitter ion This is\nneutral but contains both positive and negative\ncharges In zwitter ionic form, amino acids show amphoteric behaviour as\nthey react both with acids and bases"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7735-7738", "Text": "In aqueous\nsolution, the carboxyl group can lose a proton\nand amino group can accept a proton, giving rise\nto a dipolar ion known as zwitter ion This is\nneutral but contains both positive and negative\ncharges In zwitter ionic form, amino acids show amphoteric behaviour as\nthey react both with acids and bases Except glycine, all other naturally occurring a-amino acids are\noptically active, since the a-carbon atom is asymmetric"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7736-7739", "Text": "This is\nneutral but contains both positive and negative\ncharges In zwitter ionic form, amino acids show amphoteric behaviour as\nthey react both with acids and bases Except glycine, all other naturally occurring a-amino acids are\noptically active, since the a-carbon atom is asymmetric These exist\nboth in \u2018D\u2019 and \u2018L\u2019 forms"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7737-7740", "Text": "In zwitter ionic form, amino acids show amphoteric behaviour as\nthey react both with acids and bases Except glycine, all other naturally occurring a-amino acids are\noptically active, since the a-carbon atom is asymmetric These exist\nboth in \u2018D\u2019 and \u2018L\u2019 forms Most naturally occurring amino acids have\nL-configuration"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7738-7741", "Text": "Except glycine, all other naturally occurring a-amino acids are\noptically active, since the a-carbon atom is asymmetric These exist\nboth in \u2018D\u2019 and \u2018L\u2019 forms Most naturally occurring amino acids have\nL-configuration L-Aminoacids are represented by writing the \u2013NH2 group\non left hand side"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7739-7742", "Text": "These exist\nboth in \u2018D\u2019 and \u2018L\u2019 forms Most naturally occurring amino acids have\nL-configuration L-Aminoacids are represented by writing the \u2013NH2 group\non left hand side You have already read that proteins are the polymers of a-amino acids\nand they are connected to each other by peptide bond or peptide\nlinkage"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7740-7743", "Text": "Most naturally occurring amino acids have\nL-configuration L-Aminoacids are represented by writing the \u2013NH2 group\non left hand side You have already read that proteins are the polymers of a-amino acids\nand they are connected to each other by peptide bond or peptide\nlinkage Chemically, peptide linkage is an amide formed between\n\u2013COOH group and \u2013NH2 group"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7741-7744", "Text": "L-Aminoacids are represented by writing the \u2013NH2 group\non left hand side You have already read that proteins are the polymers of a-amino acids\nand they are connected to each other by peptide bond or peptide\nlinkage Chemically, peptide linkage is an amide formed between\n\u2013COOH group and \u2013NH2 group The reaction between two molecules of\nsimilar or different amino acids, proceeds through\nthe combination of the amino group of one molecule\nwith the carboxyl group of the other"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7742-7745", "Text": "You have already read that proteins are the polymers of a-amino acids\nand they are connected to each other by peptide bond or peptide\nlinkage Chemically, peptide linkage is an amide formed between\n\u2013COOH group and \u2013NH2 group The reaction between two molecules of\nsimilar or different amino acids, proceeds through\nthe combination of the amino group of one molecule\nwith the carboxyl group of the other This results in\nthe elimination of a water molecule and formation of\na peptide bond \u2013CO\u2013NH\u2013"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7743-7746", "Text": "Chemically, peptide linkage is an amide formed between\n\u2013COOH group and \u2013NH2 group The reaction between two molecules of\nsimilar or different amino acids, proceeds through\nthe combination of the amino group of one molecule\nwith the carboxyl group of the other This results in\nthe elimination of a water molecule and formation of\na peptide bond \u2013CO\u2013NH\u2013 The product of the reaction\nis called a dipeptide because it is made up of two\namino acids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7744-7747", "Text": "The reaction between two molecules of\nsimilar or different amino acids, proceeds through\nthe combination of the amino group of one molecule\nwith the carboxyl group of the other This results in\nthe elimination of a water molecule and formation of\na peptide bond \u2013CO\u2013NH\u2013 The product of the reaction\nis called a dipeptide because it is made up of two\namino acids For example, when carboxyl group of\nglycine combines with the amino group of alanine\nwe get a dipeptide, glycylalanine"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7745-7748", "Text": "This results in\nthe elimination of a water molecule and formation of\na peptide bond \u2013CO\u2013NH\u2013 The product of the reaction\nis called a dipeptide because it is made up of two\namino acids For example, when carboxyl group of\nglycine combines with the amino group of alanine\nwe get a dipeptide, glycylalanine If a third amino acid combines to a dipeptide, the product is called a\ntripeptide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7746-7749", "Text": "The product of the reaction\nis called a dipeptide because it is made up of two\namino acids For example, when carboxyl group of\nglycine combines with the amino group of alanine\nwe get a dipeptide, glycylalanine If a third amino acid combines to a dipeptide, the product is called a\ntripeptide A tripeptide contains three amino acids linked by two peptide\nlinkages"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7747-7750", "Text": "For example, when carboxyl group of\nglycine combines with the amino group of alanine\nwe get a dipeptide, glycylalanine If a third amino acid combines to a dipeptide, the product is called a\ntripeptide A tripeptide contains three amino acids linked by two peptide\nlinkages Similarly when four, five or six amino acids are linked, the respective\nproducts are known as tetrapeptide, pentapeptide or hexapeptide,\nrespectively"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7748-7751", "Text": "If a third amino acid combines to a dipeptide, the product is called a\ntripeptide A tripeptide contains three amino acids linked by two peptide\nlinkages Similarly when four, five or six amino acids are linked, the respective\nproducts are known as tetrapeptide, pentapeptide or hexapeptide,\nrespectively When the number of such amino acids is more than ten, then\nthe products are called polypeptides"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7749-7752", "Text": "A tripeptide contains three amino acids linked by two peptide\nlinkages Similarly when four, five or six amino acids are linked, the respective\nproducts are known as tetrapeptide, pentapeptide or hexapeptide,\nrespectively When the number of such amino acids is more than ten, then\nthe products are called polypeptides A polypeptide with more than hundred\namino acid residues, having molecular mass higher than 10,000u is called\na protein"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7750-7753", "Text": "Similarly when four, five or six amino acids are linked, the respective\nproducts are known as tetrapeptide, pentapeptide or hexapeptide,\nrespectively When the number of such amino acids is more than ten, then\nthe products are called polypeptides A polypeptide with more than hundred\namino acid residues, having molecular mass higher than 10,000u is called\na protein However, the distinction between a polypeptide and a protein is\nnot very sharp"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7751-7754", "Text": "When the number of such amino acids is more than ten, then\nthe products are called polypeptides A polypeptide with more than hundred\namino acid residues, having molecular mass higher than 10,000u is called\na protein However, the distinction between a polypeptide and a protein is\nnot very sharp Polypeptides with fewer amino acids are likely to be called\nproteins if they ordinarily have a well defined conformation of a protein such\nas insulin which contains 51 amino acids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7752-7755", "Text": "A polypeptide with more than hundred\namino acid residues, having molecular mass higher than 10,000u is called\na protein However, the distinction between a polypeptide and a protein is\nnot very sharp Polypeptides with fewer amino acids are likely to be called\nproteins if they ordinarily have a well defined conformation of a protein such\nas insulin which contains 51 amino acids Proteins can be classified into two types on the basis of their\nmolecular shape"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7753-7756", "Text": "However, the distinction between a polypeptide and a protein is\nnot very sharp Polypeptides with fewer amino acids are likely to be called\nproteins if they ordinarily have a well defined conformation of a protein such\nas insulin which contains 51 amino acids Proteins can be classified into two types on the basis of their\nmolecular shape (a) Fibrous proteins\nWhen the polypeptide chains run parallel and are held together by\nhydrogen and disulphide bonds, then fibre\u2013 like structure is formed"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7754-7757", "Text": "Polypeptides with fewer amino acids are likely to be called\nproteins if they ordinarily have a well defined conformation of a protein such\nas insulin which contains 51 amino acids Proteins can be classified into two types on the basis of their\nmolecular shape (a) Fibrous proteins\nWhen the polypeptide chains run parallel and are held together by\nhydrogen and disulphide bonds, then fibre\u2013 like structure is formed Such\nproteins are generally insoluble in water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7755-7758", "Text": "Proteins can be classified into two types on the basis of their\nmolecular shape (a) Fibrous proteins\nWhen the polypeptide chains run parallel and are held together by\nhydrogen and disulphide bonds, then fibre\u2013 like structure is formed Such\nproteins are generally insoluble in water Some common examples are\nkeratin (present in hair, wool, silk) and myosin (present in muscles), etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7756-7759", "Text": "(a) Fibrous proteins\nWhen the polypeptide chains run parallel and are held together by\nhydrogen and disulphide bonds, then fibre\u2013 like structure is formed Such\nproteins are generally insoluble in water Some common examples are\nkeratin (present in hair, wool, silk) and myosin (present in muscles), etc 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7757-7760", "Text": "Such\nproteins are generally insoluble in water Some common examples are\nkeratin (present in hair, wool, silk) and myosin (present in muscles), etc 10 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7758-7761", "Text": "Some common examples are\nkeratin (present in hair, wool, silk) and myosin (present in muscles), etc 10 2 3 Structure\nof Proteins\nRationalised 2023-24\n293\nBiomolecules\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7759-7762", "Text": "10 2 3 Structure\nof Proteins\nRationalised 2023-24\n293\nBiomolecules\nFig 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7760-7763", "Text": "2 3 Structure\nof Proteins\nRationalised 2023-24\n293\nBiomolecules\nFig 10 1: a-Helix\nstructure of proteins\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7761-7764", "Text": "3 Structure\nof Proteins\nRationalised 2023-24\n293\nBiomolecules\nFig 10 1: a-Helix\nstructure of proteins\nFig 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7762-7765", "Text": "10 1: a-Helix\nstructure of proteins\nFig 10 2: b-Pleated sheet structure of\nproteins\n(b) Globular proteins\nThis structure results when the chains of polypeptides coil around\nto give a spherical shape"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7763-7766", "Text": "1: a-Helix\nstructure of proteins\nFig 10 2: b-Pleated sheet structure of\nproteins\n(b) Globular proteins\nThis structure results when the chains of polypeptides coil around\nto give a spherical shape These are usually soluble in water"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7764-7767", "Text": "10 2: b-Pleated sheet structure of\nproteins\n(b) Globular proteins\nThis structure results when the chains of polypeptides coil around\nto give a spherical shape These are usually soluble in water Insulin\nand albumins are the common examples of globular proteins"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7765-7768", "Text": "2: b-Pleated sheet structure of\nproteins\n(b) Globular proteins\nThis structure results when the chains of polypeptides coil around\nto give a spherical shape These are usually soluble in water Insulin\nand albumins are the common examples of globular proteins Structure and shape of proteins can be studied at four different\nlevels, i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7766-7769", "Text": "These are usually soluble in water Insulin\nand albumins are the common examples of globular proteins Structure and shape of proteins can be studied at four different\nlevels, i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7767-7770", "Text": "Insulin\nand albumins are the common examples of globular proteins Structure and shape of proteins can be studied at four different\nlevels, i e , primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary, each level\nbeing more complex than the previous one"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7768-7771", "Text": "Structure and shape of proteins can be studied at four different\nlevels, i e , primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary, each level\nbeing more complex than the previous one (i) Primary structure of proteins: Proteins may have\none or more polypeptide chains"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7769-7772", "Text": "e , primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary, each level\nbeing more complex than the previous one (i) Primary structure of proteins: Proteins may have\none or more polypeptide chains Each polypeptide in a\nprotein has amino acids linked with each other in a\nspecific sequence and it is this sequence of amino acids\nthat is said to be the primary structure of that protein"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7770-7773", "Text": ", primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary, each level\nbeing more complex than the previous one (i) Primary structure of proteins: Proteins may have\none or more polypeptide chains Each polypeptide in a\nprotein has amino acids linked with each other in a\nspecific sequence and it is this sequence of amino acids\nthat is said to be the primary structure of that protein Any change in this primary structure i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7771-7774", "Text": "(i) Primary structure of proteins: Proteins may have\none or more polypeptide chains Each polypeptide in a\nprotein has amino acids linked with each other in a\nspecific sequence and it is this sequence of amino acids\nthat is said to be the primary structure of that protein Any change in this primary structure i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7772-7775", "Text": "Each polypeptide in a\nprotein has amino acids linked with each other in a\nspecific sequence and it is this sequence of amino acids\nthat is said to be the primary structure of that protein Any change in this primary structure i e , the sequence\nof amino acids creates a different protein"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7773-7776", "Text": "Any change in this primary structure i e , the sequence\nof amino acids creates a different protein (ii) Secondary structure of proteins: The secondary\nstructure of protein refers to the shape in which a long\npolypeptide chain can exist"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7774-7777", "Text": "e , the sequence\nof amino acids creates a different protein (ii) Secondary structure of proteins: The secondary\nstructure of protein refers to the shape in which a long\npolypeptide chain can exist They are found to exist in\ntwo different types of structures viz"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7775-7778", "Text": ", the sequence\nof amino acids creates a different protein (ii) Secondary structure of proteins: The secondary\nstructure of protein refers to the shape in which a long\npolypeptide chain can exist They are found to exist in\ntwo different types of structures viz a-helix and\nb-pleated sheet structure"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7776-7779", "Text": "(ii) Secondary structure of proteins: The secondary\nstructure of protein refers to the shape in which a long\npolypeptide chain can exist They are found to exist in\ntwo different types of structures viz a-helix and\nb-pleated sheet structure These structures arise due\nto the regular folding of the backbone of the polypeptide\nchain due to hydrogen bonding between \n and\n\u2013NH\u2013 groups of the peptide bond"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7777-7780", "Text": "They are found to exist in\ntwo different types of structures viz a-helix and\nb-pleated sheet structure These structures arise due\nto the regular folding of the backbone of the polypeptide\nchain due to hydrogen bonding between \n and\n\u2013NH\u2013 groups of the peptide bond a-Helix is one of the most common ways in which\na polypeptide chain forms all possible hydrogen bonds\nby twisting into a right handed screw (helix) with the\n\u2013NH group of each amino acid residue hydrogen bonded to the\nC O of an adjacent turn of the helix as shown in Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7778-7781", "Text": "a-helix and\nb-pleated sheet structure These structures arise due\nto the regular folding of the backbone of the polypeptide\nchain due to hydrogen bonding between \n and\n\u2013NH\u2013 groups of the peptide bond a-Helix is one of the most common ways in which\na polypeptide chain forms all possible hydrogen bonds\nby twisting into a right handed screw (helix) with the\n\u2013NH group of each amino acid residue hydrogen bonded to the\nC O of an adjacent turn of the helix as shown in Fig 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7779-7782", "Text": "These structures arise due\nto the regular folding of the backbone of the polypeptide\nchain due to hydrogen bonding between \n and\n\u2013NH\u2013 groups of the peptide bond a-Helix is one of the most common ways in which\na polypeptide chain forms all possible hydrogen bonds\nby twisting into a right handed screw (helix) with the\n\u2013NH group of each amino acid residue hydrogen bonded to the\nC O of an adjacent turn of the helix as shown in Fig 10 1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7780-7783", "Text": "a-Helix is one of the most common ways in which\na polypeptide chain forms all possible hydrogen bonds\nby twisting into a right handed screw (helix) with the\n\u2013NH group of each amino acid residue hydrogen bonded to the\nC O of an adjacent turn of the helix as shown in Fig 10 1 In b-pleated sheet structure all peptide chains are\nstretched out to nearly maximum extension and then\nlaid side by side which are held together by\nintermolecular hydrogen bonds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7781-7784", "Text": "10 1 In b-pleated sheet structure all peptide chains are\nstretched out to nearly maximum extension and then\nlaid side by side which are held together by\nintermolecular hydrogen bonds The structure resembles\nthe pleated folds of drapery and therefore is known as\nb-pleated sheet"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7782-7785", "Text": "1 In b-pleated sheet structure all peptide chains are\nstretched out to nearly maximum extension and then\nlaid side by side which are held together by\nintermolecular hydrogen bonds The structure resembles\nthe pleated folds of drapery and therefore is known as\nb-pleated sheet (iii) Tertiary structure of proteins: The tertiary\nstructure of proteins represents overall folding of the\npolypeptide chains i"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7783-7786", "Text": "In b-pleated sheet structure all peptide chains are\nstretched out to nearly maximum extension and then\nlaid side by side which are held together by\nintermolecular hydrogen bonds The structure resembles\nthe pleated folds of drapery and therefore is known as\nb-pleated sheet (iii) Tertiary structure of proteins: The tertiary\nstructure of proteins represents overall folding of the\npolypeptide chains i e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7784-7787", "Text": "The structure resembles\nthe pleated folds of drapery and therefore is known as\nb-pleated sheet (iii) Tertiary structure of proteins: The tertiary\nstructure of proteins represents overall folding of the\npolypeptide chains i e , further folding of the secondary\nstructure"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7785-7788", "Text": "(iii) Tertiary structure of proteins: The tertiary\nstructure of proteins represents overall folding of the\npolypeptide chains i e , further folding of the secondary\nstructure It gives rise to two major molecular shapes\nviz"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7786-7789", "Text": "e , further folding of the secondary\nstructure It gives rise to two major molecular shapes\nviz fibrous and globular"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7787-7790", "Text": ", further folding of the secondary\nstructure It gives rise to two major molecular shapes\nviz fibrous and globular The main forces which\nstabilise the 2\u00b0 and 3\u00b0 structures of proteins are\nhydrogen bonds, disulphide linkages, van der Waals\nand electrostatic forces of attraction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7788-7791", "Text": "It gives rise to two major molecular shapes\nviz fibrous and globular The main forces which\nstabilise the 2\u00b0 and 3\u00b0 structures of proteins are\nhydrogen bonds, disulphide linkages, van der Waals\nand electrostatic forces of attraction (iv) Quaternary structure of proteins: Some of the\nproteins are composed of two or more polypeptide\nchains referred to as sub-units"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7789-7792", "Text": "fibrous and globular The main forces which\nstabilise the 2\u00b0 and 3\u00b0 structures of proteins are\nhydrogen bonds, disulphide linkages, van der Waals\nand electrostatic forces of attraction (iv) Quaternary structure of proteins: Some of the\nproteins are composed of two or more polypeptide\nchains referred to as sub-units The spatial\narrangement of these subunits with respect to each\nother is known as quaternary structure"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7790-7793", "Text": "The main forces which\nstabilise the 2\u00b0 and 3\u00b0 structures of proteins are\nhydrogen bonds, disulphide linkages, van der Waals\nand electrostatic forces of attraction (iv) Quaternary structure of proteins: Some of the\nproteins are composed of two or more polypeptide\nchains referred to as sub-units The spatial\narrangement of these subunits with respect to each\nother is known as quaternary structure Rationalised 2023-24\n294\nChemistry\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7791-7794", "Text": "(iv) Quaternary structure of proteins: Some of the\nproteins are composed of two or more polypeptide\nchains referred to as sub-units The spatial\narrangement of these subunits with respect to each\nother is known as quaternary structure Rationalised 2023-24\n294\nChemistry\nFig 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7792-7795", "Text": "The spatial\narrangement of these subunits with respect to each\nother is known as quaternary structure Rationalised 2023-24\n294\nChemistry\nFig 10 3: Diagrammatic representation of protein structure (two sub-units\nof two types in quaternary structure)\nA diagrammatic representation of all these four structures is\ngiven in Figure 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7793-7796", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n294\nChemistry\nFig 10 3: Diagrammatic representation of protein structure (two sub-units\nof two types in quaternary structure)\nA diagrammatic representation of all these four structures is\ngiven in Figure 10 3 where each coloured ball represents an\namino acid"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7794-7797", "Text": "10 3: Diagrammatic representation of protein structure (two sub-units\nof two types in quaternary structure)\nA diagrammatic representation of all these four structures is\ngiven in Figure 10 3 where each coloured ball represents an\namino acid Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7795-7798", "Text": "3: Diagrammatic representation of protein structure (two sub-units\nof two types in quaternary structure)\nA diagrammatic representation of all these four structures is\ngiven in Figure 10 3 where each coloured ball represents an\namino acid Fig 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7796-7799", "Text": "3 where each coloured ball represents an\namino acid Fig 10 4: Primary,\nsecondary, tertiary\nand quaternary\nstructures of\nhaemoglobin\nProtein found in a biological system with a unique three-dimensional\nstructure and biological activity is called a native protein"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7797-7800", "Text": "Fig 10 4: Primary,\nsecondary, tertiary\nand quaternary\nstructures of\nhaemoglobin\nProtein found in a biological system with a unique three-dimensional\nstructure and biological activity is called a native protein When a\nprotein in its native form, is subjected to physical change like change\nin temperature or chemical change like change in pH, the hydrogen\nbonds are disturbed"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7798-7801", "Text": "10 4: Primary,\nsecondary, tertiary\nand quaternary\nstructures of\nhaemoglobin\nProtein found in a biological system with a unique three-dimensional\nstructure and biological activity is called a native protein When a\nprotein in its native form, is subjected to physical change like change\nin temperature or chemical change like change in pH, the hydrogen\nbonds are disturbed Due to this, globules unfold and helix get uncoiled\nand protein loses its biological activity"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7799-7802", "Text": "4: Primary,\nsecondary, tertiary\nand quaternary\nstructures of\nhaemoglobin\nProtein found in a biological system with a unique three-dimensional\nstructure and biological activity is called a native protein When a\nprotein in its native form, is subjected to physical change like change\nin temperature or chemical change like change in pH, the hydrogen\nbonds are disturbed Due to this, globules unfold and helix get uncoiled\nand protein loses its biological activity This is called denaturation of\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7800-7803", "Text": "When a\nprotein in its native form, is subjected to physical change like change\nin temperature or chemical change like change in pH, the hydrogen\nbonds are disturbed Due to this, globules unfold and helix get uncoiled\nand protein loses its biological activity This is called denaturation of\n10 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7801-7804", "Text": "Due to this, globules unfold and helix get uncoiled\nand protein loses its biological activity This is called denaturation of\n10 2 4\nDenaturation of\nProteins\nRationalised 2023-24\n295\nBiomolecules\nprotein"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7802-7805", "Text": "This is called denaturation of\n10 2 4\nDenaturation of\nProteins\nRationalised 2023-24\n295\nBiomolecules\nprotein During denaturation secondary and tertiary structures are\ndestroyed but primary structure remains intact"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7803-7806", "Text": "2 4\nDenaturation of\nProteins\nRationalised 2023-24\n295\nBiomolecules\nprotein During denaturation secondary and tertiary structures are\ndestroyed but primary structure remains intact The coagulation of\negg white on boiling is a common example of denaturation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7804-7807", "Text": "4\nDenaturation of\nProteins\nRationalised 2023-24\n295\nBiomolecules\nprotein During denaturation secondary and tertiary structures are\ndestroyed but primary structure remains intact The coagulation of\negg white on boiling is a common example of denaturation Another\nexample is curdling of milk which is caused due to the formation of\nlactic acid by the bacteria present in milk"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7805-7808", "Text": "During denaturation secondary and tertiary structures are\ndestroyed but primary structure remains intact The coagulation of\negg white on boiling is a common example of denaturation Another\nexample is curdling of milk which is caused due to the formation of\nlactic acid by the bacteria present in milk Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7806-7809", "Text": "The coagulation of\negg white on boiling is a common example of denaturation Another\nexample is curdling of milk which is caused due to the formation of\nlactic acid by the bacteria present in milk Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n10 4\nThe melting points and solubility in water of amino acids are generally\nhigher than that of the corresponding halo acids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7807-7810", "Text": "Another\nexample is curdling of milk which is caused due to the formation of\nlactic acid by the bacteria present in milk Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n10 4\nThe melting points and solubility in water of amino acids are generally\nhigher than that of the corresponding halo acids Explain"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7808-7811", "Text": "Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n10 4\nThe melting points and solubility in water of amino acids are generally\nhigher than that of the corresponding halo acids Explain 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7809-7812", "Text": "4\nThe melting points and solubility in water of amino acids are generally\nhigher than that of the corresponding halo acids Explain 10 5\nWhere does the water present in the egg go after boiling the egg"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7810-7813", "Text": "Explain 10 5\nWhere does the water present in the egg go after boiling the egg Life is possible due to the coordination of various chemical reactions in\nliving organisms"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7811-7814", "Text": "10 5\nWhere does the water present in the egg go after boiling the egg Life is possible due to the coordination of various chemical reactions in\nliving organisms An example is the digestion of food, absorption of\nappropriate molecules and ultimately production of energy"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7812-7815", "Text": "5\nWhere does the water present in the egg go after boiling the egg Life is possible due to the coordination of various chemical reactions in\nliving organisms An example is the digestion of food, absorption of\nappropriate molecules and ultimately production of energy This process\ninvolves a sequence of reactions and all these reactions occur in the\nbody under very mild conditions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7813-7816", "Text": "Life is possible due to the coordination of various chemical reactions in\nliving organisms An example is the digestion of food, absorption of\nappropriate molecules and ultimately production of energy This process\ninvolves a sequence of reactions and all these reactions occur in the\nbody under very mild conditions This occurs with the help of certain\nbiocatalysts called enzymes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7814-7817", "Text": "An example is the digestion of food, absorption of\nappropriate molecules and ultimately production of energy This process\ninvolves a sequence of reactions and all these reactions occur in the\nbody under very mild conditions This occurs with the help of certain\nbiocatalysts called enzymes Almost all the enzymes are globular\nproteins"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7815-7818", "Text": "This process\ninvolves a sequence of reactions and all these reactions occur in the\nbody under very mild conditions This occurs with the help of certain\nbiocatalysts called enzymes Almost all the enzymes are globular\nproteins Enzymes are very specific for a particular reaction and for a\nparticular substrate"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7816-7819", "Text": "This occurs with the help of certain\nbiocatalysts called enzymes Almost all the enzymes are globular\nproteins Enzymes are very specific for a particular reaction and for a\nparticular substrate They are generally named after the compound or\nclass of compounds upon which they work"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7817-7820", "Text": "Almost all the enzymes are globular\nproteins Enzymes are very specific for a particular reaction and for a\nparticular substrate They are generally named after the compound or\nclass of compounds upon which they work For example, the enzyme\nthat catalyses hydrolysis of maltose into glucose is named as maltase"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7818-7821", "Text": "Enzymes are very specific for a particular reaction and for a\nparticular substrate They are generally named after the compound or\nclass of compounds upon which they work For example, the enzyme\nthat catalyses hydrolysis of maltose into glucose is named as maltase 12\n22\n11\n6\n12\n6\nMaltase\nMaltose\nG lucose\nC H\nO\n2 C H O\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\nSometimes enzymes are also named after the reaction, where they\nare used"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7819-7822", "Text": "They are generally named after the compound or\nclass of compounds upon which they work For example, the enzyme\nthat catalyses hydrolysis of maltose into glucose is named as maltase 12\n22\n11\n6\n12\n6\nMaltase\nMaltose\nG lucose\nC H\nO\n2 C H O\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\nSometimes enzymes are also named after the reaction, where they\nare used For example, the enzymes which catalyse the oxidation of\none substrate with simultaneous reduction of another substrate are\nnamed as oxidoreductase enzymes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7820-7823", "Text": "For example, the enzyme\nthat catalyses hydrolysis of maltose into glucose is named as maltase 12\n22\n11\n6\n12\n6\nMaltase\nMaltose\nG lucose\nC H\nO\n2 C H O\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\nSometimes enzymes are also named after the reaction, where they\nare used For example, the enzymes which catalyse the oxidation of\none substrate with simultaneous reduction of another substrate are\nnamed as oxidoreductase enzymes The ending of the name of an\nenzyme is -ase"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7821-7824", "Text": "12\n22\n11\n6\n12\n6\nMaltase\nMaltose\nG lucose\nC H\nO\n2 C H O\n\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0ae\nSometimes enzymes are also named after the reaction, where they\nare used For example, the enzymes which catalyse the oxidation of\none substrate with simultaneous reduction of another substrate are\nnamed as oxidoreductase enzymes The ending of the name of an\nenzyme is -ase Enzymes are needed only in small quantities for the progress of a reaction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7822-7825", "Text": "For example, the enzymes which catalyse the oxidation of\none substrate with simultaneous reduction of another substrate are\nnamed as oxidoreductase enzymes The ending of the name of an\nenzyme is -ase Enzymes are needed only in small quantities for the progress of a reaction Similar to the action of chemical catalysts, enzymes are said to reduce\nthe magnitude of activation energy"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7823-7826", "Text": "The ending of the name of an\nenzyme is -ase Enzymes are needed only in small quantities for the progress of a reaction Similar to the action of chemical catalysts, enzymes are said to reduce\nthe magnitude of activation energy For example, activation energy for\nacid hydrolysis of sucrose is 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7824-7827", "Text": "Enzymes are needed only in small quantities for the progress of a reaction Similar to the action of chemical catalysts, enzymes are said to reduce\nthe magnitude of activation energy For example, activation energy for\nacid hydrolysis of sucrose is 6 22 kJ mol\u20131, while the activation energy is\nonly 2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7825-7828", "Text": "Similar to the action of chemical catalysts, enzymes are said to reduce\nthe magnitude of activation energy For example, activation energy for\nacid hydrolysis of sucrose is 6 22 kJ mol\u20131, while the activation energy is\nonly 2 15 kJ mol\u20131 when hydrolysed by the enzyme, sucrase"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7826-7829", "Text": "For example, activation energy for\nacid hydrolysis of sucrose is 6 22 kJ mol\u20131, while the activation energy is\nonly 2 15 kJ mol\u20131 when hydrolysed by the enzyme, sucrase Mechanism\nfor the enzyme action has been discussed"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7827-7830", "Text": "22 kJ mol\u20131, while the activation energy is\nonly 2 15 kJ mol\u20131 when hydrolysed by the enzyme, sucrase Mechanism\nfor the enzyme action has been discussed It has been observed that certain organic compounds are required in\nsmall amounts in our diet but their deficiency causes specific diseases"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7828-7831", "Text": "15 kJ mol\u20131 when hydrolysed by the enzyme, sucrase Mechanism\nfor the enzyme action has been discussed It has been observed that certain organic compounds are required in\nsmall amounts in our diet but their deficiency causes specific diseases These compounds are called vitamins"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7829-7832", "Text": "Mechanism\nfor the enzyme action has been discussed It has been observed that certain organic compounds are required in\nsmall amounts in our diet but their deficiency causes specific diseases These compounds are called vitamins Most of the vitamins cannot be\nsynthesised in our body but plants can synthesise almost all of them,\nso they are considered as essential food factors"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7830-7833", "Text": "It has been observed that certain organic compounds are required in\nsmall amounts in our diet but their deficiency causes specific diseases These compounds are called vitamins Most of the vitamins cannot be\nsynthesised in our body but plants can synthesise almost all of them,\nso they are considered as essential food factors However, the bacteria\nof the gut can produce some of the vitamins required by us"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7831-7834", "Text": "These compounds are called vitamins Most of the vitamins cannot be\nsynthesised in our body but plants can synthesise almost all of them,\nso they are considered as essential food factors However, the bacteria\nof the gut can produce some of the vitamins required by us All the\nvitamins are generally available in our diet"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7832-7835", "Text": "Most of the vitamins cannot be\nsynthesised in our body but plants can synthesise almost all of them,\nso they are considered as essential food factors However, the bacteria\nof the gut can produce some of the vitamins required by us All the\nvitamins are generally available in our diet Different vitamins belong\nto various chemical classes and it is difficult to define them on the\nbasis of structure"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7833-7836", "Text": "However, the bacteria\nof the gut can produce some of the vitamins required by us All the\nvitamins are generally available in our diet Different vitamins belong\nto various chemical classes and it is difficult to define them on the\nbasis of structure They are generally regarded as organic compounds\nrequired in the diet in small amounts to perform specific\nbiological functions for normal maintenance of optimum growth\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7834-7837", "Text": "All the\nvitamins are generally available in our diet Different vitamins belong\nto various chemical classes and it is difficult to define them on the\nbasis of structure They are generally regarded as organic compounds\nrequired in the diet in small amounts to perform specific\nbiological functions for normal maintenance of optimum growth\n10 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7835-7838", "Text": "Different vitamins belong\nto various chemical classes and it is difficult to define them on the\nbasis of structure They are generally regarded as organic compounds\nrequired in the diet in small amounts to perform specific\nbiological functions for normal maintenance of optimum growth\n10 3 1 Mechanism\nof Enzyme\nAction\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7836-7839", "Text": "They are generally regarded as organic compounds\nrequired in the diet in small amounts to perform specific\nbiological functions for normal maintenance of optimum growth\n10 3 1 Mechanism\nof Enzyme\nAction\n10 4 Vitamins\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7837-7840", "Text": "3 1 Mechanism\nof Enzyme\nAction\n10 4 Vitamins\n10 4 Vitamins\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7838-7841", "Text": "1 Mechanism\nof Enzyme\nAction\n10 4 Vitamins\n10 4 Vitamins\n10 4 Vitamins\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7839-7842", "Text": "4 Vitamins\n10 4 Vitamins\n10 4 Vitamins\n10 4 Vitamins\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7840-7843", "Text": "4 Vitamins\n10 4 Vitamins\n10 4 Vitamins\n10 4 Vitamins\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7841-7844", "Text": "4 Vitamins\n10 4 Vitamins\n10 4 Vitamins\n10 3 Enzymes\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7842-7845", "Text": "4 Vitamins\n10 4 Vitamins\n10 3 Enzymes\n10 3 Enzymes\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7843-7846", "Text": "4 Vitamins\n10 3 Enzymes\n10 3 Enzymes\n10 3 Enzymes\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7844-7847", "Text": "3 Enzymes\n10 3 Enzymes\n10 3 Enzymes\n10 3 Enzymes\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7845-7848", "Text": "3 Enzymes\n10 3 Enzymes\n10 3 Enzymes\n10 3 Enzymes\nRationalised 2023-24\n296\nChemistry\nand health of the organism"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7846-7849", "Text": "3 Enzymes\n10 3 Enzymes\n10 3 Enzymes\nRationalised 2023-24\n296\nChemistry\nand health of the organism Vitamins are designated by alphabets\nA, B, C, D, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7847-7850", "Text": "3 Enzymes\n10 3 Enzymes\nRationalised 2023-24\n296\nChemistry\nand health of the organism Vitamins are designated by alphabets\nA, B, C, D, etc Some of them are further named as sub-groups e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7848-7851", "Text": "3 Enzymes\nRationalised 2023-24\n296\nChemistry\nand health of the organism Vitamins are designated by alphabets\nA, B, C, D, etc Some of them are further named as sub-groups e g"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7849-7852", "Text": "Vitamins are designated by alphabets\nA, B, C, D, etc Some of them are further named as sub-groups e g B1,\nB2, B6, B12, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7850-7853", "Text": "Some of them are further named as sub-groups e g B1,\nB2, B6, B12, etc Excess of vitamins is also harmful and vitamin pills\nshould not be taken without the advice of doctor"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7851-7854", "Text": "g B1,\nB2, B6, B12, etc Excess of vitamins is also harmful and vitamin pills\nshould not be taken without the advice of doctor The term \u201cVitamine\u201d was coined from the word vital + amine since\nthe earlier identified compounds had amino groups"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7852-7855", "Text": "B1,\nB2, B6, B12, etc Excess of vitamins is also harmful and vitamin pills\nshould not be taken without the advice of doctor The term \u201cVitamine\u201d was coined from the word vital + amine since\nthe earlier identified compounds had amino groups Later work showed\nthat most of them did not contain amino groups, so the letter \u2018e\u2019 was\ndropped and the term vitamin is used these days"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7853-7856", "Text": "Excess of vitamins is also harmful and vitamin pills\nshould not be taken without the advice of doctor The term \u201cVitamine\u201d was coined from the word vital + amine since\nthe earlier identified compounds had amino groups Later work showed\nthat most of them did not contain amino groups, so the letter \u2018e\u2019 was\ndropped and the term vitamin is used these days Vitamins are classified into two groups depending upon their solubility\nin water or fat"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7854-7857", "Text": "The term \u201cVitamine\u201d was coined from the word vital + amine since\nthe earlier identified compounds had amino groups Later work showed\nthat most of them did not contain amino groups, so the letter \u2018e\u2019 was\ndropped and the term vitamin is used these days Vitamins are classified into two groups depending upon their solubility\nin water or fat (i) Fat soluble vitamins: Vitamins which are soluble in fat and oils\nbut insoluble in water are kept in this group"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7855-7858", "Text": "Later work showed\nthat most of them did not contain amino groups, so the letter \u2018e\u2019 was\ndropped and the term vitamin is used these days Vitamins are classified into two groups depending upon their solubility\nin water or fat (i) Fat soluble vitamins: Vitamins which are soluble in fat and oils\nbut insoluble in water are kept in this group These are vitamins A,\nD, E and K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7856-7859", "Text": "Vitamins are classified into two groups depending upon their solubility\nin water or fat (i) Fat soluble vitamins: Vitamins which are soluble in fat and oils\nbut insoluble in water are kept in this group These are vitamins A,\nD, E and K They are stored in liver and adipose (fat storing) tissues"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7857-7860", "Text": "(i) Fat soluble vitamins: Vitamins which are soluble in fat and oils\nbut insoluble in water are kept in this group These are vitamins A,\nD, E and K They are stored in liver and adipose (fat storing) tissues (ii) Water soluble vitamins: B group vitamins and vitamin C are soluble\nin water so they are grouped together"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7858-7861", "Text": "These are vitamins A,\nD, E and K They are stored in liver and adipose (fat storing) tissues (ii) Water soluble vitamins: B group vitamins and vitamin C are soluble\nin water so they are grouped together Water soluble vitamins must\nbe supplied regularly in diet because they are readily excreted in\nurine and cannot be stored (except vitamin B12) in our body"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7859-7862", "Text": "They are stored in liver and adipose (fat storing) tissues (ii) Water soluble vitamins: B group vitamins and vitamin C are soluble\nin water so they are grouped together Water soluble vitamins must\nbe supplied regularly in diet because they are readily excreted in\nurine and cannot be stored (except vitamin B12) in our body Some important vitamins, their sources and diseases caused by\ntheir deficiency are listed in Table 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7860-7863", "Text": "(ii) Water soluble vitamins: B group vitamins and vitamin C are soluble\nin water so they are grouped together Water soluble vitamins must\nbe supplied regularly in diet because they are readily excreted in\nurine and cannot be stored (except vitamin B12) in our body Some important vitamins, their sources and diseases caused by\ntheir deficiency are listed in Table 10 3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7861-7864", "Text": "Water soluble vitamins must\nbe supplied regularly in diet because they are readily excreted in\nurine and cannot be stored (except vitamin B12) in our body Some important vitamins, their sources and diseases caused by\ntheir deficiency are listed in Table 10 3 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7862-7865", "Text": "Some important vitamins, their sources and diseases caused by\ntheir deficiency are listed in Table 10 3 10 4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7863-7866", "Text": "3 10 4 1\nClassification of\nVitamins\nFish liver oil, carrots,\nbutter and milk\nYeast, \nmilk, \ngreen\nvegetables and cereals\nMilk, eggwhite, liver,\nkidney\nYeast, milk, egg yolk,\ncereals and grams\nMeat, fish, egg and\ncurd\nCitrus fruits, amla and\ngreen leafy vegetables\nExposure to sunlight,\nfish and egg yolk\nX e r o p h t h a l m i a\n(hardening of cornea of\neye)\nNight blindness\nBeri beri (loss of appe-\ntite, retarded growth)\nCheilosis (fissuring at\ncorners of mouth and\nlips), digestive disorders\nand burning sensation\nof the skin"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7864-7867", "Text": "10 4 1\nClassification of\nVitamins\nFish liver oil, carrots,\nbutter and milk\nYeast, \nmilk, \ngreen\nvegetables and cereals\nMilk, eggwhite, liver,\nkidney\nYeast, milk, egg yolk,\ncereals and grams\nMeat, fish, egg and\ncurd\nCitrus fruits, amla and\ngreen leafy vegetables\nExposure to sunlight,\nfish and egg yolk\nX e r o p h t h a l m i a\n(hardening of cornea of\neye)\nNight blindness\nBeri beri (loss of appe-\ntite, retarded growth)\nCheilosis (fissuring at\ncorners of mouth and\nlips), digestive disorders\nand burning sensation\nof the skin Convulsions\nPernicious \nanaemia\n(RBC \ndeficient \nin\nhaemoglobin)\nScurvy (bleeding gums)\nRickets (bone deformities\nin children) and osteo-\nmalacia (soft bones and\njoint pain in adults)\n1"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7865-7868", "Text": "4 1\nClassification of\nVitamins\nFish liver oil, carrots,\nbutter and milk\nYeast, \nmilk, \ngreen\nvegetables and cereals\nMilk, eggwhite, liver,\nkidney\nYeast, milk, egg yolk,\ncereals and grams\nMeat, fish, egg and\ncurd\nCitrus fruits, amla and\ngreen leafy vegetables\nExposure to sunlight,\nfish and egg yolk\nX e r o p h t h a l m i a\n(hardening of cornea of\neye)\nNight blindness\nBeri beri (loss of appe-\ntite, retarded growth)\nCheilosis (fissuring at\ncorners of mouth and\nlips), digestive disorders\nand burning sensation\nof the skin Convulsions\nPernicious \nanaemia\n(RBC \ndeficient \nin\nhaemoglobin)\nScurvy (bleeding gums)\nRickets (bone deformities\nin children) and osteo-\nmalacia (soft bones and\njoint pain in adults)\n1 Vitamin A\n2"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7866-7869", "Text": "1\nClassification of\nVitamins\nFish liver oil, carrots,\nbutter and milk\nYeast, \nmilk, \ngreen\nvegetables and cereals\nMilk, eggwhite, liver,\nkidney\nYeast, milk, egg yolk,\ncereals and grams\nMeat, fish, egg and\ncurd\nCitrus fruits, amla and\ngreen leafy vegetables\nExposure to sunlight,\nfish and egg yolk\nX e r o p h t h a l m i a\n(hardening of cornea of\neye)\nNight blindness\nBeri beri (loss of appe-\ntite, retarded growth)\nCheilosis (fissuring at\ncorners of mouth and\nlips), digestive disorders\nand burning sensation\nof the skin Convulsions\nPernicious \nanaemia\n(RBC \ndeficient \nin\nhaemoglobin)\nScurvy (bleeding gums)\nRickets (bone deformities\nin children) and osteo-\nmalacia (soft bones and\njoint pain in adults)\n1 Vitamin A\n2 Vitamin B1\n(Thiamine)\n3"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7867-7870", "Text": "Convulsions\nPernicious \nanaemia\n(RBC \ndeficient \nin\nhaemoglobin)\nScurvy (bleeding gums)\nRickets (bone deformities\nin children) and osteo-\nmalacia (soft bones and\njoint pain in adults)\n1 Vitamin A\n2 Vitamin B1\n(Thiamine)\n3 Vitamin B2\n(Riboflavin)\n4"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7868-7871", "Text": "Vitamin A\n2 Vitamin B1\n(Thiamine)\n3 Vitamin B2\n(Riboflavin)\n4 Vitamin B6\n(Pyridoxine)\n5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7869-7872", "Text": "Vitamin B1\n(Thiamine)\n3 Vitamin B2\n(Riboflavin)\n4 Vitamin B6\n(Pyridoxine)\n5 Vitamin B12\n6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7870-7873", "Text": "Vitamin B2\n(Riboflavin)\n4 Vitamin B6\n(Pyridoxine)\n5 Vitamin B12\n6 Vitamin C\n(Ascorbic acid)\n7"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7871-7874", "Text": "Vitamin B6\n(Pyridoxine)\n5 Vitamin B12\n6 Vitamin C\n(Ascorbic acid)\n7 Vitamin D\nSl"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7872-7875", "Text": "Vitamin B12\n6 Vitamin C\n(Ascorbic acid)\n7 Vitamin D\nSl Name of\nSources\nDeficiency diseases\nNo"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7873-7876", "Text": "Vitamin C\n(Ascorbic acid)\n7 Vitamin D\nSl Name of\nSources\nDeficiency diseases\nNo Vitamins\nTable 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7874-7877", "Text": "Vitamin D\nSl Name of\nSources\nDeficiency diseases\nNo Vitamins\nTable 10 3: Some important Vitamins, their Sources and their\nDeficiency Diseases\nRationalised 2023-24\n297\nBiomolecules\n8"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7875-7878", "Text": "Name of\nSources\nDeficiency diseases\nNo Vitamins\nTable 10 3: Some important Vitamins, their Sources and their\nDeficiency Diseases\nRationalised 2023-24\n297\nBiomolecules\n8 Vitamin E\n9"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7876-7879", "Text": "Vitamins\nTable 10 3: Some important Vitamins, their Sources and their\nDeficiency Diseases\nRationalised 2023-24\n297\nBiomolecules\n8 Vitamin E\n9 Vitamin K\nVegetable oils like wheat\ngerm oil, sunflower oil,\netc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7877-7880", "Text": "3: Some important Vitamins, their Sources and their\nDeficiency Diseases\nRationalised 2023-24\n297\nBiomolecules\n8 Vitamin E\n9 Vitamin K\nVegetable oils like wheat\ngerm oil, sunflower oil,\netc Green leafy vegetables\nIncreased fragility of\nRBCs \nand \nmuscular\nweakness\nIncreased blood clotting\ntime\nEvery generation of each and every species resembles its ancestors in\nmany ways"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7878-7881", "Text": "Vitamin E\n9 Vitamin K\nVegetable oils like wheat\ngerm oil, sunflower oil,\netc Green leafy vegetables\nIncreased fragility of\nRBCs \nand \nmuscular\nweakness\nIncreased blood clotting\ntime\nEvery generation of each and every species resembles its ancestors in\nmany ways How are these characteristics transmitted from one\ngeneration to the next"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7879-7882", "Text": "Vitamin K\nVegetable oils like wheat\ngerm oil, sunflower oil,\netc Green leafy vegetables\nIncreased fragility of\nRBCs \nand \nmuscular\nweakness\nIncreased blood clotting\ntime\nEvery generation of each and every species resembles its ancestors in\nmany ways How are these characteristics transmitted from one\ngeneration to the next It has been observed that nucleus of a living\ncell is responsible for this transmission of inherent characters, also\ncalled heredity"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7880-7883", "Text": "Green leafy vegetables\nIncreased fragility of\nRBCs \nand \nmuscular\nweakness\nIncreased blood clotting\ntime\nEvery generation of each and every species resembles its ancestors in\nmany ways How are these characteristics transmitted from one\ngeneration to the next It has been observed that nucleus of a living\ncell is responsible for this transmission of inherent characters, also\ncalled heredity The particles in nucleus of the cell, responsible for\nheredity, are called chromosomes which are made up of proteins and\nanother type of biomolecules called nucleic acids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7881-7884", "Text": "How are these characteristics transmitted from one\ngeneration to the next It has been observed that nucleus of a living\ncell is responsible for this transmission of inherent characters, also\ncalled heredity The particles in nucleus of the cell, responsible for\nheredity, are called chromosomes which are made up of proteins and\nanother type of biomolecules called nucleic acids These are mainly\nof two types, the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid\n(RNA)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7882-7885", "Text": "It has been observed that nucleus of a living\ncell is responsible for this transmission of inherent characters, also\ncalled heredity The particles in nucleus of the cell, responsible for\nheredity, are called chromosomes which are made up of proteins and\nanother type of biomolecules called nucleic acids These are mainly\nof two types, the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid\n(RNA) Since nucleic acids are long chain polymers of nucleotides, so\nthey are also called polynucleotides"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7883-7886", "Text": "The particles in nucleus of the cell, responsible for\nheredity, are called chromosomes which are made up of proteins and\nanother type of biomolecules called nucleic acids These are mainly\nof two types, the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid\n(RNA) Since nucleic acids are long chain polymers of nucleotides, so\nthey are also called polynucleotides 1111100000"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7884-7887", "Text": "These are mainly\nof two types, the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid\n(RNA) Since nucleic acids are long chain polymers of nucleotides, so\nthey are also called polynucleotides 1111100000 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7885-7888", "Text": "Since nucleic acids are long chain polymers of nucleotides, so\nthey are also called polynucleotides 1111100000 5 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7886-7889", "Text": "1111100000 5 5 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7887-7890", "Text": "5 5 5 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7888-7891", "Text": "5 5 5 5 Nucleic Acids\nNucleic Acids\nNucleic Acids\nNucleic Acids\nNucleic Acids\nJames Dewey Watson\nBorn in Chicago, Illinois, in 1928, Dr Watson received his Ph"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7889-7892", "Text": "5 5 5 Nucleic Acids\nNucleic Acids\nNucleic Acids\nNucleic Acids\nNucleic Acids\nJames Dewey Watson\nBorn in Chicago, Illinois, in 1928, Dr Watson received his Ph D"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7890-7893", "Text": "5 5 Nucleic Acids\nNucleic Acids\nNucleic Acids\nNucleic Acids\nNucleic Acids\nJames Dewey Watson\nBorn in Chicago, Illinois, in 1928, Dr Watson received his Ph D (1950) from Indiana University in Zoology"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7891-7894", "Text": "5 Nucleic Acids\nNucleic Acids\nNucleic Acids\nNucleic Acids\nNucleic Acids\nJames Dewey Watson\nBorn in Chicago, Illinois, in 1928, Dr Watson received his Ph D (1950) from Indiana University in Zoology He is best known for\nhis discovery of the structure of DNA for which he shared with\nFrancis Crick and Maurice Wilkins the 1962 Nobel prize in\nPhysiology and Medicine"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7892-7895", "Text": "D (1950) from Indiana University in Zoology He is best known for\nhis discovery of the structure of DNA for which he shared with\nFrancis Crick and Maurice Wilkins the 1962 Nobel prize in\nPhysiology and Medicine They proposed that DNA molecule takes\nthe shape of a double helix, an elegantly simple structure that\nresembles a gently twisted ladder"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7893-7896", "Text": "(1950) from Indiana University in Zoology He is best known for\nhis discovery of the structure of DNA for which he shared with\nFrancis Crick and Maurice Wilkins the 1962 Nobel prize in\nPhysiology and Medicine They proposed that DNA molecule takes\nthe shape of a double helix, an elegantly simple structure that\nresembles a gently twisted ladder The rails of the ladder are\nmade of alternating units of phosphate and the sugar deoxyribose;\nthe rungs are each composed of a pair of purine/ pyrimidine bases"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7894-7897", "Text": "He is best known for\nhis discovery of the structure of DNA for which he shared with\nFrancis Crick and Maurice Wilkins the 1962 Nobel prize in\nPhysiology and Medicine They proposed that DNA molecule takes\nthe shape of a double helix, an elegantly simple structure that\nresembles a gently twisted ladder The rails of the ladder are\nmade of alternating units of phosphate and the sugar deoxyribose;\nthe rungs are each composed of a pair of purine/ pyrimidine bases This\nresearch laid the foundation for the emerging field of molecular biology"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7895-7898", "Text": "They proposed that DNA molecule takes\nthe shape of a double helix, an elegantly simple structure that\nresembles a gently twisted ladder The rails of the ladder are\nmade of alternating units of phosphate and the sugar deoxyribose;\nthe rungs are each composed of a pair of purine/ pyrimidine bases This\nresearch laid the foundation for the emerging field of molecular biology The\ncomplementary pairing of nucleotide bases explains how identical copies of\nparental DNA pass on to two daughter cells"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7896-7899", "Text": "The rails of the ladder are\nmade of alternating units of phosphate and the sugar deoxyribose;\nthe rungs are each composed of a pair of purine/ pyrimidine bases This\nresearch laid the foundation for the emerging field of molecular biology The\ncomplementary pairing of nucleotide bases explains how identical copies of\nparental DNA pass on to two daughter cells This research launched a revolution\nin biology that led to modern recombinant DNA techniques"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7897-7900", "Text": "This\nresearch laid the foundation for the emerging field of molecular biology The\ncomplementary pairing of nucleotide bases explains how identical copies of\nparental DNA pass on to two daughter cells This research launched a revolution\nin biology that led to modern recombinant DNA techniques Complete hydrolysis of DNA (or RNA) yields a pentose sugar, phosphoric\nacid and nitrogen containing heterocyclic compounds (called bases)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7898-7901", "Text": "The\ncomplementary pairing of nucleotide bases explains how identical copies of\nparental DNA pass on to two daughter cells This research launched a revolution\nin biology that led to modern recombinant DNA techniques Complete hydrolysis of DNA (or RNA) yields a pentose sugar, phosphoric\nacid and nitrogen containing heterocyclic compounds (called bases) In\nDNA molecules, the sugar moiety is b-D-2-deoxyribose whereas in\nRNA molecule, it is b-D-ribose"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7899-7902", "Text": "This research launched a revolution\nin biology that led to modern recombinant DNA techniques Complete hydrolysis of DNA (or RNA) yields a pentose sugar, phosphoric\nacid and nitrogen containing heterocyclic compounds (called bases) In\nDNA molecules, the sugar moiety is b-D-2-deoxyribose whereas in\nRNA molecule, it is b-D-ribose 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7900-7903", "Text": "Complete hydrolysis of DNA (or RNA) yields a pentose sugar, phosphoric\nacid and nitrogen containing heterocyclic compounds (called bases) In\nDNA molecules, the sugar moiety is b-D-2-deoxyribose whereas in\nRNA molecule, it is b-D-ribose 10 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7901-7904", "Text": "In\nDNA molecules, the sugar moiety is b-D-2-deoxyribose whereas in\nRNA molecule, it is b-D-ribose 10 5 1 Chemical\nComposition\nof Nucleic\nAcids\nRationalised 2023-24\n298\nChemistry\nUracil (U)\nThymine (T)\nCytosine (C)\nDNA contains four bases viz"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7902-7905", "Text": "10 5 1 Chemical\nComposition\nof Nucleic\nAcids\nRationalised 2023-24\n298\nChemistry\nUracil (U)\nThymine (T)\nCytosine (C)\nDNA contains four bases viz adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C)\nand thymine (T)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7903-7906", "Text": "5 1 Chemical\nComposition\nof Nucleic\nAcids\nRationalised 2023-24\n298\nChemistry\nUracil (U)\nThymine (T)\nCytosine (C)\nDNA contains four bases viz adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C)\nand thymine (T) RNA also contains four bases, the first three bases are\nsame as in DNA but the fourth one is uracil (U)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7904-7907", "Text": "1 Chemical\nComposition\nof Nucleic\nAcids\nRationalised 2023-24\n298\nChemistry\nUracil (U)\nThymine (T)\nCytosine (C)\nDNA contains four bases viz adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C)\nand thymine (T) RNA also contains four bases, the first three bases are\nsame as in DNA but the fourth one is uracil (U) A unit formed by the attachment of a base to 1\u00a2 position of sugar is\nknown as nucleoside"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7905-7908", "Text": "adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C)\nand thymine (T) RNA also contains four bases, the first three bases are\nsame as in DNA but the fourth one is uracil (U) A unit formed by the attachment of a base to 1\u00a2 position of sugar is\nknown as nucleoside In nucleosides, the sugar carbons are numbered\nas 1\u00a2, 2\u00a2, 3\u00a2, etc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7906-7909", "Text": "RNA also contains four bases, the first three bases are\nsame as in DNA but the fourth one is uracil (U) A unit formed by the attachment of a base to 1\u00a2 position of sugar is\nknown as nucleoside In nucleosides, the sugar carbons are numbered\nas 1\u00a2, 2\u00a2, 3\u00a2, etc in order to distinguish these from the bases\n(Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7907-7910", "Text": "A unit formed by the attachment of a base to 1\u00a2 position of sugar is\nknown as nucleoside In nucleosides, the sugar carbons are numbered\nas 1\u00a2, 2\u00a2, 3\u00a2, etc in order to distinguish these from the bases\n(Fig 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7908-7911", "Text": "In nucleosides, the sugar carbons are numbered\nas 1\u00a2, 2\u00a2, 3\u00a2, etc in order to distinguish these from the bases\n(Fig 10 5a)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7909-7912", "Text": "in order to distinguish these from the bases\n(Fig 10 5a) When nucleoside is linked to phosphoric acid at 5\u00a2-position\nof sugar moiety, we get a nucleotide (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7910-7913", "Text": "10 5a) When nucleoside is linked to phosphoric acid at 5\u00a2-position\nof sugar moiety, we get a nucleotide (Fig 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7911-7914", "Text": "5a) When nucleoside is linked to phosphoric acid at 5\u00a2-position\nof sugar moiety, we get a nucleotide (Fig 10 5)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7912-7915", "Text": "When nucleoside is linked to phosphoric acid at 5\u00a2-position\nof sugar moiety, we get a nucleotide (Fig 10 5) 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7913-7916", "Text": "10 5) 10 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7914-7917", "Text": "5) 10 5 2 Structure\nof Nucleic\nAcids\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7915-7918", "Text": "10 5 2 Structure\nof Nucleic\nAcids\nFig 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7916-7919", "Text": "5 2 Structure\nof Nucleic\nAcids\nFig 10 5: Structure of (a) a nucleoside and (b) a nucleotide\nNucleotides are joined together by phosphodiester linkage between\n5\u00a2 and 3\u00a2 carbon atoms of the pentose sugar"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7917-7920", "Text": "2 Structure\nof Nucleic\nAcids\nFig 10 5: Structure of (a) a nucleoside and (b) a nucleotide\nNucleotides are joined together by phosphodiester linkage between\n5\u00a2 and 3\u00a2 carbon atoms of the pentose sugar The formation of a typical\ndinucleotide is shown in Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7918-7921", "Text": "10 5: Structure of (a) a nucleoside and (b) a nucleotide\nNucleotides are joined together by phosphodiester linkage between\n5\u00a2 and 3\u00a2 carbon atoms of the pentose sugar The formation of a typical\ndinucleotide is shown in Fig 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7919-7922", "Text": "5: Structure of (a) a nucleoside and (b) a nucleotide\nNucleotides are joined together by phosphodiester linkage between\n5\u00a2 and 3\u00a2 carbon atoms of the pentose sugar The formation of a typical\ndinucleotide is shown in Fig 10 6"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7920-7923", "Text": "The formation of a typical\ndinucleotide is shown in Fig 10 6 Rationalised 2023-24\n299\nBiomolecules\nA simplified version of nucleic acid chain is as shown below"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7921-7924", "Text": "10 6 Rationalised 2023-24\n299\nBiomolecules\nA simplified version of nucleic acid chain is as shown below Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7922-7925", "Text": "6 Rationalised 2023-24\n299\nBiomolecules\nA simplified version of nucleic acid chain is as shown below Fig 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7923-7926", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n299\nBiomolecules\nA simplified version of nucleic acid chain is as shown below Fig 10 6: Formation of a dinucleotide\nFig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7924-7927", "Text": "Fig 10 6: Formation of a dinucleotide\nFig 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7925-7928", "Text": "10 6: Formation of a dinucleotide\nFig 10 7: Double strand helix structure for DNA\nInformation regarding the sequence of nucleotides in the chain\nof a nucleic acid is called its primary structure"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7926-7929", "Text": "6: Formation of a dinucleotide\nFig 10 7: Double strand helix structure for DNA\nInformation regarding the sequence of nucleotides in the chain\nof a nucleic acid is called its primary structure Nucleic acids\nhave a secondary structure also"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7927-7930", "Text": "10 7: Double strand helix structure for DNA\nInformation regarding the sequence of nucleotides in the chain\nof a nucleic acid is called its primary structure Nucleic acids\nhave a secondary structure also James Watson and Francis Crick\ngave a double strand helix structure for DNA (Fig"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7928-7931", "Text": "7: Double strand helix structure for DNA\nInformation regarding the sequence of nucleotides in the chain\nof a nucleic acid is called its primary structure Nucleic acids\nhave a secondary structure also James Watson and Francis Crick\ngave a double strand helix structure for DNA (Fig 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7929-7932", "Text": "Nucleic acids\nhave a secondary structure also James Watson and Francis Crick\ngave a double strand helix structure for DNA (Fig 10 7)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7930-7933", "Text": "James Watson and Francis Crick\ngave a double strand helix structure for DNA (Fig 10 7) Two\nnucleic acid chains are wound about each other and held together\nby hydrogen bonds between pairs of bases"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7931-7934", "Text": "10 7) Two\nnucleic acid chains are wound about each other and held together\nby hydrogen bonds between pairs of bases The two strands are\ncomplementary to each other because the hydrogen bonds are\nformed between specific pairs of bases"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7932-7935", "Text": "7) Two\nnucleic acid chains are wound about each other and held together\nby hydrogen bonds between pairs of bases The two strands are\ncomplementary to each other because the hydrogen bonds are\nformed between specific pairs of bases Adenine forms hydrogen\nbonds with thymine whereas cytosine forms hydrogen bonds\nwith guanine"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7933-7936", "Text": "Two\nnucleic acid chains are wound about each other and held together\nby hydrogen bonds between pairs of bases The two strands are\ncomplementary to each other because the hydrogen bonds are\nformed between specific pairs of bases Adenine forms hydrogen\nbonds with thymine whereas cytosine forms hydrogen bonds\nwith guanine In secondary structure of RNA single stranded helics is present\nwhich sometimes foldsback on itself"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7934-7937", "Text": "The two strands are\ncomplementary to each other because the hydrogen bonds are\nformed between specific pairs of bases Adenine forms hydrogen\nbonds with thymine whereas cytosine forms hydrogen bonds\nwith guanine In secondary structure of RNA single stranded helics is present\nwhich sometimes foldsback on itself RNA molecules are of three\ntypes and they perform different functions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7935-7938", "Text": "Adenine forms hydrogen\nbonds with thymine whereas cytosine forms hydrogen bonds\nwith guanine In secondary structure of RNA single stranded helics is present\nwhich sometimes foldsback on itself RNA molecules are of three\ntypes and they perform different functions They are named as\nmessenger RNA (m-RNA), ribosomal RNA (r-RNA) and transfer\nRNA (t-RNA)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7936-7939", "Text": "In secondary structure of RNA single stranded helics is present\nwhich sometimes foldsback on itself RNA molecules are of three\ntypes and they perform different functions They are named as\nmessenger RNA (m-RNA), ribosomal RNA (r-RNA) and transfer\nRNA (t-RNA) Sugar\nPhosphate\nSugar\nPhosphate\nBase\nSugar\nBase\nn\nBase\nRationalised 2023-24\n300\nChemistry\nHar Gobind Khorana\nDNA Fingerprinting\nIt is known that every individual has unique fingerprints"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7937-7940", "Text": "RNA molecules are of three\ntypes and they perform different functions They are named as\nmessenger RNA (m-RNA), ribosomal RNA (r-RNA) and transfer\nRNA (t-RNA) Sugar\nPhosphate\nSugar\nPhosphate\nBase\nSugar\nBase\nn\nBase\nRationalised 2023-24\n300\nChemistry\nHar Gobind Khorana\nDNA Fingerprinting\nIt is known that every individual has unique fingerprints These occur at the tips of\nthe fingers and have been used for identification for a long time but these can be\naltered by surgery"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7938-7941", "Text": "They are named as\nmessenger RNA (m-RNA), ribosomal RNA (r-RNA) and transfer\nRNA (t-RNA) Sugar\nPhosphate\nSugar\nPhosphate\nBase\nSugar\nBase\nn\nBase\nRationalised 2023-24\n300\nChemistry\nHar Gobind Khorana\nDNA Fingerprinting\nIt is known that every individual has unique fingerprints These occur at the tips of\nthe fingers and have been used for identification for a long time but these can be\naltered by surgery A sequence of bases on DNA is also unique for a person and\ninformation regarding this is called DNA fingerprinting"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7939-7942", "Text": "Sugar\nPhosphate\nSugar\nPhosphate\nBase\nSugar\nBase\nn\nBase\nRationalised 2023-24\n300\nChemistry\nHar Gobind Khorana\nDNA Fingerprinting\nIt is known that every individual has unique fingerprints These occur at the tips of\nthe fingers and have been used for identification for a long time but these can be\naltered by surgery A sequence of bases on DNA is also unique for a person and\ninformation regarding this is called DNA fingerprinting It is same for every cell and\ncannot be altered by any known treatment"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7940-7943", "Text": "These occur at the tips of\nthe fingers and have been used for identification for a long time but these can be\naltered by surgery A sequence of bases on DNA is also unique for a person and\ninformation regarding this is called DNA fingerprinting It is same for every cell and\ncannot be altered by any known treatment DNA fingerprinting is now used\n(i) in forensic laboratories for identification of criminals"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7941-7944", "Text": "A sequence of bases on DNA is also unique for a person and\ninformation regarding this is called DNA fingerprinting It is same for every cell and\ncannot be altered by any known treatment DNA fingerprinting is now used\n(i) in forensic laboratories for identification of criminals (ii) to determine paternity of an individual"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7942-7945", "Text": "It is same for every cell and\ncannot be altered by any known treatment DNA fingerprinting is now used\n(i) in forensic laboratories for identification of criminals (ii) to determine paternity of an individual (iii) to identify the dead bodies in any accident by comparing the DNA\u2019s of parents or\nchildren"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7943-7946", "Text": "DNA fingerprinting is now used\n(i) in forensic laboratories for identification of criminals (ii) to determine paternity of an individual (iii) to identify the dead bodies in any accident by comparing the DNA\u2019s of parents or\nchildren (iv) to identify racial groups to rewrite biological evolution"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7944-7947", "Text": "(ii) to determine paternity of an individual (iii) to identify the dead bodies in any accident by comparing the DNA\u2019s of parents or\nchildren (iv) to identify racial groups to rewrite biological evolution DNA is the chemical basis of heredity and may be regarded as the reserve\nof genetic information"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7945-7948", "Text": "(iii) to identify the dead bodies in any accident by comparing the DNA\u2019s of parents or\nchildren (iv) to identify racial groups to rewrite biological evolution DNA is the chemical basis of heredity and may be regarded as the reserve\nof genetic information DNA is exclusively responsible for maintaining\nthe identity of different species of organisms over millions of years"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7946-7949", "Text": "(iv) to identify racial groups to rewrite biological evolution DNA is the chemical basis of heredity and may be regarded as the reserve\nof genetic information DNA is exclusively responsible for maintaining\nthe identity of different species of organisms over millions of years A\nDNA molecule is capable of self duplication during cell division and\nidentical DNA strands are transferred to daughter cells"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7947-7950", "Text": "DNA is the chemical basis of heredity and may be regarded as the reserve\nof genetic information DNA is exclusively responsible for maintaining\nthe identity of different species of organisms over millions of years A\nDNA molecule is capable of self duplication during cell division and\nidentical DNA strands are transferred to daughter cells Another important\nfunction of nucleic acids is the protein synthesis in the cell"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7948-7951", "Text": "DNA is exclusively responsible for maintaining\nthe identity of different species of organisms over millions of years A\nDNA molecule is capable of self duplication during cell division and\nidentical DNA strands are transferred to daughter cells Another important\nfunction of nucleic acids is the protein synthesis in the cell Actually, the\nproteins are synthesised by various RNA molecules in the cell but the\nmessage for the synthesis of a particular protein is present in DNA"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7949-7952", "Text": "A\nDNA molecule is capable of self duplication during cell division and\nidentical DNA strands are transferred to daughter cells Another important\nfunction of nucleic acids is the protein synthesis in the cell Actually, the\nproteins are synthesised by various RNA molecules in the cell but the\nmessage for the synthesis of a particular protein is present in DNA Hormones are molecules that act as intercellular messengers"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7950-7953", "Text": "Another important\nfunction of nucleic acids is the protein synthesis in the cell Actually, the\nproteins are synthesised by various RNA molecules in the cell but the\nmessage for the synthesis of a particular protein is present in DNA Hormones are molecules that act as intercellular messengers These\nare produced by endocrine glands in the body and are poured directly\nin the blood stream which transports them to the site of action"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7951-7954", "Text": "Actually, the\nproteins are synthesised by various RNA molecules in the cell but the\nmessage for the synthesis of a particular protein is present in DNA Hormones are molecules that act as intercellular messengers These\nare produced by endocrine glands in the body and are poured directly\nin the blood stream which transports them to the site of action In terms of chemical nature, some of these are steroids, e"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7952-7955", "Text": "Hormones are molecules that act as intercellular messengers These\nare produced by endocrine glands in the body and are poured directly\nin the blood stream which transports them to the site of action In terms of chemical nature, some of these are steroids, e g"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7953-7956", "Text": "These\nare produced by endocrine glands in the body and are poured directly\nin the blood stream which transports them to the site of action In terms of chemical nature, some of these are steroids, e g , estrogens\nand androgens; some are poly peptides for example insulin and\nendorphins and some others are amino acid derivatives such as\nepinephrine and norepinephrine"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7954-7957", "Text": "In terms of chemical nature, some of these are steroids, e g , estrogens\nand androgens; some are poly peptides for example insulin and\nendorphins and some others are amino acid derivatives such as\nepinephrine and norepinephrine Hormones have several functions in the body"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7955-7958", "Text": "g , estrogens\nand androgens; some are poly peptides for example insulin and\nendorphins and some others are amino acid derivatives such as\nepinephrine and norepinephrine Hormones have several functions in the body They help to maintain\nthe balance of biological activities in the body"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7956-7959", "Text": ", estrogens\nand androgens; some are poly peptides for example insulin and\nendorphins and some others are amino acid derivatives such as\nepinephrine and norepinephrine Hormones have several functions in the body They help to maintain\nthe balance of biological activities in the body The role of insulin in keeping\nthe blood glucose level within the narrow limit is an example of this\nfunction"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7957-7960", "Text": "Hormones have several functions in the body They help to maintain\nthe balance of biological activities in the body The role of insulin in keeping\nthe blood glucose level within the narrow limit is an example of this\nfunction Insulin is released in response to the rapid rise in blood glucose\nlevel"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7958-7961", "Text": "They help to maintain\nthe balance of biological activities in the body The role of insulin in keeping\nthe blood glucose level within the narrow limit is an example of this\nfunction Insulin is released in response to the rapid rise in blood glucose\nlevel On the other hand hormone glucagon tends to increase the glucose\nlevel in the blood"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7959-7962", "Text": "The role of insulin in keeping\nthe blood glucose level within the narrow limit is an example of this\nfunction Insulin is released in response to the rapid rise in blood glucose\nlevel On the other hand hormone glucagon tends to increase the glucose\nlevel in the blood The two hormones together regulate the glucose level\nin the blood"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7960-7963", "Text": "Insulin is released in response to the rapid rise in blood glucose\nlevel On the other hand hormone glucagon tends to increase the glucose\nlevel in the blood The two hormones together regulate the glucose level\nin the blood Epinephrine and norepinephrine mediate responses to\nexternal stimuli"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7961-7964", "Text": "On the other hand hormone glucagon tends to increase the glucose\nlevel in the blood The two hormones together regulate the glucose level\nin the blood Epinephrine and norepinephrine mediate responses to\nexternal stimuli Growth hormones and sex hormones play role in growth\nand development"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7962-7965", "Text": "The two hormones together regulate the glucose level\nin the blood Epinephrine and norepinephrine mediate responses to\nexternal stimuli Growth hormones and sex hormones play role in growth\nand development Thyroxine produced in the thyroid gland is an iodinated\nderivative of amino acid tyrosine"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7963-7966", "Text": "Epinephrine and norepinephrine mediate responses to\nexternal stimuli Growth hormones and sex hormones play role in growth\nand development Thyroxine produced in the thyroid gland is an iodinated\nderivative of amino acid tyrosine Abnormally low level of thyroxine leads\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7964-7967", "Text": "Growth hormones and sex hormones play role in growth\nand development Thyroxine produced in the thyroid gland is an iodinated\nderivative of amino acid tyrosine Abnormally low level of thyroxine leads\n10 5"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7965-7968", "Text": "Thyroxine produced in the thyroid gland is an iodinated\nderivative of amino acid tyrosine Abnormally low level of thyroxine leads\n10 5 3 Biological\nFunctions\nof Nucleic\nAcids\n Har Gobind Khorana, was born in 1922"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7966-7969", "Text": "Abnormally low level of thyroxine leads\n10 5 3 Biological\nFunctions\nof Nucleic\nAcids\n Har Gobind Khorana, was born in 1922 He obtained his M"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7967-7970", "Text": "5 3 Biological\nFunctions\nof Nucleic\nAcids\n Har Gobind Khorana, was born in 1922 He obtained his M Sc"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7968-7971", "Text": "3 Biological\nFunctions\nof Nucleic\nAcids\n Har Gobind Khorana, was born in 1922 He obtained his M Sc degree from Punjab University in Lahore"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7969-7972", "Text": "He obtained his M Sc degree from Punjab University in Lahore He worked with Professor\nVladimir Prelog, who moulded Khorana\u2019s thought and philosophy\ntowards science, work and effort"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7970-7973", "Text": "Sc degree from Punjab University in Lahore He worked with Professor\nVladimir Prelog, who moulded Khorana\u2019s thought and philosophy\ntowards science, work and effort After a brief stay in India in\n1949, Khorana went back to England and worked with Professor\nG"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7971-7974", "Text": "degree from Punjab University in Lahore He worked with Professor\nVladimir Prelog, who moulded Khorana\u2019s thought and philosophy\ntowards science, work and effort After a brief stay in India in\n1949, Khorana went back to England and worked with Professor\nG W"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7972-7975", "Text": "He worked with Professor\nVladimir Prelog, who moulded Khorana\u2019s thought and philosophy\ntowards science, work and effort After a brief stay in India in\n1949, Khorana went back to England and worked with Professor\nG W Kenner and Professor A"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7973-7976", "Text": "After a brief stay in India in\n1949, Khorana went back to England and worked with Professor\nG W Kenner and Professor A R"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7974-7977", "Text": "W Kenner and Professor A R Todd"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7975-7978", "Text": "Kenner and Professor A R Todd It was at Cambridge, U"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7976-7979", "Text": "R Todd It was at Cambridge, U K"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7977-7980", "Text": "Todd It was at Cambridge, U K that he got interested in both proteins and nucleic acids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7978-7981", "Text": "It was at Cambridge, U K that he got interested in both proteins and nucleic acids Dr Khorana shared the\nNobel Prize for Medicine and Physiology in 1968 with Marshall Nirenberg and Robert\nHolley for cracking the genetic code"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7979-7982", "Text": "K that he got interested in both proteins and nucleic acids Dr Khorana shared the\nNobel Prize for Medicine and Physiology in 1968 with Marshall Nirenberg and Robert\nHolley for cracking the genetic code 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7980-7983", "Text": "that he got interested in both proteins and nucleic acids Dr Khorana shared the\nNobel Prize for Medicine and Physiology in 1968 with Marshall Nirenberg and Robert\nHolley for cracking the genetic code 10 6\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7981-7984", "Text": "Dr Khorana shared the\nNobel Prize for Medicine and Physiology in 1968 with Marshall Nirenberg and Robert\nHolley for cracking the genetic code 10 6\n10 6\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7982-7985", "Text": "10 6\n10 6\n10 6\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7983-7986", "Text": "6\n10 6\n10 6\n10 6\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7984-7987", "Text": "6\n10 6\n10 6\n10 6 Hormones\nHormones\nHormones\nHormones\nHormones\nRationalised 2023-24\n301\nBiomolecules\nto hypothyroidism which is characterised by lethargyness and obesity"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7985-7988", "Text": "6\n10 6\n10 6 Hormones\nHormones\nHormones\nHormones\nHormones\nRationalised 2023-24\n301\nBiomolecules\nto hypothyroidism which is characterised by lethargyness and obesity Increased level of thyroxine causes hyperthyroidism"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7986-7989", "Text": "6\n10 6 Hormones\nHormones\nHormones\nHormones\nHormones\nRationalised 2023-24\n301\nBiomolecules\nto hypothyroidism which is characterised by lethargyness and obesity Increased level of thyroxine causes hyperthyroidism Low level of iodine\nin the diet may lead to hypothyroidism and enlargement of the thyroid\ngland"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7987-7990", "Text": "6 Hormones\nHormones\nHormones\nHormones\nHormones\nRationalised 2023-24\n301\nBiomolecules\nto hypothyroidism which is characterised by lethargyness and obesity Increased level of thyroxine causes hyperthyroidism Low level of iodine\nin the diet may lead to hypothyroidism and enlargement of the thyroid\ngland This condition is largely being controlled by adding sodium iodide\nto commercial table salt (\u201cIodised\u201d salt)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7988-7991", "Text": "Increased level of thyroxine causes hyperthyroidism Low level of iodine\nin the diet may lead to hypothyroidism and enlargement of the thyroid\ngland This condition is largely being controlled by adding sodium iodide\nto commercial table salt (\u201cIodised\u201d salt) Steroid hormones are produced by adrenal cortex and gonads (testes\nin males and ovaries in females)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7989-7992", "Text": "Low level of iodine\nin the diet may lead to hypothyroidism and enlargement of the thyroid\ngland This condition is largely being controlled by adding sodium iodide\nto commercial table salt (\u201cIodised\u201d salt) Steroid hormones are produced by adrenal cortex and gonads (testes\nin males and ovaries in females) Hormones released by the adrenal cortex\nplay very important role in the functions of the body"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7990-7993", "Text": "This condition is largely being controlled by adding sodium iodide\nto commercial table salt (\u201cIodised\u201d salt) Steroid hormones are produced by adrenal cortex and gonads (testes\nin males and ovaries in females) Hormones released by the adrenal cortex\nplay very important role in the functions of the body For example,\nglucocorticoids control the carbohydrate metabolism, modulate\ninflammatory reactions, and are involved in reactions to stress"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7991-7994", "Text": "Steroid hormones are produced by adrenal cortex and gonads (testes\nin males and ovaries in females) Hormones released by the adrenal cortex\nplay very important role in the functions of the body For example,\nglucocorticoids control the carbohydrate metabolism, modulate\ninflammatory reactions, and are involved in reactions to stress The\nmineralocorticoids control the level of excretion of water and salt by the\nkidney"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7992-7995", "Text": "Hormones released by the adrenal cortex\nplay very important role in the functions of the body For example,\nglucocorticoids control the carbohydrate metabolism, modulate\ninflammatory reactions, and are involved in reactions to stress The\nmineralocorticoids control the level of excretion of water and salt by the\nkidney If adrenal cortex does not function properly then one of the results\nmay be Addison\u2019s disease characterised by hypoglycemia, weakness and\nincreased susceptibility to stress"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7993-7996", "Text": "For example,\nglucocorticoids control the carbohydrate metabolism, modulate\ninflammatory reactions, and are involved in reactions to stress The\nmineralocorticoids control the level of excretion of water and salt by the\nkidney If adrenal cortex does not function properly then one of the results\nmay be Addison\u2019s disease characterised by hypoglycemia, weakness and\nincreased susceptibility to stress The disease is fatal unless it is treated by\nglucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7994-7997", "Text": "The\nmineralocorticoids control the level of excretion of water and salt by the\nkidney If adrenal cortex does not function properly then one of the results\nmay be Addison\u2019s disease characterised by hypoglycemia, weakness and\nincreased susceptibility to stress The disease is fatal unless it is treated by\nglucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids Hormones released by gonads are\nresponsible for development of secondary sex characters"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7995-7998", "Text": "If adrenal cortex does not function properly then one of the results\nmay be Addison\u2019s disease characterised by hypoglycemia, weakness and\nincreased susceptibility to stress The disease is fatal unless it is treated by\nglucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids Hormones released by gonads are\nresponsible for development of secondary sex characters Testosterone is\nthe major sex hormone produced in males"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7996-7999", "Text": "The disease is fatal unless it is treated by\nglucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids Hormones released by gonads are\nresponsible for development of secondary sex characters Testosterone is\nthe major sex hormone produced in males It is responsible for development\nof secondary male characteristics (deep voice, facial hair, general physical\nconstitution) and estradiol is the main female sex hormone"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7997-8000", "Text": "Hormones released by gonads are\nresponsible for development of secondary sex characters Testosterone is\nthe major sex hormone produced in males It is responsible for development\nof secondary male characteristics (deep voice, facial hair, general physical\nconstitution) and estradiol is the main female sex hormone It is responsible\nfor development of secondary female characteristics and participates in\nthe control of menstrual cycle"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7998-8001", "Text": "Testosterone is\nthe major sex hormone produced in males It is responsible for development\nof secondary male characteristics (deep voice, facial hair, general physical\nconstitution) and estradiol is the main female sex hormone It is responsible\nfor development of secondary female characteristics and participates in\nthe control of menstrual cycle Progesterone is responsible for preparing\nthe uterus for implantation of fertilised egg"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "7999-8002", "Text": "It is responsible for development\nof secondary male characteristics (deep voice, facial hair, general physical\nconstitution) and estradiol is the main female sex hormone It is responsible\nfor development of secondary female characteristics and participates in\nthe control of menstrual cycle Progesterone is responsible for preparing\nthe uterus for implantation of fertilised egg Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8000-8003", "Text": "It is responsible\nfor development of secondary female characteristics and participates in\nthe control of menstrual cycle Progesterone is responsible for preparing\nthe uterus for implantation of fertilised egg Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n10 6\nWhy cannot vitamin C be stored in our body"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8001-8004", "Text": "Progesterone is responsible for preparing\nthe uterus for implantation of fertilised egg Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n10 6\nWhy cannot vitamin C be stored in our body 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8002-8005", "Text": "Intext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\nIntext Questions\n10 6\nWhy cannot vitamin C be stored in our body 10 7\nWhat products would be formed when a nucleotide from DNA containing\nthymine is hydrolysed"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8003-8006", "Text": "6\nWhy cannot vitamin C be stored in our body 10 7\nWhat products would be formed when a nucleotide from DNA containing\nthymine is hydrolysed 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8004-8007", "Text": "10 7\nWhat products would be formed when a nucleotide from DNA containing\nthymine is hydrolysed 10 8\nWhen RNA is hydrolysed, there is no relationship among the quantities of different\nbases obtained"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8005-8008", "Text": "7\nWhat products would be formed when a nucleotide from DNA containing\nthymine is hydrolysed 10 8\nWhen RNA is hydrolysed, there is no relationship among the quantities of different\nbases obtained What does this fact suggest about the structure of RNA"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8006-8009", "Text": "10 8\nWhen RNA is hydrolysed, there is no relationship among the quantities of different\nbases obtained What does this fact suggest about the structure of RNA Summary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nCarbohydrates are optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or molecules which\nprovide such units on hydrolysis"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8007-8010", "Text": "8\nWhen RNA is hydrolysed, there is no relationship among the quantities of different\nbases obtained What does this fact suggest about the structure of RNA Summary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nCarbohydrates are optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or molecules which\nprovide such units on hydrolysis They are broadly classified into three groups \u2014\nmonosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8008-8011", "Text": "What does this fact suggest about the structure of RNA Summary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nCarbohydrates are optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or molecules which\nprovide such units on hydrolysis They are broadly classified into three groups \u2014\nmonosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides Glucose, the most important\nsource of energy for mammals, is obtained by the digestion of starch"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8009-8012", "Text": "Summary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nSummary\nCarbohydrates are optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or molecules which\nprovide such units on hydrolysis They are broadly classified into three groups \u2014\nmonosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides Glucose, the most important\nsource of energy for mammals, is obtained by the digestion of starch Monosaccharides\nare held together by glycosidic linkages to form disaccharides or polysaccharides"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8010-8013", "Text": "They are broadly classified into three groups \u2014\nmonosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides Glucose, the most important\nsource of energy for mammals, is obtained by the digestion of starch Monosaccharides\nare held together by glycosidic linkages to form disaccharides or polysaccharides Proteins are the polymers of about twenty different aaaaa-amino acids which are\nlinked by peptide bonds"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8011-8014", "Text": "Glucose, the most important\nsource of energy for mammals, is obtained by the digestion of starch Monosaccharides\nare held together by glycosidic linkages to form disaccharides or polysaccharides Proteins are the polymers of about twenty different aaaaa-amino acids which are\nlinked by peptide bonds Ten amino acids are called essential amino acids because\nthey cannot be synthesised by our body, hence must be provided through diet"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8012-8015", "Text": "Monosaccharides\nare held together by glycosidic linkages to form disaccharides or polysaccharides Proteins are the polymers of about twenty different aaaaa-amino acids which are\nlinked by peptide bonds Ten amino acids are called essential amino acids because\nthey cannot be synthesised by our body, hence must be provided through diet Proteins\nperform various structural and dynamic functions in the organisms"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8013-8016", "Text": "Proteins are the polymers of about twenty different aaaaa-amino acids which are\nlinked by peptide bonds Ten amino acids are called essential amino acids because\nthey cannot be synthesised by our body, hence must be provided through diet Proteins\nperform various structural and dynamic functions in the organisms Proteins which\ncontain only a-amino acids are called simple proteins"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8014-8017", "Text": "Ten amino acids are called essential amino acids because\nthey cannot be synthesised by our body, hence must be provided through diet Proteins\nperform various structural and dynamic functions in the organisms Proteins which\ncontain only a-amino acids are called simple proteins The secondary or tertiary\nstructure of proteins get disturbed on change of pH or temperature and they are not\nable to perform their functions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8015-8018", "Text": "Proteins\nperform various structural and dynamic functions in the organisms Proteins which\ncontain only a-amino acids are called simple proteins The secondary or tertiary\nstructure of proteins get disturbed on change of pH or temperature and they are not\nable to perform their functions This is called denaturation of proteins"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8016-8019", "Text": "Proteins which\ncontain only a-amino acids are called simple proteins The secondary or tertiary\nstructure of proteins get disturbed on change of pH or temperature and they are not\nable to perform their functions This is called denaturation of proteins Enzymes are\nbiocatalysts which speed up the reactions in biosystems"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8017-8020", "Text": "The secondary or tertiary\nstructure of proteins get disturbed on change of pH or temperature and they are not\nable to perform their functions This is called denaturation of proteins Enzymes are\nbiocatalysts which speed up the reactions in biosystems They are very specific and\nselective in their action and chemically majority of enzymes are proteins"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8018-8021", "Text": "This is called denaturation of proteins Enzymes are\nbiocatalysts which speed up the reactions in biosystems They are very specific and\nselective in their action and chemically majority of enzymes are proteins Vitamins are accessory food factors required in the diet"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8019-8022", "Text": "Enzymes are\nbiocatalysts which speed up the reactions in biosystems They are very specific and\nselective in their action and chemically majority of enzymes are proteins Vitamins are accessory food factors required in the diet They are classified as\nfat soluble (A, D, E and K) and water soluble (B group and C)"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8020-8023", "Text": "They are very specific and\nselective in their action and chemically majority of enzymes are proteins Vitamins are accessory food factors required in the diet They are classified as\nfat soluble (A, D, E and K) and water soluble (B group and C) Deficiency of vitamins\nleads to many diseases"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8021-8024", "Text": "Vitamins are accessory food factors required in the diet They are classified as\nfat soluble (A, D, E and K) and water soluble (B group and C) Deficiency of vitamins\nleads to many diseases Rationalised 2023-24\n302\nChemistry\nNucleic acids are the polymers of nucleotides which in turn consist of a base,\na pentose sugar and phosphate moiety"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8022-8025", "Text": "They are classified as\nfat soluble (A, D, E and K) and water soluble (B group and C) Deficiency of vitamins\nleads to many diseases Rationalised 2023-24\n302\nChemistry\nNucleic acids are the polymers of nucleotides which in turn consist of a base,\na pentose sugar and phosphate moiety Nucleic acids are responsible for the transfer\nof characters from parents to offsprings"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8023-8026", "Text": "Deficiency of vitamins\nleads to many diseases Rationalised 2023-24\n302\nChemistry\nNucleic acids are the polymers of nucleotides which in turn consist of a base,\na pentose sugar and phosphate moiety Nucleic acids are responsible for the transfer\nof characters from parents to offsprings There are two types of nucleic acids \u2014\nDNA and RNA"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8024-8027", "Text": "Rationalised 2023-24\n302\nChemistry\nNucleic acids are the polymers of nucleotides which in turn consist of a base,\na pentose sugar and phosphate moiety Nucleic acids are responsible for the transfer\nof characters from parents to offsprings There are two types of nucleic acids \u2014\nDNA and RNA DNA contains a five carbon sugar molecule called 2-deoxyribose\nwhereas RNA contains ribose"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8025-8028", "Text": "Nucleic acids are responsible for the transfer\nof characters from parents to offsprings There are two types of nucleic acids \u2014\nDNA and RNA DNA contains a five carbon sugar molecule called 2-deoxyribose\nwhereas RNA contains ribose Both DNA and RNA contain adenine, guanine and\ncytosine"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8026-8029", "Text": "There are two types of nucleic acids \u2014\nDNA and RNA DNA contains a five carbon sugar molecule called 2-deoxyribose\nwhereas RNA contains ribose Both DNA and RNA contain adenine, guanine and\ncytosine The fourth base is thymine in DNA and uracil in RNA"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8027-8030", "Text": "DNA contains a five carbon sugar molecule called 2-deoxyribose\nwhereas RNA contains ribose Both DNA and RNA contain adenine, guanine and\ncytosine The fourth base is thymine in DNA and uracil in RNA The structure of\nDNA is a double strand whereas RNA is a single strand molecule"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8028-8031", "Text": "Both DNA and RNA contain adenine, guanine and\ncytosine The fourth base is thymine in DNA and uracil in RNA The structure of\nDNA is a double strand whereas RNA is a single strand molecule DNA is the\nchemical basis of heredity and have the coded message for proteins to be synthesised\nin the cell"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8029-8032", "Text": "The fourth base is thymine in DNA and uracil in RNA The structure of\nDNA is a double strand whereas RNA is a single strand molecule DNA is the\nchemical basis of heredity and have the coded message for proteins to be synthesised\nin the cell There are three types of RNA \u2014 mRNA, rRNA and tRNA which actually\ncarry out the protein synthesis in the cell"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8030-8033", "Text": "The structure of\nDNA is a double strand whereas RNA is a single strand molecule DNA is the\nchemical basis of heredity and have the coded message for proteins to be synthesised\nin the cell There are three types of RNA \u2014 mRNA, rRNA and tRNA which actually\ncarry out the protein synthesis in the cell 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8031-8034", "Text": "DNA is the\nchemical basis of heredity and have the coded message for proteins to be synthesised\nin the cell There are three types of RNA \u2014 mRNA, rRNA and tRNA which actually\ncarry out the protein synthesis in the cell 10 1\nWhat are monosaccharides"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8032-8035", "Text": "There are three types of RNA \u2014 mRNA, rRNA and tRNA which actually\ncarry out the protein synthesis in the cell 10 1\nWhat are monosaccharides 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8033-8036", "Text": "10 1\nWhat are monosaccharides 10 2\nWhat are reducing sugars"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8034-8037", "Text": "1\nWhat are monosaccharides 10 2\nWhat are reducing sugars 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8035-8038", "Text": "10 2\nWhat are reducing sugars 10 3\nWrite two main functions of carbohydrates in plants"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8036-8039", "Text": "2\nWhat are reducing sugars 10 3\nWrite two main functions of carbohydrates in plants 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8037-8040", "Text": "10 3\nWrite two main functions of carbohydrates in plants 10 4\nClassify the following into monosaccharides and disaccharides"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8038-8041", "Text": "3\nWrite two main functions of carbohydrates in plants 10 4\nClassify the following into monosaccharides and disaccharides Ribose, 2-deoxyribose, maltose, galactose, fructose and lactose"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8039-8042", "Text": "10 4\nClassify the following into monosaccharides and disaccharides Ribose, 2-deoxyribose, maltose, galactose, fructose and lactose 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8040-8043", "Text": "4\nClassify the following into monosaccharides and disaccharides Ribose, 2-deoxyribose, maltose, galactose, fructose and lactose 10 5\nWhat do you understand by the term glycosidic linkage"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8041-8044", "Text": "Ribose, 2-deoxyribose, maltose, galactose, fructose and lactose 10 5\nWhat do you understand by the term glycosidic linkage 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8042-8045", "Text": "10 5\nWhat do you understand by the term glycosidic linkage 10 6\nWhat is glycogen"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8043-8046", "Text": "5\nWhat do you understand by the term glycosidic linkage 10 6\nWhat is glycogen How is it different from starch"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8044-8047", "Text": "10 6\nWhat is glycogen How is it different from starch 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8045-8048", "Text": "6\nWhat is glycogen How is it different from starch 10 7\nWhat are the hydrolysis products of\n(i)\nsucrose and\n(ii)\nlactose"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8046-8049", "Text": "How is it different from starch 10 7\nWhat are the hydrolysis products of\n(i)\nsucrose and\n(ii)\nlactose 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8047-8050", "Text": "10 7\nWhat are the hydrolysis products of\n(i)\nsucrose and\n(ii)\nlactose 10 8\nWhat is the basic structural difference between starch and cellulose"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8048-8051", "Text": "7\nWhat are the hydrolysis products of\n(i)\nsucrose and\n(ii)\nlactose 10 8\nWhat is the basic structural difference between starch and cellulose 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8049-8052", "Text": "10 8\nWhat is the basic structural difference between starch and cellulose 10 9\nWhat happens when D-glucose is treated with the following reagents"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8050-8053", "Text": "8\nWhat is the basic structural difference between starch and cellulose 10 9\nWhat happens when D-glucose is treated with the following reagents (i)\nHI\n(ii)\nBromine water\n(iii)\nHNO3\n10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8051-8054", "Text": "10 9\nWhat happens when D-glucose is treated with the following reagents (i)\nHI\n(ii)\nBromine water\n(iii)\nHNO3\n10 10 Enumerate the reactions of D-glucose which cannot be explained by its\nopen chain structure"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8052-8055", "Text": "9\nWhat happens when D-glucose is treated with the following reagents (i)\nHI\n(ii)\nBromine water\n(iii)\nHNO3\n10 10 Enumerate the reactions of D-glucose which cannot be explained by its\nopen chain structure 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8053-8056", "Text": "(i)\nHI\n(ii)\nBromine water\n(iii)\nHNO3\n10 10 Enumerate the reactions of D-glucose which cannot be explained by its\nopen chain structure 10 11 What are essential and non-essential amino acids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8054-8057", "Text": "10 Enumerate the reactions of D-glucose which cannot be explained by its\nopen chain structure 10 11 What are essential and non-essential amino acids Give two examples of\neach type"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8055-8058", "Text": "10 11 What are essential and non-essential amino acids Give two examples of\neach type 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8056-8059", "Text": "11 What are essential and non-essential amino acids Give two examples of\neach type 10 12 Define the following as related to proteins\n(i)\nPeptide linkage\n(ii)\nPrimary structure\n(iii)\nDenaturation"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8057-8060", "Text": "Give two examples of\neach type 10 12 Define the following as related to proteins\n(i)\nPeptide linkage\n(ii)\nPrimary structure\n(iii)\nDenaturation 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8058-8061", "Text": "10 12 Define the following as related to proteins\n(i)\nPeptide linkage\n(ii)\nPrimary structure\n(iii)\nDenaturation 10 13 What are the common types of secondary structure of proteins"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8059-8062", "Text": "12 Define the following as related to proteins\n(i)\nPeptide linkage\n(ii)\nPrimary structure\n(iii)\nDenaturation 10 13 What are the common types of secondary structure of proteins 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8060-8063", "Text": "10 13 What are the common types of secondary structure of proteins 10 14 What type of bonding helps in stabilising the a-helix structure of proteins"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8061-8064", "Text": "13 What are the common types of secondary structure of proteins 10 14 What type of bonding helps in stabilising the a-helix structure of proteins 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8062-8065", "Text": "10 14 What type of bonding helps in stabilising the a-helix structure of proteins 10 15 Differentiate between globular and fibrous proteins"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8063-8066", "Text": "14 What type of bonding helps in stabilising the a-helix structure of proteins 10 15 Differentiate between globular and fibrous proteins 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8064-8067", "Text": "10 15 Differentiate between globular and fibrous proteins 10 16 How do you explain the amphoteric behaviour of amino acids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8065-8068", "Text": "15 Differentiate between globular and fibrous proteins 10 16 How do you explain the amphoteric behaviour of amino acids 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8066-8069", "Text": "10 16 How do you explain the amphoteric behaviour of amino acids 10 17 What are enzymes"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8067-8070", "Text": "16 How do you explain the amphoteric behaviour of amino acids 10 17 What are enzymes 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8068-8071", "Text": "10 17 What are enzymes 10 18 What is the effect of denaturation on the structure of proteins"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8069-8072", "Text": "17 What are enzymes 10 18 What is the effect of denaturation on the structure of proteins 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8070-8073", "Text": "10 18 What is the effect of denaturation on the structure of proteins 10 19 How are vitamins classified"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8071-8074", "Text": "18 What is the effect of denaturation on the structure of proteins 10 19 How are vitamins classified Name the vitamin responsible for the\ncoagulation of blood"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8072-8075", "Text": "10 19 How are vitamins classified Name the vitamin responsible for the\ncoagulation of blood 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8073-8076", "Text": "19 How are vitamins classified Name the vitamin responsible for the\ncoagulation of blood 10 20 Why are vitamin A and vitamin C essential to us"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8074-8077", "Text": "Name the vitamin responsible for the\ncoagulation of blood 10 20 Why are vitamin A and vitamin C essential to us Give their important sources"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8075-8078", "Text": "10 20 Why are vitamin A and vitamin C essential to us Give their important sources 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8076-8079", "Text": "20 Why are vitamin A and vitamin C essential to us Give their important sources 10 21 What are nucleic acids"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8077-8080", "Text": "Give their important sources 10 21 What are nucleic acids Mention their two important functions"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8078-8081", "Text": "10 21 What are nucleic acids Mention their two important functions 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8079-8082", "Text": "21 What are nucleic acids Mention their two important functions 10 22 What is the difference between a nucleoside and a nucleotide"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8080-8083", "Text": "Mention their two important functions 10 22 What is the difference between a nucleoside and a nucleotide 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8081-8084", "Text": "10 22 What is the difference between a nucleoside and a nucleotide 10 23 The two strands in DNA are not identical but are complementary"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8082-8085", "Text": "22 What is the difference between a nucleoside and a nucleotide 10 23 The two strands in DNA are not identical but are complementary Explain"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8083-8086", "Text": "10 23 The two strands in DNA are not identical but are complementary Explain 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8084-8087", "Text": "23 The two strands in DNA are not identical but are complementary Explain 10 24 Write the important structural and functional differences between DNA\nand RNA"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8085-8088", "Text": "Explain 10 24 Write the important structural and functional differences between DNA\nand RNA 10"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8086-8089", "Text": "10 24 Write the important structural and functional differences between DNA\nand RNA 10 25 What are the different types of RNA found in the cell"}, {"Chapter": "1", "sentence_range": "8087-8090", "Text": "24 Write the important structural and functional differences between DNA\nand RNA 10 25 What are the different types of RNA found in the cell Exercises\nExercises\nExercises\nExercises\nExercises\nRationalised 2023-24"}]